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65,646,427	Effects of Hurricane Dorian in the Carolinas	1,171,660,403	null	[ "Effects of hurricanes in the United States", "Hurricane Dorian" ]	Hurricane Dorian caused severe flooding and hurricane-force winds over parts of the coastal Carolinas during early September 2019. After stalling over The Bahamas for three days as a Category 5 hurricane, Dorian proceeded generally to the northwest, before moving along the Atlantic Coast, striking the town of Buxton, North Carolina, on September 6. As Dorian moved closer to the Carolinas, both North and South Carolina were put under states of emergencies. More than 830,000 people were evacuated in South Carolina, and around 401,000 people were evacuated in North Carolina before the storm. People who failed to comply with these mandatory evacuations were charged with misdemeanors. Hurricane watches and warnings were issued along the Carolinian coast. Construction along evacuation routes was suspended, and more than 2,400 employees from the North Carolina Department of Transportation (NCDOT) were deployed to help respond to the anticipated impacts of Dorian. Along the Carolinian coast, 25 tornadoes were reported, though most of them were weak and short-lived. While few of these tornadoes resulted in significant impact, two longer-lived, EF2 strength tornadoes in North Carolina caused at least \$2 million in property damage in Sunset Beach and Emerald Isle. Heavy rainfall led to flash flooding, putting more than 100 sq mi (260 km<sup>2</sup>) of land under more than 1 ft (0.30 m) of water. The highest gust, 110 mph (175 km/h), was recorded at the Cedar Island Ferry Terminal on Cape Lookout. Almost every building in the Outer Banks sustained wind or flood damage. More than 400,000 people were left without power in both North and South Carolina. The hurricane left \$1.2 billion (2019 USD) in damage in the Carolinas, with most of it occurring in North Carolina. Five people were killed by the storm; three indirect deaths in North Carolina, and two direct deaths in South Carolina. ## Background Dorian developed from a tropical wave on August 24 over the Central Atlantic. The storm moved through the Lesser Antilles, and became a hurricane just east of Puerto Rico on August 28. Dorian proceeded to undergo rapid intensification over the next few days, before reaching its peak as a Category 5 hurricane with one-minute sustained winds of 185 mph (295 km/h) and a minimum central pressure of 910 mbar (26.87 inHg) by September 1. Dorian made two landfalls in The Bahamas from September 1 to 2; the storm struck Elbow Cay, which is just east of Abaco Island, around 16:40 UTC on September 1. Dorian then struck South Riding Point, Grand Bahama, around 02:15 UTC on September 2, where it remained stationary for the next day or so. After weakening considerably, Dorian began moving northwestward on September 3, parallel to the east coast of Florida. Dwindling in strength, the hurricane turned to the northeast the next day and made landfall at Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, at Category 2 intensity on September 6, with 100 mph (155 km/h) winds and a pressure of 957 mbar (28.26 inHg). Dorian transitioned into an extratropical cyclone, before moving across Nova Scotia and later Newfoundland with hurricane-force winds on September 8. The storm dissipated near Greenland on September 10. ## Preparations ### South Carolina Charleston city officials reserved temporary pumps to position in any low-lying areas. Charleston's Stormwater Department began lowering the water levels in lakes. South Carolina officials eased restrictions on the importation of animals into the state to accommodate evacuees. On August 31, Governor Henry McMaster declared a state of emergency for the entire state. The South Carolina Emergency Response Team (SCERT) was put at Operational Condition Level 2, signaling an emergency is likely. On September 1, McMaster ordered evacuations for the coastal sections of eight counties: Colleton, Beaufort, Jasper, Charleston, Dorchester, Berkeley, Horry, and Georgetown, affecting around 830,000 people. Schools and state government offices closed in those counties. Multiple South Carolina highways saw their lanes reversed, including Interstate 26, which had cars driving westbound on eastbound lanes, and US Route 278. Road reversals started early because of the expectation of heavy Labor Day holiday weekend traffic; hotels in the area were at 70% capacity. About 200 coastal hospitals, nursing homes, and assisted living centers were evacuated. On September 1, McMaster asked President Trump for a federal emergency declaration. The state readied 1,000 National Guard troops, 2,200 transportation employees, and 700 state law enforcement officers. State emergency officials had 150,000 sandbags, 10,000 tarps, 500 pallets of ready-to-eat meals, and 750 pallets of water ready. Dozens of volunteers handed out fruit, vegetables, water, and canned food to over 300 people in Charleston. The Myrtle Beach Fire Department implemented double red flag status, preventing people from swimming at local beaches. In Orangeburg, 75 buses stationed along Interstate 26 assisted evacuations. Also, the New Jersey Task Force 1 was sent to help with evacuations over the entire state. The South Carolina Emergency Management Division moved to Operation Condition 1 (OPCON1), suggesting that the state was on full alert. Hospitals exempt from the evacuation still discharged patients who were ready to go home while also postponing elective surgeries. Despite the mandatory evacuations, one of these prisons located in the lowcountry, Ridgeland Correctional Institution decided not to evacuate, citing their updated hurricane standards after Hurricane Hugo struck the area in 1989. A limited evacuation order was put in place for Joint Base Charleston, and a mandatory evacuation was put in place for Marine Corps Recruit Depot Parris Island and Marine Corps Air Station Beaufort. Beaufort County enforced a curfew from 10:00 P.M. EDT on September 4, 2019, to 6:00 A.M. EDT on September 5, 2019. Sandbags were distributed and parking garages were opened throughout multiple cities. Folly Beach restricted access to the island on the afternoon of September 3. Goats on Goat Island were also evacuated. The Myrtle Beach International Airport canceled flights on September 4 and September 5. Congaree National Park also closed at noon on September 4 due to the approaching hurricane. Hundreds of shelter animals from the coastal Carolinas were sent to Delaware ahead of the storm. Another 200 animals were airlifted by the Brandywine Valley SPCA on September 3, and around 150 were expected to be airlifted later during the day via the Best Friends Animal Society. On Hilton Head Island, the town director of public projects and facilities reported that officials were ready to bring in contractors to survey the beach if erosion occurred. Hilton Head Fire Rescue closed three stations on the island and relocated to University of South Carolina Beaufort; however, the fire rescue left another four open. ### North Carolina In advance of Dorian, the National Weather Service warned against dangerous rip currents along the shoreline. On August 30, Governor Roy Cooper declared a state of emergency for all of North Carolina. He later requested a federal disaster declaration, which was promptly approved. The governor's office activated the North Carolina Disaster Relief fund to accept donations that would assist the statewide response. Governor Cooper's emergency declaration was matched with more than two dozen state of emergencies at the county level. In advance of the storm, nearly 400,000 residents were put under mandatory evacuations, as they were issued across Dare County, the Outer Banks communities of Corolla and Carova, Carolina Beach, Kure Beach, Wrightsville Beach, Figure Eight Island, and all barrier islands offshore. Officials in Hyde County airlifted residents to shelter. Several people were charged with class two misdemeanors after failing to comply with the evacuation orders in Wrightsville Beach. Less restrictive voluntary evacuations were laid in place for the low-lying areas of Oak Island and the rest of New Hanover County, in addition to the communities of Beaufort, Atlantic Beach, Cape Carteret, and Boiling Springs Lake. Duke University would subsequently evacuate their Marine Lab students from Beaufort, while the bridge to Wrightsville Beach would later close on September 4. In Morehead City, boat owners docked their boats. On Bald Head Island, all day visitors were ordered to leave. On Ocracoke Island, only homeowners and vendors with re-entry passes were allowed on inbound ferries. Priority boarding for ferries leaving the island was suspended, and tolls were waived. The approach of Dorian marked the end of passenger ferry service for the 2019 season there. The National Park Service closed visitor centers and museums throughout the southern Outer Banks while Cape Lookout National Seashore was closed as well. A total of 900 people and 496 vehicles were evacuated off Ocracoke Island. An emergency ferry route was prepared in the case North Carolina Highway 12 was closed. The North Carolina Department of Transportation suspended construction along evacuation routes, and readied 2,415 employees to respond to disruptions in transportation. The organization assisted in ferry evacuations while also preparing flight teams and drones to survey damage. Fearing a repeat of Hurricane Florence, which wrought unprecedented flooding throughout the Carolinas a year earlier, high water vehicles were staged along Interstate 40. Across the state, 521 National Guard members, 181 high water vehicles, 23 swift water rescue teams, 48 high water vehicle teams, and 19 aircraft were deployed. The University of North Carolina at Wilmington joined dozens of school districts to cancel classes. Downtown, the city opened two parking decks for residents to relocate their vehicles during the storm, and the annual Wilmington Boat Show was cancelled. Ports in both Wilmington and Morehead City were closed. A two-unit Brunswick nuclear power plant was shut down near the city. On September 4, commercial flights at the Wilmington International Airport were grounded. At the Fayetteville Regional Airport, American Airlines cancelled all flights, Delta Airlines cancelled a single flight, and the United Service Organization center was closed. At the upstate Charlotte Douglas International Airport, 121 flights were cancelled and an additional 87 were delayed. American Airlines capped their prices and suspended baggage and pet fees. To accommodate fleeing residents and alleviate concerns about local havens overflowing, two so-called "mega-shelters" were opened in Durham and Clayton. The Charlotte Motor Speedway was also utilized as a shelter, where 69 campsites occupied about 150 people mainly from Wilmington. Statewide, about 65 shelters housed 2,200 evacuees. The USDA Forest Service waived fees for campgrounds in the Nantahala and Pisgah national forests, while local animal sanctuaries throughout The Triangle took in dogs, cats, horses, and livestock. Approximately 9,000 Duke Energy personnel were readied throughout the Carolinas, accompanied by 85 employees from Ameren, Missouri. More than 2,700 active-duty service members staged supplies at Fort Bragg, where manning was reduced, as well as at Maxwell Air Force Base in Alabama. Across five bases in North Carolina, 820 personnel, 26 ships, and 110 aircraft were evacuated. Forty-two firefighters from the Greensboro Fire Department were deployed to the coast. Numerous cities and counties enacted curfews upon the storm's approach. Early voting in North Carolina's 9th congressional district was disrupted as the Bladen County Board of Elections closed. Voting was also impacted in the 3rd congressional district. Ultimately, early voting hours were extended for the in every county of the 3rd congressional district for the special election in that district, and four counties in the 9th congressional district for that district's special election. The date to submit absentee ballots was prolonged. One polling place in Tyrrell County was relocated, as the original polling station was utilized as a command post for emergency relief efforts. While preparing for the storm, an 85-year-old man in neighboring Columbus County fell from a ladder and died. A second man died in Oriental after suffering a heart attack while moving his boat at a marina. ## Impact ### South Carolina On August 28, NWS Charleston expected moderate to major levels of tidal flooding, even if Dorian remained away from Charleston. NWS Charleston also expected the rainfall-induced freshwater flooding threat to increase in the next week. The highest wind gust associated with Dorian near South Carolina was on Buoy 41004, off the coast of the state, with a wind gust measured at 98 mph (158 km/h). The highest wind gusts recorded onshore were 92 mph (148 km/h) on Dewees Island, while the highest recorded winds on mainland South Carolina were 92 mph (148 km/h) measured on Fripp Island. Market Street in Charleston was submerged in 1 ft (0.30 m) of water, and the Charleston airport recorded about 5 in (130 mm) of rainfall. In Mount Pleasant, two people were killed after a possible lightning strike started a house fire. On September 6, 81 homes in North Charleston sustained damage, with 25 receiving major damage, 24 receiving minor damage, and two being rendered inaccessible. A tree fell on a boy's bedroom in North Charleston, almost completely decimating it. A nearby tree fell on a power line in North Charleston, taking out power to half of a woman's house. A tornado also dropped down in North Myrtle Beach, damaging nine condominiums. Also in North Myrtle Beach, around 4 ft (1.2 m) of storm surge flowed on Ocean Boulevard. Water could be seen rushing outside of the Medical University of South Carolina. About 215 road closures were reported across the state. Most road closures were due to flooding or fallen trees, including more than 13 road closures in Charleston County, where 10 of which were due to flooding, and another 13 in Dorchester County, where 10 were due to fallen trees. At least 248,000 customers of Dominion Energy lost power in the state. Over 500 trees were downed in the Charleston metropolitan area alone. A dozen boats broke their moorings and sank in the Charleston area. Severe beach erosion occurred on the Isle of Palms. Overall, more than 270,000 customers were without power in South Carolina. A peak rainfall of 15.21 in (386 mm) was recorded near Pawleys Island. A study by the College of Charleston completed on September 11 suggested that Dorian caused an estimated \$58.6 million in losses to the tourism industry in Charleston. According to the POA in one neighborhood called Hilton Head Plantation on Hilton Head Island, six homes had roof damage and 50 trees were obstructing roadways. A section of U.S. Route 17 was flooded; however, the route was not shut down. A tree split in half on Marion Square and fell onto Calhoun Street; however, the mess was soon cleaned up. Water in Charleston was reportedly "knee-high" in some streets. Three tornadoes were spawned in Horry County during the storm, with the most intense tornado being ranked an EF1 on the Enhanced Fujita scale. The most intense tornado caused roof damage to homes, lifted up docks, and uprooted trees, after traveling over 4.8 mi (7.7 km), causing over \$200,000 in property damage. Along with this tornado, two EF0s were reported. One of them caused damage to a condominium and partially uprooted close to twelve dozen trees. The other EF0 tornado severely damaged two mobile homes, and left seven others with minor damage, while later bringing roof and facade damage to a condominium. The Waccamaw River in Conway crested at 14 ft (4.3 m), around 7 ft (2.1 m) lower than its record of 21 ft (6.4 m) during Hurricane Florence. At Drayton Hall, Dorian uprooted 30 trees, causing the property around \$100,000 in damage. A part of a church's roof on James Island was ripped off during the storm. In DeBordieu, storm surge rushed through one neighborhood in the town. A family of six on Saint Helena Island said that they had lost their house and enclosures for over 200 animals. They had also said "It sounded like a freight train coming through the house". On South Island, 42 nests were destroyed, or around 7 percent of the total amount of laid eggs on the island. On Sandy Island, 38 nests were destroyed, or around one third of the total laid eggs. ### North Carolina The effects of Hurricane Dorian were extensive in North Carolina, but not as severe as 2018's Hurricane Florence. On September 4, the Storm Prediction Center (SPC) issued a Slight risk of severe weather for coastal sections of South Carolina, noting that tornadoes would be possible within arcing rainbands, or the outer parts of a hurricane, propagating away from Dorian's center. A Slight risk was likewise issued for coastal North Carolina on September 5. As a maritime warm front progressed northward into the coastal counties of North Carolina during the pre-dawn hours, rising temperatures and dew points contributed to an unstable atmosphere. An already-volatile wind shear environment was noted throughout the region, and the combination of these factors gave way to multiple training supercells—storms that tracked over the same areas repeatedly. The SPC accordingly raised an Enhanced risk later that morning, with an attendant 15% probability of a tornado within 25 mi (40 km) across eastern North Carolina. During the event, 22 tornadoes were confirmed across coastal sections of North Carolina, most short-lived and weak. However, two longer-lived tornadoes of EF2 intensity were confirmed in Sunset Beach and Emerald Isle, causing severe damage to multiple structures, inflicting at least \$2 million in property damage. In Brunswick County, heavy rainfall led to flash flooding that inundated neighborhoods near Leland. Small creeks flooded areas near Varnamtown and closed roads. U.S. Route 17 near Ocean Isle Beach was closed due to overflow throughout the morning hours of September 6. In Oak Island, 86 properties sustained damage, though only 3 of those were substantially impacted. In New Hanover County, sand dunes reconstructed after Hurricane Florence protected Carolina Beach from significant impacts, with only minor beach erosion noted. Similar effects were observed in Wrightsville Beach. At the Fort Fisher State Recreation Area, high waves from the hurricane destroyed thirteen sea turtle nests. High water covered Route 117 in Castle Hayne with 2 ft (0.61 m) of water, with lesser values elsewhere. Several neighborhood streets in Wilmington were inundated, and the downtown area was flooded as portions of the Cape Fear River overflowed its banks. After a lull in heavy rainfall, a second bout of precipitation late on September 5 forced the closure of roadways throughout Castle Hayne, Wrightsboro, Wilmington, and Ogden. Only a few trees were toppled in this area; however, a 54-year-old man was killed while cutting a fallen tree on September 7. Effects were minimal in neighboring Pender County, where some county roads were closed due to flooding but water receded quickly. Despite initial reports that Topsail Island gained sand during the hurricane, later assessments showed mild but consistent sand loss at local beaches. Farther inland, flash flooding resulted in the closure of several roads throughout Washington, Wilson, Johnston, Sampson, and Craven counties; some roads throughout these communities were washed out. Across Sampson County in particular, 15 roads were closed and a section of road was washed out near Clinton. Multiple stretches of Interstate 40 were inundated near the Sampson–Duplin County line north of Turkey. In Robeson County, a firefighter was injured when a tree fell on his vehicle. Two minor injuries were also reported in Johnston County when a vehicle struck a fallen tree. Wind damage was primarily limited to trees and tree limbs, which caused scattered power outages upon falling onto power lines. At the height of the power outages, about 5,000 people lost electricity in Johnston County, and an additional 2,445 people lost electricity in Wake County. Outages were even less prevalent across western sections of The Triangle, with 48 outages reported in Orange County and 26 in Durham County. After narrow misses in coastal South Carolina and southeastern North Carolina, Hurricane Dorian continued toward the Outer Banks. The core scraped Atlantic Beach, where a small number of buildings suffered minor structural damage to their roofs, siding, or associated signs. Some areas in town were inundated by little more than 3 in (76 mm) of water. In nearby Beaufort, the Duke Marine Lab reported lost shingles, trees down, and a few areas of rainwater intrusion in several buildings. A peak wind gust of 110 mph (180 km/h) was measured at the Cedar Island Ferry Terminal in Cape Lookout. On Cedar Island, storm surge values of 4–6 ft (1.2–1.8 m) and rainfall rates up to 2 in (51 mm) an hour were recorded. The native horse population, typically accustomed to tropical cyclone impacts, succumbed to the rapid rise in water. At least 28 horses were presumed dead as the bodies of some washed ashore and others went missing. Throughout Carteret County, 42,000 people were left without power. Portsmouth reported major damage to 38 historic structures, as well as a cemetery that hosted some of the earliest settlers of the Outer Banks. The eye of Dorian continued northeast to a landfall on Cape Hatteras at 12:35 UTC on September 6. The hurricane pushed water from the Pamlico Sound onto Ocracoke Island, where storm surge values climbed to 6–7 ft (1.8–2.1 m). In just 10 minutes, water levels rose 5 ft (1.5 m), causing extensive damage to homes and businesses. Several hundred residents were stranded and resorted to climbing to their attics to avoid the rapidly-rising waters. Hundreds of vehicles were submerged there. On neighboring Hatteras Island, a 5.32 ft (1.62 m) surge, the second highest on record, inundated many homes and businesses between Buxton and Hatteras Village in several feet of water as wind gusts up to 101 mph (163 km/h) pushed water inland from the Pamlico Sound. The Cape Hatteras Secondary School was badly flooded and suffered damage to over a third of the structure. Throughout Hyde and Dare counties, heavy rainfall prompted the issuance of flash flood emergencies. In the former county, flooding closed multiple roads. Extensive impacts were recorded throughout Dare County, with 1,126 structures damaged, resulting in property damage of approximately \$14.75 million. Additional damage was inflicted to cars, boats, campers, and recreational vehicles, which were not a part of the assessed damage total. Trees were toppled and shingles were ripped off at both the Fort Raleigh National Historic Site and the Wright Brothers National Memorial. Strong east-northeasterly winds pushed water from the Atlantic Ocean into the Albemarle Sound, causing moderate flooding across Camden, Pasquotank, and Perquimans Counties, while also stranding vehicles. Flash flooding at Elizabeth City State University inundated campus streets and the interior entrances of several buildings. Water flowed into the Chowan River in Chowan County, with the gauge in Edenton reaching a maximum height of 3.85 ft (1.17 m). In extreme northeastern North Carolina, anomalous tides of 2.5–3.5 ft (0.76–1.07 m) caused moderate to major coastal flooding across Currituck County. Duck recorded water levels 7.2 ft (2.2 m) above average low tide levels. Access to the Outer Banks via Highway 168 was severed at high tide. A newly built solar farm was damaged in Grandy. In Kill Devil Hills, many homes and businesses were left without pieces of roofing. A quarter of the Avalon Pier was swept away. ## Aftermath ### South Carolina In Myrtle Beach, a red jeep was found washed up in the sand on September 5, which became widely circulated on social media. On September 9, several Civil War-era cannonballs were discovered by a couple in Folly Beach. People were forced to distance away from the cannonballs while bomb experts hauled them away. On September 30, U.S. President Donald Trump approved a major disaster declaration for South Carolina as requested by Governor Henry McMaster on September 1. U.S. President Donald Trump also ordered the federal assistance to support emergency work, and to help replace the facilities that were damaged by the hurricane in Beaufort, Berkeley, Charleston, Colleton, Dillon, Dorchester, Georgetown, Horry, Jasper, Marion, and Williamsburg counties, covering damage costs from August 31—September 6. The Governor also planned to invest in \$10 million (2019 USD) in the Medical District of Charleston to help fix the problem of flooding in the city. Under the FEMA Public Assistance Program, any state agencies, affected local governments, and a few private non-profit programs were able to apply for federal funding to pay around 75 percent of damages from the storm, including removing debris and repairing roads. Tourist rates dropped down across the state, forcing Hilton Head Island to request \$175,000 (2019 USD) for a post—marketing marketing plan. Hotel occupancy rates also went down, including The Mariott Hilton Head Resort & Spa, which has 513 rooms, to only have eight occupied. Another hotel, The Sonesta Resort, only had around 20 to 30 percent of the full occupancy rate. The state overall lost around \$117 million in total due to losses from visitor spending. On the Hunting Island State Park Island, 44 volunteers from the Friends of Hunting Island organization came to the park, cleaning up the debris left behind. A dumpster pushed into the Little River after Dorian had not been taken out of the place for months, and the owner of the dumpster was not found. A grand opening for a Panera Bread was delayed after water damage. Many sea turtle nests were destroyed during Dorian, with only a couple thousand of turtles estimated to have survived the storm. A buoy originally from Port Royal Sound in Beaufort County was discovered on the shore of New Smyrna Beach, Florida, around 14 mi (23 km) south of Daytona Beach, Florida, after being displaced. A family visiting Fripp Island was walking along the beach when they discovered a large package. Upon opening it, they found around 44 lb (20 kg) of cocaine inside it, with a value of \$600,000 in total. It was suspected that Dorian's storm surge pushed it ashore, though its origin is still unknown. Drayton Hall raised \$250,000 for recovery efforts after the storm. Hilton Head Island saw a 133% increase in snake bites after the storm, with the most common snake-biter being a copperhead snake. Dorian may have also contributed in pushing some birds north into Canada from the Southeastern United States, including a pelican named Ralph, which was pushed onto Cape Breton Island. Pawleys Island underwent a beach nourishment project after Dorian brought sand prices down, restoring around 140 ft (43 m) of land. The City of Charleston sued 24 oil and pipeline firms, saying that they had been directly responsible for causing more damaging and frequent floods. John Tecklenburg, the mayor of Charleston, reported that public work crews from Columbia and Greenville were helping to restore traffic signals. The town of Mount Pleasant considered putting more power lines underground after Dorian took out power to thousands in the town. A couple dozen people showed up at the John McKissick Field at the Summerville High School, after Dorian damaged the state championship board, the goal post, the 25-second clock, and part of a fence in the end zone of the field. In Beaufort County, no schools lost power or water, and thus reopened on September 9, 2019. Henry McMaster, the Governor of the state, created a 56-person flood commission group to find out why floods in South Carolina became more chronic and damaging, after Dorian brought severe flooding to parts of South Carolina. The South Carolina Department of Transportation after the storm hoped to repair all road signs within two months; however, more vital signs, such as stop signs, were the first priority to fix. Despite some damages in Charleston, most businesses in the city were ready to open up by September 7 or September 8 in the area. Dorian closed the beach at Pawleys Island for months; however, police on the island shared a video of a man removing the beach access barrier to get to the beach at around 6:40 in the evening on March 25, 2020. The storm also "ruffled up the waters", or changed the oxygen level in the ocean waters, which also changed the amount of shrimp that could be caught. This is due to the fact that a certain amount of dissolved oxygen is required for shrimp catching, and storms have repeatedly demonstrated the ability to alter the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water. A meeting took place in Horry County, due to the problem of flooding near South Carolina Highway 90, and also that of rezoning, due to the flooding from previous hurricanes in addition to that caused by Dorian. ### North Carolina In the wake of the storm, Governor Roy Cooper and State House Speaker Tim Moore toured the damage in the Outer Banks, and also throughout Carteret County. On September 14, the Governor sought a disaster declaration for the state; an additional request for federal assistance was sent one week later. More than 8,000 army and air National Guardsmen were mobilized in response to Hurricane Dorian. National Guard members and emergency officials crossed the Pamlico Sound by ferry, arriving on Ocracoke Island with cargo and fuel trucks, generators, and pallets of supplies beginning on September 7. Statewide, 80 roads were closed throughout North Carolina. Two 500 ft (150 m) sections of Highway 12—the primary highway connecting the islands and peninsulas of the Outer Banks—were badly damaged. The North Carolina Department of Transportation reported that Dorian inflicted \$40–50 million in damage to roads, with \$25–30 million to primary roads and \$16–20 million to secondary roads, including \$4–5 million to Highway 12 alone. The organization sought funds from the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) to pay for the damage, having depleted their resources in the wake of multiple lawsuits and the short succession of hurricanes Matthew and Florence. Duke Energy reported that 288,000 customers had their power restored in the wake of the storm. Coastal assessments found at least 54 new inlets cutting from the Atlantic into the Core Sound throughout the Outer Banks. At least 20–25% of the state's crop industry was destroyed, particularly the tobacco crop. Dorian compounded disastrous losses accrued during hurricanes Matthew and Florence from previous years. The National Park Service Incident Management Team deployed 68 employees to survey the aftermath, reporting structural damage to the Long Point cabin camp, which ultimately decided to cancel reservations for the remainder of the season. By September 9, 1,500 residents remained without power. A medical team, an emergency manager, and 100 National Guard members remained on Ocracoke Island to assist in recovery efforts. For weeks after the storm, island officials decided to limit access to residents, non-resident homeowners, and other personnel approved by Hyde County. On Hatteras Island, access was impossible through September 7, as 39 roadways in coastal communities remained closed. Spirit Airlines lost over \$25 million, due to flights being cancelled because of Dorian. A North Carolina-based Lowe's sent 30 specially-trained employees to the coastline for relief work, and the company donated \$1 million to aid in Dorian relief efforts. Animal rescue groups saved 109 injured or orphaned squirrels, after the storm destroyed their nests. Walmart gave \$500,000 in donations to the Bahamas, North Carolina, and South Carolina to help those areas recover from Hurricane Dorian. ## See also - List of North Carolina hurricanes (2000–present) - Tropical cyclones in 2019 - October 2015 North American storm complex
838,297	Minnehaha Park (Minneapolis)	1,171,435,113	null	[ "Articles containing video clips", "Dakota toponyms", "Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Minnesota", "Landforms of Hennepin County, Minnesota", "Mississippi Gorge", "National Register of Historic Places in Minneapolis", "National Register of Historic Places in Mississippi National River and Recreation Area", "Parks in Minneapolis", "Parks on the National Register of Historic Places in Minnesota", "Plunge waterfalls", "Protected areas on the Mississippi River", "Regional parks in Minnesota", "Waterfalls of Minnesota" ]	Minnehaha Park is a city park in Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States, and home to Minnehaha Falls and the lower reaches of Minnehaha Creek. Officially named Minnehaha Regional Park, it is part of the Minneapolis Park and Recreation Board system and lies within the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area, a unit of the National Park Service. The park was designed by landscape architect Horace W.S. Cleveland in 1883 as part of the Grand Rounds Scenic Byway system, and was part of the popular steamboat Upper Mississippi River "Fashionable Tour" in the 1800s. The park preserves historic sites that illustrate transportation, pioneering, and architectural themes. Preserved structures include the Minnehaha Princess Station, a Victorian train depot built in the 1870s; the John H. Stevens House, built in 1849 and moved to the park from its original location in 1896, utilizing horses and 10,000 school children; and the Longfellow House, a house built to resemble the Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's house in Cambridge, Massachusetts. The park was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1969 as the Minnehaha Historic District in recognition of its state-level significance in architecture, commerce, conservation, literature, transportation, and urban planning. The central feature of the park, Minnehaha Falls, was a favorite subject of pioneer photographers, beginning with Alexander Hesler's daguerreotype in 1852. Although he never visited the park, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow helped to spread the waterfall's fame when he wrote his celebrated poem, The Song of Hiawatha. The falls are located on Minnehaha Creek near the creek's confluence with the Mississippi River, near Fort Snelling. The main Minnesota Veterans Home is located on a bluff where the Mississippi and Minnehaha Creek converge. More than 850,000 people visit Minnehaha Falls each year, and it continues to be the most photographed site in Minnesota. ## History Minnehaha Falls gets its name from the nearby Dakota people, meaning mni (water) and haha (curling). It was considered a safe place for gathering. European settlement in the area began in 1805 when the US Army bought a nine-square-mile tract of land at the confluence of the Mississippi and Minnesota River from the Dakota people. Sited on the bluff overlooking the rivers, Fort Snelling was built under the command of Colonel Josiah Snelling between 1820 and 1824. In 1821 Snelling's son, William Joseph Snelling came to the fort after leaving West Point and spending a year with friendly Sioux. According to a Minnesota history account written in 1858, "The year after he came to the fort young Snelling set out in company with Joseph R. Brown, a frontiersman and local celebrity, to explore the rivulet that supplies the cascade of Minne Ha-Ha, as far as Lake Minne Tonka." Both "men" were 17-year-old boys at the time. Some very early records refer to the falls as "Brown's Falls" which lead some historians to assume they were named after prominent pioneer Joseph R. Brown. Park Ranger Kathy Swenson, writing for the National Park Service in 2009 states: "The overwhelming evidence points to Brown's Falls (and creek) being named for Jacob Brown, major general and commander in chief of the army from 1814 – 1828 rather than for Joseph R. Brown, teenage musician at Fort Snelling and later army sergeant (1820–1828), fur trader, politician, editor, and inventor. However, I have not yet found a document that officially or specifically mentions Jacob Brown as the namesake." Swenson explains "'Browns Fall/Creek' seems to be most associated with military maps and personnel while 'Little Falls/Creek' seems to be favored by those without a strong military connection although there are exceptions." The current name is Dakota for waterfall. ### The Song of Hiawatha brings fame The name "Minnehaha Falls" was in common use by 1855, when the publication of The Song of Hiawatha by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow brought the falls worldwide fame. Longfellow's epic poem features Hiawatha, a Native American hero who falls in love with Minnehaha, a Native American woman who later dies during a severe winter. Longfellow never visited the falls himself. He was inspired by the writings of Mary H. Eastman and Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, and by a daguerreotype created by Alexander Hesler when he chose the name for Hiawatha's lover. The image was taken in 1852, according to a letter written by Hesler, as discussed in "Minnesota History" magazine. Clearly, Longfellow took the name of his character Minnehaha from the falls; the falls were not named for her. ### The "Fashionable Tour" Beginning in 1828, steamboats began to travel the Mississippi River as far north as St. Paul, the upper limit of commercial navigation on the Mississippi, until two dams and a series of locks were built between 1948 and 1963. The steamboat journey began to attract the attention of tourists, and in 1835 well known artist of American Indian life George Catlin made a trip by steamboat up the Mississippi from St. Louis to the Falls of St. Anthony and Fort Snelling. Impressed with the scenery, Catlin proposed a "Fashionable Tour" of the upper Mississippi, saying: > This Tour would comprehend but a small part of the great "Far West"; but it will furnish to the traveller a fair sample, and being apart of it which is now made so easily accessible to the world, and the only part of it to which ladies can have access, I would recommend to all who have time and inclination to devote to the enjoyment of so splendid a Tour, to wait not, but make it while the subject is new, and capable of producing the greatest degree of pleasure. Following Catlin's visit, each ensuing year saw an increasing number of sightseers, artists, and photographers. Hundreds of Stereoscopic View cards of the falls exist. The visitors were mainly men but a few women took the journey, most notably 80-year-old Elizabeth Schuyler Hamilton, the widow of Alexander Hamilton. The beauty of the area was also spread through moving panoramas, artistic panoramic creations that were shown much like today's travel documentaries. Quoting from a 1939 paper written by the Minnesota Historical Society: > Crowds of people went to see these travel movies of the 1840s and 1850s and thus toured the great river vicariously. The throngs that wished to view Banvard's panorama were so great when it was displayed in Boston and New York that railroads ran special excursions to accommodate them. In these two cities alone more than four hundred thousand people saw the exhibition. "The river comes to me instead of my going to the river," wrote Longfellow. John Whittier, after seeing a panorama, sang of the "new Canaan of our Israel," and Thoreau, who not only viewed a panorama but also made the tour itself, envisaged "a coming heroic age in which simple and obscure men, the real heroes of history, would build the foundations of new castles [i]n the West and throw bridges across a 'Rhine stream of a different kind.'" According to an account written in 1852, passengers disembarked St. Paul and "[from there traveled by] stagecoach for what was called the 'grand tour.' It consisted of a drive from St. Paul to St. Anthony, then out to Lakes Harriet and Calhoun, thence to the Minnehaha Falls and Fort Snelling, and by the Spring Cave [probably "Fountain Cave"] to St. Paul, arriving in time for the visitors, if in haste, to return with the boat down the river." By the late 1860s the railroads had extended their rails to Minneapolis/St. Paul and they began to actively advertise Minnesota as a tourist destination. The 1878 Chicago, Burlington & Quincy railway promotional booklet, A Guide to the Summer Resorts of Minnesota, told of the delights and health benefits of travel to Minnesota: "The scenery is unequaled and the invigorating air is so rich in oxygen and ozone that it is unsurpassed anywhere in the world and is sure to offer to the tourist and the invalid a hearty welcome, confident that the one will surely find rest and enjoyment, and the other that much coveted of earthly blessings — health." The booklet describes the coach ride from Minneapolis to Minnehaha Falls: "One of the famous trips that few tourists miss taking is that from Minneapolis to St. Paul by carriage. Starting from the former place on the west side of the river, a pleasant drive of four miles over a level prairie, brings the traveler to Where the Falls of Minnehaha Flash and gleam among the oak trees. Laugh and leap into the valley. The round trip fare from St. Louis to Minneapolis was \$30 and it featured Pullman sleeping cars. The booklet lists the population of Minneapolis as 40,000 at that time. ### Grand Rounds National Scenic Byway Fortunately for the generations to come, in 1883 the state legislature created the Minneapolis Board of Park Commissioners. The board began by acquiring park land near today's downtown Minneapolis. Their choice to hire noted landscape architect Horace Cleveland was fortunate. Cleveland was hired by the Board to design a system of parks and interconnected parkways to connect and preserve the existing natural landscape. Cleveland was a preservationist by nature, respecting the natural landscape features and using the existing topography and vegetation to keep his designs as natural as possible. When the park board considered building a photographic stand in the lower glen near the falls in 1889, he responded saying: > I learn that the park commission are seriously thinking of a building at Minnehaha for the express purpose of taking photographs—on the site heretofore profaned by a shanty for that purpose. I cannot remain silent in view of this proposed vandalism which I am sure you cannot sanction—and which I am equally sure will forever be a stigma upon Minneapolis and elicit the anathema of every man of sense and taste who visits the place. If erected it will simply be pandering to the tastes of the army of boobies who think to boost themselves into notoriety by connecting their own stupid features with the representation of one of the most beautiful of God's works. The result of Cleveland's vision is the famous "Grand Rounds", an interconnected series of parkways and parks centered on the Mississippi River. This vision was expanded by subsequent park commissioners and superintendents to encircle a series of lakes, now known as the "Chain of Lakes", and to follow Minnehaha Creek to Minnehaha Falls. The area was designated as a National Scenic Byway in 1998, and the Minneapolis Grand Rounds is known today as one of the best urban park systems in the world. ### Acquisition and development When Minneapolis' Park Board purchased Minnehaha Falls and surrounding land in 1889, it became one of the first state parks in the United States; only New York had created a state park by that time. The next summer the Park Board began to furnish the park with tables, seating, and lavatories. By 1893 a pavilion had been built and the park approved funding for two bridges "of a rustic nature", one above the falls and the other below. A refectory was built in 1905 to serve "refreshments of a clean and wholesome nature at a reasonable cost." In 1926 the park board designated the park to be a center for winter sports activities; plans were made to build a ski jump and the board purchased toboggans for rental. Major improvements including retaining walls, bridges, and stairs were made by federal Works Progress Administration (WPA) crews from 1936 to 1942. While on the campaign trail in 1964, Lyndon B. Johnson and Minnesota Senator Hubert H. Humphrey visited the park on June 28. Johnson would go on to win the presidential election that year with Humphrey as his running mate. Their visit is commemorated with a plaque which reads: > President Lyndon B. Johnson, Senator Hubert H. Humphrey and Governor Karl Rolvaag enjoy the spray from Minnehaha Falls. On that day, however, Minneapolis was experiencing a drought. In order to create the beautiful spray of the falls pictured here the city had to open many fire hydrants upstream and out of sight, to feed water to the creek. The park saw conflict in the 1960s when the highway department planned an elevated freeway between Minnehaha Park and Longfellow Gardens over Minnehaha Creek. The park board challenged the plan and brought the case to the U.S. Supreme Court. Fortunately for the park a similar case was decided in favor of the preservation of park land, thus setting a precedent, and the elevated freeway was never built. Eventually a highway was built in the late 1990s that routed the road through a tunnel over the creek and covered by a "land bridge". A new garden, the Longfellow Garden, was established on top of the land bridge. Major improvements were also made in the 1990s. The Pergola Garden was created to feature native wildflowers and grasses. The parking lot that once overlooked the falls was removed, replaced by a garden and a low circular wall inscribed with Longfellow's words. The old refectory was given a veranda and a bandshell was added. In 2007 a new river overlook was built in the Wabun picnic area and included a children's playground. In 2011 major restoration work on the park was completed. The crumbling historic retaining walls built by the WPA in the 1930s were reinforced, eroded stream banks were restored, natural seating areas made of limestone were added, and trails and paths were improved. Landscape improvements were also done: invasive plants were removed and replaced with native plantings with deeper roots to stabilize the stream banks and prevent erosion. By the mid-2010s, more than 850,000 people visited Minnehaha Falls each year, and it continued to be the most photographed site in Minnesota. In 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic and in the aftermath of protests over the murder of George Floyd, the park board passed a resolution permitting homeless encampments in city parks on an indefinite basis. Minnehaha Regional Park was one of several sites designated by the park board as capable of hosting an encampment for people experiencing homelessness. ## Description Minnehaha Park is situated on the banks of the Mississippi River within the Minnehaha Historic District. Located between Hiawatha Avenue and the Minnehaha Parkway, the park includes Minnehaha Creek with its falls and glen. The 167-acre park is divided into two main portions: an upper section above the falls, with grassy open areas like many other city parks, and the lower 54-acre section which is for the most part allowed to maintain its natural state. The creek runs through the upper section and after it drops at the falls, it flows through the lower glen for another three-fourths of a mile. Minnehaha Park is a popular site for weddings and cultural festivities. Minnesota is well known for its large population of Swedish immigrants. Since 1934 Swedes have celebrated Svenskarnas Dag (Swedish Heritage Day) at the park in June of each year. The park has a bandstand with free music concerts in the summer. Bicyclists use miles of off-street trails, including the former Milwaukee Road right-of-way, which leads to Fort Snelling State Park. Bikes are available for rent, and there is an off-leash dog park area. Also located within the park are reservable outdoor picnic sites, and picnic shelters for groups, as well as playgrounds and a summer wading pool for children. The falls freeze in the winter, making the park a popular year-round attraction. At one time the park also featured a zoo and pony rides. In 1893 the Park Board gave permission for a Shetland pony concession and also began to accept gifts of animals for a zoo in the park. The zoo grew in size, and by 1899 a bear pit and an alligator tank had been added. Although very popular, when Theodore Wirth became the new park superintendent in 1906, the zoo was removed at his urging. The animals were donated to Longfellow Gardens, but a fenced area containing deer and elk remained until 1923. To this day the area is sometimes referred to as "the deer pen". Between the 1930s and the 1950s there was also an "Auto Tourist Camp" where large numbers of tourists tented or stayed in small cabins. A park historian states that in those years "the camp was intended to appeal to the many tourists who were traveling the country in their new automobiles". At one time there were several grist mills located on Minnehaha Creek. The remains of a stone and earth mill dam, built in the lower glen in 1853 or 1854, is still visible beside the creek. Gardens in the upper park area include Longfellow Gardens, Minnehaha Falls Pergola Garden, and the Song of Hiawatha Garden. The lower glen area offers examples of a surprisingly large number of trees that are native to Minnesota including basswood, black ash, maples, oaks, willows, and cottonwoods. Unusual plants include the first spring-blooming plant, skunk cabbage, often blooming so early that temperatures are still freezing and snow may still be on the ground. As the name implies, they have a disagreeable odor except to the various insects that prefer to feed on rotting flesh or dung. By consuming carbohydrates stored in its fleshy roots, skunk cabbages can maintain a temperature inside the spathe that is 15–35 degrees warmer than the surrounding air temperature. The warmth helps attract cold-blooded, early-emerging pollinating insects during early spring when temperatures are still chilly. As the spathe dies back the large, showy leaves emerge which die back by mid-August, making the plant difficult to find in late summer. Other wild flowers include wild ginger, trout lilies, anemones, marsh marigold and various ferns and sedges. The Minneapolis Park and Recreation Board is working to remove invasive species that have been introduced into the park in order to promote a healthy environment so that native species may survive and grow. The central feature of the park, Minnehaha Falls, lies several thousand feet upstream from its original mouth where it emptied into the Mississippi River 10,000 years ago at the end of the last Great Ice Age. Erosion below the falls has exposed Minnesota's geologic past from the present day back to over 450 million years ago, when Minnesota was covered with shallow seas. Statues in the park include a bronze sculpture of Hiawatha and Minnehaha, by Jacob Fjelde depicting Hiawatha carrying Minnehaha. It was originally created in plaster for the Columbian Exposition in 1893, and cast in bronze and erected at the park in 1912. Other statues commemorate several notable figures including John H. Stevens, the first authorized resident on the west bank of the Mississippi River in what would become Minneapolis. He was granted permission to occupy the site, then part of the Fort Snelling military reservation, in exchange for providing ferry service to St. Anthony across the river. A statue of Swedish musician and poet Gunnar Wennerberg was placed in the park in 1915. A mask of Dakota leader Taoyateduta (Little Crow) was placed overlooking the falls in 1992. While the name Minnehaha is often translated as "Laughing Water", the correct translation is "curling water" or "waterfall". The name comes from the Dakota language elements mni, meaning water, and ȟaȟa, meaning waterfall. Thus the expression "Minnehaha Falls" translates as "Waterfall Falls". The "Laughing Water" translation comes from Mary H. Eastman's book Dahcotah – Life and Legends of the Sioux Around Fort Snelling, published in 1849. The Dakota called Minnehaha Creek "Wakpa Cistinna", meaning "Little River". According to information provided by the National Park Service, an early missionary who had learned the Dakota language wrote: "The Indian name, 'Little Waterfall,' is given ... in speaking of the falls now called by white people 'Minnehaha'. The Indians never knew it by the latter name, bestowed upon it by the whites." ### Minnehaha Creek and Falls Minnehaha Creek extends from Lake Minnetonka in the west and flows east for 22 miles (35 km) through several suburbs west of Minneapolis, and continuing through south Minneapolis. The watershed for the creek covers 181 square miles (470 km<sup>2</sup>). Along the creek is a 53-foot (16-meter) waterfall, Minnehaha Falls, which is situated 3/4 of a mile from where the stream empties into the Mississippi River. Minnehaha Falls is geologically linked to Saint Anthony Falls, which is the only waterfall on the Mississippi River. Roughly 10,000 years ago St. Anthony Falls was located several miles downstream on the Mississippi River at the confluence of the glacial River Warren (at present-day Ft. Snelling). Geologically, the area has a sandstone layer beneath a layer of limestone. Over the centuries, water in the river beds broke through the limestone layer, and the churning at the bottom of the falls ate away at the soft underlying sandstone. Eventually, the hard limestone cap was unsupported and broke off. Thus St. Anthony Falls receded, moving upstream at a rate of about 4 feet (1.2 m) per year. As St. Anthony Falls on the Mississippi River moved past Minnehaha Creek, a second falls was created, Minnehaha Falls, which also continued to move upstream to its present site in the park. An island in the Mississippi River near Minnehaha Creek once existed; the receding St. Anthony Falls divided into two as it passed around the island. The falls in the channel farthest from Minnehaha Creek reached the upstream end of the island first, cutting off water to the west channel and resulting in an "abandoned waterfall" at the north end of the channel. The abandoned west channel is now a grassy cul-de-sac known as the "Deer Pen". Locating the abandoned waterfall was made difficult in recent years since the Deer Pen was partially filled with tons of fill dirt from nearby construction projects. Today, the mouth of Minnehaha Creek where it joins the Mississippi River is the lowest surface point in the city of Minneapolis at 686 ft (209 m) above sea level. Erosion within the last century has resulted in a falls that is fairly narrowly channeled and vigorous, notably after a heavy rain. Photographs of the waterfall from the 19th century show a much wider, curtain like character to the falls. When the creek is dry, the older, much-broader ledge can be observed. If there were sufficient interest and funding, some remedial work could theoretically restore the 19th-century appearance of the falls. Due to extremely cold winter temperatures, the falls freeze, creating a dramatic cascade of ice that can last well into the spring. If there is a rain shortage in the autumn, the falls may virtually dry up. In the summer, especially in the rainy months of June and July, the flow can be surprisingly forceful. On June 19, 2014, professional kayaker Hunt Jennings descended the waterfall in a kayak when it was at record height due to several days of heavy rain. The only injury sustained by Jennings was a small cut above his upper lip. A spokesperson for the Minneapolis Park and Recreation Board commented, "We are deeply concerned that this act and subsequent publicity will inspire others to attempt the same feat. The impact of the drop, the large boulders at the base of the Falls, the deep water and fast current could easily injure or kill a kayaker." ## Park geology Visitors to the park can view the ancient geological history of Minnesota as they walk the path leading from the falls down to the Mississippi River. The uppermost layer of soils and gravels of Minnesota were deposited by the most recent Ice Age, about 10,000 years ago. Four great ice ages have swept away all traces of the more recent Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras in the Twin Cities area, however standing at the upper falls, one is standing directly on the Platteville Limestone Formation laid down during the Ordovician Period of the Paleozoic Era. During the Ordovician Period, about 450 million years ago, the North American continent was situated along the equator and a warm shallow sea covered much of Minnesota. Sea life was abundant and a large number of marine fossils including corals, bryozoans, brachiopods, clams, snails, cephalopods, and trilobites can be found in the limestone and shale sediments at several areas in the Twin Cities and along the Mississippi River in the park. Descending to the base of the falls one passes through the layered Platteville Limestone Formation and a thin layer of Glenwood Shale. At the base of the falls one enters the level of the Saint Peter Sandstone Formation of pure white quartz sandstone. The Minnesota St. Peter Sandstone is "famous the world over as the example of a well-rounded, well-sorted, pure quartz sand. It is the Ivory Snow of sediments, because it is close to 99.44% pure". This sand was first deposited as beach sand, probably eroded from earlier Cambrian sandstones, along the shores of the Ordovician sea. At places in the park, especially closer to the Mississippi River, one can see the Glenwood Shale Formation. This thin layer of grey-green rock was probably deposited in deeper-water offshore from the beaches, and now has been exposed by erosion. Together, the three formations that are visible as one walks from the falls to the river represent a sequence of sea-level rise which occurred during the Ordovician period. A fourth geological layer that lies above the Platteville limestone, Decorah shale, can also be found in the park. The Decorah shale formation is so packed with fossils that it has been called "fossil hash". It has been washed away directly at the falls area but can be found above the Plattville limestone in the exposed river bank below Fort Snelling. ## Historical buildings ### Minnehaha Depot A small train station officially named Minnehaha Depot but also known as "the Princess Depot" was built around 1875; it was a stop on the Milwaukee Road railroad and provided easy access to the park from Fort Snelling and Minneapolis. The depot handled as many as 39 round trips per day. The interior is complete and well-preserved, containing an iron heating stove, waiting room benches and a ticket window. In 1964, the title was transferred to the Minnesota Historical Society. The Minnesota Transportation Museum assisted in the restoration of the building, and today provides historic interpretation. The depot is open in the summer on Sundays from 1:30 to 4:30. The 50th Street / Minnehaha Park light rail station of the METRO Blue Line currently serves the park. ### Longfellow House Despite its name, the Longfellow House was never home to the American poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow; it was instead the home of Robert F. Jones, a Minneapolis philanthropist and entrepreneur. Built in 1907, the house's facade was designed to resemble Longfellow's home in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Originally the home was part of Jones' private 4.6-acre botanical garden and zoological park near Minnehaha Falls. After Jones died, the home fell into disrepair. His will gave the property to the city which used the house as part of the Minneapolis public library from 1936 to 1967. The house was moved in 1994 and renovated. It opened as an information center in 2001. Today the home serves as the home of a botanical art school and provides offices for the Minneapolis Parks Foundation. The Longfellow House and John H. Stevens House also co-sponsor 90-minute historic nature walks around the park. ### John Harrington Stevens House The John Harrington Stevens House, built in 1849 or 1850 near St. Anthony Falls (on the site where the Minneapolis Post Office now sits), was moved to Minnehaha Park in 1896. According to the Minneapolis Park and Recreation Board, the home has the distinction of being the first wood-frame dwelling built west of the Mississippi. John H. Stevens was granted permission to build his house on land controlled by Fort Snelling in exchange for providing ferry service across the Mississippi River. In subsequent years it became a hub of civic and social activity. Dubbed the "Birthplace of Minneapolis", both Hennepin County and Minneapolis were organized in Stevens' home; it was in this home that the name Minneapolis was suggested. In 1896 over 10,000 school children helped pull the house to its present location in Minnehaha Park. The children were divided into seven relay teams, each consisting of around 1,000 pupils. As teams finished their designated distance, they dropped the ropes and boarded trolley cars for the park. All went well until "the lads from the South Side High School" refused to give up the ropes to the next relay team. The Minneapolis Tribune'' reported the event: > At this point there was something of unexpected interest. Waving their school flag in triumph from the gable window of the old building the lads from the South Side High School shouted their school yell and BAD DEFIANCE TO ALL COMERS. At this point the Central High School scholars were billed to relieve the South Siders, and consequently surrounded the building. The spirit of school rivalry broke out, strong and bitter. The South Siders refused to surrender the fortress and flaunted their banner from the window in spite of all entreaties and orders. Contractor Pratt could not oust them. Supt. Jordan could not oust them, and finally Sergeant Martinson called for a detail of police and made a rush for the house. But the South Side lads were still game, and did not give up until several had been made to feel the force of police authority. Then they made a break. As they dashed from one door the Centrals entered by the other, and their banner was soon flying from the gable amid vociferous cheers. The South Siders were chased up the street by a detachment of Centrals, and for a moment it looked as if the rush would result in some bruised heads. However, good nature was restored and again the house started on its way. The house arrived in the park at 3 pm along with the last relay team of children, having covered a distance of four miles. In the evening, 1,000 Japanese lanterns were placed about the park and the festivities included fireworks and an illumination of the falls. The Tribune newspaper reported that some people complained about the children having a day out of school and "...the park commissioners and the park policemen objected to the way in which the children took possession of the park and everything in it. There was no such thing as controlling them, and they ran over everything in sight. It would have taken a small regiment of policemen to have kept that throng in check." The house was heavily damaged by three acts of arson in 2022 and required extensive renovations to repair walls, ceilings, and voids. ## Image gallery ## See also - Coldwater Spring - Lock and Dam No. 1 - Minnehaha Falls Lower Glen Trail - Minnehaha Trail - Winchell Trail - River Warren Falls
430,317	Walter Nash	1,168,632,543	Prime Minister of New Zealand from 1957 to 1960	[ "1882 births", "1968 deaths", "20th-century New Zealand politicians", "Burials at Karori Cemetery", "English emigrants to New Zealand", "Leaders of the Opposition (New Zealand)", "Members of the New Zealand House of Representatives", "New Zealand Christian socialists", "New Zealand Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George", "New Zealand Labour Party MPs", "New Zealand Labour Party leaders", "New Zealand MPs for Hutt Valley electorates", "New Zealand Members of the Order of the Companions of Honour", "New Zealand finance ministers", "New Zealand foreign ministers", "New Zealand members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom", "People from Kidderminster", "Prime Ministers of New Zealand", "Unsuccessful candidates in the 1925 New Zealand general election", "Unsuccessful candidates in the 1928 New Zealand general election", "Wellington Harbour Board members" ]	Sir Walter Nash GCMG CH PC (12 February 1882 – 4 June 1968) was a New Zealand politician who served as the 27th prime minister of New Zealand in the Second Labour Government from 1957 to 1960. He is noted for his long period of political service, having been associated with the New Zealand Labour Party since its creation. Nash was born in the West Midlands, England, and is the most recent New Zealand prime minister to be born outside the country. He arrived in New Zealand in 1909, soon joined the original Labour Party, and became a member of the party's executive in 1919. Guided to politics by his beliefs in Anglicanism, Christian socialism and pacifism, he gained a reputation for brilliant ability as an organiser and administrator which compensated for a lack of charisma and bouts of indecisiveness. Nash was elected to the House of Representatives in the Hutt by-election of 1929. He served as the member of Parliament (MP) for the Hutt electorate for 13 consecutive terms, over a period of 38 years and 168 days. As of 2023, he is the fourth-longest serving MP. Appointed as minister of finance in 1935, Nash guided the First Labour Government's economic recovery programme during the Great Depression and then directed the government's wartime controls. At 14 years he has the longest period of continuous service of any New Zealand minister of finance, and this service included the entire period of World War II. He succeeded Peter Fraser as leader of the Labour Party and leader of the Opposition in 1951. He was from the moderate wing of the Labour Party and was criticised by the left wing of the party for failing to support the strikers during the 1951 Waterfront Dispute, and for not taking stronger action over the controversial exclusion of Māori players from the 1960 rugby tour of South Africa. In the , the Labour Party won a narrow victory and Nash became prime minister. The Second Labour Government's "Black Budget" of 1958, in response to a balance of payments crisis, increased taxes on luxuries such as beer and tobacco. Public hostility toward the budget contributed to Labour's heavy defeat in the . Nash was active in international affairs and travelled extensively during his premiership, revising trade terms and supporting aid and development in other nations. Leaving office at 78 years of age, Nash is to date New Zealand's most-elderly prime minister. He died on 4 June 1968 at the age of 86 while still a serving MP, apparently the oldest person to be a serving MP. He was accorded a state funeral, the first in New Zealand for 18 years. ## Early life Nash was born on 12 February 1882 in Kidderminster, a town in the English county of Worcestershire. He was born into a poor family and his father was an alcoholic. Nash performed well at school and won a scholarship to King Charles I Grammar School but additional costs associated with attending prevented him from accepting. Nash began employment as a clerk, initially with a lawyer in Kidderminster and then at a factory near Birmingham. On 16 June 1906, Nash married Lottie May Eaton and established a shop. He became highly active in his community, participating in a large number of societies and clubs. He also attended night school to further his education. However, by 1908 problems began to arise. His wife and son were both ill and a daughter died at birth. In addition an economic recession in the following year seriously harmed his business. The family decided to leave England, settling on New Zealand as a destination. After arriving in Wellington, in May 1909 Nash became secretary to a local tailor. His wife had two more sons. Nash's religious and political beliefs also began to solidify at this point, with the strong Christian faith he received from his mother being merged with a growing belief in socialism. Nash would remain a "Christian Socialist" for the rest of his life, believing that the two components were inseparable. His political opinions were influenced by his friendship with prominent New Zealand socialists such as Michael Joseph Savage, Bob Semple and Harry Holland. Nash also became a committed pacifist. During World War I he made many speeches at the Church of England Men's Society stating his reasons for pacifism were faith based and called for understanding with German and Austrian Christians. Despite anti-German sentiment in New Zealand during the war, Nash allowed a German to stay at his home. Due to his open pacifism and friendship with other anti-war activists such as Holland his mail was scrutinised by police looking for evidence on himself and colleagues for sedition or treason. Nash's financial situation deteriorated when the tailor's firm that he worked for (and was a shareholder of) declined. Nash and his family moved to Palmerston North where he became a salesman for a wool and cloth merchant. Later he established a tailoring company in New Plymouth along with Bill Besley, a tailor from Stratford, although the business performed poorly. ## Political career ### Early political career Nash had briefly been involved with the first Labour Party, established in 1910, but this association had been interrupted by his financial difficulties. In 1918 however, he helped to establish the New Plymouth branch of the modern Labour Party and he became highly active as secretary of the branch and main organiser for the Labour Party ticket at the 1919 local-body elections. Labour campaigned on borrowing £30,000 to finance council housing which the occupiers were to have a right to purchase, with the rest funded by profits made by the local electric light department. Another pledge was to establish a municipal milk supply. Twenty-six thousand leaflets were printed and distributed by the branch. Nash was a candidate for the borough council himself, but was unsuccessful though did poll the highest of the Labour candidates. The following year Nash was elected to the party's national executive. In 1920 Nash and his wife travelled to Europe, attending various socialist conferences. When they returned to New Zealand in January 1921, Nash was fined for importing "seditious literature". Despite the reputation that this fine gave him among his fellow socialists, Nash was one of the more moderate members of the Labour Party. In 1922, a year after he had returned to Wellington, Nash was elected national secretary of the Labour Party. After winning the national secretary position he withdrew as Labour's candidate for the seat at the upcoming . When he took up the national secretary role he found the party had a total debt of £220. The debt was settled when together with Nash's own loan, John Glover (manager of the Maoriland Worker) lent some £100 interest free. Nash is often credited with turning the Labour Party into a fully functioning entity by establishing an efficient organisational structure and paying off the party's debts. Following his announcement of "" in the Maoriland Worker he worked hard to increase the party's membership which grew from 21,000 in 1919 to 45,000 in 1925. The delegates at Labour's 1922 annual conference voted to establish a permanent national office which Nash was given the responsibility of doing. Having now set up a centralised location to coordinate party activities and election campaigns was a vital step up to Labour becoming a major political party in New Zealand. As he had been in New Plymouth, Nash became involved in local politics in Wellington. At the 1927 local elections he stood as a Labour candidate for a seat on the Wellington City Council. He polled well but was not successful. Two years later he contested the Wellington mayoralty for Labour at the 1929 election, but was defeated by the incumbent mayor George Troup. ### Member for Hutt Nash stood for election in the electorate in the and s, but was not successful until the . He served the electorate for 13 consecutive terms over a period of 38 years and 168 days which, as of 2023, makes him New Zealand's fourth-longest serving MP. Immediately upon entering Parliament Nash became one of Labour's main finance spokesmen. By 1932 he had moved up to the front bench and had become the senior finance spokesman. After entering Parliament, Nash built a house in the electorate he represented. The house, a modest bungalow in St Albans Grove, was completed in 1930 and he lived in the house the rest of his life. ### Minister of Finance When Labour, led by Michael Joseph Savage, won the 1935 election Nash was appointed to Cabinet as Minister of Finance, although he also held a number of more minor positions. His other portfolios were Minister of Customs, Minister of Statistics, Minister of Marketing, Minister of Revenue and Minister for Social Security. He was ranked third in the First Labour Government, with only Savage and Peter Fraser above him. Nash remained as Minister of Finance for the next 14 years. As of 2023, he has the longest period of continuous service in that role. Soon after its election the government gave a "Christmas bonus" of £270,000 to the unemployed and needy. New Zealand's economy was in poor shape at the time of Nash's appointment as Finance Minister and he was very busy for the early part of his ministerial career. Nash introduced a number of substantial changes, in an attempt to improve the situation. He reintroduced a graduated land tax at high rates. The land tax (which had been rescinded in October 1931) netted an extra £8 million to fund government spending. He also supervised the nationalisation of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand. Although some unemployment persisted, rising export prices helped the government to implement its election policies. The changes in economic policy included restoring wage cuts, expanding pensions, guaranteeing farmers' prices and revaluation of the currency. In 1936 Nash departed for England to conduct trade negotiations. The negotiations were only partially successful, with an agreement reached over New Zealand's meat prices for beef and lamb exports. He also visited other European capitals, particularly Berlin and Moscow, to determine whether there was scope for trade agreements there. He reached a bilateral trade deal with Germany to export butter there. He also went to Copenhagen to study the Danish system of exchange controls, and had further fruitless trade talks in both Paris and Amsterdam. After returning to New Zealand he became involved in disputes within the Labour Party about economic policy. In particular he was heavily criticised by supporters of the Social Credit movement who wanted their views adopted as Labour Party policy. Nash was also attacked by the more radical socialists in the party who saw Nash's pragmatic economic policies as too moderate. However, Nash was supported by both Savage and Fraser and emerged relatively unscathed. He gained the additional responsibility of implementing Labour's social security plan. Nash himself had limited involvement in the formulation of Labour's economic reform policies, however he was largely responsible for putting them into effect, with other ministers relying on him for his attention to detail. Immediately following Labour's re-election at the 1938 general election New Zealand experienced an exchange crisis with its reserves of sterling funds falling. The orthodox economic response given to the government to call up overdrafts and cut spending to reduce demand and increase unemployment was rejected by the government. Nash instead stated the government would react by introducing exchange controls and import selection which he said in January 1939 would allow the country to maintain its living standards while ensuring the country could live within its income. He was already well familiar with exchange controls systems, having studied the Danish system while in Europe in 1937 and had wished to implement them in New Zealand earlier. Other colleagues (such as John A. Lee and Mark Woolf Silverstone) felt the main reason this decision had been delayed was to not frighten voters too soon ahead of the election with radical economic repositioning. Prime Minister Savage informed the public that exchange controls were introduced to 'insulate' the country from unfair overseas competition and to encourage industrial development locally. Nash's proposals to control primary produce marketing and restrict imports were strongly criticised abroad. They conflicted with agreements at 1932's British Empire Economic Conference and were labelled as 'economic totalitarianism' by a British Department of Overseas Trade memorandum. In the immediate period before the exchange controls system could be established, borrowing was necessary. Nash returned to Britain in April 1939 to seek loans and to reassure the British government (in vain) that existing British exports would not be harmed. He spent over two months in negotiations with hostile officials who were fearful of losing New Zealand as an export market. Nash attempted to compromise suggesting that British manufacturers could take advantage of import regulations by establishing branch factories in New Zealand. This proposal, that British manufacturers should export themselves rather than their products, was rejected. It was a method by which Nash thought New Zealand could industrialise with minimal need for borrowing. Nash eventually secured a loan of £16 million, but it was subject to very harsh terms, requiring repayment in five annual instalments. Many British newspapers wrote that the terms were "impossibly onerous; indeed blackmailing." With loans secured Nash sailed home, stopping in Washington, D.C., en route and met with President Franklin D. Roosevelt to discuss defence arrangements in the event of a war. Several days later war was declared between Britain (and New Zealand) against Germany. The British government cabled that it wished to purchase New Zealand's entire exportable surplus of meat. The following day they likewise requested to buy New Zealand's entire exports of dairy produce. Nash took some quiet ironical satisfaction that the government that had been so hostile to his policies and negotiated so unfairly was now so desperate for the bulk sales it had earlier denied. Over the next few months, New Zealand's sterling reserves built up quickly and economic stability was restored. The country was then able to repay the loan from Britain. The first years of World War II were difficult for the Labour Party, because Savage was seriously ill. Further problems were caused by John A. Lee, a Labour Party member who launched strong attacks on its economic policy. Lee was particularly vicious towards Savage and Nash. Peter Fraser became Prime Minister after Savage's death and Lee was expelled. Nash reluctantly set aside his earlier pacifist beliefs during World War II. Unlike World War I, he deemed this war necessary and inevitable in any case because of the overtly aggressive actions by Germany. Other pacifists were critical of Nash for his change in stance labelling him a hypocrite. Nash retorted that other attempts at peace had been tried and failed, and defeating Germany and its allies by force was the only option left. Taxes were raised considerably to pay for the war. Income tax in particular was targeted rising from £4.5 million in 1935–36 to £16.5 million in 1941–42. Expenditure for social security was extended by Nash for the poor to offset the cost of the extra wartime taxes. Pension payments were raised in 1941 and the government began to subsidise the prices of basic goods such as bread, sugar and coal. The family benefit was extended to second children in 1940 and to all in 1941 for all families earning less than £5 per week. From May to September 1941 Nash was acting Prime Minister when Fraser visited New Zealand troops in North Africa. During 1941 the government's internal debt rose by £11.8 million to £26 million but while Fraser was abroad he negotiated so that the British government would pay the costs of New Zealand troops serving overseas leading to New Zealand's overseas debt reducing. This compensated for the rise in internal debt. Nash was appointed Minister from New Zealand in the United States as New Zealand's diplomatic representative in the United States in 1942, but he frequently returned to Wellington to fulfil his role as Minister of Finance. As a result of Nash's frequent absences, Geoffrey Cox, the First Secretary at the New Zealand Embassy, was chargé d'affaires for 11 out of the 21 months that he was posted to Washington. Nash was difficult to work for. He was unable to delegate, accumulated files before making a decision, and was inconsiderate of staff. At the end of the war Nash attended the conferences to create the United Nations and also recommended that New Zealand join the International Monetary Fund. He also travelled as New Zealand's representative to several major post-war international conferences concerned with reconstruction, (such as the Bretton Woods Conference and the initial 1948 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade). By the time of the 1949 election, the Labour government had become increasingly unpopular, partly as a result of industrial strife and inflation. The election was won by the National Party, led by Sidney Holland. ### Leader of the Opposition Fraser died shortly after the 1949 election and Nash was elected leader of the Labour Party unopposed. Nash was seen as the likely replacement for Fraser, but his succession was not assured. As acting leader he deliberately brought the leadership election to before the imminent by-election for Fraser's seat of Brooklyn. The Brooklyn by-election was to be contested by former cabinet minister and party president Arnold Nordmeyer (who had lost his seat in the 1949 election) and thus Nordmeyer was unable to contest the leadership, as only elected members of the caucus were eligible to stand. Nash's decision on the leadership election date caused an argument in caucus, being seen by some as self-motivated, although eventually MPs voted to proceed with the early vote by a majority of two. The first major test of Nash's leadership came with the 1951 waterfront dispute, where major strikes were damaging the economy. Labour's position on the matter was seen as indecisive—the party was condemned by many workers for giving them insufficient support but at the same time was condemned by the business community for being "soft" on the communist-influenced unions. Infamously he said "We are not for the waterside workers, and we are not against them" when addressing a large rally in Auckland on 13 May 1951. He was ridiculed for this stance for many years from National, unions and media. Labour suffered badly in the snap election that Holland called in 1951 to reaffirm his mandate. The scale of Labour's election loss soon put Nash's leadership under pressure. As Leader of the Opposition Nash is not generally regarded as having been a success. His primary talent appeared to have been in organisation and finance, and not in the inspirational leadership that Savage and Fraser had provided. He was also seen as too slow in coming to decisions. In 1954 several MPs attempted an abortive coup to remove the 71-year-old Nash as leader. They included Rex Mason, Bill Anderton and Arnold Nordmeyer. Nash was told by Mason that a number of members had complained about the leadership of the party to him and that Mason thought that the majority wanted a new leader. In 1954 a majority of the caucus was in favour of a new leader but pressure from the unions and continued support from Party branches allowed Nash to survive the subsequent vote. The negative press from the leadership challenge was unhelpful to Labour's position, but Nash rebounded well heading into the 1954 election. He fought a strong campaign that led to a gain of five seats and virtually levelled the popular vote with National, with a margin of only 0.2% behind. The advent of the new Social Credit Party (which won 11.2% of the vote, but no seats) was seen as a spoiler and it was claimed by Nash that Social Credit denied Labour victory by diminishing the two-party swing. The gains made in the election were seen as sufficient to justify Nash retaining the leadership, despite some murmurs of a surprise challenge to him by either his deputy Jerry Skinner or Nordmeyer. Nash's leadership was also bolstered by the talent and energy of new Labour MPs who joined the caucus after the election. As the National government began to grow more unpopular, Labour regained some of its earlier dynamism. In the 1957 election the party won a narrow victory—41 seats to 39— assisted by its promises of tax rebates and the abolition of compulsory military training. At the age of 75, Nash became Prime Minister of the Second Labour Government. ### Prime minister (1957–1960) Nash appointed himself as Minister of Foreign Affairs, Minister of Maori Affairs and Minister of Statistics. Immediately upon taking office the Second Labour Government found the country's financial situation was much worse than the previous government had admitted. The balance of payments was a serious concern. Nash decided that drastic measures would be necessary to bring the situation back under control. These measures resulted in the so-called "Black Budget", presented by Arnold Nordmeyer the new Minister of Finance. The budget included significant tax increases and generated widespread public anger. This was fuelled by the National Party claiming that Nash and Nordmeyer were exaggerating the extent of the problem. The fact that the extra taxes were largely on petrol, cigarettes and beer contributed to the image of Nash's government as miserly. The situation was exacerbated by Nash's frequent absences from the country, leaving Nordmeyer and other Labour ministers to defend the government's policies by themselves. Nash's focus shifted from his previous interests of finance and social welfare to external affairs. His biographer Keith Sinclair explained that "for Nash, by 1958, the great moral issues were not poverty and social security at home but world affairs, peace and war. He meant to make whatever contribution he could to guiding the world to wiser and more moral courses." He was also well regarded by his peers for his knowledge on geopolitical matters. Australian foreign minister Richard Casey acknowledged Nash as one of the few world leaders who had any broad and balanced grasp of world affairs: "Mr. Nash spoke with authority and other world statesmen were ready to listen; his views were well informed and liberal and, although occasionally he seemed to be lost in visionary speculations, he arrived in the end at a practical, hard-headed and courageous attitude. Nearly all New Zealanders, whatever their party, were proud to have Mr. Nash representing them overseas." Nash's main effort in foreign affairs was to revise the trade and tariff terms of the 1932 Ottawa agreement, in 1958. He was also a strong supporter of the Colombo Plan and visited many of the New Zealand-funded Colombo Plan projects in Asia and attended the Colombo Plan conference at Yogyakarta, Indonesia. The plan was one of his main interests in foreign policy, with aid and economic development for impoverished peoples appealing to his principles. The Nash government also made progress towards the independence of Western Samoa. Nash had previously shown interest in Samoa during the 1929 uprising when he collected statistics to evidence Labour's criticism of the New Zealand government's administration of Samoa. Following the work by the Nash government, Samoa gained its independence in 1962. In 1960, Nash was criticised for failing to act in the controversy over the rugby tour of South Africa. At the time, South Africa had an apartheid government. On the insistence of the South Africans the New Zealand team included no Māori players, prompting a petition against the tour supported by almost 10% of New Zealanders. Opposition to the tour was led by the Citizens All Black Tour Association (CABTA) in whose view the exclusion of Māori from a national team was a gross act of racial discrimination. Nash had long been an outspoken critic of apartheid and in 1958, after he became Prime Minister, New Zealand voted against apartheid for the first time at the United Nations. As Nash had personally denounced racism for most of his life it was expected that he would side with the protesters, but he did not. He refused to step in, saying that the matter was for the rugby authorities to decide. In an April 1960 speech Nash defended the decision of the New Zealand Rugby Union stating that it would be unfair to expect Māori to visit South Africa as they would be sure to experience racial discrimination there and also argued that ostracising apartheid would merely accentuate bitterness in South Africa. The decision to exclude Māori from the team to tour South Africa was widely reported and condemned in other countries, having an adverse effect on New Zealand's international standing. The domestic political effect was more benign because the opposition National Party was also reluctant to see government interference in the tour. After the tour had ended Nash told the Rugby Union that in future tours it would be desirable for South Africa to accept Māori to avoid a repetition of the controversy. New Zealand did not tour South Africa again until 1970 when Māori players were included. Against expectations Nash did not appoint a Māori as Minister of Māori Affairs. Instead, he appointed himself, along with an associate minister Eruera Tirikatene, who had been spokesperson in the portfolio when in opposition. Historian Keith Sinclair wrote that Nash either had reservations about Tirikatene's ability or was nervous that a Māori appointed as Minister of Māori Affairs might favour his own iwi. A previous minister Āpirana Ngata had been accused of this, in a well-remembered scandal. In any case, following Fraser's example, Nash believed that the best way to show government commitment to Māori was to lend the mana of the office of prime minister to the portfolio. Nash often spoke on marae, frequently repeating his belief that "there were no inferior or superior races". Nash was concerned at the fragmentation of Māori land interests and appointed a Public Service Commissioner, Jack Hunn, to act as Secretary for Māori Affairs and "get an accounting of Maori assets and see what we can do with them". This resulted in the famous and contentious 'Hunn report' on the problems and future of Māori which was completed in August 1960. Nash was preoccupied with winning the coming election, and told Hunn that he would not have time to study it until after the election. The report was left unread and was not implemented until early 1961, when it was published by his successor as Minister of Māori affairs, Ralph Hanan. The Hunn report became the basis of National's policy, to the frustration of Nash. In the , Labour was defeated by the National Party and Nash became Leader of the Opposition once again. Nash is the only Labour leader who has served as Leader of the Opposition both before and after his tenure as Prime Minister. ## Later life and career By late 1960, Nash was nearly eighty years old. Privately he admitted to confidantes that he had noticed his hearing and memory had deteriorated. The death of his wife in 1961 also took its toll. Gradually, calls for him to retire grew more frequent. Nash, however, refused to step down, partly because of a desire to continue his work, and partly due to a reluctance to see Arnold Nordmeyer succeed him. Initially Nash was planning to announce his retirement as leader at Labour's 1962 party conference to clear the way for his deputy Jerry Skinner. By this time the media and public were widely anticipating Skinner to lead Labour at the 1963 election. After Skinner's sudden death (only a week before the 1962 conference) Nash had been forced to change his plans. The media speculated that Skinner had died with the knowledge that the party leadership would soon be his and that the caucus had already approved of his succession, however Nash strongly denied the suggestion. Skinner was replaced by Fred Hackett, but Hackett also died before Nash's retirement. By June 1962 Nash told the caucus that he would resign at the end of the year unless caucus requested otherwise. At the beginning of the final caucus meeting of the year Nash told caucus that he would resign at a caucus meeting in February and he would not be a candidate for re-election. In February 1963 Nash finally retired as leader of the Labour Party and Nordmeyer was chosen to replace him. Nash was the first Labour leader who did not die in office. Nash was one of the few New Zealand prime ministers who remained in Parliament a long time after losing power. He became the elder statesman of the house, and was frequently referred to in the press as the "grand old man" of New Zealand politics. He continued to speak frequently on foreign affairs and still travelled abroad regularly. In 1963 he went to a Commonwealth Parliamentary Conference in Kuala Lumpur and in January 1964 at the age of 81 (to widespread astonishment) he travelled to Antarctica, flying to McMurdo Sound in an American research plane. It was widely reported in newspapers, claiming that he was the oldest man to have reached the South Pole. In 1966 he sailed to England for a three-month holiday with his sister Emily, his first non-parliamentary visit since 1909. Despite supporting the government decision in 1963 to send a small non-combatant advisory force to South Vietnam, Nash opposed any military involvement in Vietnam. He became active in the protest movement against the Vietnam War, and denounced the bombing of North Vietnam by the United States. He spoke at many teach-ins on the subject around New Zealand's university campuses where he was well received. An old colleague, Ormond Wilson, said that he "had never heard Walter so clear about an issue". Nash had become unpopular with the left wing because of his responses to the 1951 waterfront dispute and the 1960 rugby tour to South Africa, but his outspokenness in opposition to the war did a great deal to restore his reputation. Nash believed that Labour's failure to win the 1966 general election was because of its principled anti-Vietnam war policy, despite voters preferring Labour's economic policy to National's. ## Death and state funeral In late 1966 he spent three weeks in hospital for treatment on his veins following a demanding travel schedule in that year's election campaign. In mid-May 1968 he was taken to Hutt Hospital for "observation and rest" and a few days later he had a heart attack. He died on 4 June 1968. At his death he was eulogised positively for his career contributions, particularly in his time as Minister of Finance. His body lay in state at Parliament House, Wellington, and he was awarded a state funeral, the first since Fraser's in 1950. The funeral was held at St James' Church of England, Lower Hutt. It was broadcast on television, the first funeral in New Zealand to be televised. He was buried in Karori Cemetery alongside his wife. Funds for a children's ward at a hospital in Quy Nhon, Vietnam, were raised to serve as a memorial to him. It fitted with a suggestion of his years earlier that New Zealand's contribution to the Vietnam War should be providing "hospitals rather than artillery". At the time of his death Nash was still a serving MP, though he had already indicated that he intended to retire at the 1969 general election. At 86 years old he is apparently the oldest ever person to be a serving New Zealand MP. His death triggered a by-election which was won by Trevor Young. ## Honours and awards In 1935 Nash was awarded the King George V Silver Jubilee Medal. In 1946 he was appointed to the Privy Council. He was appointed a Member of the Order of the Companions of Honour in the 1959 Queen's Birthday Honours and in the 1965 Queen's Birthday Honours he was made a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George. It took him two years to decide whether he would accept a knighthood in conformity with the principles of the Labour Party. After discussing it first with Nordmeyer and then the party executive he accepted, though he twice declined a life peerage and seat in the House of Lords. In 1957 he also received the highest distinction of the Scout Association of Japan, the Golden Pheasant Award. In 1963 he was awarded an honorary Doctorate of Laws by Victoria University of Wellington. ## Honorific eponyms A number of streets and public facilities have been named in honour of Nash, in various towns in New Zealand as well as his birthplace of Kidderminster in England. These include: - Nash Road, Mount Roskill, Auckland - In Taitā, Lower Hutt - Nash Street - Walter Nash Centre - Walter Nash Park - Walter Nash Stadium - Walter Nash Avenue, Kawerau - Nash Street, New Plymouth - Walter Nash Place, Whanganui - Walter Nash Road East, Kidderminster ## Personal life Nash was a cricket enthusiast and played village cricket for the Selly Oak Cricket Club, Birmingham. His interest extended to statistics and he could recite the average scores of many famous cricketers of the day by memory. In his youth Nash was interested in Christian theology. He was an assiduous Anglican church service attendee all his life, but overall held very basic views of Christianity. Likewise he did not believe that Christianity was the only true religion or path and believed in religious tolerance. From the 1930s he was a patron and/or president of sixty-six clubs and societies. They included tennis, boating, cricket, cycling, boxing and basketball clubs as well as amateur actors, Boy Scouts, Red Cross and the Anglican Boys' Home Society. He met his wife, Lotty May Eaton, through a mutual friend in the Selly Oak Post Office where she was the head assistant. Lotty was less serious-minded than her husband, and had a natural exuberance which made her good company and an entertaining hostess. Their first child was a son, followed by a daughter who died shortly after birth. After moving to New Zealand two more sons were born. Nash was also a voracious reader and was rarely seen during his leisure time without a book in hand. He disliked swimming, unlike his wife, and he would read whenever he accompanied her while she was swimming. Nash did not smoke and consumed alcohol in moderation. There are several anecdotes about Nash getting orange juice laced with gin at receptions. When Nordmeyer and Nash were given glasses of orange juice, the teetotal Nordmeyer sipped his and said quietly "I seem to have Mr Nash's". On another social occasion future Prime Minister Robert Muldoon went to take a glass of orange juice, only to be told by the waitress "Oh no, Mr Muldoon, that's for Mr Nash. That's the one with gin in it." Keith Sinclair comments that while minister in Washington for 14 months: > [Nash] purchased an excellent cellar from a wealthy man. His cook, Margaret Moore, introduced him to 'old fashioneds' which, so he pretended, consisted of fruit juice. His taste for good food and drink expanded with opportunity – not that this had been lacking, for instance on his missions in the nineteen-thirties. It was generally supposed in New Zealand that Nash was a 'wowser', opposed to such human pleasures. This was so of Fraser, but quite untrue of Nash. He loved his food, and enjoyed good wine and liquor in moderation. A grandson, J. R. Nash, was elected a member of the Taupo Borough Council in 1971. Nash's great-grandson, Stuart Nash, was also a MP from 2008 to 2011 and again from 2014.
11,808,592	México en la Piel (album)	1,165,031,270	null	[ "2004 albums", "2005 video albums", "Albums produced by Luis Miguel", "Covers albums", "Grammy Award for Best Mexican/Mexican-American Album", "Latin Grammy Award for Best Ranchero/Mariachi Album", "Luis Miguel albums", "Ranchera albums", "Spanish-language albums", "Warner Music Latina albums" ]	México en la Piel (Mexico in the Flesh) is the sixteenth studio album by Mexican singer Luis Miguel. Released on 9 November 2004 by Warner Music Latina, it is Miguel's first mariachi album. The record contains thirteen mariachi covers, accompanied by the Vargas de Tecalitlán folk ensemble. Armando Manzanero was its musical director, and Miguel its producer. The album was recorded at Ocean Way Recording in Hollywood, California in July 2004. A special edition, México en la Piel: Edición Diamante, was released on 5 September 2005 with two additional songs and a DVD with five music videos. Four singles were released from the album: "El Viajero", "Que Seas Feliz", "Sabes una Cosa", and "Échame a Mí la Culpa". "Mi Ciudad" was released as a single from the special edition. The album received mixed reviews from music critics; some praised Miguel's delivery and Mariachi Vargas's music, and others found its arrangements too smooth. However, it received the Grammy Award for Best Mexican/Mexican-American Album and the Latin Grammy Award for Best Ranchero Album and reached number one in Argentina, Spain and on the Billboard Top Latin Albums chart in the United States. By 2006, the album had sold over two million copies. Miguel embarked on a two-year tour which grossed over \$90 million, the highest-grossing tour by a Latin artist. ## Background and recording Miguel released 33, a pop album with original material, in 2003. It received unfavorable reviews from music critics (who found the album too similar to his previous pop recordings), and was commercially unsuccessful. On 4 August 2004, Miguel announced that he would release an album of mariachi standards in November. As to why he chose to record an album of mariachi covers, he said: "I did it with the intention of rescuing, to revive them for young people, songs that can not be forgotten", calling it a tribute to his roots. México en la Piel was recorded at Hollywood's Ocean Way Recording in July 2004. Miguel collaborated with Vargas de Tecalitlán on the album and enlisted his longtime collaborator, Mexican singer-songwriter Armando Manzanero, to assist with its musical direction. Miguel produced the album himself. ## Promotion and singles "El Viajero", the album's first single, was released on 15 September 2004 to coincide with Mexican Independence Day. Its music video was filmed in Amatitán, Jalisco and was directed by Pedro Torres. The second single from the album, "Que Seas Feliz", was released on 26 September 2004. The single peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart and number nine on the Regional Mexican Songs chart. Its video, also filmed in Amatitán and directed by Torres, co-stars Mexican actress Yadhira Carrillo. "Que Seas Feliz" is the main theme for the Mexican telenovela, Apuesta por un amor (2004). "Sabes una Cosa" was released as the album's third single on 22 January 2005 and peaked at numbers eight and nine on the Hot Latin Songs and Regional Mexican Songs charts, respectively. The album's fourth single, "Échame a Mí la Culpa", reached number 18 on the Hot Latin Songs chart. "De Qué Manera Te Olvido" was released as a promo single in Spain. "Mi Ciudad" was released on 29 August 2005 as a single promoting the special edition of México en la Piel. To promote México en la Piel, Miguel began a tour on 13 September 2005 at the Save Mart Center in Fresno, California. The singer toured the United States, Mexico, South America and Spain. The tour ended on 23 September 2007 at the Hyundai Pavilion in San Bernardino, California. It grossed over \$90 million from 124 performances and over 1.4 million spectators, the highest-grossing tour by a Latin artist. The tour's set list consisted of mariachi songs from México en la Piel, boleros and uptempo tracks from Miguel's previous albums. He included songs from his holiday album, Navidades (2006), for the tour's fourth leg. ## Release México en la Piel was released on 9 November 2004 by Warner Music Latina. The album has twelve cover songs and a bonus track: "Sabes una Cosa". On 31 January 2005, Warner Music reissued the album with alternate back-cover artwork. Its back cover originally featured a sepia-tinted Mexican flag, but the Mexican government asked the record label to remove it due to Mexican law which prohibits altering the flag's colors. The back cover was changed to a photo of a charro on a horse. A special edition of the album, México en la Piel: Edición Diamante, was released on 5 September 2005. It had two new tracks ("Por un Amor" and "Mi Ciudad") and a DVD with five music videos of Miguel's mariachi songs. ## Critical reception and accolades AllMusic critic Alex Henderson gave México en la Piel four out of five stars, praising Miguel for recording a mariachi album. Henderson also praised Mariachi Vargas's involvement, and called the album "among [Miguel's] most essential releases." Billboard editor Leila Cobo also gave the album a positive review, saying that Miguel's vocal delivery is "infused with a gusto and genuine enthusiasm" and calling the tracks "stylized and radio-friendly." Laura Emerick of the Chicago Sun-Times gave it two out of four stars, writing that Miguel performs with his "trademark full-bore style" and Manzanero's arrangements were "strictly retro", with "glossy" orchestration. Los Angeles Times critic Augustin Gurza also gave the album two out of four stars, writing that the tracks were "dressed up by busy orchestral arrangements that replace country grittiness with urbane pretensions." According to Gurza, Mariachi Vargas couldn't "muster much mariachi spirit" and the record seemed "soulless." Mario Tarradell of The Dallas Morning News called it Miguel's "best disc in years", noting that the album "showcases the Mexican vocalist challenging himself with a batch of passionate songs". At the 6th Annual Latin Grammy Awards in 2005, México en la Piel was the Best Ranchero Album. At the 13th Annual Billboard Latin Music Awards that year, it was the Best Regional Mexican Album by a Male Solo Artist. The album was the Best Mexican/Mexican-Album at the 2006 Grammy Awards. ## Commercial performance In the United States, México en la Piel debuted atop the Billboard Top Latin Albums chart on the week of 27 November 2004 and spent five weeks at number one. The album ended 2005 as the seventh-bestselling Latin album in the country, and was certified quadruple platinum in the Latin field by the Recording Industry Association of America for shipping 400,000 copies. It peaked at number 37 on the Billboard 200 and topped the Regional Mexican Albums charts. In Mexico, the album topped the Top 100 Mexico chart and was 2005's third-bestselling record. It was certified triple platinum and diamond by the Asociación Mexicana de Productores de Fonogramas y Videogramas for shipping 800,000 copies. México en la Piel topped the Argentine album chart, and was certified double platinum by the Argentine Chamber of Phonograms and Videograms Producers for shipping 80,000 copies. It also reached number one in Spain, and was certified platinum for shipping 100,000 units. The album was certified platinum in Chile and Colombia, and double platinum in Venezuela. By 2011, México en la Piel had sold over two million copies. ## Track listing ## Personnel Adapted from the México en la Piel liner notes: ### Performance credits Mariachi Vargas de Tecalitlán - José "Pepe" Martínez – director, 1st violin - José Martínez Pérez – violin, copyist - Fernando Martínez Arreguín – violin - Steeven Sandoval – violin - Alberto Alfaro – violin - Gustavo Alvarado – trumpet - Federico Torres – trumpet - Enrique Santiago – guitarron - Víctor Cárdenas – vihuela - Juan Pedro Vargas – guitar - Julio Martínez – arpa - Xavier Serrano – trumpet - Juan Rodríguez – violin - Martin Alfaro – violin - Felipe Pérez – violin - Julio Hernández – violin Additional musicians - Robert L. Becker – viola - Darrin McCann – viola - Larry Corbett – cello - Daniel W. Smith – cello - Phillip Ayling – oboe, flute - Kim Hutchcroft – flute - Richard Todd – french horn - Brad Warnaar – french horn - Daniel Greco – marimba - Tommy Morgan – harmonica - Ramón Stagnaro – acoustic guitar - Luis Conte – percussion Chorus - Paulina Aguirre - Juan Del Castillo - Bambi (Natisse) Jones - Carlos Murguía - Daniel Navarro - Kenny O'Brien - Gisa Vatcky - Tata Vega ### Technical credits - Luis Miguel – producer - Alejandro Asensi – executive producer - Francisco Loyo – musical co-producer - Rafa Sardina – engineer, mixer - David Reitzas – mixer - Shari Sutcliffe – production coordination - Armando Manzanero – pre-production - Diego Manzanero – pre-production - Andrew McPherson – photography - Kerry Koontz – additional photography - Jeremy Woodhouse – additional photography - Jeri Heiden – graphic design - Glen Nakasako – graphic design - Joanne Jaworowski – graphic design - Salo Loyo – digital editing engineer - Michael Eleopoulos – recording assistant - Jeff Burns – recording assistant - Alan Mason – mixing assistant - Kevin Szymanski – mixing assistant - Nicholas Marshall – mixing assistant - Ron McMaster – mastering engineer - José "Pepe" Martínez – arrangements - Cutberto Pérez – arrangements ### Recording, mixing and mastering locations - Ocean Way Recording Studios, Hollywood, CA – recording - Record Plant Studios, Hollywood, CA – recording - Chalice Studios, Hollywood, CA – mixing - Capitol Mastering, Hollywood, CA – mastering ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Monthly charts ### Year-end charts ### Decade-end charts ## Certifications ## See also - 2004 in Latin music - List of number-one albums of 2004 (Spain) - List of number-one Billboard Top Latin Albums of 2004 - List of best-selling Latin albums - List of best-selling albums in Mexico
2,109,573	Ojos Así	1,164,761,256	1999 single by Shakira	[ "1998 songs", "1999 singles", "Arabic-language songs", "Latin Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal Album", "Shakira songs", "Songs written by Shakira", "Sony Discos singles", "Spanish-language songs" ]	"Ojos Así" is a song by Colombian singer Shakira from her fourth studio album, Dónde Están los Ladrones? (1998). Infused with nuances of Arabic pop, the lyrics tell of the singer traveling the world but not having seen eyes like her lover's. It was released as the album's fifth single in October 1999 by Sony Discos. It was written by Shakira, composed and produced by her, Pablo Flores, and Javier Garza. The song was later adapted into English by Gloria Estefan as "Eyes Like Yours" and included on her first English studio album Laundry Service (2001). Music critics praised "Ojos Así" as one of the album's best tracks. "Eyes Like Yours", however, was met with a less favorable reception, with reviewers commenting that it paled compared to the original. At the inaugural Latin Grammy Awards in 2000, "Ojos Así" won Best Female Pop Vocal Performance and received a Broadcast Music, Inc. (BMI) Latin Award in 2002. An accompanying music video that depicts Shakira performing the song in front of a crowd and belly dancing was nominated in the category of Latin Grammy Award for Best Short Form Music Video in 2000. The song was included in the set list for the Tour Anfibio (2000), Tour of the Mongoose (2002–03), and The Sun Comes Out World Tour (2010–11). Shakira also performed an acoustic version of the song for her first live album, MTV Unplugged (2000). It ranked on several charts in Europe and was a top-ten hit on the Billboard Latin Pop Airplay chart in the United States. ## Background and composition After rising to prominence with the success of her major-label debut album Pies Descalzos (1995), Shakira was introduced to Emilio Estefan, then the most important producer in the Hispanic market, by her promoter and longtime friend, Jairo Martínez. Estefan was renowned for launching the careers of several Hispanic singers, including Thalía and his wife Gloria Estefan. He decided to work with Shakira as he identified her potential to break into the US Latin market, though one of Shakira's concerns about working with him was creative control over her music. Before signing their contract, the roles and duties were finalized: Estefan would be her manager and executive producer, but she would be in charge of all material and arrangements and have final approval over her records. She later stated about Estefan, "He had a great respect for me as an artist and trusted me totally on this project." They started working on Estefan's Crescent Moon Studios in Miami, Florida. She insisted on perfection, working on the material to the point of exhaustion. "I made two or three demos of each song. I became a human being so demanding of myself that until the song made my hair stand on end, I wouldn't stop". Equipment for the recording of her subsequent album Dónde Están los Ladrones? included old amplifiers to achieve a better sound, a 40-year-old German microphone, and several innovations in the instrumental mixes. The album took nine months to produce, longer than Shakira's previous records since more people were involved. Shakira commented, "To me it's a normal time, the gestation period for a baby. But many people wag their finger and tell me that the next one cannot take so long..." Shakira was involved with the compositions for all the tracks in the album, including "Ojos Así". "Ojos Así" was written by Shakira and composed and produced by her along with Pablo Flores and Javier Garza. Infused with nuances of Arabic pop, the song characterizes Shakira as a globetrotter jaded by life's experiences whose soul is revitalized by the amorous gaze of her crush. The singer bemoans that, despite having traversed the distance from Beirut to Bahrain, she has yet to encounter "eyes like yours". The track is sung mostly in Spanish, a few verses in Arabic, and has a backing chorus performing in the latter language. The success of Dónde Están los Ladrones? prompted Gloria Estefan, to persuade Shakira to record the album in English and attempt to cross over into the mainstream pop industry. However, she was initially hesitant to record songs in English as it was not her first language, so Estefan offered to translate "Ojos Así" into English in order to show her that "it could translate well". Shakira then began translating the song herself and showed it to Gloria Estefan, and would say, "Quite honestly, I can't do this better!" As Shakira wanted to have full control over her recordings, she decided to learn English better to enable her to write her own songs. She was supposed to return to the studio to record an English-language version of the album in January 1999. It did not come to fruition, and a new album titled Laundry Service was released instead as her first crossover album. Despite the cancellation of the project, the English-language version of "Ojos Así" still appeared on Laundry Service as "Eyes Like Yours". ## Promotion "Ojos Así" was released to radio stations worldwide by Sony Discos as the album's fifth single in October 1999. It was later included on her greatest hits album Grandes Éxitos (2002). Its music video was directed by Mark Kohr and filmed in Los Angeles. The film depicts Shakira interspersed with her belly dancing and performing in front of a crowd. At the inaugural Latin Grammy Awards in 2000, it was nominated in the category of Latin Grammy Award for Best Short Form Music Video, which went to "No Me Dejes de Querer" by Gloria Estefan. The video won the International Viewer's Choice Award (North) at the 2000 MTV Video Music Awards, and was also nominated for the same award in the South category, losing to "La Vida" by Los Fabulosos Cadillacs. ### Live performances "Ojos Así" was included on the set list for the following tours: Tour Anfibio (2000), Tour of the Mongoose (2002–03), the Oral Fixation Tour (2006–07), and The Sun Comes Out World Tour (2010–11), In August 1999, Shakira sang an acoustic version of "Ojos Así" during an episode of MTV Unplugged in New York City. The performance was included on her first live album, MTV Unplugged (2000). She also performed "Ojos Así" at the 2000 Latin Grammy Awards. During a specific rendition of "Ojos Asi" in San Diego in 2003, Shakira commenced her concert with this song, eliciting exultation from the audience as she belly-danced in sync with the tune. She sang it during the Rock in Rio festivals in Portugal in 2006 and Spain in 2007. It was also performed at the 2010 Glastonbury Festival and the Super Bowl LIV halftime show in 2020. ## Reception AllMusic reviewer Alex Henderson compared Shakira to Alanis Morissette and stated, "it would be hard to imagine her coming up with something as poetic as the Middle Eastern fantasy that Shakira vividly describes on her Arabic-influenced mega-hit 'Ojos Así'". John Lannert of Billboard called "Ojos Así" the album's "most satisfying track". The Hispanic magazine editor Mark Holston felt that the song "evokes the singer's Middle Eastern roots on a performance that effectively blends World Beat rhythms with Shakira's earthy vocals". Writing for The Modesto Bee, Steve Morse elucidated how Shakira, through her song "Ojos Asi", did not forsake her Middle Eastern heritage, as evidenced by the presence of distinct Arab musical elements in the piece. The Los Angeles Times reviewer Ernesto Lechner called it "superb". Critics were less favorable towards the English version. While calling the translation an "admirable" attempt, the Democrat and Chronicle writer Ramiro Burr commented that it "doesn't have the fire and snap of the original". In a scathing review of the album, Arturo Garcia from The Wichita Eagle criticized it as "nothing less than a perversion of the original". Writing for the Knight Ridder, Elio Leturia felt that while the track is "[v]ibrant and highly romantic, it loses its richness of its Spanish counterpart". The Sacramento Bee reviewers Chris Macias and Bruce Dancis described the song as a "clunky trip to the nightclubs of Kashmir". At the inaugural Latin Grammy Awards in 2000, "Ojos Así" won Best Female Pop Vocal Performance. It won an award at the 2002 BMI Latin Awards. In 2022, it was listed as one of the 200 greatest dance songs of all time by Rolling Stone. Commercially, "Ojos Así" ranked in several European charts including Belgium (in both Flanders and Wallonia), France, the Netherlands, and Switzerland. In the United States, the track peaked at number 22 and 9 on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs and Latin Pop Airplay charts. ## Credits and personnel Credits are adapted from the liner notes of Dónde Están los Ladrones?. - Shakira – lead vocals, songwriter - Fadi Hardan – background vocals - Nicolas W. Farhoury – background vocals - Oussama Karaki – background vocals - Rita Quintero – background vocals - Tommy Anthony – background vocals - Javier Garza – songwriter, producer, mix engineer, music arranger - Pablo Flores – songwriter, producer, arranger - Gustavo Celis – engineer - Carlos Paucar – engineer - Alfred Figueroa – assistant engineer - Simon Ramone – assistant engineer - Steve Menezes – assistant engineer - Jorge Gonzalez – assistant engineer - Adam Zimmon – guitar - Joe Zeytoonian – percussion, oud - Michelle Massad – oud - Myriam Eli – percussion - Jack Stamates – violon - Fadi Jardan – accordion ## Track listings CD single 1. "Ojos Así" (album version) – 3:57 2. "Ojos Así" (Thunder Mix Radio Edit) – 3:52 3. "Ojos Así" (Thunder Mix) – 10:15 4. "Ojos Así" (Desert Mix) – 9:31 5. "Ojos Así" (Mirage Mix) – 5:34 Colombia Maxi-single 1. "Ojos Así" (Thunder Mix) – 10:15 2. "Ojos Así" (Thunder Mix Radio Edit) – 3:52 3. "Ojos Así" (Desert Dub) – 9:31 4. "Ojos Así" (Mirage Mix) – 5:34 ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications
46,839,122	Typhoon Mary (1960)	1,173,120,154	Pacific typhoon in 1960	[ "1960 Pacific typhoon season", "Typhoons", "Typhoons in Hong Kong", "Typhoons in Japan" ]	Typhoon Mary, also nicknamed "Bloody Mary" by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC), was an extremely damaging storm that was part of the 1960 Pacific typhoon season. It began as a circulation in a trough in the South China Sea. A tropical depression formed on June 2, as it was traveling clockwise. It became a tropical storm on the next day, and received the name Mary. It slowly moved across the sea, strengthening to a typhoon. Mary made landfall in Hong Kong on June 8, and moved through Guangdong and Fujian. It reemerged back to the Pacific Ocean, and restrengthened into a typhoon temporarily. It then traveled east, weakening and becoming extratropical on June 12. Mary caused a significant amount of damage in Hong Kong and China. It was considered the worst storm to hit Hong Kong since the typhoon in 1937. The storm destroyed weak shacks made by refugees from the mainland, leaving thousands homeless. There were multiple landslides, and most of the infrastructure were damaged. More than 400 small watercraft were either damaged or destroyed. In China, dikes and dams were damaged severely, multiple public buildings collapsed, and destroyed large swaths of farmland. Significant wind and rain was also reported in Taiwan. More than 1,600 people died during the storm. ## Meteorological history In early June, a trough extended from Taiwan to the South China Sea, and a small circulation was found at the southwestern part of it. The Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) designated the system as a tropical depression on June 2, with a pressure reading of 1,000 hectopascals (30 inHg). JTWC reported it had winds of 55 km/h (35 mph) during that time. On the next day at 1200 UTC, JTWC began tracking the storm as a tropical depression. The system was upgraded to a tropical storm at 1800 UTC, with winds of 65 km/h (40 mph), and was given the name Mary by the warning center. By 1800 UTC of June 4, Mary slowly began turning northward near the Paracel Islands, and had intensified slightly to 75 km/h (45 mph). On June 5, JMA recorded Mary's lowest pressure reading at 980 hPa (29 inHg). Two days later, the storm had intensified to 110 km/h (70 mph), and was traveling faster towards Hong Kong. On June 7, at 0600 UTC, Mary quickly strengthened to a typhoon, with winds up to 130 km/h (80 mph). Mary peaked at 0600 UTC on June 8, just offshore of Hong Kong, with winds of 150 km/h (90 mph), and JTWC estimated the pressure was 975 hPa (28.8 inHg). Twelve hours later, the storm made landfall on Hong Kong northwest of Kowloon. Inland, the typhoon slowly weakened to 90 km/h (55 mph) by June 10, back to a tropical storm. The system gained speed as it traveled through Guangdong and Fujian provinces. Mary soon reemerged back to the ocean later than day, began restrengthening, and was found to have 110 km/h (70 mph) winds, recorded by the U.S. Navy. The storm briefly became a typhoon at 1800 UTC, and reconnaissance aircraft recorded winds just above typhoon strength, although the circulation did not have eyewalls. It was downgraded to a tropical storm on June 11 at 1200 UTC. Another reconnaissance aircraft flew into Mary again at 2330 UTC, reporting that there was no eyewall in the storm and recorded winds up to 65 km/h (40 mph). Mary continued to weaken until June 12, when JTWC and JMA declared the storm had become extratropical southeast of Tokyo. JMA continued to track the extratropical cyclone until it reached the International Date Line on June 18. ## Preparations, impact and aftermath Before Mary made landfall, 80 freighters and liners arrived in Hong Kong to ride out the storm. In Okinawa, military personnel were evacuated to safe areas, and planes were all protected. Meanwhile, a joint military exercise by the South Korean and American Marines were delayed by one day due to the storm. ### Hong Kong Typhoon Mary was considered the worst storm to hit Hong Kong in 23 years. The typhoon arrived at the colony on June 8, dropping 35.9 centimetres (14.12 in) of rain in 24 hours. Average gusts were reported at 119 kilometres per hour (64 kn) on Waglan Island, with 194 kilometres per hour (105 kn) at times. At the Royal Observatory, the storm dropped 42.7 cm (16.83 in) of rain. The mean winds blew southwesterly at 87 km/h (47 kn), exposing many small boats and villages. The No. 10 warning signal was issued by the Royal Observatory. However, according to the report written by the Observatory, the use of No. 10 warning signal was not strictly justified according to international procedures, since sustained surface winds of 119 km/h (64 kn) were not observed. Across the colony, damage to roads, buildings, and communication were significant. Landslides, and other fallen debris blocked roads, and weak refugee shacks in the hills, made out of tin and tar paper, quickly collapsed. All stores and public transportation were shut down inside the city. The Customs reported that more than 50 fishing vessels capsized and sank in the anchorages during the typhoon. Two ocean freighters, the Malaya Fir and the Wan Fu, ran aground onto the Kai Tak Airstrip. Although the floods have caused extreme damage, it helped with the local shortage of water, with reservoirs gaining eleven million kilolitres (3,000,000,000 US gal) of water. After the storm, 18,000 refugees from Mainland China became homeless. The official count was 45 casualties, 11 missing, and 127 injured, with most casualties coming from refugees. Overall, 462 small watercraft were damaged or destroyed. ### Elsewhere In Mainland China, the typhoon brought heavy rain and wind into the provinces of Guangdong and Fujian. Dikes and dams were severely damaged by the storm, leading to severe flooding. Thousands of people were trying to reinforce these as the floodwaters continued to rise. Manpower was also used to gather ripened crops before the storm destroyed them. More than 4,800 buildings were damaged, and over 540,000 hectares (1,330,000 acres) of land was affected by the storm. The total number of casualties was reportedly 1,600; and 180,000 cattle were reported killed. Macau received a similar amount of rain as Hong Kong, which caused local flooding. The winds uprooted trees, blocking local streets. About 260 kilometres (160 mi) southeast of Hong Kong, the cargo ship Sheng Lee sank during the typhoon. Fifty-four survivors were rescued and safely transported to the British colony by the Royal Navy frigate HMS Torquay, with help from Dutch ships, and the Republic of China Navy and Air Force. Off the coast of Mainland China, in the Matsu Islands, many fishing boats were damaged by the heavy seas and the torrential rainfall. Three people were injured in the islands. In Taiwan, downtown Taipei received significant flooding, and some rice crops on the south part of the island were damaged. Although there were no reported deaths on the island, four fisherman offshore died. The nearby Okinawa Islands received winds around 105 kilometres per hour (65 mph).
1,946,322	Katipō	1,157,203,613	Species of arachnid native to New Zealand	[ "Endemic fauna of New Zealand", "Endemic spiders of New Zealand", "Latrodectus" ]	The katipō (Latrodectus katipo) is an endangered species of spider native to New Zealand. It is one of many species in the genus Latrodectus, such as the Australian redback (L. hasseltii), and the North American black widow. The species is venomous to humans, capable of delivering a potentially dangerous bite. It is a small to medium-sized spider, with the female having a round black or brown pea-sized body. Red katipō females found in the South Island and the lower half of the North Island, are always black, and their abdomen has a distinctive red stripe bordered in white. In black katipō females found in the upper half of the North Island, this stripe is absent, pale, yellow, or replaced with cream-coloured blotches. These two forms were previously thought to be separate species. The male is much smaller than the female and quite different in appearance: white with black stripes and red diamond-shaped markings. Katipō are mainly found living in sand dunes close to the seashore. They are found throughout most of coastal New Zealand except the far south and west. Katipō feed mainly on ground dwelling insects, caught in an irregular tangled web spun amongst dune plants or other debris. After mating in August or September, the female katipō produces five or six egg sacs in November or December. The spiderlings hatch during January and February and disperse into surrounding plants. Due to habitat loss and colonisation of their natural habitat by other exotic spiders, the katipō is threatened with extinction. A katipō bite produces the toxic syndrome latrodectism; symptoms include extreme pain and, potentially, hypertension, seizure, or coma. Bites are rare, an antivenom is available, and no deaths have been reported since 1901. The katipō is particularly notable in New Zealand as the nation is almost entirely devoid of dangerous native wildlife; this unique status means the spider is well known, despite being rarely seen. ## Taxonomy Although the 'kātĕpo' was reported to the Linnean Society as early as 1855, the spider was formally described as Latrodectus katipo by L. Powell in 1870. Spiders of the genus Latrodectus have a worldwide distribution and include all of the commonly known widow spiders: the North American black widow spider (Latrodectus mactans), the brown widow (Latrodectus geometricus), and the European black widow (Latrodectus tredecimguttatus). The katipō's closest relative is the Australian redback spider (Latrodectus hasseltii). Latrodectus katipo and L. atritus (black katipō) were previously thought to be two separate species, but research has shown that they are a single species, L. katipo, with colour variation that is clinal over latitude and correlated with mean annual temperature. The katipō is so closely related to the redback that it was at one stage thought to be a subspecies, with the proposed name Latrodectus hasseltii katipo. Further research has shown that the katipō is distinct from the redback, having slight structural differences and striking differences in habitat preference, and it remains a distinct species. The katipō's family Theridiidae has a large number of species both in New Zealand and worldwide. They are commonly known as tangle-web spiders, cobweb spiders or comb-footed spiders. The common name katipō (singular and plural), often spelled "katipo", is from the Māori for "night stinger", derived from the words kakati (to sting) and pō (the night). This name was apparently given to the species owing to the Māori belief that the spiders bite at night. Other common names include red katipō, black katipō and New Zealand's redback. ## Description The katipō is a small to medium-sized spider. The mature female has a body size of about 8 millimetres (0.31 in) with a leg span of up to 32 millimetres (1.3 in). The red katipō female, found in the South Island and the lower North Island, has a large black globular abdomen, about the size of a garden pea, with slender legs and a white-bordered orange or red stripe on its back that runs from the uppermost surface of the abdomen back to the spinnerets. The dark velvet-black abdomen is described as satin or silky in appearance, rather than being shiny. The underside of the abdomen is black and has a red patch or partial red hourglass-shaped marking. It has mainly black legs with the extremities changing to brown. The black katipō female, found in the upper North Island, does not have a red stripe on the top of its body, and the abdominal colouration is usually lighter, but is otherwise very similar in appearance to the red katipō. The hourglass pattern on the underside of the abdomen may also be less distinct, losing the middle section, and may even be absent. Variations also exist where the abdomen, cephalothorax, or entire body is brown, sometimes with a dull red or yellow stripe, or cream-coloured spots on its upper side. These different forms were at one point thought to be different species, but a 2008 study demonstrated they were different morphs of the same species. Adult males and juveniles are quite different in appearance to the female. They are smaller in size, being about one sixth the size of an adult female. Juveniles have a brown carapace, with a predominantly white abdomen which has a series of red-orange diamonds running along the dorsal region bordered on either side by irregular black lines. Males retain this colouration into adulthood. Due to its much smaller size, Urquhart (1886) believed the male to be a separate species and named it Theridion melanozantha. This was not rectified until 1933 when it was correctly identified as the male Latrodectus katipo. ## Habitat The katipō is restricted to a highly specialised habitat and is only found near the seashore among sand dunes. They generally reside on the landward side of dunes closest to the coast where they are most sheltered from storms and sand movement. They can sometimes be associated with dunes several kilometres from the sea when these dunes extend inland for long distances. Webs are typically established in low-growing dune plants and other vegetation such as the native pīngao (Ficinia spiralis) or the introduced marram grass (Ammophila arenaria). They may also build their webs under driftwood, stones, or other debris such as empty tin cans or bottles. Webs are almost always constructed over open sand and near the ground so as to catch crawling insects for food. Spiders inhabiting dune grasses construct their webs in open spaces between the grass tufts, while spiders inhabiting areas of shrubbery do so on the underside of a plant overhanging open sand. It has been found that these patches of open sand are necessary for katipō to build their webs as plants that envelop sand dunes in dense cover, such as exotic plants like kikuyu or buffalo grass, create an environment unsuitable for web construction. The katipō therefore prefers to spin its web amongst pīngao plants as this plant's growth pattern leaves patches of sand between each plant. The wind can then blow insects and other prey through these gaps and into the web. Marram grass has been extensively planted in New Zealand to help stabilise sand dunes and has largely replaced pīngao in many areas. Because marram grass grows in a very tight formation only leaving small gaps between tuffs, this makes it difficult for the katipō to construct a suitable web for capturing prey. Like other theridiid spiders, the web is a disorganised, irregular tangle of fine textured silk. It is hammock-shaped and is made up of opaque yellowish-white silk. The web consists of a broad base with many supporting threads above and below, including a number of sticky guy lines anchored to debris in the sand. A cone-shaped retreat is built in the lower part of the web, although the katipō can normally be found near the main body of the web. The plants it builds its web in provide support and shelter for the nest. ## Range The katipō is endemic to New Zealand. In the North Island it is found along the West Coast from Wellington to North Cape. On the east coast of the North Island it occurs irregularly, however, it is abundant on Great Barrier Island. In the South Island it is found in coastal regions south to Dunedin on the east coast and south to Greymouth on the west coast. This southern limit is due to the katipō needing temperatures higher than about 17 °C (63 °F) to be maintained during the development of their eggs – in the southern areas of New Zealand it is typically colder than this. The red katipō is found south of approximately 39°15′ S (the western tip of Taranaki on the west coast, and just north of Waipatiki Beach in Hawke's Bay on the east coast). The black katipō is found north of approximately 38° S (Aotea Harbour, just north of Kawhia on the west coast, and Waipiro Bay and just south of the Bay of Plenty on the east coast). Both forms are found in the area in between these latitudes. ## Behaviour ### Diet The katipō typically catches wandering ground invertebrates such as beetles (e.g. Cecyropa modesta) or amphipods (e.g. Bellorchestia quoyana), but it may occasionally catch moths, flies, and other spiders. Katipō can catch insects much larger than themselves. These larger insects often become entangled in the web and in the ensuing struggle, the web's ground anchor line breaks. The silk's elasticity causes the prey to become suspended a few centimetres off the ground. The katipō then moves to the prey, turns so that the spinnerets are facing the insect and spins silk over it. Like most theridiids, the tarsi of the hind legs have a row of strong curved bristles which are arranged as a comb. The katipō uses these to scoop sticky silk from its spinnerets and throws it over the insect with a series of rapid movements. After the insect is firmly immobilised, the spider bites it several times, usually at the joints, before spinning more silk to strengthen the web, and then administering a last long bite which ultimately kills the insect. The spider then moves the prey up into the web until it is ready to eat. If food is readily available then it is common to see five or six insects hanging in the web waiting to be ingested. The male's hunting behaviour is similar to the female's, although may not be as vigourous due to its smaller size. ### Reproduction The male wanders as an adult and in August or September goes looking for the females' webs to mate. The male will enter the female's web and vibrate the silk as he approaches her. The female is usually aggressive at first and will chase the male from the web. The courtship process consists of the male bobbing, plucking and tweaking the web along with periods of cautious approach and being chased by the female. Eventually, when she becomes docile and allows him to approach, the male will then approach the female as she hangs quietly upside down in the web. The male moves onto her ventral abdomen, tapping her rapidly until she moves to align his abdomen above hers. He then inserts his palps one at a time, leaving the female between each insertion. Copulation occurs over 10 to 30 minutes. After mating, the male retreats to groom, which is performed by running his palps and legs through his fangs and wiping them over his body. The male is not eaten by the female unlike some other widow spiders. The females lay their eggs in November or December. The eggs are round, about the size of a mustard seed, and are a transparent, purplish red. They are held together in a cream-coloured, round, ball shaped egg sac which is about 12 millimetres (0.47 in) in diameter. The female constructs five or six egg sacs over the next three to four weeks. Each egg sac contains about 70 to 90 fertilised eggs. The egg sacs are hung in the centre of the spider's web and the female spins more silk over them. Over time, the exterior of the egg sac may become covered with sand. After six weeks of incubation, during January and February, the spiderlings hatch. The young spiders then disperse from the web. Little is known about the dispersal mechanism that the spiderlings use to move away from the nest. In one study, observing spiders over 24 hours, 28% used a ballooning method, which is where the young spiders use air currents to carry themselves away from the nest suspended by a single web strand, while the majority, 61%, used a bridging method where the spiderling uses its silk to move to nearby plants, and 11% still remained in the nest. The young spiderlings reach full maturity the following spring. The close relationship between the katipō and redback is shown when mating. A male redback is able to successfully mate with a female katipō producing hybrid offspring. However, a male katipō cannot mate with the female redback as the male katipō is heavier than the male redback, and when it approaches the web it triggers a predatory response in the female leading to the male being eaten before mating occurs. There is evidence of interbreeding between katipō and redbacks in the wild. ## Predators The katipō has only one known direct predator: a small, undescribed native wasp from the family Ichneumonidae has been observed feeding on katipō eggs. ## Population decline The katipō is an endangered species and has recently become threatened with extinction. It is estimated that there are only a few thousand katipō left in about 50 areas in the North Island and eight areas in the South Island, making it rarer than some species of kiwi. A number of factors have contributed to its decline; the major ones appear to be loss of habitat and the declining quality of the remaining habitat. Human interference with their natural habitat has been occurring for over a century following European settlement. Coastal dune modification resulting from agriculture, forestry, or urban development, along with recreational activities like the use of beach buggies, off-road vehicles, beach horse riding and driftwood collection have destroyed or changed areas where katipō lives. The introduction of many invasive exotic plants has also contributed to the decline of suitable habitat. Foreign spiders have colonised areas where suitable habitat remains. The major coloniser is the South African spider Steatoda capensis. It was first reported in the 1990s and may have displaced the katipō along the west coast of the North Island from Wellington to Whanganui, although both the katipō and S. capensis have been found sharing the same dune systems or even co-existing under the same piece of driftwood, suggesting that the two species can co-exist in similar habitats. It is possible that the displacement of the katipō by S. capensis is due to its ability to recolonise areas from which the katipō had been displaced after storms or other dune modifications. Furthermore, S. capensis breeds year-round, produces more offspring and lives in a greater range of habitats which leads to greater pressure on the katipō. S. capensis also belongs to the family Theridiidae and shares many of the katipō's features. It is of similar size, shape, general colouration, but it lacks the red stripe on its back, and may have some red, orange or yellow on its abdomen. Due to these similarities it is commonly known in New Zealand as the "false katipō". In 2010 the katipō was one of a dozen species of previously unprotected invertebrate given full protection under the 1953 Wildlife Act, noted as "iconic, vulnerable to harm, and in serious decline". Under the Act, killing an absolutely-protected species such as a katipō is punishable by a fine or even imprisonment. ## Toxicology The katipō has venom that is medically significant in humans, although bites are rare. The incidence of bites is low as it is a shy, non-aggressive spider. Their narrow range, diminishing population, and human awareness of where they live means humans rarely encounter katipō. The katipō will only bite as a last resort; if molested, the spider will usually fold up into a ball and drop to the ground or retreat to the nearest cover. If the threat continues, the spider may throw out silk against the interference. When restrained in any way or held against skin, such as if tangled up in clothing, the spider will then bite defensively. However, if the female is with an egg sac it will remain close by it and sometimes move offensively to bite any threat. Bites from katipō spiders produce a syndrome known as latrodectism. The venoms of all Latrodectus spiders are thought to contain similar components with the neurotoxin α-latrotoxin being the main agent responsible. Most bites are caused by female spiders; the male katipō was considered too small to cause systemic envenoming in humans. However, bites from male redback spiders have been reported, suggesting male Latrodectus spiders can cause envenoming in humans. Bites by male spiders are much rarer than those by females, perhaps due to their smaller jaws rather than lacking venom of similar potency to females or being unable to administer an effective bite. Māori legends recall many deaths, the last of which appears to have been a Māori girl who – according to the missionary Thomas Chapman – died in approximately 1849. While there were reports of severe katipō bites in 19th or early 20th century records, no other fatalities from spider bites have since been reported in New Zealand. The most recent fatality seems to have been in 1901, as reported in the Evening Post on 25 September of that year: "AUCKLAND, This Day. Mr. George Twidle, aged 47, son of Mr. George Twidle of Pukekohe, was bitten by a katipo spider on 16 September. His arm swelled, and he suffered great pain till Saturday last, when he died. He leaves a widow and several children." The most recent reported katipō bites (as of 2016) were to a Canadian tourist in 2010 and a kayaker in 2012. ### Symptoms The clinical features of latrodectism are similar for all species of Latrodectus spiders. It is generally characterised by extreme pain. Initially, the bite may be painful, but sometimes only feels like a pin prick or mild burning sensation. Within an hour victims generally develop more severe local pain with local sweating and sometimes piloerection (goosebumps). Pain, swelling and redness spread proximally from the site. Less commonly, systemic envenoming is heralded by swollen or tender regional lymph nodes; associated features include malaise, nausea, vomiting, abdominal or chest pain, generalised sweating, headache, fever, hypertension and tremor. Rare complications include seizure, coma, pulmonary edema, respiratory failure or localised skin infection. The duration of effects can range from a few hours to days, with severe pain persisting for over 24 hours after being bitten in some cases. ### Treatment Treatment is based on the severity of the bite; the majority of cases do not require medical care, and patients with localised pain, swelling and redness usually only require local application of ice and routine analgesics. Hospital assessment is recommended if simple analgesia does not resolve local pain or clinical features of systemic envenoming occur. In more severe bites, redback antivenom can be given. Redback antivenom can also cross-neutralise katipō venom, and it is used to treat envenoming from Latrodectus katipo in New Zealand. It is available from most major New Zealand hospitals. Antivenom will usually relieve the symptoms of systemic envenoming and is indicated in anyone suffering symptoms consistent with Latrodectus envenoming. Unlike some other antivenoms, it is not limited to patients with signs of severe, systemic envenoming. Particular indications for using antivenom are local then generalised pain, sweating or hypertension. However, good evidence to support the effectiveness of widow spider antivenoms is lacking and studies have cast some doubt on the efficacy of antivenoms in latrodectism. Pain relief agents, such as parenteral opiates, or benzodiazepines may be required as adjunct agents.
22,485,050	¿Qué Creías?	1,159,884,978	1992 single by Selena	[ "1990s ballads", "1992 singles", "Boleros", "Ranchera songs", "Selena songs", "Song recordings produced by A. B. Quintanilla", "Songs with feminist themes", "Songs written by A. B. Quintanilla", "Songs written by Pete Astudillo", "Spanish-language songs", "Torch songs" ]	"¿Qué Creías?" ("What Did You Think?") is a song by American singer Selena, taken from her third studio album, Entre a Mi Mundo (1992). It was written by Pete Astudillo and A. B. Quintanilla; the composition was a result of a challenge issued by A. B. to Astudillo to create a song before they arrived in Las Vegas from California. Astudillo drew inspiration from the works of Mexican singer Juan Gabriel, culminating in a mariachi ballad. Selena, in describing the song, avers that it embodies women on a collective scale. It is the singer's torch song and the lyrics elucidate Selena's inflexible stance on refusing to absolve an unfaithful partner. She directly addresses her former lover who had taken her for granted, informing him of her capability to exist without him. Critics acclaimed Selena's emotional vocal range and her poetic expression with a distinctly feminine cadence. "¿Qué Creías?" peaked at number 14 on the US Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart, and has since been certified gold (Latin) by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). During Selena's live performances of the song, she frequently selected a male volunteer to portray her former lover on stage, allowing her to express her indignation as the wronged partner. This was dramatized by Christian Serratos in the Netflix two-part limited drama Selena: The Series (2020). Alicia Villareal performed the song during the benefit concert Selena ¡VIVE! (2005). ## Background and production In a moment of creative spontaneity, Pete Astudillo, the backup vocalist, and A. B. Quintanilla, Selena's brother and producer, wrote "¿Qué Creías?" in the backseat of a car. Oftentimes, their tour bus broke down, rendering the crew to travel long distances in three vehicles. The songwriting process, sparked by A. B.'s challenge to Astudillo, occurred during one such journey from California to Las Vegas, a frequent stop by the group's manager Abraham Quintanilla whenever traveling back from California. Astudillo's source of inspiration was the Mexican singer Juan Gabriel, and he crafted a ballad intended to showcase Selena's vocal prowess expressing his desire to create a song that the singer could "really sink her teeth into and really let it roar". Upon arrival in Las Vegas, Astudillo had written two verses. Selena recorded the song quickly, according to the recollections of the group's guitarist, Chris Perez. ## Music and lyrics Musically, "¿Qué Creías?" is a mariachi ballad and a torch song. It draws influences from historical boleros of northern Mexico, conjunto (small band) styles, ranchera, and Andalusian copla which showcases the historical and cultural connections to Spain. The song is a Latino-version of the blues, according to biographer Veda Boyd Jones. "¿Qué Creías?" includes seven major chords and a stretched instrumentation in its song structure. Tejano singer David Lee Garza lent his "soulful" accordion-style on the track. Lyrically, Selena portrays herself as a wronged woman, fiercely confronting her lover and reminding female listeners of how men often take them for granted. At the beginning of the song, Selena insists that her former lover leaves and clarifies that he would be mistaken if he believes that she would forgive him for his wrongdoing, as she can live without him. According to Selena's biographer Joe Nick Patoski, Selena "scorches" her former lover who took her for granted. Selena's "lack of restraint" emotive vocal range and lyrics echo the "gritty passion" of Lucha Villa, showcasing her as a "dramatic ballad singer". ## Reception Elsa Nidia Barrett of the Tucson Citizen was moved by the lyrics of "¿Qué Creías?" and specifically praised Selena's ability to confront a cheating partner "with such aplomb". Similarly, Richard Torres of Newsday commended Selena's emotive delivery in songs like "¿Qué Creías?" and "Tú, Sólo Tú" (1995), which he believed was key to their success as hit singles. He praised the "extra throb in [Selena's] throat" as "truly heartrending". Musicologist and author John Storm Roberts felt that "¿Qué Creías?" lacked the "thousand octane and ten-Kleenex passion of a Lola Beltrán". However, he acknowledged the song's strong emotionalism and Mexican "pop-ranchera" style. Roberts emphasized that his criticism did not diminish Selena's talent and star quality. Elijah Wald of The New York Times regarded "¿Qué Creías?" as evidence that Selena was able to dig deep and express herself in a personal way. Wald found her delivery of the song to be akin to that of a "ferocious passion of a classic Mexican diva". "¿Qué Creías?" is a "kiss-off anthem", that Selena said speaks "for all the ladies". Patoski described the track as "all sass and fire", and noted its departure from Selena's usual cumbia style. In his review for the Lakeland Ledger, Steve Webb observed that the song showcased Selena's ambition to expand her musical range. In a music report for New York, "¿Qué Creías?" was the fourth most-played song in the state. It received extensive airplay in various locations, including Austin and Houston. It was the eighth most-played song on Tejano radio stations in Texas. The song was especially popular among fans in Mexico. "¿Qué Creías?" entered at number 38 on the US Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart on the week ending November 28, 1992. It peaked at number 14 on the issue dated February 6, 1993. "¿Qué Creías?" debuted and peaked at number 10 on the US Billboard Latin Digital Song Sales chart on the tracking week of December 16, 2020. The song was certified gold (Latin) in 2017 by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), which denotes 30,000 units consisted of sales and on-demand streaming in the United States. ## Promotion and media appearances During the aftershow of the 1993 Tejano Music Awards in March, Selena discussed preparations for filming a music video for "¿Qué Creías?" in Nuevo Leon. In September 1992, EMI Latin organized a press conference in Monterrey, Mexico, in a bid to capitalize on the growing popularity of "¿Qué Creías?" and Entre a Mi Mundo, which marked Selena's first album to appeal to Mexican audiences. During live performances of "¿Qué Creías?", Selena often sought out a male volunteer from the audience to portray her ex-boyfriend and rebuke him as she depicted the role of a wronged woman. Gus Garcia of the Del Rio News-Herald praised A. B.'s songwriting, which deals with real-life situations, and Selena's ability to communicate the message of "¿Qué Creías?" through her performances. Tejano music columnist for the Corpus Christi Caller-Times, writer Rene Cabrera reported that during a 1993 concert at the Houston Astrodome, fans of the singer cheered loudly when she performed the song; which drew a record-breaking audience of 57,894. Wald described Selena's performances of the song as a "tribute to tradition while comically asserting her independence from it". One of Selena's 1994 performances of "¿Qué Creías?" on the Johnny Canales Show during which Canales played her ex-lover, was later included in the host's DVD compilation of "favorite songs". In 2005, Alicia Villarreal performed the song at the Selena ¡VIVE! benefit concert. In 2020, Christian Serratos portrayed Selena in the Netflix two-part limited drama Selena: The Series. Serratos cited the concert scene of "¿Qué Creías?" as her favorite part because of Selena's unique ability to make her concertgoers feel as if "they were all hanging out together as friends". In preparation, Serratos re-watched Selena's performances of the song, and described one in particular as "just so badass" because of Selena's unbridled confidence. ## Credits and personnel Credits are adapted from the liner notes of Entre a Mi Mundo. - Selena – vocals - A.B. Quintanilla – producer, songwriter, programming, arranger, mixing - Pete Astudillo – songwriter - Brian "Red" Moore – engineer, mix engineer - Ricky Vela – keyboards - Joe Ojeda – keyboards - David Lee Garza – accordion ## Charts and certification ### Weekly charts ### Certification
63,154,248	Christopher Walking	1,165,679,047	2020 song by Pop Smoke	[ "2020 songs", "Pop Smoke songs" ]	"Christopher Walking" is a song by American rapper Pop Smoke from his second mixtape, Meet the Woo 2 (2020). The song was written by Pop Smoke, alongside Derrick Gray, Dylan Cleary Krell, and producers CashMoneyAP & WondaGurl. The song was released as the lead single from the mixtape on January 16, 2020, by Victor Victor Worldwide and Republic Records. It is a drill track that sees Pop Smoke comparing himself to Frank White, a character played by the song's namesake Christopher Walken, from the 1990 American crime thriller film King of New York. The song interpolates the lyrics of 50 Cent's single "Window Shopper". "Christopher Walking" received generally positive reviews from music critics, with several of them praising its lyrics. An accompanying music video was released the same day as the single release, which was directed by Brennan Rowe. The video features Pop Smoke driving around Brooklyn in a BMW M850i meeting fans. Interpolated is footage of historical Black American figures and other revolutionaries, including ## Background and composition Taking to Instagram, Pop Smoke teased a preview of the song a few days before its January 16, 2020 release. Fans started to notice that Pop Smoke was criticizing fellow Brooklyn rappers Casanova and Smoove L in the song's preview, mentioning the former as "Trashanova" and the latter as "Scary L". The song was written by Pop Smoke, known as Bashar Jackson, alongside Alex Petit, Ebony Oshunrinde, Derrick Gray, and Dylan Cleary Krell. The first two of the four, who have the stage names of CashMoneyAP and WondaGurl, handled the song's production, while the former was credited as the song's programmer. Corey Nutile handled the song's recording, while Jess Jackson mixed it. Sage Skofield was credited as an assistant mixing engineer. "Christopher Walking" was released on January 16, 2020, by Victor Victor Worldwide and Republic Records as the lead single from Meet the Woo 2. Musically, "Christopher Walking" is a drill track. The song sees Pop Smoke comparing himself to Frank White, a character played by Christopher Walken in the 1990 American neo-noir crime thriller film King of New York. It prominently interpolates the lyrics of 50 Cent's 2005 hit single "Window Shopper". Pop Smoke raps about taking shots at his enemies throughout the streets, and mentions his love for Dior and bust-downed jewelry. Reed Jackson of Pitchfork magazine stated that Pop Smoke raps about threatening to fight with someone, declaring he wants to "tie that boy up like a cowboy". Pop Smoke raps: "We gon' tie that boy up like a cowboy/I'm the one that they envy like Calboy/Broke bitches ain’t allowed/She wanna fuck with a real one, but real niggas back in style/I ain't no window shopper, your man out here window shoppin'/I be in all the stores, and no, we ain't window shoppin'." ## Critical reception "Christopher Walking" has been met with mainly positive reviews from music critics. Bianca Gracie of Paper magazine called the song a "head-rushing hit". Erin Lowers, writing for Exclaim!, described the track as "fresh", and said it is "the power of short and sweet". The staff of HipHopDX praised the song as a "danceable Brooklyn drill rap anthem". Courtney Wynter of GRM Daily stated that the song is a "forceful Cashmoney AP-produced beat with his distinct low tones and boastful lyrics". Torsten Ingvaldsen of Hypebeast labeled the song as "characteristic". Gary Suarez of Entertainment Weekly cited it as one of the highlight tracks off Meet the Woo 2. Writing for Stereogum, Tom Breihan opined that "Christopher Walking" has the same "eerie singsong charisma" as "Window Shopper", mentioning that it possesses the "ability to be sweet but threatening at the same time". He continued, saying the rapper has a "sound as thick and dark and absorbing as his voice", which sounds "casual and conversational, cool and uncaring. But he also sounds like a horseman of the apocalypse." Breihan concluded by saying it is a "strong combination". "Christopher Walking" was praised by Complex's Andre Gee, who described it as "urgent", "cocky", and so "charismatic that certain lines stayed in our head all year". He concluded by saying: "The sheer force of Pop [Smoke's] vocal presence is impossible to deny, though." BrooklynVegan's Andrew Sacher wrote when Pop Smoke declared himself "the king of New York", he "already sounded believable". Thomas Hobb of The Independent lauded the track as exhilarating, and opined it "bottled the energy of free-falling between two skyscrapers, cape flapping behind, as the street-smart MC convincingly framed himself as a black superhero". ### Year-end lists ## Music video A music video for "Christopher Walking" was released the same day as the song. The video was directed by Brennan Rowe. It features Pop Smoke driving around New York (mainly Brooklyn) in a BMW M850i, showing his sense of style and attire as he meets fans while passing by them. The video later shows intertwined archive footage of Malcolm X (including footage of X's speech "By Any Means Necessary"), Black Panther protests, the Rodney King riots, other historical Black American figures such as Huey P. Newton and Fred Hampton, and other revolutionaries including Joseph Stalin. Writing for The Fader, David Renshaw described the visual as "glossy". Wynter opined that the "visuals for 'Christopher Walking' capture the song's jumpy vibe". Ryan Shepard of Def Pen stated that it was "definitely a major step up as [Pop Smoke] continue[d] to rise from New York to international success". ## Credits and personnel Credits adapted from Tidal. - Bashar Jackson – vocals, songwriter - Alex Petit – producer, programming, songwriter - Ebony Oshunrinde – producer, songwriter - Dylan Cleary Krell – songwriter - Derrick Gray – songwriter - Corey Nutile – recording engineer - Jess Jackson – mixing engineer - Sage Skofield – mixing engineer assistant
67,943,074	Dictionaries of the Polish language	1,136,211,482	Reference works for the Polish language	[ "15th-century establishments in Poland", "Polish dictionaries", "Polish language" ]	The earliest dictionaries of the Polish language were bilingual aids, usually Polish–Latin, and date to the 15th century. The first dictionary dedicated solely to the Polish language was published in the early 19th century. Many dictionaries of the Polish language are named simply "the Dictionary of the Polish Language" (Polish: Słownik języka polskiego) or in similar fashion. ## Bilingual The first Polish dictionaries took the form of Polish–Latin (or more correctly, Old Polish–Latin) bilingual translation aids and date to the 15th century. The oldest known one is the Wokabularz trydencki [pl] from 1424; it contains about 500 entries, and is associated with the Prince Alexander of Masovia. The largest of those earliest dictionaries was the Silesian Mamotrekt kaliski (from c. 1470), with about 7,000 entries. The 16th century saw a proliferation of printed dictionaries; the first of those were written abroad and reprinted in Poland. The first such dictionary was the trilingual German–Latin–Polish Dictionarius Ioannis Murmellii variarum rerum [pl] from 1526. It had about 2,500 entries and was based on the work of the Dutch scholar Johannes Murmellius and published in Poland by Hieronim Wietor (most likely with Wietor responsible for the German part, and Hieronim Spiczyński [pl] for the Polish). Dozens of other bilingual Polish dictionaries were published in the subsequent centuries by scholars such as Bartłomiej of Bydgoszcz [pl], Johann Reuchlin, Jan Mączyński, Nicolaus Volckmar [pl], Grzegorz Knapski and others. ## General Many dictionaries in the Polish language and dedicated to the Polish language bear the generic name Słownik języka polskiego (lit. the Dictionary of the Polish Language). The first such dictionary [pl] was published by Samuel Linde in the early 19th century (in six volumes from 1807 to 1814) and had 60,000 entries. Numerous other dictionaries of the Polish language have been published since. The ones following in Linde's path include the 110,000-entry Słownik języka polskiego published in Wilno in 1861 by a group of Polish scholars led by Aleksander Zdanowicz [pl] and the 270,000-entry Słownik języka polskiego edited by Jan Aleksander Karłowicz [pl], Adam Kryński [pl] and Władysław Niedźwiedzki [pl], published in several volumes from 1900 to 1927. After World War II, a major dictionary of the Polish language was the Słownik języka polskiego of Witold Doroszewski, published in volumes from 1958 to 1969, which quickly became considered a new classic. As of the early 21st century, the largest dictionary of the Polish language is the 50-volume Praktyczny słownik współczesnej polszczyzny [pl] (published from 1994 to 2005) edited by Halina Zgółkowa [pl]. Several newer dictionaries are published on the Internet and are freely accessible to the public; they include the Słownik języka polskiego at Polish Wiktionary and the Wielki słownik języka polskiego [pl] edited by Piotr Żmigrodzki [pl] of the Polish Language Institute of the Polish Academy of Sciences [pl] (IJP PAN). ## Specialized There are also many specialized dictionaries in Polish. Some are focused on the Polish language, such as the etymological Słownik etymologiczny języka polskiego (from 1927, edited by Aleksander Brückner); but many others focus on non-language topics, such as the Polish Biographical Dictionary. ## See also - History of Polish - Polish proverbs
1,463,185	Borough Hall/Court Street station	1,172,886,800	New York City Subway station complex in Brooklyn	[ "1920 establishments in New York City", "BMT Fourth Avenue Line stations", "Brooklyn Heights", "Downtown Brooklyn", "IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line stations", "IRT Eastern Parkway Line stations", "National Register of Historic Places in Brooklyn", "New York City Subway stations in Brooklyn", "New York City Subway transfer stations", "Railway and subway stations on the National Register of Historic Places in New York City", "Railway stations in the United States opened in 1920" ]	The Borough Hall/Court Street station is an underground New York City Subway station complex in Brooklyn shared by the BMT Fourth Avenue Line, the IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line and the IRT Eastern Parkway Line. The complex comprises three stations: Borough Hall on the IRT lines and Court Street on the BMT line. The stations are located under Court, Joralemon, and Montague Streets, next to Brooklyn Borough Hall, in the Downtown Brooklyn and Brooklyn Heights neighborhoods of Brooklyn. It is served by the 2, 4, and R trains at all times; the 3 train all times except late nights; the 5 train on weekdays; the N train during late nights; and limited rush-hour W trains. The Borough Hall station of the Eastern Parkway Line was built for the Interborough Rapid Transit Company (IRT) as part of the city's first subway line. The station opened on January 9, 1908, when the original IRT was extended into Brooklyn. The Borough Hall station of the Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line opened on April 15, 1919, as part of the Dual Contracts. The Court Street station of the Fourth Avenue Line was built for the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Company (BRT; later the Brooklyn–Manhattan Transit Corporation, or BMT) as part of the Dual Contracts, and opened on August 1, 1920. Several modifications have been made to the IRT and BMT stations over the years, and they were connected within a single fare control area in 1948. The Eastern Parkway Line station under Joralemon Street has two side platforms and two tracks on the same level. The Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line station under Brooklyn Borough Hall also has two side platforms and two tracks on different levels. The Fourth Avenue Line station has one island platform and two tracks. Part of the complex is compliant with the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990. The original portion of the interior of the Eastern Parkway Line's Borough Hall station is a New York City designated landmark and listed on the National Register of Historic Places. ## History ### First subway Planning for a subway line in New York City dates to 1864. However, development of what would become the city's first subway line did not start until 1894, when the New York State Legislature passed the Rapid Transit Act. The subway plans were drawn up by a team of engineers led by William Barclay Parsons, the Rapid Transit Commission's chief engineer. The Rapid Transit Construction Company, organized by John B. McDonald and funded by August Belmont Jr., signed the initial Contract 1 with the Rapid Transit Commission in February 1900, in which it would construct the subway and maintain a 50-year operating lease from the opening of the line. In 1901, the firm of Heins & LaFarge was hired to design the underground stations. Belmont incorporated the Interborough Rapid Transit Company (IRT) in April 1902 to operate the subway. Several days after Contract 1 was signed, the Board of Rapid Transit Railroad Commissioners instructed Parsons to evaluate the feasibility of extending the subway south to South Ferry, and then to Brooklyn. On January 24, 1901, the Board adopted a route that would extend the subway from City Hall to the Long Island Rail Road (LIRR)'s Flatbush Avenue terminal station (now known as Atlantic Terminal) in Brooklyn, via the Joralemon Street Tunnel under the East River. Contract 2, which gave the IRT a 35-year lease,was executed between the commission and the Rapid Transit Construction Company on September 11, 1902. Construction of the Contract 2 tunnel began at State Street in Manhattan on November 8, 1902. and work on the Joralemon Street Tunnel began in 1903. By July 1907, the Borough Hall station was nearly completed except for the entrances. The Borough Hall station opened on January 9, 1908, as the terminal for the extension of the IRT Lexington Avenue Line from Lower Manhattan. Borough Hall was the first underground subway station in Brooklyn; people waved flags throughout the borough to celebrate the station's opening, and officials celebrated the occasion with a parade and a banquet. Prior to the Borough Hall station's opening, the only rapid transit in Brooklyn had been the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Company (BRT)'s elevated lines, which operated only as far as the Manhattan ends of the Brooklyn Bridge. The opening of the station thus also alleviated congestion on lines that used the Brooklyn Bridge. A temporary switch was installed just west of the station, allowing trains to terminate on the southbound track until the line could be extended. An extension to Atlantic Avenue opened on May 1, 1908, completing the Contract 2 IRT line. Bronze bas-reliefs by William Ordway Partridge were installed at the Borough Hall station in early 1909 to denote the station's status as Brooklyn's first underground subway station. To address overcrowding, in 1909, the New York Public Service Commission proposed lengthening the platforms at stations along the original IRT subway. As part of a modification to the IRT's construction contracts made on January 18, 1910, the company was to lengthen station platforms to accommodate ten-car express and six-car local trains. In addition to \$1.5 million (equivalent to \$ million in ) spent on platform lengthening, \$500,000 (equivalent to \$ million in ) was spent on building additional entrances and exits. It was anticipated that these improvements would increase capacity by 25 percent. The northbound platform at the Borough Hall station was extended 125 feet (38 m) to the east, while the southbound platform was extended 140 feet (43 m) to the east. During the construction of the platform extensions, the facade of Brooklyn Borough Hall began to crack because of vibrations from construction equipment. On January 23, 1911, ten-car express trains began running on the East Side Line, and the next day, ten-car express trains began running on the West Side Line. ### Dual Contracts After the original IRT opened, the city began planning new lines. One of these, the Centre Street Loop in Manhattan, was to connect the Brooklyn Bridge, Manhattan Bridge, and Williamsburg Bridge with a new tunnel under the East River. By 1910, the IRT's Borough Hall station was so crowded that residents of Brooklyn Heights, a residential neighborhood west of Borough Hall, wanted a stop to be added on the proposed Centre Street Loop within Brooklyn Heights. At the time, the line was supposed to have a station at Borough Hall, then slope downward under the East River. The Public Service Commission ultimately rejected a proposal for a Brooklyn Heights station because it would have required the tunnels to be built at an extremely steep slope of five percent. #### IRT lines As part of the Dual Contracts, approved in 1913, the New York City Public Service Commission planned to split the original IRT system into three segments: two north-south lines, carrying through trains over the Lexington Avenue and Broadway–Seventh Avenue Lines, and an east–west shuttle under 42nd Street. This would form a roughly "H"-shaped system. The Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line would split into two branches south of Chambers Street, one of which would turn eastward through Lower Manhattan, run under the East River via a new Clark Street Tunnel, and connect with the existing Contract 2 IRT Brooklyn Line at Borough Hall. The IRT was authorized to construct a station at Borough Hall. The line's Borough Hall station was a two-level station, with a connection to the existing Eastern Parkway Line station; the double-deck arrangement was required because the eastbound track had to pass under the existing line. To minimize disruption at street level, the line was excavated using cast-iron tunneling shields, typically used for underwater tunnels, rather than via the cut-and-cover method used elsewhere in the system. Entrances were planned along Fulton Street (now Cadman Plaza West) at Montague Street and at Myrtle Avenue. Construction of the Clark Street Tunnel began in 1914, but the section of the line under Fulton Street was delayed by disputes over the demolition of part of the Fulton Street elevated line. By January 1919, the tracks for the Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line were completed, but signals and station finishes were still being installed. The IRT decided to push forward the tunnel's opening after learning that BRT workers might go on strike. On April 15, 1919, the Clark Street Tunnel opened, and the Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line's Borough Hall station opened with it, extending West Side Line express trains from Wall Street on the other side of the East River to Atlantic Avenue. The connection doubled the number of IRT trains that could travel between Manhattan and Brooklyn, and it eased congestion in the Joralemon Street Tunnel, the only other tunnel carrying IRT trains between the two boroughs. Direct express service to Times Square was provided to the inhabitants of Brooklyn for the first time as a result; trains through the Joralemon Street Tunnel made express stops in Manhattan, skipping Times Square. In 1920, a new entrance at the northwestern corner of Joralemon Street and Court Street was completed. That year, the Eastern Parkway Line was extended east of Atlantic Avenue. The Joralemon Street Tunnel services, which had previously served all stops on the Eastern Parkway Line, became express services, while the Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line services ran local on the Eastern Parkway Line. Although the Eastern Parkway Line's express tracks already existed, they previously had been used only for storage. The tracks were reconfigured so that Eastern Parkway express trains could no longer stop at the Hoyt Street station, the next stop east. #### BRT line Also planned under the Dual Contracts was the Broadway Line and Fourth Avenue Line of the BRT (after 1923, the Brooklyn–Manhattan Transit Corporation or BMT). Under the Dual Contracts, the Whitehall–Montague Street route was to be built, connecting the Broadway Line in Manhattan and the Fourth Avenue subway under the Flatbush Avenue Extension to the west of the DeKalb Avenue station. The BRT was authorized to construct a station on the Whitehall–Montague Street route at the intersection of Montague and Court Streets. The Court Street station was to be built at the eastern end of the Montague Street Tunnel, a pair of tubes carrying the BRT line under the East River. Because of the station's depth, there would be elevators ascending to Clinton Street at its western end. The eastern end was to contain stairs and escalators leading directly to Court Street and to the IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line station. A ramp extending west to Henry Street was also proposed but not built. This ramp was proposed as a compromise when the Public Service Commission had rejected plans for a second station in Brooklyn Heights. Construction of the Montague Street Tunnel's two tubes began in 1914. The north tube of the tunnel was holed through on June 2, 1917, followed by the south tube on June 20, 1917. Service via the Montague Tunnel began on August 1, 1920, with the opening of the Court Street station. The Court Street station was one of three subway stations to open in Brooklyn Heights; the other two were Clark Street on the IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line and High Street on the Independent Subway System (IND)'s Eighth Avenue Line. The BRT, along with the IRT and the city government, shared control of the Borough Hall/Court Street station. ### Later modifications #### 1920s to 1960s In 1922, the New York State Transit Commission directed its engineers to prepare plans for lengthening the platforms at 23 stations on the BMT's lines to accommodate eight-car trains. As part of the project, platforms would be lengthened to 530 feet (160 m). Though the Transit Commission ordered the BMT to lengthen these platforms in September 1923, no further progress was made until February 16, 1925, when the New York City Board of Transportation (BOT) commissioned its engineers to examine platform-lengthening plans for Court Street and eleven other stations along the Fourth Avenue Line. It estimated the project would cost \$633,000 (). The New York City Board of Estimate appropriated \$362,841 for the lengthening of the platforms at Court Street and five other stations in January 1926 and awarded the contract to Charles Meads & Company early the next month. The platform extension at Court Street opened on August 1, 1927. The city government took over the BMT's operations on June 1, 1940, and the IRT's operations on June 12, 1940. As part of a Works Progress Administration program, the IRT entrance at Cadman Plaza and Montague Street was integrated into a neighboring park in late 1940. The New York City Board of Transportation also renovated the station's bathrooms in 1947 as part of a larger initiative to upgrade bathrooms throughout the subway system. Transfer passageways between the three stations were placed inside fare control on July 1, 1948. During the Cold War, the city government proposed constructing a passageway between the IRT's Borough Hall station and the IND's Jay Street–Borough Hall station under Myrtle Avenue, which would have doubled as an air-raid shelter. The passageway and other shelters in the New York City Subway system would have cost \$15 million; the federal government would have paid half, and the city and state government would have paid the other half. The Board of Transportation announced plans in November 1949 to extend platforms at several IRT stations, including the Eastern Parkway/Lexington Avenue Line platforms at Borough Hall, to accommodate all doors on ten-car trains. Although ten-car trains already operated on the line, the rear car could not open its doors at the station due to the short platforms. Funding for the platform extensions was included in the city's 1950 capital budget. During the 1964–1965 fiscal year, the IRT platforms at Borough Hall were lengthened to 525 feet (160 m) to accommodate a ten-car train of 51-foot (16 m) IRT cars. The work was undertaken by the Arthur A. Johnson Corporation. In the late 1960s, New York City Transit extended the Fourth Avenue Line platform about 85 feet (26 m) to the west, allowing it to accommodate ten 60-foot (18 m) cars. #### 1970s to 1990s The Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA) had proposed renovating the Borough Hall station as early as its 1975–1979 capital plan. In 1976, with funding from the Exxon Corporation, the Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line station, as well as three others citywide, received new "artfully humorous graffiti" murals and artwork. Local designer Samuel Lebowitz received \$5,000 to "improve the level of lighting in an exciting and light hearted way." Some "multicolored animated neon signs" were placed underneath transparent plastic screens; such signs included "an abstract eye that winks every five seconds" and another that looked to be "blow[ing] smoke rings." The agency closed one of the station's token booths in 1977 to save money, although the booth was reopened shortly afterward. In 1979, the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission designated the space within the boundaries of the original Eastern Parkway Line station, excluding expansions made after 1904, as a city landmark. The station was designated along with eleven others on the original IRT. A renovation of the Eastern Parkway Line station took place in the early 1980s as part of the MTA's Adopt-a-Station program. MTA chairman Richard Ravitch announced in October 1981 that these platforms would be renovated with funding from the Subway Committee for the Brooklyn Downtown Commercial Crescent, a local civic group. The Brooklyn Union Gas Company raised \$25,000, while other businesses raised another \$25,000; the Urban Mass Transportation Administration (UMTA) provided a matching grant of \$50,000. The MTA also provided \$3.5 million for the project as part of its 1980–1984 capital program. In 1982, the UMTA gave a \$66 million grant to the New York City Transit Authority, part of which was allocated for the renovation of several subway stations, including Borough Hall's IRT platforms. Work on the project had begun by 1983 but had fallen behind schedule two years later. One of the issues was that the MTA had wanted to save the original tiles in the Eastern Parkway Line station, a designated New York City landmark, but the agency could not get the tiles to stick to the wall. New tiles had to be imported from Czechoslovakia, and some tiles were stolen before they could be installed. Some newly-renovated parts of the station were already deteriorating by 1987, such as tiled floors that had come loose. Other parts of the renovation had been conducted haphazardly, such as the uneven installation of gray wall tiles, as well as a ceiling that had been repainted above the platforms but not the tracks. At that point, it had taken nearly as long to renovate the station as to construct the original line. The New York City Transit Authority eventually filed a lawsuit to compel the renovation contractor to complete the project. The rest of the complex was also slated to be renovated, but the improvements were temporarily delayed in 1987 because of the poor quality of the Eastern Parkway Line station's renovation. MTA officials diverted funding for the other platforms' renovations in December 1989 to cover a budget shortfall. In the early 1990s, the BMT station's columns were repainted "Newport green" to match the mosaic tiles as part of a systemwide repainting program. Workers were installing elevators at the Borough Hall IRT stations by 1992, as part of the MTA's plan to make dozens of "key stations" accessible to passengers with disabilities. The work was finished by the next year. Most of the IRT portion of the complex became wheelchair-accessible, except for the eastbound Eastern Parkway Line platform. The subway entrance at Clinton Street was converted into a part-time entrance in 1994, after the removal of high entry-exit turnstiles at the entrance. The escalators to the BMT station were replaced in 1997; the repair project was delayed by two months after several dozen escalator steps were stolen. Even after the repairs were completed, the escalators continued to experience periodic outages. #### 2000s to present The original Eastern Parkway Line station's interiors were listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2004. In June 2018, part of the Eastern Parkway Line station's ceiling collapsed, injuring a passenger. The collapse of the 100-year-old ceiling necessitated \$8.3 million in emergency repairs. Prior to the ceiling collapse, neither the MTA nor the New York City Department of Transportation had identified the Borough Hall station as a "priority" station requiring renovation. An internal report, released in late 2019, found that the staff sent to inspect the station verified the defect existed in 2017, but underestimated its severity due to a lack of expertise in terracotta ceilings, nor was the issue escalated to engineers who were familiar with terracotta. The MTA report suggested that special care be taken in the inspection of the thirteen subway stations that have terracotta ceilings due to the different properties when compared to concrete or steel. The IRT station's existing elevators were closed for replacement for several months starting in July 2020. The two elevators at the western end of the BMT's Court Street station were also replaced starting in 2022, requiring the closure of the exit at Clinton Street; this was part of a program to replace elevators across the subway system. In November 2022, the MTA announced that it would award a \$106 million contract for the installation of additional elevators at the Borough Hall station complex. The project would make the Eastern Parkway Line platforms fully accessible. The contract included one elevator from the mezzanine to either of the Eastern Parkway Line platforms, as well as one elevator from the mezzanine to the street. As of March 2023, work was scheduled to begin in the middle of that year and be completed in 2025. New York City councilmember Lincoln Restler founded a volunteer group, the Friends of MTA Station Group, in early 2023 to advocate for improvements to the Borough Hall station and four other subway stations in Brooklyn. The BMT elevators at Clinton Street reopened in June 2023. ### Service history #### IRT stations Initially, the Eastern Parkway Line station was served by express trains along both the West Side (now the Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line to Van Cortlandt Park–242nd Street) and East Side (now the Lenox Avenue Line). The express trains, running to Atlantic Avenue, had their northern terminus at 242nd Street or West Farms (180th Street). Lenox local trains to 145th Street served the station during late nights. The Lexington Avenue Line north of Grand Central–42nd Street opened on August 1, 1918, and all Eastern Parkway Line services were sent via the Lexington Avenue Line. The Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line's Brooklyn branch carried the express services to 242nd Street or via the Lenox Avenue Line when the Clark Street Tunnel opened in 1919 (express service to 242nd Street was eliminated in 1959). To the south, trains ran to Flatbush Avenue or Utica Avenue starting in 1920 and to New Lots Avenue starting in 1924. The IRT routes were given numbered designations in 1948 with the introduction of "R-type" rolling stock, which contained rollsigns with numbered designations for each service. The 2, 3, 4, and 5 trains were given their present designations at that time. The Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line services became the 2 and 3, and the Lexington Avenue/Eastern Parkway Line services became the 4 and 5. #### BMT station The Court Street BMT station opened when the Montague Street Tunnel opened on August 1, 1920, Broadway Line trains to Brooklyn could either use the tunnel, stopping at Court Street and five other stations in Lower Manhattan and Downtown Brooklyn, or use the Manhattan Bridge, which skipped all of these stations. Initially, Court Street was served by Fourth Avenue Line local trains (labeled as the BMT 2), Brighton Beach Line express trains (the BMT 1), and some rush-hour West End Line trains (the BMT 3). Brighton express trains were later rerouted to the Manhattan Bridge, while Brighton locals started using the tunnel. After the BMT Nassau Street Line was completed in 1931, West End trains via the Montague Street Tunnel started using the Nassau Street Line instead of the Broadway Line in Manhattan. The opening of the Chrystie Street Connection in 1967 resulted in drastic changes to the services that stopped at the Court Street station. The RR (later the R) and the QJ began using the Montague Street Tunnel, running via Court Street; the QJ was replaced by the M in 1973. After the Manhattan Bridge was closed for repairs in 1986, all off-peak N trains began running through the Montague Street Tunnel and serving Court Street. Starting in December 1988, N and R trains ran through the tunnel and the Whitehall Street station at all times. When the Manhattan Bridge reopened in February 2004, the R train began serving the station at all times except late nights, while the N train only served the station at night. The M train stopped serving the station when it was rerouted to Midtown Manhattan in 2010. When the Montague Street Tunnel closed for repairs in August 2013, weekday R service was divided into two segments; the Court Street station was the northern terminus of the Brooklyn segment. The R train did not serve the station on weekends, and the N train did not stop there at all, until regular service resumed in September 2014. ## Station layout The complex is composed of three stations that are all connected within a single fare control area. The IRT Eastern Parkway Line station has two tracks and two side platforms and runs east–west under Joralemon Street. The IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line station has two tracks and two side platforms that are stacked above each other, and it runs roughly northwest to southeast under Cadman Plaza and Borough Hall. The BMT Fourth Avenue Line station has two tracks and one island platform running east–west under Montague Street. Both Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line platforms are fully accessible under the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA). The northbound Eastern Parkway Line platform is ADA-accessible via the passageway connecting with the northbound Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line platform. However, the southbound Eastern Parkway Line platform and the Fourth Avenue Line platform are not ADA-accessible. Accessibility for the southbound Eastern Parkway Line platform was proposed in February 2019 as part of the MTA's "Fast Forward" program. At the mezzanine level are three overpasses above the center of the Eastern Parkway Line platforms. The outer two overpasses have two fare control areas, one each on the north and south sides. The middle overpass is a passageway connecting the unpaid areas on the north and south sides, and has no access to the platforms. The central mezzanine has two bronze plaques commemorating the subway's arrival in Brooklyn: a plaque to the PSC on the west and a plaque celebrating the station's opening on the east. These plaques, measuring 6 by 2 feet (1.83 by 0.61 m), were designed by Partridge and originally placed on the southbound platform. The plaques are installed within mosaic tablets with swag and floral designs. A fourth overpass is at the extreme west end of the Eastern Parkway Line platforms. The eastern end of the northbound Eastern Parkway Line platform has a passageway leading to the southern end of the northbound Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line platform. At the northern end of the Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line station is another mezzanine above the upper platform level, leading to exits on Court Street as well as to the Fourth Avenue Line platform. An escalator leads from the lower platform level to the mezzanine. The unpaid areas are on the southeastern side of this mezzanine. The Fourth Avenue Line platform is the deepest in the complex, under both sets of IRT platforms. Two stairs rise from the eastern end of the Fourth Avenue Line station to an intermediate mezzanine, where escalators and stairs lead to a mezzanine above the Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line platforms. There is another exit at the extreme western end. A stair rises to a landing above the platform, where two elevators go up to the western BMT mezzanine. The mezzanine has a part-time turnstile bank and customer assistance booth. Full height turnstiles provide entrance/exit from the mezzanine at all times. ### Exits The main fare control for the IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line and BMT Fourth Avenue Line platforms is at the west end of the platforms. Outside fare control, two staircases ascend to the southeast corner of Court and Montague Streets, and a staircase and elevator ascend to Columbus Park, the entrance plaza of Brooklyn Borough Hall, on the east side of Court Street. The design of the elevator resembles that of the ornate entrance kiosks in the original IRT subway. These entrances also serve the U.S. Bankruptcy Court within the Federal Building and Post Office to the north, as well as a New York Supreme Court courthouse to the east. Historically, there was also an exit to a bank on the northern side of Montague Street. The main fare control for the IRT Eastern Parkway Line platforms is at the center of the station and is staffed. On the northbound side, the overpasses have full height turnstiles leading to two staircases, one each flanking Brooklyn Borough Hall's main entrance on the northeast corner of Court and Joralemon Streets. The stairs flanking Borough Hall retain cast-iron hoods atop granite bases, which are part of the original design. The Borough Hall station is one of two stations to retain such hoods, the other being the Wall Street station in Manhattan. On the southbound side, the overpasses have small turnstile banks, leading to a token booth and two staircases, going up to the southeast corner of Court and Joralemon Streets. The banisters on these staircases are made of concrete since they are outside the Brooklyn Municipal Building. The mezzanine has a large set of doors leading into the Municipal Building (this entrance was closed in February 1996 due to security concerns), and a now-defunct bank teller window. On the northwest corner of the mezzanine, a passage led to Borough Hall. The secondary fare control area for the IRT Eastern Parkway Line is at the extreme west end and is unstaffed. Outside fare control, there is a token booth. Past the booth, one stair each goes up to the northwest and southwest corners of Court and Joralemon Streets. Prior to 1961, there were two additional entrances to the southwest corner of the intersection. These entrances are within one block of the Generoso Pope Athletic Complex of St. Francis College. The unstaffed fare control area for the BMT Fourth Avenue Line is at the extreme west end. Outside fare control, one stair each goes to the northwest and southwest corners of Livingston and Court Streets. The northwest staircase has an antique "SUBWAY" white and green globe sign since it is in the front yard of St. Ann's and Holy Trinity Church (the mezzanine has a mosaic sign with the church's name on it). The southwest staircase is next to the basement entrance of a daycare. The First Unitarian Church of Brooklyn, Brooklyn Historical Society, Brooklyn Trust Company Building, and Saint Ann's School are located within one block of these entrances. ## IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line platforms The Borough Hall station on the IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line is a double-level station with two tracks in a split platform configuration. Southwest of each track is a side platform; northbound trains use the upper level while southbound trains use the lower one. The 2 train stops here at all times, while the 3 train stops here at all times except late nights. On both routes, the Borough Hall station is located between the Clark Street station to the north and the Hoyt Street station to the south. At the eastern end of both platforms, a staircase from the lower level goes up to the upper level, near the passageway to the northbound IRT Eastern Parkway Line platform. At the western end of both platforms, a staircase from the lower level goes up to the upper level before another staircase goes up to a mezzanine. The lower level also has an up-only escalator that bypasses the upper level, leading directly to the mezzanine. An elevator connects both platforms to the upper mezzanine. East of the platforms, the southbound Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line track crosses diagonally about 18 feet (5.5 m) below both of the Eastern Parkway tracks, then curves eastward and slopes up to the level of the Eastern Parkway Line near Smith Street. Both become the local tracks for the line. The Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line's connection to the Eastern Parkway Line was built as part of the original subway line but was not used until the opening of the Clark Street Tunnel. The local tracks of the line were originally planned to travel north under what is now Cadman Plaza West to the Brooklyn Bridge. Both platforms have their original IRT trim line and name tablets reading "BOROUGH HALL" in a serif lettering style. Tablets showing images of Borough Hall are located at regular intervals on the trim line. Dark blue I-beam columns line both platforms at regular intervals with alternating ones having the standard black station name plate in white lettering. ## IRT Eastern Parkway Line platforms The Borough Hall station on the IRT Eastern Parkway Line has two tracks and two side platforms on the same level. The 4 train stops here at all times, while the 5 train stops here at all times except late nights. On both routes, the Borough Hall station is located between the Bowling Green station to the north and the Nevins Street station to the south. The platforms were originally 350 feet (110 m) long, like at other Contract 2 stations, but were lengthened to 520 feet (160 m) by 1964. Two staircases from each platform lead to each of the two overpasses at the center of the station, while one staircase from each platform leads to the overpass at the extreme west end. The eastern end of the northbound platform connects with the passageway leading from the northbound Broadway-Seventh Avenue Line platform. The original portion of the station is a New York City designated landmark and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. East of this station, the two tracks become the express tracks of the IRT Eastern Parkway Line and the two tracks of the IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line become the local tracks. Originally, a set of switches between Borough Hall and Hoyt Street connected the express tracks to the local tracks. The roof of the tunnel above the switches was supported by girders weighing 18 short tons (16 long tons; 16 t) and measuring 52 feet (16 m) wide. The switches have since been removed. ### Design As with other stations built as part of the original IRT, the station was constructed using a cut-and-cover method. The tunnel is covered by a "U"-shaped trough that contains utility pipes and wires. The bottom of this trough contains a foundation of concrete no less than 4 inches (100 mm) thick. Each platform consists of 3-inch-thick (7.6 cm) concrete slabs, beneath which are drainage basins. The platforms contain green I-beam columns, spaced every 15 feet (4.6 m). Additional columns between the tracks, spaced every 5 feet (1.5 m), support the jack-arched concrete station roofs. The ceiling height varies based on whether there are utilities in the ceiling. There is a 1-inch (25 mm) gap between the trough wall and the platform walls, which are made of 4-inch (100 mm)-thick brick covered over by a tiled finish. The walls along the platforms consist of a pink marble wainscoting on the lowest part of the wall, with bronze air vents along the wainscoting, and white glass tiles above. The platform walls are divided at 15-foot (4.6 m) intervals by green and rose pilasters, or vertical bands, with brown and buff-colored swags. In the original portion of the station, each pilaster is topped by blue, green, and yellow faience plaques with the letters "BH". White-on-green tile plaques with the words "Borough Hall", containing red, green, blue, buff, violet, and pink mosaic borders, are also placed on the walls. The platform extensions contain similar decorative elements. The ceilings contain plaster molding. At the extreme east end of the platforms, where the platforms were extended, the walls have a brown trim line on beige tiles with "BOROUGH HALL" in white sans serif lettering. ## BMT Fourth Avenue Line platform The Court Street station on the BMT Fourth Avenue Line has two tracks and one island platform. R trains serve the station at all times; some rush-hour W trains stop here; and N train stops here during late nights. The next station to the north is Whitehall Street in Manhattan, while the next station to the south is Jay Street–MetroTech. A single staircase from the western end of the platform goes up to the elevators to the western BMT mezzanine. Two staircases from the eastern end of the platform go up to the escalators and stairs to the IRT passageway. West of the station, the line goes through the Montague Street Tunnel under the East River to connect to the BMT Broadway Line and the BMT Nassau Street Line. All trains use the Broadway Line connection, which goes to Whitehall Street. The latter connection, to the Broad Street station, was last used by the M train in June 2010 before it was rerouted. Since the tunnel descends to go underneath the East River, it was constructed with a deep-bore tunnel, making both track walls curved. The walls also still have their original Dual Contracts mosaic tablets and trim line. The name tablets have "COURT ST." in serif lettering, and tablets showing scenes of Borough Hall are located along the trim line at regular intervals. The western end (railroad north) of the walls is plain white. Yellow I-beam columns line both sides of the island platform at regular intervals with alternating ones having the standard black station name plate in white lettering. ## Surface connections When the original IRT station opened in 1908, there was a transfer to the Putnam Avenue and Halsey Street trolley line. Since 1898, a trolley loop had run in front of Borough Hall and along Fulton Street (Cadman Plaza West) and Court Street, but BRT officials expected that the loop would become congested with the construction of the Dual Contracts subway stations. In May 1914, a second loop on nearby Johnson Street opened. Passengers on lines that used the Borough Hall loop, Court Street, or Fulton Street could transfer to the entrance of this station complex bounded by those two streets and the loop, north of Borough Hall. On April 7, 1930, the BMT eliminated the loop to relieve congestion. Several lines were moved to a loop that traveled north along Adams Street, west along Myrtle Avenue, and southeast along Fulton Street (Cadman Plaza West). Other routes continued west along Livingston Street, north on Court Street, east on Joralemon and Fulton Street, and south on Boerum Place before turning back east along Livingston Street. All streetcar lines in Brooklyn were ultimately discontinued by 1956. Numerous bus lines serve the station as of 2023, namely the .
40,712,329	Isa ibn al-Shaykh al-Shaybani	1,171,602,773	9th-century Arab leader of the Shayban tribe	[ "880s deaths", "9th-century Arab people", "9th-century births", "9th-century people from the Abbasid Caliphate", "Abbasid governors of Arminiya", "Abbasid governors of Palestine", "Arab rebels", "Banu Shayban", "History of Diyarbakır Province", "Syria under the Abbasid Caliphate", "Upper Mesopotamia under the Abbasid Caliphate" ]	Abu Musa Isa ibn al-Shaykh ibn al-Salil al-Dhuhli al-Shaybani (Arabic: أبو موسى عيسى بن الشيخ بن السليل الذهلي الشيباني; died 882/83) was an Arab leader of the Shayban tribe. Taking advantage of the domestic turmoil of the Abbasid Caliphate, he created a semi-independent bedouin state in Palestine and southern Syria in ca. 867–870, before an Abbasid army forced him to exchange his domains with the governorship of Armenia and Diyar Bakr. In Armenia, he struggled to contain the rising power of the Christian princes, but after failing to suppress the revolt of one of his own subordinates, he abandoned the country and returned to his native Jazira. There he spent his last years until his death in a struggle with a rival strongman, the ruler of Mosul Ishaq ibn Kundajiq. ## Life Isa's early life is obscure. He was a member of the Shayban tribe from the Jazira, but otherwise not even the exact name of his father is known, it being variously given as al-Shaykh, Ahmad or Abd al-Razzak. Isa first appears in 848, in the ranks of the Abbasid army under Bugha al-Sharabi that was sent against the rebel Muhammad ibn al-Ba'ith in his stronghold of Marand. Muhammad and most of his followers belonged to the Rabi'a tribal group, the same that the Shayban were part of. Consequently Bugha employed Isa as an envoy to the rebels, and Isa managed to convince several among them to surrender. ### Career in Syria and Palestine It has been suggested that Isa served as governor of Damascus in 861, but according to Marius Canard this is a confusion with Isa ibn Muhammad al-Nawshari. In 865, according to al-Tabari, he defeated and captured a Kharijite rebel named al-Muwaffaq. At the time, he held a post in Syria, since al-Tabari records him asking for aid from the Caliph al-Mutawakkil in preparing a raid against Byzantium, including four ships to be set ready in Tyre. He was probably already governor of Jund Filastin (Palestine) district at the time, a post which he seems to have held, according to Ya'qubi, at the time of the deposition of Caliph al-Musta'in in January 866. According to Ya'qubi, Isa was one of the governors who refused to immediately acknowledge the new Caliph, al-Mu'tazz, perhaps because his old patron Bugha still remained loyal to al-Musta'in. This led al-Nawshari to campaign against him, and the two armies clashed by the Jordan River. Al-Nawshari's son was killed, but Isa was defeated and fled to Egypt with what wealth he could gather, while al-Nawshari occupied the capital of Palestine, Ramla. In Egypt, Isa finally conceded the oath of loyalty (bay'ah) to al-Mu'tazz, while al-Nawshari in his turn fell out with the Caliph, who had not sanctioned his seizure of Ramla and dispatched an army under Muhammad ibn al-Muwallad to drive him out. Isa then returned to Palestine, bringing with him money, supplies, and possibly troops recruited in Egypt, and built a fortress called al-Husami, situated between Ramla and Ludd. From this base, he managed to withstand the repeated attacks of Ibn al-Muwallad, until—probably after a truce was agreed—both returned to the caliphal capital, Samarra. There, in December 866, Isa secured his re-appointment to the governorship of both Palestine and the province of Jordan (Jund al-Urdunn). Al-Tabari attributes this to the influence of Bugha al-Sharabi, whom he bribed with 40,000 gold dinars, while al-Mas'udi claims that this was because of the riches he brought with him from Egypt, as well as 70 Alids who had fled from the Hijaz. He did not immediately return to Palestine, instead sending his lieutenant Abu'l-Maghra ibn Musa ibn Zurara there as his deputy. When he finally arrived in Ramla, Isa used the ongoing anarchy in Iraq to set himself up as a virtually independent ruler. He kept the province's revenues for himself, and even intercepted the tax caravans from Egypt. He then used this money to secure the loyalty of the local Arab tribes, the Rabi'a in the north and the Banu Kilab in the south, with whom he even formed a marriage alliance, marrying a Kilabi wife. Soon, his nascent Bedouin state was strong enough that he took control of Damascus itself. When Caliph al-Muhtadi ascended the throne in July 869, he offered a general amnesty, and wrote to Isa, offering a pardon in exchange for him handing over the treasure he had wrongfully appropriated, according to al-Kindi amounting to a sum of 750,000 dinars. When Isa refused, the Caliph ordered the new governor of Egypt, Ahmad ibn Tulun, to march against him. Ibn Tulun complied, but no sooner had he reached Arish with his army orders came to turn back. In 870, the new Caliph, al-Mu'tamid, again sent envoys to Isa to persuade him to return the money, but Isa again refused, and an army under the Turk Amajur al-Turki, who was named governor of Damascus. Initially based in Tyre, Isa managed to push back Amajur's numerically much inferior forces—al-Tabari reports that Isa had 20,000 men while Amajur only 200–400—to Damascus, but in a battle before the city Isa's son al-Mansur fell, and he was defeated and he was forced to withdraw to Ramla. Instead of an army there came a new embassy from the Caliph (in 870 or 871), offering him the governorship of Armenia if he would abandon Syria. Isa agreed, and left for his new post in May 871. ### In Armenia and the Jazira The governorship of Armenia included not only Armenia proper, but also Azerbaijan and the Diyar Bakr in the Jazira, the latter being the main settlement area of the Shayban and Isa's own homeland. Soon after his appointment, Isa (called "Yise, son of Šeh" by Armenian sources) was approached by the Uthmanids and the Kaysites, local dynasties of Arab emirs established around Lake Van, who were threatened by the rise of the Christian Armenian ruler Ashot I Artsruni, prince of Vaspurakan. Ashot was preparing to besiege the Uthmanid fortress of Amiwk, when Isa assembled a league of the emirs of Armenia, and with 15,000 men came to Vaspurakan. Unable to confront these numbers, the Artsruni backed down and concluded a peace with Isa. Isa's situation in Armenia was precarious, however, as he was without any hope of support from the Abbasid government. Armenia was effectively left to its own devices, and the two great Christian dynasties of the Artsruni in the south and the Bagratuni in the north effectively partitioned the country and acted as independent princes. This necessitated a careful balancing act by Isa, who could not afford to alienate the various Armenian rulers, especially after his lieutenant in Azerbaijan, Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahid al-Tamimi al-Yamami, rebelled in 877. Isa besieged Muhammad in the provincial capital, Bardha'a, but despite receiving aid from Ashot Bagratuni (the future King of Armenia), after 13 months of fruitless siege he was forced to abandon it. Isa then departed Armenia altogether, returning to Amid in the Diyar Bakr. Although regarded by the Armenian and Arab historians as nominal governor of Armenia until his death in 882/3, he never again left the Jazira. In the Jazira, he faced a major rival in the person of the Turk Ishaq ibn Kundajiq, who ruled Mosul and had ambitions to govern all of the Jazira. Isa and his long-time lieutenant, Abu'l-Maghra, allied with other enemies of Ibn Kundajiq, the local Kharijites under a certain Ishaq ibn Ayyub and the Taghlibi chieftain Hamdan ibn Hamdun. This coalition managed to defeat Ibn Kundajiq, but the latter's position was soon bolstered by receiving appointment by the Caliph as governor of Diyar Rabi'a and Armenia (879/80), although he never seems to have exercised any authority over the latter. The Shaybanids then offered peace on the basis of maintaining the territorial status quo, and in exchange for an annual tribute of 200,000 dinars. Ibn Kundajiq initially accepted, but in 880/1 the coalition against him was renewed, and open warfare broke out. This time, Ibn Kundajiq was victorious in a battle fought in April/May 881, driving his opponents before him to Amid, which he left under siege. A few inconclusive skirmishes followed, and the situation was not resolved by the time of Isa's death in 882/3, as Ibn Kundajiq became involved in the Abbasid efforts to recover Syria from the Tulunids. Isa was succeeded by his son Ahmad, who ruled the Diyar Bakr as an independent prince. Ahmad expanded his territory into southern Armenia, and, after Ibn Kundajiq's death in 891/2, occupied even Mosul. In the next year, however, the resurgent Abbasids under Caliph al-Mu'tadid wrested the city from him, and in 899 the rest of the family's Jaziran domains from Ahmad's heir, Muhammad. ## Legacy As "rulers by usurpation" (ʿalā sabīl al-taghallub), Isa and his son Ahmad are judged harshly by contemporary Muslim historians, but according to Canard, "in the disturbed period in which these Mesopotamian Arabs lived, they were no worse in their behaviour than the other soldiers of fortune of the Abbasid regime". Canard credits Isa in particular with a "certain reputation for magnificence and generosity", and like all the Shayban, Isa and Ahmad too were esteemed for the quality of their Arabic poetry.
5,247,764	USS Squando	1,167,078,706	1865 American warship	[ "1865 ships", "Casco-class monitors", "Ships built in Boston" ]	USS Squando was a Casco-class light draft monitor built during the American Civil War. Designed for service in rivers, the class required design changes due to the lack of seaworthiness of the first Casco-class vessel. Squando required her deck to be raised 22 inches (56 cm) before completion in order to provide more freeboard. Launched in late December 1864 or early January 1865, she was commissioned on June 6, 1865. Completed after the American Civil War had wound down, she served in the North Atlantic Squadron in 1865 and 1866 before being decommissioned in May of the latter year. After being renamed twice in 1869, she was sold in 1874 and then broken up. ## Construction and characteristics In mid-1862, the Union Navy leadership, having determined that a class of light-draft monitors was needed for use in the shallow waters of inland rivers, began discussing designs for monitors with a 6 feet (1.8 m) draft with John Ericsson, who had designed USS Monitor, an early Union ironclad. Ericsson provided his plan in early October, but delays and redesigns by engineer Alban C. Stimers resulted in the project design not being matured until February 1863. The designs resulted in the Casco class, of which there were to be 20 ships. Contracts for the Casco-class monitors were given out between March and June. The East Boston firm of McKay & Aldus was awarded the contract for Squando on June 10, although in July 1863 the firm's machine shop did not have steam power or a complete set of tools. She was named after Squando, a Native American involved in King Philip's War. The first member of the class to be launched was USS Chimo in May 1864. Chimo was found to be unseaworthy due to a lack of freeboard, and modifications to the design were required. Some ships of the class were greatly scaled down and turned into torpedo boats, while others had their decks raised; Squando's deck was raised 22 inches (56 cm) in order to increase her freeboard. Another ship of the Casco class, USS Tunxis, was launched in September, but despite the modifications almost sunk immediately due to taking on large quantities of water; The modifications for Squando began on September 19 and decreased her speed. Less than half of the vessels were completed before the end of the American Civil War and none saw combat. McKay spent decades after the war attempting to recoup extra costs related to the ship's construction. According to naval historian Paul H. Silverstone, Squando was 225 feet (69 m) long, had a beam of 45 feet (14 m), and a draft of 9 feet (2.7 m), while the Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships (DANFS) states that she had a length of 225 feet 5 inches (68.71 m), a beam of 45 feet 2 inches (13.77 m), and a draft of 8.3 feet (2.5 m). Her depth of hold was about 11 feet (3.4 m), which was greater than the other ships of the class; this was due to the 22-inch raising of the deck. According to Silverstone, she displaced 1,618 tons, while the DANFS puts displacement at 1,175 tons. Squando was powered by two marine steam engines driving two propeller shafts, and could make a speed of 9 knots (17 km/h; 10 mph). She was manned by a crew of 69, and was armed with two smoothbore 11-inch Dahlgren guns. The turret was protected by 8 inches (20 cm) of armor, the deck by 3 inches (7.6 cm), and the pilothouse by 10 inches (25 cm). Squando was completed at a cost of \$90,000. ## Service history Silverstone states that Squando was launched on December 31, 1864, while the DANFS gives the date as January 6, 1865. She was completed on March 30 and was transferred to the Union Navy at the Boston Navy Yard on April 5. In March, the citizens of Boston had requested that Squando remain on duty there, for fear that foreign-built Confederate vessels could threaten the harbor. Commissioned on June 6, she was placed under the command of Acting Master George H. Leinas. Squando's fitting out process took place at Boston and New York City; she arrived at the latter place alone on June 13 after her escorting vessel, USS Gettysburg ran aground. A construction accident in late June on Squando resulted in the steamer USS Queen being damaged. Squando departed New York City on July 30. Assigned to the North Atlantic Squadron in 1865, she traveled to Charleston, South Carolina. When she arrived at Charleston on August 2, she was the first light-draft monitor to travel south of Fort Monroe. Heading north in May 1866, and now commanded by Lieutenant George P. Ryan, she was towed to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, by the gunboat USS Lenapee, was decommissioned on May 26 and then mothballed at League Island, Pennsylvania. The United States War Department advertised for sealed bids for Squando and several other vessels in March 1868. She was renamed to Erebus on June 15, 1869. The DANFS states that she reverted to her former name on August 10, but Silverstone claims she was given the name Algoma on that day. An 1869 newspaper report noted that she could brought up to good enough condition for active duty in "a few days", while describing the entire class of vessels as "total failures". Sold in July 1874, the vessel was then broken up that year while at League Island.
56,474	Kingston upon Hull	1,173,101,488	City in the East Riding of Yorkshire, England	[ "1291 establishments in England", "Boroughs in England", "Cities in Yorkshire and the Humber", "Former non-metropolitan districts of Humberside", "Kingston upon Hull", "Local government districts of Yorkshire and the Humber", "Local government districts of the East Riding of Yorkshire", "Populated coastal places in the East Riding of Yorkshire", "Populated places established in the 13th century", "Port cities and towns in Yorkshire and the Humber", "Port cities and towns of the North Sea", "Ports and harbours of Yorkshire", "Ports and harbours of the Humber", "Staple ports", "Towns in the East Riding of Yorkshire", "Trading posts of the Hanseatic League", "Unitary authority districts of England", "Unparished areas in the East Riding of Yorkshire" ]	Kingston upon Hull, usually abbreviated to Hull, is a port city and unitary authority area in the East Riding of Yorkshire, England. It lies upon the River Hull at its confluence with the Humber Estuary, 25 miles (40 km) inland from the North Sea and 37 miles (60 km) south-east of York, the historic county town. With a population of (), it is the fourth-largest city in the Yorkshire and the Humber region after Leeds, Sheffield and Bradford. The town of Wyke on Hull was founded late in the 12th century by the monks of Meaux Abbey as a port from which to export their wool. Renamed Kings-town upon Hull in 1299, Hull had been a market town, military supply port, trading centre, fishing and whaling centre and industrial metropolis. Hull was an early theatre of battle in the English Civil Wars. Its 18th-century Member of Parliament, William Wilberforce, took a prominent part in the abolition of the slave trade in Britain. More than 95% of the city was damaged or destroyed in the blitz and suffered a period of post-industrial decline (social deprivation, education and policing). The destroyed areas of the city were rebuilt in the post-Second World War period. In the early 21st century spending boom before the late 2000s recession the city saw large amounts of new retail, commercial, housing and public service construction spending. In 2017, it was the UK City of Culture and hosted the Turner Prize at the city's Ferens Art Gallery. Other notable landmarks in the city are the Minster, the tidal surge barrier, the Paragon Interchange and The Deep aquarium. Areas of the town centre include the old town (including its museum quarter) and the marina. Hull University was founded in 1927 and had over 16,000 students in 2022. Rugby league football teams include clubs Hull F.C. and Hull Kingston Rovers. The city's association football club is Hull City (EFL Championship). Hull RUFC and Hull Ionians both play in the National League 2 North of rugby union. ## History ### Wyke and wool trade Kingston upon Hull stands on the north bank of the Humber Estuary at the mouth of its tributary, the River Hull. The valley of the River Hull has been inhabited since the early Neolithic period but there is little evidence of a substantial settlement in the area of the present city. The area was attractive to people because it gave access to a prosperous hinterland and navigable rivers but the site was poor, being remote, low-lying and with no fresh water. It was originally an outlying part of the hamlet of Myton, named Wyke. The name is thought to originate either from a Scandinavian word Vik meaning inlet or from the Saxon Wic meaning dwelling place or refuge. The River Hull was a good haven for shipping, whose trade included the export of wool from Meaux Abbey, which owned Myton. In 1293, the town of Wyke was acquired from the abbey by King Edward I, who, on 1 April 1299, granted it a royal charter that renamed the settlement King's town upon Hull or Kingston upon Hull. The charter is preserved in the archives of the Guildhall. In 1440, a further charter incorporated the town and instituted local government consisting of a mayor, a sheriff and twelve aldermen. In his Guide to Hull (1817), J.C. Craggs provides a colourful background to Edward's acquisition and naming of the town. He writes that the King and a hunting party started a hare which "led them along the delightful banks of the River Hull to the hamlet of Wyke ... [Edward], charmed with the scene before him, viewed with delight the advantageous situation of this hitherto neglected and obscure corner. He foresaw it might become subservient both to render the kingdom more secure against foreign invasion, and at the same time greatly to enforce its commerce". Pursuant to these thoughts, Craggs continues, Edward purchased the land from the Abbot of Meaux, had a manor hall built for himself, issued proclamations encouraging development within the town, and bestowed upon it the royal appellation, King's Town. ### Prospering port The port served as a base for Edward I during the First War of Scottish Independence and later developed into the foremost port on the east coast of England. It prospered by exporting wool and woollen cloth, and importing wine and timber. Hull also established a flourishing commerce with the Baltic ports as part of the Hanseatic League. From its medieval beginnings, Hull's main trading links were with Scotland and northern Europe. Scandinavia, the Baltic and the Low Countries were all key trading areas for Hull's merchants. In addition, there was trade with France, Spain and Portugal. Sir William de la Pole was the town's first mayor. A prosperous merchant, de la Pole founded a family that became prominent in government. Another successful son of a Hull trading family was bishop John Alcock, who founded Jesus College, Cambridge and was a patron of the grammar school in Hull. The increase in trade after the discovery of the Americas and the town's maritime connections are thought to have played a part in the introduction of a virulent strain of syphilis through Hull and on into Europe from the New World. The town prospered during the 16th and early 17th centuries, and Hull's affluence at this time is preserved in the form of several well-maintained buildings from the period, including Wilberforce House, now a museum documenting the life of William Wilberforce. During the English Civil War, Hull became strategically important because of the large arsenal located there. Very early in the war, on 11 January 1642, the king named the Earl of Newcastle governor of Hull while Parliament nominated Sir John Hotham and asked his son, Captain John Hotham, to secure the town at once. Sir John Hotham and Hull corporation declared support for Parliament and denied Charles I entry into the town. Charles I responded to these events by besieging the town. This siege helped precipitate open conflict between the forces of Parliament and those of the Royalists. After the Civil War, docks were built along the route of the town walls, which were demolished. The first dock (1778, renamed Queen's Dock in 1854) was built in the area occupied by Beverley and North gates, and the intermediate walls, which were demolished, a second dock (Humber Dock, 1809) was built on the land between Hessle and Myton gates, and a third dock between the two was opened 1829 as Junction Dock (later Prince's Dock). Whaling played a major role in the town's fortunes until the mid-19th century. As sail power gave way to steam, Hull's trading links extended throughout the world. Docks were opened to serve the frozen meat trade of Australia, New Zealand and South America. Hull was also the centre of a thriving inland and coastal trading network, serving the whole of the United Kingdom. ### City status Throughout the second half of the 19th century and leading up to the First World War, the Port of Hull played a major role in the emigration of Northern European settlers to the New World, with thousands of emigrants sailing to Hull and stopping for administrative purposes before travelling on to Liverpool and then North America. Parallel to this growth in passenger shipping was the emergence of the Wilson Line of Hull (which had been founded in 1825 by Thomas Wilson). By the early 20th century, the company had grown – largely through its monopolisation of North Sea passenger routes and later mergers and acquisitions – to be the largest privately owned shipping company in the world, with over 100 ships sailing to different parts of the globe. The Wilson Line was sold to the Ellerman Lines – which itself was owned by Hull-born magnate (and the richest man in Britain at the time) Sir John Ellerman. Hull's prosperity peaked in the decades just before the First World War; it was during this time, in 1897, that city status was granted. Many of the suburban areas on the western side of Hull were built in the 1930s, particularly Willerby Road and Anlaby Park, as well as most of Willerby itself. This was part of the biggest British housing boom of the 20th century (possibly ever). ### Bombed and battered The city's port and industrial facilities, coupled with its proximity to mainland Europe and ease of location being on a major estuary, led to extremely widespread damage by bombing raids during the Second World War; much of the city centre was destroyed. Hull had 95% of its houses damaged or destroyed, making it the most severely bombed British city or town in terms of number of damaged or destroyed buildings, apart from London, during the Second World War. More than 1,200 people died in air raids on the city and some 3,000 others were injured. The worst of the bombing occurred in 1941. Little was known about this destruction by the rest of the country at the time, since most of the radio and newspaper reports did not reveal Hull by name but referred to it as "a North-East town" or "a northern coastal town". Most of the city centre was rebuilt in the years following the war. As recently as 2006 researchers found documents in the local archives that suggested a non-exploded wartime bomb might be buried beneath a major new redevelopment, the Boom, in Hull. After the decline of the whaling industry post the Second World War, emphasis shifted to deep-sea trawling until the Anglo-Icelandic Cod War of 1975–1976. The conditions set at the end of this dispute started Hull's economic decline. ### City of Culture In 2017 Hull was awarded the title of 'City of Culture' by the Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport. Within the city there was a series of festivals in public spaces to promote the city and its newly given title. At the start of the year there was a huge firework display attracting a crowd of 25,000. ## Governance ### Municipal Following the Local Government Act 1888, Hull became a county borough, a local government district independent of the East Riding of Yorkshire. This district was dissolved under the Local Government Act 1972, on 1 April 1974 when it became a non-metropolitan district of the newly created shire county of Humberside. Humberside (and its county council) was abolished on 1 April 1996 and Hull was made a unitary authority area. The single-tier local authority of the city is now Hull City Council (officially Kingston upon Hull City Council), headquartered in the Guildhall in the city centre. The council was designated as the UK's worst performing authority in both 2004 and 2005, but in 2006 was rated as a two star 'improving adequate' council and in 2007 it retained its two stars with an 'improving well' status. In the 2008 corporate performance assessment the city retained its "improving well" status but was upgraded to a three star rating. The Liberal Democrats won overall control of the City Council in the 2007 local elections, ending several years in which no single party had a majority. They retained control in the 2008 local elections by an increased majority and in the 2010 local elections. Following the UK's local elections of 2011, the Labour Party gained control of the council, increasing their majority in the 2012 and retained this following the 2014 local elections. They increased their majority by one in the 2015 local elections, but lost it in the 2016 local elections. In the 2018 local elections all of the council was up for election following boundary changes that reduced the number of seats by 2. Labour retained control of the council but with a much reduced majority, while in the 2019 local elections there was no change to the make-up of the council. In the 2021 local elections the Liberal Democrats gained a couple of seats but Labour retained control by just three seats. On 3 March 2022, Labour councillor Julia Conner defected to the Liberal Democrats, reducing the Labour majority to one. The Liberal Democrats won overall control of the City Council in the 2022 local elections to end ten years of Labour rule, increasing their majority in the 2023 local elections. ### Parliament The city returned three members of parliament to the House of Commons and at the last general election, in 2019, elected three Labour MPs: Emma Hardy, Diana Johnson and Karl Turner. William Wilberforce is the most celebrated of Hull's former MPs. He was a native of the city and the member for Hull from 1780 to 1784 when he was elected as an Independent member for Yorkshire. ## Geography Kingston upon Hull is on the northern bank of the Humber Estuary. The city centre is west of the River Hull and close to the Humber. The city is built upon alluvial and glacial deposits which overlie chalk rocks but the underlying chalk has no influence on the topography. The land within the city is generally very flat and is only 2 to 4 metres (6.5 to 13 ft) above sea level. Because of the relative flatness of the site there are few physical constraints upon building and many open areas are the subject of pressures to build. The parishes of Drypool, Marfleet, Sculcoates, and most of Sutton parish, were absorbed within the borough of Hull in the 19th and 20th centuries. Much of their area has been built over, and socially and economically they have long been inseparable from the city. Only Sutton retained a recognisable village centre in the late 20th century, but on the south and east the advancing suburbs had already reached it. The four villages were, nevertheless, distinct communities, of a largely rural character, until their absorption in the borough—Drypool and Sculcoates in 1837, Marfleet in 1882, and Sutton in 1929. The current boundaries of the city are tightly drawn and exclude many of the metropolitan area's nearby villages, of which Cottingham is the largest. The city is surrounded by the rural East Riding of Yorkshire. Some areas of Hull lie on reclaimed land at or below sea level. The Hull Tidal Surge Barrier is at the point where the River Hull joins the Humber Estuary and is lowered at times when unusually high tides are expected. It is used between 8 and 12 times per year and protects the homes of approximately 10,000 people from flooding. Due to its low level, Hull is expected to be at increasing levels of risk from flooding due to global warming. Historically, Hull has been affected by tidal and storm flooding from the Humber; the last serious floods were in the 1950s, in 1953, 1954 and the winter of 1959. Many areas of Hull were flooded during the June 2007 United Kingdom floods, with 8,600 homes and 1,300 businesses affected. Further flooding occurred in 2013, resulting in a new flood defence scheme to protect homes and businesses, stretching 4 miles (6.4 km) from St Andrews Quay Retail Park to Victoria Dock, linking to other defences at Paull and Hessle. Started in 2016, it was completed in early 2021. The scheme was officially opened on 3 March 2022, by Rebecca Pow. At around 00:56 GMT on 27 February 2008, Hull was 30 miles (48 km) north of the epicentre of an earthquake measuring 5.3 on the Richter Scale which lasted for nearly 10 seconds. This was an unusually large earthquake for this part of the world. Another notable quake occurred early in the morning of 10 June 2018. ### Climate Located in Northern England, Hull has a temperate maritime climate which is dominated by the passage of mid-latitude depressions. The weather is very changeable from day to day and the warming influence of the Gulf Stream makes the region mild for its latitude. Locally, the area is sunnier than most areas this far north in the British Isles, and also considerably drier, due to the rain shadowing effect of the Pennines. It is somewhat warmer than west coast areas at a similar latitude such as Liverpool in summer due to stronger shielding from maritime air but also colder in winter and North Sea breezes keep the city cooler than inland areas during summer. It is also one of the most northerly areas where the July average maximum temperature exceeds 21.5 °C (70.7 °F), although this appears to be very localised around the city. Flooding in June 2007 caused significant damage to areas of the city. Droughts and heatwaves also occur such as in 2003, 2006 and recently in 2018. The absolute maximum temperature recorded is 36.9 °C (98.4 °F), set in July 2022. Typically, the warmest day should reach 28.8 °C (83.8 °F), though slightly over 10 days should achieve a temperature of 25.1 °C (77.2 °F) or more in an "average" year. All averages refer to the 1981–2010 period. The absolute minimum temperature is −11.1 °C (12.0 °F), recorded during January 1982. Winters are generally mild for the latitude with snow only occurring a couple of times a year on average and mostly only staying for a day or two before melting. It is frequently cloudy and the North Sea winds make it feel colder than it actually is. An average of 32.5 nights should report an air frost. Heavy snowfalls do occasionally occur such as in 2010. On 23 November 1981, during the record-breaking nationwide tornado outbreak, Hull was struck by two tornadoes. The first, rated as a very weak F0/T0 tornado, touched down in the Port of Hull shortly before 13:30 local time. This was followed several minutes later by a much stronger F1/T2 tornado, which passed through and caused damage to residential buildings across the north-eastern suburbs of Hull. ## Demography According to the 2001 UK census, Hull had a population of 243,589 living in 104,288 households. The population density was 34.1 per hectare. Of the total number of homes 47.85% were rented compared with a national figure of 31.38% rented. The population had declined by 7.5% since the 1991 UK census, and has been officially estimated as 256,200 in July 2006. In 2001, approximately 53,000 people were aged under 16, 174,000 were aged 16–74, and 17,000 aged 75 and over. Of the total population 97.7% were white and the largest minority ethnic group was of 749 people who considered themselves to be ethnically Chinese. There were 3% of people living in Hull who were born outside the United Kingdom. In 2006, the largest minority ethnic grouping was Iraqi Kurds who were estimated at 3,000. Most of these people were placed in the city by the Home Office while their applications for asylum were being processed. In 2001, the city was 71.7% Christian. A further 18% of the population indicated they were of no religion while 8.4% did not specify any religious affiliation. Historically, minorities of many faiths and nationalities have lived around the docks, Old Town and City Centre, coming in from European ports like Hamburg, aided by continental railways and steam-ships from the mid-1800s. Over 2 million passed through Hull between 1850 and 1914, on the way to a new life in America and elsewhere, but some planned or decided to stay. Dutch, Jews, Germans, Scandinavians and others were sometimes prominently involved in the life of the port city. They found opportunity but endured discrimination at times, such that these communities have now largely dispersed. Also in 2001, the city had a high proportion, at 6.2%, of people of working age who were unemployed, ranking 354th out of 376 local and unitary authorities within England and Wales. The distance travelled to work was less than 3 miles (4.8 km) for 64,578 out of 95,957 employed people. A further 18,031 travelled between 3.1 and 6.2 miles (5 and 10 km) to their place of employment. The number of people using public transport to get to work was 12,915 while the number travelling by car was 53,443. Men in the University ward had the fourth lowest life expectancy at birth, 69.4 years, of any ward in England and Wales in 2016. ### Ethnicity ## Industry The traditional industries of Hull are seafaring (whaling and later seafishing) and later heavy industry which both have since declined in the city. Companies BP and Reckitt Benckiser, have facilities in Hull. The city is part of the Humber Enterprise Zone. ### Port Although the fishing industry, including oilseed production, declined in the 1970s due to the Cod Wars, the city remains a busy port, handling 13 million tonnes of cargo per year. The port operations run by Associated British Ports and other companies in the port employ 5,000 people. A further 18,000 are employed as a direct result of the port's activities. The port freight railway line, the Hull Docks Branch, operates 22 trains per day. ### Energy In January 2011 Siemens Wind Power and Associated British Ports signed a memorandum of understanding concerning the construction of a wind turbine blade manufacturing plant at Alexander Dock. The plan would require some modification of the dock to allow the ships, used for transporting the wind turbine blades, to dock and be loaded. Planning applications for the plant were submitted in December 2011, and affirmed in 2014, concerning 75-metre (246 ft) blades for the 6 MW offshore model. A 12.5-acre (5.1 ha) site waste-to-energy centre costing in the region of £150 million is also planned to be built by the Spencer Group. Announced in mid-2011, and named 'Energy Works', the proposed plant would process up to 200,000 tonnes of organic material per year, with energy produced via a waste gasification process. ### Other Hull Marina was from the old Humber and Railway docks in the centre of the city. It was repurposed and opened in 1983, it has 270 berths for yachts and small sailing craft. In July 2014, the former Fruit Market was demolished with a technology hub C4DI (Centre for Digital Innovation) built in December 2015. The city has chemical and health care sectors, Smith & Nephew's founder Thomas James Smith being from the city. The health care sector has research facilities provided by the University of Hull through the Institute of Woundcare and the Hull York Medical School partnerships. Ferry services started after the decline in fishing by the introduction of Roll-on Roll-off ferry services to the continent of Europe. These ferries handle over a million passengers each year. ## Commerce ### Trade Merchant's houses such as Blaydes House and some warehouses survive in the Old Town, where trade was centred on the River Hull, later shifting to the Humber docks. Humber Quays incorporates the World Trade Centre Hull & Humber and offices for The Spencer Group, RBS, and Jonathan Oliver Lee. The quays was a late 2000s development costing £165 million with office buildings, housing, a 200-bedroom hotel and a restaurant. ### Retail In March 2017, the Old Town area was designated as one of 10 Heritage Action Zones by Historic England with the benefit that the area would get a share of £6 million. Retailers such as Heron Foods, and Jacksons began their operations in Hull. The former electrical retailer Comet Group was founded in the city as Comet Battery Stores Limited in 1933; the company's first superstore was opened in Hull in 1968. Hull has many shopping streets, both inside and outside the city centre. The main non-city-centre shopping streets are Hessle Road, Holderness Road, Chanterlands Avenue, Beverley Road, Princes Avenue, and Newland Avenue. Additionally, two covered shopping arcades, Paragon and Hepworth. The latter was modernised and renovated in the late 2000s. The city also has the Trinity Market Hall, a grade II listed building Edwardian era indoor hall with 50 stalls, it was last renovated in 2016. The city centre has three shopping centres, St Stephen's, Princes Quay, and the Prospect Centre. The Prospect Centre on Prospect Street is the smaller and older shopping centre which benefits from large footfall; having chain stores, banks, fashion retailers and the city's main post office. Princes Quay Shopping Centre was built in 1991 on stilts over the closed Prince's Dock. It has a mixture chain stores and food outlets. It was built with four retail floors, known as "decks", with the uppermost deck converted to a cinema from December 2007. The St Stephen's shopping centre development on Ferensway adjacent to Hull Paragon Interchange is a 560,000-square-foot (52,000 m<sup>2</sup>) scheme, that opened in 2007. It is anchored by a superstore and provides many shop units, food outlets, a hotel, and a 7-screen cinema. Since its opening, shopping patterns within the city centre have shifted to the centre from around Princes Quay. The North Point Shopping Centre (also known by as Bransholme Shopping Centre which is the area of the city it's in) contains a similar range of popular chain and budget retailers including Boyes and Heron Foods. There are also other outer centres for shopping and retail parks, including St Andrews Quay retail park on the Humber bank and Kingswood retail park (Kingswood). ### Nightlife, bars and pubs The main drinking area in the city centre is the Old Town. One pub has Hull's smallest window (The George Hotel). Spiders, which opened in 1979, is an alternative rock nightclub on Cleveland Street, situated in a building that was once The Hope and Anchor pub. 'ATIK' nightclub (formerly The Sugarmill) is situated adjacent to Princes Quay shopping centre and the historic Princes Dock which dated back to 1829. ## Culture Hull has several museums of national importance. The city has a theatrical tradition with some famous actors and writers having been born and lived in Hull. The city's arts and heritage have played a role in attracting visitors and encouraging tourism in recent efforts at regeneration. Hull has a diverse range of architecture and this is complemented by parks and squares and a number of statues and modern sculptures. The city has inspired author Val Wood who has set many of her best-selling novels in the city. The Wilberforce Lecture and award of the Wilberforce Medallion, which has taken place annually since 1995, celebrates the historic role of Hull and William Wilberforce in combating the abuse of human rights. In April 2013 Hull put forward a bid to be the UK City of Culture in 2017, reaching the shortlist of four in June 2013 along with Dundee, Leicester and Swansea Bay. On 20 November 2013, Maria Miller, the Culture Secretary, announced that Hull had won the award to become the UK City of Culture 2017. Monopoly have released a version focusing on Hull, with attractions such as the Deep and St Stephens included. ### Museums The Museums Quarter is a development on the High Street in the heart of the Old Town. It combines four museums around a leisure garden. The work cost £5.1 million and was carried out from 1998 to 2003, being formally opened by the Duke of Gloucester. The Museums are Wilberforce House, the birthplace of William Wilberforce (1759–1833), the British politician, abolitionist and social reformer; the Arctic Corsair, a deep-sea trawler that was converted to a museum ship in 1999, on the adjacent River Hull; the Hull and East Riding Museum, showing the archaeology and history of the region; and the Streetlife Museum of Transport, which includes a sizeable collection of vintage cars, preserved public transport vehicles and horse-drawn carriages. Other museums include the Hull Maritime Museum in Victoria Square, the Spurn Lightship, and The Deep, a public aquarium. ### Art and galleries The civic art gallery is the Ferens Art Gallery on Queen Victoria Square, a Grade II listed building. It is named after Thomas Ferens who provided the funds for it. Other galleries include the three-storey Humber Street Gallery, in the former Fruit Market building which was opened in 2017 as part of Hull City of Culture. There are other smaller exhibition spaces. #### Creations Marine painter John Ward (1798–1849) was born, worked and died in Hull and a leading ship artist of his day. Artist and Royal Academician David Remfry (born 1942) grew up in Hull and studied at the Hull College of Art (now part of Lincoln University) from 1959 to 1964. His tutor, Gerald T Harding, trained at the Royal College of Art, London and was awarded the Abbey Minor Travelling Scholarship in 1957 by the British School in Rome. Remfry has had two solo exhibitions at the Ferens Art Gallery in 1975 and 2005. Hull has a number of historical statues such as the Wilberforce Memorial in Queen's Gardens and the gilded King William III statue on Market Place (known locally as "King Billy"). There is a statue of Hull-born Amy Johnson in Prospect Street and Hull's Paragon Interchange has a statue of Philip Larkin, the latter unveiled on 2 December 2010. In 2010 a public art event in Hull city centre entitled Larkin with Toads displayed 40 individually decorated giant toad models as the centrepiece of the Larkin 25 festival. Most of these sculptures have since been sold off for charity and transported to their new owners. In recent years a number of modern art sculptures and heritage trails have been installed around Hull. These include a figure looking out to the Humber called 'Voyage' which has a twin in Iceland. In July 2011, this artwork was reported stolen. There is a shark sculpture outside The Deep and a fountain and installation called 'Tower of Light' outside Britannia House on the corner of Spring Bank. The Seven Seas Fish Trail marks Hull's fishing heritage, leading its followers through old and new sections of the city, following a wide variety of sealife engraved in the pavement. Running along Spring Bank there is also an elephant trail, with stone pavers carved by a local artist to the designs of members of the community. This trail commemorates the Victorian Zoological Gardens and the route taken daily by the elephant as it walked from its house down Spring Bank to the zoo and back, stopping for gingerbread at a shop on the way. The animals are further represented on the Albany Street 'Home Zone' a project involving local residents and resulting in sculptures of a hippo ('Water Horse') at the bottom of Albany Street; an elephant balancing on its trunk on an island in the middle; and two bears climbing poles and reaching out to each other to form an open archway across the entrance to Albany Street from Spring Bank. Other sculptural details of animals along the street represent the participation of street residents, either through workshops with artists and makers, or through independent work of their own. In 2019 a series of blue plaques appeared around Hull as part of the Alternative Heritage project. The art project was designed to celebrate the little known and quirky facts that make Hull the city it is. A variety of tongue in cheek and humorous blue plaques appeared over night celebrating everything from Chip Spice to The Beautiful South. New plaques continue to appear on a regular basis and their content has occasionally divided opinion in the city. The "Dead Bod", a graffito originally painted on the Alexandria Dock, became a local landmark. It is now located in the Humber Street Gallery. #### Three Ships mural The mural is on a curved screen attached to the end-wall of the old city centre Co-operative store building sited at the intersection where Jameson Street meets King Edward Street, now a mainly pedestrianised area created for the City of Culture 2017. Built by 1963 and later home to BHS, the building closed in 2016 with the collapse of BHS retail stores and was scheduled for demolition due to asbestos content. The building was listed as Grade II after lobbying by local pressure group Hull Heritage Action Group, potentially preventing demolition of the mural-wall. Specialist spraying to seal the building's internal structure has enabled moves to determine the actual level of asbestos in the mural-wall itself and provided a possible solution to incorporate the wall into a new development. ### Theatres The city has two main theatres. Hull New Theatre, which opened in 1939, with a £16 million refurbishment in 2016–17, is the largest venue which features musicals, opera, ballet, drama, children's shows and pantomime. The Hull Truck Theatre is a smaller independent theatre, established in 1971, that regularly features plays, notably those written by John Godber. Since April 2009, the Hull Truck Theatre has had a new £14.5 million, 440 seat venue in the St Stephen's Hull development. This replaced the former home of the Hull Truck Theatre on Spring Street, a complex of buildings demolished in 2011. The playwright Alan Plater was brought up in Hull and was associated with Hull Truck Theatre. Hull has produced several veteran stage and TV actors. Sir Tom Courtenay, Ian Carmichael and Maureen Lipman were born and brought up in Hull. Younger actors Reece Shearsmith, Debra Stephenson, Liam Gerrard and Liam Garrigan were also born in Hull. In 1914, there were 29 cinemas in Hull but most of these have now closed. The first purpose-built cinema was the Prince's Hall in George Street which was opened in 1910 by Hull's theatre magnate, William Morton. It was subsequently renamed the Curzon. On 25 July 2018, a new 3,000 seat arena was opened to the public in the centre of the city. It was officially opened on 20 August 2018, with a Van Morrison concert. ### Festivals The Humber Mouth literature festival is an annual event and the 2012 season featured artists such as John Cooper Clarke, Kevin MacNeil and Miriam Margolyes. The annual Hull Jazz Festival takes place around the Marina area for a week at the beginning of August. From 2008 Hull has also held its Freedom Festival, an annual free arts and live music event that celebrates freedom in all its forms. Performers have included Pixie Lott, JLS and Martha Reeves and The Vandellas, Public Service Broadcasting and The 1975 as well as featuring a torchlight procession, local bands like The Talks and Happy Endings from Fruit Trade Music label and a Ziggy Stardust photo exhibition including photos of the late-Hull-born Mick Ronson who worked with David Bowie. Former United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan was awarded the Wilberforce Medallion at the 2017 festival. Early October sees the arrival of Hull Fair which is one of Europe's largest travelling funfairs and takes place on land adjacent to the MKM Stadium. The city's Pride in Hull festival is one of the largest free-to-attend LGBT+ Pride events in the UK, attracting in excess of 50,000 attendees. Headline performers have included Adore Delano, Louise Redknapp, Marc Almond, Nadine Coyle of Girls Aloud, Alaska Thunderfuck and B\Witched. The Hull Global Food Festival held its third annual event in the city's Queen Victoria Square for three days – 4–6 September 2009. According to officials, the event in 2007 attracted 125,000 visitors and brought some £5 million in revenue to the area. In 2007 the Hull Metalfest began in the Welly Club, it featured major label bands from the United States, Canada and Italy, as well as the UK. The first Hull Comedy Festival, which included performers such as Stewart Lee and Russell Howard was held in 2007. In 2010, Hull marked the 25th anniversary of the death of the poet Philip Larkin with the Larkin 25 Festival. This included the popular Larkin with Toads public art event. The 40 Larkin toads were displayed around Hull and later sold off in a charity auction. A charity appeal raised funds to cast a life-size bronze statue of Philip Larkin, to a design by Martin Jennings, at Hull Paragon Interchange. The statue was unveiled at a ceremony attended by the Lord Mayor of Hull on 2 December 2010, the 25th anniversary of Larkin's death. It bears an inscription drawn from the first line of Larkin's poem, 'The Whitsun Weddings'. In 2013, from 29 April to 5 May, Hull Fashion Week took place with various events happening in venues in and around Hull's City centre. It finished with a finale on 5 May at Hull Paragon Interchange, when recently reformed pop group Atomic Kitten appeared in a celebrity fashion show. on 24 June 2017, The first Yellow Day Hull event, organised by Hull-born Preston Likely, was staged. Likely invited everybody in the city to participate in the event, encouraging all participants to either wear, carry or make something yellow in order to celebrate the city's history and culture. On 3 August 2013, the second Humber Street Sesh Festival took place celebrating local music talent and arts, with several stages showcasing bands and artists from the Fruit Trade Music Label, Humber Street Sesh and Purple Worm Records. In 2018, the 16th Pride in Hull festival saw attendees take part in the annual celebration of LGBT+ culture. ## Cultural references ### Poetry Hull has attracted the attention of poets to the extent that the Australian author Peter Porter has described it as "the most poetic city in England". Philip Larkin set many of his poems in Hull; these include "The Whitsun Weddings", "Toads", and "Here". Scottish-born Douglas Dunn's Terry Street, a portrait of working-class Hull life, is one of the outstanding poetry collections of the 1970s. Dunn forged close associations with such Hull poets as Peter Didsbury and Sean O'Brien; the works of some of these writers appear in the 1982 Bloodaxe anthology A Rumoured City, a work that Dunn edited. Andrew Motion, past Poet Laureate, lectured at the University of Hull between 1976 and 1981, and Roger McGough studied there. Both poets spoke at the Humber Mouth Festival in 2010. Contemporary poets associated with Hull are Maggie Hannan, David Wheatley, and Caitriona O'Reilly. 17th-century metaphysical poet and parliamentarian Andrew Marvell was born nearby, grew up and was educated in the city. There is a statue in his honour in the Market Square (Trinity Square), set against the backdrop of his alma mater Hull Grammar School. ### Music #### Classical In the field of classical music, Hull is home to Sinfonia UK Collective (formerly Hull Sinfonietta, founded in 2004), a national and international touring group that serves Hull and its surrounding regions in its role as Ensemble in Residence at University of Hull, and also the Hull Philharmonic Orchestra, one of the oldest amateur orchestras in the country. and formerly The Hull Philharmonic Youth Orchestra, established in 1952, the Hull Choral Union, the Hull Bach Choir – which specialises in the performance of 17th- and 18th-century choral music – the Hull Male Voice Choir, the Arterian Singers and two Gilbert & Sullivan Societies: the Dagger Lane Operatic Society and the Hull Savoyards are also based in Hull. There are two brass bands, the East Yorkshire Motor Services Band, who are the current North of England Area Brass Band Champions, and East Riding of Yorkshire Band who are the 2014 North of England Regional Champions within their section. Hull City Hall annually plays host to major British and European symphony Orchestras with its 'International Masters' orchestral concert season. During the 2009–10 season visiting orchestras included the St Petersburg Symphony Orchestra and the Czech National Symphony Orchestra. Internationally renowned touring pop, rock, and comedy acts also regularly play the City Hall. In September 2013 a five-year partnership with the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra was announced by the City Council. #### Rock, pop and folk On the popular music scene, in the 1960s, Mick Ronson of the Hull band Rats worked closely with David Bowie and was heavily involved in production of the album The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars. Ronson later went on to record with Lou Reed, Bob Dylan, Morrissey and the Wildhearts. There is a Mick Ronson Memorial Stage in Queen's Gardens in Hull. The 1960s were also notable for the revival of English folk music, of which the Hull-based quartet, the Watersons were prominent exponents. The Who performed and recorded a concert, at the Hull City Hall, on 15 February 1970. In the 1980s, Hull groups such as the Red Guitars, the Housemartins and Everything but the Girl found mainstream success, followed by Kingmaker in the 1990s. Paul Heaton, former member of the Housemartins went on to front the Beautiful South. Another former member of the Housemartins, Norman Cook, now performs as Fatboy Slim. In 1982, Hull-born Paul Anthony Cook, Stuart Matthewman and Paul Spencer Denman formed the group Sade. In 1984, the singer Helen Adu signed to CBS Records and the group released the album Diamond Life. The album had sales of four million copies. The pioneering industrial band Throbbing Gristle formed in Hull; Genesis P-Orridge (Neil Megson) attended Hull University between 1968 and 1969, where he met Cosey Fanni Tutti (Christine Newby), who was born in the city, and first became part of the Hull performance art group COUM Transmissions in 1970. The record label Pork Recordings started in Hull in the mid-1990s, and has released music by Fila Brazillia. The New Adelphi is a popular local venue for alternative live music in the city, and has achieved notability outside Hull, having hosted such bands as the Stone Roses, Radiohead, Green Day, and Oasis in its history, while the Springhead caters to a variety of bands and has been recognised nationally as a 'Live Music Pub of the Year'. In the 2000s, Hull indie rock band The Paddingtons saw mainstream success with two UK Top 40 singles in 2005, later reforming in 2014 and performing at the Humber Street Sesh with notable bands such as Sulu Babylon and Street Parade. In the 1990s, the duo Scarlet from Hull had two Top 40 hits with "Independent Love Song" and "I Wanna Be Free (To Be With Him)" in 1995. The Humber Street Sesh night has released four DIY compilations featuring the cream of Hull's live music scene, and there are currently a few labels emerging in the city, including Purple Worm Records based at Hull College, with bands such as The Blackbirds showing a promising future. ## Religion Unlike many other English cities, Hull has no cathedral. Since 13 May 2017, the Holy Trinity Church (dating back to 1300) became a Minster, known as Hull Minster. It is a part of the Anglican Diocese of York and has a suffragan bishop. Hull forms part of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Middlesbrough's southern vicariate. St Charles Borromeo is the oldest post-Reformation Roman Catholic church in the city. There are several seamen's missions and churches in Hull. The Mission to Seafarers has a centre at West King George Dock and the St Nikolaj Danish Seamen's Church is located in Osborne Street. ## Parks and green spaces Hull has a large number of parks and green spaces. These include East Park, Pearson Park, Pickering Park, Peter Pan Park (Costello Playing fields), and West Park. West Park is home to Hull's MKM Stadium. Pearson Park contains a lake and a 'Victorian Conservatory' housing birds and reptiles. East Park has a large boating lake and a collection of birds and animals. East Park and Pearson Park are registered Grade II listed sites by Historic England. The city centre has the large Queen's Gardens parkland at its heart. This was originally built as formal ornamental gardens used to fill in the former Queen's Dock. It is now a more flexible grassed and landscaped area used for concerts and festivals, but retains a large ornamental flower circus and fountain at its western end. The streets of Hull's suburban areas also lined with large numbers of trees, particularly the Avenues area around Princes Avenue, and Boulevard to the west. Many of the old trees in the Avenues district have been felled in recent years with the stumps carved into a variety of 'living sculptures'. Other green areas include the University area and parts of Beverley Road to the north. West Hull has a district known as 'Botanic'. This recalls the short-lived Botanic Garden that once existed on the site now occupied by Hymers College. Elephants once lived nearby in the former Zoological Gardens on Spring Bank and were paraded in the local streets. The land has since been redeveloped. There was also a former Botanic Garden between Hessle Road and the Anlaby Road commemorated by Linnaeus Street. ## Media Hull's only local daily newspaper is the longstanding Hull Daily Mail, whose circulation area covers much of the East Riding of Yorkshire too. A free paper, The Hull Advertiser, used to be issued weekly by the same publisher. The city was once served by three competing daily newspapers, all operating from the Whitefriargate area Eastern Morning News, Hull News and Hull and East Yorkshire Times. On 17 April 1930 the last edition of Evening News was published after the paper was taken over by its longstanding rival the Hull Daily Mail. Local listings and what's-on guides include Tenfoot City Magazine and Sandman Magazine (combined into single volume covering all of England, print version then made defunct in favour of online site). The BBC has its Yorkshire and Lincolnshire regional headquarters at Queen's Gardens, from which the regional news programme Look North is broadcast. Radio services broadcasting from the city are community radio stations, Hull Kingston Radio, 106.9 West Hull FM (formerly WHCR FM) and hospital radio station Kingstown Radio. The BBC's regional station BBC Radio Humberside is also based in Hull and broadcasts to East Yorkshire & Northern Lincolnshire. Commercial stations for the city Viking FM and Nation Radio East Yorkshire (formerly KCFM) broadcast from outside of Hull and are now part of a national network like Capital Yorkshire which has a base over 60 miles (100 km) away in Leeds. The Hull University Union's student radio station Jam 1575, stopped broadcasting on MW. On 24 November 2013 a RSL (Restricted Service Licence) was given to new station "Hull Community Radio" broadcasting on 87.9 FM. ## Sport Sports in the city include professional football, rugby league, rugby union, golf, darts, athletics, and watersports. The city's professional football club, Hull City A.F.C., play in the Championship, the second tier of the English football league system, after promotion, as champions, from League One, at the first time of asking, in the 2020–21 season. The team play at the MKM Stadium. There are also two non-league clubs based in the city, Hall Road Rangers, who play at Haworth Park, and Hull United, who play at Steve Prescott Centre. Both play in the Humber Premier League. Another sport in Hull is rugby league, with the city supplying two teams in to the Super League competition. The first is Hull FC, who were founded in 1865 as the oldest rugby league club in the world, and play at the MKM Stadium. Also in Super League are Hull Kingston Rovers, who play at Sewell Group Craven Park Stadium in East Hull, following promotion from the Championship in 2017. There are also several lower league teams in the city, such as East Hull, West Hull, Hull Dockers and Hull Isberg, who all play in the National Conference League. Rugby union is catered for by Hull Ionians who play at Brantingham Park. and Hull RUFC who are based in the city. From the 2023–04 season, both clubs will play in the National League 2 North. The city has two athletics clubs based at the Costello Stadium in the west of the city – Kingston upon Hull Athletics Club and Hull Achilles Athletics Club. Hull Cycle Speedway Club is at the Hessle raceway near the Humber bridge. The side race in the sports Northern league and won both the league titles in 2008. Other cycling clubs also operate throughout the city including Hull Thursday, the area's road racing group. Hull Arena, is an ice rink and concert venue, which is home to the Hull Seahawks ice hockey team who play in the NIHL National Division for the 2022–23 season. It is also home to the Kingston Kestrels ice sledge hockey team. In August 2010, Hull Daily Mail reported that Hull Stingrays was facing closure, following a financial crisis. The club was subsequently saved from closure following a takeover by Coventry Blaze. But on 24 June 2015, the club announced on its official website that it has been placed into liquidation. The Hull Hornets American football existed from 2005 until 2011. The club, which acquired full member status in the British American Football League on 5 November 2006, played in the BAFL Division 2 Central league for 5 years. The Humber Warhawks formed in 2013 are now Hull's American football team. Greyhound racing returned to the city on 25 October 2007 when The Boulevard stadium re-opened as a venue for the sport. In mid-2006 Hull was home to the professional wrestling company One Pro Wrestling, which held the Devils Due event on 27 July in the Gemtec Arena. From 16 May 2008, Hull gained its own homegrown wrestling company based at the Eastmount Recreation Centre—New Generation Wrestling—that have featured the likes of El Ligero, Kris Travis, Martin Kirby and Alex Shane. Hull Lacrosse Club was formed in 2008 and currently plays in the Premier 3 division of the North of England Men's Lacrosse Association. The city played host to the Clipper Round the World Yacht Race, a tough 35,000 miles (56,000 km) race around the globe, for the 2009–10 race which started on 13 September 2009 and finished on 17 July 2010. The locally named yacht, Hull and Humber, captained by Danny Watson, achieved second place in the 2007–2008 race. The city hosted The British Open Squash Championships at the KC Stadium in 2013 and 2014, before moving to the adjacent Airco Arena in 2015, as part of a three-year deal. Swimming is hosted at Beverley Road Baths, Woodford Leisure Centre, the Ennerdale Centre, and Albert Avenue Baths. Albert Avenue pools were established in 1933, with an outdoor pool which shut to swimmers in 1995, but has been used for canoe training. A major refurbishment to upgrade the complex and return outdoor swimming was announced in 2021. Included are a fitness studio, gym and general upgrades. ## Transport ### Roads The main road into and out of Hull is the M62 motorway/A63 road, one of the main east–west routes in Northern England. It provides a link to the cities of Leeds, Manchester and Liverpool, as well as the rest of the country via the UK motorway network. The motorway itself ends some distance from the city; the rest of the route is along the A63 dual carriageway. This east–west route forms a small part of the European road route E20. Hull is close to the Humber Bridge, which provides road links to destinations south of the Humber. It was built between 1972 and 1981, and at the time was the longest single-span suspension bridge in the world. It is now eighth on the list. Before the bridge was built, those wishing to cross the Humber had to either take a Humber Ferry or travel inland as far as Goole. Bus services are provided by Go-Ahead Group company East Yorkshire (previously known as East Yorkshire Motor Services) and Stagecoach in Hull which cover the city's central, suburban and industrial areas. To provide greater travel flexibility, bus users can obtain a 'Hull Card' which can be used on services run by either operator. Road transport in Hull suffers from delays caused both by the many bridges over the navigable River Hull, which bisects the city and which can cause disruption at busy times, and from the remaining three railway level crossings in the city. The level-crossing problem was greatly relieved during the 1960s by the closure of the Hornsea and Withernsea branch lines, by the transfer of all goods traffic to the high-level line that circles the city, and by the construction of two major road bridges on Hessle Road (1962) and Anlaby Road (1964). A nearby road was renamed from Garrison Road to Roger Millward Way in 2018, after rugby player Roger Millward who played for Hull Kingston Rovers. The developments are part of a wider improvement and redevelopment scheme. ### Other Hull Paragon Interchange, opened on 16 September 2007, is the city's transport hub, combining the main bus and rail termini in an integrated complex. It is expected to have 24,000 people passing through the complex each day. There are services that run to certain other parts of the UK. These include through expresses to London, up to seven per day provided by Hull Trains and one a day by London North Eastern Railway. Other long-distance rail services are provided by TransPennine Express serving Leeds and Manchester. Northern Trains operates regular local stopping trains to , and , and the coastal towns of Bridlington and Scarborough, along with services to Selby, York, Doncaster and Sheffield. P&O Ferries provide daily overnight ferry services from King George Dock in Hull to Zeebrugge and Rotterdam. Services to Rotterdam are worked by ferries MS Pride of Rotterdam and . Services to Zeebrugge are worked by ferries MS Pride of Bruges and MS Pride of York (previously named ). Both Pride of Rotterdam and Pride of Hull are too wide to pass through the lock at Hull. Associated British Ports built a new terminal at Hull to accommodate the passengers using these two ferries. The Rotterdam Terminal at the Port of Hull, was built at a cost of £14,300,000. The nearest airport is Humberside Airport, 20 miles (32 km) away in Lincolnshire, which provides a few charter flights but also has high-frequency flights to Amsterdam with KLM and Aberdeen with Eastern Airways each day. Doncaster Sheffield Airport in South Yorkshire is 48 miles (77 km) from Hull city centre and provides a wider choice of charter flights as well as a number of low-cost flights to certain European destinations. The nearest airport with intercontinental flights is Leeds Bradford Airport is 70 miles (110 km) away. According to the 2001 census data cycling in the city is well above the national average of 2%, with a 12% share of the travel to work traffic. A report by the University of East London in 2011 ranked Hull as the fourth-best cycling city in the United Kingdom. In March 2021, a new footbridge was opened connecting the city to Princes Quay waterfront, marina and fruit market over Castle Street, a dual carriageway road also designated A63. Named Murdoch's Connection after Hull's first female doctor, GP Mary Murdoch, the name was nominated by pupils from Newland School for Girls in Newland, Hull. Works began in autumn 2018 but progress was delayed due to the coronavirus pandemic. There was no opening ceremony due to distancing restrictions; instead, videos were compiled. Members of the public have been requested not to attach love locks. ## Infrastructure ### Telephone system Hull is the only city in the UK with its own independent telephone network company, KCOM, formerly KC and Kingston Communications, a subsidiary of KCOM Group. Its distinctive cream telephone boxes can be seen across the city. KCOM produces its own 'White Pages' telephone directory for Hull and the wider KC area. Colour Pages is KCOM's business directory, the counterpart to Yellow Pages. The company was formed in 1902 as a municipal department by the City Council and is an early example of municipal enterprise. It remains the only locally operated telephone company in the UK, although it is now privatised. KCOM's Internet brands are Karoo Broadband (ISP serving Hull) and Eclipse (national ISP). Initially Hull City Council retained a 44.9 per cent interest in the company and used the proceeds from the sale of shares to fund the city's sports venue, the MKM Stadium, among other things. On 24 May 2007 it sold its remaining stake in the company for over £107 million. KCOM (Kingston Communications) was one of the first telecoms operators in Europe to offer ADSL to business users, and the first in the world to run an interactive television service using ADSL, known as Kingston Interactive TV (KiT), which has since been discontinued due to financial problems. In the last decade, the KCOM Group has expanded beyond Hull and diversified its service portfolio to become a nationwide provider of telephone, television, and Internet access services, having close to 180,000 customers projected for 2007. After its ambitious programme of expansion, KCOM has struggled in recent years and now has partnerships with other telecommunications firms such as BT who are contracted to manage its national infrastructure. Telephone House, on Carr Lane, the firm's 1960s-built headquarters, in stark modernist style, is a local landmark. In October 2019, Hull became the first UK city to have full fibre broadband available for all residents. ### Hydraulic power The first public hydraulic power network, supplying many companies, was constructed in Hull. The Hull Hydraulic Power Company began operation in 1877, with Edward B. Ellington as its engineer and the main pumping station (now a Grade II listed building) in Catherine Street. Ellington was involved in most British networks, including those in London, Liverpool, Birmingham, Manchester and Glasgow, but the advent of electrical power combined with wartime damage meant the Hull company was wound up in 1947. ### Public services Policing in Kingston upon Hull is provided by Humberside Police. In October 2006 the force was named (jointly with Northamptonshire Police) as the worst-performing police force in the United Kingdom, based on data released from the Home Office. However, after a year of "major improvements", the Home Office list released in October 2007 shows the force rising several places (although still among the bottom six of 43 forces rated). Humberside Police received ratings of "good" or "fair" in most categories. HM Prison Hull is located in the city and is operated by HM Prison Service. It caters for up to 1,000 Category B/C adult male prisoners. Statutory emergency fire and rescue service is provided by the Humberside Fire and Rescue Service, which has its headquarters near Hessle and five fire stations in Hull. This service was formed in 1974 following local government reorganisation from the amalgamation of the East Riding of Yorkshire County Fire Service, Grimsby Borough Fire and Rescue Service, Kingston Upon Hull City Fire Brigade and part of the Lincoln (Lindsey) Fire Brigade and a small part of the West Riding of Yorkshire County Fire and Rescue Service. Hull and East Yorkshire Hospitals NHS Trust provides healthcare from three sites, Hull Royal Infirmary, Castle Hill Hospital and, until 2008, Princess Royal Hospital and there are several private hospitals including ones run by BUPA and Nuffield Hospitals. The Yorkshire Ambulance Service provides emergency patient transport. NHS primary health care services are commissioned by the Hull Clinical Commissioning Group and are provided at several smaller clinics and general practitioner surgeries across the city. NHS Mental health services in Hull are provided by Humber NHS Foundation Trust. It runs a memory clinic in Coltman Street, west Hull designed to help older people with early onset dementia. Waste management is co-ordinated by the local authority. The Waste Recycling Group is a company which works in partnership with the Hull City and East Riding of Yorkshire councils to deal with the waste produced by residents. The company plans to build an energy from waste plant at Salt End to deal with 240,000 tonnes of rubbish and put waste to a productive use by providing power for the equivalent of 20,000 houses. Hull's distribution network operator for electricity is CE Electric UK (YEDL); there are no power stations in the city. Yorkshire Water manages Hull's drinking and waste water. Drinking water is provided by boreholes and aquifers in the East Riding of Yorkshire, and it is abstracted from the River Hull at Tophill Low, near Hutton Cranswick. Should either supply experience difficulty meeting demand, water abstracted from the River Derwent at both Elvington and Loftsome Bridge can be moved to Hull via the Yorkshire water grid. There are many reservoirs in the area for storage of potable and non-potable water. Waste water and sewage has to be transported in a wholly pumped system because of the flat nature of the terrain to a sewage treatment works at Salt End. The treatment works is partly powered by both a wind turbine and a biogas CHP engine. ## Education ### Higher education #### University of Hull Kingston upon Hull is home to the University of Hull, which was founded in 1927 and received its Royal Charter in 1954. It now has a total student population of around 20,000 across its main campuses in Hull and Scarborough. The main University campus is in North Hull, on Cottingham Road. Notable alumni include former Deputy Prime Minister John Prescott, social scientist Lord Anthony Giddens, Woman's Hour presenter and writer Jenni Murray, and the dramatist Anthony Minghella. The University of Hull is a partner in the new University Centre of the Grimsby Institute of Further and Higher Education (GIFE) being built in Grimsby, North Lincolnshire. #### University of Lincoln The University of Lincoln grew out of the University of Humberside, a former polytechnic based in Hull. In the 1990s the focus of the institution moved to nearby Lincoln and the administrative headquarters and management moved in 2001. The University of Lincoln has retained a campus in George Street in Hull city centre whilst Hull University purchased the adjacent University of Lincoln campus site on Cottingham Road. ### Specialist Hull York Medical School is a joint venture between the University of Hull and the University of York. It first admitted students in 2003 as a part of the British government's attempts to train more doctors. The Northern Academy of Performing Arts and Northern Theatre School both provide education in musical theatre, performance and dance. The Hull School of Art, founded in 1861, is regarded nationally and internationally for its excellence as a specialist creative centre for higher education. ### Colleges There is a further education college, Hull College, and two large sixth form colleges, Wyke College and Wilberforce College. East Riding College operates a small adult education campus in the city, and Endeavour Learning and Skills Centre is an adult education provision operated by Hull Training & Adult Education. ### Schools Hull has over 100 local schools; of these, Hull City Council supports 14 secondary and 71 primary schools. The highest achieving state school in Hull is Malet Lambert School, Schools which are independent of the City Council include Hymers College and Tranby School. The latter, which is run by the United Church Schools Trust, was formed by the merging of Hull Grammar School and Hull High School. Hull Trinity House Academy has been offering pre-sea training to prospective mariners since 1787. There are only two single-sex schools in Hull: Trinity House Academy, which teaches only boys, and Newland School for Girls. The city has had a poor examination success rate for many years and is often at the bottom of government GCSE league tables. In 2007 the city moved off the bottom of these tables for pupils who achieve five A\ to C grades, including English and Maths, at General Certificate of Secondary Education by just one place when it came 149th out of 150 local education authorities. However, the improvement rate of 4.1 per cent, from 25.9 per cent in 2006 to 30 per cent in summer 2007, was among the best in the country. They returned to the bottom of the table in 2008 when 29.3 per cent achieved five A\* to C grades which is well below the national average of 47.2 per cent. There are insufficient places in referral units for school children with special needs or challenging behaviour due to squeezed budgets and cuts to children's services. ## Dialect and accent The local accent is quite distinctive and noticeably different from the rest of the East Riding; however it is still categorised among Yorkshire accents. The most notable feature of the accent is the strong I-mutation in words like goat, which is in standard English and across most of Yorkshire, becomes ("gert") in and around parts of Hull (cf. similar refined pronunciations in Leeds/York), although there is variation across areas and generations. In common with much of England (outside of the far north), another feature is dropping the H from the start of words, for example Hull is more often pronounced 'Ull in the city. The vowel in "Hull" is pronounced the same way as in northern English, however, and not as the very short that exists in Lincolnshire. Though the rhythm of the accent is more like that of northern Lincolnshire than that of the rural East Riding, which is perhaps due to migration from Lincolnshire to the city during its industrial growth, one feature that it does share with the surrounding rural area is that an sound in the middle of a word often becomes an : for example, "five" may sound like "fahve", "time" like "tahme". The SQUARE–NURSE merger is a feature of Hull's dialect. The vowel sound in words such as burnt, nurse, first is pronounced with an sound, as is also heard in Middlesbrough and in areas of Liverpool yet this sound is very uncommon in most of Yorkshire. The word pairs spur/spare and fur/fair illustrate this. The generational and/or geographic variation can be heard in word pairs like pork/poke or cork/coke, or hall/hole, which some people pronounce almost identically, sounding to non-locals like they are using the second of the two variations – while others make more of a vocal distinction; anyone called "Paul" (for example) soon becomes aware of this (pall/pole). ## Notable people Most of the notable people associated with the city can be found in the People from Kingston upon Hull and People associated with the University of Hull categories. People from Hull are called "Hullensians" and the city has been the birthplace and home to many notable people. Amongst those of historic significance with a connection to Hull are former city MP William Wilberforce who was instrumental in the abolition of slavery and Amy Johnson, aviator who was the first woman to fly solo from England to Australia. Entertainers from the city include; Dorothy Mackaill, 1950s singer David Whitfield, sports commentator Tony Green, actors Sir Tom Courtenay, Ian Carmichael, John Alderton, actress Maureen Lipman and Reece Shearsmith. Playwrights Richard Bean, John Godber and Alan Plater have close connections with Hull. Musicians associated with Hull include Paul Heaton of The Housemartins and The Beautiful South, guitarist Mick Ronson and bassist Trevor Bolder, who worked with David Bowie, and more recently 2000s indie band The Paddingtons. The astrophysicist Edward Arthur Milne and logician John Venn both hailed from Hull. The poet Philip Larkin lived in Hull for 30 years and wrote much of his mature work in the city. An earlier poet, Andrew Marvell represented the city in Parliament during the 17th century. Artist David Remfry RA studied at Hull College of Art before moving to London and New York. Chemist George Gray, who had a 45-year career at the university, developed the first stable liquid crystals that became an immediate success for the screens of all sorts of electronic gadgets. Notable sportspeople include Ebenezer Cobb Morley (16 August 1831 – 20 November 1924), an English sportsman and is regarded as the father of the Football Association and modern football. Clive Sullivan, rugby league player, who played for both of Hull's professional rugby league teams, was the first black Briton to captain any national representative team. The main A63 road into the city from the Humber Bridge is named after him (Clive Sullivan Way). Nick Barmby played for Tottenham Hotspur, Middlesbrough, Everton, Liverpool, and Leeds United before returning to play for his hometown club Hull City. He also won 23 England caps and played in the famous 5–1 victory over Germany in 2001. Another footballer is Dean Windass, who had two spells with Hull City. On accepting a peerage, Welsh-born Baron Prescott of Kingston-upon-Hull (former MP and Deputy Prime Minister John Prescott) took his title from his adopted home city of Hull. ## International relations Hull has formal twinning arrangements with - Chișinău, Moldova - Freetown, Sierra Leone - Niigata, Japan - Raleigh, North Carolina, United States - Reykjavík, Iceland - Rotterdam, Netherlands - Szczecin, Poland The following cities are named directly after Hull: - Hull, Massachusetts, United States - Hull, Quebec, Canada ## Freedom of the City The following people and military units have received the Freedom of the City of Kingston upon Hull. ### Individuals - Desmond Tutu: 2 July 1987. - Helen Suzman: 2 July 1987. - Nelson Mandela: 2 July 1987. - John Prescott: 1 August 1996. - Kevin McNamara: 16 January 1997. - Jean Bishop – "Bee Lady": 23 November 2017. - Sir Thomas Courtenay: 18 January 2018. - Yvonne Blenkinsop: 15 November 2018. - Carol Thomas: 22 September 2022. - Patrick Doyle: 17 November 2022. ### Military Units - The East Yorkshire Regiment: 1 June 1944. - The Prince of Wales's Own Regiment of Yorkshire: 5 June 1958. - The Yorkshire Regiment: 16 November 2006. - The Royal Dragoon Guards - 440 (Humber) light Anti-Aircraft Regiment Royal Artillery (TA): 28 June 1960. - 440 (Humber) light Anti-Aircraft Regiment Royal Artillery (Territorials): 3 August 1967. - RAF Patrington: 16 May 1970. - 150(N) Transport Regiment Royal Corps of Transport (Volunteers): 1 February 1990. - RRH Staxton Wold: 3 March 1994. - 150 (Yorkshire) Transport Regiment Royal Logistic Corps (Volunteers): 3 March 1994. - HMS Iron Duke, RN: 3 March 1994. - 250th Field Ambulance (Volunteer Unit): 15 July 1999. - Hull Unit Sea Cadet Corps: 27 February 2014. ## See also - Grade I listed churches in the East Riding of Yorkshire - Land of Green Ginger - Trams in Kingston upon Hull - Trolleybuses in Kingston upon Hull - Hull triple trawler tragedy (1968) - Sculcoates power station - History of the Jews in Hull - List of Jews from Kingston upon Hull - Rollits LLP
37,633,089	Glenn Robinson III	1,164,395,650	American basketball player (born 1994)	[ "1994 births", "21st-century African-American sportspeople", "African-American basketball players", "American men's basketball players", "Basketball players from Gary, Indiana", "Detroit Pistons players", "Fort Wayne Mad Ants players", "Golden State Warriors players", "Indiana Pacers players", "Living people", "Michigan Wolverines men's basketball players", "Minnesota Timberwolves draft picks", "Minnesota Timberwolves players", "People from St. John, Indiana", "Philadelphia 76ers players", "Sacramento Kings players", "Small forwards", "Sportspeople from Lake County, Indiana" ]	Glenn Alan Robinson III (born January 8, 1994) is an American former professional basketball player. He played college basketball for the Michigan Wolverines. Robinson was an all-state high school basketball player for Lake Central High School in St. John, Indiana. He was drafted 40th overall by the Minnesota Timberwolves in the 2014 NBA draft. Robinson won the NBA Slam Dunk Contest in 2017. He is the son of Glenn Robinson, the 1994 NBA first overall draft pick. ## Early life Robinson was prematurely born to his mother, Shantelle Clay, at Methodist Hospital in Gary, Indiana. He spent his first two months in an incubator, until he was about 6 pounds (2.7 kg). By age three, he was a participant in the Hammond, Indiana YMCA children's basketball league. Robinson attended Grimmer Middle School in Schererville, Indiana prior to attending Lake Central High School in St. John, Indiana. He stood at 5 feet 6 inches (1.68 m) in seventh grade and 6 feet 1 inch (1.85 m) two years later as a freshman. Robinson was nearly 6 feet 4 inches (1.93 m) during his sophomore season and stood at more than 6 feet 5.5 inches (1.97 m) as a junior. ## High school career As a freshman, he played junior varsity for Lake Central. At the time, his father lived in Atlanta, and Robinson grew up with his mother, Shantelle Clay-Irving alongside his younger brother Gelen. During the summer between his freshman and sophomore season, he came under the wing of two substitute father figures: Dave Milausnic, Lake Central Varsity Basketball head coach, and Wayne Brumm, AAU SYF Players under-17 coach. Milausnic convinced Robinson to come to the gym for early morning workouts, often waking Robinson at his home. Brumm, who would continue to mentor Robinson as a collegian, advised him to hire a personal trainer named Andrew Wallen, who helped Robinson augment his vertical leap. He also helped Robinson bulk up from 167 pounds (76 kg) prior to his sophomore year to 210 pounds (95 kg) in two years. As a sophomore, he was a first-team all-area selection after leading Lake Central in scoring. On September 14, 2010, Robinson became the first verbal commitment to the Michigan Wolverines men's basketball class of 2012. At the time, he had scholarship offers from Colorado, Valparaiso, Missouri State, IUPUI and Indiana State, and Rivals.com rated him as the 118th-best player in the class of 2012. On February 5, 2011, Robinson posted his career-high 39 points against East Chicago Central High School on 14-for-19 shooting. In the 2011 Indiana sectional against Munster High School, Robinson scored 31 points in an overtime 54–53 loss. Robinson and Mitch McGary had been friends for years prior to their Michigan affiliation. By the time McGary committed to Michigan in November 2011, Robinson had moved up to the national no. 34 player ranking, per Rivals.com. The pair, along with Nik Stauskas, gave Michigan a consensus top-10 entering class for its 2012 campaign. Robinson visited Michigan along with future teammate Stauskas to see the 61–56 New Year's Day 2012 victory by the 2011–12 Wolverines team over Minnesota. Robinson blossomed as a senior in 2012. In January 2012, he led Lake Central to a 71–47 win over North Carolina-bound J. P. Tokoto's Menomonee Falls High School at the Brandon Jennings Invitational in Milwaukee. Robinson earned most valuable player (MVP) honors with 33 points, while Tokoto posted 28. Robinson led Lake Central to its first sectional championship since 1997 with a 24-point performance in the team's 63–37 victory over Highland High School. The road to the sectional title included a rematch 66–56 victory over Munster. Following the season, Robinson was invited to participate in the four-team All-American Championship along with future teammate McGary in New Orleans on April 1, 2012. He posted 16 points and 4 rebounds to earn the ESPNHS All-American Championship game MVP. He was named the 2012 Post-Tribune boys' basketball player of the year. By the end of his senior year, Robinson was considered a five-star player by Rivals.com. Robinson was an honor roll student at Lake Central. He placed fourth in the Indiana Mr. Basketball voting behind Gary Harris, Yogi Ferrell and Kellen Dunham. Robinson was a second-team Associated Press all-state selection. His late rise offset a late fall by McGary and enabled Michigan to retain its top-ten class status. ## College career The 2011–12 Michigan Wolverines men's basketball team had been co-champions of 2011–12 Big Ten Conference, but lost both of its co-captains, Zack Novak and Stu Douglass, to graduation. The team also lost three players as transfers. The team was returning a nucleus of All-Big Ten players Trey Burke and Tim Hardaway Jr. ### Freshman season Robinson began his Michigan career in the starting lineup on November 9. In his first career game, Robinson nearly posted a double-double with ten points and eight rebounds in a 100–62 victory against Slippery Rock. In his second game, Robinson had 21 points, while making his first eight field goals in a 91–54 victory against the IUPUI Jaguars on November 12. On November 23, he posted 12 rebounds in the championship game victory in the NIT Season Tip-Off tournament against Kansas State. On January 6, Robinson posted 20 points and 10 rebounds against Iowa to earn his first career double-double. He was the first Michigan freshman to post at least 20 points and 10 rebounds in a game since LaVell Blanchard did so three times for the 1999–2000 Michigan Wolverines men's basketball team. On January 7, he earned recognition as Big Ten Conference Freshman of the Week. Robinson earned his second Big Ten Freshman of the week award on January 28 due to a pair of 12-point performances on 71.4% shooting in which he averaged 8 rebounds. On January 31, Robinson and Stauskas were named to the Wayman Tisdale Award (USBWA National Freshman of the Year) top 12 midseason list. On February 17 against Penn State, Robinson tied his career-high point total of 21 and posted his second double-double by adding 10 rebounds. He was a 2012–13 Big Ten Conference all-freshman and honorable mention all-conference selection by the coaches. As a number four seed, Michigan defeated its first NCAA tournament opponent, South Dakota State, 71–56. Robinson tied his career-high again with 21 points. The 27th victory of the season gave the team its most wins in 20 years and matched head coach John Beilein's career high. Michigan had held a narrow 30–26 lead at the half, but Robinson made two 3-pointers to open the second half. He scored Michigan's first eleven second-half points as South Dakota only made one field goal in that time. In the first two tournament games against South Dakota State and VCU, Robinson shot a combined 15-for-19. On March 29 against Kansas, Robinson contributed 13 points and 8 rebounds, bringing his averages in the first three tournament games to 16 points and 7.7 rebounds. During the final media timeout with 3:47 to play and Michigan trailing by 10 points, Robinson became the vocal leader during the team huddle for the first time as a Wolverine, reminding his teammates to focus on their defense. With Michigan down by 5 points, he scooped a loose ball for an offensive rebound and made a reverse layup following a Tim Hardaway Jr. missed three-point shot with 35 seconds remaining. It was part of a Michigan 14–4 run in the final 2:52 to force overtime in the victory. On April 1, he was one of two Big Ten players (Harris) named to the 21-man 2013 Kyle Macy Freshman All-America team. Michigan advanced to the April 8 national championship game where the team lost to Louisville by an 82–76 margin despite 12 points from Robinson. Following his freshman season there was speculation he was considering entering the 2013 NBA draft. He was a projected first-round pick; however, on April 18, he and Mitch McGary held a joint press conference to announce that they would not enter the draft. ### Sophomore season Robinson declined an invitation to try out for the USA Basketball team that competed at the 2013 FIBA Under-19 World Championship, opting instead to attend a Nike Skills Academy for wing players featuring Kevin Durant and LeBron James. While training, he became the first player in the history of Michigan basketball to max out the 12-foot-3-inch (3.73 m) Vertec apparatus that is used to measure vertical leap. Robinson was a preseason All-Big Ten selection in both the official media poll released by the Big Ten Conference and the unofficial media poll released by the Big Ten Network. Robinson was on the 50-man Naismith Award and Wooden Award preseason watchlists. On November 8, Robinson tied career highs with 4 assists and 3 steals against UMass Lowell on a night when he also had 15 points and 7 rebounds. On November 13, Robinson earned his first Sports Illustrated cover as part of a four-version set of regional covers depicting college basketball's greatest rivalries on the College Basketball Preview Issue. Robinson and Michigan State Spartans men's basketball player Gary Harris represented the Michigan–Michigan State basketball rivalry on one of the four regional versions. On December 14, Robinson tallied 20 points on 8–9 field goal shooting and 4 rebounds against (#1/#1) Arizona in a 72–70 loss. On December 28, against Holy Cross Robinson posted a career high with 23 points. In the January 2 Big Ten Conference opener against Minnesota, Robinson set a career high with 4 blocks despite missing the final 17:24 of the game with an injury to his left ankle. Robinson tied his career high with 23 points against Nebraska on February 5 as the team posted its largest conference game margin of victory since defeating Indiana 112-64 on February 22, 1998. On February 26, Robinson contributed a team-high 17 points including a game-winning overtime buzzer beater against his father's alma mater Purdue to help the team overcome its largest deficit of the season (19). On March 8, Robinson had his fourth 20-point game of the season to help Michigan close out its season with a 84–80 victory over Indiana. His 20 points included a tie-breaking 3-pointer with 1:10 remaining. Michigan clinched its first outright (unshared) Big Ten Conference championship since 1985–86. Following the regular season, he was named an honorable mention All-Big Ten selection by both the coaches and the media. Michigan played its first two games of the 2014 NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Tournament at the BMO Harris Bradley Center, which was the home arena for Robinson's father, Glenn Robinson, for most of his NBA career as a member of the Milwaukee Bucks. In the two games at the Bradley Center against Wofford and Texas, Robinson scored 14 points in each game and averaged 6 rebounds. In the Sweet Sixteen round, he opposed his father's former Purdue roommate and Tennessee head coach Cuonzo Martin. Robinson scored 13 points as Michigan again advanced in the tournament. The 2013–14 team was eliminated in the elite eight round of the NCAA Tournament by Kentucky. On April 15, in a joint press conference with Stauskas, Robinson announced that he was declaring himself eligible for the 2014 NBA draft. During his two years with Michigan, the school enjoyed its winningest two-year stretch in school history, marked by a total of 59 wins. ## Professional career ### Minnesota Timberwolves (2014–2015) At the May NBA Draft Combine, Robinson excelled with the top standing vertical jump at the combine, the top small forward spot up shooting percentage and impressive measurements. Robinson was pleased with his overall performance, but disappointed with his 41.5-inch (1.05 m) running vertical jump, which was short of his 44-inch (1.12 m) personal best. Robinson was drafted in the second round of the 2014 draft with the 40th overall pick by the Minnesota Timberwolves. With teammates Stauskas and McGary also being drafted, it marked the first time Michigan had at least three draft picks since the 1990 NBA draft. With Burke and Hardaway having been drafted the year before, every player that started in the 2013 NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship Game was drafted either in the 2013 or 2014 NBA draft. Robinson committed to represent the Timberwolves in 2014 NBA Summer League. On September 17, 2014, he signed with the Timberwolves and then made the opening day 15-man roster. Robinson made his professional debut with the Timberwolves on November 14 against the New Orleans Pelicans, scoring 1 point in 8 minutes of play. On November 21, he posted his first field goals with a 2-for-2 shooting performance against the defending champion San Antonio Spurs. Among his early performances, he tallied 7 points on December 6 against the Spurs and 4 rebounds on December 8 against the Golden State Warriors. On March 5, 2015, he was waived by the Timberwolves. ### Philadelphia 76ers (2015) On March 7, 2015, he was claimed off waivers by the Philadelphia 76ers. Robinson debuted for the 76ers on March 14 against the Brooklyn Nets, going scoreless in 7 minutes. He reached double digits for the first time on April 11 against the Chicago Bulls, scoring 10 points. Robinson started in the season finale on April 15 against the Miami Heat. It was his first and only start of the season and he posted a season-high 8 rebounds to go along with another 10-point performance. The 76ers opted not to make a qualifying offer to Robinson before the July 1, 2015 signing period, thus making him a free agent. He later joined the Atlanta Hawks for the 2015 NBA Summer League on July 9. ### Indiana Pacers (2015–2018) On July 27, 2015, Robinson signed a three-year deal with the Indiana Pacers. Pacer General Manager Larry Bird noted that he had been attempting to acquire Robinson for some time due to the potential that he saw. He hooked Robinson up with shooting guru Hal Wissel for extra attention during his first offseason. Robinson entered the season impaired by shoulder soreness and did not dress for the October 28 season opener. Robinson began practicing with the team at the beginning of November as he recovered from his shoulder injury. On November 4, 2015, Robinson debuted with the Pacers against the Boston Celtics in their fifth game of the season. Robinson posted 10 points and 2 rebounds in 19 minutes of action. On November 13, he posted 11 points against the Minnesota Timberwolves. On November 21, he scored a career-high 17 points off the bench and was 4-of-4 from three-point range against the Milwaukee Bucks. On December 27, he was assigned to the Fort Wayne Mad Ants of the NBA Development League. He was recalled the next day. With George Hill attending to personal business and Rodney Stuckey injured, the Pacers—who only dressed 10 players—gave Robinson his first start of the season on January 17 against the Denver Nuggets. Hill missed three consecutive games and came off the bench for a fourth as he endured the loss of his grandmother, mourned the loss of a former IUPUI Jaguars men's basketball teammate and celebrated the birth of his first child. Hill replaced Robinson in the starting lineup on January 26 against the Los Angeles Clippers. On November 20, 2016, with forwards Paul George, C. J. Miles and Kevin Seraphin sidelined, Robinson started and posted a double double with 16 points and 11 rebounds in an overtime win against the Oklahoma City Thunder. He got his second start of the season on November 25 and finished with a team-high and career-high 20 points and five rebounds against the Brooklyn Nets. Those two starts were regarded as the best two performances of his career up to that date. Robinson returned to the starting lineup when Monta Ellis was injured in mid-December. He posted a season-high rebounding performance in a 12-point, 12-rebound double-double against the Detroit Pistons in his fourth start in his return to the starting lineup. During the 2017 All-Star Weekend, Robinson became the first Pacers player since Fred Jones (in 2004) to win the Slam Dunk Contest. On March 24 with less than 3 weeks left in the regular season, Robinson was sidelined for at least two weeks with a calf strain. After missing the final 11 games of the regular season, Robinson was sidelined for the first game of the 2017 NBA playoffs on April 15 against Cleveland, but he returned to the lineup for game 2 on April 17. Robinson was injured during a September 29, 2017 intrasquad scrimmage. On October 13, 2017, he was ruled out for three to four months after undergoing surgery for a repair of medial and lateral ligaments in his left ankle. On February 1, 2018, he began a rehab assignment with Fort Wayne. He was recalled by the Pacers later that day. On February 23, 2018, he made his season debut for the Pacers against the Atlanta Hawks. He had four points and two rebounds in 19 minutes. ### Detroit Pistons (2018–2019) On July 7, 2018, Robinson signed with the Detroit Pistons. Robinson was injured on December 10 and was sidelined for the subsequent eight games. Although he was cleared to play on December 30, he did not return to the court until late in a January 1, 2019 contest against the Milwaukee Bucks. ### Golden State Warriors (2019–2020) On July 10, 2019, Robinson signed a two-year deal with the Golden State Warriors. On November 25, Robinson posted a career-high 25 points against the Oklahoma City Thunder. He matched that high on December 31 against the San Antonio Spurs. ### Return to Philadelphia (2020) On February 6, 2020, Robinson and teammate Alec Burks were traded to the Philadelphia 76ers in exchange for three second-round draft picks. Robinson matched his career-high of 25 points again on March 3, 2020 against the Los Angeles Lakers. ### Sacramento Kings (2020–2021) On December 2, 2020, Robinson signed a one-year contract with the Sacramento Kings. On February 24, 2021, the Kings waived Robinson. ## Career statistics ### NBA #### Regular season \\|- \\| style="text-align:left;" rowspan=2\\|2014–15 \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|Minnesota \\| 25 \\|\\| 0 \\|\\| 4.3 \\|\\| .333 \\|\\| .167 \\|\\| .750 \\|\\| .6 \\|\\| .1 \\|\\| .1 \\|\\| .0 \\|\\| 1.2 \\|- \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|Philadelphia \\| 10 \\|\\| 1 \\|\\| 15.3 \\|\\| .419 \\|\\| .308 \\|\\| .500 \\|\\| 2.5 \\|\\| .8 \\|\\| .3 \\|\\| .1 \\|\\| 4.4 \\|- \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|2015–16 \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|Indiana \\| 45 \\|\\| 4 \\|\\| 11.3 \\|\\| .430 \\|\\| .378 \\|\\| .692 \\|\\| 1.5 \\|\\| .6 \\|\\| .4 \\|\\| .2 \\|\\| 3.8 \\|- \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|2016–17 \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|Indiana \\| 69 \\|\\| 27 \\|\\| 20.7 \\|\\| .467 \\|\\| .392 \\|\\| .711 \\|\\| 3.6 \\|\\| .7 \\|\\| .6 \\|\\| .3 \\|\\| 6.1 \\|- \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|2017–18 \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|Indiana \\| 23 \\|\\| 1 \\|\\| 14.7 \\|\\| .424 \\|\\| .412 \\|\\| .818 \\|\\| 1.6 \\|\\| .7 \\|\\| .6 \\|\\| .0 \\|\\| 4.1 \\|- \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|2018–19 \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|Detroit \\| 47 \\|\\| 18 \\|\\| 13.0 \\|\\| .420 \\|\\| .290 \\|\\| .800 \\|\\| 1.5 \\|\\| .4 \\|\\| .3 \\|\\| .2 \\|\\| 4.2 \\|- \\| style="text-align:left;" rowspan=2\\|2019–20 \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|Golden State \\| 48 \\|\\| 48 \\|\\| 31.6 \\|\\| .481 \\|\\| .400 \\|\\| .851 \\|\\| 4.7 \\|\\| 1.8 \\|\\| .9 \\|\\| .3 \\|\\| 12.9 \\|- \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|Philadelphia \\| 14 \\|\\| 4 \\|\\| 19.3 \\|\\| .518 \\|\\| .333 \\|\\| .917 \\|\\| 3.1 \\|\\| .8 \\|\\| .6 \\|\\| .1 \\|\\| 7.7 \\|- \\| style="text-align:left;"\\| 2020–21 \\| style="text-align:left;"\\| Sacramento \\| 23 \\|\\| 2 \\|\\| 16.0 \\|\\| .424 \\|\\| .364 \\|\\| .913 \\|\\| 2.0 \\|\\| .9 \\|\\| .2 \\|\\| .1 \\|\\| 5.3 \\|- class="sortbottom" \\| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"\\|Career \\| 304 \\|\\| 105 \\|\\| 17.4 \\|\\| .457 \\|\\| .373 \\|\\| .779 \\|\\| 2.6 \\|\\| .8 \\|\\| .5 \\|\\| .2 \\|\\| 5.9 #### Playoffs \\|- \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|2016 \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|Indiana \\| 4 \\|\\| 0 \\|\\| 2.6 \\|\\| .750 \\|\\| \\|\\| 1.000 \\|\\| .0 \\|\\| .0 \\|\\| .0 \\|\\| .3 \\|\\| 1.8 \\|- \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|2017 \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|Indiana \\| 3 \\|\\| 0 \\|\\| 10.4 \\|\\| 1.000 \\|\\| 1.000 \\|\\| .500 \\|\\| 1.0 \\|\\| .3 \\|\\| .0 \\|\\| .0 \\|\\| 5.0 \\|- \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|2018 \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|Indiana \\| 2 \\|\\| 0 \\|\\| 3.0 \\|\\| 1.000 \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| .5 \\|\\| .0 \\|\\| .0 \\|\\| .0 \\|\\| 1.0 \\|- \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|2019 \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|Detroit \\| 3 \\|\\| 0 \\|\\| 12.0 \\|\\| .267 \\|\\| .125 \\|\\| 1.000 \\|\\| 2.3 \\|\\| .7 \\|\\| .7 \\|\\| .0 \\|\\| 4.3 \\|- class="sortbottom" \\| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"\\|Career \\| 12 \\|\\| 0 \\|\\| 6.9 \\|\\| .538 \\|\\| .300 \\|\\| .857 \\|\\| .9 \\|\\| .3 \\|\\| .2 \\|\\| .1 \\|\\| 3.1 ### College \\|- \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|2012–13 \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|Michigan \\| 39 \\|\\| 39 \\|\\| 33.6 \\|\\| .572 \\|\\| .324 \\|\\| .676 \\|\\| 5.4 \\|\\| 1.1 \\|\\| 1.0 \\|\\| .3 \\|\\| 11.0 \\|- \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|2013–14 \\| style="text-align:left;"\\|Michigan \\| 37 \\|\\| 37 \\|\\| 32.3 \\|\\| .488 \\|\\| .306 \\|\\| .757 \\|\\| 4.4 \\|\\| 1.2 \\|\\| .9 \\|\\| .3 \\|\\| 13.1 \\|- class="sortbottom" \\| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"\\|Career \\| 76 \\|\\| 76 \\|\\| 33.0 \\|\\| .525 \\|\\| .313 \\|\\| .718 \\|\\| 4.9 \\|\\| 1.1 \\|\\| 1.0 \\|\\| .3 \\|\\| 12.0 ## Personal life Robinson is the founder of the Angels are Real Indeed Foundation, a nonprofit organization dedicated to helping young fathers in fatherhood while providing resources to fatherless families. Based in his hometown of Gary, IN, the ARI Foundation is named after Robinson's daughter, Ariana. The ARI Foundation has hosted toy drives, back-to-school supply and holiday-specific fundraisers, and has furnished the apartments of working-class single mothers. The nonprofit's work has been featured in CNN, Sports Illustrated and USA Today. In 2022, Robinson studied at Harvard Business School. Robinson is the son of Shantelle Clay and Glenn Robinson, who was an eleven-year NBA veteran. Robinson's nicknames include "Trey" and "GR3." His younger brother, Gelen (class of 2014), was the 2013 & 2014 Indiana High School Athletic Association (IHSAA) 220-pound (100 kg) wrestling champion, 2014 IHSAA discus champion, 2013 IHSAA shot put runner-up, 2013 IHSAA discus runner-up and 2013 Post-Tribune Football Defensive Player of the Year. Gelen verbally committed to the Purdue Boilermakers football team and played 46 games in four seasons. His younger sister, Jaimie, is an athlete in track & field.
10,013,669	Function (biology)	1,170,941,219	Reason for a change under natural selection; in physiology, what a system does	[ "Evolutionary biology terminology" ]	In evolutionary biology, function is the reason some object or process occurred in a system that evolved through natural selection. That reason is typically that it achieves some result, such as that chlorophyll helps to capture the energy of sunlight in photosynthesis. Hence, the organism that contains it is more likely to survive and reproduce, in other words the function increases the organism's fitness. A characteristic that assists in evolution is called an adaptation; other characteristics may be non-functional spandrels, though these in turn may later be co-opted by evolution to serve new functions. In biology, function has been defined in many ways. In physiology, it is simply what an organ, tissue, cell or molecule does. In the philosophy of biology, talk of function inevitably suggests some kind of teleological purpose, even though natural selection operates without any goal for the future. All the same, biologists often use teleological language as a shorthand for function. In contemporary philosophy of biology, there are three major accounts of function in the biological world: theories of causal role, selected effect, and goal contribution. ## In pre-evolutionary biology In physiology, a function is an activity or process carried out by a system in an organism, such as sensation or locomotion in an animal. This concept of function as opposed to form (respectively Aristotle's ergon and morphê) was central in biological explanations in classical antiquity. In more modern times it formed part of the 1830 Cuvier–Geoffroy debate, where Cuvier argued that an animal's structure was driven by its functional needs, while Geoffroy proposed that each animal's structure was modified from a common plan.[^1] ## In evolutionary biology Function can be defined in a variety of ways, including as adaptation, as contributing to evolutionary fitness, in animal behaviour, and, as discussed below, also as some kind of causal role or goal in the philosophy of biology. ### Adaptation A functional characteristic is known in evolutionary biology as an adaptation, and the research strategy for investigating whether a character is adaptive is known as adaptationism. Although assuming that a character is functional may be helpful in research, some characteristics of organisms are non-functional, formed as accidental spandrels, side effects of neighbouring functional systems. ### Natural selection From the point of view of natural selection, biological functions exist to contribute to fitness, increasing the chance that an organism will survive to reproduce. For example, the function of chlorophyll in a plant is to capture the energy of sunlight for photosynthesis, which contributes to evolutionary success. ## In ethology The ethologist Niko Tinbergen named four questions, based on Aristotle's Four Causes, that a biologist could ask to help explain a behaviour, though they have been generalised to a wider scope. 1) Mechanism: What mechanisms cause the animal to behave as it does? 2) Ontogeny: What developmental mechanisms in the animal's embryology (and its youth, if it learns) created the structures that cause the behaviour? 3) Function/adaptation: What is the evolutionary function of the behaviour? 4) Evolution: What is the phylogeny of the behaviour, or in other words, when did it first appear in the evolutionary history of the animal? The questions are interdependent, so that, for example, adaptive function is constrained by embryonic development. ## In philosophy of biology Function is not the same as purpose in the teleological sense, that is, possessing conscious mental intention to achieve a goal. In the philosophy of biology, evolution is a blind process which has no 'goal' for the future. For example, a tree does not grow flowers for any purpose, but does so simply because it has evolved to do so. To say 'a tree grows flowers to attract pollinators' would be incorrect if the 'to' implies purpose. A function describes what something does, not what its 'purpose' is. However, teleological language is often used by biologists as a shorthand way of describing function, even though its applicability is disputed. In contemporary philosophy of biology, there are three major accounts of function in the biological world: theories of causal role, selected effect, and goal contribution. ### Causal role Causal role theories of biological function trace their origin back to a 1975 paper by Robert Cummins. Cummins defines the functional role of a component of a system to be the causal effect that the component has on the larger containing system. For example, the heart has the actual causal role of pumping blood in the circulatory system; therefore, the function of the heart is to pump blood. This account has been objected to on the grounds that it is too loose a notion of function. For example, the heart also has the causal effect of producing a sound, but we would not consider producing sound to be the function of the heart. ### Selected effect Selected effect theories of biological functions hold that the function of a biological trait is the function that the trait was selected for, as argued by Ruth Millikan. For example, the function of the heart is pumping blood, for that is the action for which the heart was selected for by evolution. In other words, pumping blood is the reason'' that the heart has evolved. This account has been criticized for being too restrictive a notion of function. It is not always clear which behavior has contributed to the selection of a trait, as biological traits can have functions, even if they have not been selected for. Beneficial mutations are initially not selected for, but they do have functions. ### Goal contribution Goal contribution theories seek to carve a middle ground between causal role and selected effect theories, as with Boorse (1977). Boorse defines the function of a biological trait to be the statistically typical causal contribution of that trait to survival and reproduction. So for example, zebra stripes were sometimes said to work by confusing predators. This role of zebra stripes would contribute to the survival and reproduction of zebras, and that is why confusing predators would be said to be the function of zebra stripes. Under this account, whether or not a particular causal role of a trait is its function depends on whether that causal role contributes to the survival and reproduction of that organism. ## See also - Preadaptation [^1]:
42,556,646	The Boat Race 2000	1,135,319,463	null	[ "2000 in English sport", "2000 in rowing", "2000 sports events in London", "March 2000 sports events in the United Kingdom", "The Boat Race" ]	The 146th Boat Race took place on 25 March 2000. Oxford won the race by three lengths, breaking a seven-year spell of Cambridge dominance. The result was a "shock triumph". The race also featured the joint-tallest ever competitor, and the youngest ever winner in the "modern" race. In the reserve race, Isis beat Goldie by five lengths, and Oxford triumphed in the women's race, emerging with victory in the men's and women's races for the year. ## Background The Boat Race is an annual competition between the universities of Oxford and Cambridge. First held in 1829, the competition is a 4.2-mile (6.8 km) race along the River Thames in southwest London. The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and worldwide. Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions, having won the 1999 race by 3+1⁄2 lengths. Cambridge had won the last seven races (between 1993 and 1999); and led overall with 76 victories to Oxford's 68 (excluding the "dead heat to Oxford by five feet" of 1877). The race was sponsored by Aberdeen Asset Management. The first Women's Boat Race took place in 1927, but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s. Up until 2014, the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races, but as of the 2015 race, it is held on the River Thames, on the same day as the men's main and reserve races. The reserve race, contested between Oxford's Isis boat and Cambridge's Goldie boat has been held since 1965. It usually takes place on the Tideway, prior to the main Boat Race. ## Crews The Oxford crew (sometimes referred to as the "Dark Blues") had a heavier average weight of 13 stone 10 pounds (87 kg) per crew member, making them almost 11 pounds (5.0 kg) heavier per man; and were considered the underdogs before the race. The Cambridge crew (sometimes referred to as the "Light Blues") had a taller crew, and had the joint-tallest ever competitor, the 6 feet 10 inches (2.08 m) Joshua West. The Oxford crew had an average age of 21 while Cambridge's crew averaged 23. The Oxford crew featured six Britons, two Americans, and a Norwegian; whilst the Cambridge crew consisted of six Britons, an American, a New Zealander, and a South African. ## Race description Cambridge won the coin toss and chose to start from the southern side, the Surrey side, of the River Thames, based on the opinion that taking a lead early in the race would give them an advantage. However, the theory failed as Oxford stayed with Cambridge, and though Cambridge had a large push which gave them a slender lead after two minutes, Oxford were leading at the First Mile post, passing in 3 minutes 41 seconds, Cambridge a second behind. The race was close, and "the lead switched back and forth between the two teams". Cambridge pressed and rewon their lead, and were a quarter of a length ahead after a favourable bend. Though level at Chiswick Steps, Oxford pushed ahead, gaining a five-second lead by Barnes Bridge, and eight at the finish. Oxford finished with a time of 18 minutes, 4 seconds, Cambridge finished 8 seconds behind. It was Oxford's first victory in seven years and brought the overall result to 76–69 in Cambridge's favour. The victory gave the Oxford number four, Matthew Smith, the honour of being the youngest ever "modern" winner at 18 years, 8 months 11 days. In the reserve race, Oxford's Isis beat Cambridge's Goldie by five lengths. Earlier, Oxford won the 55th women's race by 2+1⁄4 lengths, in a time of 6 minutes 18 seconds, their first victory in nine years. Oxford also won the women's lightweight, but Cambridge won the women's reserves, men's lightweight, and men's lightweight reserves. ## Reaction Oxford University Boat Club President and number two Nick Robinson said the crew had kept going and won "an incredible race", but was a "shock triumph".
3,644,109	Philip Humber	1,166,110,118	American baseball player	[ "1982 births", "All-American college baseball players", "American expatriate baseball players in South Korea", "Baseball players from Texas", "Binghamton Mets players", "Birmingham Barons players", "Charlotte Knights players", "Chicago White Sox players", "Gulf Coast Mets players", "Houston Astros players", "Kansas City Royals players", "Kia Tigers players", "Living people", "Major League Baseball pitchers", "Major League Baseball pitchers who have pitched a perfect game", "Minnesota Twins players", "New Orleans Zephyrs players", "New York Mets players", "Oklahoma City RedHawks players", "Omaha Royals players", "People from Nacogdoches, Texas", "Rice Owls baseball players", "Rochester Red Wings players", "Sacramento River Cats players", "St. Lucie Mets players", "Yarmouth–Dennis Red Sox players" ]	Philip Gregory Humber (/ˈʌmbər/; born December 21, 1982) is an American former professional baseball pitcher. He pitched for the New York Mets, Minnesota Twins, Kansas City Royals, Chicago White Sox, and Houston Astros in seven seasons in Major League Baseball (MLB). Although he debuted in the major leagues in 2006 and had worked mostly as a starter in the minor leagues, he did not become a regular MLB starter until 2011. Humber earned three Texas Little League state championships. He subsequently attended Carthage High School in Carthage, Texas, where he led the baseball team to the state championship game in 2001, his senior season, winning state Player of the Year honors. He then attended Rice University, where he played college baseball for the Rice Owls baseball team. Humber was the winning pitcher in the clinching game of the 2003 College World Series. He has also represented the United States at the World University Baseball Championship. The Mets selected Humber with the third overall selection in the 2004 MLB draft. During his minor league career, he underwent ulnar collateral ligament reconstruction before making his MLB debut with the Mets in 2006. It took him several years to regain his ability to throw with the same velocity that he had prior to the injury. After being included in a trade to the Twins for Johan Santana, Humber struggled to establish himself. He spent a year with the Royals organization and was briefly a member of the Oakland Athletics organization, before being claimed on waivers by the White Sox in 2011, getting an opportunity to pitch in the White Sox' starting rotation. On April 21, 2012, Humber pitched the 21st perfect game in MLB history, defeating the Seattle Mariners. ## Early life Born in Nacogdoches, Texas, Humber was raised in Carthage, Texas. Living in an area with an abundance of baseball fields, Humber grew up with a batting cage in his backyard. At the age of 11, Humber visited the Chicago White Sox during spring training in Florida as the guest of Robert Ellis, a family friend of the Humbers, who then was a minor league baseball pitcher for the White Sox. Carthage was a Texas anomaly, its baseball athletes being the most admired role models rather than its football players. As of 2004, the Panola County Dixie League teams had won 15 state championships in the preceding 20 years and Humber played for three state champions. ## Amateur career Humber attended Carthage High School. The Carthage Bulldogs had won the state title in 1990 and been one of the final four teams in the state tournament in 1994. Humber was promoted from junior varsity midway through his sophomore season. He compiled a 4–0 win–loss record with a low 1.09 earned run average (ERA). He went 7–2 as a junior, and posted a 13–1 record with a 0.90 ERA and 146 strikeouts as a senior. A capable batter, he also had a .371 batting average with six home runs. Humber threw a shutout in the Texas University Interscholastic League Class 4A semifinals against Cedar Park High School in 2001, his senior season. Although Carthage lost the state championship to Western Hills High School in baseball that year, Humber was named Texas High School Class 4A Player of the Year by the Texas Sports Writers Association. According to former Major League Baseball prospect and East Texas native Alan Move: "Back in high school, he (Humber) threw harder than everyone else and changed speeds pretty well and that's all you need in high school." Humber was drafted by the New York Yankees in the 29th round of the 2001 Major League Baseball draft. As the 875th pick overall, he described himself as "more of a draft-and-follow" prospect. The Yankees made Humber an offer in an attempt to lure him away from his college scholarship, but he did not sign, choosing instead to attend Rice University in order to play college baseball for the Rice Owls baseball team, competing in the Western Athletic Conference (WAC) of NCAA Division I. At Rice, Humber was coached by Wayne Graham. Humber's first home appearance at Reckling Park was in the annual Rice Alumni game in February 2002. After retiring his first two batters in relief, Humber faced a pair of Major League Baseball players. José Cruz Jr. bounced the baseball off of the wall in center field and then Lance Berkman hit the ball over the scoreboard. After his inauspicious debut, he became a dominant pitcher during his three college seasons for the Rice Owls, stepping into the nationally ranked Owls' starting rotation as a freshman. Humber finished his freshman season in 2002 with an 11–1 win–loss record, a 2.78 ERA, and a WAC-leading 130 strikeouts in 110+2⁄3 innings, earning National Freshman Player of the Year honors from Collegiate Baseball and All-America honors from several publications—Collegiate Baseball (Second Team), Baseball America (Second Team) and Baseball Weekly (Third Team). Humber's strikeout total was the most for an Owl freshman since 1976. That season, Rice reached the 2002 College World Series, but lost its first two games and was eliminated. Nonetheless, Humber earned an invitation to USA Baseball's national team trials. He was the scheduled starter in the second of the two games, which was against the Notre Dame Fighting Irish on June 17, but the team could not hold a 3–2 lead in the bottom of the ninth. He then competed for the United States national baseball team at the 2002 World University Baseball Championship, which was held in Messina, Sicily. On August 7, he earned a victory for the United States in a game against the South Korean team. The United States won the silver medal in the tournament. Entering his sophomore season, he was expected to be a key part of the starting pitching rotation. The 2003 season saw the development of Rice's "Big Three" rotation, featuring Humber and sophomore classmates Wade Townsend and Jeff Niemann. Humber developed a curveball that season, to augment his arsenal that included a fastball, changeup and split-finger fastball. During the season, Humber achieved his 17th consecutive win in WAC play. He was recognized as a Third Team All-American by Collegiate Baseball and was a First Team All-Western Athletic Conference honoree. The trio entered the 2003 College World Series with gaudy numbers — Niemann (16–0, 1.63 ERA) and Townsend (10–1, 1.90 ERA) complementing Humber — and with Humber scheduled for the third game, if necessary. Humber finished with an 11–3 win–loss record with a 3.30 ERA, as Rice won its first national championship in any team sport. He pitched a complete game in the decisive third game of the series, a 14–2 win over the Stanford Cardinal. The game established a College World Series record for largest title game margin of victory. During the season, Rice established a school record 30-game winning streak. Upon his becoming the College World Series hero, June 26, 2003 was declared 'Philip Humber Day' in his hometown of Carthage, Texas in his honor. Following the season, all three pitchers competed in collegiate summer baseball in the Cape Cod Baseball League; Humber pitched for the Yarmouth–Dennis Red Sox. Baseball America rated Humber as the seventh-best prospect in the Cape Cod League. In his junior season of 2004, Humber compiled a 13–4 win–loss record and 2.27 ERA. He struck out 154 batters and issued only 37 walks in 115 innings. He also set the Rice single-game record for strikeouts when he struck out 17 Hawaii Rainbow Warriors hitters on March 20, 2004. Rice entered the 64-team NCAA Baseball tournament as one of the eight national seeds. In the first game of the regional round of the tournament, Rice was upset by the Texas Southern Tigers. Humber entered the next game against the Texas A&M Aggies with the bases loaded and surrendered a first-pitch grand slam to Justin Ruggiano. For the season, Humber totaled 154 strikeouts in 115 innings pitched. Humber finished his three-year career with a 35–8 win–loss record and 2.80 ERA, striking out 422 in 354 innings pitched. Humber's totals rank him with the third most wins in Rice baseball history and second most strikeouts. Among his honors for the season were selection to the 2004 Louisville Slugger All-America team by Collegiate Baseball and the 2004 USA TODAY/Sports Weekly All-America team. During the inaugural year for the Roger Clemens Award, which designates the top college pitcher, he was one of 10 named semifinalists. He was also among the 10 finalists for the Dick Howser Trophy in 2004, in recognition of his performance as one of college baseball's top players. Following the early exit in the Houston Regional due to the upset by the Aggies, Humber looked forward to the Major League Baseball Draft. Niemann, and Townsend were all selected along with Humber in the first eight picks of the 2004 MLB Draft — the first time three teammates had ever gone so early in the same draft. Only twice had three teammates been taken in the first round, most recently when Steve Hosey, Tom Goodwin and Eddie Zosky of the Fresno State Bulldogs were selected in the first round of the 1989 Major League Baseball draft. Teammate David Aardsma, a relief pitcher, was also selected in the first round. ## Professional career ### New York Mets (2006–2007) The New York Mets chose Humber out of Rice University with their first-round pick in the 2004 Major League Baseball draft, the third overall selection. The Mets chose Humber over Jered Weaver and Stephen Drew, who also received consideration, as they considered Humber to be the "safe" selection. They also scouted Justin Verlander, who the Detroit Tigers had chosen with the second overall pick. It was reported that the Mets preferred Verlander, and would have chosen him if the Tigers had selected Drew. On January 11, 2005, Humber and the Mets agreed to a five-year contract, ending a long holdout the day before the Mets began their two-day minicamp in Port St. Lucie, Florida. Humber and the Mets were motivated to complete a deal due to a change in federal tax law that made signing bonuses subject to Federal Insurance Contributions Act and Social Security taxes. There is some discrepancy about the value of the contract. According to MLB.com, Humber received a combined \$3.7 million signing bonus and contract from the Mets. The Houston Chronicle reported the contract to be a \$4.2 million deal with a \$3 million signing bonus and that Humber would fly to minicamp. Six months later, Lee Jenkins of The New York Times also reported the signing bonus to be \$3 million, but he claimed the contract was for \$5 million in total. John Manuel of Baseball America reported the contract was worth a maximum of \$5.116 million, with \$4.2 million guaranteed. Baseball America rated Humber as the 50th-best prospect in baseball heading into the 2005 season. Humber entered spring training in 2005 with the Mets. There, he clashed with Mets' pitching coach Rick Peterson, who wanted Humber to adopt a different training regimen and change the manner with which he threw the ball to the plate. The Mets front office supported Humber, telling him to pitch how he felt comfortable. After the brief stint in spring training, the Mets assigned Humber to start his professional career with the St. Lucie Mets of the Class-A Advanced Florida State League, where, in 14 starts, he posted a 2–6 win–loss record and a 4.99 ERA. Humber was then promoted to the Double-A Binghamton Mets of the Eastern League. In one start, Humber gave up three earned runs in four innings. Humber left the game early due to elbow pain caused by bone spurs, which required ulnar collateral ligament reconstruction (more commonly known as Tommy John surgery) to repair a torn ligament in his elbow. The surgery was performed by Dr. James Andrews of the American Sports Medicine Institute. His Rice pitching teammates Townsend (Tommy John surgery) and Niemann (arthroscopic shoulder surgery) also endured major surgeries that year. Rice coach Graham, who also coached MLB starters such as Roger Clemens and Andy Pettitte in college, shied away from any blame, noting that all three missed out on fall league play by holding out. In spite of his arm surgery, Humber was named the 20th-best prospect in the Florida State League by Baseball America, which ranked him as the fifth-best prospect in the Mets organization following the season. On March 8, Humber was assigned to the Mets minor league camp. After rehabilitating from surgery, he resumed pitching with St. Lucie in 2006, posting 3–1 record with a 2.37 ERA in seven starts. On July 31, 2006, a year after his surgery, Humber was once again promoted to Binghamton, where he was 2–2 with a 2.88 ERA in six starts. He was an early September call-up when the Major League rosters expanded on September 1. However, Humber did not make his Major League Baseball debut until September 24, 2006. He made two appearances for the Mets as a relief pitcher, pitching two innings. However, Humber was unable to obtain his pre-surgery velocity. That fall, he began play in the Arizona Fall League but his participation was discontinued when he endured shoulder tendinitis. Before the 2007 season, Baseball America rated Humber as the fourth-best prospect in the Mets organization. That year, the Mets had nine pitchers competing for five spots in the starting rotation in spring training camp. Óliver Pérez, Tom Glavine, Orlando Hernández, and John Maine were the favorites for the spots in the rotation. Veterans Aaron Sele, Chan Ho Park and Jorge Sosa were also invited to camp so that the team could be patient with former first round draft choices Humber and Mike Pelfrey, who were considered the most promising pitchers in camp. Rated the 73rd-best prospect in baseball by Baseball America prior to the 2007 season, Humber competed for a spot on the Mets roster in spring training. However, Humber was optioned to the minor leagues on March 16. Assigned to the Triple-A New Orleans Zephyrs of the Pacific Coast League (PCL), Humber had an 11–9 record and 4.27 ERA in 25 starts. He allowed 129 hits and walked 44 while striking out 120 batters in 139 innings. For the season, Humber finished tied for fourth in the PCL in wins and had the tenth-best ERA. He had started the season by earning the PCL Pitcher of the week for the week ending April 22. That week, he allowed two earned runs in 13 innings of work over two starts, earning a win on April 16 against the Nashville Sounds with six innings of work and suffering a blown save after seven innings against the Albuquerque Isotopes on April 21. He flirted with a no-hitter with the Zephyrs on August 22 when he entered the ninth inning without giving up a hit to the Iowa Cubs. In his subsequent start, he allowed only an unearned run on two hits over five innings, but he was removed from the game when a batted ball hit him in the shoulder. Humber was promoted to the Mets, again as a September call-up, on September 2. Though the Mets considered inserting him into the starting rotation immediately, they chose to start Pelfrey. Humber made two relief appearances for the Mets, on September 5 and 11. The Mets, having lost eight of their previous 12 games and seen their lead over the Philadelphia Phillies in the National League East division race decrease from seven games to two, removed Pelfrey from the final rotation to give an extra day of rest to pitchers Pérez, Maine, and Pedro Martínez, and gave Humber his first Major League start on September 26, 2007, against the Washington Nationals, choosing him over Dave Williams. Although the Mets raced out to a 6–2 lead, Humber allowed five runs in four-plus innings, receiving a no decision in a game the Mets eventually lost, 9–6. The decision to start Humber was seen as emblematic of the Mets' desperation. As George Vecsey wrote in The New York Times, "How did it come to this? How did the entire Mets' season come to depend so much on a young pitcher, Philip Humber, who had never started in the major leagues until last night?" He concluded his three MLB appearances (one start) in the 2007 season with a 7.71 ERA. ### Minnesota Twins (2008–2009) Following the 2007 season, the Mets began to discuss trading Humber to the Minnesota Twins in a package of prospects to acquire two-time Cy Young Award-winning pitcher Johan Santana. Eligible to become a free agent after the 2008 season, Santana had rejected a proposed four-year, \$80 million contract extension from the Twins. Assuming that he was unlikely to resign with Minnesota, the Twins began to shop him to other MLB teams. On February 2, 2008, the Mets traded Humber, along with outfielder Carlos Gómez and pitchers Kevin Mulvey and Deolis Guerra, to the Twins for Santana. At the time Baseball America ranked Guerra, Gomez, Mulvey and Humber the second, third, fourth and seventh-best prospects in the Mets organization, respectively. During spring training, the Twins assigned Humber to Santana's former place in the Twins' clubhouse. While trying to earn a spot in the rotation, Humber compiled 11 consecutive scoreless innings in the Grapefruit League. By late March, Humber had a spring training ERA of 1.29. Humber spent most of the 2008 season assigned to the Twins' Triple-A affiliate, the Rochester Red Wings of the International League. He started off slowly with an 0–5 record and a 5.83 ERA in his first nine starts. With Rochester, Humber eventually compiled a 10–8 record with a 4.56 ERA in 31 games (23 starts). He finished with a 6–1 win–loss record and a 2.67 ERA in the second half. His 4–1 win–loss record with a 2.74 ERA in August earned him the Minor League Pitcher of the Month Award. The Twins promoted Humber in August 2008, and he appeared in five games for the Twins, all in relief. Humber pitched 11+2⁄3 innings, and posted a 4.63 ERA and six strikeouts for the Twins. Following the 2008 season, Humber was out of options, and could not be sent to the minor leagues without first being subjected to waivers, where other teams could claim him. Humber made the Twins' Opening Day roster in 2009 as a long reliever. Humber struggled at the start of the 2009 season, pitching to a 12.46 ERA over 4+1⁄3 innings, while giving up 11 hits and walking four batters. The Twins designated Humber for assignment on April 17, 2009 to make room on their roster for Juan Morillo, whom the Twins had claimed off waivers from the Colorado Rockies. Humber cleared waivers and the Twins assigned him to Rochester. The Twins recalled Humber in August 2009 due to an injury to Francisco Liriano, but outrighted him to the minor leagues ten days later. Humber was granted free agency after the 2009 season. ### Kansas City Royals (2010) On December 15, 2009, Humber signed a minor league contract with the Kansas City Royals, receiving an invitation to spring training. After he pitched to an 11.74 ERA in four spring training games, the Royals reassigned Humber to their minor league camp on March 22. Humber was assigned to start the year with the Triple-A Omaha Royals of the PCL. On June 10, 2010, while pitching in a game for Omaha, Humber was hit in the face on a line drive by Luis Cruz. After lying on the mound for a few minutes, he was able to get up and walk on his own to the dugout. He was then transported to a local hospital, where he received eighteen stitches. He earned the second PCL Pitcher of the Week Award of his career for his play during the week ending August 1. He won the award after posting a complete game shutout against the Nashville Sounds on July 30, in which he struck out seven batters while allowing only four hits. However, Humber began to regain the velocity he had lost following Tommy John surgery in 2005. Humber was called up by the Kansas City Royals on August 5, 2010, when Kansas City designated José Guillén for assignment. On August 25, Humber pitched three relief innings for the Royals against the Detroit Tigers and earned his first MLB win. He finished the 2010 season with a 2–1 win–loss record and 4.15 ERA in eight games (one start) for the Royals. He also appeared in 21 games (20 starts), for Triple-A Omaha, going 5–6 with a 4.47 ERA. The Royals designated Humber for assignment in December 2010, in order to make room on the roster for newly signed Jeff Francoeur. ### Chicago White Sox (2011–2012) On December 17, 2010, Humber was claimed by the Oakland Athletics, who had extra room on their 40-man roster at the time of the waiver claim. However, the team subsequently filled its 40-man roster and designated Humber for assignment later that off-season in order to make room on their roster for Guillermo Moscoso, whom the Athletics acquired from the Texas Rangers in a trade during January 2011. The Chicago White Sox claimed Humber off waivers from the Athletics on January 18, 2011. He signed a contract worth \$500,000 for the season. White Sox pitching coach Don Cooper worked with Humber, as he replaced his cut fastball with a slider and improved his pitching mechanics in the fashion originally recommended by Peterson in 2005. Humber debuted with the White Sox in their third game in relief. He made two pitches, both of which resulted in hits and base runners that came around to score. With Jake Peavy injured at the start of the 2011 season, the White Sox gave Humber the opportunity to pitch in their starting rotation. On April 9, 2011, Humber won his first start with the White Sox, pitching 6+2⁄3 innings and only allowing one run in a 4–2 win over the Tampa Bay Rays. Humber surprised the White Sox with his strong performance. On April 25, in the sixth start of his career, he took a no-hitter into the seventh inning against the New York Yankees at Yankee Stadium, but with one out Alex Rodriguez singled up the middle. He finished with seven scoreless innings. He took a no-hitter into the sixth inning against the Washington Nationals on June 26, but ended up earning a 2–1 loss when he surrendered a seventh inning home run to Danny Espinosa. In early July, when he led the major leagues with 103+2⁄3 innings pitched and held an 8–4 record with a 2.69 ERA, he seemed like a probable selection for the 2011 Major League Baseball All-Star Game. In mid-July, the White Sox switched to a six-man rotation. By early August, Humber was in a slump. Humber denies the extra rest affected his pitch command. He spent time on the disabled list with a facial bruise after Kosuke Fukudome lined a baseball into his face above the right eye on August 18. After he was hit, he was very concerned for his wife: "I thought, 'I've got to get up because she's in the stands,'" Humber said. "As soon as I went in [the clubhouse], I asked one of the guys to call her to make sure she knew I was OK.", adding "My main concern was cheering up my wife." He appeared in one rehabilitation start for the Triple-A Charlotte Knights of the International League, allowing four earned runs in five innings. Humber pitched seven scoreless innings in his major league return. Humber completed his first full season as an MLB starting pitcher with a 9–9 record with a 3.75 ERA in 28 games (26 starts). He also struck out 116 batters in 163 innings. As Humber performed better in the first half of the 2011 season (8–5, 3.10 ERA) than in the second half (1–4, 5.01 ERA), which he attributed to general fatigue, Humber decided to add 20 pounds (9.1 kg) during his offseason workouts. Humber signed a one-year contract in March for \$530,000, above the minimum salary for a player with his level of MLB experience. In the first season in which he did not have to battle for a roster spot in spring training, he made his final spring training start in his home state near Rice at Minute Maid Park in front of many relatives. Although the 2012 Chicago White Sox's rotation was said to be made up of five number-three starters, Humber began the season as the number five starter. #### Perfect game In Humber's 30th career start in MLB, he pitched the 21st perfect game in MLB history against the Seattle Mariners on April 21, 2012. It was the third perfect game in White Sox history after those thrown by Charlie Robertson and Mark Buehrle, and the 18th no-hitter in White Sox history. It was Humber's second start of the 2012 season and first career complete game. Humber was named American League (AL) Player of the Week for the week ending April 22. Humber went 1–0 with a 0.63 ERA in 14+1⁄3 innings while striking out 16 over two starts that week, including the perfect game. He received a congratulatory phone call from President Barack Obama, a noted White Sox fan. Humber appeared on the Late Show with David Letterman, where he read the "Top Ten List". Humber's perfect game will be memorialized with a plaque at the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum. After the perfect game, Humber struggled. He allowed 20 runs in his next three starts across 13+1⁄3 innings. He missed one month of the season due to a right elbow strain. Following the acquisition of Francisco Liriano, the White Sox removed Humber from the starting rotation. In 26 games (16 starts), Humber went 5–5 with a 6.44 ERA. ### Houston Astros (2013) The Houston Astros claimed Humber off waivers on November 30, 2012. After being claimed, he signed a one-year, \$800,000 contract with the Astros that included a club option for 2014. Humber made the Astros' starting rotation at the start of the 2013 season. Humber lost his spot in the starting rotation to Érik Bédard after opening the season with an 0–7 record and an ERA of 8.82. Humber was designated for assignment on May 12, after his record fell to 0–8 with a 9.59 ERA. After pitching in relief for the Oklahoma City RedHawks of the PCL, the Astros selected his contract on August 12, when they traded Wesley Wright to the Tampa Bay Rays. On October 3, the Astros declined a \$3 million option for 2014, instead paying him his guaranteed \$500,000 and releasing him. ### Oakland Athletics On November 2, 2013, Humber signed a minor league contract with the Oakland Athletics, with an invitation to spring training. The Athletics assigned him to the Sacramento River Cats of the PCL. ### Kia Tigers On December 8, 2014, Humber signed a contract with the Kia Tigers of the Korea Baseball Organization. After pitching to a 6.75 ERA in 50+2⁄3 innings, Humber was released by the Tigers on July 20, 2015. ### San Diego Padres On December 10, 2015, Humber signed a minor league deal with the San Diego Padres. Humber retired on March 29, 2016. ## Pitching style Humber relied on five pitches. He had a four-seam fastball ranging from 89–92 miles per hour (143–148 km/h), a two-seam fastball (89–92 miles per hour (143–148 km/h)), a slider (mid 80s), a changeup (mid 80s), and a 12-6 curveball (78–81 miles per hour (126–130 km/h)). He used his slider against right-handed hitters but preferred to use his changeup and curveball as off-speed pitches against left-handed hitters. Humber favored his curveball in two-strike situations. He used a conventional "three-quarters" arm slot to deliver his pitches. ## Personal life Humber married his wife, Kristan, in November 2007. They were introduced by mutual friends in 2005. At the time of his perfect game, Humber's wife was nine months pregnant with the couple's first child, a son named John Gregory, who was born on May 1. Humber comes from a large extended family. Humber is a registered member of the Republican Party. He has the Bible verse Colossians 3:23 inscribed in his baseball glove. He undertook a charitable mission to the Philippines in the 2011–12 offseason with Brett Carroll, where they instructed children about baseball and Christianity. Josh Tomlin, an MLB pitcher, is a close friend of Humber. From nearby Tyler, Texas, Tomlin competed against Humber in high school, and the two train together during offseasons. Humber is currently a Tyler resident. ## See also - List of Major League Baseball perfect games - List of Rice University people
39,091,638	Helmuth Raithel	1,173,072,690	German army officer	[ "1907 births", "1990 deaths", "Collaborators who participated in the Beer Hall Putsch", "Gebirgsjäger of World War II", "German expatriates in South Africa", "German prisoners of war in World War II held by the United States", "Greece in World War II", "Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich alumni", "Military personnel from Ingolstadt", "Military personnel from the Kingdom of Bavaria", "Recipients of the Gold German Cross", "Recipients of the Order of Bravery", "Reichswehr personnel", "Road incident deaths in Austria", "SS-Standartenführer", "Yugoslavia in World War II" ]	Helmuth Raithel (9 April 1907 – 12 September 1990) was a German officer who held the rank of SS-Standartenführer (colonel) in the Waffen-SS during World War II. While still at school, Raithel was swept up in the excitement of the Munich Beer Hall Putsch of 9 November 1923 led by Adolf Hitler, and was subsequently awarded the coveted Blood Order, even though he was not a member of the Nazi Party. He joined the Reichswehr (interwar German Army) in 1926. After World War II broke out, he fought in the invasion of Greece in summer 1941, then against the Soviet Red Army in northern Finland before transferring to the Waffen-SS in 1943. Raithel subsequently commanded a regiment of the newly formed 13th Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Handschar (1st Croatian) and led it during fighting against the Yugoslav Partisans in the Independent State of Croatia. Raithel was seriously wounded in mid-1944 and was replaced. When a new Waffen-SS division was to be raised in June 1944, the cadre was provided by the 13th SS Division and Raithel was appointed as the divisional commander. The 23rd Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Kama (2nd Croatian) never reached full divisional strength and did not see action as a formation, but elements of the division fought briefly in southern Hungary in early October 1944. Raithel quickly suppressed a mutiny by the Bosnian Muslim soldiers of the division in mid-October 1944, but it was disbanded and its reliable troops were absorbed by the 13th SS Division and the 31st SS Volunteer Grenadier Division. Raithel was then appointed to command a regiment of 6th SS Mountain Division Nord in Alsace, where his regiment fought the United States Army. He received a serious head wound during fighting northeast of Frankfurt in early April 1945 and was captured by the Americans. Raithel recovered from his wounds and had a career in agriculture after the war, working in South Africa for many years. He returned to Bavaria when he retired and earned a doctorate of history from the University of Munich. His interest in mountaineering continued and he regularly climbed in the Alps into his seventies. He maintained contact with his former comrades from the 6th SS Division, attending many reunions. On 12 September 1990 at the age of 82, he was returning home from the Semmering Pass in eastern Austria when he was killed in a traffic accident. ## Early life Born Helmuth Hans Walter Paul Raithel in Ingolstadt, Kingdom of Bavaria, a federated state of the German Empire, on 9 April 1907, he was the second son of a Bavarian Army officer. Raithel attended primary school then the Wittelsbacher-Gymnasium München (secondary school) until 1926. On 9 November 1923 at the age of 16, Raithel was walking his bicycle in Munich when he stumbled across the Beer Hall Putsch being led by Adolf Hitler. Swept up in the excitement, he fell in with a group led by Freikorps veteran Gerhard Roßbach. After shots were fired, he took cover with some of the group in an alley, one of whom wrote down Raithel's name as one of the "party faithful" present that day. He was subsequently awarded the highly prized Nazi Party Blood Order, although he apparently did not have any political beliefs and was not a member of the Party at the time. After he successfully completed secondary school in early 1926, he joined the Reichswehr as an offizieranwärter (officer cadet) on 1 April 1926. He was posted to the 19th Infantry Regiment during which he spent four years commanding a Gebirgsjäger (mountain infantry) platoon. While he was with the regiment, the Reichswehr was absorbed by the Wehrmacht. Now part of the Gebirgs Brigade, Raithel gained experience as a signals officer and company commander, and was promoted to Hauptmann (captain). With the creation of the 1st Gebirgs Division in April 1938 he was appointed as the adjutant of the 99th Gebirgsjäger Regiment. At the outbreak of war in September 1939 he was an instructor at the mountain infantry school at Fulpmes in the Stubai Alps. He was married and he and his wife had two daughters. ## World War II ### Greece and Finland In August 1940, Raithel was transferred from instructional duties to command a battalion of the newly formed 6th Gebirgs Division, which had been deployed to France on occupation duty in anticipation of involvement in the planned invasion of the United Kingdom, Operation Sealion. When Sealion was abandoned, the division was sent first to Poland then in spring 1941 took part in the invasion of Greece. During the Battle of Metaxas Line in early April 1941, the division, led by Generalmajor (Brigadier) Ferdinand Schörner, breached the formidable Greek defences by crossing a 2,100-metre (6,900 ft) snow-covered mountain pass considered inaccessible by the Greeks. This enabled the division to cut the rail line to Thessaloniki. Raithel was awarded the Iron Cross 1st Class in late April 1941. Following the defeat of Greece and its allies, the division was deployed to Lapland in northern Finland in September 1941. Raithel remained as a battalion commander with the 143rd Gebirgsjäger Regiment of the division in Finland and was promoted to Major on 1 November 1941. Schörner became Raithel's mentor during their service with the 6th Gebirgs Division. In January 1942 he was awarded the German Cross in Gold. In August 1942 he was transferred to the Oberkommando des Heeres (Army Headquarters) reserve pool for an extended period, during which he returned to the mountain infantry school then served briefly with the 133rd Fortress Division on Crete. He was promoted to Oberstleutnant (lieutenant colonel) on 1 October 1943. ### Yugoslavia In 1943, his mentor Schörner, now a General der Gebirgstruppe (lieutenant general), advised him to transfer to the quickly expanding Waffen-SS where regimental command would be easier to come by, particularly as his Blood Order was especially prized in the Waffen-SS. Raithel subsequently transferred to the Waffen-SS (and Allgemeine SS) on 30 November 1943, but still did not join the Nazi Party. He was immediately appointed to command a regiment of the newly formed 13th Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Handschar (1st Croatian), the rank-and-file of which were mostly Bosnian Muslims. Initially appointed as an SS-Obersturmbannführer (lieutenant colonel) commanding the 28th Waffen Gebirgsjäger Regiment, he oversaw the completion of his regiment's training at the Neuhammer training grounds in the Silesian region of Germany (present-day Poland) then led his regiment to fight the Yugoslav Partisans in the Independent State of Croatia (NDH) in February 1944. The division was given the primary role of securing around 6,000 square kilometres (2,300 sq mi) of territory (the designated security zone) in north-eastern Bosnia within the NDH. The security zone encompassed the Posavina, Semberija and Majevica regions between the Sava, Bosna, Drina and Spreča rivers. Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler saw this task as critical to the safeguarding of important agricultural areas and Volksdeutsche (ethnic German) settlements in the Syrmia region to the north. Between March and June 1944 Raithel commanded his regiment during several major operations, including what may have been the largest anti-Partisan sweep of the war, Operation Maibaum (Maypole). He was promoted to SS-Standartenführer (colonel) on 1 April 1944. Raithel led his regiment well, resulting in a serious wound in June 1944. On 11 June 1944, he was recommended for an award of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross citing his leadership and courage while commanding the regiment, but it was not approved. While it achieved successes and proved itself competent in counter-insurgency operations against the Partisans in eastern Bosnia between March and August 1944, the 13th SS Division earned a reputation for brutality and savagery, not only during combat operations, but also through atrocities committed against Serb civilians in the security zone. When a second Bosnian Muslim Waffen-SS division was to be raised in June 1944, the cadre was provided by the 13th SS Division and Raithel was appointed as the divisional commander. The 23rd Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Kama (2nd Croatian) never reached full divisional strength and did not see action as a formation, but elements of the division fought briefly in southern Hungary in early October 1944. The Bosnian Muslim members of the division mutinied on 17 October 1944, but Raithel quickly gained control over the situation. Following the mutiny, the division was formally disbanded on 31 October and reliable elements were absorbed by the 13th SS Division and the 31st SS Volunteer Grenadier Division. ### Germany After a short time convalescing as part of the SS Führungshauptamt (SS headquarters) reserve pool, Raithel was appointed to command the 11th Gebirgsjäger Regiment of the 6th SS Mountain Division Nord in December 1944. In early January 1945, the division was located around Pirmasens near the French-Reich border, reeling from their losses in what was the last major German offensive of World War II on the Western Front, Operation Nordwind. Committed to a series of desperate counterattacks against the United States Army XV Corps, on one occasion Raithel's regiment infiltrated the American positions, surrounding five US infantry companies and taking 450 prisoners of war. The fighting depleted the already understrength regiment, with one company numbering only eight men by 20 January. The commander of one of the US battalions they fought in January 1945 ruefully described Raithel's regiment as, "the best men we ever ran into, extremely aggressive, and impossible to capture. There was no driving them out, for they fought until they were killed". After a quiet period in February 1945 absorbing replacements, the division was withdrawn from the defensive line and ordered to recapture Trier from the US Army. This attack started on 7 March in freezing conditions but after limited success a fresh US offensive struck the division and forced them back north of Mainz. By 19 March, Raithel's regiment had been converted into a kampfgruppe (battlegroup) consisting of two gebirgsjäger battalions, a mountain artillery battalion, a pioneer company and eight anti-tank guns. Two weeks later they were fighting their way out of encirclement near Limburg. On 1 April 1945, Kampfgruppe Raithel and the rest of what remained of the division drove east. Shortly afterwards, Raithel received a serious head wound and was captured. The remnants of the division disintegrated over the next few days and weeks and were captured by the Americans. ## Personal life Raithel recovered from his wounds and had a career in agriculture after the war, working in South Africa for many years. He returned to Bavaria when he retired and earned a doctorate of history from the University of Munich. He continued with mountaineering and regularly climbed in the Alps into his seventies. He maintained contact with his former comrades from the 6th SS Division Nord and attended many reunions. On 12 September 1990 at the age of 82, he was returning home from the Semmering Pass in eastern Austria when he was killed in a traffic accident. ## Career Raithel received the following promotions during his career, after joining the Reichswehr as an officer cadet on 1 April 1926: ### Reichswehr - Leutnant - 1 June 1930 - Oberleutnant - 1 July 1932 ### Wehrmacht - Hauptmann - 1 April 1937 - Major - 1 November 1941 - Oberstleutnant - 1 October 1943 ### Waffen-SS - SS-Obersturmbannführer - 1 December 1943 - SS-Standartenführer - 2 April 1944 ## Awards Raithel received the following awards during his service: - German Cross in Gold - Iron Cross, First and Second class - Infantry Assault Badge - Eastern Front Medal - Order of Bravery (Fourth Grade, First Class) (Kingdom of Bulgaria)
197,112	Bumblebee	1,170,804,592	Genus of insect	[ "Aposematic animals", "Articles containing video clips", "Bumblebees", "Extant Eocene first appearances", "Insects in culture" ]	A bumblebee (or bumble bee, bumble-bee, or humble-bee) is any of over 250 species in the genus Bombus, part of Apidae, one of the bee families. This genus is the only extant group in the tribe Bombini, though a few extinct related genera (e.g., Calyptapis) are known from fossils. They are found primarily in higher altitudes or latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere, although they are also found in South America, where a few lowland tropical species have been identified. European bumblebees have also been introduced to New Zealand and Tasmania. Female bumblebees can sting repeatedly, but generally ignore humans and other animals. Most bumblebees are social insects that form colonies with a single queen. The colonies are smaller than those of honey bees, growing to as few as 50 individuals in a nest. Cuckoo bumblebees are brood parasitic and do not make nests or form colonies; their queens aggressively invade the nests of other bumblebee species, kill the resident queens and then lay their own eggs, which are cared for by the resident workers. Cuckoo bumblebees were previously classified as a separate genus, but are now usually treated as members of Bombus. Bumblebees have round bodies covered in soft hair (long branched setae) called 'pile', making them appear and feel fuzzy. They have aposematic (warning) coloration, often consisting of contrasting bands of colour, and different species of bumblebee in a region often resemble each other in mutually protective Müllerian mimicry. Harmless insects such as hoverflies often derive protection from resembling bumblebees, in Batesian mimicry, and may be confused with them. Nest-making bumblebees can be distinguished from similarly large, fuzzy cuckoo bumblebees by the form of the female hind leg. In nesting bumblebees, it is modified to form a pollen basket, a bare shiny area surrounded by a fringe of hairs used to transport pollen, whereas in cuckoo bumblebees, the hind leg is hairy all round, and they never carry pollen. Like their relatives the honeybees, bumblebees feed on nectar, using their long hairy tongues to lap up the liquid; the proboscis is folded under the head during flight. Bumblebees gather nectar to add to the stores in the nest, and pollen to feed their young. They forage using colour and spatial relationships to identify flowers to feed from. Some bumblebees steal nectar, making a hole near the base of a flower to access the nectar while avoiding pollen transfer. Bumblebees are important agricultural pollinators, so their decline in Europe, North America, and Asia is a cause for concern. The decline has been caused by habitat loss, the mechanisation of agriculture, and pesticides. ## Etymology and common names The word "bumblebee" is a compound of "bumble" and "bee"—'bumble' meaning to hum, buzz, drone, or move ineptly or flounderingly. The generic name Bombus, assigned by Pierre André Latreille in 1802, is derived from the Latin word for a buzzing or humming sound, borrowed from Ancient Greek βόμβος (bómbos). According to the Oxford English Dictionary (OED), the term "bumblebee" was first recorded as having been used in the English language in the 1530 work Lesclarcissement by John Palsgrave, "I bomme, as a bombyll bee dothe." However the OED also states that the term "humblebee" predates it, having first been used in 1450 in Fysshynge wyth Angle, "In Juyll the greshop & the humbylbee in the medow." The latter term was used in A Midsummer Night's Dream (c. 1600) by William Shakespeare, "The honie-bags steale from the humble Bees." Similar terms are used in other Germanic languages, such as the German Hummel (Old High German humbala), Dutch hommel or Swedish humla. An old provincial name, "dumbledor", also denoted a buzzing insect such as a bumblebee or cockchafer, "dumble" probably imitating the sound of these insects, while "dor" meant "beetle". In On the Origin of Species (1859), Charles Darwin speculated about "humble-bees" and their interactions with other species: > I have [...] reason to believe that humble-bees are indispensable to the fertilisation of the heartsease (Viola tricolor), for other bees do not visit this flower. From experiments which I have tried, I have found that the visits of bees, if not indispensable, are at least highly beneficial to the fertilisation of our clovers; but humble-bees alone visit the common red clover (Trifolium pratense), as other bees cannot reach the nectar. However, "bumblebee" remained in use, for example in The Tale of Mrs. Tittlemouse (1910) by Beatrix Potter, "Suddenly round a corner, she met Babbitty Bumble--"Zizz, Bizz, Bizzz!" said the bumble bee." Since World War II "humblebee" has fallen into near-total disuse. ## Phylogeny The bumblebee tribe Bombini is one of four groups of corbiculate bees (those with pollen baskets) in the Apidae, the others being the Apini (honey bees), Euglossini (orchid bees), and Meliponini (stingless bees). The corbiculate bees are a monophyletic group. Advanced eusocial behaviour appears to have evolved twice in the group, giving rise to controversy, now largely settled, as to the phylogenetic origins of the four tribes; it had been supposed that eusocial behaviour had evolved only once, requiring the Apini to be close to the Meliponini, which they do not resemble. It is now thought that the Apini (with advanced societies) and Euglossini are closely related, while the primitively eusocial Bombini are close to the Meliponini, which have somewhat more advanced eusocial behaviour. Sophie Cardinal and Bryan Danforth comment that "While remarkable, a hypothesis of dual origins of advanced eusociality is congruent with early studies on corbiculate morphology and social behavior." Their analysis, combining molecular, morphological and behavioural data, gives the following cladogram: On this hypothesis, the molecular data suggest that the Bombini are 25 to 40 million years old, while the Meliponini (and thus the clade that includes the Bombini and Meliponini) are 81 to 96 million years old, about the same age as the corbiculate group. However, a more recent phylogeny using transcriptome data from 3,647 genes of ten corbiculate bee species supports the single origin of eusociality hypothesis in the corbiculate bees. They find that Bombini is in fact sister to Meliponini, corroborating that previous finding from Sophie Cardinal and Bryan Danforth (2011). However, Romiguier et al. (2015) shows that Bombini, Meliponini, and Apini form a monophyletic group, where Apini shares a most recent common ancestor with the Bombini and Meliponini clade, while Euglossini is most distantly related to all three, since it does not share the same most recent common ancestor as Bombini, Meliponini, and Apini. Thus, their analysis supports the single origin of eusociality hypothesis within the corbiculate bees, where eusociality evolved in the common ancestor of Bombini, Apini, and Meliponini. The fossil record for bees is limited, with around 14 species that might possibly be Bombini having been described by 2019. The only Bombus relatives in Bombini are the late Eocene Calyptapis florissantensis from the Florissant Formation, USA, and Oligobombus cuspidatus from the Bembridge Marls of the Isle of Wight. Two species of Bombus have been described from the Oligocene of Beşkonak, Bucak Turkey: Bombus (Mendacibombus) beskonakensis and Bombus (Paraelectrobombus) patriciae. Both species were originally placed in genera considered at the time of description as outside of Bombus, being initially named Oligoapis beskonakensis and Paraelectrobombus patriciae respectively, however reexaminiation of the fore-wings lead to both being considered as Bombus species In 2012 a fossil bumblebee from the Miocene was found in Germany's Randeck Maar and classified as Bombus (Bombus) randeckensis. In 2014, another species, Bombus cerdanyensis, was described from Late Miocene lacustrine beds of La Cerdanya, Spain, but not initially placed into any subgenus, The species Bombus trophonius was described in October 2017 and placed in Bombus subgenus Cullumanobombus. A redescription of the Bombini fossil record by Dehon et al (2019) resulted in the synonymization of the genus Oligoapis with Bombus subgenus Mendacibombus, and the placement of genus Paraelectrobombus as Bombus subgenus Paraelectrobombus, rather than as a genus in Electrobombini. The subgenus Cullumanobombus was expanded to include not only Bombus trophonius but also Bombus randeckensis which was moved from subgenus Bombus and Bombus pristinus, first described by Unger (1867). Within the subgenus Melanobombus only Bombus cerdanyensis is present from the fossil record. An additional three species, "Bombus" luianus, "Bombus" anacolus and "Bombus" dilectus have been attributed to Bombus from the Middle Miocene Shanwang formation of China by Zhang, (1990) and Zhang et al (1994). Due to not being able to study Zhang's type specimens, but only illustrations of the fossils, Dehon et al did not place the three species within any specific subgenera, and considered all three as "species inquirenda", needing fuller re-examination. Two other species were not examined at all by Dehon et al, Bombus? crassipes of the Late Miocene Krottensee deposits in the Czech Republic, and Bombus proavus from the Middle Miocene Latah Formation, USA. ## Taxonomy The genus Bombus, the only one extant genus in the tribe Bombini, comprises over 250 species; for an overview of the differences between bumblebees and other bees and wasps, see characteristics of common wasps and bees. The genus has been divided variously into up to 49 subgenera, a degree of complexity criticised by Williams (2008). The cuckoo bumblebees Psithyrus have sometimes been treated as a separate genus but are now considered to be part of Bombus, in one or more subgenera. Examples of Bombus species include Bombus pauloensis, Bombus dahlbomii, Bombus fervidus, Bombus lapidarius, Bombus ruderatus, and Bombus rupestris. : : Subgenera of the genus Bombus ## General description Bumblebees vary in appearance, but are generally plump and densely furry. They are larger, broader and stouter-bodied than honeybees, and their abdomen tip is more rounded. Many species have broad bands of colour, the patterns helping to distinguish different species. Whereas honeybees have short tongues and therefore mainly pollinate open flowers, some bumblebee species have long tongues and collect nectar from flowers that are closed into a tube. Bumblebees have fewer stripes (or none), and usually have part of the body covered in black fur, while honeybees have many stripes including several grey stripes on the abdomen. Sizes are very variable even within species; the largest British species, B. terrestris, has queens up to 22 mm (0.9 in) long, males up to 16 mm (0.6 in) long, and workers between 11 and 17 mm (0.4–0.7 in) long. The largest bumblebee species in the world is B. dahlbomii of Chile, up to about 40 mm (1.6 in) long, and described as "flying mice" and "a monstrous fluffy ginger beast". ## Distribution and habitat Bumblebees are typically found in temperate climates, and are often found at higher latitudes and altitudes than other bees, although a few lowland tropical species exist. A few species (B. polaris and B. alpinus) range into very cold climates where other bees might not be found; B. polaris occurs in northern Ellesmere Island in the high Arctic, along with another bumblebee B. hyperboreus, which parasitises its nest. This is the northernmost occurrence of any eusocial insect. One reason for their presence in cold places is that bumblebees can regulate their body temperature, via solar radiation, internal mechanisms of "shivering" and radiative cooling from the abdomen (called heterothermy). Other bees have similar physiology, but the mechanisms seem best developed and have been most studied in bumblebees. They adapt to higher elevations by extending their wing stroke amplitude. Bumblebees have a largely cosmopolitan distribution but are absent from Australia (apart from Tasmania where they have been introduced) and are found in Africa only north of the Sahara. More than a hundred years ago they were also introduced to New Zealand, where they play an important role as efficient pollinators. ## Biology ### Feeding The bumblebee tongue (the proboscis) is a long, hairy structure that extends from a sheath-like modified maxilla. The primary action of the tongue is lapping, that is, repeated dipping of the tongue into liquid. The tip of the tongue probably acts as a suction cup and during lapping, nectar may be drawn up the proboscis by capillary action. When at rest or flying, the proboscis is kept folded under the head. The longer the tongue, the deeper the bumblebee can probe into a flower and bees probably learn from experience which flower source is best-suited to their tongue length. Bees with shorter proboscides, like Bombus bifarius, have a more difficult time foraging nectar relative to other bumblebees with longer proboscides; to overcome this disadvantage, B. bifarius workers were observed to lick the back of spurs on the nectar duct, which resulted in a small reward. ### Wax production The exoskeleton of the abdomen is divided into plates called dorsal tergites and ventral sternites. Wax is secreted from glands on the abdomen and extruded between the sternites where it resembles flakes of dandruff. It is secreted by the queen when she starts a nest and by young workers. It is scraped from the abdomen by the legs, moulded until malleable and used in the construction of honeypots, to cover the eggs, to line empty cocoons for use as storage containers and sometimes to cover the exterior of the nest. ### Coloration The brightly coloured pile of the bumblebee is an aposematic (warning) signal, given that females can inflict a painful sting. Depending on the species and morph, the warning colours range from entirely black, to bright yellow, red, orange, white, and pink. Dipteran flies in the families Syrphidae (hoverflies), Asilidae (robber flies), Tabanidae (horseflies), Oestridae (bot or warble flies) and Bombyliidae (bee flies, such as Bombylius major) all include Batesian mimics of bumblebees, resembling them closely enough to deceive at least some predators. Many species of Bombus, including the group sometimes called Psithyrus (cuckoo bumblebees), have evolved Müllerian mimicry, where the different bumblebees in a region resemble each other, so that a young predator need only learn to avoid any of them once. For example, in California a group of bumblebees consists of largely black species including B. californicus, B. caliginosus, B. vandykei, B. vosnesenskii, B. insularis and B. fernaldae. Other bees in California include a group of species all banded black and yellow. In each case, Müllerian mimicry provides the bees in the group with a selective advantage. In addition, parasitic (cuckoo) bumblebees resemble their hosts more closely than would be expected by chance, at least in areas like Europe where parasite-host co-speciation is common; but this too may be explained as Müllerian mimicry, rather than requiring the parasite's coloration to deceive the host (aggressive mimicry). ### Temperature control Bumblebees are active under conditions during which honeybees stay at home, and can readily absorb heat from even weak sunshine. The thick pile created by long setae (bristles) acts as insulation to keep bumblebees warm in cold weather; species from cold climates have longer setae (and thus thicker insulation) than those from the tropics. The temperature of the flight muscles, which occupy much of the thorax, needs to be at least 30 °C (86 °F) before flight can take place. The muscle temperature can be raised by shivering. It takes about five minutes for the muscles to reach this temperature at an air temperature of 13 °C (55 °F). #### Chill-coma temperature The chill-coma temperature in relation to flying insects is the temperature at which flight muscles cannot be activated. Compared to honey bees and carpenter bees, bumblebees have the lowest chill-coma temperature. Of the bumblebees Bombus bimaculatus has the lowest at 7 °C (45 °F). However, bumblebees have been seen to fly in colder ambient temperatures. This discrepancy is likely because the chill-coma temperature was determined by tests done in a laboratory setting. However, bumblebees live in insulated shelters and can shiver to warm up before venturing into the cold. ### Communication and social learning Bumblebees do not have ears, and it is not known whether or how well they can hear. However, they are sensitive to the vibrations made by sound travelling through wood or other materials. Bumblebees do not exhibit the "bee dances" used by honeybees to tell other workers the locations of food sources. Instead, when they return from a successful foraging expedition, they run excitedly around in the nest for several minutes before going out to forage once more. These bees may be offering some form of communication based on the buzzing sounds made by their wings, which may stimulate other bees to start foraging. Another stimulant to foraging activity is the level of food reserves in the colony. Bees monitor the amount of honey in the honeypots, and when little is left or when high-quality food is added, they are more likely to go out to forage. Bumblebees have been observed to partake in social learning. In a 2017 study involving Bombus terrestris, bees were taught to complete an unnatural task of moving large objects to obtain a reward. Bees who first observed another bee complete the task were significantly more successful in learning the task than bees who observed the same action performed by a magnet, indicating the importance of social information. The bees did not copy one another exactly: in fact, the study suggested that the bees were instead attempting to emulate one another's goals. ### Reproduction and nesting Nest size depends on species of bumblebee. Most form colonies of between 50 and 400 individuals, but colonies have been documented as small as \~20 individuals and as large as 1700. These nests are small compared to honeybee hives, which hold about 50,000 bees. Many species nest underground, choosing old rodent burrows or sheltered places, and avoiding places that receive direct sunlight that could result in overheating. Other species make nests above ground, whether in thick grass or in holes in trees. A bumblebee nest is not organised into hexagonal combs like that of a honeybee; the cells are instead clustered together untidily. The workers remove dead bees or larvae from the nest and deposit them outside the nest entrance, helping to prevent disease. Nests in temperate regions last only for a single season and do not survive the winter. In the early spring, the queen comes out of diapause and finds a suitable place to create her colony. Then she builds wax cells in which to lay her eggs which were fertilised the previous year. The eggs that hatch develop into female workers, and in time, the queen populates the colony, with workers feeding the young and performing other duties similar to honeybee workers. In temperate zones, young queens (gynes) leave the nest in the autumn and mate, often more than once, with males (drones) that are forcibly driven out of the colony. The drones and workers die as the weather turns colder; the young queens feed intensively to build up stores of fat for the winter. They survive in a resting state (diapause), generally below ground, until the weather warms up in the spring with the early bumblebee being the species that is among the first to emerge. Many species of bumblebee follow this general trend within the year. Bombus pensylvanicus is a species that follows this type of colony cycle. For this species the cycle begins in February, reproduction starts in July or August, and ends in the winter months. The queen remains in hibernation until spring of the following year in order to optimize conditions to search for a nest. In fertilised queens, the ovaries only become active when the queen starts to lay. An egg passes along the oviduct to the vagina where there is a chamber called the spermatheca, in which the sperm from the mating is stored. Depending on need, she may allow her egg to be fertilised. Unfertilised eggs become haploid males; fertilised eggs grow into diploid females and queens. The hormones that stimulate the development of the ovaries are suppressed in female worker bees, while the queen remains dominant. To develop, the larvae must be fed both nectar for carbohydrates and pollen for protein. Bumblebees feed nectar to the larvae by chewing a small hole in the brood cell into which they regurgitate nectar. Larvae are fed pollen in one of two ways, depending on the bumblebee species. Pocket-making bumblebees create pockets of pollen at the base of the brood-cell clump from which the larvae feed themselves. Pollen-storing bumblebees keep pollen in separate wax pots and feed it to the larvae. After the emergence of the first or second group of offspring, workers take over the task of foraging and the queen spends most of her time laying eggs and caring for larvae. The colony grows progressively larger and eventually begins to produce males and new queens. Bumblebee workers can lay unfertilised haploid eggs (with only a single set of chromosomes) that develop into viable male bumblebees. Only fertilised queens can lay diploid eggs (one set of chromosomes from a drone, one from the queen) that mature into workers and new queens. In a young colony, the queen minimises reproductive competition from workers by suppressing their egg-laying through physical aggression and pheromones. Worker policing leads to nearly all eggs laid by workers being eaten. Thus, the queen is usually the mother of all of the first males laid. Workers eventually begin to lay male eggs later in the season when the queen's ability to suppress their reproduction diminishes. Because of the reproductive competition between workers and the queen, bumblebees are considered "primitively eusocial". Although a large majority of bumblebees follow such monogynous colony cycles that only involve one queen, some select Bombus species (such as Bombus pauloensis) will spend part of their life cycle in a polygynous phase (have multiple queens in one nest during these periods of polygyny). ### Foraging behaviour Bumblebees generally visit flowers that exhibit the bee pollination syndrome and these patches of flowers may be up to 1–2 km from their colony. They tend to visit the same patches of flowers every day, as long as they continue to find nectar and pollen there, a habit known as pollinator or flower constancy. While foraging, bumblebees can reach ground speeds of up to 15 m/s (54 km/h). Bumblebees use a combination of colour and spatial relationships to learn which flowers to forage from. They can also detect both the presence and the pattern of electric fields on flowers, which occur due to atmospheric electricity, and take a while to leak away into the ground. They use this information to find out if a flower has been recently visited by another bee. Bumblebees can detect the temperature of flowers, as well as which parts of the flower are hotter or cooler and use this information to recognise flowers. After arriving at a flower, they extract nectar using their long tongues ("glossae") and store it in their crops. Many species of bumblebees also exhibit "nectar robbing": instead of inserting the mouthparts into the flower in the normal way, these bees bite directly through the base of the corolla to extract nectar, avoiding pollen transfer. Pollen is removed from flowers deliberately or incidentally by bumblebees. Incidental removal occurs when bumblebees come in contact with the anthers of a flower while collecting nectar. When it enters a flower, the bumblebee's body hairs receive a dusting of pollen from the anthers. In queens and workers this is then groomed into the corbiculae (pollen baskets) on the hind legs where it can be seen as bulging masses that may contain as many as a million pollen grains. Male bumblebees do not have corbiculae and do not purposively collect pollen. Bumblebees are also capable of buzz pollination, in which they dislodge pollen from the anthers by creating a resonant vibration with their flight muscles. In at least some species, once a bumblebee has visited a flower, it leaves a scent mark on it. This scent mark deters bumblebees from visiting that flower until the scent degrades. This scent mark is a general chemical bouquet that bumblebees leave behind in different locations (e.g. nest, neutral, and food sites), and they learn to use this bouquet to identify both rewarding and unrewarding flowers, and may be able to identify who else has visited a flower. Bumblebees rely on this chemical bouquet more when the flower has a high handling time, that is, where it takes a longer time for the bee to find the nectar once inside the flower. Once they have collected nectar and pollen, female workers return to the nest and deposit the harvest into brood cells, or into wax cells for storage. Unlike honeybees, bumblebees only store a few days' worth of food, so are much more vulnerable to food shortages. Male bumblebees collect only nectar and do so to feed themselves. They may visit quite different flowers from the workers because of their different nutritional needs. ### Asynchronous flight muscles Bees beat their wings about 200 times a second. Their thorax muscles do not contract on each nerve firing, but rather vibrate like a plucked rubber band. This is efficient, since it lets the system consisting of muscle and wing operate at its resonant frequency, leading to low energy consumption. Further, it is necessary, since insect motor nerves generally cannot fire 200 times per second. These types of muscles are called asynchronous muscles and are found in the insect wing systems in families such as Hymenoptera, Diptera, Coleoptera, and Hemiptera. Bumblebees must warm up their bodies considerably to get airborne at low ambient temperatures. Bumblebees can reach an internal thoracic temperature of 30 °C (86 °F) using this method. ### Cuckoo bumblebees Bumblebees of the subgenus Psithyrus (known as 'cuckoo bumblebees', and formerly considered a separate genus) are brood parasites, sometimes called kleptoparasites, in the colonies of other bumblebees, and have lost the ability to collect pollen. Before finding and invading a host colony, a Psithyrus female, such as that of the Psithyrus species of B. sylvestris, feeds directly from flowers. Once she has infiltrated a host colony, the Psithyrus female kills or subdues the queen of that colony, and uses pheromones and physical attacks to force the workers of that colony to feed her and her young. Usually, cuckoo bumblebees can be described as queen-intolerant inquilines, since the host queen is often killed to enable the parasite to produce more offspring, though some species, such as B. bohemicus, actually enjoy increased success when they leave the host queen alive. The female Psithyrus has a number of morphological adaptations for combat, such as larger mandibles, a tough cuticle and a larger venom sac that increase her chances of taking over a nest. Upon emerging from their cocoons, the Psithyrus males and females disperse and mate. The males do not survive the winter but, like nonparasitic bumblebee queens, Psithyrus females find suitable locations to spend the winter and enter diapause after mating. They usually emerge from hibernation later than their host species. Each species of cuckoo bumblebee has a specific host species, which it may physically resemble. In the case of the parasitism of B. terrestris by B. (Psithyrus) vestalis, genetic analysis of individuals captured in the wild showed that about 42% of the host species' nests at a single location had "[lost] their fight against their parasite". ### Sting Queen and worker bumblebees can sting. Unlike in honeybees, a bumblebee's stinger lacks barbs, so the bee can sting repeatedly without leaving the stinger in the wound and thereby injuring itself. Bumblebee species are not normally aggressive, but may sting in defence of their nest, or if harmed. Female cuckoo bumblebees aggressively attack host colony members, and sting the host queen, but ignore other animals unless disturbed. The sting is painful to humans, and not medically significant in most cases, although it may trigger an allergic reaction in susceptible individuals. ## Predators, parasites, and pathogens Bumblebees, despite their ability to sting, are eaten by certain predators. Nests may be dug up by badgers and eaten whole, including any adults present. Adults are preyed upon by robber flies and beewolves in North America. In Europe, birds including bee-eaters and shrikes capture adult bumblebees on the wing; smaller birds such as great tits also occasionally learn to take bumblebees, while camouflaged crab spiders catch them as they visit flowers. The great grey shrike is able to detect flying bumblebees up to 100 m (330 ft) away; once captured, the sting is removed by repeatedly squeezing the insect with the mandibles and wiping the abdomen on a branch. The European honey buzzard follows flying bees back to their nest, digs out the nest with its feet, and eats larvae, pupae and adults as it finds them. Bumblebees are parasitised by tracheal mites, Locustacarus buchneri; protozoans including Crithidia bombi and Apicystis bombi; and microsporidians including Nosema bombi and Nosema ceranae. The tree bumblebee B. hypnorum has spread into the United Kingdom despite hosting high levels of a nematode that normally interferes with queen bees' attempts to establish colonies. Deformed wing virus has been found to affect 11% of bumblebees in Great Britain. Female bee moths (Aphomia sociella) prefer to lay their eggs in bumblebee nests. The A. sociella larvae will then feed on the eggs, larvae, and pupae left unprotected by the bumblebees, sometimes destroying large parts of the nest. ## Relationship to humans ### Agricultural use Bumblebees are important pollinators of both crops and wildflowers. Because bumblebees do not overwinter the entire colony, they do not stockpile honey, and therefore are not useful as honey producers. Bumblebees are increasingly cultured for agricultural use as pollinators, among other reasons because they can pollinate plants such as tomato in greenhouses by buzz pollination whereas other pollinators cannot. Commercial production began in 1987, when Roland De Jonghe founded the Biobest company; in 1988 they produced enough nests to pollinate 40 hectares of tomatoes. The industry grew quickly, starting with other companies in the Netherlands. Bumblebee nests, mainly of buff-tailed bumblebees, are produced in at least 30 factories around the world; over a million nests are grown annually in Europe; Turkey is a major producer. Bumblebees are Northern Hemisphere animals. When red clover was introduced as a crop to New Zealand in the nineteenth century, it was found to have no local pollinators, and clover seed had accordingly to be imported each year. Four species of bumblebee from the United Kingdom were therefore imported as pollinators. In 1885 and 1886 the Canterbury Acclimatization Society brought in 442 queens, of which 93 survived and quickly multiplied. As planned, red clover was soon being produced from locally-grown seed. Bumblebees are also reared commercially to pollinate tomatoes grown in greenhouses. The New Zealand population of buff-tailed bumblebees began colonising Tasmania, 1,500 miles (2,400 km) away, after being introduced there in 1992 under unclear circumstances. Some concerns exist about the impact of the international trade in mass-produced bumblebee colonies. Evidence from Japan and South America indicates bumblebees can escape and naturalise in new environments, causing damage to native pollinators. Greater use of native pollinators, such as Bombus ignitus in China and Japan, has occurred as a result. In addition, mounting evidence indicates mass-produced bumblebees may also carry diseases, harmful to wild bumblebees and honeybees. In Canada and Sweden it has been shown that growing a mosaic of different crops encourages bumblebees and provides higher yields than does a monoculture of oilseed rape, despite the fact that the bees were attracted to the crop. ### Population decline Bumblebee species are declining in Europe, North America, and Asia due to a number of factors, including land-use change that reduces their food plants. In North America, pathogens are possibly having a stronger negative effect especially for the subgenus Bombus. A major impact on bumblebees was caused by the mechanisation of agriculture, accelerated by the urgent need to increase food production during the Second World War. Small farms depended on horses to pull implements and carts. The horses were fed on clover and hay, both of which were permanently grown on a typical farm. Little artificial fertiliser was used. Farms thus provided flowering clover and flower-rich meadows, favouring bumblebees. Mechanisation removed the need for horses and most of the clover; artificial fertilisers encouraged the growth of taller grasses, outcompeting the meadow flowers. Most of the flowers, and the bumblebees that fed on them, disappeared from Britain by the early 1980s. The last native British short-haired bumblebee was captured near Dungeness in 1988. This significant increase in pesticide and fertilizer use associated with the industrialization of agriculture has had adverse effects on the genus Bombus. The bees are directly exposed to the chemicals in two ways: by consuming nectar that has been directly treated with pesticide, or through physical contact with treated plants and flowers. The species Bombus hortorum in particular has been found to be affected by the pesticides; their brood development has been reduced and their memory has been negatively affected. Additionally, pesticide use negatively affects colony development and size. Bumblebees are in danger in many developed countries due to habitat destruction and collateral pesticide damage. The European Food Safety Authority ruled that three neonicotinoid pesticides (clothianidin, imidacloprid, and thiamethoxam) presented a high risk for bees. While most work on neonicotinoid toxicity has looked at honeybees, a study on B. terrestris showed that "field-realistic" levels of imidacloprid significantly reduced growth rate and cut production of new queens by 85%, implying a "considerable negative effect" on wild bumblebee populations throughout the developed world. Another study on B. terrestris had results suggesting that use of neonicotinoid pesticides can affect how well bumblebees are able to forage and pollinate. Foragers from bee colonies that had been affected by the pesticide took longer to learn to manipulate flowers and visited flowers with less nutritious pollen. In another study, chronic exposure in a laboratory setting to field-realistic levels of the neonicotinoid pesticide thiamethoxam did not affect colony weight gain or the number or mass of sexuals produced. Low levels of neonicotinoids can reduce the number of bumblebees in a colony by as much as 55%, and cause dysfunction in the bumblebees' brains. The Bumblebee Conservation Trust considers this evidence of reduced brain function "particularly alarming given that bumblebees rely upon their intelligence to go about their daily tasks." Of 19 species of native nestmaking bumblebees and six species of cuckoo bumblebees formerly widespread in Britain, three have been extirpated, eight are in serious decline, and only six remain widespread. Similar declines have been reported in Ireland, with four species designated endangered, and another two considered vulnerable to extinction. A decline in bumblebee numbers could cause large-scale changes to the countryside, resulting from inadequate pollination of certain plants. Some bumblebees native to North America are also vanishing, such as Bombus balteatus, Bombus terricola, Bombus affinis, and Bombus occidentalis, and one, Bombus franklini, may be extinct. In South America, Bombus bellicosus was extirpated in the northern limit of its distribution range, probably due to intense land use and climate change effects. ### Conservation efforts In 2006 the bumblebee researcher Dave Goulson founded a registered charity, the Bumblebee Conservation Trust, to prevent the extinction "of any of the UK's bumblebees." In 2009 and 2010, the Trust attempted to reintroduce the short-haired bumblebee, Bombus subterraneus, which had become extinct in Britain, from the British-derived populations surviving in New Zealand from their introduction there a century earlier. From 2011 the Trust, in partnership with Natural England, Hymettus and the RSPB, has reintroduced short-haired bumblebee queens from Skåne in southern Sweden to restored flower-rich meadows at Dungeness in Kent. The queens were checked for mites and American foulbrood disease. Agri-environment schemes spread across the neighbouring area of Romney Marsh have been set up to provide over 800 hectares of additional flower-rich habitat for the bees. By the summer of 2013, workers of the species were found near the release zone, proving that nests had been established. The restored habitat has produced a revival in at least five "Schedule 41 priority" species: the ruderal bumblebee, Bombus ruderatus; the red-shanked carder bee, Bombus ruderarius; the shrill carder bee, Bombus sylvarum; the brown-banded carder bee, Bombus humilis and the moss carder bee, Bombus muscorum. The world's first bumblebee sanctuary was established at Vane Farm in the Loch Leven National Nature Reserve in Scotland in 2008. In 2011, London's Natural History Museum led the establishment of an International Union for Conservation of Nature Bumblebee Specialist Group, chaired by Dr. Paul H. Williams, to assess the threat status of bumblebee species worldwide using Red List criteria. Bumblebee conservation is in its infancy in many parts of the world, but with the realization of the important part they play in pollination of crops, efforts are being made to manage farmland better. Enhancing the wild bee population can be done by the planting of wildflower strips, and in New Zealand, bee nesting boxes have achieved some success, perhaps because there are few burrowing mammals to provide potential nesting sites in that country. ### Misconception about flight According to 20th-century folklore, the laws of aerodynamics prove the bumblebee should be incapable of flight, as it does not have the capacity (in terms of wing size or beats per second) to achieve flight with the degree of wing loading necessary. > 'Supposedly someone did a back of the envelope calculation, taking the weight of a bumblebee and its wing area into account, and worked out that if it only flies at a couple of metres per second, the wings wouldn't produce enough lift to hold the bee up,' explains Charlie Ellington, Professor of Animal Mechanics at Cambridge University. The origin of this claim has been difficult to pin down with any certainty. John H. McMasters recounted an anecdote about an unnamed Swiss aerodynamicist at a dinner party who performed some rough calculations and concluded, presumably in jest, that according to the equations, bumblebees cannot fly. In later years, McMasters backed away from this origin, suggesting there could be multiple sources, and the earliest he has found was a reference in the 1934 book Le Vol des Insectes by French entomologist Antoine Magnan (1881–1938); they had applied the equations of air resistance to insects and found their flight was impossible, but "One shouldn't be surprised that the results of the calculations don't square with reality". The following passage appears in the introduction to Le Vol des Insectes: Magnan refers to his assistant André Sainte-Laguë. Some credit physicist Ludwig Prandtl (1875–1953) of the University of Göttingen in Germany with popularizing the idea. Others say Swiss gas dynamicist Jakob Ackeret (1898–1981) did the calculations. The calculations that purported to show that bumblebees cannot fly are based upon a simplified linear treatment of oscillating aerofoils. The method assumes small amplitude oscillations without flow separation. This ignores the effect of dynamic stall (an airflow separation inducing a large vortex above the wing), which briefly produces several times the lift of the aerofoil in regular flight. More sophisticated aerodynamic analysis shows the bumblebee can fly because its wings encounter dynamic stall in every oscillation cycle. Additionally, John Maynard Smith, a noted biologist with a strong background in aeronautics, has pointed out that bumblebees would not be expected to sustain flight, as they would need to generate too much power given their tiny wing area. However, in aerodynamics experiments with other insects, he found that viscosity at the scale of small insects meant even their small wings can move a very large volume of air relative to their size, and this reduces the power required to sustain flight by an order of magnitude. ### In music and literature The orchestral interlude Flight of the Bumblebee was composed (c. 1900) by Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov. It represents the turning of Prince Guidon into a bumblebee so he can fly away to visit his father, Tsar Saltan, in the opera The Tale of Tsar Saltan, although the music may reflect the flight of a bluebottle rather than a bumblebee. The music inspired Walt Disney to feature a bumblebee in his 1940 animated musical Fantasia and have it sound as if it were flying in all parts of the theater. This early attempt at "surround sound" was excluded from the film in later showings. In 1599, during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, someone, possibly Tailboys Dymoke, published Caltha Poetarum: Or The Bumble Bee, under the pseudonym "T. Cutwode". This was one of nine books censored under the Bishop's Ban issued by the Archbishop of Canterbury John Whitgift and the Bishop of London Richard Bancroft. Emily Dickinson made a bumblebee the subject of her parody of Isaac Watts's well-known poem about honeybees, "How Doth the Little Busy Bee" (1715). Where Watts wrote "How skilfully she builds her cell! How neat she spreads the wax!", Dickinson's poem, "The Bumble-Bee's Religion" (1881), begins "His little Hearse-like Figure / Unto itself a Dirge / To a delusive Lilac / The vanity divulge / Of Industry and Morals / And every righteous thing / For the divine Perdition / of Idleness and Spring." The letter was said to have enclosed a dead bee. In 1847, Ralph Waldo Emerson published his poem "The Humble-Bee". The entomologist Otto Plath wrote Bumblebees and Their Ways in 1934. His daughter, the poet Sylvia Plath, wrote a group of poems about bees late in 1962, within four months of her suicide, transforming her father's interest into her poetry. The scientist and illustrator Moses Harris (1731–1785) painted accurate watercolour drawings of bumblebees in his An Exposition of English Insects Including the Several Classes of Neuroptera, Hymenoptera, & Diptera, or Bees, Flies, & Libellulae (1776–80). Bumblebees appear as characters, often eponymously, in children's books. The surname Dumbledore in the Harry Potter series (1997–2007) is an old name for bumblebee. J. K. Rowling said the name "seemed to suit the headmaster, because one of his passions is music and I imagined him walking around humming to himself". J. R. R. Tolkien, in his poem Errantry, also used the name Dumbledor, but for a large bee-like creature. Among the many books for younger children are Bumble the Bee by Yvon Douran and Tony Neal (2014); Bertie Bumble Bee by K. I. Al-Ghani (2012); Ben the Bumble Bee: How do bees make honey? by Romessa Awadalla (2015); Bumble Bee Bob Has a Big Butt by Papa Campbell (2012); Buzz, Buzz, Buzz! Went Bumble-bee by Colin West (1997); Bumble Bee by Margaret Wise Brown (2000); How the Bumble Came to Bee by Paul and Ella Quarry (2012); The Adventures of Professor Bumble and the Bumble Bees by Stephen Brailovsky (2010). Among Beatrix Potter's "little books", Babbity Bumble and other members of her nest appear in The Tale of Mrs. Tittlemouse (1910). ### Military The United States Naval Construction Battalions adopted the bumblebee as their insignia in 1942. ## See also - Ophrys bombyliflora, the bumblebee orchid
15,497,788	CLODO	1,172,459,221	Neo-Luddite French anarchist organization, 1980s	[ "1980 in France", "1983 in France", "Anarchism", "Anarchism in France", "Defunct anarchist militant groups", "Defunct anarchist organizations in France", "Green anarchism", "Neo-Luddites" ]	Committee for Liquidation or Subversion of Computers (French: Comité Liquidant ou Détournant les Ordinateurs; CLODO being a slang word for the homeless) was a French neo-Luddite anarchist organization that attacked computer and telecommunications companies in the early 1980s. The group was motivated by concerns over the growing ubiquity of telecommunications and potential misuse of computers by governments to strip freedoms from the general population. CLODO's targets were mainly located in Toulouse, France. CLODO carried out attacks in 1980 and 1983 with a two-year hiatus in-between; targets included: CII Honeywell Bull, International Computers Limited, and Sperry. The group released a manifesto in 1983 and has been classified as inactive by the National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism since their final attack in December 1983. The 2022 experimental documentary Machines in Flames details CLODO's activities and ideologies. None of its members have been identified to date. ## Name The initialism 'CLODO', (Comité pour la liquidation ou la destruction des ordinateurs or Committee for Liquidation or Subversion of Computers) is also a slang term for 'bum' or 'homeless' in French. CLODO would infrequently use the names Comité liquidant et détournant les ordinateurs and Comité de libération et de détournements d'ordinateurs as well. The term "détournement" refers to a strategic appropriation of a popular symbol, giving it a new meaning. The use of the term "clodo" as an initialism is believed to be an intentional act of "self-irony" and followed a larger trend of anarchist groups using humorous names and acronyms. ## History CLODO began in 1980 in protest against increasing computerized surveillance by national governments and fears of increased oppression as computerization advanced. The first major attacks by CLODO occurred in April 1980: a sabotage and robbery against Philips Data Systems, and a bombing against CII Honeywell Bull's office in Toulouse. In May 1980, CLODO perpetrated an arson attack against International Computers Limited. It was estimated that 1 million francs in damage was caused by the fire, and phrases such as "No to big brother in Ireland" (Protesting British control of Northern Ireland), "No to information cop", and "1984" (in reference to the 1949 book by George Orwell) were found written in charcoal on the walls. In August 1980, CLODO carried out two failed attacks against CII Honeywell Bull's office in Louveciennes. The first attack involved a 5 kg explosive that failed due to a faulty detonator and the second attempt was defused prior to detonation. In September 1980, CLODO carried out an explosive attack against AP-SOGETI. In December 1980, CLODO claimed responsibility for an arson attack against a Paris Insurance Union (now named Axa) office in the 9th arrondissement of Paris. Following this, CLODO entered a period of inactivity and would not claim any attacks during 1981 and 1982. In March 1981, an IBM computer terminal at the Banque Populaire building in Toulouse was vandalized. While CLODO did not claim the attack, the newspaper Le Matin de Paris stated the attack was "reminiscent of the habits and customs of the deceased CLODO". A 1998 investigation of CLODO in Notes & études de l'Institut de criminologie de Paris did not attribute this attack to them. Following two years of inactivity, in January 1983, CLODO returned, detonating three explosive charges at the Computer Center of the Prefecture of Haute-Garonne. This resulted in 30 million francs in damages. That same month, police raided the radio station hosting Canal Sud [fr], believing that CLODO's members were present. Five suspects were arrested during the raid but none were determined to be credibly connected to CLODO. Following the raid, the newspaper Libération described CLODO's actions as "gentle violence" and “terrorism without terror”, citing that no one had been seriously hurt or killed during CLODO's attacks. In October 1983, CLODO set fire to the offices of U.S. computer manufacturer Sperry in protest of Reagan's invasion of Grenada. In total, seven rooms of the building were damaged and "Reagan attacks Grenada, Sperry a multinational accomplice" was found written inside a vandalized office. The attack was performed in the early morning and where members of CLODO broke into the building, piling flammable objects in an office before setting it on fire. The newspaper La Dépêche commented that CLODO was using increasingly aggressive means of carrying out their attacks, and claimed the arson attack could have resulted in casualties had a series of display cases not contained the blaze. In October 1983, following the attack against Sperry-Univac, CLODO sent a manifesto disguised as an interview to the French magazine Terminal 19/84; detailing their ideology and future plans. CLODO vandalized the National Cash Register building near Toulouse in December 1983, their last known attack. ## Ideology In their manifesto, CLODO detailed the motivations, ideologies, and ultimate goals of the organization, and was composed in a question-answer format. In the manifesto, when asked why they targeted computer companies, CLODO replied: "We are essentially attacking what these tools lead to: files, surveillance by means of badges and cards, instrument of profit maximization for the bosses and of accelerated pauperization for those who are rejected..." CLODO additionally alluded to further attacks they panned to commit, and stated they planned to carry out attacks geared towards limiting the expansion and increasing ubiquity of telecommunications. CLODO claimed to function as an ad hoc group with no formal organization or leadership, and considered themselves part of a larger movement, citing increasing public distrust in computer software and the public's concern about the potential implications technology had on limiting people's freedoms. This, more specifically, centered around fears of government oppression and increased surveillance on the populace as computers became more ubiquitous. CLODO claimed that while they did not see themselves as machine-breakers, in that they did not believe technological regression away from computers was possible, they believed that "Computer tools are undoubtedly perverted at their very origin". While CLODO never claimed an outright ideology in their manifesto, researchers have classified their ideals as Neo-Luddite in nature. In their manifesto, CLODO believed that the current intentions of advancements in computing were the "dehumanization" of employment and were being used to impose Western ideals and economic domination on third world countries. As such, CLODO's neo-Luddite beliefs formed part of a broader push-back against computerization, workplace restructuring, and "neo-Taylorist" ideologies. In 1980, CLODO released a statement to the French media in which they explained their motives. It read, > "We are workers in the field of dp (data processing) and telematics. The computer is the favorite tool of the dominant. It is used to exploit, to put on file, to control, and to repress." In their manifesto, CLODO would expand on their motivations and end goals, stating, > "By our actions we have wanted to underline the material nature of the computer-tools on the one hand, and on the other, the destiny of domination which has been conferred on it. Finally, though what we do is primarily propaganda by the deed, we also know that the damage we cause leads to setbacks and substantial delays." At the time of the Toulouse attacks in 1980, French police believed that CLODO was an outgrowth of Action Directe, a libertarian communist group. This was later corrected following analysis by National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism, who concluded "Although no proof has ever been established that CLODO was affiliated with Action Directe, it seems likely that they had some linkages, but that CLODO was focused more on an anarchist worldview, as opposed to a Marxist-Leninist philosophy." Due to CLODO's use of the term détournement, it has also been speculated that CLODO may have had some relation to Situationist International. CLODO's attacks happened in a wider context of similar attacks throughout Toulouse and a growing anti-computerization sentiment throughout France. ## Legacy According to the National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism, CLODO has not been active since 1983. CLODO and similar group's attacks at the time resulted in a heighten awareness surrounding the security vulnerabilities of European computers. None of the members of CLODO have been identified. In 2010, French author Celia Izoard retraced the history of the CLODO in a collective book on French luddism. In May 2022, Thomas Dekeyser and Andrew Culp released an experimental documentary named Machines in Flames. The film's content is centered on the directors' research into CLODO, with particular emphasis on the anonymity, known activities, ideology, and mystery surrounding the organization. The film concludes with a commentary on the directors' use of technology to research CLODO, drawing contrast between the directors' use of computers and the anti-computer sentiment of CLODO. ## See also - Anarcho-primitivism - Theodore Kaczynski
31,969,606	Action of 23 August 1967	1,100,386,357	Major air battle during the Vietnam War	[ "1967 in Vietnam", "Aerial operations and battles of the Vietnam War", "Air-to-air combat operations and battles", "August 1967 events in Asia", "Battles and operations of the Vietnam War in 1967", "Battles involving Vietnam", "Battles of the Vietnam War involving the United States", "Campaigns of the Vietnam War", "Conflicts in 1967" ]	The action of 23 August 1967 was a major air battle which involved elements of the Vietnam People's Air Force (VPAF) and the United States Air Force (USAF). The air battle took place over the skies of North Vietnam as part of Operation Rolling Thunder, during the Vietnam War. On 2 January 1967, the United States Air Force launched Operation Bolo with the aim of luring North Vietnamese MiG fighters into an air battle, where they could be destroyed in an ambush. The operation, led by Colonel Robin Olds, turned out to be a major success after seven North Vietnamese MiG-21 fighters of the VPAF 921st Fighter Regiment were shot down. Stung by that devastating defeat, the North Vietnamese Air Force grounded their fighter force several times between June and August 1967, in order to work on their training and tactics. On 23 August 1967, the North Vietnamese Air Force employed their newly devised tactic against a U.S. strike formation, while it was conducting raids against a rail yard. The air battle concluded with the USAF losing three F-4D fighters. ## Background On 2 March 1965, the United States Government launched Operation Rolling Thunder, a major bombing campaign, with several objectives. Firstly, the operation was supposed to retaliate against North Vietnam for their military activities inside South Vietnam, thereby raising the morale of the South Vietnamese people, especially the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN). Secondly, it aimed to impede North Vietnam's ability to wage war by reducing, if not stopping, the flow of men and material into South Vietnam. Thirdly, the overall objective was to persuade the North Vietnamese Government to find a compromise through negotiations. Originally the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff submitted a list of 94 targets to be hit over a period of 16 days, but U.S. President Lyndon Johnson decided to include military targets in order to gradually apply pressure on the North Vietnamese Government, so the list of targets grew to 427 by the end of the campaign. In the first phase of the operation, which lasted from spring to summer of 1965, American airpower mainly targeted the North Vietnamese capital of Hanoi and its limited industrial base. However, by the end of the year, the United States had failed to achieve the objectives of Rolling Thunder, because North Vietnam continued to send its troops and military supplies down the Ho Chi Minh Trail, which demonstrated that the North Vietnamese Government was not ready to quit the war. In response to domestic political pressure to do more, President Johnson shifted priority of the campaign to interdiction. From summer 1965 to the winter period of 1966–67, the campaign was aimed at degrading North Vietnam's capability to infiltrate and send men into South Vietnam. Again, America's shift towards interdiction also failed, and the Johnson administration was forced to change the priority of the bombing campaign. For the third phase of Rolling Thunder, which occurred from spring 1967 to early 1968, bombing operations were focused on industrial and transportation targets in and around Hanoi, Hai Phong and the buffer zone near the Chinese border. The third phase of the campaign was heavily favored by U.S. commanders, because it allowed them to destroy rather than just threaten Hanoi's nascent industrial infrastructures. Furthermore, the new targets approved by the Johnson administration enabled U.S. airpower to be used against the primary war-making capabilities of North Vietnam, by striking at military targets that were previously denied to the fighter-bombers of the U.S. Navy and Air Force. Thus, in 1967 the United States also introduced more aircraft into the operation equipped with new technology, which gave American air units the assets to make a significant difference. However, as American bombers moved closer to Hanoi and Hai Phong, they were aggressively challenged by North Vietnamese MiG fighters. ## Prelude The year of 1967 started badly for the Vietnam People's Air Force (VPAF). During the early years of the war, the rules of engagement prevented U.S. fighter-bombers from hitting North Vietnamese air bases, and that allowed North Vietnamese fighter pilots to attack American bomber formations as they were approaching their targets, thereby forcing U.S. pilots to jettison their bomb loads before they even reached their target. Then, instead of dueling with U.S. strike aircraft, North Vietnamese pilots would normally retreat to the safety of their bases. To preempt further attacks on U.S. bomber formations by the North Vietnamese Air Force, the United States Air Force became interested in luring North Vietnamese MiG fighters up against a decoy target, and shoot them down in the air using missile-armed fighter aircraft. By 1967, the North Vietnamese Air Force had become more aggressive towards U.S. strike formations, and it indicated to U.S. commanders that it was the right time to launch a decoy operation. In what became known as Operation Bolo, the 8th Tactical Fighter Wing (8th TFW)—under the command of Colonel Robin Olds—based at Ubon in Thailand, was entrusted with the task of leading an operation which aimed to lure the North Vietnamese Air Force into an ambush. Accordingly, the F-4 Phantoms of the 8th TFW would fly in the same profile as an F-105 strike formation, by flying at the same time, altitudes, speed and routes. For the first time, the F-4 Phantoms would be equipped with the QRC-160 jamming pods so they would appear on North Vietnamese radars as F-105 bombers. To prepare for the operation, U.S. aircrews spent several days studying weapons envelopes, pod operation, and all aspects of air-to-air tactics. On 2 January 1967, a total of 56 F-4C Phantom II from the 8th and 366th Tactical Fighter Wings flew in a formation which resembled an F-105 strike force, towards the VPAF's Phuc Yen Air Base. There were four flights of F-104 fighters flying in escort, to simulate the F-4s. When the U.S. fighter formations were detected by North Vietnamese radar, MiG-21 fighters of the VPAF 921st Fighter Regiment based at Phúc Yên Air Base and Kép Air Base were immediately placed on category one red alert, which was the highest state of alert. However, unknown to the U.S. pilots at the time, the VPAF High Command forbade their pilots from taking off until U.S. fighters were 40 kilometers (25 mi) away from Noi Bai. Apart from the late reaction of the VPAF High Command, weather conditions over North Vietnam also favored U.S. aircrews; North Vietnamese bases at Noi Bai and Kep were covered by 10/10th cloud, which started at a height of 1,500 meters (4,900 ft) and cleared at 3,000 meters (9,800 ft). By the time the first wave of North Vietnamese MiG fighters had taken off, two additional flights of F-4C fighters from the 8th TFW had already flown into the area undetected. Due to their lack of radar equipment, North Vietnamese MiG-17 fighters were restricted to flying at cloud base, so they failed to detect the presence of U.S. fighters that were flying at a higher altitude. From above 10,000 meters (33,000 ft) U.S. F-4 fighters had a greater energy level over North Vietnamese MiG-17 and MiG-21 fighters, and U.S. pilots had no trouble seeing or identifying North Vietnamese fighters flying up from below. Furthermore, weather conditions on the day allowed radar and missile systems on the F-4 fighters to perform at their maximum level, an advantage which U.S. pilots fully exploited as North Vietnamese MiG fighters flew up to engage them. Just after 3:00 pm North Vietnamese MiG-21 fighters appeared through the clouds and began attacking U.S. fighters circling above. One by one the MiG-21 fighters were picked off by AIM-7 and AIM-9 missiles launched by U.S. pilots. The USAF suffered no losses and they claimed to have shot down seven MiG-21 fighters, but only five were confirmed by the North Vietnamese. All North Vietnamese pilots who were hit ejected safely, while the survivors managed to return to the safety of their home bases. ## Engagement On 8 January 1967, the VPAF High Command convened a meeting to examine what had gone wrong. The actions of 2 January had exposed the flawed tactics employed by MiG-21 pilots; they broke through the clouds too quickly, and they did not join up with each other before they attacked the U.S. fighters waiting above them. The VPAF High Command then devised a new tactic which required the deployment of between two and four aircraft for each attack, with a maximum of ten aircraft for each mission to perform guerrilla-style attacks on U.S. bomber formations. Furthermore, after they had examined U.S. air tactics, North Vietnamese commanders decided that MiG-17 pilots should attack U.S. formations from either side, while MiG-21 pilots would strike from above. Before the North Vietnamese Air Force could implement their new tactics, however, the VPAF 921st Fighter Regiment was withdrawn from combat for several months to recover from the bloody defeat it had suffered as a result of Operation Bolo. In April, North Vietnamese MiG fighters were back in the air to challenge U.S. Navy and Air Force fighter-bombers again, but they only experienced mixed results with heavy losses. As a result, between late June and early August 1967, North Vietnamese Air Force fighters were grounded several times, so their pilots could work on their training and new tactics. While the North Vietnamese pilots were undergoing training, American airpower was concentrated on striking at Hanoi's line of communications, especially the rail lines running north-east and north-west into China, and the transportation network which linked North Vietnam's capital with Hai Phong. To minimize the effects of U.S. strikes, North Vietnamese authorities constructed several alternate rail yards on the north-eastern train line, including the Yen Vien rail yard which located 58 kilometers (36 mi) north of Hanoi and ran through Thai Nguyen, and linked up with the main line at Kep close to China. In response, the Seventh Air Force launched repeated strikes on the Yen Vien rail yard and other infrastructures which linked Hanoi with the China buffer zone. On 21 August 1967, a formation of twenty F-105 Thunderchiefs and eight F-4 Phantoms raided Yen Vien, which contained about 150 boxcars. The Americans claimed to have damaged more than half of the boxcars and trapped the remainder in the rail yard, so they returned two days later to destroy the rest. On the afternoon of 23 August 1967, a flight of sixteen F-4s from the 8th Tactical Fighter Wing escorted a formation of thirty-six F-105 strike aircraft from the 355th and 388th Tactical Fighter Wings based in Thailand, for the second attack on Yen Vien. The 555th Tactical Fighter Squadron provided two flights of F-4 Phantoms, 'Ford' flight and 'Falcon' flight. The mission was led by Colonel Nicholas J. Donelson with Olds, who spearheaded Operation Bolo back in January, as the leader of the escort formation. At 1:45 pm on 23 August, North Vietnamese radars detected a flight of 40 U.S aircraft approaching Hanoi from Sam Neua, in neighboring Laos. The VPAF High Command immediately scrambled two flights of four MiG-17 fighters from the VPAF 923rd Fighter Regiment, followed by two MiG-21 fighters from the VPAF 921st Fighter Regiment at 2:51 pm. The MiG-21 force was led by Nguyen Nhat Chieu with Nguyen Van Coc, who had participated in the VPAF's disastrous mission during Operation Bolo, as the wingman. The first and second MiG-17 flights were commanded by Cao Thanh Tinh and Nguyen Van Tho respectively. Once airborne, North Vietnamese pilots maneuvered their aircraft into positions to deploy their new tactic which required the MiG-17 fighters to act as bait, while the MiG-21 fighters attacked from the rear. After Chieu and Coc had departed from Phuc Yen Air Base, they flew at low level and stayed in the ground clutter to avoid detection by airborne radars employed by U.S aircraft. However, the MiG-21's transponders were detected by an orbiting EC-121 airborne early warning radar surveillance aircraft, and their positions were relayed to the F-4 fighters that were escorting the strike formation, but they did not respond. Initially the first MiG-17 flight fell behind the U.S. strike formation, so Tinh and his formation climbed with full afterburner and they immediately played their part in the attack, by attacking the F-105 formation with their cannons. Meanwhile, as North Vietnamese ground controllers saw their fighter aircraft abeam the strike flight and outside the radar range of the F-4 formation, they ordered the MiG-21 fighters to climb up to 8,500 meters (27,900 ft). Chieu and Coc then dived out from an overcast and swept down on 'Ford' flight and the strike formation; Chieu fired a missile at an F-105 and Coc fired an R-3S Atoll missile which successfully destroyed 'Ford 4' (66-0238, 8th TFW), piloted by Major Charles R. Tyler. Shortly afterwards, Chieu turned his aircraft around and fired a missile at another F-4, but it missed. Coc also tried to score another kill, but he strayed into Chieu's line of fire as the latter was diving down from above firing his 23mm cannon. As a result, Coc's MiG-21 was damaged but the controls were still working properly, so he requested to carry on with the mission. However, ground controllers ordered him to return to base, and the MiG-21 could only fly at a speed of 600 kilometers per hour (370 mph) due to the damage. After the U.S. strike formation had fallen into the ambush, MiG-17 pilots radioed their control center and requested to continue with their air patrol. Over the skies of Yen Vien, 'Ford 1' piloted by Captain Larry E. Carrigan (66-0247, 8th TFW) was shot down by a MiG-17 fighter from Tho's formation. Meanwhile, 'Falcon 3' (65-0726, 8th TFW) piloted by Major Robert R. Sawhill was shot down by anti-aircraft artillery. Against those losses, F-105 pilot First Lieutenant David B. Waldrop, 'Crossbow 3', claimed that he had destroyed one MiG-17 in the air battle. On the return trip, 'Ford 3' piloted by Major C.B. Demarque (66-0260) ran out of fuel as the aircraft tried to reach a tanker; the pilot and his Weapons Systems Officer were forced to eject from the aircraft as it malfunctioned over Thailand. ## Aftermath The battle concluded as the worst day for the United States Air Force in Vietnam since 2 December 1966, when they had lost five aircraft over the skies of North Vietnam in a single day. Consequently, the actions of 23 August became known as "Black Wednesday" amongst U.S. pilots who participated in air operations over Hanoi on that particular day. The USAF officially confirmed the loss of three F-4D fighters during the raid against the Yen Vien rail yard, which resulted in the deaths of Weapon Systems Officers Captain Ronald N. Sittner (66-0238, 8th TFW) and First Lieutenant Charles Lane (66-00247, 8th TFW). Major Charles R. Tyler, Captain Larry E. Carrigan, Major Robert R. Sawhill and First Lieutenant Gerald L. Gerndt ejected safely from their aircraft, but they were captured alive and became prisoners of war. Major C.B. Demarque and his Weapons System Officer, First Lieutenant J.M. Piet were rescued shortly after they ejected from their malfunctioned aircraft over Thai airspace. In contrast to their opponents, the action of 23 August gave the North Vietnamese Air Force their first major victory since Operation Bolo. The USAF's confirmation of the loss of 'Ford 4' to a MiG aircraft gave Nguyen Van Coc his second air-to-air victory, and he eventually became the leading ace pilot of the war with nine kills. Earlier in the engagement, flight leader Nguyen Nhat Chieu claimed to have destroyed an F-105 with a missile, but the USAF have not confirmed his claim. Nonetheless, Chieu also became a ranking ace pilot with six kills attributed to his name. The USAF also claimed one victory against a MiG-17 fighter, attributed to First Lieutenant David B. Waldrop, but the claim was not confirmed by the North Vietnamese because all their MiG fighters returned to base safely. Following their defeat at the hands of the North Vietnamese Air Force, Colonel Robin Olds learned that Seventh Air Force intelligence had watched North Vietnamese MiG fighters practicing their new tactics for ten days prior to the battle of 23 August, but had not passed that information on to the 8th Tactical Fighter Wing and other units. Thus, it soon became clear to U.S commanders that the reason the North Vietnamese repeatedly stood down their fighter force was because they were working on their new tactic. In the first half of 1967, the North Vietnamese had realized they could not directly confront U.S. fighters in air-to-air combat, so they changed their procedures for the deployment of their numerically inferior MiG units. To take advantage of the MiG-21's speed and small size, pilots flying the type were instructed to intercept targets only at high speed behind or above U.S. strike formations. Then, as they approached their target, the MiG-21 pilots would make a supersonic diving pass against trailing or isolated flights, so they could position themselves for a missile kill. The action of 23 August demonstrated that the North Vietnamese Air Force had successfully executed their new procedure, which was helped by more skilful ground controllers who directed the MiG fighter towards their targets. Indeed, the new procedure gave North Vietnamese MiG pilots the ingredient they needed to achieve a kill over their U.S. opponents; between August 1967 and February 1968, the North Vietnamese Air Force achieved a kill ratio of 1.1:1 against the USAF, with the loss of 20 aircraft for 22 victories. In the same period of time, Operation Rolling Thunder had cost the United States approximately \$900 million (\$5,640 million at 2010 prices) with the loss of more than 700 aircraft. The bombing campaign continued until 31 October 1968, when it was abandoned by the U.S. Government.
263,478	Jim Laker	1,139,386,048	English international cricketer (1922–1986)	[ "1922 births", "1986 deaths", "Auckland cricketers", "BBC Sports Personality of the Year winners", "British Army personnel of World War II", "Burials at Putney Vale Cemetery", "Commonwealth XI cricketers", "Cricketers from Bradford", "Cricketers from Shipley, West Yorkshire", "Cricketers who have taken five wickets on Test debut", "Cricketers who have taken ten wickets in an innings", "England Test cricketers", "English cricket commentators", "English cricketers", "English cricketers of 1946 to 1968", "Essex cricketers", "H. D. G. Leveson Gower's XI cricketers", "International Cavaliers cricketers", "Marylebone Cricket Club cricketers", "Military personnel from Yorkshire", "North v South cricketers", "Players cricketers", "Royal Army Ordnance Corps soldiers", "Surrey cricketers", "Wisden Cricketers of the Year", "Wisden Leading Cricketers in the World" ]	James Charles Laker (9 February 1922 – 23 April 1986) was an English professional cricketer who played for Surrey County Cricket Club from 1946 to 1959 and represented England in 46 Test matches. He was born in Shipley, West Riding of Yorkshire, and died in Wimbledon, London. A right-arm off break bowler, Laker is generally regarded as one of the greatest spin bowlers in cricket history. In 1956, he achieved a still-unequalled world record when he took nineteen (of a maximum twenty) wickets in a Test match at Old Trafford Cricket Ground in Manchester, enabling England to defeat Australia in what has become known as "Laker's Match". At club level, he formed a formidable spin partnership with Tony Lock, who was a left-arm orthodox spinner, and they played a key part in the success of the Surrey team through the 1950s including seven consecutive County Championship titles from 1952 to 1958. Laker batted right-handed as a useful tail-ender who scored two first-class centuries. He was considered a good fielder, especially in the gully position. For his achievements in 1951, Laker was selected by Wisden Cricketers' Almanack (Wisden) as one of the five Wisden Cricketers of the Year in its 1952 edition. He was selected as the New Zealand Cricket Almanack Player of the Year in 1952 after playing for Auckland in the 1951–52 season. In 1956, his Surrey benefit season realised £11,086 (£ in 2021 terms) and, at the end of that year, he was voted "BBC Sports Personality of the Year", the first cricketer to win the award. He later worked for BBC Sport as a cricket commentator in its outside broadcast transmissions. ## Early life and school years Jim Laker was born on 9 February 1922 in Shipley, near Bradford, which was then in the West Riding of Yorkshire. He was raised by his mother Ellen Kane, a schoolteacher, and had four sisters. His father, a stonemason called Charles Laker, had deserted the family when Jim was two years old. Laker began playing cricket at a very early age. His mother was a lifelong enthusiast of the game, and, throughout his childhood, he played cricket continuously with her full encouragement. She used to make his sisters bowl to him because she was convinced he had the makings of a batsman. In the years around 1930, Ellen was employed at Frizinghall Council School in Bradford, which Laker attended until 1932. He won a grammar school scholarship which entitled him to a free place at the Salts High School in nearby Saltaire. About that time, Ellen took up with a new partner called Bert Jordan and the family moved to Baildon, which is near Saltaire. This was a sound relationship, and Laker was able to enjoy a settled home life through his senior school years from September 1932 for seven years. He said later that he was very happy at Salts and he became a regular member of the school cricket team, playing primarily as a batsman but also as a fast bowler. In March 1938, aged 16, Laker was invited to attend special coaching by Yorkshire County Cricket Club in their winter shed at Headingley. He recalled his mother taking him to buy new cricket gear at Herbert Sutcliffe's shop in Leeds. He said the sacrifice she made was "frightening to contemplate" but she was determined to see him succeed as a cricketer. Yorkshire's coaching sessions were run by the former county batsman Benny Wilson, who was the first to show Laker how to spin the ball and encourage him to develop the skill. Although Wilson ran the teenage coaching classes, Laker was also coached by former Yorkshire players George Hirst, Maurice Leyland, Emmott Robinson and Alfred Wormald. Yorkshire recommended him to join Saltaire Cricket Club, who played in the Bradford League, and he made his debut for them at their Roberts Park ground against Baildon, his local club. He played for Saltaire for three seasons, from 1938 to 1940, on one occasion scoring a century. In the 1938 season, his last at school, he played for Salts HS on Saturday morning and for Saltaire CC in the afternoon. Laker still thought of himself as a batsman and his contemporary Ronnie Burnet, who became Yorkshire's captain in the late 1950s, recalled that Laker bowled a mixed bag of "fast off-cutters-cum-spinners" before the Second World War. Charlie Lee, one of Laker's Saltaire team-mates, had a similar recollection saying that "Jim bowled all sorts of stuff and generally enjoyed himself without ever appearing to have the makings of a great bowler". ## Army service and move to Surrey Laker left school in February 1939 and obtained full-time employment at Barclays Bank in Bradford city centre, working a nine-hour day for £5 a month (£ in 2021 terms). In early 1941, now aged 19, he volunteered for active service and joined the Army. He went to Leicestershire for infantry training and was then posted to the Royal Army Ordnance Corps (RAOC), serving in Palestine and Cairo until 1945, although he was never involved in front line fighting. While Laker had done enough at Saltaire to be well remembered there, his cricketing career really gathered pace and took off while he was with the RAOC in Egypt. Playing on coconut matting wickets in inter-service matches, he decided to develop the off spin technique he had been taught by Benny Wilson. He recalled that, "to my utter amazement", he could turn the ball "quite prodigiously" on the matting strips. John Arlott later wrote that English cricketers in Egypt were writing home and talking about "a Yorkshire lad who could bowl off spin like a master". In 1943, Laker went to Alexandria to play for the RAOC against an RAF team and took five wickets for ten runs including a hat-trick. In 1944, he played against a South African Air Force XI, scored a century and then took six wickets for ten runs. In these matches, he encountered several top-class players including Norman Yardley, Peter Smith, Bert Sutcliffe, Ron Aspinall, Dudley Nourse and Arthur McIntyre. Laker returned to England on leave in early 1945. Soon afterwards, his mother died of a heart attack. She left him an estate worth £1,000, which was fairly substantial at the time (£ in 2021 terms). Bert Jordan had died during the war and, all his sisters having married and moved on, his northern roots were broken and he no longer had any pressing reason to return to Bradford. He was able to keep his options open when his military service ended. He had to return to Egypt but was then repatriated in summer 1945 with a year of service still to perform before demobilisation. He was posted to the War Office itself in central London and was invited by an army friend called Colin Harris to lodge with his family in Forest Hill, a couple of miles from Catford. This was meant to be a temporary arrangement but Laker ended up living with the Harris family for over five years, until he was due to get married himself. Despite being on Yorkshire's books, Laker's circumstances after the end of the war led almost inevitably to his being approached by Surrey County Cricket Club. While he was resident with the Harrises at Forest Hill, he continued to play for service teams and, in March 1946, he joined Catford Cricket Club. Some impressive performances for Catford, including ten for 21 against Bromley, were noted by Andrew Kempton, Catford's club president, who was a member of the county club. Kempton knew Andy Sandham, the former England opening batsman who was Surrey's coach in 1946, and recommended Laker. Sandham invited Laker for a trial at The Oval. Soon afterwards, on 17 July, Laker made his first-class debut when Surrey hosted a Combined Services XI, whom they defeated by six wickets. Laker had the creditable figures of three for 78 and three for 43. He was still in the RAOC but was demobilised in August. One of his options was a permanent career in the Regular Army, perhaps even a commission. He considered a return to banking and asked Barclays if they would reinstate him and transfer him to a London branch. They agreed but, as Fred Robinson, one of Laker's old school friends, later told biographer Alan Hill, "neither of those ventures ever really came within his considerations". As soon as Laker was demobbed, Surrey offered him a professional contract, subject to Yorkshire's approval. Yorkshire agreed to his release and he signed for Surrey on terms of £6 a week in winter (£ in 2021 terms), augmented by match fees in summer. Laker played in two more first-class matches at the end of the 1946 season. Only seventeen months later, in January 1948, he made his Test debut for England at the Kensington Oval in Bridgetown, Barbados. ## First-class and international career ### 1947 season and first international tour Laker bowled well at county level in 1947, taking 79 wickets and topping the Surrey bowling averages. His best performances were at Portsmouth, where he dismissed Hampshire with eight for 69, and at Chelmsford, where he took seven for 94 against Essex. Near the end of the season, he was invited to play for Pelham Warner's XI against the South of England in a Hastings Festival match. Whether he knew it or not at the time, this match was effectively a Test trial. He took eight wickets in the match, including a second innings hat-trick. In its 1948 edition, Wisden Cricketers' Almanack (Wisden) said that the discovery of Laker was "very satisfactory" for Surrey. He was described as specialising in off breaks, "fielding smartly" in the gully and showing promise as a batsman. Soon afterwards, he was selected by Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) for their 1947–48 tour of the West Indies. He played in four Tests and, on debut, took seven for 103 in the first innings of the first Test. This tour was a disaster for MCC and the inaugural 1948 edition of Playfair Cricket Annual (Playfair) headlined it as "An Ill-Starred Venture". Planning and preparation were poor and the team was badly led by Gubby Allen. Playfair said Laker was the only player who "really justified his selection". Wisden said Laker "excelled" and was "undoubtedly the find of the tour", despite problems with an abdominal injury. ### 1948 season Playing for Surrey in 1948, Laker took 79 wickets and the team were runners-up in the County Championship behind first-time winners Glamorgan. Still inexperienced at Test level, however, he came in for some heavy punishment when he played in three Tests against the 1948 Australians, an outstanding team that was unbeaten in the whole tour. Laker took nine wickets in the three matches but at a cost of 472 runs and the very high average of 52.44 runs per wicket – in comparison, his full Test career average was an outstanding 21.24. England's worst performance in the 1948 series was at Headingley where they actually played well for the first four days and set Australia a seemingly impossible last day target of 404 to win. Australia, led by Don Bradman, won by seven wickets. Godfrey Evans said the England team was complacent because no one had ever achieved such a target before in Test cricket. Evans himself was a prime culprit because he missed stumping chances, including one off Laker with Bradman beaten and out of his ground. Bradman later said that it was the key moment of the Australian innings. In the match as a whole, Laker bowled 62 overs and took three wickets for 206 runs. The situation was well summarised by Playfair saying that England needed "a leg-spinner or a Verity" (Hedley Verity was a slow left arm orthodox bowler) but they had neither. The implication was that the pitch was not one on which an off-break bowler such as Laker could succeed. Playfair went on to criticise "tactical errors, missed chances and a sad lethargy in the field". After the Headingley match, Laker was omitted from England's team in the final Test at The Oval, his home ground, and he was not included in the squad for the tour of South Africa in 1948–49. Despite his continuing success for Surrey, he could not afterwards find a regular place in the England team until 1956 and went on only one international tour, to the West Indies again in 1953–54, between those in 1947–48 and 1956–57. Alan Hill recorded that, while Laker may not have enjoyed the Headingley Test, its host club were very concerned indeed that Yorkshire-born Laker had eluded their attention. Fred Trueman later recalled that the Yorkshire club president Ernest Holdsworth contacted Laker in 1948 and invited him to dinner at a London restaurant. Laker accepted but was then astonished when Holdsworth tried to persuade him to return and play for Yorkshire. Although Laker did not like the social divide in place at Surrey, he wished to stay with his adopted county and thanked Holdsworth for the offer, which he declined. Len Hutton recalled that, also in 1948, he was asked by the Yorkshire committee to make some discreet enquiries about Laker's situation in Surrey. He reported back that Laker was content where he was and did not wish to play for Yorkshire. Hutton agreed that Yorkshire "went on needing Laker badly" and ruefully admitted that he "tied us in all sorts of knots" in Yorkshire's matches against Surrey. ### 1949 to 1950–51 In 1949, Laker played in only one of the four Tests against New Zealand even though he took 122 wickets in the season. In this series, England chose Eric Hollies, a leg spinner, in all the matches and Laker's only selection was in the final Test at The Oval when he replaced Les Jackson, a pace bowler, as an extra spinner for the venue. The match was drawn and Laker, bowling well, took 4/78 in New Zealand's second innings. England had no overseas tour in the winter of 1949–50. In 1950, Laker took eight wickets for only two runs in an innings in a Test trial at Bradford Park Avenue when playing for England against "The Rest". The match, scheduled for three days, began on Wednesday, 31 May with a chill wind blowing. The wicket had been uncovered and was drying after recent rain, which meant that a spinning delivery would act unpredictably when pitched. Laker took full advantage. He set an attacking leg side field and bowled around the wicket, concentrating on line and length with minimal flight, which gave the batsmen no time to come forward to the pitch of the ball. Some balls would gain extra bite from the pitch surface and rear up while others would "turn" to an unexpected degree. The Rest were all out before lunch for only 27. Batting conditions improved afterwards and England went on to win by an innings inside two days. As a Test trial, the match was of no use to the selectors and it was argued afterwards that the pitch should have been covered or, failing that, the England team should have batted first. One certainty that the match ensured was that Laker would play in the first Test that summer against the West Indies. Unfortunately, Laker injured his hand when batting in the Test, which impaired his bowling. He took only one wicket in the match, which England won, and the selectors decided to leave him out of the team thereafter. Without him, England lost the series one to three. Although Laker took 166 wickets in 1950, his highest-ever season tally, the selectors continued to ignore him when they chose their squad to tour Australia in 1950–51 and so he accepted an invitation to tour India and Ceylon with a Commonwealth XI, playing in ten matches and taking 36 wickets. The Commonwealth squad was a multi-talented group considered stronger than the England one touring Australia. It was nominally captained by Les Ames but, because of injuries, he handed over to Frank Worrell. The Commonwealth XI were undefeated in 29 matches played between 1 October and 6 March, including four unofficial "tests" against India and one against Ceylon. Laker had to return home in early December because of sinusitis but he enjoyed the tour. He later recalled one incident when a huge rat ran across the field and onto the pitch just as he was about to bowl. Laker stopped and was then astonished to see a kite hawk swoop down, seize the rat in its talons and fly away with it. Laker was used to pigeons on the field at The Oval and he was so surprised by this that, when he did bowl the next ball, it bounced twice and was struck to the boundary. ### 1951 to 1955 After his recovery from sinusitis, Laker got married just before the 1951 season. He took 149 wickets that season and played in two of the five Tests against South Africa. In the final Test at The Oval, he took ten wickets in the match for 119 runs and England won by four wickets. Laker went to New Zealand in the winter of 1951–52 as a player-coach for Auckland, taking his wife with him for what was effectively an extended honeymoon. He played in four matches for Auckland, taking 24 wickets. The Lakers were in New Zealand for five months and liked it so much that they seriously considered emigrating there. Laker decided that, on balance, his cricketing future was in England and regretfully declined an offer from the Auckland Cricket Association to re-engage as player-coach in 1952–53. In 1952, the season in which Surrey won the first of their seven consecutive County Championship titles, Laker played in four Tests against India. In 1953, he played in three Tests against Australia, including the series decider at The Oval in which England won The Ashes for the first time in twenty years. He toured the West Indies again with MCC in 1953–54, playing in seven matches including four Tests and taking 22 wickets. He played in one Test against Pakistan in 1954 but was not chosen for the 1954–55 tour of Australia. He played in one Test against South Africa in 1955. ### 1956 Laker finally secured his Test place in 1956 and took part in all five Tests against Australia. He took all ten wickets in an innings for Surrey against the Australians. This was the first time a bowler had taken all ten against the Australians since Ted Barratt in 1878. Laker took 46 wickets in the 1956 Ashes series to establish a still-unbroken record for a five-match Test series between England and Australia, but Sydney Barnes still holds the world record of 49 wickets taken in 1913–14 for England in South Africa. Laker's effort led to him being awarded the BBC Sports Personality of the Year Award in 1956, the first cricketer to win the award. Surrey won the County Championship for the fifth consecutive time in 1956. Roy Webber's history of the competition was published soon afterwards and, in his review of the contemporary county teams, he wrote that "it is difficult to imagine a better and more balanced bowling attack than that presented by Alec Bedser, Peter Loader, Stuart Surridge, Jim Laker and Tony Lock". #### "Laker's Match" In its report of the fourth Test at Old Trafford, Wisden began by saying that "this memorable game will always be known as Laker's Match because of the remarkable performance by the Surrey off-break bowler in taking nine wickets for 37 runs in the first innings and ten wickets for 53 in the second". The match took place from Thursday, 26 to Tuesday, 31 July. England, who had won the toss and decided to bat first, won the match by an innings and 170 runs. England batted until mid-afternoon on the Friday and amassed a total of 459, which included centuries by Peter Richardson and David Sheppard. In reply, Australia were dismissed for 84 and, following on, reached 53 for one at the close. In Australia's first innings, England's two pace bowlers, Trevor Bailey and Brian Statham, bowled only ten overs between them before Laker and Lock were introduced. Laker began from the Warwick Road End but did not take a wicket until he switched to the Stretford End. Before tea, when Australia were 62 for two, he dismissed opener Colin McDonald, who was caught by Lock for 32, and Neil Harvey, who was bowled without scoring. Lock took the wicket of Jim Burke, caught by Colin Cowdrey at slip, with the first ball bowled after tea and England dominated from then on. In only 37 minutes from the restart, Australia collapsed to 84 all out. Laker terminated the innings by taking the last seven wickets for only eight runs in just 22 deliveries. His figures were nine for 37 while Lock's were one for 37. Australia were asked to follow-on and had reached 28 for no wicket when McDonald suffered a knee injury which forced him to retire hurt. Harvey replaced him and was out first ball after hitting Laker to Cowdrey at short mid-on. Australia's best batsman had collected a "pair" and, despairingly, threw his bat into the air as he departed. Burke and Ian Craig put up some resistance and were still together at the close. According to Wisden, the Australians made a protest about the pitch on Friday evening and accused the hosts, Lancashire County Cricket Club, of preparing a pitch suited to spin bowling. Lancashire strongly denied the charge. Australian captain Ian Johnson made no public comment about the issue. It then seemed as if the match was doomed to be ruined by the weather as only 47 minutes of play were possible on the Saturday and only an hour on the Monday. During that time, Australia lost Burke to Laker and reached 84 for two with McDonald (who returned when Burke was out) and Craig batting. On Tuesday, the final day, conditions improved and play began only ten minutes late. McDonald did his best and put up a strong defence, eventually scoring 89. Craig, who made 38, stayed with him until lunch when the score was 112 for two. The morning had been cloudy and the sun began to shine as lunch was taken. This caused the ball to spin quickly and create increased problems for the batsmen. During the afternoon session, Laker took four wickets in nine overs for three runs but then Richie Benaud joined McDonald and they stayed together for 75 minutes to the tea interval. The pitch was taking prodigious spin after tea and Australia's hopes faded when Laker dismissed McDonald with the second ball of the evening session. At 17:27, with just over an hour to go, Laker bowled to Len Maddocks and appealed for leg before wicket. Maddocks was given out and Laker had taken all ten wickets for 53 runs to give England victory. Wisden pointed out that the rain returned on Tuesday night and, on the Wednesday, the entire first-class programme was washed out. Wisden commented that "it can be seen how close was England's time margin, and how the greatest bowling feat of all time nearly did not happen". Writing in 2005, Richie Benaud recalled that there was rain in the Old Trafford area on the final day itself but it did not fall at the venue. Benaud was so impressed by Laker that he decided to shorten his own run-up and, he said, "my bowling attitude". In its match report, Playfair said that Laker "had enjoyed one of the most remarkable bowling performances that has ever been seen on a cricket field". The 1957 edition of Wisden included an article by Neville Cardus that paid tribute to Laker's performances in 1956. Laker's ten for 53 was the first time a bowler had taken all ten wickets in a Test innings. Only two bowlers have achieved the feat since, India's Anil Kumble, who took ten for 74 against Pakistan in 1999, and New Zealander Ajaz Patel, who took ten for 119 against India in 2021. Including Laker himself with nine for 37 in the first innings, there have been 17 instances of a bowler taking nine wickets in a Test match innings. Laker's match bowling figures of nineteen for 90 remain a world record in first-class cricket. The record for the most wickets taken in a Test match was previously held by England's Sydney Barnes who took seventeen for 159 at the Old Wanderers, in Johannesburg, against South Africa in December 1913. Barnes remains the only bowler other than Laker to take seventeen in a Test match. Two common factors link Laker and Barnes. They are the only two bowlers who have taken seventeen or more wickets in a Test match and they both played for Saltaire in the Bradford League, Barnes from 1915 to 1923, Laker from 1938 to 1940. Laker is the only bowler to have taken more than eighteen wickets in a first-class match. There had been 23 previous instances of seventeen or more in a match but, since Laker's feat, only John Davison of Canada in 2004 and Kyle Abbott of Hampshire in 2019 have taken seventeen wickets in a match. ### 1956–57 to 1964 Laker toured South Africa with MCC in 1956–57, playing in fourteen matches including all five Tests. He took fifty wickets, which was his career-best tally in an overseas season. He played in four Tests against the West Indies in 1957 and four against New Zealand in 1958. The 1958 season was the last of Surrey's seven consecutive County Championships but it was marred by a quarrel between Laker and the team captain Peter May, who had accused Laker of "not trying" in a match against Kent at Blackheath in July. Kent won the match by 29 runs. Laker bowled a total of 54 overs in the match and that immediately followed a haul of 63 overs in a match against Glamorgan at Swansea, which Surrey won. It seems that Laker's spinning finger was definitely suffering from "wear and tear" at the time and this probably reduced his effectiveness. His colleagues held differing views about the matter. Peter Loader said May was completely out of order while Micky Stewart suggested that May should have been aware that "Jim was knackered". Godfrey Evans, who played for Kent in the match, said that Laker was "ill-supported by May". Raman Subba Row blamed May for his "management style" which was not at all people-oriented, unlike that of Stuart Surridge, May's predecessor as Surrey captain, who was a "people person" and "down to earth". On the other hand, Arthur McIntyre blamed Laker for his batting in the Kent match because he "holed out" and made a more general comment about Laker "crying wolf" over injuries to his fingers. On England's disastrous tour of Australia in 1958–59, Laker was one of the few players to enhance his reputation, bowling well on unhelpful pitches, but he badly damaged his spin finger and had to return home early. He played in ten matches including four Tests. The fifth Test at the Melbourne Cricket Ground in February was his last. He was not selected by England for the series against India in 1959. Because of his damaged finger, he decided to retire from playing at the end of the season, in which Surrey surrendered the title to Yorkshire. His final match for Surrey was against Northamptonshire at The Oval in September. Surrey lost by four wickets and Laker took only one wicket. In 1960, Laker's ghost-written autobiography Over To Me was published. It was controversial because it contained severe criticism of May, especially about the row which followed the match against Kent at Blackheath in 1958. Hill says that the book "testified primarily to Laker's abiding dislike of the social chasm in cricket" created by amateurism. Micky Stewart commented on Laker's view that the game should not be run by the "traditional Oxbridge axis" by saying Laker firmly believed that ability and not background were what counted in administration of the sport, but Stewart added that Laker had no problems with Oxbridge amateurs who were capable. Official displeasure with Over To Me led to the withdrawal by Surrey of Laker's free entry pass to facilities at The Oval. Soon afterwards, the MCC decided to support Surrey and cancelled Laker's honorary membership. Both were eventually restored. Surrey reinstated his free entry pass in 1964 and the MCC his honorary membership in 1967. In 1962, Laker was "persuaded" out of retirement by his old England team-mate Trevor Bailey and, as an amateur, he played in thirty matches for Essex. He remained a formidable bowler through 1962 and 1963, and twice won matches with ten-wicket hauls. He was less effective in the 1964 season, after which he retired for good. ### Statistical summary Alan Hill's biography includes an extensive statistical appendix, compiled by Paul E. Dyson. Laker made his first-class debut on 17 July 1946, playing for Surrey against the Combined Services XI at The Oval. His last appearance in a first-class match was on 27 February 1965, playing for the International Cavaliers XI against Barbados at the Kensington Oval in Bridgetown. He played in 450 first-class matches and took a total of 1,944 wickets. His best return was ten for 53 in the 1956 Test at Old Trafford. His career average was 18.41 runs per wicket. He captured five wickets in an innings on 127 occasions and ten wickets in a match 32 times. His best season total was 166 wickets at 15.32 in 1950. His best season average was an outstanding 14.23 in 1958, the last year of Surrey's run of seven titles, when he took 116 wickets. He first took 100 wickets in a season in 1948 and achieved the target in eleven consecutive seasons to 1958. Laker's best overseas tally was 50 in 1956–57 on the MCC tour of South Africa. His best overseas average was 15.79 in 1951–52, taking 24 wickets, when he played for Auckland. Although he was a tail end batsman, he scored two centuries with a highest score of 113 (in 1954) and had one score of 99 among eighteen half-centuries. His career batting total was 7,304 runs at the average of 16.60 runs per completed innings. His best season total was 828 runs at 24.35 in 1948. He usually fielded in the gully position and held 271 career catches, with a best season performance in 1954 when he held 29 in as many matches. Laker made his Test debut for England on 21 January 1948, playing against the West Indies at the Kensington Oval in Bridgetown. His last appearance in a Test match was on 18 February 1959 against Australia at the Melbourne Cricket Ground. He played in 46 Tests and took 193 wickets at the average of 21.24. His best return was, as above, ten for 53. He took five wickets in an innings nine times and ten in a match three times. His best series return was 46 wickets at 9.60 against Australia in 1956. He scored 676 runs at 14.08 in Test matches, including two half-centuries with a highest score of 63 against Australia in 1948. He held a total of 12 catches. ## Issues with amateurism According to the former amateur player Charles Williams, Laker was a "serial complainer" about "shamateurism". Unfortunately, however, he sometimes spoke and acted unwisely in his opposition to the amateur concept which, in any event, was abolished only three years after he retired. In March 1958, an MCC sub-committee delivered a report on the continuance of amateurism with special emphasis on the question of broken-time payments. Soon afterwards, Laker addressed a meeting of The Cricket Society and declared that a cricketer who can't afford to play as an amateur should either turn professional or stop playing. He described broken-time payments as "poppycock" because they were "payments on the side" that enabled amateurs to make more money than professionals; even so, he was not saying anything new as the issue pre-dated even the Grace brothers. After MCC announced their squad to tour Australia in 1958–59, Laker proposed to turn amateur for the duration of the tour and then become a professional again on his return to Surrey. His thinking was based on the possible misinformation that amateurs on the tour would be paid an allowance of £1,000 (£ in 2021 terms) to cover their expenses while the professionals were to receive a fee of £800 (£ in 2021 terms). MCC refused his request. Williams wrote that Laker ruined his case through characteristic bluntness and by not fully understanding the reasons why amateurism existed, rightly or wrongly, in the first place. Ironically, Laker did end up playing as an amateur when he came out of retirement to join Essex in 1962. ## Style and personality In the 1986 Barclays World of Cricket, Colin Cowdrey wrote a mini-biography of Laker, whom he praised as "perhaps the best off-spin bowler the game has seen". Cowdrey described Laker as the "perfect model" for an aspiring slow bowler because he was tall and strong with big hands and a high action. Laker's strength gave him the capability to undertake long spells of bowling. His varied flight of the ball was difficult for the batsman to predict and, if he was given any assistance by pitch or weather conditions, Laker could generate extra pace and spin so as to be at times "almost unplayable". John Arlott once wrote that batsmen at the non-striking end "could hear the ball buzz" as Laker imparted spin on to it. Garry Sobers agreed with him, saying that "you could hear the ball fizz as Jim spun it". Sobers said that Laker was the "undoubtedly the best off-spinner I ever saw" with Lance Gibbs not far behind. Sobers was especially wary of Laker's straight ball because, unusual among spinners, it was delivered at lesser pace than his spinning deliveries and it "drifted" (i.e., as an outswinger). Fred Trueman, who knew and got along with Laker very well, described him as "a modest, laconic, sometimes dour guy". Like everyone else in cricket, Trueman was astounded by Laker's world record at Old Trafford in 1956 but was more impressed by Laker's "self-effacing" reaction to the achievement. As Trueman says, photographs of Laker in the next day's newspapers show him strolling towards the pavilion, not even smiling, sweater over his shoulder, "as if returning from net practice". Trueman went on to say how he "shuddered to think" what sort of posturing would ensue in the unlikely event that Laker's performance should be matched by a 21st-century cricketer. In Peter May's autobiography, he wrote about how Arthur McIntyre kept superbly to the great Surrey bowling attack of Bedser, Loader, Laker and Lock on difficult wickets. McIntyre himself said that, of the four, he had the greatest difficulty keeping wicket to Laker who "spun the ball so viciously". In 2006, Peter Richardson considered the differences between Laker and Lock, saying that Laker was "slightly cynical, difficult to connect with, laconic and moody". Richardson said that Laker and Lock did not get on together and were always competing. Their approaches to the game differed as Lock "would attack" while Laker just kept "chipping away". Richie Benaud had also noted their different characteristics in the way they appealed for a dismissal: "Laker was apologetic, Lock a demander". May, who was Laker's Surrey captain after Stuart Surridge retired in 1956, said that the mere idea of Laker showing enthusiasm was "absurd". ## Personal life and post-retirement Having recovered from the sinusitis he contracted in India in December 1950, Laker began to think seriously about marriage. He had courted his fiancée Lilly for some years. She was born in Vienna but, opposed to Nazism, she left Austria after the Anschluss and was in the Middle East when World War II began. She joined the Auxiliary Territorial Service in Cairo and met Laker when he was posted there with the RAOC. They worked in the same office and then met again in London at a service reunion event. They married on 27 March 1951 at the Kensington register office and spent a rain-swept honeymoon in Bournemouth before the cricket season began. Lilly survived Laker by 35 years, dying in September 2021 at the age of 102. She and their daughters Fiona and Angela helped Alan Hill with his research for Laker's biography. Being Austrian, Lilly did not know much about cricket. She took numerous congratulatory telephone calls after his 19-wicket feat and, when Laker arrived home, she asked him: "Jim, did you do something good today?" In July 1956, only three weeks before his record-breaking performance at Old Trafford, Laker was Roy Plomley's guest on his Desert Island Discs radio programme. His musical choices included Ol' Man River by Paul Robeson, songs by Vera Lynn and Gracie Fields and classical pieces by Pietro Mascagni and Franz Schubert. His luxury choices were a piano and a cricket ball. Laker developed an interest in broadcasting and, after he retired from playing, became a highly regarded cricket commentator for ITV from 1966 to 1968 and for BBC Television from 1968 until his death in 1986. Fellow commentator John Arlott described Laker's commentary style as: "Wry, dry, laconic, he thought about cricket with a deep intensity and a splendidly ironic point of view" whilst Colin Cowdrey praised Laker's "own brand of television commentary" that made him a respected figure in the medium. Ted Dexter, as a summariser, worked with commentators Laker and Richie Benaud at the BBC and later remarked on how "a new style of interpretation had evolved as ball-by-ball commentary became their preserve", their trademarks being "patience, accuracy and persistence". The commentary was spoofed in Monty Python's Flying Circus "Trailer" sketch in the "Archaeology Today" episode in 1970. Laker was still employed by the BBC when he died at the Parkside Clinic in Wimbledon, aged 64, on 23 April 1986. The cause of death was complications from gall bladder surgery. His body was cremated at Putney Vale Crematorium and his ashes were scattered at The Oval.
13,304,304	HMS General Craufurd	1,136,852,049	Lord Clive-class monitors in the Royal Navy	[ "1915 ships", "Lord Clive-class monitors", "Royal Navy ship names", "Ships built by Harland and Wolff", "Ships built in Belfast", "World War I monitors of the United Kingdom" ]	HMS General Craufurd was the one of eight Lord Clive-class monitors built for the Royal Navy during World War I. Their primary armament was taken from obsolete pre-dreadnought battleships. The ship spent the war in the English Channel bombarding German positions along the Belgian coast as part of the Dover Patrol. She participated in the failed First and Second Ostend Raids in 1918, bombarding the defending coastal artillery as the British attempted to block the Bruges–Ostend Canal. Later that year General Craufurd supported the coastal battles during the Hundred Days Offensive until the Germans evacuated coastal Belgium in mid-October. The ship was decommissioned almost immediately after the war ended the following month, but she was reactivated in 1920 to serve as a gunnery training ship for a year. General Craufurd was sold for scrap in 1921. ## Design All of the British monitors built during the war were intended to bombard land targets. To this end the Lord Clive class were given a heavy armament modified to increase its range and a shallow draught to allow them to work inshore as necessary. As the Royal Navy did not expect the ships to engage in naval combat, speed was very much not a priority. General Craufurd had an overall length of 335 feet 6 inches (102.3 m), a beam of 87 feet 2 inches (26.6 m) including the torpedo bulge, 57 feet (17.4 m) without, and a draught of 9 feet 11 inches (3.02 m) at deep load. She displaced 5,850 long tons (5,940 t) at deep load and her crew numbered 12 officers and 182 ratings. The ship was powered by a pair of four-cylinder Harland & Wolff triple-expansion steam engines, each driving one propeller shaft using steam provided by two water-tube boilers. The engines were designed to produce a total of 2,310 indicated horsepower (1,720 kW) which was intended to give her a maximum speed of 10 knots (18.5 km/h; 11.5 mph). On her sea trials General Craufurd only made 7.42 knots (13.7 km/h; 8.5 mph) because her designers were unfamiliar with the proper way to contour her hull to maximise her propeller efficiency; the ship reached 7 knots (13.0 km/h; 8.1 mph) in service as she was more heavily loaded. The monitor carried 356 long tons (362 t) of coal which gave her a range of 1,100 nautical miles (2,000 km; 1,300 mi) at 6.5 knots (12.0 km/h; 7.5 mph). ### Armament, fire control, and armour The Lord Clives mounted two BL 12-inch (305 mm) Mk VIII guns in a single hydraulically powered gun turret which came from the Majestic-class predreadnought battleships; General Craufurd received hers from Magnificent. To suit their new role as long-range bombardment weapons, the turrets were modified to increase the maximum elevation of the guns from 13.5° to 30°. Their secondary armament consisted of a pair of quick-firing (QF) 12-pounder (3 in (76 mm)) guns on low-angle mounts. Anti-aircraft defence was provided by a single QF 3-inch 20-cwt gun and a QF 2-pounder (40 mm (1.6 in)) Mk I gun. The spotting top on the tripod mast between the turret and the funnel housed a rangefinder that fed data to the director on the roof of the spotting top. The director's crew would calculate the amount of traverse and elevation needed to hit the target and transmit that information to the turret for the guns to follow. The Lord Clive-class ships were protected against gunfire by a sloping waterline belt amidships of 6-inch (152 mm) Krupp cemented armour (KCA) that was closed off at its ends by transverse bulkheads of equal thicknesses to form the ships' central armoured citadel. The 2-inch-thick (51 mm) upper deck of high-tensile steel served as the roof of the citadel and the forecastle deck above it consisted of 1-inch (25 mm) plates of high-tensile steel. For protection against torpedoes, the ships were fitted with bulges 15 feet (4.6 m) deep. The turret taken from Magnificent retained its original armour, viz. 10.5-inch-thick (270 mm) faces and 5.5-inch (140 mm) sides with a 2-inch roof, all of Harvey armour. Its original circular barbettes was replaced by a new one formed from a dozen plates of 8-inch (203 mm) KCA. The ships were also fitted with a cast-steel conning tower just forward of the barbette that had 6-inch sides and a roof 2.5 inches (64 mm) thick. ### Wartime modifications Four QF 6-inch guns with 200 rounds per gun were added in early 1916 abreast the funnel when it was realized that the two 12-pounder guns were not powerful enough to defend the ship from German destroyers. Two coal bunkers were turned into magazines for them, reducing the range to approximately 960 nmi (1,780 km; 1,100 mi), and increasing the crew in size to 215, necessitating plating in the sides of much of the upper deck to provide quarters. These guns were later exchanged for longer-ranged 6-inch Mk VII guns. The 3-pounder gun was replaced by another QF 3-inch 20-cwt anti-aircraft gun late in the war. ## Construction and career General Craufurd, named after General Robert Craufurd, commander of the British Light Division during the early years of the Peninsular War who was killed in action at the siege of Ciudad Rodrigo in 1812, has been the only ship of her name to serve in the Royal Navy. She was laid down with the name M.7 on 9 January 1915 at Harland & Wolff's Berth no. 3 in its shipyard in Belfast, Northern Ireland, as yard number 479 and was renamed General Craufurd on 8 March. The ship was launched on 8 July and completed on 26 August at an estimated cost of about £260,000. She participated in a bombardment of the German naval base at Ostend, Belgium on 7 September, but Vice-Admiral Reginald Bacon had to order a withdrawal after his flagship, General Craufurd's sister ship, Lord Clive, was hit four times in quick succession by a previously unknown artillery battery. General Craufurd and her three sisters had only managed to shoot 14 rounds before they had to retire, which only started a fire in the dockyard. On the 25th General Craufurd and her sister Prince Eugene bombarded German positions at Zeebrugge, Belgium, as part of a deception operation to suggest that the Allies were launching an attack in that sector. During the remainder of September and October, she occasionally fired on German coastal batteries. On 15 November General Craufurd and the seaplane carrier Riviera were sent to the Thames Estuary where they could develop techniques to allow aircraft to correct the shooting of multiple monitors via wireless in an area that had been laid out to replicate some of the features of the Belgian coast. ### 1916 During December 1915 and January 1916, General Craufurd was stationed in the Thames Estuary as a propaganda exercise to shoot down approaching German Zeppelins with shrapnel shells fired by her main guns, but the Zeppelins never came within range. The monitors bombarded German batteries at Westende, Belgium, on 26 January to evaluate the newly developed air-spotting techniques, but each ship only fired about eleven rounds during the half-hour bombardment. This was the last bombardment for the next seven months as the monitors were used to support British light forces and the Dover Barrage, the complex of minefields and nets in the Channel. The uncluttered forecastle deck of the Lord Clives allowed Bacon to use General Craufurd to ferry three 50-long-ton (51 t) BL 12-inch Mk X gun barrels and three 28-long-ton (28 t) BL 9.2-inch (234 mm) Mk X barrels to Dunkirk, France, to be used to bombard the German coastal artillery. The barrels were loaded by crane onto chocks positioned on General Craufurd's portside deck and were then rolled off the deck via a thick wooden ramp onto the stone jetty in Dunkirk. The first barrel was difficult to unload because it was thinner at the muzzle than at the breech and wanted to curve as it rolled. Subsequent barrels were encased in wood to make them easier to roll. General Craufurd delivered the first gun in April and then the rest beginning in July. In August the monitor began trials to develop procedures for engaging targets at night while using a gyroscope hooked up to her fire-control system to help maintain the turret on the target while manoeuvring. She fired 38 round at Middlekerk on 16 August as part of these trials. Four days later a Short Type 184 floatplane was hoisted aboard to spot the ship's shells and transmit corrections; low cloud cover that prevented the observer aboard the aircraft from seeing any targets. This infuriated Bacon and he prohibited Commander Edward Altham from conducting any more experiments. To add insult to injury, Bacon limited General Craufurd's participation in the diversionary bombardment conducted in support of the Battle of the Somme in early September to only seven rounds spread over the seven days of the operation. This was the last bombardment of 1916 as the monitors reverted to their role of supporting the Dover Barrage and patrolling between Calais and The Downs. ### 1917–1921 General Craufurd was intended to be used during the Great Landing, a plan to land troops between Westende and Middelkerke to exploit the anticipated Allied gains made during the Battle of Passchendaele in July and pocket German troops between the landing and the advancing troops. The troops were to be landed via three enormous 2,500-long-ton (2,500 t) pontoons, each of which could carry a brigade of infantry, an artillery battery and three tanks. Each of the pontoons was lashed in position between two monitors and General Craufurd, together with General Wolfe, was modified in early 1917 to handle one of them. The ship and her sisters rehearsed their role up until mid-July when the battle began, but the Allies could not make the ten-mile (16 km) advance necessary to launch the operation. Field Marshal Haig refused to support Bacon's proposal for a more modest landing in the Nieuport-Middelkerke area in September, so the operation was cancelled on 2 October. General Craufurd was then docked at HM Dockyard, Portsmouth, for maintenance and repairs. Beginning in November, the monitors returned to their normal wintertime role of defending the barrage. Four of the 12-inch monitors, including General Craufurd, were tasked to support the attempt to block the entrance to the Ostend-Bruges Canal that led to the naval base at Bruges by bombarding the coastal artillery defending the port. Before the first attempt on 11 April had to be called off because the wind shifted and the required smoke screen couldn't be laid properly, the monitors had already fired 50 rounds between them. A second attempt was cancelled because of bad weather. During the third attempt of 23 April, which failed when the blockships ran aground, General Craufurd fired about fifty rounds of 12-inch and some 6-inch shells and was near missed in return by the German guns. The monitor played a minor role in another attempt on 9/10 May when she buoyed the approach channel, but the blockship was blinded by smoke and failed to arrive at her intended position at the canal entrance. The night before the Fifth Battle of Ypres began on 28 September, the monitors bombarded targets along the coast to simulate preparations for an amphibious landing and then switched to other targets after dawn. General Craufurd and the other monitors were tasked to bombard the German lines of communication, firing slowly to keep up a steady pressure. During the day each ship fired about one hundred 12-inch shells and had fired sixty rounds from their secondary armament during the previous night. The bombardment continued at a slower pace for the next five days, but ceased when the Allied advance stopped. When it resumed on 14 October in the Battle of Courtrai, the monitors resumed their task until the Germans evacuated the coast a few days later. With the war over on 11 November, the monitors were no longer needed and were soon decommissioned. General Craufurd was the first to go and was paid off on the 15th. She was recommissioned as a gunnery training ship in January 1919 and was offered for sale to the Kingdom of Romania. Nothing came of the offer and the monitor was paid off again in early 1920. General Craufurd was sold for scrap to Thos. W. Ward on 9 May 1921 for approximately £11,035, although she did not arrive at the ship breakers until 10 September 1923.
51,086,502	Wolf & I	1,121,732,464	null	[ "2011 singles", "2011 songs", "Oh Land songs", "Songs written by Oh Land" ]	"Wolf & I" is a song recorded by Danish recording artist Oh Land, taken from her self-titled second studio album Oh Land (2011). It was released as the album's second single on 13 March 2011 by RCA Records, with the recording being issued as a CD single, featuring two other singles from the eponymous album. The song is a trip hop and R&B composition that serves as an "introductory single" for her career. The track was written by Nanna Øland Fabricius and Owen Beverly, with Dan Carey solely producing it. The single received generally favourable reviews from music critics, who called it one of the highlights on the parent album. Other critics found it to be "dreamy" and "sweet". Commercially, "Wolf & I" did not peak on any record chart. A music video was not filmed for the single, but a live video of Oh Land performing the song was released onto her official YouTube account on 20 October 2010 in support of her album. Another rendition of the single was sung live at Heaven in London, and received positive feedback from reviewers. ## Background and composition "Wolf & I" is a trip hop and R&B song that lasts four minutes and thirty-seven seconds. Written by Nanna Øland Fabricius and Owen Beverly, Dan Carey served as the song's executive producer. Lyrically, "Wolf & I" compares finding love to a wolf pack. John Calvert, writing for Drowned in Sound, stated that "it's the type of erotic fairytale Flo Welch would sell her kneecaps for". Furthermore, Calvert claimed that "the sexy beast is [...] a sneaky diversion from [the] album". Along the same line, a critic from Billboard thought that it belonged on the soundtrack for True Blood. The single was released as a CD single on 13 March 2011 in the United States by Fake Diamond Records and RCA Records. It was intended to serve as an "introductory single" for Oh Land. Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine compared "Wolf & I" to the work of Björk, and claimed it was influenced by the trip-hop genre. Along the same line, Fraser McAlpine from the BBC found similarities to the music of Welch and Katy B, calling it "part airy myth and part earthy bass throb". A reviewer for Mixtape Muse described the recording as "cinematic without losing its heart in the expansive sound", while Andrew Hannah from The Line of Best Fit labelled it as "a sultry R&B groove jam". Michael Jose Gonzalez, a writer for Gaffa, stated Oh Land was "not afraid to flirt with great drama", adding that she "adds melancholy gravity" to the track. ## Critical reception "Wolf & I" received generally positive reviews from music critics. Calvert stated that "Wolf & I" created an "early promise" for Oh Land's image. However, in Calvert's review of the parent album, he considered it the only notable work on the effort, claiming it "continues to dazzle". Similarly, DeShaun Zollicoffer of GeekRevolt labelled it a "stand out track". Kieron Tyler of The Arts Desk called the recording a "sweet confection that ought to prove irresistible". A critic from Mixtape Muse applauded the single for "cast[ing] a dreamy atmosphere", in addition to it being "filled with a sense of discovery". The Line of Best Fit's Hannah opined that "Wolf & I" put the record "back on track" following album songs "Voodoo" and "Lean". Henrik Queitsch from Ekstra Bladet highlighted the track, claiming that the rest of the songs "do not reach the level" of "Wolf & I" and "Rainbow". In a mixed review, Cinquemani from Slant Magazine stated that "however well executive [it] may be, [it] end[s] up sounding derivative". ## Promotion Unlike Oh Land's previous single, "Sun of a Gun", a music video was not created for "Wolf & I". However, a live performance of the track was uploaded onto Oh Land's official YouTube channel on 20 October 2010, in order to support the release of Oh Land. During the rendition, she performs in a dark room full of balloons, where she plays the keyboards along with a drummer. In addition, she sang the song live on several occasions, including in February 2012 at the Heaven nightclub in London. The blogger behind Alfitude.com applauded her appearance, stating that "she drove everyone wild with her tribal beats and cute Danish voice". Additionally, Tyler applauded Oh Land for "sh[ining]" during the act. ## Track listing - US Promo CD 1. "Wolf & I" – 4:37 2. "White Nights" – 3:45 3. "White Nights (Twin Shadow Remix)" – 4:09 4. "Sun of a Gun" – 3:25 5. "Sun of a Gun (Yuksek Remix)" – 4:26 6. "Sun of a Gun (Savage Skulls Remix)" – 4:37 ## Credits and personnel Credits and personnel adapted from the liner notes of Oh Land. Recording - Recorded and mixed at Mr. Dan's Streathem (Streatham) Personnel - Nanna Øland Fabricius – vocals, lyrics, instruments - Owen Beverly – lyrics - Dan Carey – production, engineering - Alexis Smith – mixing ## Release history
11,460,228	And Their Name Was Treason	1,171,955,983	null	[ "2005 debut albums", "A Day to Remember albums", "Albums produced by Andrew Wade", "Albums recorded in a home studio", "Indianola Records albums" ]	And Their Name Was Treason is the debut studio album by American rock band A Day to Remember, released on May 10, 2005 through Indianola Records. It followed their second self-released EP, which was produced the same year. The album was the band's only release under Indianola; its success led the group sign to Victory Records. Several songs on the album were written during the band members' teenage years. Recorded in the producer's bedroom, the album contains audio excerpts from several films. The band toured in the United States to help promote the album. The album has since sold over 10,000 copies. A re-recorded version of the album, titled Old Record, was released in October 2008 by Victory. The band members later admitted that they were forced to do the re-recording at the request of label owner Tony Brummel and were given two days to do so which resulted in them only re-recording the instrumentals and leaving the vocals as it was on the original album. The reissue charted at number 16 on the Heatseekers Album Chart in the U.S. ## Background A Day to Remember formed when guitarist Tom Denney asked Jeremy McKinnon if he would like to join the band as a vocalist. The pair hung out with drummer Bobby Scruggs, who later joined the band. During this period, both Denney and Scruggs were already in a band; Denney was in 2 Days 2 Late, while McKinnon played in All for Nothing. The trio wrote a song which McKinnon said "was better than everything our other bands had come up with". Shortly afterwards the trio decided to form a band which was called End of An Era in its first week of existence. The name was inspired by a movie listing in a TV guide found in Denney's home. The band hated the name and one day a former drummer joined the band after they had left their previous band had the name A Day to Remember with him and the band decided to use that name instead. The drummer was soon kicked out of the band. Scruggs' friend stayed in the band for a short period. He was fired after several instances of walking off stage mid-performance. According to Denney, the group's original bassist and rhythm guitarist "didn't work out". They were subsequently replaced by guitarist Neil Westfall and bassist Joshua Woodard. At the time, Westfall was also in 2 Days 2 Late, while Woodard was a fan of the band. A Day to Remember practiced in McKinnon's garage, who was living with his parents at the time. The band released an independent EP, Halos for Heros, Dirt for the Dead, which helped them secure a recording contract. The EP contained an early version of "If Looks Could Kill", titled "If Looks Could Kill...then You'd Be Dead". ## Writing and recording According to McKinnon, And Their Name Was Treason was recorded "probably within 3 days", in Andrew Wade's bedroom at his parents house (credited in the album booklet as The Wade Studio). The members later said they had "no idea" what they were doing when they were recording the album. The album features samples from various films throughout; "Intro" features a sample from the film Donnie Darko, "1958" features a sample from the film The Boondock Saints and "Sound the Alarm" features audio from Shaun of the Dead. Speaking about the lyrical themes on the record, guitarist Tom Denney said that they were "all experiences that [singer] Jeremy has had, its all based on life". A few of the songs were written by the band when they were teenagers, such as "1958", "Heartless", and "You Should Have Killed Me When You Had the Chance", the latter being one of the first songs that the band ever wrote. "1958" was written about a temporary drummer, who threatened to go McKinnon's parents house with a baseball bat; the numbers "1958" being the last four digits of his phone number. Denney added that the song "talks about family and us sticking together no matter what." ## Release ### Initial release and touring Record label Indianola were introduced to the band by their PureVolume account, which was shown to the label by a mutual friend of the band. On February 9, 2005, the band got signed to Indianola, which McKinnon later said that the band thought "was the biggest shit in the world". On the same day, And Their Name Was Treason was announced for release later that year. Samples of three tracks, "1958", "Casablanca Sucked Anyways", and "If Looks Could Kill", were posted on the website of The Wade Studio prior to release. Since its release on May 10, 2005, And Their Name Was Treason sold over 10,000 copies in the U.S. with little advertising and no media exposure. The album's success helped the band sign to Victory for their following album. The group toured in the U.S. in the summer of 2005 to promote the record, along with other bands such as Caldwell and Orion. The tour continued throughout October and November with Foreknown and Blessed by a Broken Heart as supporting acts. The group's travel vehicles were financed by McKinnon's parents. Shortly before the beginning of one tour, Scruggs told the band he wasn't going, so Woodard and Westfall recruited Alex Shelnutt. Upon being asked, Shelnutt's response was "Ask my mom", as he was 15 at the time. "A Second Glance" had a music video, directed by Reel Players. It was included on the promotional Welcome to Indianola Records album. The band left Indianola as they thought the label would not be able to take them "to the next level", as McKinnon commented. ### Reissue – Old Record In 2008, both Old Record and the band's newest release at that time, Homesick (2009), were announced. The artwork for Old Record was released a month prior, and then the track list was posted online before the album's release on October 28, 2008, through Victory. The re-release features different cover art, a rearranged track listing and re-recorded instrumentation. Old Record charted at number 16 on the Top Heatseekers Albums chart in the U.S. The re-release came about due to the album's later unavailability in stores, and as McKinnon commented, the band wanted "people to be able to get it". "Your Way with Words Is Through Silence" was streamed as part of Distrophonix's various artists compilation Screaming to Stop Sex Slavery in July 2009. On December 6, 2010, two colored vinyl editions of Old Record were released. In an interview with USA Today in 2011, McKinnon said that the band "had a bunch of people tell us we'd sold out — and that was our first album" when they had released And Their Name Was Treason. On July 2, 2013, Victory announced that Old Record was to be reissued again on vinyl, in 3 different colors, from July 9: standard black, and limited edition copies of both pink and clear with black smoke. In an October 2013 interview, McKinnon revealed the band had to re-record the whole album in a couple of days due to pressure from Victory-owner Tony Brummel. McKinnon was "absolutely [...] ashamed" it was released as he thought the band had "butchered it. Because it was two days [recording]." ## Reception Chris H. of AbsolutePunk said the band has made "a big impression" with its debut album and called it "the heaviest" release in their catalogue. According to him, "1958" was "the heaviest song on the album", while "Heartless" was nearly a "perfect way to start the album" with its fast guitars and steady drums pace. Allmusic's Eduardo Rivadavia mentioned that the album was full of "bite-sized songs" which are combination of "extremely melodic chorus sections" and "depths-of-hell Cookie Monster growling". Rivadavia went on to say the album is not "better or worse than a thousand emocore albums released during a 12-month span". Writing for Scene Point Blank, Kevin Fitzpatrick said the album was "a very frustrating listen" featuring "eighth grade lovesick lyrics". Although Fitzpatrick said that the guitar work on the album was "passable", he panned Bobby Scruggs' drumming for being "sloppy" at times. Allschools writer Björn, mentioned that the band did the album "really well and mosh[ed] like crazy", despite adding that the growls "suffered, grieved [and were] sometimes a little desperate". Fake Train reviewer Ken Hawk said the album was maybe "one of the best fusions of metallic hardcore and melodic punk-rock", continuing with how the band were able to "spring back-and-forth between booming chugga mosh breakdowns, melodic guitar thrashing, and driving upbeat rock...flawlessly" in an easy manner. Scene It All's Anson said the band "finally succeeded in rightfully earning that title" of "bridg[ing] the gap between hardcore and emo". McKinnon's voice was praised as using "his voice extremely well [...] He manages to give the lowest screams and yet still can hit the highest notes when it comes to singing. A feat, most singers can't manage." Reviewing the album's reissue for AbsolutePunk, Blake Solomon wrote that Old Record wasn't "anything to go nuts over" if the listener already owned the original release. He felt that the lyrics were "a bit more honest" compared to its follow-up For Those Who Have Heart (2007). Rock Sound added "1958" to their unnumbered list of 50 Songs of Hate. ## Track listing All songs written by A Day to Remember. ; ## Personnel Credits are adapted from the album's liner notes. A Day to Remember - Bobby Scruggs – drums - Jeremy McKinnon – vocals - Joshua Woodard – bass - Neil Westfall – rhythm guitar - Tom Denney – lead guitar Production - Andrew Wade – engineer, producer, mixing, and mastering - Caleb for Bootcore Granfix – layout and design Old Record production - Andrew Wade – engineer, producer, mixing, and mastering - Mike C. Hardcore – illustration - Marianne Harris – photograph - Doublej – CD layout ## Chart performance
11,868,078	Pennsylvania Route 563	1,140,933,798	State highway in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania	[ "State highways in Pennsylvania", "Transportation in Bucks County, Pennsylvania", "Transportation in Montgomery County, Pennsylvania" ]	Pennsylvania Route 563 (PA 563) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania. The route runs 21.15 mi (34.04 km) from PA 63 in Upper Salford Township northeast to PA 412 in Nockamixon Township. The road runs through mostly rural areas in the northern parts of Montgomery and Bucks counties. Along the way, the route passes through the northern part of Perkasie and forms a concurrency with PA 313 in East Rockhill Township. North of here, PA 563 runs through Nockamixon State Park, heading to the northwest of Lake Nockamixon. PA 563 was first created in 1928 to connect Bergey to Harrow, following its current alignment to PA 313 before continuing straight along Ridge Road and continuing to PA 412. By 1940, construction of the road into a state highway was completed. In the early 1970s, PA 563 was moved to its current alignment north of PA 313 as a result of the creation of Lake Nockamixon, which severed the original alignment. ## Route description PA 563 begins at an intersection with PA 63 in Upper Salford Township, Montgomery County and heads in an easterly direction on two-lane, undivided Ridge Road. The route passes through wooded areas with some homes, turning southeast at the Township Line Road intersection and forming the border between Salford Township to the northeast and Upper Salford Township to the southwest. PA 563 makes a northeast turn at the Barndt Road–Moyer Road junction, continuing along Ridge Road into Salford Township. The road passes over the Pennsylvania Turnpike Northeast Extension (Interstate 476) and PA 563 turns east and heads into the community of Tylersport, where it crosses Allentown Road. After leaving Tylersport, the route heads northeast into more rural areas. Upon crossing County Line Road in the community of Naceville, PA 563 enters West Rockhill Township in Bucks County and heads into a mix of farms and woods. After running to the southeast of James Memorial Park and passing through the community of Almont, the route intersects Lawn Avenue, which provides access to the PA 309 freeway at a diamond interchange. PA 563 passes over PA 309 a short distance after this intersection. The route continues east-northeast and crosses Bethlehem Pike and Old Bethlehem Pike in a commercial area in the community of White Horse. At the intersection with the latter, the road crosses into East Rockhill Township before it enters the borough of Perkasie and passes near residential neighborhoods, running along the top of a ridge. Farther to the northeast, PA 563 passes to the southeast of Pennridge Airport. At this point, the road continues into East Rockhill Township and heads through a mix of farmland, woodland, and a few residences. PA 563 comes to an intersection with PA 313, where it turns northwest to form a concurrency with that route on Dublin Pike, with Ridge Road continuing northeast. The two routes head through more rural land, crossing Threemile Run, before PA 563 splits from PA 313 by turning northeast onto Mountain View Drive. Along this road, the route heads into forested areas with occasional homes and enters Nockamixon State Park, a park which contains Lake Nockamixon. Upon crossing the Tohickon Creek, the road continues into Haycock Township. In this area, PA 563 skirts along the northwest edge of the state park. A short distance following the Deerwood Lane intersection, the road passes the main entrance to the park. PA 563 heads through the community of Haycock Run and crosses an arm of the lake formed by Haycock Creek into Nockamixon Township. In this township, the route leaves the state park and passes through rural areas before ending at PA 412. ## History When Pennsylvania first legislated routes in 1911, present-day PA 563 was not given a number. In 1928, PA 563 was designated to run from PA 63 near Bergey northeast to PA 412 near Harrow, following its current alignment south of PA 313. From this point, it continued northeast on Ridge Road, passing near Weisel and eventually continuing northeast to Harrow. At this time, the route was unpaved. By 1930, the route was paved south of PA 313. At this time, the sections of the route between Tylersport and southwest of Perkasie and north of PA 313 were under construction as state highways. All of PA 563 was completed by 1940. In the 1960s, construction began to create Lake Nockamixon along the Tohickon Creek near PA 563 in northern Bucks County. The Secretary of the Pennsylvania Department of Forests and Waters, Maurice K. Goddard, proposed the lake as part of a goal for every Pennsylvania resident to be within 25 miles (40 km) of a state park. Lake Nockamixon was intended to fill a gap in between the Philadelphia and Lehigh Valley areas. As a result of building the dam and creating the lake, the northernmost portion of PA 563 had to be relocated to a new alignment to the north of the planned lake as it would sever a portion of the route north of Kellers Church. Between 1970 and 1972, construction took place on the new alignment of the route. As a result, PA 563 was routed to follow PA 313 to get from Ridge Road to its new alignment. ## Major intersections ## See also
32,672,709	Matriarch of the Blues	1,163,261,155	2000 studio album by Etta James	[ "2000 albums", "Covers albums", "Etta James albums", "Private Music albums" ]	Matriarch of the Blues is the twenty-fourth studio album by Etta James, released in December 2000 through the record label Private Music. The album's title reflects James' nickname as "matriarch of the blues". Marking James' return to blues following attempts at country music and jazz and pop standards, the album consists primarily of rhythm and blues covers. James' sons, Donto and Sametto, are credited as engineers, mixers, and producers, among other contributions; the album features Mike Finnigan on the Hammond organ, guitarist Leo Nocentelli, and performances on multiple instruments by Jimmy Zavala. Matriarch of the Blues received mixed critical reception. Following its release, the album reached a peak position of number two on Billboard's Top Blues Albums chart. Billboard's final issue for 2001 included Matriarch as number ten on its list of Top Blues Albums for the year. The album was nominated for Best Contemporary Blues Album at the 44th Grammy Awards. ## Background and composition Entertainment Weekly considered Matriarch of the Blues reflected James' desire to reclaim her title of the "mother of the blues" following earlier attempts at country music and jazz and pop standards. Rolling Stone grouped Matriarch in a "trifecta" with James' previous two studio albums, Life, Love & the Blues (1998) and Heart of a Woman (1999). Prior to the album's release, James performed at the eighteenth annual San Francisco Jazz Festival at the Masonic Auditorium. The concert lasted over three hours and featured an eight-piece band which included her sons Donto and Sametto. Matriarch is composed of rock, soul and blues standards between five and seven minutes in length. People magazine contributors described James' vocals as "deeply funky". Mike Finnigan performed the Hammond B3 organ, Leo Nocentelli featured on guitar, and Jimmy Zavala contributed performances on multiple instruments. James' two sons — Donto and Sametto — produced and engineered, and played drums and bass, respectively. The album begins with the sound of a motorcycle engine. Bob Dylan's "Gotta Serve Somebody" is delivered, according to Parke Puterbaugh of Rolling Stone, with "the air of Old Testament-style authority it demands". James does not modify the lyrics, singing "You can call me Bobby, you can call me Zimmy". "Don't Let My Baby Ride", originally by Deadric Malone and O. V. Wright, adds a bit of sensuality to the album with the line: "If his jeans are too tight... you might see what you like". Other covers include Al Green's "Rhymes", "Try a Little Tenderness" (Jimmy Campbell and Reg Connelly, Harry M. Woods), and Otis Redding's "Hawg for Ya". The tempo of The Rolling Stones' "Miss You" is slowed down to a "sensual simmer". James modified the gender mentioned in the lyrics, singing "Puerto Rican boys just dying to meet you". Following "Hawg" are Malone's "You're Gonna Make Me Cry", which features vocals by Finnigan, Sandy Jones' "Walking the Back Streets", and Benny Latimore's "Let's Straighten It Out". Closing the album are John Fogerty's "Born on the Bayou", "Come Back Baby" (Ray Charles, Lightnin' Hopkins), and Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller's "Hound Dog". ## Reception Matriarch of the Blues received mixed critical reception. AllMusic's Matthew Robinson wrote that James "coast[ed]" through the album and the backing band lacked "youthful vitality". Robinson thought the album's opening track "Gotta Serve Somebody" came across more as a "sleepy suggestion". However, he felt the "draggier pace and intermittent woofs" in "Miss You" added sex appeal and complimented the "funkification" of "Born on the Bayou" and "Hound Dog". Associated Press contributor Gene Bright wrote a positive review of the album but was disappointed with James' cover of "Miss You", writing "the song just can't be slowed and manipulated with any success". People magazine contributors felt that the motorcycle sound in the introduction was unnecessary and considered the album to be more "full-throated gospel-rock" than blues. However, they wrote that James sounded "as sexy and full of sass as she did nearly half a century ago". With James' sons contributing to the album, Bill Milkowski of JazzTimes called the album a "real family affair" and "worthy follow-up" to Heart of a Woman. In his review for Out, Barry Walters complimented Donto and Sametto's rhythm performances. Walters noted that James lacked all of the vocal notes available to her in the 1960s but wrote that her "interpretive abilities are sharper than ever". The Morning Call's Larry Printz published a negative review, concluding that James' performance was mediocre and that the "nuances in [her] once-formidable voice are long gone". Printz also criticized the slow tempo throughout the album and accused James of "coasting" on her legendary status. James Sullivan of Entertainment Weekly wrote that James' "voice isn't quite the nasty snarl it once was, but the attitude remains". Sullivan thought "Hound Dog" was the album's best composition. Rolling Stone's Marie Elsie St. Léger wrote that James provided a "healthy dose of rootsy feminism and mettle" with her "passionately seasoned and gravel-edged voice". St. Léger also complimented James and her performance for having "inimitable depth" and for "making no apologies and needing no permission to sing it like she feels it". Parke Puterbaugh of Rolling Stone named "Don't Let My Baby Ride", "Hawg for Ya" and "Come Back Baby" as the album's greatest tracks. In his review, Puterbaugh concluded that the album is a "solid return to roots", allowing James the right to reclaim her titular throne. ## Chart performance and recognition The album reached a peak position of number two on Billboard's Top Blues Albums chart. The album entered the chart at number seven the week of December 20, 2000. Matriarch climbed to number four by the week of January 27, 2001. By its fifteenth week on the chart the album had fallen to number seven, and by its twenty-fifth week on the chart (week of June 16, 2001) the album remained at number thirteen. Billboard's final issue for 2001 included Matriarch of the Blues as number ten on its list of Top Blues Albums for the year. James and the album were nominated for Best Contemporary Blues Album at the 44th Grammy Awards, but lost to Delbert McClinton for the album Nothing Personal. ## Track listing 1. "Gotta Serve Somebody" (Bob Dylan) – 6:48 2. "Don't Let My Baby Ride" (Deadric Malone, O. V. Wright) – 5:16 3. "Rhymes" (Al Green, Teenie Hodges) – 4:35 4. "Try a Little Tenderness" (Jimmy Campbell, Reg Connelly, Harry M. Woods) – 4:47 5. "Miss You" (Mick Jagger, Keith Richards) – 5:59 6. "Hawg for Ya" (Otis Redding) – 3:45 7. "You're Gonna Make Me Cry" (Deadric Malone) – 6:17 8. "Walking the Back Streets" (Sandy Jones, Jr.) – 7:07 9. "Let's Straighten It Out" (Curtis, Latimore, Scotomayer) – 5:24 10. "Born on the Bayou" (John Fogerty) – 4:41 11. "Come Back Baby" (Ray Charles, Lightnin' Hopkins) – 5:57 12. "Hound Dog" (Jerry Leiber, Mike Stoller) – 3:43 Track listing adapted from Allmusic. ## Personnel - Julie Bruzzone – creative director - Rudy Calvo – make-up - Lupe DeLeon – executive producer - Mike Finnigan – Hammond organ - Terrance Galloway – assistant engineer - Donto Metto James – drums, engineer, mixing, percussion, producer - Etta James – backing vocals, liner notes, vocals - Sametto James – bass, engineer, mixing, producer - Sonny Mediana – design, photography - Bobby Murray – guitar, solo instrumental - Leo Nocentelli – guitar, solo instrumental - Tom Poole – trumpet - Doug Sax – mastering - Josh Sklair – acoustic guitar, electric guitar, keyboards, rhythm arrangements, slide guitar - Jimmy Zavala – harmonica, baritone saxophone, tenor saxophone Credits adapted from Allmusic.
72,064,857	CFMMEU v Personnel Contracting	1,155,545,635	2022 judgement of the High Court of Australia	[ "2022 in Australian law", "2022 in case law", "Australian labour case law", "High Court of Australia cases" ]	CFMMEU v Personnel Contracting, [2022] HCA 1, was the first judgment of the High Court of Australia in 2022. It involved the employment relationship between an individual who signed a contract for services and a labour hire organisation. The High Court departed from the approach widely taken by lower courts in holding a "multi-factorial" approach to determining an employment relationship. The High Court found that the totality of the circumstances was not always the correct approach for identifying whether an individual was engaged as an employee or independent contractor. Rather, the contents of a contract may instead indicate the relationship. The High Court found the worker at the centre of the dispute between the parties was an employee of the labour hire agency for whom he had worked, rather than an independent contractor. The judgment means worker relationships will be defined by the terms of their contract. ## Background The case involved an appeal from the Construction, Forestry, Maritime, Mining and Energy Union on behalf of an individual named Daniel McCourt, a British backpacker in Australia. McCourt had obtained work through a labour hire company named Personnel, which engaged him through an "Administrative Services Agreement" that described him as a "self-employed contractor". Personnel assigned McCourt to work on construction sites run by its client, Hanssen, with whom McCourt never signed an employment contract. Because Personnel had a contract to provide labour hire services to its client, this created a trilateral agreement. McCourt performed work for which he was compensated at an hourly rate. This hourly rate was significantly lower than the one McCourt would have received if Personnel had hired him as an employee as opposed to an independent contractor. In conjunction with the CFMMEU, which acted as his union representative, McCourt commenced proceedings against Personnel in the Federal Court of Australia. The parties sought orders against Personnel for compensation and penalties pursuant to the civil remedies provisions of the Fair Work Act 2009 (Cth). The crucial issue was whether McCourt was an employee of Personnel or an independent contractor. Both the trial judge and the Full Court of the Federal Court applied the "multi-factorial" test to McCourt's engagement. This meant the written contract and the conduct of the parties were examined. The trial judge, Justice David O'Callaghan, observed that the terms of the Administrative Services Agreement "clearly indicated that the relationship between [Personnel] and McCourt was to be one of principal and self-employed contractor". O'Callaghan noted the factors included McCourt being referred to as a "Contractor" rather than "employee", that McCourt warranted he was self-employed, and that McCourt agreed not to represent himself as being an employee of Personnel". An appeal to the Full Court was rejected. The Full Court found McCourt's engagement, on its face, appeared to be one of employment; however, the terms within the signed Administrative Services Agreement indicated he was a self-employed contractor. In rejecting the appeal, Chief Justice James Allsop and Justice Michael Lee queried paying unskilled workers paid as independent contractors less than the wage to which employees are entitled, but pointed out they couldn't deviate from precedent. Chief Justice Allsop noted that if not for this precedent, he would have found in favour of an employment relationship. ## High Court appeal The High Court used the dispute over McCourt's status as an opportunity to re-examine the factors that determine employment status. For decades, various courts have used a "multi-factor" test because there was no single test for determining an employment relationship. Instead, assessing the totality of circumstances to reach an overall view of the relationship was necessary. Several justices in CFMMEU v Personnel Contracting took the view that this approach was difficult and created uncertainties, though none directly challenged the test. In a 6–1 decision, the High Court allowed the appeal and found McCourt was an employee of Personnel. In what was described as a "considerable departure", the High Court majority found the "multi-factor" test was not relevant to the facts in this case and found the relationship between the parties should in this instance be determined by the written contract. The High Court found McCourt could not have been an independent contractor because his contractual obligation to Personnel under his Administrative Services Agreement was a promise to carry out the instructions of Personnel or its client. The shift in the High Court's treatment of employment relationships meant the approach would not be to treat the construction of employment contracts like any other. Justice Simon Steward dissented, stating the appeal will "greatly damage the [business of Personnel and that] of many others". ## Impact While the High Court found in favour of McCourt, the decision ultimately was expected to make existing independent contracting arrangements more secure, provided they are written clearly. Professor Andrew Stewart of the University of Adelaide observed that it "widened a loophole" and was a win for companies that use independent contractors. Stewart also opined that the decision reduced the risk for employers if contracts contained the correct language. Innes Willox of the Australian Industry Group stated the decision "will increase business certainty and investment and will consequently be good for jobs".
41,394,811	Luxembourg at the 2014 Winter Olympics	1,137,376,878	null	[ "2014 in Luxembourgian sport", "Luxembourg at the Winter Olympics by year", "Nations at the 2014 Winter Olympics" ]	Luxembourg sent a delegation to compete at the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi, Russia from 7–23 February 2014. This was Luxembourg's eighth appearance at a Winter Olympic Games. The Luxembourgian team consisted of one athlete in cross-country skiing, Kari Peters. In the only event he contested, the men's sprint, he finished in 79th place. He withdrew from the 15 km classical due to illness. ## Background Luxembourg first joined Olympic competition at the 1900 Summer Olympics and first participated at the Winter Olympic Games at the 1928 Winter Olympics. Their participation at Winter Olympics since has been sporadic; Luxembourg did not send a delegation to any Winter Olympics from 1948 to 1984. They also skipped the 2002 and the 2010 Winter Olympics. This was Luxembourg's eighth appearance at a Winter Olympics. In their history, Luxembourg has won medals at both the Summer and Winter Olympics; their Winter Olympics medals, both silver, were won in 1992. According to the quota allocation released on 20 January 2014, Luxembourg had one athlete in qualification position for alpine skiing and one for cross-country skiing, however, no alpine skiers were selected for the final Luxembourgian team. The final Luxembourgian team consisted of one cross-country skier, Kari Peters. He was selected as the flag bearer for the opening ceremony, while a volunteer carried the Luxembourg flag for the closing ceremony. ## Cross-country skiing Kari Peters was named as the athlete to represent the country after he met the standards of the Luxembourgish Olympic and Sporting Committee. Peters was the first ever athlete to qualify in cross-country skiing for the country. He was 28 years old at the time of the Sochi Olympics. On 11 February he took part in the men's sprint, posting a time of 4 minutes and 13.08 seconds. This time put him in 79th place out of 85 competitors who finished the race. Only the top 30 finishers were allowed to advance to the next round, and Peters was therefore eliminated; the slowest qualifying time was 3 minutes and 37.88 seconds. The gold medal was won by Ola Vigen Hattestad of Norway, silver was won by Teodor Peterson, and bronze by Emil Jönsson, both of Sweden. Peters was also scheduled to compete in the 15 kilometre classical event held on 14 February, but withdrew due to suffering from a severe cold. Peters confirmed with the withdrawal that his Olympics were over. Sprint ## See also - Luxembourg at the 2014 Summer Youth Olympics
36,751,538	Indicud	1,172,745,680	null	[ "2013 albums", "Albums in memory of deceased persons", "Albums produced by Hit-Boy", "Albums produced by Kid Cudi", "Albums recorded at Westlake Recording Studios", "GOOD Music albums", "Kid Cudi albums", "Republic Records albums", "Wicked Awesome Records albums" ]	Indicud (stylized in all lowercase) is the third studio album by American rapper Kid Cudi. It was released on April 16, 2013, by GOOD Music, Wicked Awesome Records, and Republic Records. It was the first album of Cudi's solo career to not be an installment of his Man on the Moon series. The album's cover artwork was designed by Kid Cudi himself, who also served as an executive producer of Indicud. It was Cudi's goal to make more uptempo and positive music with the album. He described it as a completely new format compared to his previous albums. The album's record production was handled entirely by Cudi as well, with only record producer Hit-Boy co-producing one track, while Cudi's WZRD bandmate Dot da Genius, provided drums on two. The album features guest appearances from King Chip, Kendrick Lamar, Too Short, RZA, ASAP Rocky, Father John Misty, Michael Bolton and Haim. During the early release of Indicud, it was preceded by four singles – "Just What I Am", "King Wizard", "Immortal" and "Girls". Indicud debuted at number two in the United States. With sales of 139,000 copies and debuted at number 32 on the UK Albums Chart, becoming Cudi's highest-charting album on the chart, while entering at number two on the UK R&B Chart. The album received mixed reviews from critics. ## Background After his crossover into rock music with Dot da Genius, on their project WZRD (2012), Cudi soon began working on his third solo studio album. The album was initially going to be the third installment to his Man on the Moon series, which he announced when he revealed he would not be releasing the A Man Named Scott mixtape, to focus on his rock project and "MOTM3". Be that as it may, in the summer of 2012 Cudi announced the title of his third studio album when he tweeted: "My new album is entitled indicud, it will be my version of The Chronic 2001, some songs i'll produce, others i'll feat &/or play songwriter". The title Indicud, is a play-on-words on the putative species of the genus Cannabis, indica, and Cudi's own name. On June 8, 2012, Cudi announced Indicud, would be a double-disc album, until tweeting on October 28, 2012 that "Indicud will not be a double disc but will contain a maximum of 17 brand new jams." Kid Cudi also tweeted: "The overall tone of indicud is positive and confident," adding: "The energy of Indicud is its own new thing. New format with some of my favorite musical tricks here and there. The album moves dope". Before the album's release, in December 2012, Cudi dedicated Indicud to the late Ben Breedlove and all his fans who died, continuing: "My journey shall continue in your honor. Never forgotten." The dedication was ultimately included in the album's liner notes. The album is upbeat and optimistic, very much unlike his previous studio album Man on the Moon II: The Legend of Mr. Rager (2010), which was considered darkly erratic. The positive vibe stems from Cudi's desire to always change and reinvent: > "I always try to push myself to the next level with everything I do. Since I've been in the business, critics have known that about me. When I started working on Indicud, I just wanted to bring more energy into my sound. Most of my old music was driven towards relaxed, chilled out smoke music. And that was my goal first coming in. Now it's like, 'What’s a side of me that people haven’t seen?' The only time people have seen me on up-tempos is on remixes or some shit. So I just wanted to take the energy to the next level. That ultimately inspired the subject matter. It was a chain reaction. With the up-tempos came more positive lyrics. It just brightened up the whole shit." After announcing his departure from GOOD Music, Cudi revealed Indicud would be his last album under the label, adding that only the first 200,000 copies printed would have the GOOD Music logo on it; making them collector's items. ## Recording In April 2012, in Geneseo, New York, Cudi performed before a sold out crowd and premiered a hip hop song, his first since 2010. During his set, he performed a new record, tentatively titled "The Leader of the Delinquents", which he did a cappella. On April 25, 2012 Cudi was officially back to rapping with the release of "Dennis, Hook Me Up with Some More of That Whiskey!". The song, the first ever solely produced by Cudi himself, samples his 2010 song "Ghost!". On July 10, 2012 via his Twitter feed, Cudi announced collaborations on the album thus far, as the album had not yet been completed, to be Pusha T, Jaden Smith and Kendrick Lamar, along with more familiar collaborators Kanye West, King Chip and Cage. He also revealed he was hoping to collaborate with 50 Cent, Lloyd Banks, Diplo and MGMT. In September, he had also expressed interest in working with Harlem-bred rapper ASAP Rocky on Indicud. On October 1, 2012 Cudi confirmed that production from electronic rock duo Ratatat, with whom he collaborated on "Pursuit of Happiness" and "Alive" from his debut album Man on the Moon: The End of Day (2009), would be featured on Indicud. On October 9 and 12, Cudi released pictures of him and Dot da Genius in the studio working on the album. On November 6, 2012, Cudi made it known that he was in the studio that day working with fellow American rapper J. Cole. On November 17, 2012, via his Twitter feed, Cudi announced the song he recorded with Kendrick Lamar was produced by himself and is titled "Solo Dolo, Part II". He also stated his former GOOD Music label-mate Common would be featured on the album, on a song produced by Dot da Genius and Cudi's mentor 88-Keys. On February 13, 2013, via Twitter, Cudi revealed he previewed the album to friend and fellow American actor, Mark Webber, and asked him to share his thoughts on the album, as a favor to the fans. During his barrage of tweets, Webber gave insight on the album, revealing Too Short and Wu-Tang Clan's RZA as features, as well as praising Cudi's production, rapping and singing. Unlike his previous albums, Indicud is primarily produced by Cudi himself. In an interview with Billboard, released March 2013, Cudi confirmed he was working closely with ASAP Rocky, while also revealing Haim, an all-female indie rock band, would appear on the album on a song produced by high-profile American record producer Hit-Boy and himself. On April 2, 2013 Hit-Boy, claimed besides Cudi, he was the only other person to provide production on the album. Cudi later confirmed the statement via Twitter. Cudi and Hit-Boy had been working on the aforementioned song since January 2011. The track is also the first record the two of them ever worked on together. ## Production In a April 2013 interview, Cudi told MTV News how his collaboration with “the '80s legend” Michael Bolton came about: "My mom is a huge fan so I grew up hearing him in the household and he did the song with The Lonely Island that I thought that was genius. I love those guys' work and seeing what they did with Michael they really utilized him, but I was like man I wanna utilize him in a way where I'm not tryna make a joke or anything - I just wanna use the mightiness of his voice in a way that's never been done before." "I reached out," Cudi added, "he responded immediately and we were able to get him in the studio for like three hours and most of the time he spent talking and just dropping science. It was really cool to have his energy and just to be around him because he's such a legend, so down to earth and cool. He was like the uncle I never had." Cudi also incorporated quotes from his favorite movies into the album, wherever he saw fit. The first release with a movie quote was "Immortal", where Cudi sampled Adam Sandler in his 1995 film Billy Madison: "That’s one of my favorite movies, man. From my childhood, straight up. I love Adam Sandler. Throughout the album I wanted to include clips from some of my favorite movies to kind of narrate the album a bit and liven it up and give it some personality." He declared that throughout the album, people will hear scenes from several different movies: > "Yeah, different actors will pop up periodically. That’s how I felt when I finished the song. 'Oh my God. It's so good!' [Laughs] So there had to be a way that I could express myself. So I had to find some of my favorite quotes from my favorite movies. I put on Billy Madison and just watched that. There were so many lines that I picked that were great. But “I’m the smartest man alive!” resonated with me. And Adam Sandler is like a god to me. He’s so amazing. I just wanted to pay homage through song and let him know, like, 'You’re the shit!'" With Indicud, on several tracks Cudi took a backseat in vocals to rather showcase his production skills. "The focus was on producing the record for Kendrick, I wanted to shine as a producer first. I wanted to show that side off more than anything else and that's why I had my one verse then let Kendrick go ape-sh-- crazy all over the rest of it." As for the A\$AP Rocky feature on "Brothers," Cudi explained that he made the decision to go with a minimal hook and let the Harlem rapper dominate the track: "I felt like that was a perfect beat for A\$AP to get on there and speak some truths and talk to the younger generation, because he's in a place where a lot of kids are up to him and Kendrick. I just wanted to hear him say something a little bit more thoughtful, and he did that — he showed up. I was blown away by his craftsmanship, his professionalism and his overall mojo." ## Release and promotion On October 28, 2012, after previously announcing hopes of releasing the album in late 2012, Cudi changed the estimate release date from late 2012 to early 2013. In late November, Cudi made it known he would be withholding the album's exact release date, until it was certain, to avoid push backs. On December 18, 2012, the same day promotional single "King Wizard" was officially released, Cudi revealed the album would be released in March 2013. On February 12, he announced the album's release date to be April 23, 2013. After the album leaked online in its entirety on April 9, 2013, Kid Cudi decided to push the album's release date up to April 16. In early January, the album was named the ninth most anticipated album of 2013 by Complex and the 14th most anticipated album by XXL. In early 2013, Cudi covered Complex's February/March 2013 issue. In January 2013, Cudi took to Twitter to express his frustrations with record label, Universal Republic, not supporting and promoting his music. After providing facts about singles "Just What I Am" and "King Wizard", defending their strong online presence and lamenting about not getting radio play, Cudi tweeted, "if things dont change soon, theres gonna be some problems." On March 14, 2013 Kid Cudi performed at Myspace's South by Southwest (SXSW) secret show in Austin, Texas and after performing his many hits, he previewed a new verse from Indicud. He also revealed that the album would feature 18 tracks, while officially confirming ASAP Rocky and Michael Bolton as featured guests. On March 16, Cudi announced that he would release the album's track list and cover art on April 2. Three days later, Kid Cudi announced via Twitter that the album had officially been completed and turned in to his label, Universal Republic. On March 26, the album's cover art and track list was unveiled by Walmart and later Complex. After the album cover's unveiling, Cudi took to Twitter to explain his decision for the artwork: "The album art represents me. A ball of flames in a rose gold frame." The cover's art direction was handled by Cudi himself. In December 2013, it would be named the sixteenth best album cover of 2013 by Complex. Later that day, Cudi appeared on Jimmy Kimmel Live! and performed the album's lead singles; "Just What I Am" and "Immortal", as well as premiering "Mad Solar", which he performed a cappella. During late 2013, Kid Cudi toured in support of Indicud on The Cud Life Tour 2013. The tour was announced on July 15, with tickets going on sale the following day. Supporting acts on the tour include Big Sean, Tyler, The Creator and Logic. The tour took place in the United States beginning on August 22 and ran through October 18, 2013. ## Singles On August 12, 2012 Kid Cudi released the lead single from Indicud, a song titled "Just What I Am", featuring his longtime collaborator and friend, rapper King Chip. On October 2, 2012, "Just What I Am", was released to iTunes as the first single from the album. The single's music video, which marked Cudi's directorial debut, was released November 6, 2012, via Kid Cudi's Vevo. The song has since peaked at number 74 on the US Billboard Hot 100. On September 29, 2012, Cudi released a podcast where he previewed "King Wizard", a new song he was "very excited about". On October 3, 2012, one day after "Just What I Am", the album's lead single was officially released via iTunes, Cudi liberated "King Wizard" as the second offering from Indicud via SoundCloud. Cudi who also produced the track, had teamed up with Samsung Mobile to release the clean version of the newly mastered “King Wizard” as a free download. The download was available by heading to Samsung Mobile USA’s Facebook page under the “music” tab. The explicit version and the music video were officially released via iTunes, on December 18, 2012 as the album's second single. On October 29, Cudi announced he would be releasing the album's second official single at the end of November. On November 7, he revealed the upcoming single's title to be "Immortal", and that it again was produced by himself like the two previous releases, "Just What I Am" and "King Wizard". He claimed the song "will make you feel amazing in the heart and soul." However, on November 30, he revealed "Immortal" would not be released until 2013. "Immortal" would be premiered on March 1, 2013 via SoundCloud. The song was produced by Cudi, with the main sample being a track from one of his favorite bands MGMT's, "Congratulations". He reversed the song, sped it up, and produced over it. The song was officially released via iTunes on March 14, 2013 as the album's third single. On April 2, 2013 Cudi released "Girls" for digital download via the iTunes Store, as the album's fourth single. The song features fellow American rapper Too Short, and was produced by Cudi. ## Critical reception Indicud received mixed reviews from critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications, the album received an average score of 58, based on 16 reviews. Chris Dart of Exclaim! said, "It's also a smart, fun, eclectic record full of psychedelic influences and great, massive choruses." Steve Jones of USA Today said, "Scott Mescudi handles the production of his third album, creating moody, surreal soundscapes to bolster rhymes that run the gamut of emotions. But whether he's feeling invincible or despondent, you get a true sense of where his head's at." David Jeffries of AllMusic stated, "It's an entertaining, vibrant, and artistically filling album, so consider it a "presents" effort and enjoy the show." Mosi Reeves of Spin said, "None of the guest actors here distract from Cudi's signature self-mythologizing and inner turmoil. And most of the time, it's his inner turmoil that beckons you in, rather than merely pushing you out." Dan Buyanovsky of XXL stated, "As a whole, Cudi’s version of 2001 is an original and bold project [...] This ambitious project does not fall flat, and credit is due to Cudi for continuing to challenge himself post-WZRD, taking on a new skill-set and concept rather than throwing together a collection of identically moody anthems." Evan Rytlewski of The A.V. Club stated, "For the first time, Cudi is more interested in throwing an actual party than a pity party, and with his bass-engulfed beats and chewy, sing-along hooks, he’s well-suited to the task. In spite of its brighter outlook, though, Indicud is still a Kid Cudi record." Logan Smithson of PopMatters said, "If you've heard a Kid Cudi album before, you probably know what you’re going to get from Indicud, and for those who have been patiently awaiting his latest release, that's great news. Indicud features some of Kid Cudi’s best songs to date, and is an overall enjoyable listen from start to finish." Chris Coplan of Consequence of Sound stated, "It's ass-backwards to make other people look the best on your solo album. Still, that might demonstrate the path of Kid Cudi isn't about being a rapper, a singer, or something in between. The point is, this record just proves that Kid Cudi has a lot of sorting to do, and continuing down the same old path simply won’t cut it in the long-run." Joe Gross of Rolling Stone said, "Someday this Cleveland MC/producer/former weed enthusiast will find the lyrical and vocal charisma to match the scrumptiously dark, quasi-industrial tenor of his moody beats. But Cudi’s pitchy-dawg voice remains his own worst enemy." ### Accolades Closing out the year, the album was named to multiple album of the year lists. Complex ranked the album at number 26, on their list of the 50 best albums of 2013. They commented saying, "the album's cinematic feel puts Cudi in the director's seat as he compiles a diverse ensemble cast of luminaries, ranging from rap legends like RZA to indie rockers like Haim to West Coast spitters like Kendrick Lamar. The final product is proof Cudi can make a soundscape that others can easily adapt to, not the other way around." XXL positioned it at number 25 on their list of the best albums of 2013. In December 2013, HipHopDX placed it on their list of the top 25 albums of the year saying, "In a manner akin to Robert Johnson selling his soul to the devil to become a magician of a bluesman, Kid Cudi also clearly sold his soul to the demons that once claimed it in order to craft this album. There’s no singles here, just an intense and very listenable journey." The Source ranked it at number 23 on their list, saying "it delivered, sonically and conceptually. The album was an honest representation of the maturation of Cudi’s space age sound and middle finger to the world attitude." ## Commercial performance In its first week of release Indicud debuted at number two on the Billboard 200, selling 139,000 copies in the United States and debuted at number 32 on the UK Albums Chart, becoming Cudi's highest-charting album on the chart, while entering at number 2 on the UK R&B Chart. In its second week the album sold 36,000 more copies. In its third week the album sold 15,000 more copies, bringing its total sales in the United States to 183,000. As of December 19, 2013, the album has sold 260,000 copies in the United States. On February 25, 2019, the album was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for combined sales and album-equivalent units of over 500,000 units in the United States. The album also earned a level of commercial success internationally. In Canada it peaked at number three on the Canadian Albums Chart and peaked at number 32 on the UK Albums Chart. It also peaked at number 23 in Australia, number 32 in Denmark and number 33 in New Zealand. Indicud also charted on the main albums chart in Belgium, France, Germany, Switzerland and Ireland. ## Track listing All tracks produced by Kid Cudi, except for "Red Eye", which features co-production by Hit-Boy. Sample credits - "The Resurrection of Scott Mescudi" contains an excerpt from the film The Good Son (1993). - "Unfuckwittable" contains an excerpt from the film The Good Son (1993). - "Young Lady" contains a sample of "Hollywood Forever Cemetery Sings" performed by Father John Misty. - "Immortal" contains a sample of "Congratulations" performed by MGMT. The song also contains excerpts from the films Billy Madison (1995) and The Good Son (1993). - "Solo Dolo, Part II" contains a sample of "Going the Distance" performed by Menahan Street Band, which was originally composed by Bill Conti. - "Girls" contains an interpolation of "Pretty Girls", written by Carl Brown, Shelly Goodhope, Tanesa Tavin, Daniel Brattain, Veronica Mendez, Darrell Mitchell, Albert Cota, Chantel Roquemore and Michael Monagan. The song also contains a sample of "Bitches (Reply)" performed by Dion "DJ Jimi" Norman. - "Beez" contains a sample of "Mind Playing Tricks on Me" performed by Geto Boys. ## Personnel Credits for Indicud taken from the album's liner notes. - Scott "Kid Cudi" Mescudi – executive producer, cover design, art direction, producer, composer, guitar, drums, keyboards, programming - Dennis Cummings – executive producer - Iain Findlay – engineer, mixing - Bradford Smith – mix assistant - Cesar Loza – mix assistant - Derek "MixedByAli" Ali – vocal mixing (track 7) - Chris Gehringer – mastering - Hit-Boy – co-production, keyboards (track 10) - Frank Lacy – trombone (track 3) - Billy Zarro – product manager, marketing - Nabil Elderkin – photography - Nigil Mack – A&R - Ayanna Collazo – background vocals (track 4) - Dot da Genius – drums, keyboards (tracks 6, 8) - King Chip – featured artist, composer - Father John Misty – featured artist, composer - Kendrick Lamar – featured artist, composer - Too Short – featured artist, composer - Haim – featured artist, composer - RZA – featured artist, composer - ASAP Rocky – featured artist, composer - Michael Bolton – featured artist, composer ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications ## Release history
48,750,501	2016 Gent–Wevelgem	1,163,554,835	null	[ "2016 UCI World Tour", "2016 in Belgian sport", "Gent–Wevelgem" ]	The 2016 Gent–Wevelgem, (officially Gent–Wevelgem – In Flanders Fields) was a one-day cycling classic that took place on 27 March 2016. It was the 78th edition of the Gent–Wevelgem race and the seventh event of the 2016 UCI World Tour. The race followed a 243-kilometre (151 mi) course that started in Deinze and ended in Wevelgem in Belgium, with a portion of the race spent in northern France. The race included ten climbs, several of them cobbled, which provided the principal difficulty in the race. The last and most difficult climb was the Kemmelberg. The favourites for the race included Alexander Kristoff (), Fabian Cancellara (), and Peter Sagan (). The race was won by Sagan, who escaped with Cancellara and Sep Vanmarcke () on the Kemmelberg after a series of splits had occurred in the first half of the race. They were joined by Vyacheslav Kuznetsov (), who had been in the day's early breakaway, and the four-man group came to the finish together. Sagan won the sprint, with Vanmarcke second and Kuznetsov third. During the French portion of the race, the Belgian rider Antoine Demoitié () crashed and was then hit by a race motorbike. He died that evening. ## Route The route of the 2016 Gent–Wevelgem was significantly changed from 2015 edition and from previous editions. Several different climbs were used. Central among these was the decision to use a different side of the core climb in the race, the Kemmelberg. In previous years, the route chosen had a maximum gradient of 17%, but the 2016 edition used a road that had a section at 23%, described by Cycling Weekly as "excruciating". The race director, Hans De Clercq, gave three reasons for the change: the cobblestones had recently been relaid; the 2016 edition marked the 60th anniversary of the inclusion of the Kemmelberg, with the difficult side used on that occasion; and there was a desire to give the race more of a balance between sprinters and attackers. , a Belgian work that lists and grades all the climbs in the country, rated the side of the Kemmelberg used in 2016 as the most difficult climb in Flanders: its grading of 183 points was more than the Koppenberg (172), the Muur van Geraardsbergen (171) or the traditional route up the Kemmelberg (152). The race started in Deinze in East Flanders, 20 kilometres (12 mi) from Ghent. The route took the riders immediately into West Flanders. After 77 kilometres (48 mi) of flat roads, they came near the coast at Veurne. Here the route took the riders south into northern France; after 119 kilometres (74 mi) the peloton passed through Wormhout, then continued south of Steenvoorde, where there were the first climbs in the race. The first eight climbs came quickly, packed into a 32 kilometres (20 mi) stretch of road. The first climb was the Catsberg; this was followed by the Kokereelberg, the Vert Mon, the Côte du Ravel Put and the Côte de la Blanchisserie. The riders then returned to Belgium and climbed the Baneberg, the Kemmelberg and the Monteberg. There was then a flatter section, looping through Mesen, Ploegsteer and Nieuwkerke. The final two climbs were a repeat of the Baneberg–Kemmelberg combination. At the top of the final climb, there were 34 kilometres (21 mi) of fairly flat roads to the finish in Wevelgem. ## Participating teams There were 25 teams selected to take part in the race. All 18 UCI WorldTeams were automatically invited; the race organisers gave wildcard invitations to seven UCI Professional Continental teams. These included two Belgian teams ( and ), two French teams ( and ), a Dutch team (), an Italian team () and a Polish team (). Each team could include eight riders. 's team of seven was the only one submitted with fewer than eight riders, but three riders ('s Ian Stannard, 's Alexander Kristoff and 's Alexis Gougeard) did not start the race; 196 riders therefore departed from Deinze. ## Pre-race favourites There was some uncertainty before the race about whether it would favour the sprinters or those who attacked on the hills. Among the sprinters, Alexander Kristoff, the winner of the 2014 Tour of Flanders, was the favourite, with André Greipel (), Arnaud Démare (), Mark Cavendish (), Elia Viviani () and Fernando Gaviria () also considered possible winners. Kristoff, however, had to pull out of the race due to a fever that started after E3 Harelbeke two days earlier. There were also many riders who had the potential to attack earlier in the race. These included Tom Boonen (Etixx–Quick-Step), who had won the race on three previous occasions, and his teammates Niki Terpstra and Zdeněk Štybar. Peter Sagan (), the reigning world champion, had won the race in 2013 with a solo attack; he also had the ability to perform strongly in a sprint. He had not yet won a race in 2016. Other riders likely to attack early in the race included Fabian Cancellara (), Luke Rowe (Sky), Sep Vanmarcke (), Greg Van Avermaet () and Edvald Boasson Hagen (Dimension Data), who had won the 2009 edition of the race. The 2015 winner, Luca Paolini, was not present to defend his title due to his suspension following a positive test for cocaine during the 2015 Tour de France. ## Race summary The race took place in windy weather. Combined with a crash, these conditions caused the peloton to break into several groups in the first part of the race. The first group was a five-rider breakaway, composed of Lieuwe Westra (), Pavel Brutt (Tinkoff), Josef Černý (CCC–Sprandi–Polkowice), Jonas Rickaert () and Simon Pellaud (). Their lead extended to eleven minutes at one point, but was quickly reduced when the pace of the main peloton increased. This broke the peloton into echelons. By the halfway stage, there was a chasing group 90 seconds behind that contained many of the race favourites, including Boonen, Boasson Hagen, Cancellara, Sagan, Tiesj Benoot and Jens Debusschere (both Lotto–Soudal), and Van Avermaet. They were chased by another group that was led by Trek–Segafredo and LottoNL–Jumbo; this group was around a minute further behind. With 115 kilometres (71 mi) remaining, the first chasing group caught the breakaway; 24 kilometres (15 mi) later, this group was in turn caught by the other chasing group. There was therefore a 50-rider group at the head of the race. There was calm in the peloton for a while, with five climbs remaining to be raced. Trek–Segafredo controlled the peloton over the Baneberg and the first climb of the Kemmelberg. Between the two climbs, however, Debusschere crashed and was forced to retire from the race. On the Monteberg, with 66 kilometres (41 mi) remaining, five riders attacked. These were Matteo Trentin, who initiated the move, Brutt, Benoot, Daniel Oss () and Giacomo Nizzolo (Trek–Segafredo). They were chased by Dimension Data and LottoNL–Jumbo, but it took 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) to bring them back. When they were caught, Vyacheslav Kuznetsov (Katusha) attacked alone and had a minute's lead by the second climb of the Baneberg. Vanmarcke attacked on the Baneberg, but was chased down by the peloton, led by Manuel Quinziato (BMC). On the second climb of the Kemmelberg, from the difficult side, Cancellara attacked and was followed by Vanmarcke and Sagan. They caught Kuznetsov and formed a four-man leading group. They were chased at first by a group of Luke Rowe, Zdeněk Štybar and Greg Van Avermaet, but were able to increase their advantage. The chasing group was caught by the peloton and the four leaders came to the finish together with a comfortable advantage. They had a lead of 40 seconds until they slowed down significantly in preparation for the sprint. Kuznetsov was the first to sprint; he was followed, however, by Sagan, who came past him to take the race victory. Vanmarcke finished just ahead of Kuznetsov to take second place, with Cancellara finishing fourth. The peloton finished eleven seconds behind, with Démare winning the sprint for fifth place. ### Death of Antoine Demoitié The race was marred by the death of Antoine Demoitié (). Demoitié crashed with four other riders near Sainte-Marie-Cappel during the French section of the race, with approximately 115 kilometres (71 mi) of racing remaining. After the crash, he was lying on the road and was hit by a race motorbike that was following the riders. Demoitié was initially taken to hospital in Ypres before being transferred to the intensive care unit of the university hospital in Lille, due to the severity of his injuries. His team released a statement describing his condition as "extremely serious"; several hours later, a spokesman for the local gendarmerie confirmed that he had died. The crash was seen by Julien Jurdie, a directeur sportif for the team, who said that Demoitié had been part of a group chasing to get back to the peloton, travelling downhill at around 70 kilometres per hour (43 mph). He said that, when the riders crashed, there was no time for the motorbike rider to brake and he immediately recognised that the incident was very serious. ## Results ## Post-race analysis ### Reaction to Demoitié's death There was widespread sadness among those involved in professional cycling following Demoitié's death, especially after a second young Belgian cyclist, 's Daan Myngheer, died after suffering a heart attack at the Critérium International. Sep Vanmarcke tweeted "Suddenly a 2nd place no longer important after this terrible news." Other riders, especially those in Demoitié's team, also expressed their sadness. The team's directeur sportif, Hilaire Van der Schueren, paid tribute to his rider, saying that he was "happy because he was a cyclist". Demoitié had made his first appearance at a World Tour race at E3 Harelbeke two days previously and had been in the day's main breakaway. Following his strong performance, he had asked to be allowed to stay in the main peloton in search of a good finish in Wevelgem. The team withdrew from the Three Days of De Panne the following week. As well as the tributes to Demoitié, many riders also called for improved safety for professional bike races. Many riders had been involved with crashes with race motorbikes in the previous few years, including Peter Sagan, Taylor Phinney, Greg Van Avermaet, Sérgio Paulinho, Jakob Fuglsang, Jesse Sergent, Sylvain Chavanel and Stig Broeckx. Alberto Contador tweeted "Regulations on motos in races are needed NOW", while other riders called for clear rules, speed limits and exams for race motorbike riders. Marcel Kittel described rider safety as an issue that needed the same priority as anti-doping. Wanty–Groupe Gobert's press officer said that the motorbike rider was experienced and was not to blame for the accident. The president of cycling's governing body, the Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI), said that there would be an emergency meeting of its Road Commission to discuss the incident; he also said that they needed to wait for the result of the police enquiry and that it was important to make sure that the "right decisions" were made. ### Reaction to the race Peter Sagan's victory in the race was his first since winning the rainbow jersey at the world championships road race the previous year. It was the end of what Cycling Weekly called a "frustrating run" that had included second place at E3 Harelbeke two days previously. He said that he was very happy to have won in the rainbow jersey, especially as Gent–Wevelgem was an important race to him. He said that he was determined not to make the same mistake as he had in previous races by working hard in the final part of the race; Kuznetsov's early sprint then set him up for his own sprint. Vanmarcke said that he was "pleased with second place" as he had had a difficult race. He was trapped in the second echelon when the race split early on and it took a "long pursuit" to get back to the leaders. Although he was not quite able to follow Cancellara and Sagan on the final climb, he rode aggressively on the descent and got back to them. He said that he was very tired at the end of the race and that it was hard to beat Sagan and Cancellara. Cancellara said "for sure it's happy Easter day but it's not happy Gent–Wevelgem day" as he finished fourth out of four riders in the final sprint. He was happy, however, that he had always been at the front of the race and had not crashed. Cyclingnews.com wrote that he would still be the "principal favourite" the following Sunday for the Tour of Flanders. ### UCI World Tour standings Following his second place in E3 Harelbeke and his victory in Gent–Wevelgem, Sagan moved into the lead of the season-long UCI World Tour competition, seven points ahead of Richie Porte (BMC). Sagan's teammate Alberto Contador had moved up into third place after the Volta a Catalunya; Tinkoff moved into the lead of the teams' rankings. Australia remained at the top of the nations' rankings.
61,933,416	A Sun	1,171,457,013	2019 drama film by Chung Mong-hong	[ "2010s Mandarin-language films", "2019 drama films", "2019 films", "Films about father–son relationships", "Films set in Taipei", "Mandarin-language Netflix original films", "Taiwanese drama films", "Taiwanese-language films" ]	A Sun (Chinese: 陽光普照) is a 2019 Taiwanese drama film directed and co-written by Chung Mong-hong. The film stars Chen Yi-wen, Samantha Ko, Wu Chien-ho, Greg Hsu, and Liu Kuan-ting. Its story centres on Chen Jian Ho (Wu), a troubled teenager who has been arrested, and Hao (Hsu), Ho's accomplished brother who commits suicide due to familial pressure. It explores Ho's re-entry into society and his father's efforts to acknowledge his son, something he had never done. Juvenile delinquency and suicide are the film's main themes, with visual motifs including light and dark. The film, which incorporates many conventions of Asian cinema, also explores socioeconomic inequality in Taiwan. The film was conceived after a high-school friend told Chung about a crime he had committed as a teenager. This became the opening sequence, which prefaces the narrative. Chang Yao-sheng was enlisted to co-write the screenplay with Chung, a process which took over a year. Filming began in 2018, with a tight 38-day schedule for budgetary reasons. Chung asked the cast not to consult him about their acting and rehearse on their own, although he would often direct them during filming. He was also the film's cinematographer under the pseudonym of Nagao Nakashima. Lai Hsiu-hsiung edited the film to a runtime of 155 minutes, Chung's longest film by far, and Lin Sheng-xiang composed the score. A Sun premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival on 6 September 2019, before its theatrical release in Taiwan. The film under-performed financially, as did Chung's previous films. It was released on Netflix in 2020; poor marketing contributed to it not receiving much attention, before Peter Debruge of Variety called it the best film of 2020. The film received many positive reviews for its story, diversity of themes, audiovisual quality, and acting. It received a number of accolades, including 11 nominations at the 56th Golden Horse Awards; it received the Best Feature Film award and the Best Director award for Chung. The film was the Taiwanese entry for Best International Feature Film at the 93rd Academy Awards, where it made the 15-film shortlist. ## Plot In 2013 Taipei, troubled teenager Chen Jian-ho and his friend, Radish, approach a young man named Oden at a restaurant; unbeknownst to Ho, Radish cuts off Oden's hand with a machete. Ho is sentenced to juvenile detention, and Radish receives a harsher sentence. Ho's father, Wen, disowns him, however his wife Qin still visits their son in prison. Wen focuses on Ho's shy older brother, Hao, who is attending a cram school in preparation for medical school. Wen is pestered for money at his job as a driving instructor by Oden's father; he refuses to pay, claiming no legal responsibility because his son did not injure Oden. Fifteen-year-old Wang Ming-yu and her guardian, Yin, meet Qin; she is pregnant with Ho's child. Although Qin supports Yu throughout the pregnancy, Ho is not informed of it. Hao tells him, and Ho rages against the longtime secrecy. When Hao commits suicide by jumping from the apartment balcony, Hao's romantic interest Guo Xiao-zhen tells Qin that Hao felt overwhelmed by the constant attention and scrutiny on him, and had nowhere to be alone. Ho and Yu marry; Wen continues to ignore him when he is released a year and a half later, and Ho works at a car wash to support his family. Wen, tormented by visions of his dead son, goes out one night to buy cigarettes. He sees Ho at a convenience store at which his son had taken a night shift; they speak briefly about Hao, and seem to reconcile. Ho is approached for money three years later by the recently-released Radish, but he refuses. Radish later tells him to fire a gun at a legislator's office, and he grudgingly does so. Wen offers him money to stay away from his son; Radish refuses, and visits Ho late at night at the car wash, coercing him to borrow a client's car and go for a drive. They stop on a highway, where Radish tells him to enter a forest and deliver a package; he is paid a large sum of money. Upon returning, Radish is missing, and he flees. A group of thugs kidnap Ho sometime later and demand the money because Radish was found dead. After Ho complies, they beat him, give him another large sum of money, and drop him off. Atop Qixing Mountain, Wen tells Qin that he had been skipping work to tail Ho and Radish. Wen saw their late-night drive, then attacked Radish when Ho left to get the money, dragging Radish into the forest and killing him with a rock. As Qin reacts in horror, Wen explains that this was the best way he could think of to help his only remaining son. Ho and his mother later bond over a stack of old notebooks which Wen had given Hao at medical school, each labeled with Wen's motto: "Seize the day, decide your path"; all are empty. Ho steals a bicycle and he and Qin ride it through a park, the ambivalent Qin gazing at the surrounding scenery. ## Cast - Chen Yi-wen as Wen (文), father of Chen Jian-ho and Hao and husband of Qin. He works as a driving instructor; his driving school has the slogan "Seize the day, decide your path", which he uses as a moral principle. - Samantha Ko as Qin (琴姐), mother of Ho and Hao and wife of Wen. She owns and is a hairdresser for a salon, which she relocates midway through the film. - Wu Chien-ho as Chen Jian-ho (陳建和), son of Wen and Qi and younger brother of Hao. He and Radish are imprisoned for assault, and he receives a lighter sentence. He impregnates Xiao Yu, marrying her before his release, and works as a car washer and a cashier to support his family. - Greg Hsu as Chen Jian-hao (陳建豪), son of Wen and Qi and elder brother of Ho. The more accomplished and better-mannered son, he is studying to prepare for medical school. He becomes depressed and commits suicide. - Liu Kuan-ting as Radish (菜頭, Cài tóu), who orders Ho to follow him in the assault. After his release, he offers Ho criminal jobs for extra money. - Apple Wu as Wang Ming-yu (王明玉), a 15-year-old, ninth-grade student impregnated by Ho. Qin supports her throughout her pregnancy, and she works as a hairdresser. She is colloquially referred to as Xiao Yu. - Wen Chen-ling as Guo Xiao-zhen (郭曉貞), Hao's classmate and romantic interest, who notices his gradual descent into depression and receives his poetic suicide text. - Ivy Yin as Yin (姐), Yu's aunt, who rescued her from a burning bus in 2003. ## Production ### Background and pre-production > With a painful howl, a hand is slashed off by the wrist. The hand drops into a pot of boiling soup. The wrist hangs lonely at the side of the pot. The victim is screaming. The wound is bleeding like a running tap. Blood is spraying all over the place. A-[H]o stands staring at everything in front of him. It happens too fast for him to react. He never imagined that a confrontation would end this way. He doesn’t even know that his troubles are just emerging. Many more disasters are waiting for him ahead. Director Chung Mong-hong conceived A Sun when he met his once-troubled high-school friend, who told him about how he and his friend had cut off someone's hand in his youth and how it affected him psychologically for some time. Later, while having dinner with friends and family, he visualized a hand boiling in a hot pot; this drove him to write the film. After writing the opening sequence, Chung began to think about suicide (a common occurrence in Taiwan) and the familial and social effects of suicide and juvenile delinquency. The family members were given a traditional upbringing. Although no other films were creative inspirations, he later discovered that the plot is reminiscent of Fargo (1996); the latter begins with a light scene, followed by a lingering chaos. With making A Sun, Chung also aimed to explore the unknown within the story's themes. Chung wanted another person to write the screenplay, but struggled to find the right person. He called Chang Yao-sheng perfect: collaborative and analytical, with a novelist's style. According to Chung, this helped him and others understand the feelings he wanted to evoke. He had finished a rough screenplay, with core elements of the film, in 40 days. He employed a typist to outpour his stream of thoughts onto the screenplay. The collaborative nature of producing A Sun was new to Chung, who had worked harder on his previous films; he described those films as worse, and called A Sun more stylistically diverse. As co-writer of the screenplay, Chung struggled to develop the characters; he wanted everyone in the story to be involved in driving it, saying that that would give the characters "life." Chang researched juvenile delinquency, and interviewed a former juvenile delinquent to ensure a realistic depiction. One year was spent on writing the film. When casting the film, Chung wanted a four-person family and for its adult characters to be around his age. Chen Yi-wen was the first to be cast as Wen. He and Chung had collaborated in Godspeed (2016), and Chung believed that Chen could do justice to Wen (whom he described as unsuccessful and "a useless father"). He called Chen "fun" and stylistically unique. Chung equated the father's mind–body dualism with sunshine and shadow, related but separated. Greg Hsu met Chung twice before being cast as Hao, and noted his awkward communication. Wu Jian-he, preparing for his role as Ho at least six or seven months before, talked with teenagers who had been imprisoned; this gave him insight into the merciless atmosphere of a prison. Chung did not try to develop a deep relationship with the cast, and conducted no group preparations; he simply asked them to bring the screenplay home, learn their characters, and come on set to portray them. He largely attributed this to his lack of knowledge about acting. Investors included Chung's 3 NG Film (also its production company), MandarinVision, Eight Eight Nine Films, MirrorFiction and UNI Connect Broadcast Production. The Ministry of Culture supported the production, and Chung’s frequent collaborator Yeh Ju-feng and his wife Tseng Shao-Chien were producers. Yeh found the last two lines of the screenplay memorable; they translate as "Ah-Ho takes his mother for a ride on a bicycle, and the sun dazzlingly shines on the fallen leaves, bit by bit". ### Filming Principal photography of A Sun began in September 2018 and took 38 days, a tight schedule given the film's 155-minute runtime. Chung attributed the schedule to the lack of popularity of his films in the Taiwanese market. Its financing was not completed during filming, a recurring problem with Chung's films. Eventually, the team settled a budget of NT\$ 44 million (US\$ as of 2018). Despite his desire to use film stock, Chung decided to use digital cinematography instead; he said that the warmth of a film (characteristic of film stock) is not solely dependent on the medium, but on the production collaboration. The latter part of the opening sequence was shot on the first day; it was the most lighthearted day for Chung, who remembered laughing at the model hand in the soup. Area gangsters appeared as extras. The opening shots of Ho and Radish riding a motorcycle were filmed in July 2018, during Typhoon Maria. Filming required a quick call for the production team to rush to Civic Boulevard. Since Chung was satisfied by the windy rain, he told actors Wu and Liu Kuan-ting to stop riding as soon as the camera stopped filming. During a scene in which Ho is beaten by fellow inmates, the production team did not want Wu to be injured; cast members were told to ease up but keep the fight looking realistic. Because of the film's solar motif, the weather largely determined its shooting schedule; this often meant changing a scheduled time to be able to film scenes in daylight. The Qixing Mountain scene was achieved by waiting during the filming days for a day when several weather forecasts predicted sunlight. Blue and yellow were chosen as the main color tones. According to Chung, blue represents sorrow and apathy, and yellow represents warmth. The final shot (with the Sun shining through leaves) was challenging to film, although it is a common phenomenon when driving. The mountain scene was backlit with sunlight, often blocked to evoke the scene's dualism. Chung had considered depicting Hao's death, but decided to allude to it by having him exit as the camera looks at the opposing wall and his shadow grows. During filming, Chung remembered not feeling confident that the film would work. A Sun is a melodrama; more familiar with art films, he struggled to balance the genres. Chung originally wanted the mountain scene to be more cooler and more restrained, but later understood that melodramatic elements are often inevitable. He would often scold the cast and crew, annoying them; during editing, he saw that their scenes were effective and well-executed. Dark humor has its moments in the film, such as raw sewage being sprayed on Wen's workplace from what seems like a proton pack from the Ghostbusters films. This kind of humor was reminiscent of Chung's previous films as well. Like his other films, A Sun was filmed by Chung under the pseudonym of Nagao Nakashima. According to Chung, his role as director-cinematographer was easier in this film. He came to think of the camera as "a very powerful tool", through which he could analyze the cast's every move as director. The cast would often be interrupted when Chung felt their performances were substandard, occasionally disturbing the sound mixers. He considers cinematography a tool to depict the scope of a scene: "As long as the lighting and colors are right, the atmosphere will pop out as the actors step in," he said. Despite pushing the cast, he also allowed for fluidity. Chung has cited Raising Arizona (1987), Stranger Than Paradise (1984), Down by Law (1986), and Lost Highway (1997) as influences, and the cinematography of Last Tango in Paris (1972) was also an inspiration. Chung would keep the camera recording until his vision was achieved, a technique he used since he filmed car commercials early in his career. ### Post-production A Sun was edited by Lai Hsiu-hsiung, who had collaborated with Chung on Godspeed, The Great Buddha+, and Xiao Mei (2018). With a running time of 155 minutes, it is Chung's longest film by far, which the production team agreed on as being the right length. The film's sound designer Tu Duu-chih, known for his work on Millennium Mambo (2001), initially proposed trimming it; others said, though, that every scene in the final cut is important. In the film, Hao tells a dark version of the story of Sima Guang. In Hao's version, Sima Guang and several children are playing hide-and-seek. When everyone is caught, he insists that one person is still missing. They reach a water tank and break it open, revealing another Sima Guang hiding in the darkness. Reviewing the scene, Chung felt that it needed animation to be more effective. Three-dimensional computer animation was unavailable in Taiwan and he did not want to spoil the scene's emotion, so he commissioned Chung Shao-chun, a hand-drawn animator who has acquired a specific style. After showing him a rough cut, the animator collaborated with Chung to give the one-minute scene "the feeling of an ambiguous personal pursuit." The animation, as well as visual effects, were under the banner of XYImage #### Music The 17-track film score was composed by Lin Sheng-xiang, who also composed the score for Chung's The Great Buddha+ (2017). In early 2018, Chung described the opening sequence to him. During filming, he told Lin to write the music for the funeral scene and perform it live while filming. He assembled bassist Toru Hayakawa and harmonicist Toru Fujii to perform four versions of the music at a rented studio in Taipei, followed by a live version at the funeral home the next morning. The scene was heavily edited, however; a montage was used, accompanied by the music. To compose A Sun's score, Lin studied classical music and slide guitar; the latter was achieved by cutting stainless steel pipes. His philosophy was, "Let the music follow the characters and the story, and as soon as you hear the music, it can evoke feelings towards the film." Sadness receives a touch of grace, and Lin tried to avoid boredom or sensationalism. He considered the score an "invisible cast", with a major role in amplifying the characters' emotions, and the film's dualism was an influence. A variety of musical and cultural backgrounds diversify the score. Lin also collaborated with musicians from Taiwan and two audio engineers, from Taiwan (Zen Chien) and Germany (Wolfgang Obrecht), whom he considered outstanding. Each family member has their own theme music, played in a variety of styles to depict the film's plot development. Hao's theme is heard four times; one version, "動物園" ("The Zoo"), uses a French horn to evoke warmth. Ho's theme was derived from "縣道184" ("Country Road 184"), a song on the album 菊花夜行軍 (The Night March of the Chrysanthemums), with rearranged chords and rhythm. Wen's theme, "把握時間掌握方向" ("Seize the Day, Decide Your Path"), is heard three times. Lin was inspired to write the song after seeing, on set, the scene in which Wen awakens after a nightmare about Hao. An organ and guitar were used. Other instruments include a yueqin, double bass, violin, viola, and synthesizers. "花心" ("Flowery Heart"), a song by Wakin Chau, is sung by Ho's fellow inmates before his release from prison. The end credits song, "遠行" ("Distant Journey") is a sung version of Hao's theme. Its lyrics tell the story of a person who "wanted to be the most distant star"; after venting to an acquaintance, he points to the night sky, and surrenders his life to it. The soundtrack album was released on 25 October 2019 on compact disc, and digitally four days later. It was produced and published by Foothills Folk, and distributed by Feeling Good Music. ### Titles The original title of the film, in traditional Chinese characters, is 陽光普照 (pinyin: Yángguāng Pǔzhào; lit. 'Shining on All Things'). It is taken from the last fragment of the last sentence of Hao's suicide text, which reads: "I [...] wished [...] that I could hide in the shade. [...] But I could not. I had no water tanks, no shades, just sunlight. 24 hours uninterrupted, radiant and warm, shining on all things." Chung had always wanted a film of his to be composed of four characters with positive connotations, however ironic in context. Academic and filmmaker Jerry Carlson interviewed Chung, who mentioned the film, in 2019. Chung had already thought of its English title as A Sun; he was uncertain, however, since the Solar System only has one sun. After hearing the film's plot, Carlson approved of the title despite the grammatical error. Chung came to realize that the universe consists of more than one sun, and was aware of the homonyms "a Sun" and "a son". In the film, Wen lies that he only has one son (Hao); he disowned Ho. He also deludes himself that he is living in accordance with his motto of "seize the day, decide your path", and Chung wanted to explore the effects of delusion in A Sun. ## Themes According to Chung, his intention with A Sun was to explore the familial and social effects of juvenile imprisonment and suicide. The film, he said, is not about joy but a reflection about family, society, and life's hardships. Its motifs of light and dark have been discussed, and Chung said that the Sun symbolizes hope. The family's love is like sunshine, with shadows: personal secrecy and a lack of space to open up. Chung said, "We have all been hurt, so much so that we can be each other's Sun." Family is not depicted as utopian, but a place where everyone shares the same values and intentions – like shade in a sunlit expanse. Wen's mind–body dualism is symbolized as he and Qin hike up Qixing Mountain, traversing light and dark. The film's upbeat scenes primarily appear as sunlight, before the approach of shadows and bad weather. Hao personifies everyday pressures. In his confession scene, Wen is behind the Sun (symbolizing the pressure of truth on him); Qin is facing the Sun, as she slowly learns the truth. Wen confesses outdoors, symbolizing his self-imposed natural pressure; Hao's suicide-text scene is intercut with shots of him in the city, symbolizing the pressure placed on him by society. Chung challenges the idea that parents unconditionally love their children, arguing that children need understanding as well as love. The family has archetypically strict, traditional parents. The film's depiction of Taiwanese family dynamics is said to be accurate: family members are often discordant and distant despite loving each other. Silence is also an integral element in the film, as it sparks misunderstandings and incidents. Wen is a central figure, treating the other characters a certain way while their reactions are reflected on him. In light of this disconnection, understanding is a central theme of the film. The film's depiction of parental favoritism has been compared to that of Waves (2019) and Ordinary People (1980). A Sun is also seen as gently critical of a patriarchal society. Fathers like Wen can neglect their children with poor (or no) communication, although Wen's murder of Radish is quasi-heroic. In cultural discourse analysis, this and Hao's suicide are both seen as a conflict between personal agency and futility. Wen is described as ignorant and mean on the surface, but has good intentions and is confused about how to implement them. The film also defies absolutist characterizations. Chung said that it has no binary characterization, and personalities periodically change. Sylvia Cheng of Elle said that no characters in the film can be directly attributed to the conflicts; "every family is riddled with holes", and "life is a process of constant mistakes". Although Hao's suicide may have some roots in his personality, the main cause is the familial pressure set on him, something that does occur often in real life. In the final scene, Qin gazes at the sunny scenery with a slightly-joyful look, although she is tormented by what happened to her two sons. The film also suggests that sometimes, misery and hardships are needed to expose secrets, and either the relationship breaks or refreshes. In a structural analysis, Hao can be seen as a manifestation of good and Radish a manifestation of evil. In a post-structuralist analysis, however, both characters are simply a moral message to Ho. Hao and Radish die because of their unrealistic natures, their deaths shaping Ho's identity as a realistic mix of good and evil. Although Radish is depicted as antagonistic, his background makes his behavior pardonable. Wen's attachment to the slogan "Seize your day, decide your path" illustrates a Taiwanese phenomenon that originated in the 1960s. In the film, like some Taiwanese people, Wen considers it his moral principle despite not really living by it. His decision to murder Radish, however, seems to him to be a vindication of his slogan. Patrick Brzeksi of The Hollywood Reporter considered the film's moral as: "Life ... is too complicated to live under the harsh light of moral purity." Moral ambiguity is seen in the film's last scene, in which Ho steals a bike and Qin (despite some reservations) decides to go along. According to Chung, certain morals can be violated as long as no one is hurt. Socioeconomic inequality in Taiwan is explored in A Sun. Wen's motto does not reflect his life; Ho works at a car wash after his release from prison, and Radish becomes a gangster against a backdrop of poverty. Brian Hioe wrote that the film's treatment of the subject is lighter than The Great Buddha+ and The Bold, the Corrupt, and the Beautiful (2017). A Sun criticizes the Taiwanese judicial system, in which Ho's prison offers no education. Radish injures Oden but Wen, ironically, is expected to pay his hospital bill; the film stresses social support systems and the awareness of responsibilities. Chung called A Sun a humanist film. Brian Hioe of the No Man is an Island website wrote that the film's crime drama genre became common in Taiwanese cinema after the 2014 Taipei Metro attack, whose chronology is similar to the opening scene of A Sun. Filmmaker Ang Lee found a Buddhist spirituality in the film; each character's destiny seems to be determined by their actions, a common theme in Asian cinema. A Sun's existentialism is exemplified by shots of lonely characters against wide, scenic backgrounds. Radish dyes his hair orange when he is released, suggesting evil and resentment. ## Release A Sun had its world premiere at the Toronto International Film Festival on 6 September 2019, before the film's Asian premiere at the 2019 Hong Kong Asian Film Festival on 3 October. It was then screened at the 24th Busan International Film Festival four days later. Successive festivals included the Tokyo International Film Festival and the 56th Taiwanese Golden Horse Film Festival on 13 October. The 2019 Singapore International Film Festival screened the film on 25 and 27 November. Its American premiere was at the Palm Springs International Film Festival on 6 January 2020. The film's Taiwanese theatrical run began on 1 November 2019, and ended on 1 December. Applause Entertainment, its distributor, released three trailers; one was a teaser montage without dialogue, and another was a shorter version of the first. ### Netflix Netflix acquired the rights to A Sun in late 2019, and released it as a Netflix original film on 24 January 2020. Poor marketing cost the film the expected amount of critical and general coverage; David Ehrlich of IndieWire wrote that it was "buried" in the Netflix catalog. Another IndieWire writer, Tom Brueggemann, cited an overload of new titles on the platform, causing a failure to market them. When it became Taiwan's Academy Award for Best International Feature Film entry at the 93rd Academy Awards, Netflix released two trailers on YouTube; one was unlisted so only people with access to the link could view it, however, and the other was distributed by the Taiwan Creative Content Agency. The film later received some attention with the help of American critic Peter Debruge, who published a Variety listicle calling it the best film of 2020; a niche following was soon seen. Chung said that he did not expect the film to boom in popularity with the Netflix acquisition, but for it to be accessible globally. He called this crucial due to fading access to Taiwanese cinema since the 1980s. Chung was happy with Deburge's article, calling it "an encouragement for Taiwanese filmmakers, and even for Taiwan herself"; since the popular Hou Hsiao-hsien and Edward Yang films, Taiwanese cinema was rarely discussed due to the changing nature of the industry (particularly in Taiwan). Major publications, such as The New York Times and The Guardian, did not review the film. ## Reception ### Box office According to data from the Taiwan Film Institute between 4 and 10 November (its approximate opening week), A Sun played in 44 theaters in Taiwan; it grossed NT\$4,550,861, with 19,172 tickets sold. The revenue was a 38.11% increase from its 1–3 November. Over the next six days, two theaters stopped screening the film; it grossed \$3,258,810 with 13,686 tickets sold, a 28.61% decrease. It earned \$14,157,606 with 59,687 tickets sold the following week, a 5.40% drop. Eight theaters added the film in its final week for a 122.79% increase in earnings: \$6,806,407, with 28,844 tickets sold. A Sun grossed a total of \$20,964,013 with 88,531 tickets sold, a box-office bomb. Chung's previous films had also been unsuccessful. He said that the average Taiwanese filmgoer was not fond of his films, although his wife encouraged him to make films for their own sake and not for the box office. Chung said that his films were for a niche group whose appreciation was more than enough, and he wanted to make films until he loses interest. Wang Zu-peng of The News Lens opined that audiences should give Chung "less alienation and more affection", allowing his poetry film to envelop them. ### Critical response Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes marked A Sun as generally well-received, with a approval rating based on critics; many called it one of the best films of 2019–2020 as well as a masterpiece of Taiwanese cinema. Writing for Sight & Sound, Tony Rayns called it "the most impressive film of recent times"; Debruge called it "a world-cinema stunner" built on mastery. A number of critics enjoyed the film's treatment of its themes. The good and the evil are balanced; subgenres including crime, drama, and comedy coalesced smoothly, allowing for good pacing and a compelling narrative. According to David Ehrlich of IndieWire, this made A Sun "a riveting moral odyssey". The plot also praised for its organic flow and rich nuance, with A-Hao's suicide scene compared to the films of Lee Chang-dong. Critics noted that the violent opening scene, reminiscent of the films of Quentin Tarantino, was a preface to the film's spectrum of emotions. Its natural motifs and emotional ambiguity were also praised. Chung's style was compared to Edward Yang, Ang Lee, Hirokazu Kore-eda, Barry Jenkins and Lulu Wang; the film was compared to Yang's A Brighter Summer Day (1991) and Yi Yi (2000), and some critics said that A Sun makes Chung a possible member of New Taiwanese Cinema. His camera framing, which attempted to disconnect the characters from their environment, was compared to the films of Michael Haneke. The cinematography's use of natural light was also praised, though Han Cheung of the Taipei Times lamented the runtime as a bit too short. A Sun's cast was praised for their performances, which increased the film's emotional weight. Pramit Chatterjee of Mashable praised Wu and Hsu's performances. Chen's performance deepened his short-tempered character, conveying his ambivalent personality. Liu's performance gave Radish a distinct menace. Ko added a kind strength to Qin, with Kevin L. Lee of Film Inquirer comparing her performance as a mother to Regina King's in If Beale Street Could Talk (2018), and Cheung opining that with Chen, they intensify the film's "suffocating tension". The female cast were praised for their uniqueness. The supporting cast were praised equally with the starring ensemble, with Liu successfully portraying the manipulative Radish. Cheung lamented some of the female characters' insignificant arcs, noting that the film mostly explore men, though said it is none more than nitpicking. ### Accolades
621,439	Down on the Upside	1,173,551,886	null	[ "1996 albums", "A&M Records albums", "Albums produced by Adam Kasper", "Albums produced by Chris Cornell", "Albums produced by Matt Cameron", "Soundgarden albums" ]	Down on the Upside is the fifth studio album by the American rock band Soundgarden, released on May 21, 1996, through A&M Records. Following a worldwide tour in support of its previous album, Superunknown (1994), Soundgarden commenced work on a new album. Self-produced by the band, the music on the album was notably less heavy and dark than the group's preceding albums and featured the band experimenting with new sounds. The album topped the New Zealand and Australian charts and debuted at number two on the United States' Billboard 200, selling 200,000 copies in its opening week and spawning the singles "Pretty Noose", "Burden in My Hand", "Blow Up the Outside World", and "Ty Cobb". The band took a slot on the 1996 Lollapalooza tour and, afterward, supported the album with a worldwide tour. Down on the Upside was Soundgarden's last studio album until 2012's King Animal, as tensions within the band led to its break-up in April 1997. The album has sold 1.6 million copies in the United States. ## Recording Recording sessions for the album took place between November 1995 and February 1996 at Studio Litho and Bad Animals Studios in Seattle, Washington. Studio Litho is owned by Pearl Jam guitarist Stone Gossard. The members of Soundgarden produced the album themselves. On the choice of not working with a producer, frontman Chris Cornell said that "a fifth guy is too many cooks and convolutes everything. It has to go down too many mental roads, which dilutes it." Drummer Matt Cameron added that, while working with Michael Beinhorn on Superunknown had good results, it was "a little more of a struggle than it needed to be", and self-production would make the process go faster. Adam Kasper, who previously had worked with Soundgarden as an assistant engineer on Superunknown, worked with the band as a production collaborator and mixed the album. Work on the album began in July 1995. The band took a break to perform at festivals in Europe, where new material was road-tested. Afterward, the band did more songwriting for about a month and then recorded most of the album at Studio Litho. The overall approach to songwriting was less collaborative than with past efforts, with the individual band members having brought in most of the songs more completely written. The band sought to try things it had not done before and to use a greater variety of material. They tried to create a live atmosphere for the album, and looked to leave in sounds that producers would normally try to clean up, such as feedback and out-of-tune guitar parts. The overall time spent working on the album was less than what the band had spent working on Superunknown. Cornell described the album-making process as "way faster and way easier". Most of the material was written by Cornell and bassist Ben Shepherd, the latter having already worked on six of the sixteen album tracks. Reportedly, tensions within the group arose during the recording sessions, with guitarist Kim Thayil and Cornell allegedly clashing over Cornell's desire to shift away from the heavy guitar riffing that had become the band's trademark. Thayil's only contribution to the album was the song "Never the Machine Forever", for which he wrote both the lyrics and the music, and which was also the last song the band recorded. The song initially came out of a jam session Thayil had with Seattle musician Greg Gilmore. In the liner notes, Thayil credits Gilmore for inspiring the song. He stated that he had a lot of incomplete music ideas that were missing lyrics and were not arranged, so they did not make the album. Thayil said: "It can be a little bit discouraging if there isn't satisfactory creative input, but on the other hand, I write all the solo bits and don't really have limitations on the parts I come up with for guitar." Cornell said: "By the time we were finished, it felt like it had been kind of hard, like it was a long, hard haul. But there was stuff we were discovering." ## Music and lyrics The album's songs placed emphasis on vocals and melody over the heavy guitar riffs that were found on the band's earlier LPs. It also features a rawer sound than Soundgarden's previous album Superunknown, as the band members produced the record themselves. Cornell summed up the changes by saying: "What we've lost in sonic precision we've gained so much in terms of feeling." Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic said Soundgarden "retained their ambitious song structures, neo-psychedelic guitar textures, and winding melodies but haven't dressed them up with detailed production." The songs vary in tempo throughout the course of the album, with Thayil describing the album as having a "dual nature". He stated, "It keeps listeners on their toes and lets them know they're not getting the same album over and over." Shepherd called the album "the most accurate picture of what Soundgarden actually sounds like", stating: "It's way more raw. It's way more honest. It's way more 'responsible.'" The band stated at the time that it wanted to experiment with other sounds, which included Shepherd and Cornell playing mandolin and mandola in the song "Ty Cobb". This experimentation can be heard to a lesser degree on Superunknown. Soundgarden used alternative tunings and odd time signatures on several of the album's songs. For example, "Never the Machine Forever" uses a time signature of 9/8. "Pretty Noose" and "Burden in My Hand" were written in C-G-C-G-G-E tuning. The overall mood of the album's lyrics is not as dark as on previous Soundgarden albums. Cornell even admitted "Dusty" was "pretty positive for a Soundgarden song", describing it as an opposite to the previous album's "Fell On Black Days". According to Cornell, "Pretty Noose" is about "an attractively packaged bad idea", and "Ty Cobb" is about a "hardcore pissed-off idiot". Cornell said the songs "Never Named" and "Boot Camp" are based on his childhood. Thayil said the lyrics for "Never the Machine Forever" are about "a life-and-death match between an individual and a less specifically defined entity". Cornell referred to "Overfloater" as "self-affirming". ## Packaging The album's cover art, photographed by Kevin Westenberg, features the members of the band in silhouette. Reportedly, at one point the photo of caterpillars eating a tomato that was used for the "Blow Up the Outside World" single was considered for use as the cover of Down on the Upside. The album was also released in a limited edition with the Into the Upside interview disc. The title Down on the Upside comes from a line in the song "Dusty". The lyric is "I think it's turning back on me/I'm down on the upside". Cornell said the title represents the different feels on the album. In an interview, he explained how the name was chosen: > "I brought it up at some point because the song that the title came from was 'Dusty', but my title for it was 'Down on the Upside', but Ben wrote the music and he called it 'Dusty'. So since we don't really like having song titles being the title of the record, 'cause it brings this weird, undue focus to the song, I thought it would be cool to call it Down on the Upside. We started thinking about all these other titles, and worrying about them describing the whole record without excluding anything ... So it was the last minute and we were at a photo shoot for Spin and someone called and said, 'We need your title now so we can start doing the record package,' so Matt [Cameron] brought up the title again, and everyone went, 'yeah, that's it.'" In an interview given by the band, Cameron and Shepherd jokingly said that two other titles considered for the album were Mr. Bunchy Pants and Comin' At Ya! ## Release and reception Down on the Upside had a 10,000-copy limited edition vinyl release on May 14, 1996, one week prior to its main release on CD and cassette. It debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 album chart with 175,500 units sold, behind only The Score by the Fugees. The album has gone on to sell 1.6 million copies in the United States, and has been certified Platinum by the RIAA. Ivan Kreilkamp of Spin gave the album an eight out of ten, saying the album is "as sprawling and generous-spirited as Superunknown, but ... is a looser and live-er-sounding affair, not seeking the same level of aural precision". Alternative Press gave the album a three out of five, saying Soundgarden are "now fully capable of penning some damned spiffy pop songs", and adding that "they sound more human here, like they're playing in your living room". Rolling Stone staff writer David Fricke gave Down on the Upside three out of five stars, observing that the album has "some quality frenzy", but criticizing it for "lack[ing] defining episodes of catharsis", and saying: "Soundgarden seem to be digging in their heels rather than kicking up dirt, relying too much on drone-y impressionism and clever (as opposed to cleaving) guitar motifs." Neil Strauss of The New York Times called the album the "rawer, looser follow-up to Superunknown", adding: "Generally, identifying with animals in song lyrics is a sign of low self-esteem, and Soundgarden is no exception. For all the virility and macho power that rock singers have tried to wring from the [snake], Soundgarden remains more interested in the fact that it is the only animal cursed to spend its days slithering on the ground." David Browne of Entertainment Weekly gave the album a B+, saying: "Few bands since Led Zeppelin have so crisply mixed instruments both acoustic and electric." He praised several songs as being "as powerful as anything the band has done", but criticized the album's production, saying that, "like many self-produced efforts, it shows." He added: "With arrangements that crest and fall to the point where a road map would have helped, the overlong (16-song) album is often unwieldy and could have benefited from judicious trimming." AllMusic staff writer Stephen Thomas Erlewine gave the album three out of five stars, saying that "it might seem like nothing more than heavy metal, but a closer listen reveals that Soundgarden haven't tempered their ambitions at all." The reviewer for Melody Maker said that "their roots don't matter now. All I care for now is the immediacy of their pop moments." Critic Robert Christgau gave the album an honorable mention of one star, describing it as "brutal depression simplified" and highlighted by the songs "Ty Cobb" and "Applebite", while Jason Josephes from Pitchfork called it a "double shot of grunge, no foam but plenty of caffeine." A negative review came from Johnny Cigarettes of NME, who gave the album 3/10 and said: "Throughout this record the mood of dark, demon-wrestling introspection continually rings hollow ... the lack of gut-level resonance [Soundgarden] create reveals all this as mere dark stylistics, the modern equivalent of a scary monster on an Iron Maiden T-shirt." The album included the singles "Pretty Noose", "Burden in My Hand", and "Blow Up the Outside World", all of which had accompanying music videos. All three singles placed on the Mainstream Rock and Modern Rock charts. The album's other commercially released single, "Ty Cobb", did not chart, however its acommpanying B-side, "Rhinosaur", also from the album, did chart. "Burden in My Hand" was the most successful song from Down on the Upside on the rock charts, spending a total of five weeks at number one on the Mainstream Rock charts and reaching number two on the Modern Rock charts. At the 1997 Grammy Awards, "Pretty Noose" received a nomination for Best Hard Rock Performance. ## Tour The band took a slot on the 1996 Lollapalooza tour with Metallica, who had insisted on Soundgarden's appearance on the tour. Thayil said the band wasn't interested in doing the tour until it became a "Metallica tour". During the Lollapalooza tour, the band members reportedly took separate flights and then met at the gigs. After Lollapalooza, the band embarked on a worldwide tour, supported by Moby. Tensions continued to increase and, when asked if the band hated touring, Cornell said: "We really enjoy it to a point and then it gets tedious, because it becomes repetitious. You feel like fans have paid their money and they expect you to come out and play them your songs like the first time you ever played them. That's the point where we hate touring." The band was criticized for its lack of energy while performing. Cornell said that "after a number of years, you start to feel like you're acting. All those people who criticize us for not jumping around should shut the fuck up, and when they come to our shows they should jump around and entertain us for a while." Thayil had an issue with how the band's audience had changed, stating that "nowadays, you also have the kids and the housewives, the casual fans. With your casual fans, you say, 'Thanks for the money.' And they say, 'Thanks for the song.'" The band's concerts in December 1996 were postponed for a week due to Cornell's throat problems. At the final stop of the tour, in Honolulu, Hawaii, on February 9, 1997, Shepherd threw his bass into the air in frustration after suffering equipment failure, and subsequently stormed off the stage. The band retreated, and Cornell returned alone to conclude the show with a solo encore. On April 9, 1997, the band announced its disbanding. Thayil said, "It was pretty obvious from everybody's general attitude over the course of the previous half year that there was some dissatisfaction." Cameron later said that Soundgarden was "eaten up by the business". ## Track listing ## Outtakes Various versions of the "Burden in My Hand" single featured two B-sides from the Down on the Upside recording sessions that were not included on the album: "Karaoke" and "Bleed Together". "Bleed Together" was included on the band's 1997 greatest hits compilation, A-Sides, and was released as a promo CD single in 1997. Thayil said the song was not included on Down on the Upside because the band was not pleased with the mixing that was done on the song and the band already had enough songs for the album. Another song that was written and recorded for the album is "Kristi", which Cameron has said is one of his favorite Soundgarden songs. "Kristi" was finally mixed in 2014 and included on the compilation Echo of Miles: Scattered Tracks Across the Path, along with both "Karaoke" and "Bleed Together". ## Personnel Soundgarden - Chris Cornell – lead vocals, rhythm guitar; mandolin and mandola (track 5), Rhodes electric piano (track 14) - Kim Thayil – lead guitar - Ben Shepherd – bass guitar, backing vocals; mandolin, mandola and intro instrumentation (track 5); guitar (track 15) - Matt Cameron – drums, percussion, backing vocals; Moog synthesizer (track 9) Additional musicians - Adam Kasper – piano (track 9), co-production, engineering, mixing Artwork - Ben Marra Studios – "cinema" photography - Helix creative inc, Seattle – art direction and design - Ben Shepherd – back CD photo - Kevin Westenberg – photography Production - Matt Bayles, Sam Hofstedt – assistant engineering - John Burton, Tom Smurdon – additional tracking assistance - David Collins – mastering at A&M Mastering Studios, Hollywood, CA - Gregg Keplinger – drum technician - Darrell Peters – guitar technician - Soundgarden – production, mixing Management - Susan Silver Management – management ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ### Singles ## Certifications
60,052,674	The Heart of Me (song)	1,151,528,809	2016 song by Swedish indie pop band Miike Snow	[ "2016 singles", "2016 songs", "Chillwave songs", "Miike Snow songs", "Song recordings produced by Bloodshy & Avant", "Songs written by Andrew Wyatt", "Songs written by Christian Karlsson (DJ)", "Songs written by Pontus Winnberg" ]	"The Heart of Me" is a song by Swedish indie pop band Miike Snow from their third studio album, iii (2016). Written and produced by the band, the song was initially issued as a buzz single on 19 February 2016, in anticipation of the album's release. Subsequently, Atlantic Records sent it to alternative radio in the United States on 15 November 2016, as the fourth and final single off the album. Musically, "The Heart of Me" is a synth-laden chillwave song with indie rock elements and emotional lyrics. It features background vocals by English singer Charli XCX. "The Heart of Me" received generally positive reviews from music critics, some of whom complimented its upbeat production. The single became Miike Snow's first to lack an accompanying music video. The song is included on the soundtrack for the racing video game Forza Horizon 3 (2016). In March 2017, a deep house remix of the track by Dutch DJ duo The Him was released digitally. ## Background "The Heart of Me" was written by Miike Snow's three members, Christian Karlsson, Pontus Winnberg and Andrew Wyatt, for the band's third studio album, iii (2016). Wyatt conceptualized the melody of the song's intro while walking over a bridge in Australia. The recording sessions for the album took place in different studios in California, New York, and Sweden, from 2014 to 2015. In an interview for the Los Angeles Times, Wyatt said he adapted his singing based on the needs of each song throughout the album. He had previously aimed to present a "consistent character" during concerts, which resulted in the band's second studio album Happy to You (2012) holding a "more uniform sound". For iii, Wyatt switched focus to his performance in the studio rather than on stage, which resulted in a "lighter, airier quality" to his voice on "The Heart of Me". He said he learned a lot about how he wanted to sing and "how the softer you sing the bigger it sounds". English singer Charli XCX, who contributed guest vocals on the album track "For U", provided background vocals on the song alongside Winnberg and Wyatt. The two previously worked with the singer on her album Sucker (2014), for which Wyatt sang background vocals on two tracks. "The Heart of Me" and other album tracks include sections of computerized vocals. Karlsson explained in an interview for Electronic Musician that "I never like any vocal when it just sounds like a normal vocal. Ever. Sometimes I feel like I spend 50 percent of my time on the treatment of the vocals and 50 percent of the time I spend on the rest of the song." The live instruments in "The Heart of Me" were played by Winnberg, Wyatt, and Homer Steinweiss. The band handled its production, engineering with S. Vaughan Merrick, and mixing with Niklas Flyckt. Digital mastering was performed by Kevin Grainger. ## Composition and lyrics Musically, "The Heart of Me" is a chillwave song with indie rock elements. Its instrumentation is primarily provided by drums, a piano, and a synthesizer. The song begins with a manipulated vocal hook. Music critics likened the song to works by American bands MGMT, Passion Pit, and Spoon. Earmilk writer Steph Evans characterized it as "upbeat" and rock and roll-infused, while Neil Z. Young of AllMusic defined it as "peppered with fuzzy synths". According to James Grebey of Spin, the production displays a "cool aloofness" that is "betrayed, sublimely, by the more emotional vocals". Similarly, Dancing Astronaut writer Alex Hitchcock observed the contrast between the "high-spirited, synth-filled melody" and the "brooding, emotionally-charged vocals". In the bridge, he sings about "standing in a cathedral in Europe and feeling at one with the universe", as interpreted by Spectrum Culture writer Josh Goller. The writer noted the song's theme of love, sentimentalism, and relationship melodrama. musicOMH's Ben Hogwood perceived the lyrics as commentary on fame and "the trappings of it"; the writer singled out the first verse's line "I can't stop this hurtful shit from happening" as alluding to fame having personal consequences. ## Release "The Heart of Me" premiered on 18 February 2016, on the radio show Advanced Placement on Sirius XM's station Alt Nation. The next day, it was released for digital download through Jackalope and Atlantic. It followed "I Feel the Weight" as the second buzz single to premiere in the weeks leading up the March release of iii. Atlantic later selected the song to serve as the album's fourth and final single; it was sent to alternative radio in the US on 15 November 2016. It was the second single overall from the album to be serviced to radio in the U.S., following "Genghis Khan". Two months prior to its radio impact, the song appeared in the racing video game Forza Horizon 3 (2016) on the in-game radio station Horizon Pulse. On 3 March 2017, a deep house remix of the song, produced by Dutch DJ duo The Him, was digitally released through Jackalope and Atlantic. ## Critical reception The Heart of Me received generally positive reactions from music critics. Hitchcock of Dancing Astronaut regarded the single a "testament to how much Miike Snow have evolved" since Happy to You. The writer deemed it a suitable for "the year's warmer days" and concluded that it "highlights the group's ability to purvey upbeat, intricate production with aplomb". While reviewing iii, The Line of Best Fit's Grant Rindner noted that the song and "Genghis Khan" exhibit "earworm melodies and inescapable hooks". Rindner recognized the former's "powerful piano chords and crunchy drums", which they felt evoked "a stripped-down Passion Pit at their absolute peak". PopMatters critic Ryan Dieringer felt "The Heart of Me" recalled Spoon's album They Want My Soul (2014), writing that "Miike Snow do Eno-esque drums almost better than Eno". Eric Renner Brown, writing for Entertainment Weekly, deemed the song "vibrant", elaborating that it "sounds perfectly engineered for Spotify's running feature or the sprawling pastures of a music festival". While reviewing the album, Dylan Stewart of The Music named "The Heart of Me" as "proof" that the band has "lost little ground in delivering their latest record". Comparing it to previous singles "Genghis Khan" and "My Trigger", Sean Maunier of Metro Weekly opined that while the song is not as memorable as the former two, "it pulses with synths and some interesting swells". DIY critic David Beech felt "The Heart of Me", along with the two aforementioned singles, "possess a pop pomp that's been hinted at only slightly in the past". He concluded, "Though there's a definite confidence in their composition, they certainly feel less organic, more contrived than before." In a negative review, Rachel Brodsky of Spin dismissed its "cheery falseness", stating that it "sounds ready to be slapped into a Target commercial, as if its only sincere yearning is for royalty checks". At the time of its initial release, both Ilana Kaplan of New York Observer and Anders Nunstedt of Expressen named "The Heart of Me" one of the best songs released that week. Swedish magazine Café selected it as the 37th best song of 2016. ## Track listing - Digital download 1. "The Heart of Me" – 3:59 - Digital download (remix) 1. "The Heart of Me" (The Him remix) – 2:43 ## Credits and personnel Credits are adapted from the iii liner notes. - Andrew Wyatt – lead vocals, songwriting, background vocals, synthesizer - Pontus Winnberg – songwriting, background vocals, piano - Christian Karlsson – songwriting - Miike Snow – production, engineering, mixing - Charli XCX – background vocals - Homer Steinweiss – drums - S. Vaughan Merrick – additional engineer - Niklas Flyckt – mixing - Kevin Grainger – mastering ## Release history
10,453,757	Matthew Cox	1,161,203,222	Convicted felon, confidence man	[ "1969 births", "American confidence tricksters", "American crime writers", "American money launderers", "American people convicted of fraud", "Forgers", "Impostors", "Living people", "People with dyslexia", "University of South Florida alumni" ]	Matthew Bevan "Matt" Cox (born July 2, 1969) is an American former mortgage broker and admitted mortgage fraudster. Cox, also a true crime author, wrote an unpublished manuscript entitled The Associates in which the main character traveled the country to perpetrate a mortgage fraud scheme similar to the one Cox ran. Cox falsified documents to make it appear that he owned properties, and then fraudulently obtained several mortgages on them for five to six times their actual worth. He acquired millions of dollars this way; estimates report the amount at between US\$5 and \$25 million. Cox's first conviction occurred in 2002 when he was sentenced to probation for mortgage fraud. He was then fired from the mortgage broker position he held in a Tampa, Florida area firm. He began his life as a dedicated criminal in central Florida after that offense, before fleeing the area when his activities were discovered. His crime spree continued across the southern and southwestern United States, eventually landing him on the United States Secret Service's Most Wanted list. He was aided by several female accomplices, some of whom are in prison or have served time there for their participation in his fraudulent mortgage practices. Cox was arrested on November 16, 2006. Indicted on 42 counts, and facing prison sentences of up to 125 years, he plea bargained his sentence down to a maximum of 54 years on April 11, 2007, and was sentenced to 26 years on November 17, 2006. He was released from prison in July 2019. His story is well chronicled and has been featured on Dateline NBC, CNBC's American Greed, in Fortune magazine, Bloomberg Businessweek, Playboy magazine, and other media outlets. ## Early life Born in Florida, Cox struggled in school due to severe dyslexia. His teachers advised him to get a job in which he worked with his hands, so he studied sculpture at the University of South Florida, and majored in art. Cox took a job as an insurance agent after college, but his income disappointed him, and he sought out higher-paying work. ## Adult life ### Tampa, Florida Cox left his job as an insurance agent to work as a mortgage broker for a local company. While there he developed a reputation for unscrupulousness, which was heightened by his authorship of an unpublished 317-page manuscript entitled The Associates. The novel's protagonist, who shares many traits in common with Cox, travels the country committing mortgage fraud. Cox told co-workers about the book, and elaborated its details to them. "He sent it to a lot of people to see if they thought it worked" said a former co-worker. After being fired from the company when he was convicted of mortgage fraud in 2002, Cox faked a good credit history, and used that to buy dozens of homes and properties. In one instance he used the social security number of a toddler, and all of his documents—references, bank letters, rent receipts, W-2s from nonexistent employees—were counterfeit. He used his skills as an artist to decorate the properties with elaborate art deco-style murals. Several of his future girlfriends said that his painting talents were part of his allure, though the St. Petersburg Times described his works as copies of murals by Tamara de Lempicka. Cox charmed Alison Arnold, a young local married woman, into believing he could give her a wealthy and luxurious life. While courting Arnold, she said, he took her to crime films such as The Italian Job and Catch Me if You Can—which he reportedly adored and watched several times—and detailed his criminal plans to her. Cox often filed fraudulent mortgage documents, and in several cases was able to mortgage properties for five to six times their actual worth. In this practice, known as "shotgunning" in the real estate community, Cox either himself forged or had accomplices attain inflated appraisals to increase the value of the mortgages. One of his accomplices was a detention officer, who acquired 14 properties worth nearly \$600,000, while making \$35,568 a year in his job. Cox took advantage of the Hillsborough County school district by selling it a property for much more than its appraised value, and arranged financing on a \$90,000 house for future Florida Representative Janet Cruz. He recorded that sale for \$233,000, and hired Cruz to do some rezoning research. Cruz claims she was unaware he inflated the sale price, and that she was never paid for her research. When a female accomplice rented a house in Pinellas County as part of Cox's schemes, then faked ownership of the property, the owner found out about the fraud. A title company manager had become suspicious of a loan Cox's accomplice was applying for on the house and called the property's real owner. The Clearwater Police department was contacted, and they began an investigation. Cox and Arnold grew apart and eventually Cox began courting another woman. Rebecca Hauck, a divorced mother of one, had moved to Tampa after falling into debt and declaring bankruptcy in Las Vegas. She had already committed criminal offenses before meeting Cox; Hauck was fired from a job in Las Vegas for forging her employer's name on checks that she used to pay her debts. They met through an online dating service. She, unlike Arnold, was willing to leave her son. After finding out that Jeff Testerman, a reporter for the St. Petersburg Times, was investigating him, Cox and Hauck left town. Two days later, on December 14, 2003, the newspaper published Testerman's story, "Dubious Housing Deals Line Avenue". The story detailed Urban Equities Inc., an investment company started by Cox. His ex-wife Keyla Burgos, who is mother to his son, was one of the two shareholders. Despite her involvement in the purchase or sale of 58 properties in six years, she claimed that she and the other remaining shareholder were "incapable of operating or managing Urban Equity", so the company was put into receivership. His partners claimed to be unaware of Cox's dealings, and they were financially ruined by the collapse of the company. This article coincided with Cox getting a tip from a friend that a task force had been put together at the Tampa PD to investigate him, and the case had just been handed over to the FBI for further investigation. Part of what gave Cox' scheme away at this time is that all the synthetic identities he had created were based on the names of the characters of Quentin Tarantino's gangster film Reservoir Dogs and had obvious last names such as Red, Blue, Green and so on. Cox had used these different identities to create a false impression of a quickly appreciating neighborhood, and was able to fool banks and appraisers into believing that homes that were worth \$40,000 were actually worth \$190,000. ### Crime spree across the southern states Cox and Hauck fled to Atlanta and settled there. He became a fugitive when he failed to report to his probation officers. During this period, he traveled to Mobile, Alabama, and using the identity of a former co-worker, acquired credit cards and the credit needed to rent a home. After filing false documents that indicated he owned the house, Cox took out mortgages on the property for several hundred thousand dollars. He took out one mortgage under the name of The Simpsons character "C. Montgomery Burns". Cox acquired several more properties, then the couple moved to the Tallahassee, Florida area. Authorities in the Atlanta area discovered Cox's activities, and eventually his identity. On August 6, 2004, the United States Secret Service issued arrest warrants for Cox, alleging conspiracy, identity theft, mail and wire fraud, money laundering, and social security number fraud. News broadcasts showed photos of Cox and Hauck and requested that viewers provide any information pertaining to their whereabouts. By spring 2005, the couple had eluded authorities for eighteen months, using dozens of identities, including ones stolen from former co-workers and acquaintances. Cox also stole identities from the homeless by posing as a survey–taking Red Cross worker to acquire their social security numbers. At this point, due to remorse and anxiety, Arnold called the FBI and confessed. She was sentenced to two years in prison for numerous offenses, including conspiracy to commit bank fraud and identity theft. Arnold was also ordered to pay \$300,000 in restitution to her victims. Shortly thereafter, Cox filed multiple mortgages on two houses for \$886,318 in Columbia, South Carolina in less than a week. An abstractor noticed this, and a fraud alert was issued on one of Cox's money-laundering bank accounts. He was arrested when he returned to the bank to make a transaction, but he told authorities his name was "Gary Lee Sullivan", one of about thirty aliases Cox had at the time; because "Sullivan" had no open warrants, the police released him. Shortly afterwards, Cox and Hauck moved to Houston, but they separated and she remained there in hiding under an assumed name. A year later the Secret Service found Hauck and arrested her. Convicted on numerous counts, Hauck was sentenced to six years in prison, and five years of supervised release. In May 2006, after being on the run from authorities for two and a half years, Cox was placed on the Secret Service's Most Wanted Fugitives List. ### Nashville, Tennessee The week that Hauck was sentenced to prison, Cox was living in Nashville, Tennessee under the name Joseph Carter. He was dating a single mother, Amanda Gardner, who was unaware of his criminal past, and posing as the owner of a home restoration business. He told her he was from a wealthy family, and his silver 2005 Infiniti and "fashionably decorated bungalow" seemed to confirm this. Cox used a falsified passport to travel to Europe on a cruise of the Greek Isles with Gardner. He did not spend much time in Italy or Greece due to his intense fear of Interpol. Gardner's 60-year-old babysitter, Patsy Taylor, suspected something about "Carter" didn't add up. When she found out he was originally from Florida, she researched him online and eventually discovered that the man she knew as "Joseph Carter" was really Matthew Cox. Fearing for the safety of Gardner's son, Taylor reached out to Jeff Testerman of the St. Petersburg Times, who had closely followed Cox for more than three years. Testerman in turn put Taylor in touch with Rebecca Hauck's lawyer. Hauck's family paid Taylor for Cox's address, as this information could be used to reduce Hauck's sentence. He temporarily escaped capture due to a chance series of events. Cox and Gardner's home was burglarized, and they checked into a hotel. On November 16, 2006, Cox was arrested by a half dozen Secret Service agents—who had been pursuing him for more than two years—when he and Gardner returned from the hotel. He had been building Williamson a house using his fake identity and credit history, but, fortunately for his friend, he was arrested before Williamson could give him a down payment. Hauck's sentence was later reduced from 70 to 42 months as a result of her assistance in Cox's capture. ### Prison Cox faced 42 counts of fraud, in addition to felony charges for fleeing while on probation from a previous conviction. Facing a maximum sentence of over 400 years, he negotiated a plea bargain agreement that gave him a maximum of 54 years, and a \$2 million fine. On April 10, 2007; Cox formally pleaded guilty to six counts of bank fraud, identity theft, passport fraud, conspiracy to commit mortgage fraud, and violating the terms of his probation from his 2002 mortgage fraud conviction. On November 17, 2007, federal judge Timothy Batten sentenced Cox to 26 years in prison. He also ordered Cox to pay \$5.97 million in restitution. Cox, United States Federal Bureau of Prisons Register \#40171-018, was incarcerated at Federal Correctional Complex, Coleman. Estimates of the amount of money Cox fraudulently obtained range from \$5 million to more than \$15 million, to more than \$25 million. He is believed to have fraudulently mortgaged more than 100 properties. Cox was serving a 26-year sentence at the Federal Correctional Institution (FCI), a low-security facility in Coleman, Florida. He was ordered to pay \$5.97 million in restitution, and testify against his co-conspirators. As of 2010, the United States Attorney's office has not brought charges against any of his 13 Tampa-area cohorts, even though Assistant U.S. Attorney Robert A. Mosakowski informed a judge in 2005 that he planned to bring charges against up to 13 accomplices. While in prison, Cox mailed several letters to the St. Petersburg Times in 2008 in which he accused politician Kevin White of taking bribes from him during Cox's criminal career. He claims he made payoffs to White, an ultimately successful candidate for the Tampa City Council, in 2002 and 2003. Cox said White told him he could not receive the money directly, and suggested that Cox have friends donate \$500 each, and then reimburse them. Records and statements from those who donated show that Cox did in fact make numerous contributions to White's campaign, and reimbursed others who did so as well. White, he claims, agreed to vote to rezone vacant properties in Tampa and Ybor City. When Cox was first arrested, the FBI talked to him about White, whom they were also investigating, and he told them the same information. He claimed to have paid him \$7,000 in cash in addition to the recorded contributions he arranged. When White and a fellow City Council member were told Cox's contributions might have been illegal in 2004, his colleague told the police, while White kept silent. White has denied that he knew these contributions were reimbursed, and called Cox's accusations "the jailhouse ramblings of a reputed con man." White said he befriended Cox when he came to believe the con man was interested in revitalizing Tampa Heights. Cox had fled the Tampa area before White cast any rezoning votes, so there is no voting record which could help confirm the validity of his accusations. In 2012, White, who had gone on to serve as Hillsborough County Commissioner, was convicted of unrelated federal bribery and corruption charges and sentenced to three years in federal prison. During his time in prison, Cox introduced himself to arms trader Efraim Diveroli after reading a Rolling Stone article on him, and encouraged him to write a memoir. Diveroli agreed to let Cox write the memoir, as he had "boxes of evidence" under his bed while fighting his own trial. When Diveroli left the complex, he took the manuscript with him and Cox claims to not have been compensated for it since; as of 2019 the two are in a mediated settlement process. After writing this memoir, other inmates approached Cox to write their stories down, resulting in a number of true crime manuscripts being written by Cox in prison. He was released from federal prison on July 19, 2019. ## Unpublished novel Authorities were amazed by the similarities between Cox's actual crimes and his unpublished manuscript, The Associates, which they found several years before Cox was arrested. The novel's protagonist, Christian, is 5 ft 7 in (170 cm), with brown hair and blue eyes. Cox is 5 ft 6 in (168 cm), with brown hair and green eyes. Both the protagonist and Cox drove a silver Audi TT, illegally acquired Tampa real estate worth \$2.7 million, were alumni of the University of South Florida, had an intense fear of Interpol, and formerly worked selling insurance. In the novel, the protagonist and a female accomplice rent a home like the one Cox and Hauck rented in Atlanta. The character then opens accounts at several banks in the area so that he can use them for money laundering purposes, which Cox did. Then, Cox, like the character in the manuscript, forged a document, claiming that the mortgage on the home—which he did not even own—was paid off. The character in the manuscript then contacted lenders, and told them he owned the property outright. Cox was imprisoned for this same crime. It is believed that Cox researched the book and consulted lawyers and real estate professionals to "research for a book about a con man" - but used the insights he gained during these interviews not only for his book, but to prepare his actual fraudulent plans. ## Works - Once a Gun Runner...: The Efraim Diveroli Memoir (2016) - BENT: How a Homeless Teen Became one of the Cybercrime Industry’s Most Prolific Counterfeiters (2018) - “Shark in the Housing Pool” (2020) (Cox's personal memoir) - “Devil Exposed” (2019) - “The Program” (2020) - It's Insanity - The Source - Cash Logistics - Generation Oxy
62,077,308	Theodore Paleologus	1,148,962,051	16th & 17th-century Italian soldier and assassin	[ "1560s births", "1636 deaths", "Italian assassins", "Italian emigrants to the Kingdom of England", "Italian people of Greek descent" ]	Theodore Paleologus (Italian: Teodoro Paleologo; c. 1560 – 21 January 1636) was a 16th and 17th-century Italian nobleman, soldier and assassin. According to the genealogy presented on Theodore's tombstone, he was a direct male-line descendant of the Palaiologos dynasty, which had ruled the Byzantine Empire from 1259 to its fall in 1453. Though most of the figures in the genealogy can be verified to have been real historical figures, the veracity of his imperial descent is uncertain. Born in Pesaro around 1560, Theodore was forced into exile after being convicted for the attempted murder of man called Leone Ramusciatti. He lived in exile for many years and went on to become a proficient soldier and hired assassin. In 1597, Theodore arrived in London, hired by the authorities of the Republic of Lucca to kill a man named Alessandro Antelminelli. After failing to track down Antelminelli, Theodore stayed in England, possibly for the rest of his life. In 1600, Theodore was hired by Henry Clinton, the Earl of Lincoln, ostensibly as "Master of the Horse" but in reality probably as a henchman and assassin. At the time, Clinton was perhaps the most hated nobleman in the entire country. Theodore probably accompanied Clinton on his visits around the country, most of them having to do with Clinton's frequent battles with the law. In Clinton's service, Theodore also met the famous captain and explorer John Smith, whom he gradually helped introduce back into society after Smith had elected to live as a recluse. While living in Plymouth in 1628, Theodore was offered employment by the Duke of Buckingham, George Villiers, almost as hated as the now deceased Earl of Lincoln, but Villiers was assassinated soon thereafter. Theodore was then invited by a Sir Nicholas Lower to stay with him at his house, Clifton Hall, in Landulph, Cornwall. There, Theodore lived until his death in 1636. He was buried at Landulph and was survived by five of the six or seven children whom he had with his wife, Mary Balls. Of these children, only Ferdinand Paleologus, who later emigrated to Barbados, is known to have had children of his own. ## Biography ### Early life Born in Pesaro in the north central east coast of Italy around 1560, Theodore Paleologus was the son of Camilio Paleologus, about whom very little is known. The name of his mother is not known. Theodore's family might have been late-surviving descendants of the Palaiologos dynasty, which ruled the Byzantine Empire from 1259 to 1453. They claimed descent from Thomas Palaiologos (Camilio being Thomas's supposed great-great-grandson), a brother of the final emperor Constantine XI Palaiologos, through a son called John, whose existence can not be confirmed through contemporary sources. All other purported ancestors (descendants of this John) of the later Paleologus family can be verified through contemporary records. On account of the absence of evidence for John's existence, English Byzantininst Donald Nicol wrote in 1974 that "Theodore’s claim to be a descendant of Thomas Palaiologos [...] must be held unproven". John Hall, author of a 2015 biography on Theodore, believes that it would be wrong to "dismiss Theodore's claim out of hand" on account of a single missing link. During his early life, Theodore lived with his two uncles, Camilio's brothers, Scipione and Leonidas Paleologus, in Pesaro. In 1578, the three found themselves embroiled in a scandal, as they were convicted for the attempted murder of Leone Ramusciatti, a man who was also of Greek descent. After failing to kill him, in an attempt to avoid arrest, they barricaded themselves in a church. Contemporary records from Pesaro refers to the three as a something akin to a gang, and alludes to a previous (successful) murder committed by them. The fate of Scipione is unknown, but Leonidas was executed. Theodore, who is referred to as a minor (though he was obviously old enough to partake in the crime, probably 16–18 years old) was spared the death penalty and instead banished not only from Pesaro, but from the entire Duchy of Urbino. ### Career as an assassin Theodore is not attested again until nineteen years later, upon his arrival to England in 1597. If Theodore's own later account is to be believed, some of the time in exile was spent fighting for the Protestants in the Netherlands, alongside the famous general Maurice of Nassau, as part of the Dutch Revolt. Theodore arrived in England as an assassin, hired to track down and kill Alessandro Antelminelli, a 25-year old citizen of the Republic of Lucca in Italy. Antelminelli's father and three brothers had been captured, tortured and executed in Lucca on charges of treason one year prior. Though Antelminelli had been absent during the time of the supposed crime, he had nonetheless been summoned to stand trial for his supposed complicity. Understanding that being at the trial would mean certain execution, he had instead fled to England and assumed the alias of "Ambergio Salvetti", claiming to be from Florence. As "Salvetti", Antelminelli became a comrade of the diplomat and poet Henry Wotton. Around 40 years old, Theodore was by this point in time evidently well-established as an assassin. At some point between 1578 and 1597, he had been pardoned at Pesaro and had been allowed to return to his hometown, as proven by a letter addressed to "Signor Teodoro Paleologo" in Pesaro, dated 1597. The tone of this letter, signed by the senior magistrate of Lucca, Francesco Andreotti, speaks to Theodore's apparently impressive reputation: > Very Magnificent Signor > I have heard with much pleasure that you keep me in your remembrance as I do you, and to show my confidence in you I take the opportunity of employing you in my affairs. By the bearer of this you will be informed what it is that I require, and I beg and request that you will place entire confidence in him. I on my part shall not be ungrateful for besides the usual reward of your work I think of securing you a pension. The authorities at Lucca had first hired another assassin to kill Antelminelli, Marcantonio Franceotti. Franceotti had been paid 200 pounds in advance, but had failed to track down Antelminelli and suggested that the authorities at Lucca commission a "more seasoned killer". Franceotti recommended Paleologus, and is probably the same person as the one who personally delivered the Lucchese message ("the bearer of this" referred to in the letter). Like Franceotti before him, Paleologus also failed to find and kill Antelminelli. Despite further attempts to kill him until at least 1627, Antelminelli eventually died of natural causes in 1657. ### In the service of the Earl of Lincoln After failing to track down Antelminelli, Theodore chose to stay in England. To earn money, he entered into the service of Henry Clinton, the Earl of Lincoln, in 1599. Theodore would spend many years living at Clinton's castle, Tattershall Castle in Lincolnshire. The castle had once been denounced by King Henry VIII as "one of the most brutal and beastly [castles] of the whole realm" and the town it overlooked, also called Tattershall, was scarcely more than a village at this point in time, having suffered a drastic depopulation in the late 16th century. Henry Clinton was almost sixty years old and one of the most brutal, feared and hated feudal lords in Britain. Clinton is frequently described as waging war on his neighbors and is often credited with rioting, abduction, arson, sabotage, extortion and perjury. At one point, Clinton even expanded his castle walls into the nearby churchyard. Clinton officially hired Theodore as his Master of the Horse, but he clearly had intended uses for Theodore beyond the Italian's skills with horses, and presumably knew of Theodore's previous work. It is thus likely that Clinton's real intended use for Theodore was as a soldier and assassin. Theodore himself probably entered Clinton's service due to his advancing age, hoping to find a safer and more stable profession than his many years as a hired killer. Clinton was often at London due to his frequent entanglements with the law, during which Theodore, as Master of the Horse, would likely have accompanied and escorted him. While staying at Tattershall, Theodore met his future wife, Mary Balls. Mary had been born in Hadleigh, Suffolk c. 1575 (she is known to have been 24 years old in 1599) and had no known friends or family outside that town, making her sudden appearance at Tattershall in 1599 somewhat puzzling. The only certain previous link between her family and Tattershall is her father, William Balls, being recorded as a witness to a legal document in Tattershall in 1585. William might thus have been known at the Tattershall household in some capacity. Mary conceived Theodore's first child c. September 1599, and she married him in Cottingham, East Yorkshire on 1 May 1600, at which point she was several months pregnant. It is possible that the reason for the wedding being so late, only six weeks before the birth of their child, was Theodore accompanying Clinton on one of his law-related trips to London. The ceremony took place in the Church of St. Mary in Cottingham, where the marriage register records the marriage of Thedorus Palelogu and Maria Balle. The couple might have chosen to marry at Cottingham, nearly seventy miles away from Tattershall, due to Cottingham being under the rule of the Duke of Suffolk, Clinton's feudal superior. Because of the relation between the duke and the earl, the priest in Cottingham might have avoided asking awkward questions in regards to Mary's pregnancy. Their first child, named Theodore, was baptised on 12 June but died an infant on 1 September. During their time in Lincolnshire, Theodore and Mary had further children. Baptismal records at Tattershall confirms the baptisms of three of their five, possibly six, later children. On 18 August 1606, their daughter Dorothy (identified in the records as "Dorathie, daughter of Theodore Palalogo") was baptised, followed by Theodore Junior ("Theodore Palalogo, son of Theodore Palalogo") on 30 April 1609 and John Theodore ("John Theodore, son of Paleologo Theodore) on 11 July 1611. There is also a partially legible entry for "Elizabeth, daughter of Theo ..." from August 1614, likely another child of Theodore. Since no further records are known of this Elizabeth, she is likely to have died in infancy. On 14 May 1600, Francis Norreys, the son of Clinton's wife Elizabeth Morrison by a previous marriage, wrote to the Secretary of State, Robert Cecil, in the hope that he would intervene in Clinton's affairs, since Clinton had recently ordered that Elizabeth be confined to Tatershall Castle. The letter references an "Italian murderer", likely Theodore. With Clinton pressured to release her as more and more letters describing her situation came in to Cecil, Elizabeth was released later that year. A passage of Norreys's message reads: > He keeps her docked up like a prisoner, without suffering her either to write or hear from any of her friends, having appointed to guard her an Italian, a man that hath done divers murders in Italy and in the Low Countries, from which he fled to England, from whom, I protest, she has just cause hourly to fear the cutting of her throat. During his time at Tattershall, Theodore also met and befriended John Smith (later a famous captain and explorer in the Americas). After Smith had served as a soldier in the Netherlands, he had returned home to Lincolnshire in 1600 and, tiring of the company of the locals, lived as a recluse, constructing a small wooden house a decent distance away from any major town or village. In his own writings, Smith describes how he was befriended by a “Thaedora Polalaga, Rider to Henry Earle of Lincolne” and describes the man as an “excellent horseman” and a “noble Italian gentleman”. Theodore taught Smith Italian and skill at arms, and might have encouraged him to return to the battlefield. In Philip L. Barbour's The Three Worlds of Captain John Smith (1964), Theodore is thought to be the culprit behind filling "John Smith's fancies with further adventurous notions" through legends of the Ottoman Turks. In Dorothy and Thomas Hoobler's Captain John Smith (2006), Theodore is credited with "igniting the spirit of the Crusaders" in Smith. Smith would later partake in military campaigns against the Ottomans before his more famous ventures in the Americas (such as the establishment of Jamestown, Virginia and his encounter with Pocahontas). ### Later years Clinton died on 29 September 1616. After Clinton's death, there are no further records of Theodore at Tattershall, or anywhere else for several years. It is possible that he was quickly evicted by Clinton's son and successor, Thomas Clinton. It is possible that the family lived with Mary's relatives, the Balls family, during this time or that the children were placed in the service of some higher class household, a common practice in regards to adolescents. Another possibility is that Theodore spent much of the time between 1609 and 1621 fighting in the Netherlands during the Eighty Years' War. Theodore is attested as living in Plymouth from 1619 onwards. On 15 June 1619, a fourth son, Ferdinand, was baptised at the Church of St. Andrew in Plymouth, the event being recorded in the baptismal register as the baptism of "Ffardinando son of Theodore Paleologus an Ittalian". The rest of his family was with him at Plymouth, with a document confidently placing Theodore Junior there at least as early as 1623. Theodore was a householder (landlord) in Plymouth, rated in 1628 at a halfpenny a week. That same year, Theodore, now in his mid-sixties, offered his services to the Duke of Buckingham, George Villiers. On account of corruption, enormous wealth and incompetence (for instance having supported unsuccessful wars with France and Spain), as well as interference with the politics of King Charles I, Villiers was, like Henry Clinton before him, one of the most hated men in all of England. Though the unmarried daughters Dorothy and Mary, and the young Ferdinand, probably lived with Theodore and Mary, the older sons were not at home in 1628, with Theodore Junior, aged 19, making his own life elsewhere and John Theodore probably still being in service. In Theodore's letter to Villiers, he describes himself as "capable as one who has lived and shed his blood in war since his youth, at the pleasure of the late Prince of Orange, and other diverse English and French lords who have seen and known me and can bear witness" and calls himself a gentleman of a good family, worthy of the name he bears on account of his many accomplishments, but "unlucky in the misfortune experienced by my ancestors and myself". Theodore met Villiers in Plymouth and had seemingly been promised a rather generous employment, but on the 23 August that same year, Villiers was assassinated, leaving Theodore once more without an employer. Shortly thereafter, Theodore was invited by Sir Nicholas Lower, a rich Cornish squire, to join him at his home in Landulph, Cornwall, probably on account of Theodore's supposedly exalted lineage. Lower's home, Clifton Hall, was divided to accommodate two families after Mary and the Paleologus daughters (and probably Ferdinand) moved in shortly after Theodore. At Clifton Hall, Theodore probably served the Lowers as a scholar of history and the Greek language, possibly helping to educate their children. Theodore stayed with his family and the Lowers at Clifton Hall for the rest of his life. His wife, Mary Balls, was buried in Plymouth on 24 November 1631 and would have been 56 years old at the time of her death. As per the brass plaque which marks his grave in the Church of St Leonard & St Dilpe in Landulph, Theodore died on 21 January 1636. The brass plaque prominently displays a coat of arms reminiscent of that of the Palaiologos emperors of Byzantium, displaying the imperial double-headed eagle. According to the registers at Landulph, Theodore was buried on 20 October 1636, but this is probably an error since it seems unlikely that his body remained unburied for nine months. The inscription of Theodore's tombstone reads: > Here lyeth the Body of Theodoro Paleologus of Pesaro in Italye descended from ye imperiall lyne of ye last Christian Emperors of Greece, being the sonne of Camilio, the sonne of Prosper, the sonne of Theodoro, the sonne of John, the sonne of Thomas, second brother to Constantine Paleologus, the 8th of that name and last of ye lyne yt raygned in Constantinople untill [sic] subdewed by the Turkes, who married with Mary ye Daughter of William Balls of Hadlye in Souffolke, Gent., and had issue 5 children, Theodore, John, Ferdinando, Maria, Dorothy, and departed this life at Clyfton ye 21st of January, 1636. ## Family and children With his wife Mary, Theodore had six, possibly seven, children: - Theodore Paleologus (June – 1 September 1600) – Theodore and Mary's first child, died in infancy. - Dorothy Paleologus (August 1606 – 1681) – Remained in Landulph after Theodore's death. Dorothy married William Arundel, son or grandson' of Alexander Arundel, who Nicholas Lower had purchased Clifton Hall from. The entries recording the marriage in the marriage registers at Landulph and at William's home parish of St Mellion grandly describe Dorothy as of "imperial stock" (Dorothea Paleologus de stirpe imperatorum).' Since the registers at St. Dominic were accidentally destroyed, it is impossible to determine whether Dorothy and William had children,' but it is unlikely since Dorothy was fifty years old by the time of the marriage.' Dorothy was buried in Landulph in 1681. - Mary Paleologus (? – 1674) – Remained in Landulph after Theodore's death. Very little is known of Mary and she is the only one of the children whose birth year is unknown. She was probably never married and was buried in Landulph on 15 May 1674. - Theodore Paleologus (April 1609 – April/May 1644) – The oldest son to reach adulthood, Theodore Junior fought for the Parliamentarians, or Roundheads, in the English Civil War (1642–1651). He died during the war in 1644, probably of camp fever during the early stages of the siege of Oxford, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. - John Theodore Paleologus (June/July 1611 – ?) – The most enigmatic of the children, John Theodore is thought to have fought for the Royalists, or Cavaliers, in the English Civil War, but left England before its conclusion, being attested in Barbados with his younger brother Ferdinand in 1644. Nothing is known of John Theodore after 1644 and his ultimate fate is unknown. - (?) Elizabeth Paleologus (July/August 1614 – ?) – Known only from a partial baptismal record from Tattershall, Elizabeth is likely to have been another of Theodore and Mary's daughters. As she is never referenced again after this baptismal record, it is probable that she died in infancy. - Ferdinand Paleologus (June 1619 – 2 October 1670) – The youngest son, Ferdinand travelled with John Theodore to Barbados, where he stayed for the rest of his life, becoming one of the elite on the island. He had a son, named Theodore, and was known on Barbados as the "Greek prince from Cornwall". Ferdinand constructed a great house on the island, named Clifton Hall after the house the family had stayed in while in Cornwall. According to some genealogies, Theodore was married to another woman before Mary. This previous marriage would have taken place on 6 July 1593 on the island Chios, his bride being "Eudoxia Comnena", a daughter of the nobleman Alexius Comnenus and his wife Helen Cantacuzene (both parents possessing surnames of Byzantine imperial dynasties). Eudoxia was to have died on 6 July 1596, three years after the wedding, in childbirth, and the couple's only child was said to have been a girl named "Theodora Paleologus", married in 1614 in Naples to "Prince Demetrius Rhodocanakis". Though this genealogy has been accepted by some historians in the past, and notably convinced the papacy and the British Foreign Office, it originates from forgeries created in the 1860s by the London-based Greek merchant Demetrius Rhodocanakis, who claimed that one of Theodora's descendants was Dr. Constantine Rhodocanakis (a real historical figure), who Demetrius in turn claimed was his ancestor. Demetrius's forgeries were revealed when he published a biography on Constantine Rhodocanakis in 1872, wherein a portrait of Constantine was exposed to actually be a portrait of the author himself, dressed in a costume. His genealogy had been thoroughly debunked by the early 20th century. ## Legacy Theodore's grave was accidentally opened in 1795, revealing an oak coffin. Inside, his body was discovered in a good enough state to ascertain that Theodore was far above common height and had possessed an aquiline nose and a long white beard reaching low on his breast. His well-preserved body means that he had probably been embalmed before being buried. To this day, Theodore's tomb brings many Greek visitors to Landulph. Greek Orthodox memorial services have been observed for him twice, first in the late 20th century by the Welsh-born archimandrite Barnabas (1915–1995) and then in 2007 by Archbishop Gregorios, head of the Greek Orthodox community in Britain. Barnabas's service for Theodore in the late 20th century was the first service of any kind conducted in Theodore's name since his burial in 1636. Gregorios's rite, conducted on 18 April 2007, involved draping Theodore's grave in silk ribbons with the colors of the Greek flag, and also displaying flags with the double-headed eagle. The rite was not technically a full traditional memorial rite, since Theodore was not Orthodox, but included chants and incense. The two rites were evocations of ancient Byzantium never before seen in Landulph. Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, a member of the modern Greek royal family, visited Theodore's tomb together with his wife, Queen Elizabeth II, in 1962. Theodore has sometimes figured in popular culture. In the novel Sir John Constantine (1906) by Arthur Quiller-Couch, a band of Cornish squires called the "Constantines" are descended from Theodore. The novel is purported to be the 1756 memoirs of Sir John Constantine Paleologus, who with the rest of the Constantines go on several adventures. John Constantine is described as having white hair and an aquiline nose, clearly based on descriptions of the real Theodore Paleologus. In an earlier novella by Quiller-Couch, The Mystery of Joseph Laquedem (1900), a girl named Julie Constantine, also a fictional descendant of Theodore, features in the plot, alongside the actual grave of Theodore himself. During World War I, playwright William Price Drury wrote and produced a play called The Emperor's Ring, in which the central plot revolves around a delegation from various states in the Balkans arriving to Landulph to bend the knee to a living descendant of Theodore, an aged miner called Simon Paleol in the play. After a telegram arrives informing the delegation of the death of Simon's only son in the trenches, their hopes are dashed and as Simon grows more and more tired of the delegation hoping for him to take his place on the throne of Greece, he grabs Theodore's old signet ring, a priceless heirloom, and throws it in the Tamar river. The Emperor's Ring was later reworked to a short story, published in 1919 with the title All the King's Men. All the King's Men also features a passage inspired by the opening of Theodore's grave, with the addition that his body crumbles to dust as the grave is opened. The novel Days Without Number (2003) by Robert Goddard is a thriller with supernatural elements and incorporates fictional modern descendants of Theodore as a central plot element. In the novel, Theodore's Paleologus descendants battle with James Bond-style villains through murders, seductions and car and speedboat chases, all in order to find a lost stained glass window with an inscription supposedly containing the date of the Second Coming, preserved by the Knights Templar through the ages.
7,749,637	Ontario Highway 21	1,154,236,422	Ontario provincial highway	[ "Ontario provincial highways", "Transport in Goderich, Ontario", "Transport in Grey County", "Transport in Huron County, Ontario", "Transport in Owen Sound" ]	King's Highway 21, commonly referred to as Highway 21, is a provincially maintained highway in the Canadian province of Ontario that begins at Highway 402 midway between Sarnia and London and ends at Highway 6, Highway 10 and Highway 26 in Owen Sound. The roadway is referred to as the Bluewater Highway because it remains very close to the eastern shoreline of Lake Huron. Highway 21 was first designated by the Department of Highways (DHO) between Highway 3 and Highway 7 in mid-1927 and extended to Goderich in 1934. A year later, a final extension completed the route to Owen Sound. In 1997 and 1998, the portion of the route south of Highway 402 was transferred to the counties in which it laid. This segment is also known as Oil Heritage Road. Highway 21 is often subject to winter closures due to lake effect caused by snowsquall, which can create sudden whiteout conditions along the Lake Huron shoreline. Several Emergency Detour Routes have been established further inland to guide drivers around such closures. Care should be taken during the winter months, as the storms can progress rapidly and unexpectedly. ## Route description Highway 21 is a long lakeside route through Southwestern Ontario, which serves numerous communities along the eastern shoreline of Lake Huron. Once over 100 kilometres (62 mi) longer than it is today, the highway now begins at Highway 402 near the community of Warwick, where it progresses north through the towns of Forest, Grand Bend, Goderich, Point Clark, Kincardine, Tiverton, Port Elgin, and Southampton. At Southampton, the highway veers away from the Lake Huron shoreline and travels east to Owen Sound. The route is generally smoothly-flowing, but can be somewhat congested through towns during the summer from tourists and cottagers. Highway 21 is often subject to closures at various points as it lies on the lee shore of Lake Huron. Lake effect snow squalls frequently subject motorists to poor visibility and slippery conditions, leading to whiteout conditions. Therefore, the Ontario Provincial Police claim that the road is the most-commonly closed in the province. The highway begins at Exit 34 and progresses north towards Lake Huron. The mostly-straight section of the route lies within Lambton County and passes through the town of Forest. Near Kettle Point, the route abruptly curves north west and begins to parallel the shore of the lake, providing access to the village of Port Franks and The Pinery Provincial Park prior to entering Grand Bend. North of that village, the highway crosses into Huron County and intersects former Highway 83. Between there and Goderich, the west side of the highway is dominated by roads providing access to shoreline cottages. At Goderich, the route encounters Highway 8, then crosses the Maitland River along a bypass constructed during the early 1960s; the original routing followed portions of Saltford Street and River Ridge Crescent. The highway proceeds straight north as the baseline at the shore of Lake Huron until it reaches Sheppardton. There the surveying grid changes orientation, and Highway 21 follows a forced road allowance that meanders approximately 2 km (1.2 mi) inland from lake north to Amberley, where it encounters former Highway 86, which travels to Waterloo, and enters. The route curves northeast as it enters Bruce County to align with the surveying grid and proceeds out of Amberley towards Kincardine. Between Amberley and Tiverton, Highway 21 travels straight-as-an-arrow along what was originally a rural concession road through the hamlets of Reid's Corners, Pine River, Huron Ridge and Slade. It bypasses inland of Kincardine, intersecting the western terminus of Highway 9. Within Tiverton, which acts as the primary town serving Bruce Nuclear Generating Station, traffic must turn to remain on Highway 21. As it exits southeast from the town, the highway makes a broad curve to the northeast and continues through the hamlets of Underwood and North Bruce. As it approaches the southern end of the Bruce Peninsula, the route bisects Port Elgin, then curves abruptly towards Lake Huron and passes through Southampton before curving to the east towards Owen Sound. Between those two places, the highway is generally straight, except at the boundary between Bruce and Grey Counties as well as the descent of the Niagara Escarpment at Springmount. Several communities line the inland stretch of highway, including Chippewa Hill, Kelly's Corners, Elsinore, Allenford, Alvanley and Jackson. At Springmount, the route encounters Highway 6, which joins Highway 21 to form Ontario's only wrong-way concurrency east to Owen Sound. ## History Highway 21 was the first King's Highway in Lambton County when it was assumed in 1927 between Highway 3 at Morpeth and Highway 7 at Reece's Corners. The original section of highway was rebuilt from a muddy trail to a plank road around 1860. When James Miller Williams, a Hamilton businessman, set out one day during a drought to dig a well, he chose a spot downhill from an existing oil seep in the village of Black Creek. Instead of encountering water, Williams hit a shallow oil deposit. As a result of the ensuing oil boom, which would begin the petroleum industry in North America, Williams laid out the village and changed its name to Oil Springs. Two competing plank road companies were formed, the Black Creek Plank Road Company (of which Williams was a principal investor) and the Sarnia to Florence Plank Road Company, both of which aimed their roads through Oil Springs. Although both roads were constructed, the former company was more prosperous in its endeavours; in 1886, a significant portion of the Sarnia to Florence Plank Road was closed up and turned over to local property owners. The Black Creek Plank Road Company meanwhile had transformed the muddy quagmire of a path into a well-maintained road. By 1863, three miles of road south of Wyoming had been paved, and the remainder south to Oil Springs planked (the Sarnia Road followed two years later). However, as the oil boom faded, so too did improvement to the road. On May 25 and June 1, 1927, the Department of Highways assumed the unpaved road between Highway 7 at Reece's Corner and Highway 3 at Morpeth, via Dresden, Thamesville and Ridgetown as Provincial Highway 21, which was changed to the current King's Highway 21 in 1930. That year, the department set out to improve the new highway. Concrete slabs were laid between Petrolia and Highway 7, as well as along a 7.25-kilometre (4.50 mi) section between Thamesville and Dresden. The following year, the route was paved between Dresden and Edys Mills before the effects of the Great Depression forced the department to concentrate on paving Highway 22. The election of a new government in mid-1934 led to the resumption of work in June as a depression relief project. New equipment (namely a Caterpillar Excavator), as well as the expertise of Andy Newman, an engineer who was hired when he demonstrated his abilities with the machinery upon passing a construction site on his drive home. Newman, who helped design the machine that nobody else could operate, allowed work to proceed at a much faster rate than before. The machinery could dig quicker than 50 men, and the effort showed when the gap between Petrolia and Edys Mills and the remaining gaps between Dresden and Thamesville were graded and paved by the end of the summer. On October 19, 1934, Highway 21 was officially opened by Robert Mellville Smith, deputy minister of the Department of Highways. On April 4, 1934, Highway 21 was assumed through Huron County as far north as Goderich, which was followed by the assumption of a section through Bosanquet Township on April 18, creating a 40.6 kilometres (25.2 mi) concurrency with Highway 7 from Reece's Corners to Thedford. From there, the route travelled through Thedford to Port Franks, where it merged into the present highway. A final 137.4-kilometre (85.4 mi) extension to Owen Sound was assumed on May 15, 1935, bringing the highway to its greatest length of 333.1 kilometres (207.0 mi). Meanwhile, on April 11, 1934, the department assumed control of a road connecting Highway 7 with Forest as Highway 21A. It was later extended to connect with Highway 21 at Port Franks on August 19, 1936. By 1938, Highway 21A had been renumbered as Highway 21, and Highway 21 through Thedford renumbered as Highway 82. Beginning in 1960, a small bypass of Highway 21 was constructed on the north side of Goderich, avoiding a nearby hairpin turn. The 160 m (520 ft) curving structure over the Maitland River was completed in mid-1961 at a cost of C\$1.39 million and opened ceremoniously on July 17, 1962. During the early 1980s, the construction of Highway 402 east from Sarnia resulted in a shift in the route of the highway. The route was extended north from Reece's Corners to Exit 25, while the section from Highway 7 north to Exit 34 was "downloaded", or transferred to the local municipality in which it resided. With Highway 402 as the connecting provincial link between the two segments of Highway 21, the two parclo interchanges each include a directional ramp to facilitate traffic. Further transfers were performed in 1997 and 1998. On April 1, 1997, the section of Highway 21 from Highway 401 south to Morpeth was transferred to Kent County. On January 1, 1998, the section between Highway 401 and Highway 402 was transferred to Kent and Lambton counties. ## Major intersections
87,924	Einherjar	1,164,108,731	Dead warriors of Norse mythology	[ "Ghosts", "Heroes in Norse myths and legends", "Norse mythology", "Odin" ]	In Norse mythology, the einherjar (singular einheri; literally "army of one", "those who fight alone") are those who have died in battle and are brought to Valhalla by valkyries. In Valhalla, the einherjar eat their fill of the nightly resurrecting beast Sæhrímnir, and valkyries bring them mead from the udder of the goat Heiðrún. The einherjar prepare daily for the events of Ragnarök, when they will advance for an immense battle at the field of Vígríðr. The einherjar are attested in the Poetic Edda, compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources, the Prose Edda, written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson, the poem Hákonarmál (by the 10th century skald Eyvindr skáldaspillir) as collected in Heimskringla, and a stanza of an anonymous 10th century poem commemorating the death of Eric Bloodaxe known as Eiríksmál as compiled in Fagrskinna. An etymological connection exists between the einherjar and the Harii, a Germanic people or figures from early Germanic folklore attested in the 1st century AD, and scholars have connected the einherjar to the eternal battle of Hjaðningavíg and the Wild Hunt. The einherjar have been the subject of works of art and poetry. ## Attestations ### Poetic Edda In the poem Vafþrúðnismál, Óðinn engages the wise jötunn Vafþrúðnir in a game of wits. Disguised as Gagnráðr, Óðinn asks Vafþrúðnir "where men fight in courts every day." Vafþrúðnir responds that (here einherjar is translated as einheriar): > > All the Einheriar fight in Odin's courts every day; they choose the slain and ride from battle; then they sit more at peace together. In the poem Grímnismál, Óðinn (disguised as Grímnir) tells the young Agnarr Geirröðsson that the cook Andhrímnir boils the beast Sæhrímnir, which he refers to as "the best of pork", in the container Eldhrímnir, yet adds that "but few know by what the einheriar are nourished." Further into Grímnismál, Odin gives a list of valkyries (Skeggjöld, Skögul, Hildr, Þrúðr, Hlökk, Herfjötur, Göll, Geirahöð, Randgríð, Ráðgríð, and Reginleif), and states that they bear ale to the einherjar. Towards the end of the poem, another reference to the einherjar appears when Óðinn tells the king Geirröd (unaware that the man he has been torturing is Óðinn) that Geirröd is drunk, and that Geirröd loses much when he loses his favor and the favor of "all the Einherjar." In the poem Helgakviða Hundingsbana I, the hero Sinfjötli flyts with Guðmundur. Sinfjötli accuses Guðmundur of having once been a female, including that he was "a witch, horrible, unnatural, among Odin's valkyries" and that all of the einherjar "had to fight, headstrong women, on your account". ### Prose Edda In the Prose Edda book Gylfaginning, the einherjar are introduced in chapter 20. In chapter 20, Third tells Gangleri (described as king Gylfi in disguise) that Óðinn is called Valföðr (Old Norse "father of the slain") "since all those who fall in battle are his adopted sons," and that Óðinn assigns them places in Valhalla and Vingólf where they are known as einherjar. In chapter 35, High quotes the Grímnismál valkyrie list, and says that these valkyries wait in Valhalla, and there serve drink, and look after tableware and drinking vessels in Valhalla. In addition, High says that Óðinn sends valkyries to every battle, that they allot death to men, and govern victory. In chapter 38, High provides more detail about the einherjar. Gangleri says that "you say that all those men that have fallen in battle since the beginning of the world have now come to Odin in Val-hall. What has he got to offer them food? I should have thought that there must be a pretty large number there." High replies that it is true there are a pretty large number of men there, adding many more have yet to arrive, yet that "there will seem too few when the wolf comes." However, High adds that food is not a problem because there will never be too many people in Valhalla that the meat of Sæhrímnir (which he calls a boar) cannot sufficiently feed. High says that Sæhrímnir is cooked every day by the cook Andhrímnir in the pot Eldhrimnir, and is again whole every evening. High then quotes the stanza of Grímnismál mentioning the cook, meal, and container in reference. Further into chapter 38, Gangleri asks if Óðinn consumes the same meals as the einherjar. High responds that Óðinn gives the food on his table to his two wolves Geri and Freki, and that Óðinn himself needs no food, for Óðinn gains sustenance from wine as if it were drink and meat. High then quotes another stanza from Grímnismál in reference. In chapter 39, Gangleri asks what the einherjar drink that is as plentiful as their food, and if they drink water. High responds that it is strange that Gangleri is asking if Óðinn, the All-Father, would invite kings, earls, and other "men of rank" to his home and give them water to drink. High says that he "swears by his faith" that many who come to Valhalla would think that he paid a high price for a drink of water if there were no better beverages there, after having died of wounds and in agony. High continues that atop Valhalla stands the goat Heiðrún, and it feeds on the foliage of the tree called Læraðr. From Heiðrún's udders flow mead that fills a vat a day. The vat is so large that all of the einherjar are able to drink to their fullness from it. In chapter 40, Gangleri says that Valhalla must be an immense building, yet it must often be crowded around the doorways. High responds that there are plenty of doors, and that crowding doesn't occur around them. In support, High again quotes a stanza from Grímnismál. In chapter 41, Gangleri notes that there are very many people in Valhalla, and that Óðinn is a "very great lord when he commands such a troop". Gangleri then asks what entertainment the einherjar have when they're not drinking. High responds that every day, the einherjar get dressed and "put on war-gear and go out into the courtyard and fight each other and fall upon each other. This is their sport." High says that when dinner time arrives, the einherjar ride back to Valhalla and sit down to drink. In reference, High quotes a stanza from Grímnismál. In chapter 51, High foretells the events of Ragnarök. After the god Heimdallr awakens all the gods by blowing his horn Gjallarhorn, they will assemble at a thing, Óðinn will ride to the well Mímisbrunnr and consult Mímir on behalf of himself and his people, the world tree Yggdrasil will shake, and then the Æsir and the einherjar will don their war gear. The Æsir and einherjar will ride to the field Vígríðr while Óðinn rides before them clad in a golden helmet, mail, and holding his spear Gungnir, and heading towards the wolf Fenrir. In chapter 52, Gangleri asks what will happen after the heavens, earth, and all of the world are burned and the gods, einherjar and all of mankind have died, noting that he had previously been told that "everyone will live in some world or other for ever and ever." High replies with a list of locations, and then describes the re-emerging of the world after Ragnarök. The einherjar receive a final mention in the Prose Edda in chapter 2 of the book Skáldskaparmál, where a quote from the anonymous 10th century poem Eiríksmál is provided (see the Fagrskinna section below for more detail and another translation from another source): > > What sort of dream is that, Odin? I dreamed I rose up before dawn to clear up Val-hall for slain people. I aroused the Einheriar, bade them get up to strew the benches, clean the beer-cups, the valkyries to serve wine for the arrival of a prince. ### Heimskringla At the end of the Heimskringla saga Hákonar saga góða, the poem Hákonarmál (by the 10th century skald Eyvindr skáldaspillir) is presented. The saga relates that king Haakon I of Norway died in battle, and yet though he is Christian, he requests that since he has died "among heathens, then give me such burial place as seems most fitting to you." The saga relates that, shortly after, Haakon died on the same slab of rock that he was born upon, that he was greatly mourned by friend and foe alike, and that his friends moved his body northward to Sæheim in North Hordaland. Haakon was there buried in a large burial mound in full armor and his finest clothing, yet with no other valuables. Further, "words were spoken over his grave according to the custom of heathen men, and they put him on the way to Valhalla." The poem Hákonarmál is then provided. In Hákonarmál, Óðinn sends forth the two valkyries Göndul and Skögul to "choose among the kings' kinsmen" and who in battle should dwell with Óðinn in Valhalla. A battle rages with great slaughter. Haakon and his men die in battle, and they see the valkyrie Göndul leaning on a spear shaft. Göndul comments that "groweth now the gods' following, since Hákon has been with host so goodly bidden home with holy godheads." Haakon hears "what the valkyries said," and the valkyries are described as sitting "high-hearted on horseback," wearing helmets, carrying shields and that the horses wisely bore them. A brief exchange follows between Haakon and the valkyrie Skögul: > > > > Hákon said: > > > > 'Why didst Geirskogul grudge us victory? though worthy we were for the gods to grant it?' > > > > > > Skogul said: > > > > 'Tis owing to us that the issue was won and your foemen fled.' Skögul says that they shall now ride forth to the "green homes of the godheads" to tell Óðinn that the king will come to Valhalla. In Valhalla, Haakon is greeted by Hermóðr and Bragi. Haakon expresses concern that he shall receive Óðinn's hate (Lee Hollander theorizes this may be due to Haakon's conversion to Christianity from his Norse religion), yet Bragi responds that he is welcome: > > 'All einheriar shall swear oaths to thee: share thou the Æsir's ale, thou enemy-of-earls! Here within hast thou brethren eight,' said Bragi. ### Fagrskinna In chapter 8 of Fagrskinna, a prose narrative states that, after the death of her husband Eric Bloodaxe, Gunnhild Mother of Kings had a poem composed about him. The composition is by an anonymous author from the 10th century and is referred to as Eiríksmál, and describes Eric Bloodaxe and five other kings arriving in Valhalla after their death. The poem begins with comments by Óðinn: > > 'What kind of a dream is it,' said Óðinn, 'in which just before daybreak, I thought I cleared Valhǫll, for coming of slain men? I waked the Einherjar, bade valkyries rise up, to strew the bench, and scour the beakers, > > > > wine to carry, as for a king's coming, here to me I expect heroes' coming from the world, certain great ones, so glad is my heart.' The god Bragi asks where a thundering sound is coming from, and says that the benches of Valhalla are creaking—as if the god Baldr had returned to Valhalla—and that it sounds like the movement of a thousand. Óðinn responds that Bragi knows well that the sounds are for Eric Bloodaxe, who will soon arrive in Valhalla. Óðinn tells the heroes Sigmund and Sinfjötli to rise to greet Eric and invite him into the hall, if it is indeed he. Sigmund asks Óðinn why he would expect Eric more than any other king, to which Óðinn responds that Eric has reddened his gore-drenched sword with many other lands. Eric arrives, and Sigmund greets him, tells him that he is welcome to come into the hall, and asks him what other lords he has brought with him to Valhalla. Eric says that with him are five kings, that he will tell them the name of them all, and that he, himself, is the sixth. ## Theories and proposed etymological connections According to John Lindow, Andy Orchard, and Rudolf Simek, scholars have commonly connected the einherjar to the Harii, a Germanic tribe attested by Tacitus in his 1st-century AD work Germania. Tacitus writes: > > As for the Harii, quite apart from their strength, which exceeds that of the other tribes I have just listed, they pander to their innate savagery by skill and timing: with black shields and painted bodies, they choose dark nights to fight, and by means of terror and shadow of a ghostly army they cause panic, since no enemy can bear a sight so unexpected and hellish; in every battle the eyes are the first to be conquered. Lindow says that "many scholars think there may be basis for the myth in an ancient Odin cult, which would be centered on young warriors who entered into an ecstatic relationship with Odin and that the name Harii has been etymologically connected to the -herjar element of einherjar. Simek says that since the connection has become widespread, "one tends to interpret these obviously living armies of the dead as religiously motivated bands of warriors, who led to the formation of the concept of the einherjar as well as the Wild Hunt [...]". Simek continues that the notion of an eternal battle and daily resurrection appears in book I of Saxo Grammaticus' Gesta Danorum and in reports of the eternal battle of Hjaðningavíg. According to Guðbrandur Vigfússon (1874), the concept of the einherjar links directly to the Old Norse name Einarr. Vigfússon comments that "the name Einarr is properly = einheri", and points to a relation to the term with the Old Norse common nouns einarðr (meaning "bold") and einörð (meaning "valour"). ## See also - Fólkvangr, afterlife field of the goddess Freyja
1,717,429	Scouts South Africa	1,172,857,312	World Organization of the Scout Movement recognised Scout association in South Africa	[ "1908 establishments in South Africa", "Scouting and Guiding in South Africa", "World Organization of the Scout Movement member organizations", "Youth organizations established in 1908" ]	Scouts South Africa is the World Organization of the Scout Movement (WOSM) recognised Scout association in South Africa. Scouting began in the United Kingdom in 1907 through the efforts of Robert Baden-Powell and rapidly spread to South Africa, with the first Scout troops appearing in 1908. South Africa has contributed many traditions and symbols to World Scouting. Scouts South Africa caters for youth and young adults from the ages of 5 through 30. It is split into four sections – Meerkats, Cubs, Scouts, and Rovers – with each section serving a different age group and concentrating on different areas of personal development. It is also one of the largest youth organisations in the rural parts of South Africa and performs many community upliftment programmes in those areas. The highest award attainable by a Scout in South Africa is the Springbok award. A Scout is required to complete all the requirements for the Springbok award before their 18th birthday. Scouts South Africa was one of the first youth organisations to open its doors to youth and adults of all races in South Africa. This happened on 2 July 1977 at a conference known as Quo Vadis. ## Aims and principles The aim of Scouts South Africa is to contribute to the development of boys, girls and young adults in achieving their full potentials as individuals, as responsible members of their local, national, and international communities by developing their character, training them in citizenship and developing their spiritual, social, mental, and physical qualities. Scouts South Africa is based on the principles of duty to God, duty to others, and duty to self. These three principles govern the entire advancement programme and teach the Scout to be loyal to the religion that expresses them, to be loyal to the country in which they reside and to be responsible in their own development. ## History Organized Scouting spread to South Africa only a few months after its birth in Britain in 1907. In 1908, several troops formed in Cape Town, Natal, and Johannesburg and the following year saw the first official registration of South African troops. Scouting in South Africa grew rapidly, and in 1912 Robert Baden-Powell visited South African Scouts. Due to the rapid spread of Scouting it became necessary to provide some form of local co-ordination. Provincial Councils were formed in South Africa between 1912 and 1916. These councils had no direct contact with each other and reported directly to Imperial Scout Headquarters in London. The first Union Scout Council was formed in 1922 to provide a common national control on an advisory basis. Six years later, in 1928, the Union Scout Council adopted a constitution which enabled it to perform the functions of Imperial Scout Headquarters. Scouting in South Africa, as in most British Colonies (such as Rhodesia), was originally segregated by race. This did not prevent black Scout groups from forming, and in the 1920s, black Scouts were given the name Klipspringers (a type of small antelope). The Pathfinder Council was formed in 1929. In 1930, the Imperial Scout Headquarters granted the complete independence of the Scout Movement in South Africa. Work started on yet another constitution which was finalised in 1936 at Bloemfontein during the visit of Baden-Powell. During 1937, the Boy Scouts Association of South Africa became a member of the International Scout Conference (now World Scout Conference) and was registered with the International Bureau (now World Scout Bureau) on 1 December 1937. South Africa was the first of the Commonwealth countries to achieve independence for its Scout Movement. The now independent association maintained the racial segregation with four separate associations. After consultation with Baden-Powell, four separate Scouting organisations were created in 1936. These were The Boy Scouts Association (for whites), The African Boy Scouts Association (for blacks), The Coloured Boy Scouts Association (for coloureds) and The Indian Boy Scouts Association (for Indians). A revision of the 1936 constitution in 1953 even strengthened the whites-only branch: its Chief Scout was now Chief Scout of the three other associations, with each association providing a Chief Scout's Commissioner as executive head under the Chief Scout. With the rise of Afrikaner nationalism in South Africa during the early part of the 20th century, Scouting was viewed with suspicion by many Afrikaners because of its English roots, and rival Afrikaans organisations including the Voortrekkers were established. These had a strong social and political aim. Negotiations about an amalgamation of both movements in the years 1930 to 1936 were not successful. In the 1970s, the Nordic countries placed pressure on the World Organization of the Scout Movement (WOSM) to expel the South African Movement for its racial policies. South African Scouting responded to this by combining all branches of the Movement into a single Boy Scouts of South Africa organisation at a conference known as Quo Vadis that was held on 2 July 1977. Although apartheid laws forbade several forms of multiracial association, the South African government failed to take any action against the Movement on racial grounds. Scouting was active during the period in several of the homelands, Transkei issuing Scout insignia and several including Bophuthatswana (the homeland where Mafikeng is located) issuing Scout-themed postage stamps. On 10 July 1995, The Boy Scouts of South Africa adopted a new constitution and changed its name to the South African Scout Association, and also began accepting girls into its ranks. By 1999 girls were allowed in all sections. In 2008 the name changed to Scouts South Africa. ### South African influences on World Scouting traditions South Africa has long been associated with the origins of Scouting. Robert Baden-Powell, the founder of the movement, spent most of the years from 1884 to 1905 as a soldier in Southern Africa. South Africa's most prominent role in the origin of Scouting was the siege of Mafeking in 1899–1900. Baden-Powell successfully lead the defense of the town for 217 days. During the siege, he was inspired by the boys of the Mafeking Cadet Corps, and later used them as an example of bravery in the first chapter of his handbook Scouting for Boys. The Mafeking Cadets are not regarded as the first Boy Scouts, as Scouting was only born later, in 1907 at Brownsea Island in Britain. However, it was Mafeking that resulted in Baden-Powell becoming a national hero in Britain, and it was his fame that enabled his Scout movement to catch on so rapidly. The Wood Badge, worn by adult Scout leaders, is a replica of beads from the necklace that was once worn by King Dinizulu of the Zulus. The original necklace was captured from Dinizulu by Baden-Powell. Other Zulu traditions and chants also featured in Scouting for Boys. While serving in Southern Africa, Baden-Powell learnt many the skills that would become standard scouting skills. Jan Grootboom, a Xhosa from South Africa, was a military scout who Baden-Powell praised for his scouting ability in the Matabele Campaign. Baden-Powell also learnt scouting skills from Frederick Russell Burnham, an American explorer, adventurer, and mercenary, who went on to become a highly decorated Major and Chief of Scouts under Lord Roberts during the Second Boer War. The earliest Scout uniform was based on the uniform that Robert Baden-Powell designed for the South African Constabulary, a paramilitary force established to police the conquered Boer republics following the Anglo-Boer War. The current South African Scout uniform is in fact still based on the uniform worn by the South African Constabulary. Baden-Powell said of South Africa in 1926 that: > ...none of the fellows in other countries know that the (Scout) flag (a golden fleur-de-lis on a green background) was started in South Africa. As you know the colours are those of the Transvaal and the Orange Free State. But those were also the colours of the South African Constabulary...and when I took to being a Scout, I took the colours with me. A good deal of our Scouting started in South Africa. ## Influence in South Africa Scouts South Africa teaches young people the importance of high morals. Former South African President and patron of Scouts South Africa, Nelson Mandela, said the following of the Scout Movement: > The international Scout movement is a world leader in youth education, and has particular relevance to the needs of youth in Africa and the emerging democracies around the globe. I am pleased with the progress of Scouting in South Africa, and in the steps which are now being taken to make the programme accessible to more young people. The importance of a high moral code, which is at the foundation of the Scout movement, cannot be stressed too highly. In 2013, various Troops in the Western Cape Region took part in the first ever Mandela Day Community Service Project on Robben Island, where former Patron Nelson Mandela was jailed for 18 of 27 years in prison. This Mandela Day project was repeated in 2014 and 2017. Scouts South Africa is actively involved in community work, particularly in the rural areas of South Africa. In some rural areas, such as the greater Tzaneen area, there are Troops with over 100 Scouts. Rural Troops are often limited in their activities by funding and lack of equipment. Their programme focuses on educating the Scouts in becoming good citizens and in the dangers of HIV. Educating Scouts in HIV and AIDS is vitally important due to the large number of infections in both rural and urban areas of South Africa. ## National organisation Scouts South Africa is subdivided into Regions: - Eastern Cape North - Eastern Cape South - Free State - Gauteng - KwaZulu-Natal - Limpopo - Mpumalanga - North West - Northern Cape - Western Cape. Each Province is in turn divided into Districts, and each District consists of a number of Groups. The national head office is in Cape Town. The Chief Scout is the head of Scouts South Africa, and is therefore the leader of Scouting for all groups within South Africa. The current Chief Scout is Khonzaphi Mdaka, with effect from 1 February 2022, taking over from Dr. Brendon Hausberger. Former President of South Africa Nelson Mandela was the patron of Scouts South Africa until 2013. ### Group organisation A Scout Group consists of one or more units for different age groups: a Meerkat Den, Cub Pack, Scout Troop, and Rover Crew. Large Groups may have more than one of each section, or may have separate units for boys and girls. Rover Crews can also be associated with a District if independent from any one Scout Group within the District. The Group is led by a Scout Group Leader (SGL) who acts as the liaison between the parents committee and the adult leaders of the Cub, Scout, and Rover units within the Group. The parents committee is an elected body of parents (with elections being held once a year at the Group AGM) that oversees the financial, maintenance, and legal affairs of the group, supporting the adult Scouters who run the programme for their branches. ## Meerkat programme In 2019, a Meerkat branch was opened for ages 5 to 6. ## Cub programme The Cub section is open to boys and girls between the ages of 7 and 11, and is intended to lay foundations and teach basic skills for when a Cub becomes a Scout. The Cub programme is based on a system of progressive leadership, with members being given increasing responsibility depending on age as they advance through the Cub Pack. Cubs are divided into small groups called Sixes led by a Sixer and a Second. The Pack Scouter may appoint the most responsible Cub in the Pack as a Senior Sixer. The head of a Cub Pack is the Pack Scouter (PS), often nicknamed Akela after the head wolf in The Jungle Book by Rudyard Kipling. There may be a number of Assistant Pack Scouters, with nicknames from other Jungle Book characters. The Cub Advancement Programme is based on Cubs working towards the Silver Wolf and Gold Wolf badges, each divided into four Challenge Awards: Aptitude, Awareness, Outdoor, and Community; and the Leaping Wolf badge. Cubs proceeding to Scouts complete the Link Badge. ### Cub Promise I promise to do my best – To do my duty to God and my country; To keep the Law of the Wolf Cub Pack; And to do a good turn to somebody every day. ### Cub Law The Cub gives in to the Old Wolf. The Cub does not give in to himself / herself. ## Scout programme The Scout section is open to boys and girls between the ages of 11 and 18, and aims at developing Scouting and leadership skills. Scout Troops are divided into Patrols of between four and ten Scouts, with six being a common size. The Patrol Leader and Second have many responsibilities in training younger Scouts and helping plan and run the programme. Patrol Leaders are in charge of planning and running (often with no adult intervention) Patrol camps and outings, and are also required to assist their Patrol members through the Scout advancement program. Often the most senior and responsible Patrol Leader is appointed as Troop Leader (TL), who no longer runs a Patrol but instead has other responsibilities such as enforcing discipline and running the weekly programme. Since a Troop Leader is not required to plan or run Patrol camps, or help Scouts through the advancement program many senior Scouts who are in their final year of school choose to become Troop Leaders to have more time to concentrate on their studies and on achieving the Springbok award. The adult leader of a Scout Troop is the Troop Scouter (TS), assisted by Assistant Troop Scouters (ATS) and Junior Assistant Troop Scouters (JATS). ### Scout Promise On my honour, I promise that I will do my best – To do my duty to God, and my Country; To help other people at all times; To obey the Scout Law. ### Scout Law \# A Scout's honour is to be trusted \# A Scout is loyal \# A Scout's duty is to be useful and to help others. \# A Scout is a friend to all and a brother / sister to every other Scout \# A Scout is courteous \# A Scout is a friend to animals \# A Scout obeys orders \# A Scout smiles and whistles under all difficulties \# A Scout is thrifty \# A Scout is clean in thought, word and deed ### Advancement badges The Scout Advancement Programme is based on a number of advancement badges, culminating in the Springbok Scout badge. Each advancement badge focuses on different levels of development and the programme progresses from basic Scout training, to training young Scouts, and ends with a focus on community service. Troop Membership : To be invested as a Scout, the membership requirements for recruits include knowing the basic story behind Scouting, the Scout Promise and Law, some basic Scouting skills, and the National anthem of South Africa. Traveller : This advancement badge focuses on basic Scout training, including the six basic knots (Reef Knot, Bowline, Sheet bend, Sheepshank, Round turn and two half hitches, and Clove hitch), basic first aid (treatment of open wounds and bleeding), and introduces Scouts to camping. The badge encourages a Scout to participate in patrol activities. The Scout is required to have camped away from their normal Scout meeting place for at least three nights. Discoverer : This advancement badge introduces the Scout to basic pioneering, including whipping, basic lashing, and other advanced knots. The Scout is required to know more advanced forms of first aid (treatment of shock, sprains, and fainting). The Scout needs to help plan, and be second in charge of a patrol hike. Other requirements for the badge include knowledge of HIV/AIDS and knowledge of how a Court of Honour functions. First Class : This advancement badge is the first advancement badge that places the Scout in a position of leadership and organisation. A Scout is required to plan and run a wide game for their Patrol, a Patrol camp, an overnight Patrol hike for which a log book must be written, a programme to teach younger Scouts in their Patrol about pioneering, and they need to assist in the planning of a Scouts' Own. The Scout also needs to lead their patrol in a community service project of not less than ten hours. Springbok : This badge is the top Scout award in South Africa. It concentrates on teaching the Scout how to give back to the community. The Springbok award is the equivalent of the UK's Queen's Scout and the American Eagle Scout. Among the requirements, the Scout must complete at least 40 hours of community service, lead a hike of over 30 kilometres (18.6 mi) in unfamiliar territory, and plan and construct a pioneering project. ## Court of Honour The Court of Honour is a regular meeting of Patrol Leaders (PLs) and the Troop Scouter, and is responsible for the majority of decisions regarding troop discipline, patrol management, troop programme and other matters. The Troop Scouter is the only adult leader regularly attending these meetings, although the Court of Honour may invite other Scouters to attend. The Troop Scouter has the right to veto decision, but should generally only act in an advisory role, allowing the Scouts themselves to make important decisions. ## Air Scouting Air Scouting in South Africa is an active part of the program. Since 2005 Air Scouting has expanded, especially in Gauteng, where the first Airjamborally since the 1980s was held during August 2005. The Gauteng region has 5 of the 8 Air Scout Groups. The Air Scout uniform is a sky blue shirt (Short sleeve), Navy blue long pants or shorts, black socks, black shoes, the group scarf and a black beret. Air Scout badges are Advanced Navigation, Air Glider, Air Mechanic, Air Meteorologist, Air Navigator, Air Spotter and Air Traffic Controller. Challenge awards differ from Land and Sea Scouts. Whereas Land Scouts can obtain a Bushman's Thong and Sea Scouts the Bosun's cord, Air Scouts wear The Airman's Cord. ## Rover programme The Rover section is open to any young adults between the ages of 18 and 30. The Rover programme focuses on their motto of 'Service', which has 3 aspects – service to the community, service to the Scout Movement and service to oneself. Rovers are not necessarily adult leaders of Scout Troops, although there is often some overlap. The Rover section has historically been open to young men and women, even prior to the Cub and Scout sections being opened to girls. The purpose of Rover Scouting is to encourage Rovers to train themselves and their fellow Rovers in citizenship and service, to encourage Rovers to pursue careers that they enjoy and that are useful to themselves and to render services to both the Scout Movement and the community around them. Within three months of joining a Rover Crew a newcomer may be invested as a Squire. Alternatively, a Scout wishing to join the Rover Crew upon their 18th birthday, may complete the Rover Network Badge. Newcomers, not previously a Scout, must first be invested as a Scout and must take the Scout Promise. The Squire then chooses a mentor, called a Sponsor, from one of the existing Rovers; the Sponsor's task is to guide the Squire in learning all the necessary Scouting skills and to aid the Squire in performing a service project as set out by the Rover Crew. Once the service project is completed the Squire can be invested as a fully fledged Rover. ### Rover badges #### Rover advancement badges Rovers are able to take part in a 5-part advancement, similar to that of Scouts. Each rank of advancement focuses on a different stage of the development of a young adult, and on a different part of a Rovers service. The advancement awards are: - The Personal Bar – Focusing on skills a young adult may need to develop, such as writing a CV or learning about investing. - The Movement Bar – Focus is on service to Scouting, and Rovers are requires to learn practical outdoor skills and use these skills to help youth activities. - The Community Bar – A Rover is required to get involved in their local community, research needs and develop projects to fulfill these. - The Leadership Bar – A more senior Rover can use the skills they have gained by this point to guide younger Rovers and take a leadership role in the Crew. - The Baden-Powell Award – The highest award a Rover can attain. Requires the completion of all previous bars, 4 Rover Awards and a challenge award. #### Rover awards Rovers can earn eleven different awards: - The Careers Award - The Civics Award - The Community Service Award - The Rambler's Award - The Scoutcraft Award - The Scouter Training Award - The Sportsmanship Award - The Project Award - The Public Health Award - The Emergency Service Award - The Arts and Culture Award Challenge Awards Rovers must earn at least one "Challenge Award" in order to achieve the Baden-Powell Award. These are awards in recognition of activity done outside of the advancement programme. Various awards are recognised for this purpose, including awards administered by SCOUTS South Africa, international awards administered by WOSM, and external awards administered by independent organisations. ## Events In addition to activities run by individual Scout groups, a large number of rallies, activities, competitions, and training courses are held by the different Regions. The biggest of these are probably the Kon-Tiki raft building competitions (held annually in Cape Town and Gauteng) and the JOTA-JOTI communications-focussed Jamboree. Nationally, the Senior Scout Adventure is held every two years in the Cederberg mountains. In the past, South Africa has also held a national Jamboree, known as SANJAMB. ### Patrol Leaders Training Unit The Patrol Leaders Training Unit (or PLTU) is a 7- to 12-day course run at various venues around South Africa. PLTU is a very physically and mentally strenuous course, open to Scouts who are over 141⁄2 years old and have achieved their Discoverer advancement badge. The first of what was to become the Patrol Leader training Unit courses was run at Lexden — Natal Gilwell Scout Training Camp in July 1959, under the leadership of Dudley Forde, with 19 Scouts from the 2nd Durban Y.M.C.A. Scout Group in attendance. Courses were offered to boys from the same Group over the next five years until the 6th Course in October 1964 which was opened to participants from South Durban District. In October 1967 the Patrol Leader Training Unit was formed to offer formal Leadership Training courses for Scout Patrol Leaders in the then Natal Division. The nine members comprising the original Unit were Dudley Forde [Chairman], Fr Ian Laurenson, Lynn Reynolds, Paddy McDowell, Paul and Helen Bezencon, Ian Hoare, Tony Hornby and Bill Sewell. The KwaZulu-Natal Patrol Leader training Unit celebrated the holding of its 100th course in July 2004. Dudley Forde, Fr Ian Laurenson, James Radford, Doug Drysdale, Bryan Dibben, Craig Shaw, Grant Martens and Guy Caws have led the PLTU over its first 45 years. This Unit hosted and mentored leaders who went on to create Patrol Leader Training Units in other centres in South Africa: Ian Hoare — East London, Derek Swemmer — Pretoria, Lynn Reynolds — Free State, Bill Hodges and Bruce Maree — Eastern Cape, Ian Harry and Chris Barrett — Gauteng, Peter Foster — Western Cape. A typical PLTU course focuses on character development in each individual, including the development of physical, mental and spiritual qualities. Qualities such as leadership and team spirit are instilled in the Scouts during the course. There are a number of PLTU courses on offer around South Africa - Gilten PLTU — Held in Johannesburg - Gilqua PLTU — Held in the Western Cape - Weston PLTU — Held in Johannesburg - Lexden PLTU — The original PLTU course held in KwaZulu-Natal - Gilcoast PLTU — Held in the Eastern Cape - Gilkloof PLTU — Held in Magoebaskloof On the successful completion of a PLTU course a Scout is entitled to wear a PLTU woggle (which is made by the Scout while on the course) and to wear a special PLTU badge on their uniform. Many Troops also require a Scout to complete a PLTU course before allowing them to become a Patrol Leader. ## International links Scouts South Africa plays an active role in the Southern Africa Zone, which consists of all the WOSM member Scout Associations in the Southern Africa region. The Africa Scout Region has a satellite office in Cape Town at the Scouts South Africa headquarters. A number of European Scout Associations are also involved in north–south partnerships with Scouts in developing countries, including several active programmes in South Africa. Members of the Boy Scouts of America living in South Africa may become Lone Scouts linked to the Direct Service branch of the BSA. ### Contributions to World Scouting The Join-In Jamboree concept, for Scouts in their home countries during World Scout Jamborees, was pioneered by the South African Vic Clapham in the 1970s. Vic Clapham was awarded the Bronze Wolf, the only distinction of the World Organization of the Scout Movement, by the World Scout Committee for exceptional services to world Scouting. In 1971, former Chief Scout Arthur H. Johnstone was also awarded the Bronze Wolf. Colin Inglis and Garnet de la Hunt, both former Chief Scouts of South Africa, were awarded the Bronze Wolf in 1996 for their work towards racial unity in Scouting during the apartheid era. Winston Adams of South Africa received the Bronze Wolf in 2017. Frank Opie, a South African Scout leader and environmental educationalist, published The Global Scout on behalf of World Scouting in 1993. The South African Scout Association hosted the World Scout Conference and World Scout Youth Forum in Durban in 1999. Garnet de la Hunt chaired the World Scout Committee from 1999 to 2002, and former Chief Scout Nkwenkwe Nkomo was elected to the World Scout Committee in 2005. ## See also - Lesotho Scouts Association - Scouts of Namibia - Swaziland Boy Scouts Association - Voortrekkers - Girl Guides South Africa
3,229,590	Typhoon Ike	1,169,951,857	Pacific typhoon in 1984	[ "1984 Pacific typhoon season", "Retired Pacific typhoons", "Retired Philippine typhoon names", "Tropical cyclones in 1984", "Typhoons", "Typhoons in Guam", "Typhoons in the Philippines" ]	Typhoon Ike, known in the Philippines as Typhoon Nitang, was the second deadliest tropical cyclone in the 20th century in the Philippines. Ike originated from an area of disturbed weather southeast of Guam on August 21, 1984, and five days later, developed into a tropical depression. Following an increase in organization, the depression attained tropical storm intensity on August 27. Initially tracking west-southwest, the storm gradually gained strength as wind shear resulted relaxed and Ike became a typhoon on August 30. Continuing to rapidly intensity, Ike turned west and attained peak intensity on September 1, with the Japan Meteorological Agency estimating winds of 170 km/h (105 mph). At around 14:00 UTC that day, Ike made landfall on the northeastern tip of Mindanao. The cyclone emerged into the South China Sea on September 3 as a tropical storm before re-intensifying into a typhoon and moving onshore Hainan. Ike then struck the Chinese mainland as a tropical storm in Guangxi and dissipated on September 6. During its formative stages, Ike brushed Guam, although its compact size reduced the extent of damage. Typhoon Ike also struck the Philippines a mere four days after Tropical Storm June inundated the northern portion of the Philippines and also was suffering from the nation's worst economic crisis since independence in 1946. It also left a path of destruction in the Philippines that at the time was unparalleled in its modern history. Most of the deaths were in the province of Surigao del Norte, where around 1,000 died, 330 others were wounded, and 80% of structures along with 27 towns were flattened. Typhoon Ike was considered the worst typhoon to affect the province in 20 years. Roughly 90% of homes in Surigao City were leveled, leaving 90,000 individuals homeless. Throughout Negros Island, over 4,000 dwellings were destroyed, resulting in nearly 75,000 people homeless after a river burst its banks. In the province of Bohol, Ike was the deadliest natural disaster in the province's history, with 198 fatalities in addition to 89,000 homes damaged or destroyed. Overall, 1,426 people were killed as a result of the typhoon in the archipelago. At the time, Ike was the deadliest typhoon to hit the country during the 20th century, surpassing the previous record of Typhoon Amy in 1951. A total of 1,856 people were injured. Furthermore, 142,653 homes were damaged and 108,219 others were destroyed. Nationwide, damage was estimated at \$230 million, including \$76.5 million from crop damage and \$111 million from property damage. Following the storm, Philippines authorities initially distributed \$4 million in aid but refused international aid. However, authorities reversed its decision on September 8 due to lack of local resources and started accepting foreign aid. In all, over \$7.5 million was donated to the country to provide relief. Ike was the worst tropical cyclone to strike the Guangxi province in China since 1954, where 14 people were killed. Across the country, around 13,000 structures were damaged or destroyed. Nationwide, 46 people were killed and 12,000 ha (29,651 acres) of sugar cane were destroyed. About 1,315,420 kg (2,900,000 lb) of vegetables were lost. Elsewhere, two people were killed and seven were listed missing in Thailand due to flash flooding. ## Meteorological history The origins of Typhoon Ike can be traced back to an area of disturbed weather first identified as part of the region's monsoon trough southeast of Guam on August 21. Over the next few days, the disturbance failed to develop as a result of inhibiting wind shear which remained over the area. However, the shear quickly abated on August 25, allowing for convection to build and persist over the system's center of circulation; this prompted the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) to classify the system at 06:00 UTC on August 26 as a tropical depression. Later that day, the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert for the system, following a rapid increase in the system's organization. Tracking generally northward, it continued to improve in organization and became more compact, allowing both the JMA and the JTWC to upgrade the system to Tropical Storm Ike on August 27. Ike's track northward brought it 165 km (105 mi) southwest of Guam before the tropical storm stalled and turned towards the west-southwest on August 28 as a result of a subtropical ridge to its north. Initially, persistent wind shear limited intensification, but data from the JTWC suggested that Ike briefly attained typhoon status on August 29. By August 30, an upper-level anticyclone became established over the system, resulting in favorable conditions aloft, and Ike entered a second intensification phase. At midday, both the JTWC and JMA estimated that Ike attained typhoon status. On August 31, the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA) also monitored the storm and assigned it with the local name Nitang. Now assuming a more westerly bearing, Ike continued to rapidly strengthen; at 12:00 UTC on September 1, the typhoon reached its peak intensity with winds of 165 km/h (105 mph) and a barometric pressure of 950 mbar (hPa; 28.05 inHg) as analyzed by the JMA. Meanwhile, the JTWC estimated maximum intensity of 235 km/h (145 mph). With maximum intensity, Ike made landfall on the northeastern tip of Mindanao at around 14:00 UTC on September 1, taking 30 hours to track across the southern extent of the Philippines. The cyclone emerged into the South China Sea on September 3, but due to land interaction, both the JTWC and JMA reported that Ike had weakened to a tropical storm upon its emergence. The storm tracked northwestward across the South China Sea over the next few days. Ike regained its former typhoon classification on September 3, according to the JTWC, and on September 4, according to the JMA. Several hours later, data from a Hurricane Hunter aircraft indicated that Ike had developed a 55 km (35 mi) wide eye. The JMA estimated that it reached a secondary peak intensity on September 4 with winds of 165 km/h (105 mph) and a pressure of 955 mbar (hPa; 28.20 inHg), only slightly weaker than its peak strength while the JTWC estimated a secondary peak of 185 km/h (115 mph). The combination of increased wind shear induced by a trough passing to the storm's north and the typhoon's proximity to land caused Ike to weaken. The storm made a September 5 landfall on Hainan as a minimal typhoon. The storm continued to weaken after crossing Hainan, with both the JTWC and JMA estimating that it moved into the Chinese mainland as a tropical storm while it was located 110 km (68 mi) southeast of Nanning. Thereafter, Ike quickly weakened inland and dissipated on September 6. ## Preparations Prior to the typhoon's first landfall, a typhoon warning was issued by the Manila Weather Bureau for the Philippine provinces of Surigao del Norte, Agusan, Leyte, Samar, Camiguin, Bohol, Cebu, Misamis Oriental, and Negros. Local authorities warned at risk residents via radio to flee to higher ground due to the threat of destructive storm surge. Although no mandatory evacuation was in effect, local radio stations broadcast appeals for evacuation every 30 minutes under the direction of the Manila Weather Bureau. When Ike began to turn towards the northwest on September 3, typhoon warnings were issued for coastal areas between Hong Kong and Beihai. Hundreds of cargo ships left port to escape the typhoon. In Zhanjiang, sandbagging operations took place in an effort to construct a barrier against Ike's storm surge. Hundreds of thousands of residents evacuated from coastal areas. Offshore, four foreign oil companies evacuated workers off of drilling rigs in the South China Sea. Further north, in Hong Kong, a No 1. hurricane signal was issued on September 4 and later that day was upped to a No 3. hurricane signal, but this signal was dropped once the storm dissipated inland. ## Impact ### Philippines Upon making landfall on northeastern Mindanao on September 1, Ike became the strongest tropical cyclone to strike the Philippines since Typhoon Joan of the 1970 Pacific typhoon season. Typhoon Ike also struck the country a mere four days after Tropical Storm June inundated the northern portion of the country, which claimed 53 lives. The islands were also suffering from the worst economic crisis since independence in 1946. Power was knocked out to much of the country for four days. The typhoon left a path of destruction in the Philippines that was at its time unparalleled in modern Philippine history. Most of the fatalities were in the province of Surigao del Norte, where around 1,000 died and 27 towns were flattened. More than half of Surigao del Norte's cattle, goat, and pig population were killed. Waves 2,440 mm (8 ft) slammed into the provincial capital of Surigao City, which resulted in 85 casualties. Around 90% of homes in the city were leveled, leaving 90,000 out the town's 135,000 citizens homeless. Fresh water shortages occurred after power was lost in Surigao City. To the southwest in Mainit, numerous homes were swept away after Lake Mainit overflowed its banks, leading to the deaths of over 200 people. On nearby Nonoc Island, 101 were killed, primarily due to drownings, and all but 20 houses of the 2,000 on the island were demolished. Provincewide, 330 people were wounded and 70% of homes, mostly made of wood, and 80% of buildings were destroyed, which resulted in 480,000 homeless. Typhoon Ike was considered the worst typhoon to affect the province in 20 years. Further south, in the province of Surigao del Sur, 16 people perished. Ten boats sunk offshore the capital city of Manila, where more than 6,000 residences were destroyed. However, the capital was spared the inner core of the typhoon. Elsewhere, in Cebu, thousands of refugees stayed in town halls and churches during the storm; 10 people were injured by flying debris and another 12 went missing on the island. Strong winds snapped power lines in Cebu, resulting in a power outage that impacted the entire province and halted all radio broadcasts in the prefecture. Off of Cebu City, 10 ferries sunk due to the strong waves generated by Ike. Roads connecting Cebu City to 44 peripheral towns were blocked by fallen trees and severe flooding. Throughout the province, 90,000 people were left homeless and damage totaled at least \$6.8 million. Throughout Negros Island, over 4,000 dwellings were destroyed, displacing nearly 75,000 people. The Ilog River, the longest on Negros Island, burst its banks and sent a deluge of mud, water, and debris to the municipalities of Kabankalan and Ilog. Across the province of Negros Occidental, 120 people died, including 50 in Kabankalan and 2 in the nearby community of San Carlos. In Negros Oriental, 60 others died and 29 were initially reported missing. Across Mindanao Island, 305 people were killed. A total of 29 people were killed in the province of Agusan del Norte. Six people died in the province of Misamis Oriental. Five others died in Camiguin. In the Bohol province, the death toll reached 198, making Ike the deadliest natural disaster in the province's history. Province-wide, 938 public schools, poultry and livestock, churches, bridges and other public buildings were destroyed or damaged. Around 89,000 houses were damaged or destroyed, which resulted in 58,000 people homeless. In Mabini, 14 fatalities were reported while Guindulman suffered the worst effects in the province. Both the Inabanga and Loboc Rivers swelled and flooded their respective towns for days forcing church services to be held at their convents due to heavy deposits of mud in the church proper. In other provinces across the region, twenty-four died in Leyte, two other fatalities occurred in Aklan, and three people were killed in Iloilo. Nationwide, 1,426 people were killed as a result of the typhoon, making Ike the deadliest typhoon to hit the country in the 20th century at the time, surpassing the previous record of Typhoon Amy in 1951. This mark would be eclipsed, however, by Tropical Storm Thelma in 1991. A total of 1,856 people were hurt. Furthermore, 108,219 houses were destroyed while an additional 142,653 homes were damaged. In all, damage was estimated at \$230 million. Crop damage was placed at \$76.5 million, with damage to coconut plantations totaling \$61 million. Property damage on the islands reached \$111 million. ### China Across Hainan Island, winds of 103 km/h (64 mph) were measured, resulting in power being knocked out for the entire island. At the time of its second landfall, Ike was a large but weakening tropical system, with gale-force winds extending out 315 km (195 mi) from the center. The storm brought 76–127 mm (3.0–5.0 in) of rain to most of the affected areas, with locally higher amounts. Thirteen fishermen were overcome by the 7.6–9.1 m (25–30 ft) swells off the coast of Weizhou Island. Across the Guangdong, 2,000 houses were destroyed. In the Guangxi near the storm made landfall, the storm destroyed zones of homes, factories, and boats, especially in the coastal towns of Beihai, Qinzhou, and Fancheng. In nearby Nanning, half of the city was left without power, one building collapsed, and four hundred fifty trees were uprooted. There, 13 people were killed and two people were severely wounded. Provincewide, 14 people were killed, with six others rendered missing while 12,000 ha (29,651 acres) of sugar cane was destroyed. Ike was considered the worst typhoon to strike the province since 1954. Nationwide, numerous trees and power lines were downed by the storms' high winds and an estimated 13,000 structures were damaged or destroyed. A total of 46 people were killed by the remnants of Ike in central China. There were also reports of 13 people missing. An estimated 12,000 ha (29,650 acres) of sugar cane were destroyed and about 1,315,425 kg (2,900,000 lb) of vegetables were lost. A minimum sea level pressure of 1,009 mbar (29.8 inHg) was recorded at the Hong Kong Royal Observatory. A peak wind gust of 89 km/h (55 mph) was reported on the island of Tai O. A peak sustained wind of 54 km/h (34 mph) was recorded on Lei Yue Mun. Tate's Cairn measured 24.2 mm (0.95 in) of rain, the highest total within the vicinity of Hong Kong from September 4 to 6. In the western portion of Hong Kong, one woman was injured by a fallen wooden plank. Nearby, a scaffolding and hoardings were blown down at a construction site. Otherwise, no damage was reported in Hong Kong. ### Elsewhere Due to the proximity of Ike to Guam upon its formation, the island was placed under the "Condition of Readiness" level; this was the first time that such a high readiness level was issued since Typhoon Pamela in 1982. Although Ike passed somewhat near the island, the storm's compact size during its formative stages mitigated any damage. Despite being near typhoon intensity at the time, a station on Nimitz Hill only documented winds of 30 km/h (19 mph), with higher gusts. The outer rainbands of the typhoon brought unseasonably heavy rains to Thailand. There, four people were reported missing and ten were injured after water from an overflowing dam tipped over a bus. Two people were killed and three were rendered missing due to flash flooding in Bangkok. Elsewhere, the outer extremities of Ike produced light rainfall and light breezes on Okinawa, peaking at 3.8 mm (0.15 in) in Ibaruma, most of which fell in an hour. ## Aftermath Immediately following Ike, the Government of the Philippines dispatched a C-130 aircraft carrying relief supplies to the affected areas, including 32,000 tonnes (35,000 tons) to Suriago City. The large loss of life resulted in morgues running out of coffins, leading to bodies being immediately buried to prevent the spread of disease. Imelda Marcos, the wife of president Ferdinand Marcos, flew to Surigao City to personally hand out relief supplies. Ferdinand Marcos warned on television for profiteers and looters to not "take advantage of the situation". Nevertheless, the typhoon set the stage for protests against Marcos and his handling of the storm throughout the country for the rest of the month. The president set aside \$4 million for relief work but initially refused any international aid. Despite this, the League of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies appealed in Switzerland for \$800,000 in emergency aid for victims of the typhoon. The Philippines Air Force delivered 907,185 kg (2,000,000 lb) of food, medicine, and clothes. According to officials, 92 health teams backed by 17 army medical units were fielded; these teams distributed \$1.66 million worth of medicine. The Philippine Red Cross disturbed food to 239,331 people, or 44,247 families. The mayor of Suriago City applied for national aid since the city's residents faced starvation. On September 9, President Marcos ordered \$100,000 worth of cash to seven province governors, and released \$555,000 with the intent of rebuilding Suriago City. A task force was also sent up by him to speed up the recovery process. On September 8, the nation abandoned its policy of refusing foreign aid, citing a lack of resources due to the country's poor economy. The United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs gave an emergency grant of \$50,000. UNICEF provided \$116,000 worth of vitamins and medicine and an additional \$116,950 in cash, as well as 28 t (31 short tons) of milk powder. They later provided vegetable seeds, dried fish, and garden fertilizer. The World Health Organization provided \$7,000 worth of aid. Furthermore, the United Nations Development Programme awarded the country \$30,000 in cash. The European Economic Community provided 330 short tons (300 t) of milk and \$367,650 worth of cash. In the middle of September, the United States approved \$1 million in aid to the archipelago. Japan also sent a \$500,000 check. Australia awarded almost \$500,000 worth of cash and food. New Zealand donated 22,680 kg (50,000 lb) of skimmed milk. The Norwegian Red Cross provided \$58,500 in aid while the European Economic Community awarded just over \$7,000 in cash. Belgium also provided three medical kits. The Swiss Red Cross awarded a little under \$21,000 in cash. Germany provided slightly more than \$50,000 in cash. France provided roughly \$11,000 in donations to the nation's red cross. The Red Cross Society of China donated \$20,000 in cash. Indonesia provided \$25,000 worth of medicine. The United Kingdom granted \$74,441 in aid. Overall, Relief Web reported that over \$7.5 million was donated to the Philippines due to the storm. Starting on September 11, a massive relief item airlift was planned to assist the region. Due to Tropical Storm June, 19 provinces had already been placed under a state of emergency. Following Ike, three other provinces were placed under a state of emergency. Due to both Ike and June, 25 of the nation's 73 provinces were declared a disaster area. Because of the destruction in the Philippines, the name Ike was retired and was replaced by Ian. The name Nitang, was also retired, and was replaced by Ningning. ## See also - Typhoon Mike – passed north of Mindanao and impacted the central Philippines, resulting in catastrophic damage - Typhoon Nelson (1982) – resulted in significant flooding across the Philippines after slowly traversing the archipelago - Typhoon Haiyan - Typhoon Agnes (1984) – caused extensive damage and fatalities in the central Philippines before striking Vietnam - Typhoon Rammasun - Typhoon Rai – A Category 5 super typhoon that also ravaged through the Caraga, the Visayas and also Cebu in December 2021
14,814,702	New York Public Library Main Branch	1,173,387,080	Library in Manhattan, New York	[ "1911 establishments in New York City", "Beaux-Arts architecture in New York City", "Bryant Park buildings", "Carrère and Hastings buildings", "Fifth Avenue", "Libraries in Manhattan", "Libraries on the National Register of Historic Places in Manhattan", "Library buildings completed in 1911", "National Historic Landmarks in Manhattan", "New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan", "New York City interior landmarks", "New York Public Library branches", "New York State Register of Historic Places in New York County", "Sculptures carved by the Piccirilli Brothers", "Tourist attractions in Manhattan" ]	The Stephen A. Schwarzman Building, commonly known as the Main Branch, 42nd Street Library or the New York Public Library, is the flagship building in the New York Public Library system in the Midtown Manhattan neighborhood of New York City. The branch, one of four research libraries in the library system, contains nine separate divisions. The structure contains four stories open to the public. The main entrance steps are at Fifth Avenue at its intersection with East 41st Street. As of 2015, the branch contains an estimated 2.5 million volumes in its stacks. The building was declared a National Historic Landmark, a National Register of Historic Places site, and a New York City designated landmark in the 1960s. The Main Branch was built after the New York Public Library was formed as a combination of two libraries in the late 1890s. The site, along Fifth Avenue between 40th and 42nd Streets, is located directly east of Bryant Park, on the site of the Croton Reservoir. The architectural firm Carrère and Hastings constructed the structure in the Beaux-Arts style, and the structure opened on May 23, 1911. The marble facade of the building contains ornate detailing, and the Fifth Avenue entrance is flanked by a pair of stone lions that serve as the library's icon. The interior of the building contains the Main Reading Room, a space measuring 78 by 297 feet (24 by 91 m) with a 52-foot-high (16 m) ceiling; a Public Catalog Room; and various reading rooms, offices, and art exhibitions. The Main Branch became popular after its opening and saw four million annual visitors by the 1920s. It formerly contained a circulating library, though the circulating division of the Main Branch moved to the nearby Mid-Manhattan Library in 1970. Additional space for the library's stacks was constructed under adjacent Bryant Park in 1991, and the branch's Main Reading Room was restored in 1998. A major restoration from 2007 to 2011 was underwritten by a \$100 million gift from philanthropist Stephen A. Schwarzman, for whom the branch was subsequently renamed. The branch underwent another expansion starting in 2018. The Main Branch has been featured in many television shows and films. ## History The consolidation of the Astor and Lenox Libraries into the New York Public Library in 1895, along with a large bequest from Samuel J. Tilden and a donation of \$5.2 million from Andrew Carnegie, allowed for the creation of an enormous library system. The libraries had a combined 350,000 items after the merger, which was relatively small compared to other library systems at the time. As a point of civic pride, the New York Public Library's founders wanted an imposing main branch. While the American Museum of Natural History and the Metropolitan Museum of Art's Fifth Avenue branch were both located on prominent sites facing Central Park, there was no such site available for a main library building; furthermore, most of the city's libraries were either private collections or small branch libraries. ### Development #### Site and design selection Several sites were considered, including those of the Astor and Lenox Libraries. In March 1896, the trustees of the libraries ultimately chose a new site along Fifth Avenue between 40th and 42nd Streets, because it was centrally located between the Astor and Lenox Libraries. At the time, it was occupied by the obsolete Croton Reservoir, remnants of which still exist on the library floor. The library's trustees convinced mayor William L. Strong to give them the reservoir site, after they gave him studies showing that the size of New York City's library collection lagged behind those of many other cities. Dr. John Shaw Billings, who was named the first director of the New York Public Library, had created an early sketch for a massive reading room on top of seven floors of book-stacks, combined with the fastest system for getting books into the hands of those who requested to read them. His design for the new library, though controversial for its time, formed the basis of the Main Branch. Once the Main Branch was opened, the Astor and Lenox Libraries were planned to close, and their functions were planned to be merged into that of the Main Branch. In May 1897, the New York State Legislature passed a bill allowing the site of the Croton Reservoir to be used for a public library building. The Society of Beaux-Arts Architects hosted an architectural design competition for the library, with two rounds. The rules of the competition's first round were never published, but they were used as the basis for later design competitions. Entrants submitted 88 designs, of which 12 were selected for a semi-finalist round and six went on to a finalist round. About a third of the designs, 29 in total, followed the same design principles outlined in Billings's original sketch. Each of the semifinalist designs were required to include specific architectural features, including limestone walls; a central delivery desk; reading rooms with large windows; and stacks illuminated by sunlight. The six finalists were selected by a jury composed of library trustees and architects. The jury relaxed the requirement that the proposals adhere to a specific floor plan after McKim, Mead & White, which had received the most votes from the jury, nearly withdrew from the competition. All of the finalist designs were in the Beaux-Arts style. Ultimately, in November 1897, the relatively unknown firm of Carrère and Hastings was selected to design and construct the new library. The jury named the firm of Howard & Cauldwell and McKim, Mead, & White as runners-up. Carrère and Hastings created a model for the future library building, which was exhibited at New York City Hall in 1900. Whether John Mervin Carrère or Thomas S. Hastings contributed more to the design is in dispute, but both architects are honored with busts located at the bottoms of each of Astor Hall's two staircases. In a later interview with The New York Times, Carrère stated that the library would contain "twenty-five or thirty different rooms", each with their own specialty; "eighty-three miles of books" in its stacks; and a general reading room that could fit a thousand guests. During the design process, Hastings had wanted to shift the library building closer to Sixth Avenue, and he also proposed sinking 42nd Street to create a forecourt for the library, but both plans were rejected. The New York City Board of Estimate approved Carrère and Hastings's plans for the library in December 1897. #### Construction Construction was delayed by the objections of mayor Robert Anderson Van Wyck, who expressed concerns that the city's finances were unstable. As a result, the planned library was delayed for a year. The Board of Estimate authorized a bond measure of \$500,000 in May 1899. The next month, contractor Eugene Lentilhon started excavating the Croton Reservoir, and workers began digging through the reservoir's 25-foot-thick (7.6 m) wall. After spending seven weeks tunneling through the wall, Lentilhon determined that the floor of the reservoir could only be demolished using dynamite. Work on the foundation commenced in May 1900, and much of the Croton Reservoir had been excavated by 1901. In November 1900, work was hindered by a water main break that partly flooded the old reservoir. Norcross Brothers received the general contract, although this was initially controversial because the firm was not the lowest bidder. After a private ceremony to mark the start of construction was held in August 1902, a ceremonial cornerstone was laid on November 10, 1902. The cornerstone contained a box of artifacts from the library and the city. The architects awarded the contract for the library's stacks to Snead & Company; for drainage and plumbing to M. J. O'Brien; for interior finishes to the John Peirce Company; and for electric equipment to the Lord Electric Company. Work progressed gradually on the library: the basement was completed by 1903, and the first floor by 1904. However, exterior work was delayed due to the high cost of securing large amounts of marble, as well as frequent labor strikes. When the Norcross Brothers' contract expired in August 1904, the exterior was only halfway completed. During mid-1905, giant columns were put into place and work on the roof was begun; the roof was finished by December 1906. The remaining contracts, totaling \$1.2 million, concerned the installation of furnishings in the interior. The interior and exterior were largely constructed simultaneously. The building's exterior was mostly done by the end of 1907. The pace of construction was generally sluggish; in 1906, an official for the New York Public Library stated that some of the exterior and most of the interior was not finished. Contractors started painting the main reading room and catalog room in 1908, and began installing furniture the following year. Starting in 1910, around 75 miles (121 km) worth of shelves were installed to hold the collections that were designated for being housed there, with substantial room left for future acquisitions. It took one year to transfer and install the books from the Astor and Lenox Libraries. Late in the construction process, a proposal to install a municipal light plant in the basement of the Main Branch was rejected. By late 1910, the library was nearly completed, and officials forecast an opening date of May 1911. Carrère died before the building was opened, and in March 1911, two thousand people viewed his coffin in the library's rotunda. ### Opening On May 23, 1911, officials held a ceremony to open the main branch of the New York Public Library. U.S. president William Howard Taft presided over the ceremony, whose 15,000 guests included governor John Alden Dix and mayor William Jay Gaynor. The public was invited the following day, May 24, and tens of thousands went to the Library's "jewel in the crown". The first item called for was Philosophy of the Plays of Shakespeare Unfolded by Delia Bacon, although this was a publicity stunt, and the book was not in the Main Branch's collection at the time. The first item actually delivered was N. I. Grot's Nravstvennye idealy nashego vremeni ("Ethical Ideas of Our Time"), a study of Friedrich Nietzsche and Leo Tolstoy. The reader filed his slip at 9:08 a.m. and received his book seven minutes later. The Beaux-Arts Main Branch was the largest marble structure up to that time in the United States, with shelf space for 3.5 million volumes spread across 375,000 square feet (34,800 m<sup>2</sup>). The projected final cost was \$10 million, excluding the cost of the books and the land, representing a fourfold increase over the initial cost estimate of \$2.5 million. The structure ultimately cost \$9 million to build, over three times as much as originally projected. Because there were so many visitors during the first week of the Main Branch's opening, the New York Public Library's directors initially did not count the number of visitors, but guessed that 250,000 patrons were accommodated during the first week. The construction of the Main Branch, along with that of the nearby Grand Central Terminal, helped to revitalize Bryant Park. ### 20th-century growth The Main Branch came to be regarded as an architectural landmark. As early as 1911, Harper's Monthly magazine praised the architecture of "this interesting and important building". In 1971, New York Times architectural critic Ada Louise Huxtable wrote, "As urban planning, the library still suits the city remarkably well" and praised its "gentle monumentality and knowing humanism". Architectural historian Kate Lemos wrote in 2006 that the library "has held a commanding presence at the bustling corner of 42nd Street and Fifth Avenue as the neighborhood grew up around it". The Main Branch also took on importance as a major research center. Norbert Pearlroth, who served as a researcher for the Ripley's Believe It or Not! book series, perused an estimated 7,000 books annually from 1923 to 1975. Other patrons included First Lady of the United States Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis; writers Alfred Kazin, Norman Mailer, Frank McCourt, John Updike, Cecil Beaton, Isaac Bashevis Singer, and E. L. Doctorow; actors Helen Hayes, Marlene Dietrich, Lillian Gish, Diana Rigg, and Princess Grace Kelly of Monaco; playwright Somerset Maugham; film producer Francis Ford Coppola; journalists Eliezer Ben-Yehuda and Tom Wolfe; and boxer Joe Frazier. The Main Branch was also used for major works and invention. Edwin Land conducted research at the building for his later invention, the Land Camera, while Chester Carlson invented Xerox photocopiers after researching photoconductivity and electrostatics at the library. During World War II, American soldiers decoded a Japanese cipher based on a Mexican phone book whose last remaining copy among Allied nations existed at the Main Branch. #### 1920s and 1930s Initially, the Main Branch was opened at 1 p.m. on Sundays and 9 a.m. on all other days, and it closed at 10 p.m. each day. This was to encourage patrons to use the new library. By 1926, the library was heavily patronized, with up to 1,000 people per hour requesting books. The library was most used between 10 a.m. to 12 p.m. and 3:30 to 5:50 p.m., and from October through May. The most highly requested books were those for economics and American and English literature, though during World War I geography books were the most demanded because of the ongoing war. It was estimated that 4 million people per year used the Main Branch in 1928, up from 2 million in 1918 and 3 million in 1926. There were 1.3 million books requested by nearly 600,000 people through call slips in 1927. By 1934, though annual patronage held steady at 4 million visitors, the Main Branch had 3.61 million volumes in its collection. Due to the increased demand for books, new shelves were installed in the stockrooms and the cellars by the 1920s to accommodate the expanded stacks. However, this still proved to be insufficient. The New York Public Library announced an expansion of the Main Branch in 1928. Thomas Hastings prepared plans for new wings near the north and south sides of the structure, which would extend eastward toward Fifth Avenue, as well as a storage annex in Bryant Park to the west. The expansion was planned to cost \$2 million, but was never built. After Hastings died in 1929, it was revealed that his will contained \$100,000 for modifications to the facade, with which he had been dissatisfied. A theater collection was installed in the Main Reading Room in 1933. Two years later, the Bryant Park Open-Air Reading Room was established, operating during the summer. The reading room was meant to improve the morale of readers during the Great Depression, and it operated until 1943, when it closed down due to a shortage of librarians. In 1936, library trustee George F. Baker gave the Main Branch forty issues of the New-York Gazette from the 18th century, which had not been preserved anywhere else. In 1937, the doctors Albert and Henry Berg made an offer to the library's trustees to donate their collections of rare English and American literature. After Henry died, the collection was dedicated in his memory. The Berg Reading Room was formally dedicated in October 1940. During the 1930s, Works Progress Administration (WPA) workers helped maintain the Main Branch. Their tasks included upgrading the heating, ventilation, and lighting systems; refitting the treads on the branch's marble staircases; painting the bookshelves, walls, ceilings, and masonry; and general upkeep. The WPA allocated \$2.5 million for the building's maintenance. In January 1936, it was announced that the Main Branch's roof would be renovated as part of a seven-month WPA project. #### 1940s to 1970s In 1942, the main exhibition room was converted into office space and partitioned off. During World War II, the fifteen large windows in the Main Reading Room were blacked out, though they were later uncovered. In the following years, the Main Reading Room became neglected: broken lighting fixtures were not replaced, and the room's windows were never cleaned. Unlike during World War I, war-related books at the Main Branch did not become popular during World War II. A room for members of the United States Armed Forces was opened in 1943. In 1944, the New York Public Library proposed another expansion plan. The stacks' capacity would be increased to 3 million books, and the circulating library in the Main Branch would be moved to a new 53rd Street Library. The circulating library at the Main Branch was ultimately kept for the time being, though its single room soon became insufficient to host all of the circulating volumes. Subsequently, in 1949, the library asked the city to take over responsibility for the Main Branch's circulating and children's libraries. As part of the modernization of the Main Branch, newly delivered books started being processed in that building, rather than at various circulation branch libraries. The rear of the library's main hall was partitioned off in 1950, creating a bursar's office measuring 42 by 13 ft (12.8 by 4.0 m). Minor repairs at the Main Branch occurred during the 1960s. The city government allocated money for the installation of fire sprinklers in the main branch's stacks in 1960. In 1964 contracts were awarded for the installation of a new floor level above the south corridor on the first floor, as well as for replacement of the skylights. By the mid-1960s, the branch contained 7 million volumes and had outgrown its 88 miles (142 km) of stacks. The circulating facilities at the Main Branch continued to grow, and in 1961, the New York Public Library convened a group of six librarians to look for a new facility for the circulating department. The library bought the Arnold Constable & Company department store at 8 East 40th Street, at the southeast corner of Fifth Avenue and 40th Street across from the Main Branch. The Main Branch's circulating collection was moved to the Mid-Manhattan Library in 1970. During the 1970s, the New York Public Library as a whole experienced financial troubles, which were exacerbated by the 1975 New York City fiscal crisis. As a cost-cutting measure, in 1970, the library decided to close the Main Branch during Sundays and holidays. The library also closed the Main Branch's science and technology division in late 1971 to save money, but private funds allowed the division to reopen in January 1972. The lions in front of the Main Branch's main entrance were restored in 1975. By the end of the decade, the Main Branch was in disrepair and the NYPL trustees were raising money for the research library's continued upkeep. The NYPL system was so short on funds that the research library was only open 43 hours a week until 1979, when Time Inc. and the Grace Krieble Delmas Foundation jointly donated \$750,000 to extend the branch's operating hours. #### 1980s and 1990s Vartan Gregorian took over as president of the New York Public Library in 1981. At the time, many of the Main Branch's interior spaces had been subdivided and extensively modified, with offices in many of the spaces. The main exhibition room had been turned into an accounting office; the reading room's furniture had metal brackets screwed onto them; and there were lights, wires, and ducts hung throughout the space. Gregorian organized events to raise money for the library, which helped raise funds for the cleaning of the facade and the renovation of the lobby, roof, and lighting system. Architectural firm Davis Brody & Associates, architect Giorgio Cavaglieri, and architectural consultant Arthur Rosenblatt devised a master plan for the library. Before the master plan was implemented, the D. S. and R. H. Gottesman Foundation gave \$1.25 million in December 1981 for the restoration of the main exhibition room, which was redesigned by Davis Brody and Cavaglieri. Workers erected a temporary construction fence around the library's terraces in 1982. As part of a greater renovation of Bryant Park, Laurie Olin and Davis Brody redesigned the terraces, while Hugh Hardy redesigned the kiosks within the terraces. Several rooms were restored as part of the plan. The first space to be renovated, the periodical room, was completed in 1983 with a \$20 million gift from Reader's Digest editor DeWitt Wallace. The exhibition room reopened in May 1984 and was renamed the Gottesman Exhibition Hall. The Catalog Room was restored starting in 1983. Ten million catalog cards, many of which were tattered, were replaced with photocopies that had been created over six years at a cost of \$3.3 million. In addition, room 80 was renovated into a lecture hall called the Celeste Bartos Forum in 1987. Offices were relocated to former storage rooms on the ground level. Other divisions were added to the Main Branch during the 1980s, such as the Pforzheimer Collection of Shelley and His Circle in 1986, and the Wallach Division of Art, Prints and Photographs in 1987. The terraces on Fifth Avenue reopened in 1988 after they were restored. Meanwhile, the library was adding 150,000 volumes to its collections annually, which could not fit within the stacks of the existing building. In the late 1980s, the New York Public Library decided to expand the Main Branch's stacks to the west, underneath Bryant Park. The project was originally estimated to cost \$21.6 million and would be the largest expansion project in the Main Branch's history. It was approved by the city's Art Commission in January 1987, and construction on the stacks started in July 1988. The expansion required that Bryant Park be closed to the public and then excavated, but because the park had grown dilapidated over the years, the stack-expansion project was seen as an opportunity to rebuild the park. The library added more than 120,000 square feet (11,000 m<sup>2</sup>) of storage space and 84 miles (135 km) of bookshelves under Bryant Park, doubling the length of the stacks in the Main Branch. The space could accommodate 3.2 million books and a half-million reels of microfilm. The new stacks were connected to the Main Branch via a tunnel measuring 62 ft (19 m) or 120 ft (37 m) long. Once the underground facilities were completed, Bryant Park was completely rebuilt, with 2.5 or 6 feet (0.76 or 1.83 m) of earth between the park surface and the storage facility's ceiling. The extension was opened in September 1991 at a cost of \$24 million; however, it only included one of two planned levels of stacks. Bryant Park was reopened in mid-1992 after a three-year renovation. The Catalog Room was renamed in 1994 for fashion designer Bill Blass, who gave \$10 million to the NYPL. The Main Reading Room was closed in July 1997 for renovations designed by Davis Brody Bond. The restoration entailed cleaning and repainting the ceiling, cleaning the windows, refinishing the wood, and removing partitions within the room. Workers also replaced desk lamps and installed energy-efficient window panes. The space was renamed the Rose Main Reading Room, after the children of a benefactor who had given \$15 million toward the renovation. The Reading Room reopened on November 16, 1998. The same year, the New York State government allocated funding for the Main Branch to install computers and other electronic devices. The Reading Room received new workstations, and the space was also redecorated to accommodate patrons' laptops. The bungalow in the Library's South Court was taken apart the same year. ### 21st-century changes #### 2000s: start of renovations A four-story glass structure was erected on the site of the South Court, an enclosed courtyard on the Main Branch's south side, starting in the late 1990s. The structure cost \$22.2 million and included a floor area of 42,220 square feet (3,922 m<sup>2</sup>). Opened in 2002, the South Court structure was the first permanent above-ground addition to the Main Branch since its opening. The pop-up reading room in Bryant Park was re-established in summer 2003. The "room" contained 700 books and 300 periodicals. By 2004, streaks were already blackening the white marble and pollution and moisture were corroding the ornamental statuary. According to The New York Times, "tiny particles of rubber scattered by passing car tires have accumulated on the building, mixing gradually with water to turn the marble into gypsum, which causes the outer layer to crumble in a sugaring effect." In December 2005, the Lionel Pincus and Princess Firyal Map Division space, with richly carved wood, marble, and metalwork, was restored. In 2007, the library announced that it would undertake a three-year, \$50 million renovation of the building exterior, which had suffered damage from weathering and automobile exhaust. The marble structure and its sculptural elements were to be cleaned; three thousand cracks were to be repaired; and various components would be restored. All of the work was scheduled to be completed by the centennial in 2011. Library director Paul LeClerc said in 2007 that "my ambition is for this to be the building you simply must see in New York at nighttime because it is so beautiful and it is so important." By late 2007, library officials had not yet decided whether to try to restore damaged sculptural elements or just clean and "stabilize" them. Cleaning would be done either with lasers or by applying poultices and peeling them off. Stephen A. Schwarzman donated \$100 million toward the renovation and expansion of the building, and in April 2008, the library announced that the main branch building would be renamed in his honor. As a condition of the gift, Schwarzman's name would be displayed at each public entrance. Later that year, British architect Norman Foster was chosen to design the Main Branch's renovation. To pay for the renovations, the New York Public Library was attempting to sell the Mid-Manhattan and Donnell branches, the latter of which had already found a buyer. Nicolai Ouroussoff, former architecture critic for The New York Times, opined that Foster's selection was "one of a string of shrewd decisions by the library that should put our minds at ease". #### 2010s to present: the Central Library Plan and aftermath By 2010, while renovations on the Main Branch were ongoing, the New York Public Library had cut back its staff and budget in other branches following the Great Recession of 2008. In 2012, a Central Library Plan was announced, in which the nearby Mid-Manhattan Library and Science, Industry and Business Library would be closed, and that the Main Branch would be turned into a circulating library. As part of the plan, over a million books would have been put into storage in the Research Collections and Preservation Consortium (ReCAP) warehouse in New Jersey, shared with Princeton University and Columbia University. Although some critics praised the plan as a move that would allow visitors to make greater use of the Main Branch's research facilities, a majority spoke out against it, with one editorial deriding it as "cultural vandalism". Academics, writers, architects and civic leaders signed a letter of protest against the plan, and Princeton history professor Anthony Grafton wrote that "readers who want to consult a book will often have to order it in advance—and may find, as readers sometimes do here, that real delivery times are slower than advertised ones." After a protracted six-year battle, and two public interest lawsuits, the Central Library Plan was abandoned in May 2014 due to pressure by its opponents and the election of Bill de Blasio as mayor. Subsequently, an \$8 million gift from Abby and Howard Milstein helped fund the renovation of the second level of stacks beneath Bryant Park, so that they could be used to store the books. The controversy was damaging to the reputation of not only the library's board, but of its president, Anthony Marx. In a book about the drawn out, often secretive initiatives to sell real estate and remove the heart of a treasured landmark, Scott Sherman concluded that Marx and his wealthy supporters "lacked prudence: they applied radical, free market solutions to complex institutional problems. In the end, elected officials in New York City had to save the NYPL from its own trustees." In May 2014, one of the "gilded-plaster rosettes" in the ceiling of the Rose Main Reading Room fell to the floor. The NYPL closed the Rose Main Reading Room and the Public Catalog Room for renovations. The \$12 million restoration project included restoring the rosettes and supporting them with steel cables, as well as installing LED lamp fixtures. The NYPL commissioned EverGreene Architectural Arts to recreate the mural in the Bill Blass Public Catalog Room, which had "suffered irreparable discoloration, overpainting and water damage" during its 105-year history. The NYPL also replaced its historic chain-and-lift book conveyor system with a new delivery system using "book trains". The restored Rose Main Reading Room and Bill Blass Public Catalog Room reopened on October 5, 2016. Starting in August 2017, the Main Branch temporarily hosted an interim circulating library at 42nd Street. The interim library held part of the collection of the Mid-Manhattan Library while the Mid-Manhattan building was closed for renovations. The Mid-Manhattan Branch's collection of pictures was also temporarily relocated to the Main Branch until the circulating library reopened in 2020. In November 2017, the New York Public Library board approved a \$317 million master plan for the Main Branch, which would be the largest renovation in the branch's history. The plan, designed by architecture firms Mecanoo and Beyer Blinder Belle, would increase publicly available space by 20 percent, add a new entrance at 40th Street, create the Center for Research and Learning for high-school and college students, add elevator banks, and expand space for exhibitions and researchers. At the time of approval, \$308 million of funds had been raised, and construction was expected to be completed in 2021. The renovations began in July 2018 with the start of construction on the Lenox and Astor Room, a scholar's center, on the second floor. The Landmarks Preservation Commission approved the 40th Street entrance with minor modifications in March 2019. That August, the NYPL announced that the lions outside the Main Branch's front entrance would be restored in September and October at a cost of \$250,000. The Center for Research in the Humanities opened on the second floor in October 2019. ## Divisions There are nine divisions at the New York Public Library's Main Branch, of which eight are special collections. ### General Research Division The General Research Division is the main division of the Main Branch and the only one that is not a special collection. The division is based out of the Rose Main Reading Room and the Bill Blass Public Catalog Room. The division contains 43 million items in more than 430 languages. ### Milstein Division of U.S. History, Local History and Genealogy The Irma and Paul Milstein Division of U.S. History, Local History and Genealogy houses one of the largest publicly available genealogical collections in North America. Though the division contains many New York City-related documents, it also contains documents collected from towns, cities, counties, and states across the U.S., as well as genealogies from around the world. The division acquired the holdings of the New York Genealogical and Biographical Society in 2008. ### Map Division The Lionel Pincus and Princess Firyal Map Division was created in 1898. It contains more than 20,000 atlases and 433,000 sheet maps, dating to as early as the 16th century. The collection includes maps on local, regional, national, and global scales as well as city maps, topographic maps, and maps in antiquarian and digitized formats. ### Manuscripts and Archives Division The Manuscripts and Archives Division comprises over 5,500 collections. These include, 700 cuneiform tablets, 160 illuminated manuscripts from the Middle Ages and Renaissance periods, notable people's and entities' papers, publishing archives, social and economics collections, and papers about the New York Public Library's history. The division supplements similar divisions at the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture in Harlem, and the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts at Lincoln Center. ### Dorot Jewish Division The Dorot Jewish Division contains documents about Jewish subjects and the Hebrew language. The division, founded in 1897, contains documents and books from the Astor and Lenox Libraries; the Aguilar Free Library; and the private collections of Leon Mandelstamm, Meyer Lehren, and Isaac Meyer. The division is named for the Dorot Foundation, who made a formal endowment for the Chief of Division in 1986. ### Berg Collection of English and American Literature The Henry W. and Albert A. Berg Collection of English and American Literature contains rare books, first editions, and manuscripts in English and American literature. The collection includes over 35,000 works from 400 individual authors. The collection was created in 1940 with a donation from Albert Berg in memory of his brother Henry, and was formally endowed in 1941. The initial collection comprised 3,500 books and pamphlets created by over 100 authors. An additional 15,000 works came from Owen D. Young, who donated his private collection to the library in 1941. ### Pforzheimer Collection of Shelley and His Circle The Carl H. Pforzheimer Collection of Shelley and His Circle is a collection of around 25,000 works from the English Romanticism genre, created in the 18th and 19th centuries. It was donated by the estate of oil financier Carl Pforzheimer in 1986. According to the New York Public Library's website, the collection contains works from English Romantic poet Percy Bysshe Shelley; Shelley's second wife Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley and her family members, including William Godwin, Mary Wollstonecraft, and Claire Clairmont; and other contemporaries including "Lord Byron, Teresa Guiccioli, Thomas Jefferson Hogg, Leigh Hunt, Thomas Love Peacock, Horace Smith, and Edward John Trelawny". ### Rare Book Division The Rare Book Division requires pre-registration for researchers before they are allowed to enter. The collection includes 800 incunable works published in Europe before 1501, Americana published before 1801, and American newspapers published before 1865, as well as over 20,000 broadsides, old atlases, and works about voyages. The division also contains rare Bibles, including the first Gutenberg Bible to be brought to the U.S., the first Native American language Bible, and the first Bible created in the U.S. In addition, it includes first editions and copies from notable writers, including William Shakespeare, copies of The Pilgrim's Progress printed before 1700, Voltaire's entire work, and Walt Whitman's personal copies of his own work. The division houses rare artifacts as well, such as the first book printed in North America and the first English-language book printed in the U.S. ### Wallach Division of Art, Prints and Photographs The Miriam and Ira D. Wallach Division of Art, Prints and Photographs was created by a gift of the Wallach family in 1987. The collection includes over one million works of art as well as 700,000 monographs and periodicals. ## Exterior The New York Public Library's Main Branch measures 390 feet (120 m) on its north–south axis by 270 feet (82 m) on its west–east axis. The library is located on the east side of the block bounded by Fifth Avenue on the east, 40th Street on the south, Sixth Avenue on the west, and 42nd Street on the east. The north end of the building sits above entrances to the Fifth Avenue station of the New York City Subway, serving the . The station was built as part of the Interborough Rapid Transit Company's Flushing Line, and was opened in 1926 with a ceremony at the Main Branch. The marble on the library building is about three feet thick, and the structure is composed entirely of Vermont marble and brick. Most of the exterior of the building is made of white Vermont marble, which includes both perpendicular and parallel cuts. The lowest section of the walls is made of granite, and there are also bronze windows, doors, grilles, and fixtures. Tennessee marble was used for the library's flagpole pedestals, seats, and lion sculptures. During construction, the builders conducted quality checks on the marble, and 65 percent of the marble quarried for the Main Branch was rejected and used in other buildings such as Harvard Medical School. The exterior is composed of 20,000 blocks of stone, each of which is numbered. An elaborate cornice with sculpted figures wraps around the top of the structure's exterior. The massing of the library building was intended to highlight its primary public spaces. There is a gable roof above the public catalog room, which is on axis with the main entrance on Fifth Avenue, as well as a hip roof above the main reading room, which runs north–south near the western end of the building. ### Fifth Avenue elevation The Main Branch faces Fifth Avenue to the east; this comprises the primary elevation of the building. A terrace wraps along the Fifth Avenue elevation. The terrace is 90 feet (27 m) deep and contains a granite balustrade. The present design of the terrace dates to 1988, when it was resurfaced with granite, bluestone, and cobblestones. The terrace contains movable chairs and tables. Along the eastern edge of the terrace are two rows of Japanese locust trees. The Fifth Avenue entrance is reached by a grand marble stairway extending west from the terrace at 41st Street. Two lion sculptures, made of Tennessee marble and sculpted by the Piccirilli Brothers based on a design by Edward Clark Potter, flank the stairway from 41st Street. According to one legend, the lions flank the steps so patrons could read "between the lions". They are a trademark of the New York Public Library, which uses a single stone lion as its logo. Their original names, "Leo Astor" and "Leo Lenox" (in honor of the library's founders) were transformed into Lord Astor and Lady Lenox (although both lions are male), and in the 1930s they were nicknamed "Patience" and "Fortitude" by Mayor Fiorello La Guardia, who chose the names because he felt that the citizens of New York would need to possess these qualities to see themselves through the Great Depression. Patience is on the south side, to the left of the entrance stairway, and Fortitude on the north, to the right. The lions were restored in 1975 and in 2007–2011, and they were restored once again in late 2019. The Fifth Avenue pavilion consists of a portico with six Corinthian columns and three archways. The Corinthian columns are placed on pedestals with rosettes and Greek-fret molding. These columns support a marble attic with six 11-foot-high (3.4 m) allegorical sculptures designed by Paul Wayland Bartlett; the figures flank three carved plaques, one each for the Astor, Lenox, and Tilden foundations. The arches contain barrel vaults with the faces of the classical deities Juno, Minerva, and Mercury on their keystones. The faces initially all depicted Minerva, but Carrere and Hastings hired sculptor Francis Tonetti-Dozzi in 1909 to redo the outer two keystones. The archways lead to the first floor of the structure, which is one story above ground level. The arches contain bronze doors with marble frames and triangular pediments. Hastings had drawn up a new design for the portico in 1921, but this was never constructed. George Grey Barnard also designed pediments for sculptures to be installed above the main entrance, representing "Life" and "Painting and Sculpture". When the sculptures were erected in 1915, he unsuccessfully sued the installers for \$50,000 because they did not fit with his vision. On either side of the Fifth Avenue entrance pavilion, there are alcoves with sculptures of figures inside them, followed by five bays of windows. Each bay contains arched windows on the first floor and rectangular windows on the second floor, above which is an attic with a marble balustrade. According to architecture critic Henry Hope Reed Jr., the balustrade is similar to that at Versailles's Grand Trianon. The bays are separated by Corinthian columns. The alcoves on the Fifth Avenue facade contained figures sculpted by Frederic MacMonnies, representing beauty and wisdom. These figures sit above small fountains inside the alcoves. They were shut off from 1942 and 1957, and again from the 1980s to 2015. The outer ends of the facade are treated as end pavilions. Barnard designed pediments for the end pavilions, which represented the arts and history; they are slightly asymmetrical and resemble the pediment above the main entrance. The corner pavilions also contain rusticated quoins as well as stone piers. ### Northern and southern elevations The northern and southern facades of the building are located along 42nd and 40th Streets, respectively. The northern and southern elevations were treated as side elevations, and the windows on these elevations illuminate secondary spaces inside the library. Both elevations measure 11 bays wide and are nearly identical to each other. Cornices run above the northern and southern elevations, connecting the primary elevations on Fifth Avenue and Bryant Park. The northern side contains an entrance to the ground level, while the southern side was not built with a public entrance. The northern entrance is at the center of that elevation and is topped by a pediment. The northern entrance is flanked by flagpoles whose sculpted bronze bases were designed in 1912 by Thomas Hastings. They were realized by the sculptor Raffaele Menconi, who often worked closely with New York architects of the Beaux-Arts generation. Each of the bronze bases is supported by four tortoises and contains cast-bronze ornament, in addition to personifications of conquest, civilization, discovery, and navigation. The bronzes were cast at Tiffany Studios in Long Island City. They are dedicated to New York's former Reform mayor, John Purroy Mitchell. The building contained an enclosed courtyard on its south side called the South Court, measuring 80 by 80 feet (24 by 24 m). It was originally a drop-off location for horse carriages. The court contained a marble fountain and horse trough, with a bungalow erected in 1919 as an employees' break area. The fountain was destroyed in 1950 and replaced with a parking lot, and the bungalow was taken apart in 1998. A six-story glass structure was erected on the site of the South Court, opening in 2002. The current structure measures 73 by 73 feet (22 by 22 m) and is connected to the rest of the library building via glass bridges. Below the South Court structure is a 174-seat auditorium, accessed via a glass staircase cut into the original basement. The first story contains the Bartos Education Center, with two classrooms and an orientation theater. The second through fourth floors contain offices, and the fourth floor also contains a quiet room and staff lounge. ### Bryant Park elevation The west side, which faces Bryant Park, contains narrow vertical windows that illuminate the stacks inside the Main Branch. The narrow windows allow light to enter the stacks below the third-floor Rose Main Reading Room. Above the tall windows, near the top of the facade, are nine large arched windows that illuminate the reading room itself. The presence of the narrow windows may have been intended to evoke the appearance of a flat colonnade. Next to the center of the facade is a statue of William Cullen Bryant, sculpted by Herbert Adams; the statue is placed on a plinth and sheltered by a half-dome supported by Doric columns. Near the top of the facade are eight doorways with pediments, which were part of the original design. Although NYPL staff were unable to ascertain why these doorways were built, they may have been built in anticipation of an unbuilt expansion of the stacks toward Bryant Park. There is a projecting cornice and a hip roof above the center section of the stacks and reading room. The northern and southern ends of the Bryant Park elevation both contain pavilions, similar to those on Fifth Avenue. ## Interior The interior of the Main Branch consists of four publicly accessible floors: the ground level and the first through third floors. There is a corridor along the eastern side of each floor, which runs the length of the building from north to south. The building also contains two light courts, measuring three by three bays wide, which separate each floor into four-bay-wide sections to the west and east. Originally, the interior collectively contained more than 200 rooms, and the building had a footprint of 115,000 square feet (10,700 m<sup>2</sup>). Generally, lower room numbers are located on the south side of the building, and higher room numbers on the north side. Many spaces contain quarry-tile floors; walls with shelves or wood paneling; and molded plaster ceilings. The interior contains ornate detail from Carrère and Hastings, such as motifs of lions, and the decorative scheme extended to such minute details as doorknobs and wastebaskets. There is a pair of public stairways on the north side of the building, which lead between the ground and third floors. The stairs share landings in the middle of each flight, allowing visitors to switch between staircases. The stairways contain vaulted ceilings made of Vermont marble; they are separated by solid marble floors, except at the landings, where there are square archways. These stairways may have been influenced by the design of the Louvre's Henry II Wing. The cellar, which is not open to the public, was initially used as a mechanical plant and contains remnants of the original Croton Reservoir. The western side of the building, from the cellar to the second floor, contains part of the Main Branch's storage stacks. Supplementing the Main Reading Room on the third floor, there are 21 other reading rooms in the Main Branch, including a ground-floor room with a cast-iron ceiling. There were originally 1,760 seats in all of the reading rooms combined, of which 768 were located in the Main Reading Room. ### Ground floor The ground floor contains the entrance to 42nd Street. Originally it contained a coat-check, circulating library, newspaper room, and children's-book room. There were also spaces for telephones, a "library-school office", and a "travelling-library office". The former newspaper room in room 78 became the children's-book room, and the former children's-book room in room 81 is not open to the public. Room 80 operated as the circulating library from 1911 to 1981. It measures 80 by 80 feet (24 by 24 m) across. The room is placed at the center of the building, but its ground-floor location indicates that the library's trustees did not see the circulating library as an important part of the building's plan. The glass ceiling measures 30 feet (9.1 m) tall and is supported by four iron arches; it was covered by a dropped ceiling for much of the mid-20th century. Since 1987, room 80 has been the Bartos Forum, a 400-seat lecture room. Most of the Bartos Forum's original design remains in place, but the floors have been covered with carpets and the perimeter skylights have been sealed. ### First floor Above the ground floor is the first floor. The staircase entrance from Fifth Avenue opens up into the first-floor lobby, known as Astor Hall. This floor contains the Picture Collection (room 100), Wallace Periodical Room (room 108), and Jewish Division (room 111, former Periodicals Room) on the south side. On the north side are the Milstein Division (room 121, former Patents Room), Milstein Microforms (room 119), and Map Division (room 117). The Wachenheim Gallery, the library shop, the Bartos Education Center, and the Gottesman Hall (room 111, former Exhibition Room) are located in rooms that open into Astor Hall. The first floor also formerly contained various supervisors' offices, a library for the blind, and a technology room. The north–south corridor extends the entire width of the first floor, with large windows overlooking the street at either end; the ceiling was painted to resemble carved wood. #### Astor Hall Astor Hall is the first-floor lobby, reached from the portico at the top of the Fifth Avenue stairs. The hall measures 70 by 44 feet (21 by 13 m), corresponding to three north–south bays and two west–east bays. The walls and ceiling are clad in Vermont marble. The ceiling is a 34-foot-high (10 m) shallow barrel vault, decorated with rectangular molded frames that consist of various motifs. Although the ceiling was intended to be a self-supporting structure, it is reinforced by a layer of concrete below the second floor. The pillars on the west and east walls are topped by egg-and-dart moldings, and there are marble candelabras next to these walls. There are arched openings at the top of the western wall, which support the ceiling, underneath which are archways leading to the first-floor rooms. The north and south walls contain piers. The names of major donors are inscribed on the pillars. There are two grand marble staircases on the north and south walls. The staircases ascend several steps away from the hall before turning 90 degrees westward at a landing and ascending parallel to each other toward the second floor, behind the piers on the north and south walls. There are bronze busts of Carrère and Hastings, created in 1940 and 1935 respectively, at the landings of the stairways. The Carrère bust is near the south (left) stair, while the Hastings bust is near the north (right) stair. At the second floor, a mezzanine level overlooks the west side of the lobby, behind the arches. Another pair of staircases continues to the McGraw Rotunda on the third floor. Each staircase passes through another landing, which has a domed ceiling and a hanging chandelier. #### Other spaces The Wallace Periodical Room in room 108 has been named for Reader's Digest founder DeWitt Wallace since 1983. It consists of current issues from 200 periodicals and 22 newspapers. The current design of the room dates from a renovation in the 1980s. The Periodical Room contains 13 murals of scenes from the history of New York City, which were designed by Richard Haas, The original design included cast-iron radiators, which were replaced with an air-circulation system under the windows. In addition, the room contains bronze chandeliers and sculptured ceilings. Behind Astor Hall's information desk is the Gottesman Exhibition Hall. It served as the Main Branch's primary display area from 1911 to 1942 and was subsequently divided into offices. The space reopened in 1984. The Gottesman Exhibition Hall is made of Vermont marble and is accessed by large bronze or wrought-iron doors. The room measures 83 by 77 feet (25 by 23 m) across and 18 feet (5.5 m) high. The room contains Vermont marble pilasters and columns, as well as bronze and leaded glass chandeliers hanging from a carved-oak ceiling. The ceiling largely contains sunken panels with various Renaissance-style decorations, but the outer section of the ceiling has octagonal coffers. The floor includes a grid of circles and rhombuses. ### Second floor The second floor contains the Jill Kupin Rose Gallery, which contains ongoing exhibitions. This floor contains several small rooms extending to the north, west, and south. One of these is the Wachenheim Trustees' Room, which contains wood paneling, parquet floors, and a fireplace made of white marble. Originally, this level contained director's and assistant director's offices; the Slavonic, Jewish, and Oriental Collections; and rooms for science, economics and sociology, and public documents. The former science room at room 225 is now the Cullman Center, while room 228, the former economics and sociology room, has been split into two rooms. As on the first floor, the second floor's north–south corridor extends the entire width of the floor, but the ceiling was made of plaster to save money. ### Third floor The McGraw Rotunda is on the east side of the building's third floor. The Print Gallery extends south from the rotunda; one publicly accessible room, the Wallach Division, is adjacent to the gallery. Similarly, the Stokes Gallery extends northward, with the Berg and Pforzheimer Collections branching off of it. The Salomon Room branches off the McGraw Rotunda to the east. To the west is the Bill Blass Public Catalog Room, which leads into the large Rose Main Reading Room. Unlike on the first and second stories, the main north–south corridor does not span the entire length of the third floor, as there are offices on either end. #### McGraw Rotunda The McGraw Rotunda (formerly Central Hall), despite its name, is a rectangular barrel-vaulted space. The rotunda measures three bays wide from north to south and two bays wide from west to east. On the north and south walls, the western bay is occupied by the main corridor, while the eastern bay contains stairs from Astor Hall. The Public Catalog Room is to the west, and the Salomon Room is to the east. The entrances to both rooms are flanked by freestanding marble pedestals; the Salomon Room also contains a pair of bronze double doors with carved panels. The floors are made of Hauteville and Gray Siena marble. The rotunda's walls contain red marble bases with dark wood piers, topped by a Corinthian entablature with dentils and modillions. The piers support a plaster or stucco barrel vault. On the north and south ends of the barrel vault are glazed semicircular windows. There are alcoves on the side walls, supported by columns with Corinthian capitals, which were intended to contain murals. The rotunda contains a set of panels painted by Edward Laning in the early 1940s as part of a WPA project. The work includes four large panels, two lunettes above doorways to the Public Catalog and Salomon Rooms, and a ceiling mural painted on the barrel vault. The four panels are located on the east and west walls and depict the development of the written word. The lunette above the Public Catalog Room's doorway is "Learning to Read", and the lunette about the Salomon Room's doorway is "The Student". The ceiling mural is called "Prometheus Bringing Fire to Men". The four panels and two lunettes were completed in 1940, and the ceiling mural was completed in 1942. #### Rose Main Reading Room The Main Branch's Deborah, Jonathan F. P., Samuel Priest, and Adam R. Rose Main Reading Room, officially Room 315 and commonly known as the Rose Main Reading Room, is located on the third floor of the Main Branch. The room is 78 by 297 feet (24 by 91 m) with a ceiling measuring about 52 feet high. Characterized by Robert A. M. Stern as one of the United States' largest column-free rooms, it is nearly as large as the Main Concourse at Grand Central Terminal. It was originally described as being in the Renaissance architectural style, but Matthew Postal described the room as having a Beaux-Arts design. Half of the space was used as an office and service center prior to the late 1990s. The Main Reading Room was renovated and renamed for the Rose family in 1998–1999; and further renovations to its ceiling were completed in 2016. The room became a New York City designated landmark in 2017. The room is separated into two sections of equal size by a book-delivery desk. The desk is made of oak and is covered by a canopy, with arches held up by Tuscan columns. The north hall leads to the Manuscripts and Archives Reading Room, while the south hall leads to the Art and Architecture Reading Room, both of which are designed in a similar style to the main room. Picture taking is only allowed in a small section of the south hall. The doorways into the Main Reading Room contain large round pediments, which contrast with the smaller triangular pediments in the branch's other reading rooms. There is intricate detail on the room's smaller metalwork, such as doorknobs and hinges. The floors of the Main Reading Room and the connected Catalog Room are composed of red tiles, with marble pavers set in between the tiles, which indicate how the furniture should be arranged. The marble pavers demarcate the boundaries of the aisles. The Main Reading Room is furnished with low wooden tables and chairs. There are two arrays of tables in each hall, separated by a wide aisle; each table has four brass lamps. The tables each measure 23 by 4 feet (7.0 by 1.2 m). Originally, there were 768 seats, but this was reduced to 490 in the late 20th century. The seating capacity has since been increased to 624 or 636. Each spot at each table is assigned a number. The room is also equipped with desktop computers providing access to library collections and the Internet, as well as docking facilities for laptops. The NYPL installed 48 desktop computers near the central book-delivery desk. Thirty of the room's forty-two wooden tables have power outlets, while twelve of the tables have no outlets and are intended only for reading. Readers may fill out forms requesting books brought to them from the library's closed stacks, which are delivered to the indicated seat numbers. Surrounding the room are thousands of reference works on open shelves along the room's main and balcony levels, which may be read openly. At the time of the library's opening, there were about 25,000 freely accessible reference works on the shelves. There are three levels of bookshelves: two on the main floor beneath the balcony, and one on the balcony. Above the top level of shelves is a duct carrying wiring and cables for the room. The walls are made of Caen stone and are designed to resemble limestone. Massive windows and grand chandeliers illuminate the space. There are eighteen grand archways, of which fifteen contain windows: nine face Bryant Park to the west, and six face east. The other three archways form a wall with the Public Catalog Room to its east, and the middle archway also contains windows that face into the Catalog Room. Each window contains low emissivity glass. There are two rows of nine chandeliers in the Main Reading Room, decorated with such details as satyr masks and acanthus leaves. These were originally fitted with incandescent light bulbs, an innovation at the time of the library's opening, and were powered by the library's own power plant. The lights on the chandeliers are arranged like an inverted cone, with four tiers of light bulbs. The plaster ceiling is supported on wire mesh, since there are no columns within the room. The ceiling is painted to emulate gilded wood, with moldings of classical and figurative details. The Klee-Thomson Company plastered the ceiling. According to Matthew Postal, the moldings include "scroll cartouches bordered by cherubs, nude female figures with wings, cherub heads, satyr masks, vases of fruit, foliate moldings, and disguised ventilation grilles." The moldings frame a three-part mural, created by James Wall Finn and completed in 1911. Though no clear photographs exist of the mural's original appearance, the mural in its present incarnation depicts clouds and sky. When the ceiling was restored in 1998, the original mural was deemed to be unsalvageable, and Yohannes Aynalem instead painted a reproduction. The ceiling was restored again from 2014 to 2016. Heating and ventilation grilles are embedded within the walls and ceiling. #### Public Catalog Room The Bill Blass Public Catalog Room, also located in Room 315, connects the McGraw Rotunda and the Main Reading Room; its central location makes it a de facto foyer for the reading room. The room measures 81 by 77 feet (25 by 23 m). Similar to the Main Reading Room, it has a 52-foot-high ceiling. Four chandeliers, of identical design to those in the Main Reading Room, hang from the ceiling. The ceiling of the Public Catalog Room also contains a 27-by-33-foot (8.2 by 10.1 m) section of James Wall Finn's 1911 mural. The building's light courts abut the room's northern and southern walls. The first renovation of the Catalog Room may have taken place in 1935, when its ceiling was repainted. Further modifications occurred in 1952 when metal cabinets replaced the original oak cabinets as a result of the catalog room's quick expansion, with 150,000 new catalog cards being added each year. The Catalog Room was restored in 1983 and renamed for Bill Blass in 1994. Computers were added following the 1980s expansion. There is an information desk on the north side on the room, to the right when entering from the rotunda. Originally, visitors would receive card slips with numbers on them and then be directed to one of the Main Reading Room's halves based on their card number. The Public Catalog Room also contains waist-high oak desks on the south side. These desks contain computers that allow New York Public Library cardholders to search the library's catalog. #### Salomon Room The Edna Barnes Salomon Room, located east of the McGraw Rotunda in Room 316, is usually utilized as an event space. It has wooden tables, glass exhibit cases, and a coved ceiling with a skylight. The 4,500-square-foot (420 m<sup>2</sup>) space was originally intended as a picture gallery, and oil paintings still hang on the walls. In 2009, it was converted to a "wireless Internet reading and study room" to provide overflow capacity for internet users who cannot fit in the Main Reading Room. ### Non-public stacks The stacks within the Schwarzman Building are a main feature of the building. Housed beneath the Rose Main Reading Room are a series of stacks, which hold an estimated 2.5 million books. At the time of the branch's opening, the stacks could hold 2.7 million books on 63.3 miles (101.9 km) of shelves. There were another 500,000 or 800,000 books stored in various reading rooms. The central stacks, as they are called, have a capacity of 3.5 million books across 88 miles of bookshelves, spanning seven stories. The stacks contain marble floors, as well as iron shelves that are set back from the windows facing Bryant Park. As of 2015, the Main Branch hosts 300,000 books in various reading rooms, though there are none in the central stacks themselves, due to the deteriorated condition of the stacks. There were proposals to demolish the central stacks to make room for the Mid-Manhattan Branch as part of the unrealized Central Library Plan in the early 2010s. As of 2019, the library's trustees had still not determined how to use the abandoned stacks in the main building. Another 84 miles of stacks under Bryant Park was added in an expansion between 1987 and 1991. The Bryant Park stacks comprise two levels of climate-controlled storage areas. The stacks under Bryant Park contain 1.2 million books on what is called "Level 1", which was completed in the 1991 expansion. A second level of stacks below it, "Level 2", had not been finished when the 1991 expansion was opened. Another 2.5 million books were being moved from the NYPL's ReCAP warehouse in New Jersey to Level 2 as of 2015, and when that was finished, the number of books in the Main Branch's stacks would rise to four million. The Level 2 stacks are called the "Milstein Stacks", after a major donor, and opened in January 2017. As of 2017, the stacks also contain about 400,000 circulating volumes that are usually housed in the Mid-Manhattan Branch, which was closed for renovations until 2020. Books are delivered from the Bryant Park stacks to the reading rooms on the first through third floors using the "book train". The \$2.6 million book delivery system was installed in 2016. It contains a conveyor belt and 24 small red carts emblazoned with the library's lion logo, which each carry up to 30 pounds (14 kg) of books between the stacks and the reading rooms. Each cart moves 75 feet (23 m) per minute and use gears to climb steep or vertical grades. Prior to the installation of the "book train", a Ferris wheel-style conveyor system was installed in the 1990s; it took ten minutes to retrieve a book using the old system, The "Ferris wheel" system, which was complemented by a dumbwaiter, itself replaced a 1920s-era book-delivery system and a 1960s-era dumbwaiter. The new book-delivery system was described as being twice as fast as the old system. ## Library Way Leading up to the Main Branch, on 41st Street between Park and Fifth Avenues, is a series of plaques known as Library Way. Library Way comprises a series of illustrated bronze sidewalk plaques featuring quotes from famous authors, poets, and other notables. It features 48 unique plaques in all, but each plaque is duplicated along the north and the south sides of 41st Street, thus totaling 96 plaques. According to The Wall Street Journal, a panel composed of "the Grand Central Partnership, which manages the Grand Central Business Improvement District; and the New Yorker magazine" chose the quotes in the 1990s, while Gregg LeFevre designed the plaques. Each plaque measures 2.5 feet (0.76 m) wide and 1.5 feet (0.46 m) long; originally, there were 98 such plaques. The first three, by Francis Bacon, Emily Dickinson, and Virginia Woolf, were installed in front of 18 East 41st Street in 2002. Brochures are available at the Friends of the Library counter in the Main Branch's Astor Hall, on the first floor. Granite plaques of similar style can also be seen on the sidewalks of Broadway in Manhattan's Financial District, placed in honor of ticker tape parades held there in the past, as well as on Broadway in the Garment District, where plaques commemorate fashion designers. ## Landmark designations The Main Branch was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1965 and listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1966. The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission designated the exterior as a landmark in 1967. The Landmarks Preservation Commission subsequently designated Astor Hall, the first-to-third-floor stairs, and McGraw Rotunda as landmarks in 1974. The Rose Main Reading Room and Public Catalog Room were separately made New York City designated landmarks in 2017, after a four-year effort. ## In popular culture ### Film The Main Branch appears or is depicted in multiple films, including: - 42nd Street (1933) - The Clock (1945) - On the Town (1949) - Pickup on South Street (1953) - Breakfast at Tiffany's (1961) - Two for the Seesaw (1962) - You're a Big Boy Now (1966) - The Possession of Joel Delaney (1972) - Network (1976) - The Wiz (1978) - Ghostbusters (1984) - Prizzi's Honor (1984) - Regarding Henry (1991) - Quiz Show (1994) - Picture Perfect (1997) - The Thomas Crown Affair (1999) - Finding Forrester (2002) - Head over Heels (2001) - Maid in Manhattan (2002) - Spider-Man (2002) - The Time Machine (2002) - 13 Going on 30 (2004) - The Day After Tomorrow (2004) - Shortcut to Happiness (2004) - Spider-Man 3 (2007) - Sex and the City (2008) - Uncertainty (2008) - Arthur (2011) - The Adjustment Bureau (2011) - We'll Take Manhattan (2012) - Winter's Tale (2014) - Ex Libris: The New York Public Library (2017) ### Television Episodes of TV series that depicted the Main Branch included "The Library", an episode of Seinfeld, as well as "The Persistence of Memory", the eleventh part of Carl Sagan's TV series Cosmos. ### Literature The Main Branch also appears in literature, including: - Lawrence Blochman's Death Walks in Marble Halls (1942) - Jane Smiley's Duplicate Keys (1984) - Akimi Yoshida's Banana Fish (1985) - Allen Kurzweil's The Grand Complication (2001) - Cynthia Ozick's Heir to the Glimmering World (2004) - Lynne Sharon Schwartz's Writing on the Wall (2005) - Peng Shepherd's The Cartographers (2022) Poems include: - E. B. White's "A Library Lion Speaks" and "Reading Room" in Poems and Sketches of E.B. White (1981) - Richard Eberhart's "Reading Room, The New York Public Library", in Collected Poems, 1930–1986 (1988) - Lawrence Ferlinghetti's "Library Scene, Manhattan", in How to Paint Sunlight (2001) Excerpts from several of the many memoirs and essays mentioning the Main Branch are included in the anthology Reading Rooms (1991), including reminiscences by Alfred Kazin, Henry Miller, and Kate Simon. ## See also - List of National Historic Landmarks in New York City - List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan from 14th to 59th Streets - List of New York Public Library Branches - National Register of Historic Places listings in Manhattan from 14th to 59th Streets - New York Public Library in popular culture
5,453,126	HMS Penelope (1867)	1,149,451,747	British central-battery ironclad	[ "1867 ships", "Battleships of the Royal Navy", "Maritime incidents in January 1876", "Maritime incidents in January 1881", "Ships built in Pembroke Dock", "Victorian-era battleships of the United Kingdom" ]	HMS Penelope was a central-battery ironclad built for the Royal Navy in the late 1860s and was rated as an armoured corvette. She was designed for inshore work with a shallow draught, and this severely compromised her performance under sail. Completed in 1868, the ship spent the next year with the Channel Fleet before she was assigned to the First Reserve Squadron in 1869 and became the coast guard ship for Harwich until 1887. Penelope was mobilised as tensions with Russia rose during the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78 and participated in the Bombardment of Alexandria during the Anglo-Egyptian War of 1882. The ship became a receiving ship in South Africa in 1888 and then a prison hulk in 1897. She was sold for scrap in 1912. ## Design The chief constructor, Sir Edward Reed, was ill, so the design of this ship was entrusted to his assistant and brother-in-law, Nathaniel Barnaby, himself a future chief constructor. For reasons that have not survived, the Admiralty required that Penelope to be a ship of unusually shallow draught, possibly in light of the operations in the shallow Baltic Sea during the Crimean War of 1854–1855. The ship was 260 feet (79.2 m) long between perpendiculars and had a beam of 50 feet (15.2 m). She had a draught of 15 feet 9 inches (4.8 m) forward and 17 feet 4 inches (5.3 m) aft. Penelope displaced 4,394 long tons (4,465 t) and had a tonnage of 3,096 tons burthen. She had a complement of 350 officers and ratings. She was the first British capital ship to be fitted with a washroom. Penelope had a pair of Maudslay three-cylinder, horizontal-return, connecting-rod steam engines, each driving a single 14-foot (4.3 m) propeller. The engines used steam provided by four boilers with a working pressure of 30.5 psi (210 kPa; 2 kgf/cm<sup>2</sup>). The ship reached a speed of 12.76 knots (23.63 km/h; 14.68 mph) from 4,703 indicated horsepower (3,507 kW) during her sea trials on 1 July 1868. She carried a maximum of 500 tons of coal, enough to steam 1,360 nautical miles (2,520 km; 1,570 mi) at 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph). The shallow-draught requirement forced Barnaby to build her with twin screws, as a single screw of larger diameter would have been mounted insufficiently deep to be effective. The Admiralty also wanted hoistable propellers as the reports from Pallas and Favorite, with their fixed propellers, were distinctly uncomplimentary about their sailing qualities. She was the only twin-screw ship ever to have hoisting screws. Provision for the hoisting frames and twin rudders forced a very unusual shape to the stern, which unintentionally greatly increased drag. The other issue was that the shallowness of her draught made her very unhandy under sail, and she was described as "drifting to leeward in a wind like a tea tray". Penelope was ship-rigged with three masts and a sail area of 18,250 square feet (1,695 m<sup>2</sup>). Her speed under sail alone was only 8.5 knots (15.7 km/h; 9.8 mph). Her shallow draught gave her a metacentric height of 2.7 feet (0.8 m) at deep load, which made her a very steady gun platform. Penelope's main armament of eight rifled muzzle-loading (RML) 8-inch (203 mm) guns was concentrated amidships in a box battery. The guns at the corners of the battery were given additional gun ports, embrasured into the sides of the hull, to give her a limited amount of end-on fire. The shell of the 8-inch gun weighed 175 pounds (79.4 kg) and was rated with the ability to penetrate 9.6 inches (244 mm) of wrought-iron armour. The ship mounted three rifled breech-loading (RBL) 5-inch (127 mm) Armstrong guns as chase guns, one in the stern and two under the forecastle in the bow, although these were judged to be very ineffective weapons. She also carried a pair of RBL 20-pounder 3.75-inch (95 mm) Armstrong saluting guns. The waterline wrought iron armour belt of Penelope covered her entire length. It was 6 inches (152 mm) thick amidships, backed by 10–11 inches (254–279 mm) of wood, and thinned to 5 inches towards the ends of the ship. It had a total height of 5 feet 6 inches (1.7 m), of which 4 feet (1.2 m) was below water and 1 foot 6 inches (0.5 m) above. The sides of the 68-foot-long (20.7 m) box battery were also 6 inches thick, and its ends were protected by 4.5-inch (114 mm) bulkheads. Between the battery and the belt was a 96-foot-long (29 m) strake of 6-inch armour, also closed off by 4.5-inch bulkheads. ## Construction and career Penelope, named after the wife of Odysseus, was the fifth ship of her name to serve in the Royal Navy. She was ordered in February 1865 and was the first iron-hulled ship to be built at Pembroke Dockyard. The ship was laid down on 4 September and was launched by the wife of the new captain-superintendent of the dockyard, Captain Robert Hall, on 18 June 1867. Penelope was completed at Devonport Dockyard on 27 June 1868 for the cost of £196,789 and served in the Channel Fleet until June 1869. She was then guard ship at Harwich until 1882, which included summer cruises in company with the rest of the reserve fleet. On 7 January 1876, the German merchant ship Victoria ran into her at Harwich, causing minor damage. She was part of the Particular Service Squadron mobilised during the Russian war scare of June–August 1878. On 18 January 1881, she was driven from her moorings at Harwich and ran aground in the River Stour. In 1882, she was at Gibraltar under command of Captain St George Caulfield D'Arcy-Irvine when the Anglo-Egyptian War began, and her shallow draught caused her to be sent to Egypt. Upon arrival in Alexandria, she assisted with the evacuation of European refugees for several days before the bombardment of the city began on 11 July. Penelope was the ship closest to the Egyptian forts and fired 231 rounds during the battle. The ship was only lightly damaged by Egyptian shells, with eight men wounded, one eight-inch gun damaged and one mainyard needing to be replaced. She became Rear-Admiral Anthony Hoskins's flagship when the British seized the Suez Canal to allow their troop transports to land at Ismailia. On 11 March 1883, Penelope was run into by the steam collier Dunelm at Sheerness, sustaining minor damage. Penelope returned home after the war for a further five years' service at Harwich. She was paid off in 1887, refitted, and sent to Simonstown, South Africa, as a receiving ship the following year. In January 1897, Penelope was converted to a prison hulk and then sold for scrap on 12 July 1912 for the price of £1,650. The ship was broken up at Genoa, Italy, in 1914.
27,814,169	2010 AAA 400	1,112,076,211	null	[ "2010 NASCAR Sprint Cup Series", "2010 in sports in Delaware", "NASCAR races at Dover Motor Speedway" ]	The 2010 AAA 400 was a NASCAR Sprint Cup Series stock car race held on September 26, 2010, at Dover International Speedway in Dover, Delaware. The 400 lap race was the twenty-eighth in the 2010 NASCAR Sprint Cup Series, as well as the second race in the ten-race Chase for the Sprint Cup, which ends the season. The race was won by Jimmie Johnson, of the Hendrick Motorsports team. Jeff Burton finished second, and Joey Logano, who started nineteenth, clinched third. Pole position driver Jimmie Johnson maintained his lead on the first lap to begin the race, as A. J. Allmendinger, who started in the second position on the grid, remained behind him. Fourteen laps later Allmendinger became the leader of the race. Chase for the Sprint Cup participants Clint Bowyer, and Tony Stewart were in the top ten for most of the race, but in the closing laps all of them suffered spins or other problems. Afterward, Johnson became the leader of the race, once Allmendinger made a pit stop because of a loose wheel. Johnson maintained the first position to lead the most laps of 191, and to win his sixth race of the season. There were four cautions and eighteen lead changes among ten different drivers throughout the course of the race. It was Jimmie Johnson's sixth win in the 2010 season, and the fifty-third of his career. The result moved Johnson up to second in the Drivers' Championship, thirty-five points behind Denny Hamlin and ten ahead of Kyle Busch. Chevrolet maintained its lead in the Manufacturers' Championship, thirty-five ahead of Toyota and eighty ahead of Ford, with eight races remaining in the season. A total of 88,000 people attended the race, while 3.966 million watched it on television. ## Report ### Background Dover International Speedway is one of five short tracks to hold NASCAR races; the others are Bristol Motor Speedway, Richmond International Raceway, Martinsville Speedway, and Phoenix International Raceway. The NASCAR race makes use of the track's standard configuration, a four-turn short track oval that is 1 mile (1.6 km) long. The track's turns are banked at twenty-four degrees. The front stretch, the location of the finish line, is banked at nine degrees with the backstretch. The racetrack has seats for 135,000 spectators. Before the race, Denny Hamlin led the Drivers' Championship with 5,230 points, and Kevin Harvick stood in second with 5,185. Kyle Busch was third in the Drivers' Championship with 5,168, thirteen ahead of Jeff Gordon and twenty-four ahead of Kurt Busch in fourth and fifth. Jimmie Johnson with 5,138 was three points ahead of Carl Edwards, as Greg Biffle with 5,122 points, was four ahead of Jeff Burton, and sixteen in front of Tony Stewart. Matt Kenseth and Clint Bowyer was eleventh and twelfth with 5,094 and 5,045 points. In the Manufacturers' Championship, Chevrolet was leading with 197 points, thirty-two points ahead of their rival Toyota. Ford, with 123 points, was fourteen points ahead of Dodge in the battle for third. Jimmie Johnson was the race's defending champion. ### Practice and qualifying Three practice sessions were held before the Sunday race—one on Friday, and two on Saturday. The first session lasted 90 minutes, while the second session lasted 45 minutes. The third and final session lasted 60 minutes. During the first practice session, Ryan Newman, for the Stewart Haas Racing team, was quickest ahead of Carl Edwards in second and Kasey Kahne in the third position. Clint Bowyer was scored fourth and Greg Biffle managed fifth. Matt Kenseth, Kyle Busch, A. J. Allmendinger, Mark Martin, and Jeff Gordon rounded out the top ten quickest drivers in the session. Forty-five cars were entered for qualifying, but only forty-three could race because of NASCAR's qualifying procedure. Jimmie Johnson clinched his twenty-fifth pole position in the Sprint Cup Series, with a time of 23.116 seconds. He was joined on the front row of the grid by A. J. Allmendinger. Mark Martin qualified third, Martin Truex Jr. took fourth, and Denny Hamlin started fifth. Tony Stewart, one of the drivers in the Chase for the Sprint Cup, qualified twenty-sixth, while Kevin Harvick was scored thirty-fourth. The three drivers that failed to qualify for the race were Ted Musgrave, Josh Wise, and Jeff Green. Once the qualifying session ended, Johnson said, "This is certainly a step in the right direction for momentum. Last weekend, we ran much better than where we finished. It stinks that we finished where we did, but there is nothing we can really do about it." Mark Martin, who originally qualified third, started forty-second, after having his time disallowed where the right rear shock exceeded the maximum allowable gas pressure. On the next morning, David Reutimann was quickest in the second practice session, ahead of Kyle Busch and Kurt Busch in second and third. Juan Pablo Montoya was fourth quickest, and Jimmie Johnson took fifth. Greg Biffle, Clint Bowyer, Jamie McMurray, Jeff Burton, and Jeff Gordon followed in the top-ten. Other drivers in the chase, such as Carl Edwards, was twentieth, and Kevin Harvick, who was twenty-sixth. During the third, and final practice session, Joey Logano, with a fastest time of 23.802, was quickest. Clint Bowyer and Jeff Burton followed in second and third with times of 23.844 and 23.851 seconds. Matt Kenseth managed to be fourth fastest, ahead of Martin Truex Jr. and Marcos Ambrose. Denny Hamlin was scored seventh, Jimmie Johnson took eighth, A. J. Allmendinger was ninth, and Brad Keselowski. During the third practice session, Denny Hamlin and Kevin Harvick collided with each other. Once they both drove to the garage, they were talking out of anger from the comments that Denny Hamlin had about Clint Bowyer's penalty after New Hampshire. Once the argument ended, Denny Hamlin stated, "There really was just a lot of cursing. That's all that was being said. There was really nothing logical being said between the two teams." Richard Childress, the owner of the Bowyer's racecar, commented, "When you're talking about comments, you can't win a pissing match with a skunk. There are two things I've learned. One thing is that. The other is that you don't throw stones if you live in a glass house." Afterward, Robin Pemberton commented about the collision by saying, "They just got together in practice, and that's fine. Sometimes you get together in practice like that." ### Race The race, the twenty-eighth out of a total of thirty-six in the season, began at 1:00 p.m. EDT and was televised live in the United States on ESPN. Prior to the race, weather conditions were partly cloudy with the air temperature around 70 °F (21 °C). Dan Schafer, pastor of Calvary Assembly of God in Hightstown, New Jersey, began pre-race ceremonies, by giving the invocation. Next, Mercury recording artist Jessie James performed the national anthem, and Marke Dickinson, senior vice president of AAA Mid-Atlantic, gave the command for drivers to start their engines. Jimmie Johnson retained his pole position lead into the first corner, followed by A. J. Allmendinger in the second position. Denny Hamlin, who started fourth, had fallen into fifth by the second lap. One lap later, Juan Pablo Montoya moved into fourth, as Ryan Newman emerged in twelfth. After the seventh lap, Johnson remained in first, as Jeff Gordon moved into thirteenth. Allmendinger emerged in first after passing Johnson on lap 14. Mark Martin had gained the most positions, with eleven, by the eighteenth lap. On lap 23, Allmendinger remained the leader ahead of Johnson and Martin Truex Jr. Allmendinger began putting other drivers a lap behind by lap 24, with Mike Bliss. After 28 consecutive laps under the green flag, Allmendinger was 1.2 second ahead of Johnson in the second position. Joe Nemechek was put a lap down on lap 31; Bobby Labonte followed Nemechek six laps later. Allmendinger's lead of 1.2 seconds was reduced to nothing when the pace car was on track for the first caution. It was given because a cover for one of a caution light's cover had loosened. When the drivers made pit stops, Allmendinger remained the leader, but Johnson lost three positions, falling to fifth. Tony Stewart was the only team to change only two tires, which resulted him to move toward the front of the grid. However, once the race resumed he was losing positions quickly. Gordon, who started fifteenth, had gained seven positions to eighth by lap 47. The second caution followed three laps later because David Reutimann collided into the wall after contact from Newman. Reutimann's car sustained only minor damages. Kevin Harvick went to pit road under the caution, in which afterward his rear tire changer fell and hurt his wrist. Allmendinger led on the restart, ahead of Martin Truex Jr. in second. On lap 61, Montoya moved into the third position after passing Greg Biffle. Johnson followed Montoya, by passing Biffle one lap later for fourth. After the sixty-sixth lap, Allmendinger had led more laps in the race so far than his 107 previous starts. Joey Logano, after starting nineteenth had moved to twelfth by lap 68. Five laps later, Hamlin fell to the eighth position. Stewart, who chose only two tire changes on his first pit stop, had fallen to twentieth after eighty laps. By lap 85, Allmendinger had a 2.9 second lead over Martin Truex Jr. Afterward, Scott Speed was put a lap down and Kurt Busch moved to the fifth spot. On lap 93, Johnson emerged in second after passing Montoya and Truex. Five laps later, Casey Mears went a lap down after Allmendinger passed him. After 104 laps, Carl Edwards rounded out the top-ten positions. Eight laps later, Allmendinger began green flag pit stops. Truex became the new leader, followed by Logano, Reed Sorenson, and Labonte. On lap 122, Allmendinger reclaimed the first position and extended his lead to over five seconds. On lap 138, Edwards moved to ninth while Truex remained second. Montoya maintained the seventh position until 145, when Edwards passed him. After 147 laps, Hamlin was running in sixth, and Jeff Gordon was tenth. By lap 155, Allmendinger had a 4.3 lead over second place. Clint Bowyer collided with the wall three laps later, and only sustained side damage. On lap 162, Johnson claimed the second position from Truex. Ten laps later, Johnson reclaimed the lead after Allmendinger fell to 27th while making a pit stop. On lap 186, the third caution was given when Matt Kenseth gathered damage from a flat tire because of missing the entrance of pit road. Johnson maintained the first position under the pit stops, ahead of Truex and Kyle Busch. One lap later, Gordon moved into third, as Hamlin fell to sixth. On lap 202, Kyle Busch reclaimed third away from Gordon. Truex had a loose wheel after pit stops, resulting in him coming to pit road. Once his pit stop completed, his rear axle broke. Edwards, then, passed Gordon for fifth, as Jeff Burton moved into fourth. On lap 219, Gordon had fallen to sixth while his teammate Jimmie Johnson had led sixty-four laps to this point in the race. After 230 laps, there were only nineteen drivers on the same lap as Johnson. Five laps later, Edwards passed Jeff Burton to move into fourth. Afterward, Paul Menard passed Jamie McMurray for the tenth position. By the 249th lap, Johnson had a 3.21 second lead, ahead of Kyle Busch, who collided with the wall once lap later. On lap 266, another set of green flag pit stops began. Afterward, Johnson led Kyle Busch by 1.95 seconds. On lap 290, debris prompted the fourth caution of the race. Kyle Busch passed Johnson during pit stops to lead on the restart. Two laps later, Logano passed Johnson for the second position. On lap 299, Kyle Busch had a 1.36 second lead over second place. Three laps later, Paul Menard moved into the seventh position while Kurt Busch challenged Jeff Burton for fourth. Johnson then moved into second after passing Logano on lap 320. Less than five laps later, Kevin Harvick complained to his crew about his car handling problems. Allmendinger, after his unscheduled pit stop earlier in the race, had moved up to tenth by lap 330. Seven laps later, Johnson reclaimed the first position from Kyle Busch. Afterward, Jeff Burton moved into the third position. Burton, then passed Kyle Busch for second seven laps later. By the 349th lap, Johnson has a 1.23 second lead over Burton, as Harvick made a pit stop. On lap 360, more green flag pit stops began, as Hamlin and Gordon made pit stops. Three laps later, Johnson made a pit stop, giving the lead to Edwards who subsequently made a pit stop himself, returning the lead to Johnson. On lap 371, McMurray moved into eleventh after Sam Hornish Jr.'s car ignited on pit road. Johnson had a lead of 2.37 seconds over Burton after pit stops ended. Jimmie Johnson maintained the lead to win his sixth race of the 2010 season. Jeff Burton finished second, ahead of Joey Logano in third and Kurt Busch in fourth. Carl Edwards clinched the fifth position, after starting tenth. ### Post-race Jimmie Johnson appeared in victory lane after his victory lap to start celebrating his sixth win of the season, in front of a crowd of 88,000 people. Afterward, his crew chief, Chad Knaus said, "We really had our hands full this weekend." He continued with, "We came in qualifying trim, and as we unloaded, the car wasn’t reacting the way we anticipated. So we had to make some pretty significant changes, and when it came time to qualify, we had to put a setup under there that Jimmie hadn’t felt yet. For race practice, we weren’t where we needed to be then either. Honestly, we could adjust the car and make it do some different things, but we couldn’t really make the car better. The difference today was definitely the driver." "It was a mediocre day. I hate that we didn’t run better, but we got close to where we wanted to be leaving Dover. It’s frustrating that we still can’t get a grasp on this race track and didn’t run as well as we did in the spring. But if you told me I’d be taking a 35 point lead out of Dover, I’d take it," said ninth-place finisher, Denny Hamlin. Next, Jeff Burton, who finished second, said: > "We thought we had a really good car coming into the race today. We took off and struggled a little bit with rear grip, and worked all day to get the grip level right. About halfway through that next to last run, my car got really happy and took off. I’m proud of us for getting the car right at the right time. About 15 laps into that next to last run, Jimmie cleared Logano and got really fast. He was just a little quicker than we were today." Hamlin maintained the Drivers' championship lead with 5,368 points. Johnson stood in second, thirty five points behind Hamlin, and ten ahead of Kyle Busch. Kurt Busch, after finishing fourth in the race, remained in the fourth position with 5,309 points. Kevin Harvick was fifth, as Carl Edwards, Burton, Jeff Gordon, Greg Biffle, and Tony Stewart followed in the top-ten positions. The final two positions available in the Chase for the Sprint Cup was occupied with Matt Kenseth in eleventh and Clint Bowyer in twelfth. In the Manufacturers' Championship, Chevrolet maintained their lead with 206 points. Toyota remained second with 171 points. Ford followed with 126 points, thirteen points ahead of Dodge in fourth. 3.966 million people watched the race on television. The race took three hours, two minutes and twenty-seven seconds to complete, and the margin of victory was 2.637 seconds. ## Results ### Qualifying ### Race results ## Standings after the race Drivers' Championship standings Manufacturers' Championship standings - Note: Only the top twelve positions are included for the driver standings. These drivers qualified for the Chase for the Sprint Cup.
31,697,337	Fast Lane (Bad Meets Evil song)	1,148,460,773	null	[ "2011 singles", "2011 songs", "Bad Meets Evil songs", "Interscope Records singles", "Shady Records singles", "Song recordings produced by Eminem", "Songs written by Eminem", "Songs written by Jason Gilbert", "Songs written by Luis Resto (musician)", "Songs written by Royce da 5'9\"", "Songs written by Supa Dups" ]	"Fast Lane" is the lead single by hip hop duo Bad Meets Evil, a group composed of Royce da 5'9" and Eminem, from their first EP Hell: The Sequel. The single was produced by Eminem, Supa Dups, and Jason "JG" Gilbert, and released on May 3, 2011 by Shady Records. It features uncredited vocals by Sly Jordan on the chorus. A music video was created by director James Larese of music video direction group Syndrome. The music video features animated visuals and kinetic typography, with cameo appearances by Mr. Porter and Slaughterhouse. Fans and critics considered it a return to Eminem's Slim Shady alter ego. Texas rapper Chamillionaire released a remix. The song was well received compared to the rest of the EP and was considered a highlight of Hell: The Sequel. Critics favored the song for its change from Eminem's theme in Recovery. Rolling Stone called it "1999-style". Bad Meets Evil performed this song at the 2011 Bonnaroo Music & Arts Festival and the Lollapalooza music festival. ## Background Bad Meets Evil first formed in 1998. The group's first single under the name was "Nuttin' to Do" / "Scary Movies". However, the group went their own separate ways in late 2002. Royce da 5'9" and Eminem have since collaborated on other songs, but not under the name "Bad Meets Evil". In late 2010, Eminem and Royce da 5'9" began collaborating as Bad Meets Evil after 11 years of inactivity within the group. "Fast Lane" was released as the lead single for their then-upcoming extended play, titled Hell: The Sequel. The song was released May 3, 2011 by Shady Records. "Fast Lane" was recorded by Mike Strange at Effigy Studios, in Ferndale, Michigan. Recorded a few months before its release, the song was written by Eminem, and Sly "Pyper" Jordan (from "Seduction" and "Kush"), who also sings the chorus to the song. According to an interview with MTV, Eminem requested that Sly perform the chorus, after hearing Dr. Dre's "Kush". Supa Dups and Jason "JG" Gilbert produced the song and Eminem and Mike Strange mixed the song. JG and Supa Dups also sample their own vocals. According to Supa Dups, he was asked to make a beat with JG, without knowing it was for Bad Meets Evil. He said that "[They] didn't even have Eminem in mind [when they made the beat]." According to this interview with Mixtape Daily, Supa Dups had little knowledge about the project, but simply submitted the beat to Eminem: > I didn't even know the project was coming out. I didn't know what the beat was for; I just knew Eminem asked me for the files and I sent it to them. ... When I saw Eminem in L.A. for Grammy weekend, Eminem said, 'Yeah, he ripped the track.' Later on that day, I met Royce, and Royce was like, 'Yeah, download that track man. We ripped that track. That's the first single.' I was like, 'What?' But until then, I still wasn't sure. Months after recording the song, on April 28, 2011, when it leaked onto the Internet, Supa Dups was impressed by the finished version, "I was like, 'Damn, this record is crazy.'" He was impressed by the song, lyrically, and was proud to have participated in the project. "Fast Lane" is a midwestern hip hop song. It has two main parts to the song. The first half of the four-minute song begins with a verse performed by Royce da 5'9", followed by Eminem's verse. After the chorus, the second half has two verses by each rapper, followed by the chorus for the final time. ## Critical reception "Fast Lane" was received favorably by critics. Upon the release on the EP, Hell: The Sequel, Billboard editor Jason Lipshutz published a track-by-track review. According to Lipshutz, "Fast Lane" is "G-funk on steroids, with sing-song refrain breaking up crushing mic-trading bout between Royce da 5'9" and Eminem." He also referred to "Fast Lane" as one of the highlight songs of the album. Rolling Stone gave a positive review. According to Jon Dolan of Rolling Stone, "Eminem kicks 'Fast Lane' 1999-style, reconnecting with the hungry young lunatic who sounded like he only had a stanza to blow us away or it was back to the auto plant." Dolan also commented on the infamous lyric "I hope that I don't sound too heinous when I say this, Nicki Minaj, but I wanna stick my penis in your anus," saying that Eminem has been much more heinous before. According to Kyle Anderson of Entertainment Weekly, Royce da 5'9" performs extremely well on the "hard-hitting" song, even calling him a "lyrical beast". Although music website Consequence of Sound gave a rather mixed review on the EP as a whole, editor Winston Robbins favored "Fast Lane" and said that it is "hands down one of the best hip-hop tracks of 2011" and that the rapping is "second to none". ## Music video The music video was directed by James Larese of collective group Syndrome, a group that also directed videos for two other Eminem songs: "3 a.m." and "Crack a Bottle". A 40-second video teaser was released on May 27, 2011, on Eminem's YouTube channel, which shows the part of the video during the first time the chorus plays, confirming Sly Jordan's appearance in the video and the use of cartoon animation. In an interview with Bootleg Kev, Royce da 5'9" revealed that a lot of the ideas for the animated visuals featured in the music video were Eminem's ideas. The video was first expected to release on May 31, 2011. However, the date was delayed. The video premiered on June 8, 2011, at noon EST on VEVO and Bad Meets Evil's official website. The music video features animated visuals of the lyrics and kinetic typography of some lyrics, with the duo rapping in a warehouse-like setting. Royce da 5'9" and Eminem both interact with the animations and occasionally hold and use them as actual objects. When transitioning between rappers, Eminem and Royce push each other out when it is their turn. Notable scenes include a cartoon blonde girl who gets 'drowned' by Eminem, inside a fish-bowl and then decapitated. Another scene includes Bad Meets Evil riding a green animated car, crashing into several obstacles, during the chorus. Sly Jordan appears in the video, singing the chorus. The music video features cameo appearances from American rapper and producer Mr. Porter of D12, who lip syncs part of the chorus, and members of hip hop supergroup Slaughterhouse near the end of the video. Near the end of the video, Royce and Eminem try to stand in front of each other for attention. The video ends with them being pushed out of the way by the Bad Meets Evil logo. The video became notable for its humorous content. There's an "Director's Cut" version to the music video in where instead of holding words when talking about Nicki Minaj Eminem can be seen as holding a sausage and a hot dog bun. ## Live performances Eminem and Royce da 5'9" made their debut live performance as Bad Meets Evil for "Fast Lane" and "Lighters" at the 2011 Bonnaroo Music & Arts Festival. According to James Montgomery of MTV, "what stood out the most about Em[inem]'s performance was the sheer tenacity with which he attacked it." Other than Royce, he was also accompanied by his hypeman Mr. Porter of D12 and performed wearing a black Bad Meets Evil T-shirt, under a black hoodie. The duo's performance was complemented by the "Fast Lane" music video playing in the background. "Fast Lane" was performed with Porter on the second day of Lollapalooza 2011, which took place in Chicago. The song was referred to by Gil Kaufman of MTV as a "low-rider anthem". Prior to the performance, Eminem changed into the Bad Meets Evil T-shirt. ## Remixes and appearances in other media Texas rapper Chamillionaire recorded a remix of the song which was released on May 8, 2011. The song was not officially released to iTunes, however. The remix features two added verses by Chamillionaire between Eminem's and Royce Da 5'9"'s verses; one before the first time the chorus plays, and another verse after the chorus. He also replaces Sly Jordan with a modified chorus with different lyrics. The remix is five and a half minutes long. The track was featured on both the soundtracks of the 2011 film Real Steel, and on 2K Sports' NBA 2K12. The track was also used for HBO's Entourage season 8 trailer and the Extended First Look trailer for Fast & Furious 6. The song was featured in the Final Fantasy XV trailer "Ride Together' ## Credits and personnel - Eminem – co-producer, songwriter and audio mixer - Royce da 5'9" – songwriter - Supa Dups – songwriter, producer, drum programming, vocal arrangement and additional backing vocals - Jason "JG" Gilbert – songwriter, co-producer, keyboards, additional backing vocals - Mike Strange – recording and audio mixer - Sly "Pyper" Jordan – songwriter and additional chorus vocals - Luis Resto – songwriter and additional keyboards Credits adapted from Hell: The Sequel album digital booklet. ## Charts ## Certifications
573,822	Operation Pedestal	1,172,143,294	Battle in the Mediterranean Sea in 1942 during WWII	[ "1942 in Malta", "20th century in Malta", "Aerial operations and battles of World War II involving the United Kingdom", "August 1942 events", "Conflicts in 1942", "Italian naval victories in the battle of the Mediterranean", "Malta Convoys", "Naval aviation operations and battles", "Naval battles and operations of World War II involving the United Kingdom", "Naval battles and operations of the European theatre of World War II", "Naval battles of World War II involving Italy", "WS (Winston Special) Convoys" ]	Operation Pedestal (Italian: Battaglia di Mezzo Agosto, Battle of mid-August), known in Malta as Il-Konvoj ta' Santa Marija (Santa Maria Convoy), was a British operation to carry supplies to the island of Malta in August 1942, during the Second World War. Malta was a base from which British ships, submarines and aircraft attacked Axis convoys to Libya, during the North African Campaign (1940–1943). From 1940 to 1942, the Axis conducted the Siege of Malta, with air and naval forces. Despite many losses, enough supplies were delivered by the British for the population and military forces on Malta to resist, although it ceased to be an offensive base for much of 1942. The most crucial supply item in Operation Pedestal was fuel, carried by Ohio, an American tanker with a British crew. The convoy sailed from Britain on 3 August 1942 and passed through the Strait of Gibraltar into the Mediterranean on the night of 9/10 August. The Axis attempt to prevent the fifty ships of the convoy reaching Malta, using bombers, German E-boats, Italian MAS and MS boats, minefields and submarine ambushes, was the last sizeable Axis success in the Mediterranean. More than 500 Merchant and Royal Navy sailors and airmen were killed and only five of the fourteen merchant ships reached Grand Harbour. While costly for the Allies, it was a strategic victory; the arrival of Ohio justified the decision to hazard so many warships; its cargo of aviation fuel revitalised the Maltese air offensive against Axis shipping. Submarines returned to Malta and Supermarine Spitfires flown from the aircraft carrier HMS Furious enabled a maximum effort to be made against Axis ships. Italian convoys had to detour further away from the island, lengthening the journey and increasing the time during which air and naval attacks could be mounted. The Siege of Malta was broken by the Allied reconquest of Egypt and Libya after the Second Battle of El Alamein (23 October – 11 November) and by Operation Torch (8–16 November) in the western Mediterranean, which enabled land-based aircraft to escort merchant ships to the island. ## Background ### Allied operations The Allies waged the Western Desert Campaign (1940–43) in North Africa, against the Axis forces of Italy aided by Germany, which sent the Deutsches Afrika Korps and substantial Luftwaffe detachments to the Mediterranean in late 1940. Up to the end of the year, 21 ships with 160,000 long tons (160,000 t) of cargo had reached Malta without loss and a reserve of seven months' supplies had been accumulated. Three convoys to Malta in 1941 suffered the loss of only one merchant ship. From January 1941 to August 1942, 46 ships had delivered 320,000 long tons (330,000 t) but 25 ships had been sunk and modern, efficient, merchant ships, naval and air forces had been diverted from other routes for long periods; 31 supply runs by submarines had been conducted. Reinforcements for Malta included 19 costly and dangerous aircraft carrier ferry operations to deliver fighters. From August 1940 to the end of August 1942, 670 Hawker Hurricane and Supermarine Spitfire fighters had been flown off carriers in the western Mediterranean. Many other aircraft used Malta as a staging post for North Africa and the Desert Air Force. Malta was a base for air, sea and submarine operations against Axis supply convoys and from 1 June to 31 October 1941, British forces sank about 220,000 long tons (220,000 t) of Axis shipping on the African convoy routes, 94,000 long tons (96,000 t) by the navy and 115,000 long tons (117,000 t) by the Royal Air Force (RAF) and Fleet Air Arm (FAA). Loaded ships sailing to Africa accounted for 90 per cent of the ships sunk and Malta-based squadrons were responsible for about 75 per cent of those ships sunk by aircraft. Military operations from Malta and using the island as a staging post, led to Axis air campaigns against the island in 1941 and 1942. By late July, the 80 fighters on the island averaged wastage of 17 per week and the remaining aviation fuel was only sufficient for the fighters, making it impractical to send more bombers and torpedo-bombers for offensive operations. ### Malta, 1942 Operation Julius, a plan to supply Malta by simultaneous convoys from Gibraltar in Operation Harpoon and from Alexandria by Operation Vigorous (12–15/16 June) was a costly failure. Only two merchant ships from Harpoon reached the island; the Vigorous convoy was forced to turn back and several convoy escorts and many merchantmen, including the only tanker in Harpoon, were sunk. By August, the fortnightly (two-weekly) ration on Malta for one person was 14 oz (400 g) sugar, 7 oz (200 g) fats, 10.5 oz (300 g) bread and 14 oz (400 g) of corned beef. An adult male worker had a daily intake of 1,690 calories and women and children received 1,500 calories. In August a mass slaughter of livestock began on the island to reduce the need for fodder imports and to convert grazing land for crop growing; the meat being supplied to the public through Victory Kitchens. Malta would be forced to surrender if fuel, food and ammunition were not delivered before September and Air Vice-Marshal Keith Park, the local air commander since July, warned that there remained only a few weeks' supply of aviation fuel. The British Admiralty had the fast minelayer HMS Welshman converted to carry fuel and submarines were pressed into service to run supplies of aviation fuel, anti-aircraft ammunition and torpedoes through the blockade, to keep the remaining aircraft operational. The First Lord of the Admiralty Albert Alexander and Admiral of the Fleet Dudley Pound, the First Sea Lord (professional head of the Royal Navy), concurred with the Prime Minister Winston Churchill that the loss of Malta would be > ... a disaster of [the] first magnitude to the British Empire, and probably [would be] fatal in the long run to the defence of the Nile Valley. ... and prepared a new convoy operation from Gibraltar, with an unprecedented number of escorts using ships taken from the Far East and from the Home Fleet, which had vessels to spare since the suspension of Arctic convoys, following the Convoy PQ 17 disaster. ### Axis command The Axis command structure in the Mediterranean was centralised at the top and fragmented at the lower levels. Benito Mussolini had monopolised authority over the Italian armed forces since 1933 by taking the offices of Minister of War, Minister of the Navy and Minister of the Air Force. Feldmarschall Albert Kesselring of the Luftwaffe commanded German ground forces in the theatre as Commander-in-Chief South (Oberbefehlshaber Süd, OB Süd) but had no authority over Axis operations in North Africa or the organisation of convoys to Libya. Fliegerkorps II and Fliegerkorps X were subordinate to the usual Luftwaffe chain of command. Since November 1941, Kesselring had exercised some influence over the conduct of German naval operations in the Mediterranean as the nominal head of Naval Command Italy (Marinekommando Italien) but this was subordinate to the Kriegsmarine chain of command. German inter-service rivalries obstructed co-operation and there was little unity of effort between German and the Italian forces in the Mediterranean. Kesselring had authority only to co-ordinate plans for combined operations by German and Italian forces and some influence on the use of the Regia Aeronautica (Italian Air Force) for the protection of convoys to North Africa. The Italian Navy resisted all German attempts to integrate its operations; ships in different squadrons never trained together and Supermarina (Italian Naval High Command) constantly over-ruled subordinate commanders. ## Prelude ### Allied plans #### Operation Pedestal Admiralty planning for Operation Pedestal began in late July 1942, under the direction of Vice-Admiral Neville Syfret, Rear Admirals Lumley Lyster and Harold Burrough and the Naval Staff. Syfret transferred to HMS Nelson on 27 July when Nelson and HMS Rodney returned to Scapa Flow from Freetown, West Africa. Syfret convened a conference on 29 July, for Flag and Commanding Officers of the naval forces for Pedestal at Scapa, to consider the orders for the operation. Several smaller operations were also planned, to be carried out concurrently with Pedestal. The convoy comprised 14 merchant vessels, the most important being Ohio, the only large, fast tanker available, a US ship loaned to the British, with a British crew. As insurance against the loss of Ohio and its 12,000 long tons (12,000 t) of oil, the other ships were to carry fuel in drums. The convoy was to be protected by two battleships, three aircraft carriers, seven cruisers, thirty-two destroyers and seven submarines, the largest escort force yet. The combined group was named Force F; the convoy and escorts from Britain as far as the rendezvous, became Force P; the aircraft carriers Victorious, Argus and escorts were named Force M on the voyage to the meeting point. The aircraft carrier Eagle and its escort from Gibraltar to the rendezvous became Force J and the carrier Indomitable and its escorts from Freetown were called Force K. During Operation Berserk, all the carriers and escorts became Force G; Force R was made up of the fleet refuelling vessels and , escorted by four corvettes and an ocean-going tug, a Dale-class oiler; escorts were named Force W also for Operation Berserk, Force X formed the close escort to Malta, Force Z was made up of the heavy ships of Force F, that were to turn back to Gibraltar and Force Y was to conduct Operation Ascendant, a run from Malta to Gibraltar by the two ships that had reached the island during Operation Harpoon and escorts, when Pedestal entered the Mediterranean. Embarked on Victorious were 809 Squadron and 884 Squadron FAA with sixteen Fairey Fulmars and 885 Squadron with six Sea Hurricanes; on Indomitable, 806 Squadron had ten Grumman Martlets, 800 Squadron and 880 Squadron had twenty-four Sea Hurricanes, 827 Squadron and 831 Squadron had fourteen Fairey Albacores. On Eagle were 801 Squadron and 813 Squadron with sixteen Sea Hurricanes. Based on Malta were five Martin Baltimores, six PRU Spitfires and five Wellington Mk VIII reconnaissance aircraft. Reinforcements were sent temporarily from Egypt, raising the maximum number of operational aircraft to a hundred Spitfires, thirty-six Beaufighters, thirty Beauforts, three Wellingtons, two Liberators, two Baltimores and three FAA Albacores and Swordfish. The convoy was named WS.21S (Winston's Specials were troop convoys from Britain to Suez via the Cape of Good Hope). After the usual convoy conference just before sailing, Burrough met with the Convoy Commodore, A. G. Venables and the masters of the merchant ships on board his flagship, HMS Nigeria to brief them. A similar meeting was held with radio operators of the merchantmen to explain fleet communications and procedures. Envelopes marked "Not to be opened until 08:00 hours August 10" were handed to the ships' masters, containing personal messages signed by the First Lord of the Admiralty wishing the masters "God Speed". The convoy sailed from the River Clyde on the night of 2/3 August, escorted by Nigeria, HMS Kenya and destroyers, to rendezvous with the other escorts the following morning. #### Operation Bellows Shortly before the departure from Scapa, the Admiralty decided that Furious should carry out Operation Bellows, to reinforce Malta (known informally as a Club Run) with Spitfires at the same time as Operation Pedestal. The departure of Furious was delayed by technical difficulties caused by the flight deck, which sloped upwards to a point amidships. A Spitfire made a practice take-off, with wooden wedges in the flaps to ensure a 25° angle and Furious steaming at 30 kn (35 mph), into a 10 kn (12 mph) wind. The Spitfire was thrown into the air by the rise on the flight deck, bounced onto the forward slope, fell off the front near stalling speed and narrowly avoided ditching. An immediate request was made to the Air Ministry for constant-speed propellers and two days later, a Spitfire with the new propeller took off easily, leaving 38 aircraft still on board to be flown to Malta. In company with HMS Manchester, she joined Nelson and the convoy three days before the start of Operation Pedestal. #### Operations Berserk and Ascendant On 31 July, Nelson, Rodney, HMS Victorious, HMS Argus, HMS Sirius and destroyers sailed from Scapa to rendezvous with HMS Eagle and HMS Charybdis from Gibraltar and HMS Indomitable and HMS Phoebe, from Freetown, for Operation Berserk. The operation took place between the Azores and Gibraltar from 6–9 August and included exercises with the merchant ships in anti-aircraft gunnery, emergency turns and in changing cruising formations, communicating with signal flags and short range wireless telegraphy (W/T). The risk to security in breaking W/T silence during the exercises, was accepted by Allied planners and according to Cunningham, the convoy attained efficiency in manoeuvring "comparable to that of a fleet unit." The aircraft of the force performed dummy air attacks in the afternoon of 8 August, to exercise radar reporting, the fighter direction organisation and to give anti-aircraft gun crews aircraft recognition practice, followed by a fly past. In Operation Ascendant, Troilus and Orari, the two merchant ships that had survived the Harpoon fiasco in June, were to sail from Malta for Gibraltar, with the destroyers HMS Badsworth and HMS Matchless (Force Y) on the night of the first day of Operation Pedestal. The ships were to be disguised with Italian deck markings and sortie from Malta, to 30 nmi (56 km; 35 mi) to the south of Lampedusa, then sail past Kelibia on Cap Bon, keeping close to the Tunisian coast as far as the Galita Channel and from there make for Gibraltar. (Force Y left Malta about 20:30 on 10 August, reached Cap Bon the next day and briefly exchanged fire with the Italian destroyer Lanzerotto Malocello which was minelaying. The Italian ship showed French recognition lights and the British destroyers ended the engagement; Force Y arrived at Gibraltar at about 10:00 on 14 August.) ### Axis plans The Germans and Italians planned separately and although they co-operated to an extent, Fliegerkorps II in Sicily co-ordinated plans with the local Regia Aeronautica commanders but conducted its attacks separately. Supermarina, the Italian Navy headquarters, considered four contingencies, that the Allies would use their naval strength to protect a convoy, the main Allied battle fleet would sortie to provoke a fleet action, to use a powerful covering force for a convoy to force a passage to the north of Pantelleria, instead of turning west at the entrance to Skerki Bank or to use aircraft-carriers for attacks on Sardinian airfields, to ease the passage of a convoy. The Regia Aeronautica had 328 aircraft (90 torpedo-bombers, 62 bombers, 25 dive-bombers and 151 fighters) and the Luftwaffe 456 aircraft (328 dive-bombers, 32 medium bombers and 96 fighters (most of the Luftwaffe torpedo-bombers had been sent to Norway in June and were too late for the operation). About 20 Junkers Ju 88s from Fliegerkorps X on Crete arrived at Sicily on 11 August, for operations the next morning and another eight Ju 88s arrived from Crete the same day, after completing convoy escort operations in the Aegean. The Regia Marina had four battleships, three heavy and ten light cruisers, twenty-one destroyers, twenty-eight torpedo boats and sixty-four submarines but most of the capital ships were non-operational for lack of fuel and air cover. The navy had received only 12,000 long tons (12,000 t) of fuel in June, equivalent to 20 per cent of fuel consumption by convoys and the Italian battleships had to refuel the smaller vessels. Because of the fuel-shortage, Mussolini suggested to Hitler that a Malta convoy should be opposed only by submarines and land-based aircraft. Supermarina managed to prepare the 3rd Cruiser Division with the eight-inch cruisers Gorizia, Bolzano and Trieste and seven destroyers, along with the 7th Cruiser Division with the six-inch cruisers Eugenio di Savoia, Raimondo Montecuccoli and Muzio Attendolo and five destroyers plus 18 submarines, 19 torpedo boats (six MS and 13 MAS); the Germans had three U-boats and four S-boats. The Axis air forces lacked the fighters to escort surface ships, bombers and torpedo bombers and Mussolini preferred to use the fighters as bomber escorts and as cover for surface forces. Kesselring rejected the Italian request to provide air cover for the Italian fleet, because the Luftwaffe did not have enough fighters. Kesselring doubted that the Italian heavy cruisers could succeed even with air cover and thought that the Italians used the lack of fuel as a pretext. Admiral Eberhard Weichold, the German naval attaché in Rome, wanted the Luftwaffe to provide air cover for Italian ships. Marshal Ugo Cavallero, Chief of the General Staff (Capo di Stato Maggiore Generale), also wanted Italian surface forces to participate in the operation but Supermarina did not want its big ships to operate without air cover. Axis tactics were similar to those used against Operation Harpoon in June; a joint special air reconnaissance of the western Mediterranean to be flown by Axis aircraft on 11 and 12 August, Axis aircraft based in Sicily and Sardinia, Italian submarines and German U-boats and Axis torpedo boats and minefields being used as successive barriers. The four barriers were to cause the convoy to disperse and be vulnerable to a force of cruisers and destroyers. Twenty-two torpedo-bombers, about one hundred and twenty-five dive-bombers with fighter escorts and forty medium bombers were to be used in a synchronised attack. Priority was given to the destruction of aircraft carriers, to prevent them from intervening when Italian surface forces closed in on the remnants of the convoy. The Axis navies had nineteen submarines in the western Mediterranean; nine boats were to be stationed north of Algeria between longitudes 01° 40' E and 02° 40' E. Ten submarines were to wait between Fratelli Rocks and the northern entrance to the Skerki Bank, some arrayed north-west of Cap Bon, to co-operate with aircraft. An Italian submarine was to patrol west of Malta, one off Navarino in Greece and three more about 87 nmi (100 mi; 161 km) west-south-west of Crete. From June 1940 to April 1942, the Regia Marina had laid about 2,320 mines between Cap Granitola at the south-west end of Sicily and Pantelleria, 1,020 mines between Pantelleria and Ras el Mustafa, Tunisia, 6,880 mines between the Aegadian Islands and Cap Bon and 1,040 mines between Bizerte and Keith Rock. The Italians also intended to lay a temporary minefield off Cap Bon on the night of 11/12 August, just before the convoy passed through. On the night of 12/13 August, thirteen MAS, six MS torpedo boats and four S-boats were to lie in wait south of Marettimo (an Aegadian Island) and off Cap Bon, then later to wait off Pantelleria. The 3rd Cruiser Division and the 7th Cruiser Division would be about 100 nmi (190 km; 120 mi) north of Pantelleria during the afternoon of 12 August and then sail through the night on an interception course south of Pantelleria, to attack the remains of the convoy and its close escort just before dawn. It was assumed that Axis aircraft could provide fighter cover against the larger number of British aircraft from Malta. Should an Allied convoy sail from Egypt, it would be attacked by the 8th Cruiser Division based at Navarino in Greece but the division was ordered into the Ionian Sea on 12 August, to support the 3rd Cruiser Division. ### Axis preparations Axis planners lacked information about Allied plans but had fair knowledge of the Allied order of battle and the movement of Allied forces inside the Mediterranean, from the reports of ship-watching stations near Gibraltar, reconnaissance aircraft and submarines. Reports from the Abwehr on 5 August convinced Kesselring that the Allies were preparing a big operation to supply Malta from the west, in conjunction with a simultaneous attack on Mersa Matruh in Egypt. Allied bombers from Malta were expected to attack Italian naval forces as Malta fighters covered the passage of a convoy through the Sicilian Narrows. The Germans also considered a threat to Crete when the convoy had reached Malta and Kesselring ordered increased readiness of Luftwaffe units in Sicily and Crete, aircraft being transferred from Crete to Sardinia and Sicily. Fliegerkorps II reduced operations to increase serviceability, prepared facilities at Elmas in Sardinia for reinforcements sent from Fliegerkorps X in the eastern Mediterranean. The Allies learned through Enigma that the Luftwaffe had supply difficulties in Sardinia, preventing the movement there of long-range bombers and of fighter operations to the extent intended and that the Luftwaffe had sent 40 to 45 long-range bombers and 6 twin-engined fighters from the eastern Mediterranean; Fliegerführer Afrika was forced to divert aircraft for convoy escorts in the Tobruk area. On the morning of 8 August, a report erroneously indicated that an Argus-class carrier and four destroyers had sailed into Gibraltar and Abwehr agents reported much shipping in the Strait of Gibraltar on the night of 8/9 August. By 10 August 220 Luftwaffe aircraft were on Sicily along with 300 aircraft of the Regia Aeronautica and another 150 Italian aircraft assembled on Sardinia. The Italian submarine Uarsciek sighted the British ships at 04:30 on 11 August; the captain approached on the surface and fired three torpedoes, claiming a hit on the carrier in a 09:36 sighting report and during the evening a Ju 88 photographed the fleet from high altitude, immune to anti-aircraft fire or FAA fighters. The Italian submarines were ordered into three patrol lines to intercept the convoy. On 12 August, Kesselring began discussions with Comando Supremo (Italian High Command) for the co-ordination of Axis forces for the forthcoming operation. During the morning Kesselring reported that the Luftwaffe was fully committed to bomber escort sorties, could not provide air cover for Italian ships and suggested laying mines but the Regia Marina had already laid one. The inability of the Luftwaffe to provide air cover for the Italian fleet greatly reduced its opportunities to intervene but the light cruiser Muzio Attendolo was sent with two destroyers from Naples to Messina. At an afternoon meeting the surface ships were discussed again, the risk of attack from Malta-based aircraft led Cavallero to decide that the fleet could not be risked without sufficient protection by aircraft. The decision was taken to attack the convoy with submarines between Algiers and the Balearic Islands, torpedo boats between Cap Bon and Pantelleria and then the remnants of the convoy would be finished off by the 3rd and 7th Cruiser divisions General Rino Corso Fougier, the Regia Aeronautica chief of staff, had reported that 40 modern fighters and bombers were available and that the day before, 101 aircraft had transferred from Italy to Sardinia and Sicily, bringing the total to 247 but Superaereo would not begin attacks until 13 August. Radio-controlled bombers would be used to crash onto the aircraft carriers and 20 long-range bombers from Crete and 10 torpedo-bombers from the training school at Grosseto had flown to Sardinia. In Sicily, 15 dive-bomber crews resting from operations were alerted and six Bf 110 long-range fighters were sent from Africa, bringing the Axis total to 701 aircraft. ## Battle ### 9/10 August Force R left Gibraltar on 9 August, ready to meet the convoy at a rendezvous south of Majorca; Force F made an uneventful passage of the Straits in dense fog during the night of 9/10 August. Fishing boats and one merchant vessel were passed at close quarters but due to the moonless night and the fog, Syfret thought it improbable that the force had been sighted from the shore. Abwehr agents near Gibraltar and Ceuta had sighted the convoy and the British decrypted their Enigma messages, learning how well-informed the Axis were and of their plans to defeat the convoy. At about 08:00 on 10 August, German reconnaissance aircraft detected the convoy and at 12:45 reported that the convoy was about 70 nmi (130 km; 81 mi) north of Algiers. At 17:00 a French aircraft reported two aircraft carriers, two battleships, two cruisers, fourteen destroyers and twelve merchant vessels about 50 nmi (93 km; 58 mi) north of Oran. Luftwaffe reconnaissance aircraft reported at 19:00 that a convoy of two battleships, two carriers, two cruisers, fourteen destroyers and twelve merchantmen was on an easterly course, 55 nmi (102 km; 63 mi) north-north-east of Oran. By the afternoon of 10 August, Kesselring and Supermarina were aware that a convoy of forty to fifty ships, including possibly two carriers and nineteen freighters, was in the western Mediterranean, sailing on an easterly course at a speed of 13 to 14 kn (24 to 26 km/h; 15 to 16 mph). The convoy was expected to be south of Majorca by 06:00 on 11 August and south of Sardinia by the same time on 12 August. Fliegerkorps II in the western Mediterranean was alerted and Fliegerkorps X was ordered to reconnoitre the eastern Mediterranean beyond the 25° E line of longitude after dawn on 11 August. ### 11 August Despite Axis submarines, three cruisers and twenty-six destroyers refuelled from the tankers Dingledale and Brown Ranger of Force R by dawn. (Previous Malta convoys had refuelled on arrival but now the island had no oil to spare.) The convoy was south of the Balearic Islands on course for Cap Bon at daybreak and at about 06:20, a U-boat sighted the convoy. At 08:15 a Luftwaffe reconnaissance aircraft reported that the convoy was 95 nmi (176 km; 109 mi) north-west of Algiers; fifteen minutes later, a Ju 88 began to shadow the convoy at 20,000–24,000 ft (6,100–7,300 m) and continued throughout the day. At noon, the convoy was about 75 nmi (139 km; 86 mi) south of Majorca, sailing due east on a zigzag course. Furious conducted the flying off between 12:30 and 15:15 of 38 Spitfires for the 555 to 584 nmi (1,028 to 1,082 km; 639 to 672 mi) journey to Malta and then turned round with her escorts for Gibraltar (37 of the aircraft reached Malta). Enigma decrypts showed that at 11:55, the light cruisers Eugenio di Savoia, Raimondo Montecuccoli, Muzio Attendolo of the 7th Cruiser Division at Cagliari had been ordered by Supermarina to be at two hours' notice from 18:00 and that with the heavy cruisers Gorizia, Bolzano and Trieste of the 3rd Cruiser Division at Messina, had been informed at 13:00 that Italian submarines were operating north of Bizerte. Three Axis submarines were seen departing Cagliari at 20:45 and the British learned that at 18:00 the 7th Cruiser Division with seventeen destroyers, had sailed east and that the 3rd Cruiser Division had departed from Messina and Naples. Allied intelligence also learned that Panzerarmee Afrika in Egypt believed that the convoy was a threat to Tobruk. Kesselring thought that a landing on the North African coast might be attempted and next day issued an order of the day, that landings by the Allies would influence operations in Africa and must be prevented. Luftgau Afrika (Air District Africa) expected a landing at Tripoli on 13 or 14 August. At 08:00, sighted ships out of range but behind them another group of merchantmen were followed by the carrier Eagle. She was able to manoeuvre within 400 yd (370 m) and fire four torpedoes which hit Eagle at 13:15, sinking the ship eight minutes later 70 nmi (130 km; 81 mi) south of Cape Salinas, 80 nmi (150 km; 92 mi) north of Algiers. The destroyers HMS Lookout, HMS Laforey and the tug Jaunty rescued 929 men of the complement of 1,160 but 231 men and all but four Sea Hurricanes (in the air during the sinking) were lost, about 20 per cent of the fighter cover for the convoy. The German submarine escaped, possibly due to layers of the sea being at different temperatures, affecting the ships' ASDIC and after the torpedoing there were frequent false alarms. At 14:30 a Ju 88, one of ten Aufklärungsgruppe 122 aircraft that had shadowed the convoy from 10:10, flew a reconnaissance sortie over the convoy, too high for the Sea Hurricanes to intercept. The Luftwaffe attacked just after sunset at 20:56, when the convoy was about 200 nmi (370 km; 230 mi) from Sardinia, with 27 Ju 88 bombers and three He 111 torpedo-bombers. The Heinkels flew low to drop torpedoes and the Ju 88s attacked out of the dusk in shallow dives, that evaded the fighters but anti-aircraft fire from the convoy shot down two Ju 88s for no loss and then damaged several British fighters as they landed on. During the night the Axis airfields in Sardinia were attacked by B-24 Liberators and Beaufighters, which set a hangar on fire and destroyed several aircraft. #### Night, 11/12 August On the night of 11/12 August, the Italian 7th and 3rd Cruiser divisions and 17 destroyers sailed from Cagliari, Messina and Naples to engage the British convoy. The RAF at the Malta Operations Room sent orders in plain language to a Wellington bomber that dropped flares and sent messages in clear, supposedly guiding a fictitious B-24 Liberator force, to bluff the Italian ships away from the convoy. (Supermarina had actually cancelled the operation before the British signals were received because of a lack of air cover.) At 00:20, the British discovered from Enigma that Italian intelligence had sighted four British cruisers and ten destroyers and thought that part of the convoy might be proceeding to the eastern Mediterranean. Enigma also revealed operation orders from Fliegerkorps II to the fighters of Jagdgeschwader 77 (JG 77) at Elmas in Sardinia, to expect a convoy in the Sicilian Narrows early on 12 August. Fliegerkorps II was to co-operate with the Regia Aeronautica in Sicily and Sardinia, flying in waves with fighter escorts against the convoy. British intelligence concluded that the convoy and its huge escort force had caused the Axis commanders to be apprehensive of a landing anywhere along the North African coast or on Crete. Axis precautionary measures had been taken on the assumption that if Crete was the target, landings would occur before 14 August. Defensive measures were also taken in the Benghazi–Tripoli area of Libya, where a squadron of Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighters and the long-range bombers based at Derna were alerted to move to Benghazi or Tripoli, supported by Ju 52 transport aircraft. Panzerarmee Afrika prepared detachments to repel landings and moved forces to the Sollum–Mersa Matruh area, to defend the coast east of Tobruk. At 07:00, all ship movements from North Africa to Italy and the Aegean were suspended and by late afternoon, the British knew that the Luftwaffe anticipated a landing at Tripoli on 13 or 14 August. Fighter and dive-bomber reinforcements were sent from Sicily and Enigma intercepted a message from Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring, the commander in chief of the Luftwaffe, ordering that the Luftwaffe > ... will operate with no other thought in mind than the destruction of the British convoy ... The destruction of this convoy is of decisive importance. and that the attacks were to be directed against the British aircraft carriers and merchantmen. At 00:54, HMS Wolverine, part of the escort force for Furious, had been detached with four more destroyers for anti-submarine patrols after the loss of Eagle, detected a submarine at 4,900 yd (4,500 m), accelerated, obtained a visual contact at 700 yd (640 m) and rammed the Italian submarine Dagabur at 27 kn (50 km/h; 31 mph), sinking the submarine with all hands. ### 12 August #### Morning Axis aircraft resumed shadowing at 05:00 and at 06:10, Indomitable sent Martlets to shoot down two Ju 88 reconnaissance aircraft, which proved too high and too fast to intercept. Four Sea Hurricanes and Fulmars took off from the two carriers for air cover and every aircraft was readied to fly. German reconnaissance aircraft kept watch on the convoy, flying too high and fast for the FAA fighters. At 09:15, when the convoy was about 130 nmi (240 km; 150 mi) south-south-west of Sardinia, 19 Ju 88s dive-bombers of Lehrgeschwader 1 (LG 1) were intercepted 25 nmi (29 mi; 46 km) out. Four Ju 88s were shot down and another two were claimed by navy anti-aircraft gunners (German records showed five shot down and two lost over Sardinia from mechanical failure) for the loss of one FAA fighter. The German crews made extravagant claims but did little damage and three Italian reconnaissance aircraft were also shot down. Beaufighters returning from a raid on Sardinia saw the 7th Cruiser Division (Da Zara) at sea and raised the alarm. The cruisers had sailed from Cagliari into the Tyrrhenian Sea at 08:10 on 11 August, escorted by the destroyers Maestrale, Alfredo Oriani and Vincenzo Gioberti, to rendezvous with Muzio Attendolo from Naples. Early on 12 August, Trieste sailed from Genoa for Naples with the Fuciliere and a torpedo-boat, Ardito to join the 3rd Cruiser Division, which had left Messina early with the cruisers Gorizia, Bolzano and six destroyers after receiving a signal from U-83 that four cruisers and ten destroyers (MG 3) were close to Crete. The Italian cruisers and destroyers rendezvoused 60 nmi (69 mi; 110 km) north of Ustica off Palermo at the west end of Sicily, some of the ships being short of fuel and then moved south in two squadrons, preceded by the torpedo-boats Climene and Centauro. British reconnaissance aircraft from Malta had flown over Italian ports, a Spitfire pilot saw that the 3rd Cruiser Division had left port and at 18:54 a Baltimore crew saw the Italian ships rendezvous. On Malta, Park was not disturbed until the convoy and escort losses of the day, which depleted Force X; five Wellington bombers were sent to find the Italian cruisers and 15 Beaufort torpedo-bombers and 15 Beaufighters stood by. The biggest convoy attack came around noon from Sardinia-based aircraft; a wave of ten SM.84 bombers from 38° Gruppo BT and eight CR.42s of 24° Gruppo CT flying as bombers with 14 MC.202 escorts, followed after five minutes by nine Savoia-Marchetti SM.79s and ten SM.84 torpedo bombers attacking the starboard side of the convoy, escorted by 12 Re.2001 fighters and 21 SM.79s and 12 Re.2001s from the port side, all the bombers aiming for the merchant ships. The second wave had been delayed by 15 minutes due to a shortage of mechanics for the Re.2001s and only 31 aircraft could take off. The bombers were met by a big anti-aircraft barrage, the merchantmen took evasive action and none was hit by the bombers that managed to get into range. The third wave comprised a pair of Re.2001G/V fighter-bombers from the Sezione Speciale (Special Section), intended to carry 1,390 lb (630 kg) low-altitude armour-piercing bombs. The bombs were not ready and the aircraft carried anti-personnel bombs; the fighter-bombers were accompanied by a special radio-controlled SM.79, loaded with a 2,200 lb (1,000 kg) bomb and directed by Generale di brigata Ferdinando Raffaelli in a Cant Z1007. The wave was escorted by two of the five G.50 fighters of the 24° Gruppo CT which managed to find the formation. The pilot of the SM.79 pointed the aircraft towards the ships and parachuted, Rafaelli in the Z.1007 guiding the bomb by radio. The radio failed and the SM.79 flew straight on, instead of diving on one of the aircraft carriers as intended and crashed into Mount Khenchela in Algeria. The Sezione Speciale was mistaken for a Hurricane formation and both hit Victorious, one bomb killing six sailors and wounding two, the other bouncing off the deck and exploding over the sea. The first ten SM.84 bombers carried electric Motobomba FFF torpedoes which were designed to travel in an increasing spiral. The torpedoes were dropped 2,000 yd (1,800 m) from the ships, which used the evasive manoeuvres practised in Operation Berserk to escape. Between the second and third waves of Regia Aeronautica aircraft, 37 Ju 88s from Kampfgeschwader 54 (KG 54) and Kampfgeschwader 77 (KG 77) attacked, having flown from Sicily with 21 Bf 109 fighter escorts, after using radio-countermeasures to blind the British radar on Malta. Five aircraft had turned back with mechanical failures but the rest evaded four Fulmars. was hit and forced out of the convoy, escorted by HMS Bramham. The number of Axis aircraft in the attacks was unprecedented, with 117 Italian and 58 German sorties for only meagre results. Two bombers, a torpedo-bomber and a fighter had been lost for one hit on Victorious and the damage to Deucalion. The quantity of anti-aircraft fire had led many aircrew to release their bombs and torpedoes early, but the Italian aircraft from Sardinia could refuel and rearm to attack again and a Cant Z1007 and several Luftwaffe aircraft continued to shadow the convoy. Enigma decrypts showed the British that at 18:30 on 12 August, an S-boat flotilla was due to sail at 16:00 from Porto Empedocle in Sicily for Cap Bon to operate in the area until about 04:30 on 13 August. At 21:45, a Fliegerkorps II assessment revealed that the Axis thought that there were fifty-one ships in the western Mediterranean, including two carriers, two battleships, seven cruisers and twenty destroyers. The Germans mistakenly thought that a US Yorktown-class aircraft carrier was present but correctly identified Rodney and Nelson. The convoy was thought to consist of thirteen freighters of 105,000 long tons (107,000 t), protected by ten to sixteen fighters and plenty of anti-aircraft guns. The Italian submarine Brin was driven off by destroyers and at 09:30 a Sunderland flying boat damaged Giada off Algiers. At 13:34 another Sunderland from 202 Squadron caused more damage but Giada shot down the flying boat before heading for Valencia (until 14 August) with one dead and eight wounded crewmen on board. #### Afternoon The convoy was approached at 16:30 by Emo, which manoeuvred into position to fire torpedoes at a carrier from 2,200 yd (2,000 m) but a sudden course change led Franco to change targets, launch four torpedoes and dive. The convoy had changed course again and the torpedoes missed; observers on Tartar saw the torpedo tracks and raised the alarm. Lookout sped towards a periscope, which was that of Avorio moving into an attack position and forced it to dive, spoiling its attack; at 17:40, Lookout returned to the convoy. At 16:49 Cobalto was depth charged by HMS Ithuriel while at periscope depth, forced to the surface, engaged by gunfire and rammed by Ithuriel, sinking at 17:02. Ithuriel lost two crewmen who had boarded Cobalto to try keep the submarine afloat; two Italian seamen were lost and the rest were rescued by the British. Ithuriel was badly damaged, lost its Asdic, was slowed to 20 kn (37 km/h; 23 mph) and had to make for Gibraltar. Syfret had two destroyers on each flank of the convoy drop depth charges every ten minutes to deter submarines. Force F entered the Italian submarine ambush area C and just after 16:00 HMS Pathfinder obtained an ASDIC contact on Granito, forced it away with five depth charges but then had to return to the convoy. (Many submarine alarms were possibly caused by ghost Asdic contacts, due to the warm waters of the Mediterranean.) The Regia Aeronautica units based in Sardinia managed to prepare eight Cr.42 dive-bombers and an escort of nine Re.2001 from 362° Squadriglie and nine SM.79 bombers from Decimomannu. The SM.79s failed to find the convoy and a Re.2001 was shot down by an 806 Squadron Martlet from Indomitable. The convoy crossed the 10th parallel, beyond which aircraft based in Sicily could fly with fighter escorts and 105 aircraft prepared to attack in three waves. Problems with the fighter escorts were encountered because the Re.2001s of the 2° Gruppo CT had escorted the Sardinia-based bombers, landed in Sardinia and were not available until the next day. The torpedo- and dive-bombers were sent to Pantelleria to fly with the 51° Gruppo CT (MC.202s) and avoid the problems of co-ordination when aircraft flew from different bases. Four aircraft were sent on reconnaissance sorties; four of the Italian Ju 87s of 102° Gruppo BT were found to lack long-range tanks and torpedoes could not be attached to six SM.84s. Fulmars from Victorious shot down a SM.79 on reconnaissance but a Cant Z1007 maintained contact. Fliegerkorps II arranged to co-ordinate with the Italians but the operations were independent. I Gruppe, Sturzkampfgeschwader 3 (StG 3) had transferred from Trapani to Elmas and at 17:30 hrs, 20 Ju 87s with Bf 109 escorts took off. #### Evening Italian Ju 87s of 102° Gruppo arrived in poor visibility but at 18:35 the clouds parted. The Italian formation had been detected by radar while 40 nmi (46 mi; 74 km) out and three Martlets, twelve Sea Hurricanes and three Fulmars were airborne but faced MC.202 and Bf 109 escorts, the best Axis fighters. The dive- and torpedo-bomber attacks were well synchronised, the Ju 87s diving as the torpedo bombers approached in three waves at 1,200 ft (370 m) The Ju 87s managed a near miss on Rodney with the 1,100 lb (500 kg) bomb exploding in the sea, one Stuka being shot down by a Hurricane and one by anti-aircraft fire. As the ships manoeuvred to evade the torpedo-bombers, another wave of Ju 87s arrived at 9,000 ft (2,700 m) and bombed Indomitable from out of the sun, hit the flight deck twice and near-missed three times, with 2,200 lb (1,000 kg) bombs, killing fifty and wounding 59 men and seriously damaging the ship, which caught fire and slowed to 17 kn (31 km/h; 20 mph), leaving Victorious as the last operational carrier. By 20:30, Indomitable had worked up to 28.5 kn (52.8 km/h; 32.8 mph) but the damage to the flight deck left it out of action. Aircraft landed on Victorious but those that could not be accommodated were thrown overboard. Charybdis, Lookout, Lightning and Somali gave assistance to Indomitable and the SM.79 torpedo-bombers were met with concentrated anti-aircraft fire. Only twelve SM.79s were able to drop torpedoes, at the long range of 3,000 yd (1.7 mi; 2.7 km); Foresight was hit on the stern, sending crewmen flying through the air. The ship was scuttled the following day. A final Axis attack with twelve SM.79s and 28 Ju 87s cost two Ju 87s shot down and two damaged for no Allied loss; after returning to Pantelleria, the Axis aircraft were strafed by three Beaufighters, which flamed a Luftwaffe fuel depot, destroyed a Ju 52 and damaged two SM79s and an SM.84, also killing an Italian pilot caught on the airfield. The Axis air forces had flown 180–220 escorted bomber sorties during the day and the Germans claimed that they had damaged an aircraft carrier, a cruiser, a destroyer and a large merchant ship. Both sides over-claimed, the British counted 39 shot-down aircraft against the true figure of 18 Axis aircraft lost; three Fulmars, three Sea Hurricanes and one Martlet had been shot down. The loss of Eagle with its 16 aircraft and the damage to Indomitable which kept its 47 more aircraft out of action, reduced the number of operational fighters to eight Sea Hurricanes, three Martlets and 10 Fulmars, as Force Z was due to leave the convoy, to remain outside the range of Axis aircraft based in Sardinia. Syfret had intended Force Z to turn west upon reaching the Skerki Bank at 19:15 but ordered the turn at 18:55 to get Indomitable out of danger. Rodney was having boiler trouble which slowed Force Z to 18 kn (33 km/h; 21 mph) but because of the number of aircraft involved in the Axis attacks, Syfret thought that there could be no more before dark and that the danger at the Skerki Bank would come from after dawn. About forty minutes after the turn a Luftwaffe reconnaissance aircraft reported the new course; Pedestal was about 250 nmi (290 mi; 460 km) from Malta with no local air cover, because of the four Fulmars left for the convoy, one had been shot down and one damaged by Bf 109s. At 18:55, Burrough with the close escort of Force X continued towards Malta with the merchant ships and Force R cruised in the western Mediterranean in case it was needed, until ordered to return to Gibraltar (arriving in the morning of 16 August). #### Night, 12/13 August At about 20:00, the convoy manoeuvred from four to two columns to pass through the Skerki Channel, the starboard column with Kenya in the lead and Manchester sixth back, the port column with Nigeria leading and Carlisle in the centre, ten destroyers sailing outside the columns. Five Italian submarines were waiting and at 19:38, Dessiè fired four torpedoes at a freighter from 2,000 yd (1,800 m) and heard three explosions. The sound of the detonations turned out to be from torpedoes fired by Axum hitting Nigeria with 52 men killed, HMS Cairo and Ohio blowing a hole 23 ft × 26 ft (7.0 m × 7.9 m) in its side and starting a fire; the crew put out the fire and were soon able to make 7 kn (8.1 mph; 13 km/h). The torpedoing of HMS Nigeria and Cairo (eventually sunk by the British), the diversion of HMS Ashanti to become Burrough's new flagship and the detachment of four Hunt-class destroyers to stand by the damaged cruisers, temporarily deprived Force X of its commander, the two columns of the leaders and deprived the convoy nearly half its escort. On hearing that Nigeria and Cairo, which were equipped as Fighter Direction ships had been torpedoed, Syfret ordered Force Z to send back HMS Charybdis also fitted for fighter direction, with HMS Eskimo and HMS Somali to reinforce Force X. Nigeria and the other damaged ships turned back to Gibraltar, escorted by HMS Derwent, HMS Wilton and HMS Bicester. KG 54 and KG 77 dispatched 30 Ju 88s with seven He 111 torpedo-bombers from 6/KG 26 escorted by six Bf 110s of 6/ZG 26 and the destroyers were still with the damaged ships and when the raid was detected by radar at 20:35; six long-range Beaufighters of 248 Squadron arrived and were also fired on by the convoy gunners. Ashanti and HMS Penn laid a smokescreen to cover the light western horizon, the sun having set at 20:10 but the reduced anti-aircraft firepower of the convoy and escorts failed to prevent the attack. After thirty minutes was stopped, hit in the bows (possibly by the Italian submarine Alagi), eventually to continue at 5 kn (5.8 mph; 9.3 km/h). Clan Ferguson was torpedoed and set ablaze, later to be destroyed by an ammunition detonation, Rochester Castle was damaged and Empire Hope was sunk by a destroyer after rescuing the crew. At 21:05 Alagi fired a salvo of four torpedoes at Kenya, the tracks of which were seen on Port Chalmers and reported. Kenya turned sharply and avoided three of the torpedoes but the fourth hit aft on the starboard side; Kenya was able to keep up but this left Force X with Manchester as the only undamaged cruiser. Bronzo reported that it had sunk Deucalion and the captain of Kenya described the state of the convoy as "chaotic". At 21:30, the commander of Alagi reported that he had sunk the merchant ship Empire Hope and damaged Kenya and that > ... from 180 degrees around to 140 degrees we could see a continuous line of flame from the burning, sinking ships ... A burning ship blows up. At 23:56, the convoy passed south of Zembra island towards Kelibia on Cap Bon, to avoid the minefields between Africa and Sicily, still out of formation. Three minesweeping destroyers sailed ahead, followed by the cruisers Kenya, Manchester and two freighters. Charybdis and the destroyers Eskimo and Somali from Force Z were still some hours behind and Ashanti was steaming fast to overhaul the main body. Three destroyers remained with nine of the merchantmen and Bramham was en route after Deucalion had been sunk. The main part of the convoy was attacked at 00:40 by four boats of the German III Squadron and 13 torpedo boats of the Italian 18° MAS, 2° MS and 20° MAS, which made 15 attacks; the long line of merchant ships and the reduced number of escort ships providing an easy target. The 18° MAS detected the convoy on radar, south-east of Pantelleria and attacked the escorts at the head of the procession, coming under fire, as they fired torpedoes to no effect. The Italian boats then attacked the merchant ships. The convoy was vulnerable because the lighthouse at Cap Bon revealed their position about 10 nmi (12 mi; 19 km) offshore. S 58 and S 59 sighted the first ships at 00:20, attacked and S 58 was damaged, turning away for Porto Empedocle. S 59 attacked and claimed a freighter about 5 nmi (5.8 mi; 9.3 km) north-east of Cap Bon, but no ships were hit there. At 01:02 near Ras Mustafa south of Kelibia, MS 16 or MS 22 attacked the convoy to no effect but then attacked Manchester from close range and each scored a hit, flooding its boilers, fuel tanks and magazines and wrecking three of its four propeller shafts, the ship taking on a 12° list until counter-flooding reduced the list to 5°. , Almeria Lykes and Glenorchy following on, swerved around Manchester and lost formation. Glenorchy mistakenly claimed the destruction of a torpedo boat and the two MAS boats ran aground in Tunisia. Power was restored on Manchester and 156 men were taken on board Pathfinder but at 05:00, the captain ordered the ship be scuttled and the remaining crew to make for the Tunisian coast. Between 03:15 and 04:30 about 15 nmi (17 mi; 28 km) off Kelibia, the torpedo boats hit and sank Wairangi, Almeria Lykes (US), Santa Elisa (US) and Glenorchy, as they took a short cut to catch up with the convoy. Rochester Castle was torpedoed but escaped at 13 kn (15 mph; 24 km/h) and caught up with the main body by 05:30, by when Charybdis, Eskimo and Somali had arrived, increasing the escort to two cruisers and seven destroyers around Rochester Castle, Waimarama and Melbourne Star. Ohio and its destroyer were slowly closing the distance and further back were Port Chalmers and two destroyers. Dorset was sailing independently and Brisbane Star lurked near the Tunisian coast, ready to make a run for Malta after dark. Dawn brought an end to the torpedo boat attacks and at 07:30, Burrough sent Eskimo and Somali back to help Manchester but they arrived too late, took on survivors who had not reached the shore and made for Gibraltar. ### 13 August #### Morning An attack by the Italian cruisers appeared imminent, after air reconnaissance had sighted them the previous evening, heading south about 80 nmi (150 km; 92 mi) from the west end of Sicily, on course to reach the convoy at dawn. At 01:30 the cruisers had turned east and run along the north coast of Sicily; British aircraft from Malta had conducted a ruse to decoy the cruisers but the main attacking force on Malta was held back, in case the Italian battleships sailed from Taranto. Some of the Italian cruisers were ordered to return to port and the rest were sent through the Straits of Messina to join the 8th Cruiser Division against the MG 3 decoy convoy in the eastern Mediterranean. Unbroken had been waiting since 10 August 2 nmi (2.3 mi; 3.7 km) north of the Capo Milazzo lighthouse and after being attacked, moved close to Stromboli, arriving early on 13 August. The Italian cruisers were heard first by hydrophone and then seen through the periscope at 07:25, heading north between the islands of Filicudi and Panarea. The ships were making 20 kn (37 km/h; 23 mph) with eight destroyer escorts and two CANT Z.506 aircraft overhead. Her commander raised the periscope for only short periods, to avoid being seen by the destroyers and the Cants, while manoeuvring into an attack position. At 08:05, the cruisers slowed to 18 kn (33 km/h; 21 mph) for Gorizia to fly off a seaplane and then the destroyer Fuciliere machine-gunned a periscope seen at 450 yd (410 m). The Italian destroyers chased several sonar contacts and three sailed within 1,000 yd (910 m) of Unbroken, which fired four torpedoes after they had passed by. Unbroken dived to 80 ft (24 m) and after 2.15 minutes, an explosion was heard followed by a second after another 15 seconds. Observers on Gorizia and Bolzano had seen torpedo tracks and Gorizia was turned sharply but Bolzano was hit while beginning its turn. The deck crew of Muzio Attendolo had not seen the torpedo tracks or received the alert from Fuciliere and the ship took evasive action only after Bolzano was hit, which was too late. Unbroken descended to 120 ft (37 m) and commenced silent running; Fuciliere (carrying sonar) and Camica Nera slowed to hunt the submarine. The destroyers detected Unbroken at 08:45 and accurately dropped 105 depth charges in the next 45 minutes but at too shallow a depth. Two destroyers escorted Gorizia and Trieste to Messina and five remained with Bolzano and Muzio Attendolo, periodically dropping depth charges as a deterrent. Muzio Attendolo was hit forward and 82 ft (25 m) of its bow was blown open but suffered no fatalities. The ship was towed towards Messina but when the bow fell off, the ship managed to sail on at 5 kn (5.8 mph; 9.3 km/h), escorted by Grecale, Ascari and later Freccia, reaching Messina at 18:54. Bolzano was struck amidships, six engine rooms and a magazine flooded and a fire started, the commander of the 11th Destroyer Flotilla being ordered to tow the ship and run it aground on Panarea. Bolzano burned until the next day, watched over by Italian fighters and after a month of repairs, was towed to Naples. Muzio Attendolo was damaged for the duration of the war. After remaining submerged for ten hours, Unbroken surfaced and was recalled to Malta. (Supermarina had re-routed the cruiser force after a submarine (Unbroken) had been detected, which had been predicted by Mars, enabling him to forestall the Italians, who broke orders by not zigzagging and by slowing. After the incident, Supermarina assumed that the submarine had escaped because Italian depth charges were not powerful enough, rather than the sonar-equipped ships had been hampered by the turbulence of destroyer wakes and depth charge explosions.) At 07:00 the convoy was about 120 nmi (220 km; 140 mi) from Malta and Axis reconnaissance accurately reported four freighters, two cruisers and seven destroyers but not five more destroyers. Trailing behind were Dorset and Port Chalmers with two destroyers and two more off to the west. Brisbane Star was in the Gulf of Hammamet and south of Pantelleria were six British submarines. Fliegerkorps II sent 26 Ju 88s in several waves and at 09:15, 16 Ju 87s escorted by eight Bf 109s and eight Bf 110s attacked. Ten Ju 88s of II/LG 1 near missed Ohio and hit Waimarama which disintegrated; the aviation fuel on deck burst into flame and one of the bombers was destroyed in the explosion. HMS Ledbury passed through the fires, rescuing 27 survivors of the ship's complement of 107 men. The wreckage of Waimarama showered flaming debris on and several of her crew abandoned ship prematurely, some of whom were later rescued by Ledbury. At 09:23, eight Italian Ju 87s with ten MC.202 escorts attacked and a Stuka was shot down and crashed onto Ohio, another was shot into the sea and a Spitfire was shot down, either by a MC.202 or navy anti-aircraft fire. Rochester Castle was damaged by a near miss from a Ju 88 and Dorset was hit by Stukas of I/StG 3 and abandoned. The attackers lost two Ju 87s and a Bf 109 and a Beaufighter was shot down. Port Chalmers was hit and at 11:25, five SM.79 torpedo-bombers, with 14 MC.202 escorts, attacked and the crew found a torpedo caught in the starboard paravane, which exploded harmlessly. An SM.79 was shot down by a Spitfire and two destroyers were left behind with the disabled ships. #### Afternoon The remnants of the convoy steamed on to meet the four minesweepers and seven motor minesweepers of the 17th Minesweeper Flotilla of the Malta Escort Force at 14:30. Melbourne Star, Port Chalmers and Rochester Castle reached Grand Harbour at Valletta at 16:30, where Operation Ceres, the immediate unloading of the ships began. Another air attack at dusk by 14 Ju 87s, sank Dorset but when the main body was within 80 nmi (150 km; 92 mi) of Malta, 18 Ju 88s were recalled in the face of 407 Spitfire sorties from the island. Penn tried to tow Ohio but the tanker was listing and snapped the tow line; in a later attack, a bomb hit the same area as a previous torpedo hit and broke Ohios keel. The last ship to arrive, Brisbane Star evaded a U-boat and managed to steam at 5–9 kn (9.3–16.7 km/h; 5.8–10.4 mph) despite the damage to its bows. Off Tunisia, Brisbane Star was attacked by two SM.79 torpedo bombers, whose torpedoes turned out to be duds. The ship evaded Italian MAS boats; it was then boarded by the Sousse harbour master, who tried to impound the vessel until persuaded to relent and let the ship sail on after dark. Ledbury was attacked by two SM.79s but shot them down. Force X had turned for Gibraltar at 16:00 with the cruisers Charybdis, Kenya and five destroyers; Fliegerkorps II made a maximum effort against the force, which made it easier for the remaining merchant ships to reach Malta. Force X was attacked by 35 Ju 88s and 13 Ju 87s, achieving only a near-miss on Kenya for a loss of a Ju 88 and a Stuka. The Regia Aeronautica attacked with 15 bombers and 20 torpedo-bombers for no loss and during the afternoon, Force X met Force Z, the ships being attacked by aircraft, submarines and light craft; Foresight was scuttled by Tartar when it could no longer sail. Eskimo and Somali, carrying survivors from Manchester were the last to reach Gibraltar at 17:30 on 15 August. #### Operations MG 3 and MG 4 In the eastern Mediterranean, the decoy operation MG 3 had begun when convoy MW12 with three freighters had sailed from Port Said after dusk on 10 August. The merchant ships were escorted by two cruisers, ten destroyers and two smaller escorts and another merchant ship escorted by two cruisers and three destroyers left Haifa at 03:00 the next day. The two forces rendezvoused early on 11 August and sailed west to the longitude of Alexandria, then turned back. U-83 had reported that four cruisers and ten destroyers were close to Crete and a message from a Sunderland was intercepted. Reconnaissance reports from Malta noted a smokescreen over Valletta, apparently to conceal two cruisers, but this was later taken to mean that the British were hiding the departure of ships heading west towards the convoy. The large size of the convoy was interpreted by Supermarina to imply an operation in the eastern Mediterranean and prepared to reinforce the 8th Cruiser Division at Navarino. German aircraft had spotted the movements and early on 12 August, Kesselring informed Fliegerkorps X that four merchant vessels, six cruisers and an unknown number of destroyers were at 33° 40' N, 28° 34' E, sailing north-east at 12 kn (14 mph; 22 km/h). Kesselring thought that the convoy was a British wireless-telegraphy spoof but might also be a supply convoy for Malta and Fliegerkorps X was ordered to reconnoitre all of the eastern Mediterranean on the morning of 12 August but no aircraft were available to cover the Italian cruisers, operations against the convoy taking priority. During the night of 12/13 August, the cruisers HMS Arethusa and HMS Cleopatra with four destroyers conducted Operation MG 4, a bombardment of Rhodes port on the island of Rhodes. During the day, the RAF attacked Maritsa airfield on Rhodes and a British submarine landed Commandos on the east coast of Sicily (a False Nose Job) at Simeto south of Catania, to sabotage electricity pylons. The Italian 8th Cruiser Division remained in port and the Germans detached a destroyer to reinforce the Italians; local traffic along the North African coast and shipping between Italy and Greece was suspended but MG 3 failed to divert Axis attention from Operation Pedestal. ### 14–15 August On the afternoon of 14 August, Brisbane Star arrived at Valletta Harbour with Spitfires circling overhead. Ohio was surrounded by ships to nurse the tanker to Grand Harbour and several American volunteers from Santa Eliza manned anti-aircraft guns on Ohio during the tow. The weight of the tanker kept breaking the tow lines, while constant air attacks were made by 20 bombers that destroyed the rudder, made a hole in her stern and brought the decks awash. The tanker was towed in by the destroyers Ledbury and Penn lashed on either side, with the minesweeper HMS Rye acting as a stabiliser at the stern. More air attacks disrupted the towing formation, until it was re-established with Bramham replacing Ledbury for the remainder of the journey. Ohio was towed into Grand Harbour at 09:30 on 15 August, to cheering crowds and a band playing Rule Britannia. The crowd fell silent as the ships entered harbour, men removed their hats, women crossed themselves and a bugle sounded Still. The tanker discharged oil into two tankers and water was pumped in at the same time, to reduce the chance of structural failure. Ohio settled on the bottom just as the last of the fuel was emptied. The surviving ships' cargo was unloaded in Malta by about 3,000 soldiers before being transferred to guarded stores. Some supplies were looted in the process; the looters included police officers, watchmen, British soldiers and Maltese civilians. ## Aftermath ### Analysis German reports on 17 August claimed that all the tankers in the recent Mediterranean convoy had been sunk and none of the transports had reached their destination (assumed to be Egypt). The Allies had lost thirteen vessels, including nine merchantmen, one aircraft carrier (Eagle), two cruisers (Manchester and Cairo) and a destroyer (Foresight) but the Royal Navy and the Merchant Navy had saved Malta. The arrival of about 32,000 short tons (29,000 t) of general cargo, together with petrol, oil fuel, kerosene and diesel fuel, was enough to give the island about ten weeks' supply beyond the few weeks that the existing stocks would last. Axis propaganda broadcasts made extravagant claims but a Kriegsmarine report noted the incomplete and contradictory evidence, allowing only a provisional conclusion. The arrival of four merchant ships and a tanker was unsatisfactory, because the revival of Malta as an offensive base would affect Axis supply routes in what might be the "decisive phase of the struggle for North Africa". Supermarina reached the same conclusion and Generale Giuseppe Santoro, deputy chief of staff of the Regia Aeronautica, wrote that the British had achieved a strategic success by bringing Malta back into action "in the final phase of the struggle in Egypt". In August, with Malta still besieged, 35 per cent of Axis convoy shipping to North Africa was lost. Later that year, Admiral Eberhard Weichold summed up the Kriegsmarine view, > .... To the continental observer, the British losses seemed to represent a big victory for the Axis, but in reality the facts were quite different, since it had not been possible to prevent a British force, among which were five merchant vessels, from reaching Valetta.... Thanks to these new supplies Malta was now capable of fighting for several weeks, or, at a pinch, for several months. The main issue, the danger of air attack on the supply route to North Africa, remained. To achieve this objective no price was too high, and from this point of view the British operation, in spite of all the losses, was not a defeat, but a strategical failure of the first order by the Axis, the repercussions of which will one day be felt... In 1994, James Sadkovich wrote that Operation Pedestal was a tactical disaster for the British and that it was of a magnitude comparable to the German attack on Convoy PQ 17. In 2000, Richard Woodman called Operation Pedestal a strategic victory, raising the morale of the people and garrison of Malta, averting famine and an inevitable surrender. In 2002, Giorgio Giorgerini wrote that the operation was an Italian success; Italian submarines had adopted more offensive tactics and sunk a cruiser and two merchantmen, damaged two cruisers and the tanker Ohio. In 2002, Jack Greene and Alessandro Massignani called the convoy operation the last Axis victory in the Mediterranean but that it was a tactical not a strategic success. The arrival of Ohio justified the convoy despite the loss of nine of the merchant ships (one in Valletta harbour). Axis shipping had been suspended during the operation, partly because the transport Ogaden had been sunk off Derna on 12 August, by HMS Porpoise and after Ohio arrived, Axis ships had to make longer journeys. On 15 August, Lerici was also sunk by Porpoise and on 17 August, Pilo was sunk by aircraft and the tanker Pozarica was sunk on 21 August. ### Casualties In 2003, Ian Malcolm listed 160 men killed on Eagle, 132 on Manchester, 52 on Nigeria, 50 on Indomitable, 24 on Cairo, five on Foresight, three on Kenya. Merchant Navy casualties were 83 on Waimarama, eighteen on Clan Ferguson, 7 on Glenorchy, 5 on Melbourne Star, 4 on Santa Elisa, 1 on Deucalion, 1 on Ohio and 1 on Brisbane Star. In 2010, Milan Vego wrote that about 350 men had been killed, Ohio never sailed again and the British lost a carrier (Eagle), the cruisers Manchester and Cairo and the destroyer Foresight. The carrier Indomitable, the cruisers Nigeria and Kenya and three destroyers were damaged and under repair for some time. On the Axis side, the Italian cruisers Bolzano and Muzio Attendolo were damaged and not operational for the rest of the war, the Italian submarines Cobalto and Dagabur were sunk, the Italian submarine Giada and the German E-Boat S58 were damaged. Fliegerkorps II sent 650 sorties against Pedestal from 11 to 14 August and claimed twelve aircraft shot down for eighteen losses. Total Axis losses were 62 aircraft, 42 Italian and 19 German, including losses on the ground and those shot down by their own side. Royal Navy gunners and FAA fighters claimed 74 aircraft shot down, but destroyed 42 Axis aircraft, 26 from the Regia Aeronautica and 16 Luftwaffe aircraft. The FAA lost 13 aircraft on operations and 16 Sea Hurricanes when Eagle was sunk, the RAF lost a Beaufighter and five Spitfires; a Sunderland was shot down by Giada. The Allies could not risk such losses again and another large convoy to Malta was not attempted until November 1942, when the re-capture of airfields in Egypt and Libya after the Second Battle of El Alamein made it much easier to provide land-based air cover. ### Subsequent operations From 16 to 18 August, HMS Furious made another Club Run from Gibraltar and dispatched 29 Spitfires to Malta in Operation Baritone. In September and October, Malta was supplied by the submarines (Otus, Rorqual on the Magic Carpet run and Clyde sailed during the operation with ammunition, aviation fuel and torpedoes). The submarines Parthian, Clyde, Traveller and Thrasher made more Magic Carpet runs and the fast minelayer Welshman made a dash from Gibraltar with 300 long tons (300 t) of food. In September, with Malta revictualled, Allied forces sank 100,000 long tons (100,000 t) of Axis shipping, including 24,000 long tons (24,000 t) of fuel destined for Rommel, leaving the Axis forces in Egypt consuming supplies faster than receipts, contributing to tactical paralysis during the Second Battle of El Alamein (23 October – 11 November) and Operation Torch (8–16 November). Submarines and Beaufort torpedo-bombers, escorted by Beaufighters, regularly attacked Axis supply ships, concentrating on tankers, known to the Allies through Ultra intercepts. An attempt to run a disguised merchant ship to Malta early in November failed and then Operation Stoneage (17–21 November), a convoy of four merchant ships from Alexandria, arrived undamaged (the light cruiser Arethusa was torpedoed with 155 men killed and had to be towed back to port). Force K was re-established at Malta and in Operation Portcullis (1–5 December), five ships were dispatched and arrived safely. Chariot manned torpedoes began to operate from Malta that month and from late December to January 1943, four convoys, Quadrangle A, B, C and D, with pairs of merchantmen in each, delivered 200,000 long tons (200,000 t) of stores without loss; empty ships were retrieved from the island. ## Commemoration In recognition of their fortitude during the siege and air attacks during all of the Mediterranean campaign, Malta was awarded the George Cross in the months immediately preceding this operation. Vice-Admiral Syfret was appointed as a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath for his "bravery and dauntless resolution in fighting an important convoy through to Malta in the face of relentless attacks by day and night from enemy submarines, aircraft, and surface forces." The master of the tanker Ohio, Dudley Mason, was awarded the George Cross for showing "skill and courage of the highest order and it was due to his determination that, in spite of the most persistent enemy opposition, the vessel, with her valuable cargo, eventually reached Malta and was safely berthed." Several other officers, crew members and commanders of both the Royal and Merchant Navies, including the commander of HMS Ledbury, Roger Hill, received military awards ranging from the Distinguished Service Order and Conspicuous Gallantry Medal to Mentioned in Despatches, for the bravery shown in ferrying the merchantmen to Malta. The United States' Merchant Marine Distinguished Service Medal was awarded to Junior Third Officer Frederick August Larsen, Jr. and to Cadet-Midshipman, US Merchant Marine Academy, Francis A. Dales for "Heroism beyond the call of duty" for their conduct aboard the Santa Elisa and Ohio. Operation Pedestal was the subject of a 1953 black and white British film, Malta Story, that interspersed archive footage of Ohio with scripted studio scenes. ## Order of battle ### Allies Force F Convoy WS.21S - Freighters: MV Empire Hope, MV Dorset, MV Wairangi, MV Rochester Castle, , , MV Port Chalmers, Almeria Lykes, Santa Elisa, MV Clan Ferguson, MV Glenorchy, , MV Deucalion - Oil tanker: Ohio - Destroyer escort from Britain to Gibraltar: Keppel, Malcolm, Amazon, Venomous, Wolverine Force Z – heavy ships, returning to Gibraltar before entering enemy aircraft range - Battleships - Nelson - Rodney - Aircraft carriers - Victorious (6 Sea Hurricanes, 16 Fulmars, 12 Albacores) - Eagle (16 Sea Hurricanes)(sunk) - Indomitable (damaged) (10 Martlets, 24 Sea Hurricanes, 16 Albacores) - Total 74 fighters, 28 torpedo bombers - Light cruisers - Charybdis, Phoebe, Sirius - 19th Destroyer Flotilla - Laforey, Lightning, Lookout, Quentin, Eskimo, Tartar, Wilton, Westcott, Wrestler, Somali, Wishart, Zetland, Ithuriel, Antelope, Vansittart Force X - 10th Cruiser Flotilla (light) - Nigeria (damaged), Kenya (damaged), Manchester (severely damaged and scuttled), Cairo (sunk) - 6th Destroyer Flotilla - Ashanti, Intrepid, Icarus, Foresight (severely damaged and scuttled), Fury, Derwent, Bramham, Bicester, Ledbury, Pathfinder, Penn - Ocean tug - Jaunty Force Y – two merchant ships with escort making overnight run from Malta to Gibraltar - Freighters: Troilus, Orari - Destroyers: Matchless, Badsworth Force R - Fleet oil tankers: RFA Brown Ranger, RFA Dingledale - Corvettes - Jonquil, Spiraea, Geranium, Coltsfoot - Ocean tug - Salvonia Malta Escort Force - 17th Minesweeping Flotilla - HMS Speedy, Hythe, Hebe, Rye - Motor launches: ML 121, ML 126, ML 134, ML 135, ML 168, ML 459, ML 469 - 10th Submarine Flotilla - Safari, Unbroken (off Milazzo and Palermo) - United, HMS P222, HMS P31, HMS P34, HMS P46, Utmost (between Malta and Tunisia) Operation Bellows - Aircraft carrier - Furious (38 Spitfires to 11 August) Reserve Escort Group - Destroyers - Keppel, Westcott, Venomous, Malcolm, Wolverine, Amazon, Wrestler, Vidette Operation MG 3 - Convoy MW 12 (Port Said section) - 3 merchant vessels: 2 cruisers, 10 destroyers as escort - Convoy MW 12 (Haifa section) - 1 Merchant vessel: 2 cruisers, 3 destroyers as escort Operation MG 4 - Rhodes attack force - 2 cruisers, 4 destroyers Aircraft operational on Malta - 9 fighter squadrons - 3 torpedo-bomber squadrons - 4 bomber squadrons - 2 reconnaissance squadrons - 38 Spitfires (ex-Furious) from 11 August ### Axis Naval forces 3rd Cruiser Division (Messina) - Heavy cruisers - Gorizia, Bolzano, Trieste - Destroyers - Aviere, Geniere, Camicia Nera, Legionario, Ascari, Corsaro, Grecale 7th Cruiser Division (Cagliari) - Light cruisers - Eugenio di Savoia, Raimondo Montecuccoli, Muzio Attendolo (severely damaged) - Destroyers - Maestrale, Vincenzo Gioberti, Alfredo Oriani, Fuciliere - Minelaying destroyer - Lanzerotto Malocello (to mine Sicilian Narrows) 8th Cruiser Division (Navarino) - Light cruisers - Luigi di Savoia Duca degli Abruzzi, Giuseppe Garibaldi, Emanuele Filiberto Duca d'Aosta - Destroyers - 5 Submarines - Italian - Bronzo, Ascianghi, Alagi, Dessiè, Avorio, Dandolo, Emo, Cobalto (sunk), Otaria, Axum, Asteria, Brin, Volframio, Granito, Dagabur (sunk), Giada (damaged), Uarsciek, Velella - German - , , Light forces - 2nd MS Squadron - MS 16, MS 22, MS 23, MS 25, MS 26, MS 31 - 15th MAS Squadron - MAS 549, MAS 543, MAS 548, MAS 563 - 18th MAS Squadron MAS 556, MAS 553, MAS 533, MAS 562, MAS 560 - 20th MAS Squadron - MAS 557, MAS 554, MAS 564, MAS 552 - S-boats - S 30, S 59, S 58, S 36 Aircraft on Sicily and Sardinia''' - Regia Aeronautica 287th, 146th, 170th, 144th, 197th squadriglie (90 torpedo bombers, 62 bombers, 25 dive-bombers, 151 fighters) - Luftwaffe Fliegerkorps II'' (328 dive bombers, 32 bombers, 96 fighters) Axis aircraft total: 784 (328 Italian, 456 German) ## See also Bonner Fellers
44,940,877	2015 Liège–Bastogne–Liège	1,104,204,567	null	[ "2015 UCI World Tour", "2015 in Belgian sport", "Liège–Bastogne–Liège" ]	The 2015 Liège–Bastogne–Liège was a one-day cycling classic that took place in the Belgian Ardennes on 26 April 2015. It was the 101st edition of the Liège–Bastogne–Liège one-day cycling race and was the fourth cycling monument of the 2015 season. It was part of the 2015 UCI World Tour and was organised by the Amaury Sport Organisation (ASO), the organisers of the Tour de France. 200 riders raced over a 253-kilometre (157-mile) route that started in Liège, travelled south to Bastogne, then returned north by an indirect route to finish in Ans on the outskirts of Liège. The route included many hills, especially in the final 70 kilometres (43 miles), which were the principal difficulty in the race. There were many attacks in the final part of the race, with several groups breaking away from the peloton and subsequently being caught. A small group came together on the final ascent to the finish line, where the race was decided in a sprint. It was won by the pre-race favourite, Alejandro Valverde (), ahead of Julian Alaphilippe () and Joaquim Rodríguez (). This was Valverde's third victory in Liège–Bastogne–Liège and put him into the lead of the World Tour standings. ## Background Liège–Bastogne–Liège, one of the oldest races on the cycling calendar, was established in 1892. Milano–Torino is the only current race to have begun earlier, although it did not exist as a regular event until the 1920s. Liège–Bastogne–Liège was founded as a precursor to a planned Liège–Paris–Liège event, which never came about, but eventually became one of the most important races on the cycling calendar in its own right. The race is seen as one of the cycling Monuments, alongside Milan–San Remo, the Tour of Flanders, Paris–Roubaix and the Giro di Lombardia. Because Liège–Bastogne–Liège is the oldest of the major races on the cycling calendar, it has the nickname La Doyenne (English: The Old Lady). It is particularly known as a race where the best one-day riders and the best Grand Tour riders can compete on relatively equal terms. In his book The Monuments, Peter Cossins wrote that Liège–Bastogne–Liège "is generally regarded as the toughest one-day race on the calendar". Eddy Merckx holds the record for the most victories, with five wins between 1969 and 1975. Liège–Bastogne–Liège was the fourth of the Monuments to take place in the 2015 season. Milan–San Remo and Paris–Roubaix were won by John Degenkolb (), while the Tour of Flanders was won by Alexander Kristoff (). Liège–Bastogne–Liège was the final event of the spring classics season and came as the conclusion to the Ardennes classics, following the Amstel Gold Race and La Flèche Wallonne. It was also part of the 2015 UCI World Tour, a season-long competition that included both one-day events and stage races. ## Teams As it was part of the UCI World Tour, the 17 UCI WorldTeams were automatically invited and obliged to send a team to Liège–Bastogne–Liège. The race organisers ASO, the organisers of the Tour de France, also made eight wildcard invitations to UCI Professional Continental teams. The peloton was therefore made up of 25 teams. Six of the teams were also invited to La Flèche Wallonne. These included two Belgian teams ( and ), two French teams ( and ), and . The final two teams to be invited to Liège–Bastogne–Liège were (whose invitation meant that they would participate in all five Monuments in 2015) and . As each team was required to enter between five and eight riders, the maximum size of the peloton was 200 riders. ## Route The route for the 2015 race was announced on 15 April. The route was 10 kilometres (6.2 miles) shorter than in 2014; it was therefore 253 kilometres (157 miles) in length. The changes came in the final section of the route, with the Côte de la Vecquée removed and the Col du Rosier and the Col du Maquisard added instead. The second change was a reduction in distance between the third-last and second-last climbs: the distance was cut from 25 kilometres (16 miles) to 16 kilometres (9.9 miles), with a small unclassified climb also added. Cyclingnews.com described the first change as a "much harder combination" suggested that the new route would make the race more interesting than the 2014 edition, which it described as "painfully dull". The race began in Liège, in Place Saint-Lambert outside the Prince-Bishops' Palace, with a neutral zone that took the riders out of the town to the south. The first 75 kilometres (47 miles) of the race brought the peloton south, through Aywaille to La Roche-en-Ardenne; although the roads were not flat there were no difficult or categorised climbs. Here the riders encountered the first classified climb of the day, the Côte de la Roche-en-Ardenne, a 2.8-kilometre (1.7-mile) climb at an average gradient of 6.2%. After reaching the summit, the riders continued south for another 28 kilometres (17 miles). This took them through Bertogne to Bastogne, which they reached after 107 kilometres (66 miles) of racing. This was the turning-point: from here the route turned to the north to return towards Liège. The northern leg of the race was both longer – 146 kilometres (91 miles) – and more difficult – it included nine categorised climbs. After turning around at the Rond-point La Doyenne (named after the race itself), the peloton left Bastogne to the north-east. The first 17 kilometres (11 miles) were fairly flat and took the riders to Houffalize. After a fast descent came the Côte de Saint-Roch, an 11.2% average climb over its 1-kilometre (0.62-mile) length. Another fairly flat section followed: the route continued north for approximately 30 kilometres (19 miles) on fairly major roads through Gouvy and Vielsalm. At this point, with 86.5 kilometres (53.7 miles) to the finish line, there were still eight categorised climbs remaining. The first three of these climbs came in quick succession. These were the Côte de Wanne (2.7 kilometres (1.7 miles) at 7.4%), the Côte de Stockeu (1 kilometre (0.62 miles) at 12.5%) and the Côte de la Haute-Levée (3.6 kilometres (2.2 miles) at 5.6%). The Côte de Wanne was narrow and badly surfaced, with a dangerous descent following. The Côte de Stockeu was described by Cycling Weekly as a "killer climb", because of its steep gradient, its narrowness and its poor road surface. The Côte de la Haute-Levée was unique on the course because it included a 500 metres (1,600 ft) section of cobblestones. These climbs brought the riders to Stavelot. Soon afterwards, there was a hairpin turn that took them towards the two climbs new to the 2015 edition. The first of these was the Col du Rosier (4.4 kilometres (2.7 miles) at 5.9%), which was the longest climb of the day. The riders then descended through the town of Spa and turned west onto the Col du Maquisard (2.5 kilometres (1.6 miles) at 5%), which they crossed with 46 kilometres (29 miles) to the finish line. The route then crossed over the roads used for the southern leg as the riders entered the final section of the race. The following climb was the Côte de La Redoute (2 kilometres (1.2 miles) at 8.9%), with 34.5 kilometres (21.4 miles) from the summit to the finish line. Cyclingnews.com described La Redoute as "the most emblematic climb of the entire race". It had an uneven gradient: the first 1 kilometre (0.62 miles) was at about 8%, before 500 metres (1,600 ft) at around 13% and another 500 metres (1,600 ft) at 6%. The riders descended down twisting roads, crossed over the uncategorised Côte de Sprimont, before coming to the penultimate climb, the Côte de la Roche-aux-Faucons (1.5 kilometres (0.93 miles) at 9.4%) with 19 kilometres (12 miles) to the finish line. This was one of the most difficult climbs of the race, with frequent changes of gradient and a poor road surface. There was then another uncategorised climb and a steep descent into the outskirts of Liège. The final climb of the day came with 6.2 kilometres (3.9 miles) remaining. This was the Côte de Saint-Nicolas (1.2 kilometres (0.75 miles) at 8.6%). Cycling Weekly described it as "a succession of steep corners with nothing between". After the descent from the climb, the riders entered Ans, the finishing town. There was a long, straight road that started 2 kilometres (1.2 miles) from the finish line. After 500 metres (1,600 ft) of flat, the road climbed towards the finish at around 5%. With around 300 metres (980 feet) to go, there was a left-hand turn that took the riders to the finish line. ## Pre-race favourites Recent editions of Liège–Bastogne–Liège had been won in several different ways. Andy Schleck (then riding for ) had won a solo victory with a long-distance attack in 2009, while Dan Martin () had attacked late on to win in 2013. The 2010 edition was won by a two-man breakaway and the 2011 edition by a three-man group. The defending champion, Simon Gerrans () won the 2014 edition in a bunch sprint after a large group came to Ans together. The pattern of the 2015 edition was therefore hard to predict. One consistent pattern, however, was that recent editions of the race had been won by major names rather than by outsiders. Alejandro Valverde () had won La Flèche Wallonne during the week that preceded Liège–Bastogne–Liège and he was one of the major favourites to take the victory. Valverde had won the race on two previous occasions (in 2006 and 2008) and had also been on the podium on four other occasions. Valverde's status as the major favourite had the potential to work against him, however, as other riders were expected to mark him closely and perhaps prevent him from winning. Philippe Gilbert () had suffered from this problem in the Amstel Gold Race. The other major favourite for the race was the reigning world champion, Michał Kwiatkowski (). Kwiatkowski had finished third in the 2014 Liège–Bastogne–Liège and had already won the Amstel Gold Race in 2015. Although he had not been as strong as had been expected in La Flèche Wallonne, the longer climbs of Liège–Bastogne–Liège were expected to suit him better. Other favourites included Martin, Joaquim Rodríguez (), Rui Costa (), as well as Vincenzo Nibali () and Tim Wellens (). Gerrans had suffered an injury earlier in the season and had not fully recovered; he was not expected to be able to defend his title. Similarly, Gilbert had suffered a fall in La Flèche Wallonne; he was also not as well suited to the route of Liège–Bastogne–Liège as he was to the other Ardennes classics. ## Race report The race began with hard racing for the first hour until the day's main breakaway was formed, with around 40 kilometres (25 miles) raced. The breakaway involved eight riders. These were Diego Ulissi (), Matteo Montaguti (), Otto Vergaerde (), Clément Chevrier (), Marco Minnaard (), Anthony Turgis (), Cesare Benedetti () and Rasmus Quaade (). The group's lead soon extended to nearly eight minutes, while the peloton was led by ; their work reduced the breakaway's lead by around three minutes by the time of the Côte de La Roche-en-Ardenne, 79 kilometres (49 miles) into the race. After the turn in Bastogne, the breakaway continued. It was, however, reduced in numbers, as Quaade, Chevrier and Vergaerde all fell back before the peloton reached the Côte de Wanne, four hours into the race. led the peloton as it approached the climb. On the climb itself, came to the front of the peloton and led the chase, with the breakaway's lead reduced to under a minute. On the Côte de Stockeu, Andriy Hrivko (), Gorka Izagirre () and Simon Yates () attacked and joined the lead group; more riders then bridged across to form a 21-man group. This included five riders, though not Nibali. On the Côte de la Haute-Levée, several riders attacked again to form a smaller breakaway; these were Tanel Kangert and Michele Scarponi (both ), Manuele Boaro (), Esteban Chaves () and Julián Arredondo (). They had a 25-second lead at the summit and, although Boaro and Arredondo were dropped on the Col du Rosier, this increased to more than a minute for a short while. It was reduced to 45 seconds on the Col du Maquisard, however, as the worked hard in the peloton to bring them back. As the peloton approached the Côte de la Redoute, there was a large crash. Among the riders to crash were two previous winners of the race, Dan Martin and Simon Gerrans, as well as Fränk Schleck (), Nicolas Roche (), Mathias Frank () and Yukiya Arashiro (). Vincenzo Nibali was forced to unclip himself from his bike, but avoided crashing. The peloton was reduced to around 40 riders at the foot of the climb. Although there were no bad injuries in the crash, Roche and Arashiro took some time to stand up, with Roche looking particularly dazed. Many of the riders who crashed attempted to get back into the peloton, with Gerrans and Martin among them. Gerrans was forced to abandon the race shortly afterwards after he crashed for a second time. On the Col de la Redoute itself, Kangert was dropped from the breakaway; Scarponi and Chaves had a 35-second lead at the summit and were caught around 10 kilometres (6 mi) later. The riders then entered the Côte de la Roche-aux-Faucons, where Roman Kreuziger () and Giampaolo Caruso () attacked; they were quickly joined by Jakob Fuglsang () and had an 18-second lead at the summit. Several riders attempted to form chase groups; eventually a six-man chase group was formed by Giovanni Visconti (), Julian Alaphilippe (), Rui Costa (), Samuel Sánchez () and Daniel Moreno (). They stayed away for a short while and were then joined by around 20 other riders with 15 kilometres (9.3 miles) remaining as rain began to fall. Zdeněk Štybar () took over the pace-setting in the peloton as it approached the Côte de Saint-Nicolas and he reduced the gap to Kreuziger, Caruso and Fuglsang. On the climb, Valverde came to the front of the group to control the pace. Nibali then attacked and, while he was not able to escape the group, several riders were dropped. These included Michał Kwiatkowski and Philippe Gilbert. Nibali's attack also brought the chasing group back to the leaders. The next attack came from Romain Bardet () on the descent from the Côte de Saint-Nicolas. While he too was unable to break away from the group, his attack did cause Nibali to lose contact and reduced the group to ten riders. Giampaolo Caruso led the group into Ans and towards the climb to the finish. At the foot of the climb, Daniel Moreno, Caruso's teammate, attacked and built a small gap ahead of the group. The group did not initially chase him, as all the other riders looked for Valverde to do the work. Eventually Valverde did start to chase Moreno and caught him at the final bend. He opened his sprint from a long way out, with Joaquim Rodríguez () right behind him. Rodríguez slowed as they approached the line, however, and Valverde took the victory. Julian Alaphilippe came around Rodríguez in the final metres to take second place. ## Result ## Post-race analysis ### Rider reactions Valverde's win was his third victory at the race, and he became one of only six riders to have three or more victories in the race. Liège–Bastogne–Liège also concluded a very successful Ardennes week for him: he had two victories and one second-place finish in the three races. Valverde was the first rider since Philippe Gilbert in 2011 to win both La Flèche Wallonne and Liège–Bastogne–Liège in the same week and, although he was one place away from imitating Gilbert's Ardennes triple, he described it as a "great week". Alaphilippe's second-place finish was the best for any French rider since Laurent Jalabert in 1998. He had entered the race in support of Kwiatkowski. When Kwiatkowski was struggling on the Côte de Saint-Nicolas, the Etixx-Quick Step directeur sportif sent a radio message to Alaphilippe to ride for himself; this was similar to the events in La Flèche Wallonne, where Alaphilippe also finished second to Valverde. He was frustrated on the finish line and waved his arm in the air; he said after the race "today I really felt I could have done something more". Cyclingnews.com suggested after the race that he had the potential to win a Monument in the future. Several riders were injured in the crash 40 kilometres (25 miles) from the finish. The worst-affected was Yukiya Arashiro, who suffered several broken bones, while Gianluca Brambilla () broke his collarbone. had two riders with injuries: Paul Martens broke his hand and Bram Tankink suffered from concussion and bruises. Nicolas Roche and Simon Gerrans both suffered some discomfort after their crashes, but neither had significant injuries. Dan Martin rode the Tour de Romandie the following week; after he suffered with his breathing through the race, he discovered that he had broken two ribs in the crash in Liège–Bastogne–Liège. ### UCI World Tour rankings After his strong Ardennes week, Valverde moved into the lead of the UCI World Tour individual rankings, with Richie Porte () dropping to second place. Rui Costa also moved into the top ten. Spain moved ahead of Australia in the nations' standings, while retained their lead of the team rankings.
9,031,737	Lost in the World	1,173,841,958	null	[ "2010 songs", "Art pop songs", "Black-and-white music videos", "Experimental music songs", "Hip house songs", "Kanye West songs", "Song recordings produced by Jeff Bhasker", "Song recordings produced by Kanye West", "Songs written by Jeff Bhasker", "Songs written by Justin Vernon", "Songs written by Kanye West", "Songs written by Malik Yusef" ]	"Lost in the World" is a song by American hip hop recording artist Kanye West from his fifth studio album, My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy (2010). The song features vocals by Justin Vernon of indie folk band Bon Iver, as well as sampling his 2009 song "Woods". It also contains portions of "Soul Makossa" written by Manu Dibango, and samples of "Comment No. 1", performed by Gil Scott-Heron. It was produced by West and Jeff Bhasker, who wrote the track with Vernon and Malik Jones. "Lost in the World" was initially leaked on September 29, 2010, and was 5 minutes and 55 seconds long. The version on the album was divided into two parts, with the outro becoming a new track entitled "Who Will Survive in America". The song received acclaim from music critics, who praised the atmospheric production, the appearance of Vernon, and West's verse. The verse by West was described as one of the most poetic of his career, with the song being cited as one of the strongest on My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy. "Lost in the World" was featured during the closing credits of Runaway, a 35-minute short film directed by West set with music from the album. The song peaked at number 104 on the South Korean Gaon Chart. A music video was directed by West and Ruth Hogben, featuring black and white cinematography, frantic dancing by models and a brief cameo by West. The music video received positive reviews from critics. "Lost in the World" was sampled in a freestyle by West's GOOD Music labelmate Pusha T, and a remix produced by DJ Tiësto. West first performed the song live at Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade. He notably performed the song with Justin Vernon at both Coachella Festival and Glastonbury Festival. Additionally, "Lost in the World" was performed by West at the funeral of Gil Scott-Heron in 2011. ## Background Kanye West initially wrote the verses of "Lost in the World" as a love poem emailed to American model Kim Kardashian, who he would later begin dating in 2012 and married in 2014. West previewed "Lost in the World" in July 2010 at the offices of Facebook. West performed production-free versions of several songs at the event, standing on top of a table. Rolling Stone writer Daniel Kreps, who reported the event, wrote "in an unorthodox move, Kanye West debuted verses from three new songs, a cappella for employees at Facebook's headquarters in Palo Alto, California." Before launching into a performance of "Lost in the World", West mused that "this is actually a bit more like a poem" and described it as more of a "serious rap". A version of the song leaked online on September 29, 2010; the version was unfinished, with a length of approximately 6 minutes. At this time, it was unknown whether or not the song would appear on West's upcoming fifth studio album. Later, in October 2010, it was confirmed that "Lost in the World" would indeed appear on My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy, but that the leaked version had subsequently been split into two different songs. The first part of the track remained titled "Lost in the World", while the end became another song, titled "Who Will Survive in America". ### Recording Following some media controversies, West chose to record My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy in a reclusive manner in Oahu, Hawaii. Like the majority of the album, "Lost in the World" was composed there. West attempted to shy away from working with artists he didn't consider himself familiar with; however, he made an exception for Justin Vernon, singer of the band Bon Iver. Vernon's involvement in the project stemmed from a phone call by West. West had gotten into contact with Vernon and described his intention of sampling the song "Woods" from Bon Iver's Blood Bank EP. After the phone message, West invited Vernon down to his record studio in Hawaii to appear on the album. West also cited the Bon Iver album For Emma, Forever Ago as something he was a fan of, and admitted an admiration of the unique aesthetic of Vernon's music. The two quickly became friends through discussions of music and games of basketball. While at Hawaii, Vernon collaborated extensively, reportedly producing a total of 10 tracks together, including the album cuts "Dark Fantasy" and "Monster". Vernon told Pitchfork Media about the composition of the song, stating: > "So I head out there and he plays me the track and it sounds exactly like how you want it to sound: forward moving, interesting, light-hearted, heavy-hearted, fucking incredible sounding jam. It was kind of bare so I added some choir-sounding stuff and then thicked out the samples with my voice. That whole first week I was there we worked on the 'Woods' song, which is called 'Lost in the World'. We were just eating breakfast and listening to the song on the speakers and he's like, 'Fuck, this is going to be the festival closer.' I was like, 'Yeah, cool.' It kind of freaked me out." Vernon recorded his lines in a separate recording studio than most of the album. Vernon described the studio as a "tiny black room". He would record a line in the room, and then shortly later West would come in and play back what was recorded, and then discuss what needed to be changed. They repeated that process a few times until the song was finished. Vernon expressed a positive opinion of working with West, and though he called West demanding in some ways, he appreciated West's enthusiasm for music and the creativity produced by the recording sessions. The song was recorded around the death of Michael Jackson and the event had an effect on the recording crew of the song, and certain aspects of the song are influenced by personal events that affected West throughout the years. In an interview with MTV, West said that the song was going to be the last featured on the album, and commented that "emotionally it just fit the crescendo of everything that I was saying and what I wanted to say to this girl. And it's also my favorite eight bars that I've ever written in my life. I think it's one of the greatest pieces of writing." ## Composition "Lost in the World" is 4 minutes and 16 seconds long and has been described as a "moody meditation". It features tribal drums and samples Bon Iver's "Woods", a song originally written about alienation, applied by West "as the centerpiece of a catchy, communal reverie" on the album. The song manipulates the original Bon Iver sample and incorporates influences from both house music and dance music, adding tribal chants and percussion. During the duration of the song, there are several distinct production changes. The song begins with faint vocals delivered by Vernon, which are reinforced by drums, gospel-styled chorus, an increased tempo, and a final measured tempo. The song continues to build at a slow pace, until a choir explodes into a bombastic roar, boasting the line "run from the lights." West delivers a short, 40 second verse, which appears over two and a half minutes into the song. West's verse contains an interpolation of the "Mama-say mama-sah ma-ma-coo-sah" hook from Michael Jackson's song "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin'". The song features West's comment on his fans and his fame, with additional references to Jackson. Embling of Tiny Mix Tapes viewed that the track points out a paralleled with West and Jackson, commenting: > "Life in the spotlight is perilous, and West knows that what happened to the King of Pop could just as easily happen to him. [...] A disembodied chorus urges West to 'run from the lights/ run for your life' on 'Lost in the World,' the record's frenzied penultimate track; but even as we listen, we know there's little chance that he'll leave the spotlight behind. West is telling us, over the course of 11 songs, that he's willing to die for our amusement, our respect." "Lost in the World" transitions into the closing track "Who Will Survive in America". The song ends with a very long sample of Gil Scott-Heron's "Comment No. 1", a speech which served as a comment on the 1960s Revolutionary Youth Movement for failing to recognize the more basic needs of the African-American community. It is edited to a smaller version on the track that, according to Chicago Tribune writer Greg Kot, "retains its essence, that of an African-American male who feels cut off from his country and culture". Ann Powers of Los Angeles Times described "Woods" as a "Wisconsin death trip that becomes a testimonial to rebirth through isolation" and noted a significant difference from "Lost in the World", commenting that the song was more about West's "exhausted cry of one who's always new in town, chasing whatever goal or girl is in the room, fueled by consumer culture's relentless buzz, but finally left unsatisfied." ## Reception The song received universal acclaim from critics. Alex Denney NME called the song the "heart-rending highlight" of My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy and cited the vocal performance by Vernon as a "quite brilliant effect." Denney commented "it frames Kanye's inner demons in a universal way, recasting Vernon's semi-mythical woodland retreat as his own cipher for spiritual replenishment". Los Angeles Times writer Ann Powers called the song an important piece of the album, saying that the sampling of Bon Iver was both surprising and inspired, and noted the differences between "Woods" and "Lost in the World". David Amidon of PopMatters viewed that the track contained "glass-shattering bass", and viewed that the track "storms out of all this dreariness with a thunderous, plodding house bass and Kanye taking Bon Iver in every which direction as the song exudes nothing but triumph." Chris Martins of Spin stated that West managed to transform Iver's "melancholic 'Woods' into a perversely bright experimental dance track." Sasha Frere-Jones of The New Yorker commented that the song was difficult to classify as purely a rap song, noting that "West's music is born of hip-hop, but it now includes so many varieties that it feels most accurate to call it simply Kanye." Jones noted than in less than the six minutes of the song's running time, West "moves from a loner in the woods to his own isolation and on to the entire African-American experience." Andy Gill of The Independent stated that he was impressed that the song was West's only use of autotune on the album, describing the song as both "lovely" and "poignant" in nature. David Browne of Time stated that the song, much like "Runaway", feature "shimmering soundscapes that pinpoint a common ground between the hardness of hip-hop and the sweetness of indie rock." AbsolutePunk's Drew Beringer cited the song as an example of West's growth as a producer, noting that he was sampling unexpected songs to unique results, including the "haunting" song "Woods". Beringer felt that the most interest take of this on the album was "Lost in the World", describing it as a "as an auto-tuned medley of Vernon and West that soars over pounding drums and a frantic backing choir". HipHopDX writer Jake Paine felt that the track utilized "pounding drums", and commented that it was "an intense tapestry of ever-changing sound that includes several genres and decades of inspiration." Channing Freeman of Sputnikmusic viewed that track, along with "All of the Lights" and "Power" have "a certain zest of life" to them, adding that all three tracks were "beautiful". He also commented that "it is great to see that Kanye is still able to have plenty of fun without losing any of his creativity." Dan Vidal of URB commented "sonically, the joy comes from the triumphant, painstaking arrangement that undoubtedly went into the production". The Washington Post's Chris Richards mused that "the drums come avalanching on Lost in the World", calling it "the grand finale this album deserves." He continued that "West serves up high drama at a breakneck tempo, with pining melodies crying out for a redemptive moment. But there's no final act of contrition. West is too 'lost in this plastic life.'" Cole Mathew of Slant Magazine described the track as "Kanye's much-anticipated reworking of Bon Iver's "Woods" from his classic EP", and wrote that "it's astounding how he takes the strangest sample on the album and crafts it into a defiantly giddy dance number, complete with tribal drumming in the verses and group choruses that sound massive. It's a mad stroke of brilliance to take Justin Vernon's solitary ode to alienation and use it as the centerpiece of a catchy, communal reverie. It's experimental, to be sure, but it's also the closest the album comes to pure pop indulgence." The song peaked on the South Korean Gaon Music Chart at position 104. In 2017, critics writing for Billboard named the song the fourth best deep cut by a 21st Century Pop Star. In 2019, MTV named it among the best overlooked songs of the decade. ## Marketing ### Live performances To promote My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy, West performed the song at Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade. During the performance, West wore black peacoat, fur vest, shiny gold shirt, gold chains, and a headband. According to a reviewer from Rap-Up, he was lip syncing the song during the performance. Due to the controversy stemming from the MTV Video Music Awards, it was reported that West was booed during the performance. The booing garnered press coverage and was reported by several publications. During his set at the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival, West performed "Lost in the World" towards the end of his performance. Justin Vernon joined Kanye during the performance, and it was described as "one of the most memorable performances in Coachella history." The track was featured during West's set at the Big Chill music festival. At the festival, West announced plans for the song to be the fifth single from the album, however plans to do so never surfaced. West performed "Lost in the World at Gil Scott-Heron's funeral in 2011. ### Miscellaneous The song appears in West's short film Runaway, an extended 35-minute-long music video which features a majority of the tracks featured on My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy. The song plays during the video's climax, and features West frantically running through the forest. Rapper Pusha T released a promotional remix of the track with verses provided by him. A dance remix by Grammy nominated DJ Tiësto was produced in 2011, that was "apparently been sitting around Tiësto's hard drive for the past year", and was finally put up to download as part of a podcast in April 2012. The remix took over a year to be released, but was finally allowed to be released for undisclosed reasons. Consequence of Sound writer Chris Coplan reported that the remix had a duration of around eight minutes, commenting that "the formerly artsy number is chopped and screwed into a bass-heavy club anthem, with the emotionally-frozen vibe melting to the sheer heat produced by random samples and various chunky synth lines." ## Music video A music video was made by fashion film director Ruth Hogben in collaboration with West, who appears in a cameo in the video. The video was shot during the summer of 2011 during a two-day shoot. Hogben and West had brainstorming sessions deciding what the video was going to be conceptually, finally deciding something that would aesthetically fit the song the best. About collaborating with West, Hogben commented that the process was very organic and creative in nature, musing that the two went back and forth with ideas for visuals. The dancers in the video were not instructed to dance in any particular way by Yemi A.D. who was in charge of the dance choreography; and according to Ruth Hogben, they "wanted an interpretation of how they felt about the song to be portrayed instead." The video was eventually released May 4, 2012. The video was described as "belated" because it was premiered nearly a year and a half after the initial release of the album "Lost in the World" accompanies. The black-and-white clip opens with a warning that "strobe effects are used in this video" and features a group of models dressed in sheer fabric dancing while West poses during his verse. West's face is actually not shown anywhere in the video, which mostly showcases "tortured and slick mirrors and skylines, with a well-placed dancer depicting the heaven and hell in which the rapper wallows." According to Belinda White of The Daily Telegraph, it features designers Gareth Pugh and Rick Owens, stylists Katie Grand and Katie Shillingford and "brands such as Louis Vuitton, Barneys, Mac Cosmetics and Selfridges." Director Hogben mused that ultimately people "are supposed to come up with their individual interpretations of the clip." Kia Makarechi of The Huffington Post offered her interpretation of the video, writing: > "In the black and white video -- which West made with filmmaker Ruth Hogben -- post-rocker Bon Iver's haunting intro plays over images of a model in sheer fabric. When the rapper appears, he's standing on a mirrored platform -- seeing only himself when he looks down. He's 'lost in the world,' grounded by a reality that's isolated and clouded (via wind and fog machines)." HitFix's Katie Hasty viewed that video played out more like a fashion clip than an actual music video, but mused that it was a probable result considering the past of the director. Hasty commented that it was a "gorgeous way to sell the song." Robbie Daw of website Idolator compared the Nick Knight cinematography to the style featured in the music video for Lady Gaga's single "Born This Way" (which was directed by Nick Knight) and wrote that "the black-and-white extravaganza is a rap video unlike any others released in recent memory — well, unless you count Kanye's last off-the-wall clip." Luis Tovar of Pretty Much Amazing compared the video to the trailer of The Dark Knight Rises, and called it "totally Kanye". Popdust writer Katherine St Asaph described the video as an artistic "black-and-white cut that disorients you with lots of falling and flailing and flailing-called-interpretive-dance, with billowing smoke and sudden shifts in art direction", commenting that the video was a welcome change of pace. ## Personnel - Produced By: Kanye West - Co-Produced By: Jeff Bhasker - Recorded By: Andrew Dawson, Mike Dean, Noah Goldstein, Anthony Kilhoffer at Avex Recording Studio, Honolulu, Hi; Electric Lady Studios, NYC - Engineer: Brent Kolatalo - Mix Engineer: Anthony Kilhoffer - Assistant Mix Engineers: Pete Bischoff, Alex Graupera, Christian Mochizuki - Keyboard: Jeff Bhasker - Additional Drum Programming: Mano - Chant Vocals: Ken Lewis and Alvin Fields - Additional vocals: Elly Jackson, Alicia Keys, Tony Williams, Kaye Fox, Charlie Wilson, and Justin Vernon ## Charts ## Certifications
264,238	Violeta Chamorro	1,164,420,652	President of Nicaragua from 1990 to 1997	[ "1929 births", "20th-century Nicaraguan politicians", "20th-century Nicaraguan women politicians", "Blackstone College for Girls alumni", "Chamorro family", "Collars of the Order of Isabella the Catholic", "Female defence ministers", "Female heads of government", "Female heads of state", "Living people", "Members of the Inter-American Dialogue", "National Opposition Union politicians", "Nicaraguan democracy activists", "Nicaraguan publishers (people)", "Nicaraguan women activists", "Nicaraguan women in business", "Our Lady of the Lake University alumni", "People from Rivas Department", "People of the Nicaraguan Revolution", "Presidents of Nicaragua", "Women presidents" ]	Violeta Barrios Torres de Chamorro (; 18 October 1929) is a Nicaraguan politician who served as President of Nicaragua from 1990 to 1997. She was the first and, as of 2023, only woman to hold the position of president of Nicaragua. Born into a landed family in southern Nicaragua, Chamorro was partially educated in the United States. After returning to her home country, she married and raised a family. Her husband, Pedro Joaquín Chamorro Cardenal, was a journalist working at his family's newspaper, La Prensa, which he later inherited. As a result of his anti-government stance, he was often jailed or exiled, forcing Chamorro to spend a decade following him abroad or visiting him in jail. When he was assassinated in 1978, Chamorro took over the newspaper. Pedro's murder strengthened the Nicaraguan Revolution and his image, as wielded by his widow, became a powerful symbol for the opposition forces. Initially, when the Sandinistas were victorious over Anastasio Somoza Debayle, Chamorro fully supported them. She agreed to become part of the provisional government established under the Junta of National Reconstruction (Spanish: Junta de Gobierno de Reconstrucción Nacional, JGRN); however, when the Junta began moving in a more radical direction and signed agreements with the Soviet Union, Chamorro resigned and returned to the newspaper. Under her direction, La Prensa continued to criticize the government and its policies despite threats and government-forced shutdowns. When Daniel Ortega announced that elections would be held in 1990, Chamorro was selected as the candidate for the opposition group known as the National Opposition Union (Spanish: Unión Nacional Opositora, UNO). This 14-party alliance ranged from conservatives and liberals to communists and because of ideological differences had difficulty in devising any political platform other than a promise to end the war. Despite polls indicating a victory for the incumbent Sandinista President Ortega, Chamorro won the election on 25 February 1990. She was the first elected female head of state in the Americas. She was also the second female to be elected in her own right as a head of government in the Americas, after Prime Minister Eugenia Charles of Dominica. Chamorro was sworn into office on 25 April 1990. Chamorro's leadership covered six difficult years marked by economic strife and social unrest, but she was able to compromise with rivals, maintain a constitutional regime, re-establish international banking relationships and end the hyperinflation that had plagued the country for several years. After leaving office on 10 January 1997, Chamorro worked on several international peace initiatives until poor health forced her to retire from public life. ## Early life Violeta Barrios Torres was born on 18 October 1929 in Rivas, a small city near the Nicaraguan border with Costa Rica, to Carlos José Barrios Sacasa and Amalia Torres Hurtado. Her family was wealthy and conservative, and although she has often been claimed by the U.S. media to be part of the Nicaraguan aristocracy, in truth, her family had large landholdings and cattle; they were more akin to the cattle barons of the western United States than the "Nicaraguan Gloria Vanderbilt" she was sometimes styled as in the American press. She attended primary school at the Sagrado Corazón de Jesús (Sacred Heart of Jesus) school in Rivas and the French school in Granada. Barrios began her secondary education at the Colegio La Inmaculada in Managua and then transferred to an American boarding school, as her parents wanted her to perfect her English. She first attended Our Lady of the Lake Catholic High School for Girls in San Antonio, Texas, and then in 1945 changed to Blackstone College for Girls in Virginia. In June 1947, her father was diagnosed with terminal lung cancer and though he died before she could make it home, she returned to Nicaragua, without graduating in the United States. ## Personal life Violeta met Pedro Joaquín Chamorro Cardenal in 1949, they married in December 1950; subsequently, they had five children together. In 1952, on his father's death, Chamorro's husband inherited the newspaper La Prensa. He took over publishing and under his direction, the paper became a voice of opposition to the Somoza regime. Chamorro Cardenal was frequently jailed between 1952 and 1957 for the content of the paper and in 1957 led a revolt against Somoza. His actions resulted in his exile to Costa Rica, where Chamorro joined him after settling their children with his mother. Two years were spent in Costa Rica, with Pedro writing against the regime and immediately upon their return he was jailed again. Chamorro's life throughout the 1960s and 1970s was a repetitive cycle of reunions with either her husband or children. She followed him; if he was forced to leave, she left the children with family and traveled to be with him; if he was jailed, she was reunited with the children and visited him. Chamorro's earnings from a rental property that her mother had given her gave the couple a steady income. When her husband was assassinated on 10 January 1978, she took over control of the newspaper. Over the years, Chamorro's family has been split into feuding factions based upon political association. Two of her children, Pedro and Cristiana, worked at La Prensa, although Pedro left Nicaragua in 1984 to join the Contras. Her other children were active Sandinistas; Claudia was ambassador to Costa Rica and Carlos became the editor of the FSLN daily newspaper Barricada. In spite of the conflicting political views of her children, Chamorro encouraged and hosted family dinners during which she insisted political affiliations were temporarily put aside in the interest of family harmony. ## Rise to power The assassination of Chamorro's husband sparked the Sandinista Revolution. His image became a symbol of their cause and when Daniel Ortega led the Sandinista guerrillas triumphantly into Managua in July 1979, Chamorro was with them. A coalition to replace the Somoza regime was formed. Chamorro, represented the Democratic Union of Liberation (Spanish: Unión Democrática de Liberación, UDEL) in the first Junta of National Reconstruction (Spanish: Junta de Gobierno de Reconstrucción Nacional, JGRN), which also included Ortega for the Sandinista National Liberation Front (Spanish: Frente Sandinista de Liberación Nacional, FSLN); Moisés Hassan Morales, of the pro-Sandinista National Patriotic Front (Spanish: Frente Patriotico Nacional, FPN); Luis Alfonso Robelo Callejas, with the Nicaraguan Democratic Movement (Spanish: Movimiento Democrático Nicaragüense, MDN); and Sergio Ramirez Mercado for the Group of Twelve (Spanish: El Grupo de los Doce). This directorate, which initially promised an independent judiciary, free elections, free enterprise and a free press, was assisted by an 18-member Cabinet and a 33-member Council, whose membership represented a broad spectrum of Nicaraguan society. After the civil war of 1978–1979 and last-minute transferring of the national treasury to foreign banks by the Somoza regime, the country was devastated and it was believed that a Marxist-style government would restore prosperity; however, the Sandinistas soon began taking over television and radio stations and censoring newspapers. Following the lead of the Sandinista's mentor Fidel Castro, Cuban-style Marxism was implemented and Nicaragua increasingly took on the traits of a police state, in some respects. In others, while the Sandinistas did increase their ties with the Soviet bloc and embraced Marxist philosophy, they announced a non-alignment policy and continued discussions on diplomatic, economic, and military relationships with the United States. In February 1980, FSLN signed several accords with the Soviet Union causing the US president, Jimmy Carter, who had initially authorized aid to the Sandinista government, to approve CIA support for the opposition forces. On 19 April 1980, Chamorro resigned from the Junta in opposition to the Sandinista's push for control, implementation of a Cuban interpretation of Marx, and failure to keep the commitments made in Puntarenas, Costa Rica for establishment of a democracy. Her exit prompted other members of the Junta to resign and join opposition groups that were beginning to form. She returned to her role as editor of La Prensa, driving it to become both an advocate of free speech and opposition thought. Her support of the Contras caused divisions in her own family and resulted in La Prensa's offices being temporarily shut down on several occasions. In 1986, President Ortega even threatened her personally with a thirty-year prison sentence for treason. That same year, she won the Louis Lyons Award from the Nieman Foundation at Harvard University; the award citation said that she had "resisted repression and censorship" and remained dedicated to a free press despite threats, redactions and suppression by the government. From 1987, a conglomerate of 14 political parties began working together in the hope of defeating the Sandinistas should an election come about. By 1989, efforts by Costa Rican President Óscar Arias and other Central American leaders had persuaded Ortega to hold elections. He agreed not only to free elections, but to the monitoring of the process. The conglomerate of opposition, now calling itself the National Opposition Union (Spanish: Unión Nacional Opositora, UNO) agreed upon a formula to select a consensus candidate. After five rounds of voting, Chamorro was appointed the presidential candidate for UNO. Her platform primarily consisted of two key promises: ending the civil war and ending mandatory military service. It also played heavily on her simplicity, her faith, common sense, and the image of her being the "queen-mother" and the wife of a martyr. Almost all news outlets reported that Chamorro could not win. She was depicted as rich with no real experience. There were rumors that she received millions from the United States via their embassy and that she was a US lackey; that she was too religious; and that her coalition was too disorganized, had no money, and was plagued by in-fighting. In reality, her humility and provincial roots worked for her; she had run a family, a business and been part of the original Junta; the Sandinistas blocked payment of funds to her from the US while simultaneously claiming she received them; and she had long been vocal about her displeasure of US involvement in Nicaragua. According to Peruvian novelist Mario Vargas Llosa; Humberto Belli, an editor of La Prensa and later Minister of Education; and other writers such as Edward Sheehan and Shirley Christian who have written about the country, Nicaragua is one of the most religious countries in Latin America. Chamorro's faith and support for free expression united those who had felt alienated by the Sandinistas. Her chief appeal though was that she promised peace to a country tired of war. Ortega spent large sums of money, and strutted around like a "macho rooster", as if the election were already won; he even used a fighting rooster as the symbol of his campaign. The United States government was convinced Chamorro could not win without measures to "level the field". The George H. W. Bush administration wanted Congress to waive the prohibition of using National Endowment for Democracy funds to support a candidate and to approve a \$9 million aid plan in addition to granting \$3 million outright in assistance to UNO. Congress refused, as direct aid to candidates or parties was prohibited by law. Congress finally agreed to the \$9 million package, only as per the legal requirements—meaning funds could only be used for election monitoring and observers, drives to increase voter turnout and must be fully disclosed. These funds were earmarked for building voting infrastructure, for vehicles and gasoline, salaries, poll watchers, office equipment, trips abroad to train poll workers and those registering voters, election monitoring teams, and as per the provision of foreign donations, \$2 million was paid into the Nicaraguan Supreme Electoral Council run by the government. In addition, the CIA covertly paid close to \$500,000 (USD) to nearly a hundred Nicaraguans living abroad so they would return home to vote. The aid package ran into difficulties though: one month before the elections, only \$400,000 of the money had been sent and it was deposited in accordance with Nicaraguan law into an account at the government-run Central Bank. The vehicles which were provided for in the aid package arrived in Nicaragua, but due to the customs director's vacation, the vehicles were not cleared, nor were tags issued for their use. Three weeks before the election, UNO officials reportedly had received only around \$250,000 dollars and accused Ortega's administration of delaying tactics and taking a share off the top. The government countered that the history of the Iran–Contra affair was a basis for caution and that the US itself was creating delays. Since the United States invasion of Panama had frozen Panamanian currency, a spokesperson for the Central Bank of Nicaragua stated that the Ortega Administration had no access to their funds which were deposited in Panamanian banks. Up to 1990, Nicaragua had lived with forty years of the Somoza dictatorship, through a decade of civil warfare and Sandinista rule, and five years of US imposed economic sanctions. On 25 February 1990, Chamorro won the election with a 54.7% share of the vote, ousting the incumbent Ortega and becoming the first elected woman president in the Americas. Because the election was held in the midst of a civil war, it was important both domestically and internationally that the vote was seen to be legitimate. The Esquipulas Peace Agreement which had been brokered by Arias, called for monitoring of elections by the Organization of American States and the United Nations, among other provisions. The election was the most strictly monitored of any in Latin America and involved 2,578 international observers among them former US President Jimmy Carter; Raul Alfonsín, former President of Argentina; Alfonso López Michelsen, former President of Colombia; Rodrigo Carazo Odio, former President of Costa Rica and many Caribbean and US dignitaries. Ortega and his supporters conceded defeat without argument and observers left only a skeleton staff to assist with the transition of power. In the resulting February 1990 elections, Violeta Chamorro and her party the UNO won an upset victory of 55% to 41% over Daniel Ortega. Opinion polls leading up to the elections divided along partisan lines, with 10 of 17 polls analyzed in a contemporary study predicting an UNO victory while seven predicted the Sandinistas would retain power. Possible explanations include that the Nicaraguan people were disenchanted with the Ortega government, as economic mismanagement, a US embargo, and increased Contra activities in 1987 had, by 1990, decreased per capita GNI to 20 year lows. By November 1989, the White House had announced that the US economic embargo against Nicaragua would continue unless Violeta Chamorro won. Also, there had been reports of intimidation from the side of the contras, with a Canadian observer mission claiming that 42 people were killed by the contras in "election violence" in October 1989. This led many commentators to assume that Nicaraguans voted against the Sandinistas out of fear of a continuation of the contra war and economic deprivation. ## Presidency (1990–1997) Two months after the election, on 25 April 1990, Chamorro was sworn into office. The ceremony, held at the Rigoberto López Pérez Stadium before a crowd of some 20,000, marked the first time in more than five decades that a sitting government had peacefully surrendered power to the opposition. It was also the first time governmental change had been the result of a free election with substantial popular participation. With the exception of the promise to end the war, Chamorro did not present a political platform. UNO had been unable to agree on specifics, as its membership ranged from the far left to the far right, making their plan one of running against whatever the Sandinistas were for. Social scientists who analyzed the elections, concluded that the results were rational in the context that ending the war would also end the psychological threat that the US, which had recently invaded Panama and had been deeply involved in Nicaragua, might invade the country. Sandinistan analysts confirmed these findings, determining that they had lost touch with what their constituency wanted. Marvin Ortega, who had conducted polls prior to the election, conceded that voters did not vote "with their stomachs", even though the economic situation was dire, but voted against war and the repression of their liberties. ### Peace reforms Chamorro's peace reforms are perhaps her most enduring legacy. Most noteworthy was her official declaration of the end of the war, as it was the pivot upon which all of her other policies depended. She maintained peace by reducing the size and power of the military, ending the national draft, and demobilizing the military. The day she took office, she abolished military conscription and within a few weeks had reduced the size of the army by half. Demobilization included disbanding the US-backed Contras, thereby leaving the Sandinistas with no one to fight, and creating a highly effective peace. Chamorro also granted unconditional amnesties for political crimes, resulting in little room for protest from the Sandinistas, and enabling a smooth transition of power. One of the ways she accomplished the co-operation of the Contras was to seek help openly from local officials in collecting weapons from both sides of the conflict. She began a fierce weapon-buying campaign to help eradicate the threat of continuing violence; all the collected weapons were covered in concrete at the Plaza de la Paz (Peace Square), specifically built in downtown Managua to symbolize "Never Again". `The downside of demobilization was that around 70,000 military personnel were left unemployed. Most of the conscripts returned home, but the lives of career military personnel were disrupted as they lost employment, and the houses, land, and money which was promised to them was either not delivered, due to inadequate resources, or seemed to be paid arbitrarily. Since only 5.8% of the former officers had received benefits by early 1992, many believed that only those who had political favor had either kept their jobs, in the 14% of the military that was retained, or received their promised compensation. Between April and December 1992, veterans held a series of strikes in protest of the situation. Pockets of army veterans ("recompas") and resistance veterans ("recontras") threatened to re-arm but, realizing they had the same issues, the two sides joined forces. To pacify the groups, Chamorro integrated some of the former Contra fighters into the rural police services; she established a Civil Inspectorate to investigate claims of police abuses and human rights violations. She also allowed the Sandinistas' agrarian reform movement's redistribution of land to be maintained and expanded it on the Caribbean coast to meet veterans' demands. That action created conflict with the Caribbean indigenous people who had claims to the land, and also infringed on forestry reserves, leading to criticism. Others who had received land from the Sandinistas began to return their co-operative land titles to the large landholders who had owned them before the reforms, or simply sold their portions to opportunists. Unable to solve the problem, Chamorro dealt with the most egregious claims and turned the issue over to the courts to resolve individual disputes.` From the outset, Chamarro performed a delicate balancing act. Her choice to lead the Assembly, , was rejected by the UNO vote, which chose Miriam Argüello. Chamorro kept her word to accept the vote. Her Vice President-elect Virgilio Godoy was in favor of hard-line policies to exclude the Sandinistas, but Chamorro retained Daniel Ortega's brother, Humberto Ortega, as a military leader. She claimed the position of Defense Minister and named Humberto Ortega to second-in-command as the Chief of Staff. For this, Chamorro's critics accused her of supporting the Sandinistas, but it proved to be a valuable political move. The president demonstrated that, for the good of the nation, she was willing to compromise in ways that fostered reconciliation. She also appointed three FSLN cabinet members, including one for agrarian reform. ### US relations When Chamorro was elected, President George H. W. Bush removed the embargo that Ronald Reagan had imposed during Sandinista rule and promised economic aid to the country. In addition, the United States paid off the past-due debts of Nicaragua that were owed to private banks, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank. Some people in Chamorro's campaign team were hoping to get \$1 billion in aid from the United States to help rebuild the country after the years of civil war, but the Bush administration instead gave \$300 million to the country in the first year of Chamorro's presidency, 1990, and \$241 million the year after. Given the devastation that Nicaragua had faced, this aid was not enough to make any serious improvement, and the renegotiated loans created even more debt. During Chamorro's presidency, US interest in Nicaragua declined, to the point that when Chamorro traveled to the US in April 1991 to ask Congress for more economic aid, few members showed up to listen to her. Because the Sandinistas were no longer a threat and peace talks were being established, US foreign policymakers were much less concerned with Nicaragua than with issues in the Middle East. Hoping to improve relations, Chamorro's administration repealed the law that required the country to seek compensation in the case of Nicaragua v. United States, which had long been contentious, and withdrew the suit. The United States had refused to recognise the judgment of the International Court of Justice, which had found five years earlier that the US had violated international law by sponsoring the Contras and ordered it to make reparations. In 1992, Senator Jesse Helms attempted to cut off financial aid to Nicaragua. In his report to the Senate, he said that the Sandinistas were still controlling much of the Nicaraguan administration and suggested that the Nicaraguan government replace all former Sandinista officers with ex-Contras, replace all judges, and return all property that was taken from US citizens during the revolution. Chamorro's administration denied Helms' allegations while still trying to comply with his demands. Helms managed to sway opinion in Congress, and the US government denied Nicaragua the \$104 million that had been promised for that year. The aid was cut off and Helms' demands were made the month after Chamorro withdrew the compensation claims associated with the Nicaragua vs. United States verdict. ### Economic stability Chamorro inherited an economy devastated by civil war and which had been struggling with hyperinflation since 1988. Chamorro's administration immediately set about trying to eliminate inflation. The neoliberal model outlined in the Mayorga Plan attempted to re-integrate Nicaragua into the world market, increase foreign investment while reducing foreign dependence, and increase privatization. First the government combined state enterprises into a holding company known as the Corporaciones Nacionales del Sector Público (CORNAP) and set about privatizing them. The goal was to raise capital by privatizing 90% of the CORNAP companies by 1993, but the response was slow. Next, the administration introduced the córdoba oro, which put Nicaraguan currency on par with the US dollar, but confidence in the new currency was never attained. One third of it was returned to the bank in exchange for US funds. Devaluing the currency and ending subsidies of basic consumer goods reduced government spending, but created unrest with lower-middle-class and working-class people, who were faced with rising prices, layoffs due to privatization, and stagnant wages. In the opening months of the Chamorro administration, social programs were cut, including free bus tokens for the education sector, pensions for the elderly and disabled, child care and child development services, and health care initiatives. By 1991 the austerity measures adopted by Chamorro's administration were leading to massive strikes. Chamorro chose to recognize the workers' right to 25% of the shares of privatized state enterprises, despite the disapproval that generated both at home and abroad. The Sandinistas, who had removed some of the businesses from the private sector during their administration, were not in favor of privatization, but they were in favor of workers sharing in the revenues. The far-right of her own coalition was against making labor compromises of any kind. The US embassy and United States Agency for International Development both voiced displeasure at the concessions and speed with which the economic plan was being implemented. In spite of the other programs implemented, inflation was reduced by the renegotiation of the country's debt (called for by the Lacayo Plan). Through negotiations, Nicaragua was able to obtain a writedown of 75% of their international debt on the condition that they had no arrears. As noted previously, the US assisted Nicaragua in paying off the past-due debt to the IMF, the World Bank and the Inter-American Development Bank through bridge loans, and negotiating a 95% writedown of debts owed to Colombia, Mexico, and Venezuela. These measures provided the means to end hyperinflation and reopen monetary markets, but they were overshadowed by high unemployment, underemployment and an overall recession. The trade deficit rose and GNP declined, and overall low wages and reductions of education and health services caused poverty to escalate, and social tensions to rise. Violeta Chamorro's years in power began a period of significant economic and social decline for Nicaragua. From 1990 to 2001, the country fell from 60th to 116th place in the world for human development, as measured by the Human Development Index, and became the poorest country in the Americas after Haiti, according to the UNDP. Public spending per capita on health fell from \$35 in 1989 to \$14 in 1995. Per capita public spending on health fell from \$35 in 1989 to \$14 in 1995. Medical assistance for childbirth and diagnosis of female cancers have been reduced. Child development centers established in the 1980s—which served 75,000 children—have been eliminated. Life expectancy dropped from 66 years in 1989 to 60 years in 1996 due to an increase in infectious diseases and malnutrition. Infant mortality rose from 58 per 1,000 in 1990 to 72 per 1,000 in 1995. ### Constitutional crisis Besides the economic issues which plagued the country, the constitutional crisis that occurred in 1995 posed a significant threat to maintaining peace. When Chamorro took office, she was governing under the Constitution of 1987, which had been drafted by the Sandinistas and provided for a strong executive branch and a weaker, compliant legislature and judiciary. In 1993, the legislature began to review the constitution to restructure the country's government. After a year of discussion, the changes were submitted to the National Assembly, approved in the first round of voting, and passed in February 1995. The reforms to the Constitution were intended to reduce of the power of the presidency, and included measures to transfer the authority to levy taxes to the legislature, prohibit conscription, guarantee property rights, and curtail the succession of an incumbent or their close family members. Chamorro refused to publish the changes in La Gaceta (the official journal of the legislature), stating that the legislature had overstepped its authority. In response, the legislature published the revisions on its own, effectively creating a situation of dual constitutions. As there was not a quorum, the Supreme Court was unable to act. To solve the situation, the legislators appointed six new justices, but the Court still refused to act, as doing so would be to accept the appointments and thus validate the new constitution. Chamorro choreographed a ruling from the Supreme Court which voided the Assembly's publication of the reforms, provoking the Assembly to refuse to acknowledge the Court's authority. As international investors began to fret over the ensuing instability and evaluate further aid, the Roman Catholic cardinal, Miguel Obando y Bravo, stepped in as mediator and brokered an accord. Chamorro agreed to publish the new constitution, as required by law, and the Assembly agreed to allow the president to continue to negotiate foreign aid and tax measures, though no longer by decree. One of the most contentious provisions, which banned nepotism, was conceded by Chamorro. Both sides claimed victory, though the Supreme Court issue was still not resolved: the Assembly insisted their appointees were valid and the President refused to acknowledge them. As in other crises, Chamorro's ability to compromise was pivotal. The executive and legislative branches became more interdependent, but power was shared. The National Assembly prepared the budget, but the president had to be consulted on taxation; Supreme Court vacancies had to be agreed on by both of the other branches of government; and although the president retained the power of veto, the legislature could overturn a veto by a simple majority vote. Though some of the changes also included reform of the Code of Criminal Procedures—creating trial by jury, expanding the right of citizens to press charges, and evaluating police authority, among others—failure of the government to investigate past abuses by the police and the military or institute judicial proceedings, granted tacit impunity for those who committed human rights abuses or violence. Though the 1990 Amnesty Law had curtailed some of administration's ability to prosecute, it also lacked the funds, impartial judiciary and possibly the will to seek transitional justice. Sofía Montenegro, editor of the Sandinistan paper Barricada, and others have argued that Chamorro would have dealt with past abuse if she could have. Bishop Bernardo Hombach and others believe that her faith would have required her to forgive. Prosecutions would have prolonged conflict and harsh retaliation by the government would not have produced the reconciliation and peace she desired. ### Gender consequences Though 15 delegates of her parliament (16%) were women, few advances in women's rights were made during Chamorro's administration. Chamorro was not a feminist, since her beliefs prevented her from advocating many of the goals of traditional feminism. She was against abortion and questioned cohabitation, contraception and divorce. Cutbacks in public services during her regime, like child care and centers for rehabilitation, led to an increase in low-income women being forced into prostitution and crime. According to a United Nations study, the financial insecurity forced women and adolescents into "street professions", elevating security risks and increasing the rate of drop outs, drug abuse, juvenile delinquency and prostitution. In addition, austerity measures that eliminated free health care made it difficult for the poor to afford care. The Sandinista Workers Central (Spanish: Central Sandinista De Trabajadores, CST) stepped in to offer health care and child care to women who could not afford the new government plan. Chamorro did support women's rights to become property holders, and saw such ownership as a protection when divorce or widowhood deprived women of a husband's support. Her administration did not actively prepare or encourage women's participation in political life, nor did she appoint women to governmental positions. The economic policies adopted by Chamorro feminized Nicaragua's labor force. While men's employment rate between 1977 and 1985 remained constant at 68%, women's employment outside the home in Nicaragua steadily increased during the same time frame with no reduction in the expectations of simultaneous work within the home. Women's participation in the labor market increased from 26.7% in 1977 to 32% in 1985 and by 1995 was at 36%, one of the highest participation rates in Central America. Though Chamorro's policies changed the nature of the formal work force by introducing more women, the policies did not result in corresponding income increases: wages remained stagnant and changed little over the decade. The 1992 Sexual Crime Code modifications resulted in winners and losers. Previously, the Penal Code had the penalty for rape specified as 8 to 12 years in prison (compared to 6 to 14 for simple homicide). However, it also defined some lesser sexual crimes in a way designed to protect the interests of fathers and husbands more than of the women themselves; for example, the penalty for "kidnapping of a virgin [...] when her guardians were away or without violence" depended on whether marriage was intended. Victoria González-Rivera writes that prior to the 1992 changes, rape had been considered a private affair, and the law encouraged women to marry their rapists or accept a monetary settlement. UNO women and FSLN women in the National Assembly joined forces after Chamorro won the election and formed a Commission on Women, Youth, Children and the Family; they began to discuss reform of the sexual crimes law. Convincing 18 bipartisan legislators to introduce a reform, they asked for increasing penalties for rape (to 15 to 20 years), decriminalization for abortion if the pregnancy was the result of rape, and decriminalization of consensual sodomy. When the final bill passed, the approved version eliminated the exception for abortion for rape victims. Not only did it not decriminalize sodomy, but it increased the scope of the existing law to include "inducing, promoting or propagandizing" homosexual conduct. The new anti-sodomy law was the most repressive law of its type in Latin America, changing the imposed sentence for "anyone who induces, promotes, propagandizes, or practices sex among persons of the same sex in a scandalous manner" to as much as three years in prison. Chamorro rejected calls to veto the law and sent it for publication in La Gaceta, a legal requirement for a statute to become law. Lawyers immediately challenged the constitutionality of the law, but on 7 March 1994 the Supreme Court rejected their challenge. ## Post-presidency Chamorro retired from politics after her presidential term ended in 1997; at the time, the Nicaraguan Constitution did not allow presidents to run for immediate reelection. In July of the same year, she established a foundation bearing her name (Spanish: Fundación Violeta Barrios de Chamorro) which she chaired with the goal of creating developmental projects to strengthen peace initiatives. She joined the Carter Center's Council of Presidents and Prime Ministers of the Americas Program which works for co-operation and peace throughout the Americas. Chamorro is also a member of the Inter-American Dialogue. She suffered from poor health and had several surgeries to correct problems with osteoporosis. During her presidential campaign, she was on crutches most of the time due to a fractured kneecap as a result of her osteoporosis. She later developed a brain tumor, which has kept her out of public life. ## Awards - Isaiah Thomas Award in Publishing from the Rochester Institute of Technology. - 1986 – Louis M. Lyons Award for Conscience and Integrity in Journalism. - 1991 – Democracy Award from the National Endowment for Democracy. - 1997 – Path to Peace Award from the Path to Peace Foundation. - 2001 – Award for Leadership in Global Trade. ## Autobiography
8,678,772	Oba Chandler	1,172,473,040	American serial killer (1946–2011)	[ "1946 births", "1989 murders in the United States", "2011 deaths", "20th-century American criminals", "21st-century executions by Florida", "21st-century executions of American people", "American burglars", "American counterfeiters", "American kidnappers", "American male criminals", "American murderers of children", "American rapists", "American robbers", "Executed American serial killers", "Executed people from Ohio", "Male serial killers", "People executed by Florida by lethal injection", "People from Cincinnati" ]	Oba Chandler (October 11, 1946 – November 15, 2011) was an American serial killer and mass murderer who was convicted and executed for the June 1989 murders of Joan Rogers and her two daughters, whose bodies were found floating in Tampa Bay, Florida, with their hands and feet bound. Autopsies showed the victims had been thrown into the water while still alive, with ropes tied to a concrete block around their necks. The case became high-profile in 1992 when local police posted billboards bearing enlarged images of the suspect's handwriting recovered from a pamphlet in the victims' car. Chandler was identified as the killer when his neighbor recognized the handwriting. Prior to his arrest, Chandler worked as an unlicensed aluminum-siding contractor. Against the advice of his attorneys, he testified in his own defense, saying he had met the Ohio women and had given them directions. Chandler said he never saw them again, except in newspaper coverage and on the billboards set up by authorities. Police originally theorized that two men were involved in the murders, but this was discounted once Chandler was arrested. Following his conviction, Chandler was incarcerated at Union Correctional Institution. During his seventeen years of incarceration until his execution, he did not have a single visitor. Chandler was executed on November 15, 2011. He wrote a last statement to prison officials: "You are killing a [sic] innocent man today". The statement was read at a post-execution news conference. In February 2014, DNA evidence identified Chandler as the murderer of Ivelisse Berrios-Beguerisse, who was found dead in Coral Springs, Florida, on November 27, 1990. ## Early life ### Background Chandler was the fourth of five children born to Oba Chandler Sr. and Margaret Johnson, and was raised in Cincinnati, Ohio. When he was ten years old in June 1957, his father hanged himself in the basement of the family's apartment. At the funeral, Chandler jumped into his father's open grave as the gravediggers were covering the coffin with dirt. Between May and September 1991concurrent with the police investigation of the Rogers family triple murderChandler was an informant for the U.S. Customs Bureau's Tampa office. ### Crimes and incidents When Chandler was fourteen, he began stealing cars and was arrested twenty times as a juvenile. As an adult, he was charged with a variety of crimes, including possession of counterfeit money, loitering, burglary, kidnapping, and armed robbery. He was also accused of masturbating while peeping through a woman's window. In one incident, Chandler and an accomplice broke into a Florida couple's home, held them at gunpoint, and robbed them. Chandler told his accomplice to tie up the man with speaker wire and took the woman into the bedroom, where he made her strip to her underwear, tied her up, and rubbed the barrel of his revolver across her stomach. ### Murder victims On May 26, 1989, Joan "Jo" Rogers, 36, and her daughtersMichelle, 17, and Christe, 14left their family dairy farm in Willshire, Ohio, for a vacation in Florida. It was the first time they had left their home state. Authorities believe Joan became lost on June 1 during the return drive from Orlando to Willshire, and had decided to take an extra vacation day in Tampa. While looking for their hotel they encountered Chandler, who gave them directions and offered to meet them again later to take them on a sunset cruise of Tampa Bay. Joan and her teenage daughters had left Orlando around 9:00 a.m. and checked into the Days Inn on Route 60 at 12:30 p.m. Photographs retrieved from a roll of film found in a camera in the Rogers' hotel room showed Michelle sitting on the floor. The last photograph was taken from the hotel balcony and showed the sun beginning to set over Tampa Bay, confirming that all three family members were alive and had not left their hotel room as the sunset began. They were last seen alive at the hotel's restaurant at around 7:30 p.m. It is believed they boarded Chandler's boat by the dock on the Courtney Campbell Causeway—part of Route 60—between 8:30 p.m. and 9:00 p.m., and that they were dead by 3 a.m. the next day. Chandler may have used the fact that he was born in Ohio to lure them into feeling a connection to him. Chandler knew Joan and her daughters were not from Florida because he saw the Ohio license plates on their car. The victims' bodies were found floating in Tampa Bay on June 4, 1989. The first body was found when several people on board a sailboat crossing under the Sunshine Skyway saw an object in the water. The second body was seen floating off the pier in St. Petersburg, two miles (3 km) north of the first. While the Coast Guard were recovering the second body, a call about a third, which was seen floating 200 yards (200 m) to the east, was received. All three female bodies were found floating face down, bound with a rope around the neck, and naked below the waist. Autopsies showed all three victims had water in their lungs, proving they had been thrown into the water while still alive. Michelle, who was identified as the second body found, had freed one hand from her bonds before she drowned. The partially dressed state of the three bodies indicated the underlying crime was sexual assault. Ropes with a concrete block at the other end had been tied around the victims' necks to ensure they died from either suffocation or drowning, and that their bodies would never be found. The bodies, however, bloated as a result of decomposition, and floated to the surface. ## Investigation The Rogers' bodies underwent decomposition while underwater due to hot weather. Because of this, they were not identified for a week after their remains were located. Joan Rogers and her daughters were not positively identified until a week after their bodies' discovery, by which time Joan's husband and the girls' father, Hal Rogers, had reported them missing in Ohio. On June 8, a housekeeper at the Days Inn said the Rogers family's room had not been disturbed and the beds had not been slept in. The hotel manager contacted the police. Fingerprints found in the room were matched to the bodies, and final confirmation of their identities came from dental records. Marine researchers at the University of South Florida estimated from currents and patterns that the victims were thrown from a boatand not from a bridge or dry landbetween two and five days before they were found. The Rogers' car, a 1984 Oldsmobile Calais with Ohio license plates, was found at the boat dock by the Courtney Campbell Causeway. ### Facts and arrest The case remained unsolved for over three years, partly due to the volume of tips received by police investigators. The biggest tip came from a Madeira Beach police bulletin that described a similar rape of a 24-year-old Canadian tourist that occurred two weeks before the Rogers' murders. Chandler was arrested for the murders on September 24, 1992. His handwritten directions on a brochure found in the Rogers' vehicle and a description of his boat written by Jo Rogers on the brochure were the primary clues that led to him being named a suspect. Local police posted images of Chandler's handwriting on the brochure on billboards in the Tampa Bay area, leading to a call from a former neighbor who provided a copy of a work order Chandler had written. This use of billboards by law enforcement in the US was unusual at the time. Through handwriting analysis, the two samples were matched. A palm print on the brochure was also matched to Chandler, who had sold his boat and left town with his family soon after the billboards appeared. Police reported that Chandler and his then-wife moved from their home on Dalton Avenue in Tampa to Port Orange near Daytona Beach. ### Second-suspect theory Investigators originally thought two men were involved in the murders of the Rogers family. This theory was used for an enaction shown in a 1991 episode of Unsolved Mysteries. This theory was dismissed when Chandler was arrested. No evidence of a second manother than a former prison cellmate's claim that Chandler said another man, whose identity the cellmate claimed to know but would not revealhas ever surfaced. The second-suspect theory was belied by Chandler's approach of two Canadian female touriststhat he was willing to approach multiple potential targets by himself. Hal Rogers's brother John was also considered a suspect, even though he was serving a prison sentence for the rape of a woman at the time of the murders. Police investigating the woman's rape allegation found evidence indicating John had also sexually assaulted Hal's daughter Michelle, although charges involving this assault were later dropped because of her reluctance to testify. The St. Petersburg Times said John may have planned the murder during a visit to his parents' property near Tampa a month before the murders. Once the police established John could not have hired a contract killer, did not have accomplices, and could not have known the timing of his sister-in-law's and nieces' trip, he was dismissed as a suspect. Hal was also considered a suspect because he had posted bail for his brother, he states in an episode of On the Case with Paula Zahn, that he posted bail prior to knowing his brother had abused Michelle. Hal later said he had promised the family he would post bail and would not renege on his promise. Investigators from Florida and Ohio also discovered Hal had withdrawn US\$7,000 from his bank account at the time of the disappearance, which he was able to account for. He had planned to use it to look for his wife and daughters before he was notified of their deaths. Investigations proved conclusively Hal had not left Ohio during that period. The assaults of Michelle Rogers by her uncle and gossip by local people was one of the reasons for the Florida trip; Joan and her daughters wanted to distance themselves from the incident. ## Trial ### Chandler's testimony At his trial in Clearwater, Florida, Chandler said he met Joan, Michelle, and Christe Rogers and gave them directions but he never saw them again except in newspaper coverage and on billboards. He acknowledged he was in Tampa Bay that nightthe police had evidence of three ship-to-shore telephone calls made from his boat to his home during the time frame of the murdersbut Chandler maintained he was fishing alone. He said he had returned home late because his engine would not start, which he attributed to a gas line leak. He also said he had called the Coast Guard and the Florida Marine Patrol, and had flagged down a patrol boat, but both were too busy to help. He said he subsequently fixed the line with duct tape and returned safely to shore. There were, however, no records of distress calls from Chandler to either the Coast Guard or the Marine Patrol that night, nor were there any Coast Guard boats on the bay the following morning that could have helped him. According to a boat mechanic who testified for the prosecution, Chandler's explanation of repairing the boat's alleged gas leak was not tenable because the fuel lines in his boata Baylinerwere directed upward. A leak would have sprayed fuel into the air rather than into the boat and the gasoline would have dissolved the adhesive of the duct tape Chandler maintained he had used to repair a leak. Under questioning from Pinellas County prosecutor Douglas Crow, Chandler then said he could not remember. ### Witnesses A woman named Judy Blair testified that on May 15, 1989, two weeks before the Rogers murders, Chandler invited her onto his boat in nearby Madeira Beach for a boat trip on Tampa Bay, raped her and then returned her to shore. Blair had been with her friend Barbara Mottram, who refused Chandler's offer to join them on the boat. After Blair was raped, she told the court she returned to her hotel room where Mottram was waiting. Chandler was not charged with this crime. Blair testified during Chandler's murder trial to help establish his pattern of attack and show the similarities between the two crimes. Blair stated that Chandler, on May 14, had given his name as Dave Posner or Dave Posno when the three first met at a convenience store in Tampa. He told Blair and Mottram he was in the aluminum-siding contracting business, which later helped lead investigators to him. It also inspired the name of the investigation; "Operation Tin Man". The facial composite produced from Blair's description was posted on the billboards along with the handwriting samples. A former employee of Chandler's testified that he bragged about dating three women on the bay on the night of the murders, and that the next morning he arrived by boat and delivered materials for a job and immediately set out again. In an attempt to establish Chandler's whereabouts on that night, investigators found records of several ship-to-shore telephone calls made from his boat to his home between 1:00 a.m. and 5:00 a.m., which may have been attempts to explain his absence to his wife and to provide himself with an alibi for the time of the murders. Chandler's daughter Kristal May Sue testified that her father had talked about killing three women and that he was afraid to return to Tampa. A woman who worked as a maid at the Days Inn said she walked past Chandler on June 1 as she was going to the Rogers' room for room service. She said she did not realize the significance of this sighting until Chandler's arrest in 1992; this sighting has never been confirmed. Michelle Rogers' boyfriend and Hal Rogers also gave evidence during trial. ### Sentence and aftermath Joan, Michelle, and Christe Rogers were buried in their hometown on June 13, 1989, after a funeral service attended by about 300 family members and friends. Numerous police officers were present to keep reporters and television crews out of the church during the service. Chandler was found guilty of the murders and was sentenced to death on November 4, 1994. He maintained his innocence and continued to pursue legal appeals while on Florida's death row. He admitted to the Madeira Beach incident but said the sex was consensual and that the victim had changed her mind during the act. Because Chandler had already been sentenced to death for the Rogers murders and because prosecutors did not want to subject Blair to the emotional trauma of a rape trial, he was never prosecuted for her rape. Chandler awaited execution of his sentence at the Union Correctional Institution. Shortly after the trial and conviction, his wife Debra filed for divorce and their marriage was dissolved a year later. Chandler was no longer allowed to see his daughter Whitney and in accordance with his ex-wife's wishes, he was not allowed to see later photographs of her. In July 2008, Chandler was on Florida's short list of executions. Profiling experts speculated Chandler may have killed previously, based on the belief that a first-time killer would not be experienced or bold enough to abduct and kill three women at once. Chandler remained a suspect in the 1982 murder of a woman whose body was found floating off Anna Maria Island until 2011, when the body was identified as 29-year-old Amy Hurst and her husband was arrested and charged with her murder. Chandler was never charged with another murder. All of his appeals of his 1994 conviction were denied; his last was in May 2007. After his conviction, Chandler was named by media as one of Florida's most notorious criminals. He said his last words before his execution would be, "Kiss my rosy red ass". In May 2011, comparisons were drawn between Chandler's case and trial in 1994, and the murder case of Caylee Anthony. In both cases, heightened media attention forced the selection of jurors who lived outside the county where the crime had been committed. One of the jurors in Chandler's 1994 trial said, "He scared some of the jurors when he would sit there and stare at you and have that stupid grin on his face. He would make your skin crawl." Judge Susan F. Schaeffer, who presided over the 1994 trial and ultimately sentenced Chandler described him in a 2011 interview as "a man with no soul". She said, "It's the worst case as far as factually, and as far as a defendant without saving grace, that I ever handled. And I represented plenty of people who were not necessarily good people." ## Execution On October 10, 2011, Governor Rick Scott signed Chandler's death warrant. His execution was set for November 15, 2011, at 4:00 p.m. His lawyer Baya Harrison said Chandler asked him not to file any frivolous appeals to keep him alive. Harrison said: > He is not putting a lot of pressure on me to go running around at the end to find some magic way out. He is not going to make a scene. He's not going to bemoan the legal system. What he has told me is this: if there is some legal way that I can find to try to prevent him from being executed, he would like me to do what I reasonably can. Harrison also said Chandler suffered from high blood pressure, coronary artery disease, problems with his kidneys, and arthritis. On October 12, 2011, Harrison said although he was preparing to file a motion regarding the violation of his client's Fifth and Fourteenth Amendment rights in the case, he was unsure whether Chandler was willing to travel to Clearwater for the court hearing or would agree to the filing of the motion. "He hates coming down to Clearwater. He doesn't like the ride and he's not well", Harrison said. On October 18, Harrison filed a motion against the execution on grounds that the way Florida imposes the death penalty is unconstitutional. A jury may recommend a life sentence or a death sentence, but under Florida law, the judge makes the final decision. A hearing on Chandler's motion was set for October 21 at 1:00 pm; Chandler did not attend. On October 24, Chandler's appeal was rejected because he had already filed an appeal to the Florida Supreme Court prior to the decision. Although the Florida Supreme Court initially scheduled Chandler's appeal to be heard on November 9, 2011, they later cancelled oral argument. On November 7, 2011, the Florida Supreme Court denied Chandler's appeal of his death sentences and death warrant. The Florida Supreme Court had upheld Chandler's death sentence in 1997 and 2003. Chandler's subsequent petition to the United States Supreme Court was also denied. On November 15, Chandler at 4:08 pm was executed by lethal injection at Florida State Prison in Raiford. Chandler declined to make a last statement before being executed but left a written statement with prison officials: "You are killing a (sic) innocent man today." Shortly after signing Chandler's death warrant, Governor Scott said; "[Chandler] killed three women, so I looked through different cases, and it made sense to do that one. There's never one thing. It was the right case." Chandler's daughter Valerie Troxell said in an interview after the execution; "I believe they did execute an innocent man. I don't think my father alone could have pulled off such a heinous crime. It would have to have been more than one person ... The palm print would prove he did meet them and gave them directions, but it didn't mean he killed them. I think the prosecution had a very weak case." Troxell also said she had sent a letter to Governor Scott asking him to commute Chandler's sentence to life imprisonment. Chandler's son Jeff said; "I truly believe he was tried and convicted by the media long before he went to trial. The media can pretty much convict you. I don't think he got a fair trial." After his execution, Chandler was described as the "loneliest man in the loneliest place on earth, death row"; he did not receive a single visitor during his years in Florida's death row unit. Another of Chandler's daughters, Suzette, said her father was a monster who got what he deserved. ## Coral Springs murder On February 25, 2014, investigators revealed that DNA evidence identified Chandler as the murderer of 20-year-old Ivelisse Berrios-Beguerisse, who was raped and strangled in Coral Springs, Florida, on November 27, 1990. Berrios-Beguerisse, a 20-year-old newlywed, was last seen at Sawgrass Mills Mall where she worked at a sporting goods store. When she did not return home, her husband went to the mall and found her car, a 1985 Ford Tempo, with the tires slashed. It is believed Chandler, after watching the victim for two days, slashed the tires, arrived in the guise of a helpful stranger, and offered to help. Three hours after she was reported missing, her body was found under a residential mailbox in a local neighborhood by two men returning from a fishing trip. Berrios-Beguerisse's body was naked and had ligature marks on both wrists and legs, and brown tape stuck to her hair. The case is considered solved and closed according to police. Law enforcement agencies across Florida investigated other cold cases in areas Chandler was known to have resided. ## Media coverage The Discovery Channel devoted a one-hour episode of its series Scene of the Crime, titled "The Tin Man", to the murder of the Rogers family. In 1997, a series of articles titled "Angels & Demons", written by Thomas French – which told the story of the murders, the capture and conviction of Chandler, and the impact of the crimes on the Rogers' family and their community in Ohio – was published in the St. Petersburg Times. The series won a 1998 Pulitzer Prize for Feature Writing. The Rogers murders were featured in a 1991 episode of Unsolved Mysteries, which speculated that there were two attackers. The 2000 book Bodies in the Bay by Mason Ramsey is a fictionalized adaptation of the Chandler case. Author Don Davis in 2007 published the book Death Cruise covering the murders. The case was featured in a 1999 episode of Cold Case Files on A&E titled "Bodies in the Bay," which also focused on the evidence in the case. In 1995, Chandler, some members of his family, and Hal Rogers appeared in an episode of the Maury Povich Show featuring the case. Chandler appeared via satellite link. Chandler's case was featured in a full-hour episode of Crime Stories. The case was shown on an episode of Forensic Files titled "Water Logged" in December 2010. In 2012 Investigation Discovery show On the Case with Paula Zahn aired two episodes called "Murder at Sunset" covering the case. In August 2014, the ID series Murder in Paradise covered the case. On February 11, 2022, the Oxygen Channel aired an episode of Family Massacre called "The Rogers Family". On November 19, 2022, the true crime podcast Casefile detailed the case of Jo, Michelle & Christe Rogers in their 232nd episode. ## See also - Capital punishment in Florida - Capital punishment in the United States - List of people executed in Florida - List of people executed in the United States in 2011
22,323,096	Princely Abbey of Stavelot-Malmedy	1,170,930,933	Ecclesiastical state of the Holy Roman Empire	[ "651 establishments", "Former states in the Low Countries", "Geographic history of Belgium", "Imperial abbeys", "Lower Rhenish-Westphalian Circle", "Malmedy", "Prince-bishoprics of the Holy Roman Empire in Belgium", "Principalities of the Holy Roman Empire", "Southern Netherlands", "States and territories established in the 650s", "Stavelot" ]	The Princely Abbey of Stavelot-Malmedy, also Principality of Stavelot-Malmedy, sometimes known with its German name Stablo, was an ecclesiastical principality of the Holy Roman Empire. Princely power was exercised by the Benedictine abbot of the imperial double monastery of Stavelot and Malmedy, founded in 651. Along with the Duchy of Bouillon and the Prince-Bishopric of Liège, it was one of only three principalities of the Southern Netherlands that were never part of the Spanish Netherlands, later the Austrian Netherlands, which after 1500 were assigned to the Burgundian Circle while the principalities were assigned to the Lower Rhenish Imperial Circle. As a prince-abbot, the abbot of Stavelot-Malmedy sat on the Ecclesiastical Bench of the College of Ruling Princes of the Imperial Diet alongside the prince-bishops. Along with the handful of other prince-abbots, he cast a full vote (votum virile), in contrast to the majority of imperial abbots who were only entitled to collectively determine the votes of their respective curial benches. In 1795, the principality was abolished and its territory was incorporated into the French département of Ourthe. The Congress of Vienna in 1815 assigned Stavelot to the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, and Malmedy became part of the Prussian district of Eupen-Malmedy. Both are currently parts of the Kingdom of Belgium—since the 1830 Belgian Revolution and the 1919 Treaty of Versailles, respectively (Malmedy annexed to Bejgium in 1925). In 1921 the Abbey church of Malmedy became the Cathedral of the short-lived Diocese of Eupen-Malmedy. ## History ### Establishment Saint Remaclus founded the Abbey of Stavelot on the Amblève river, circa 650, on lands along the border between the bishoprics of Cologne and Tongeren, this territory belonged at that time to Grimoald, the Austrasian mayor of the palace and member of the Arnulfinger-Peppinid family. A charter of Sigebert III, king of Austrasia entrusted Remaclus with the monasteries of both Stavelot and Malmedy, which was located a few kilometres eastwards in the Ardennes forest, "a place of horror and solitary isolation which abounds with wild beasts". Sigebert granted forest land; charged his Mayor of the Palace, Grimoald the Elder, with furnishing money to build the two monasteries; and continued to foster these communities with personal gifts. The site of Malmedy was probably already settled before the foundation of the abbey, despite etymology seeming to indicate Malmedy's unsuitability. Mal(u)mund(a)-arium was "a place with winding waters", or, most probably, Malmund-arium, a "bad confluency". The Warchenne was partially canalised and its banks strengthened, to prevent the flooding that Malmedy often experienced. The abbey church in Malmedy was dedicated to St Benedict. The monastery of Malmedy is considered by historians and hagiographers to be slightly older than the monastery of Stavelot, with the town claiming its foundation date as 648. Malmedy is listed on earlier maps than Stavelot, and the commission appointed in 670 by Childeric II, in order to delimit the abbey territory, started from Malmedy (Latin: de Monasterio Malmunderio). Afterwards, the territory of the abbey was enlarged westwards, so that Stavelot became the geographical centre and the capital of the principality. The first church in Stavelot was built by abbot Godwin and, on 25 June 685, was dedicated to saints Martin, Peter, and Paul. The relics of Saint Remaclus were housed in this new church. ### Development and the High Middle Ages In 747, Carloman, Duke of the Franks and Mayor of the Palace of Austrasia, enlarged the abbeys' lands with gifts from his own, on his abdication. Throughout the ninth century, the abbeys played an important cultural role in Lotharingia, particularly thanks to abbot Christian. Around 875, the relics of St Quirinus were translated from Gasny to Malmedy Abbey after the intercession of Emperor Charles the Bald, partly to secure relics comparable to those of St. Remaclus at Stavelot. Through the seventh and eighth centuries, the two abbeys followed their mission of evangelism, along with forest clearance. With the decline of the Carolingian Empire, however, the abbeys suffered the same decay as elsewhere, leaving the principality in the custody of lay abbots—temporal guardians—from 844 to 938, including Ebbo, archbishop of Rheims, Adalard the Seneschal, and Reginar and Giselbert, dukes of Lorraine. Welcoming pilgrims and the sick was a part of the monks' mission. The Miracula sancti Remacli mention the xenodochium, the monastery's hospice, where poor pilgrims were granted hospitality, including food for almost eight days, whilst they made their devotions; this hospice differs from the abbey's hospital: hospitale coenobii. On 13 April 862, Lothair II of Lotharingia, while dealing with the distribution of property ad hospital ejusdem coenobii, ordered that local tithes be paid to the hospital absque netligentia et tarditate, an order he confirmed on 10 June 873. In December 881, Normans, including Godfrid, Duke of Frisia, invaded the area, burning both abbeys and causing the monks to flee with their treasures and relics. Several historical sources provide evidence of the raid of 881, which was well prepared and organised. The monks rushed to dig up the relics of Remaclus and fled to the county of Porcien in present-day Bogny-sur-Meuse, in the French Ardennes; the surrounding region was largely unaffected by the invasion. Stavelot and Malmedy were both burned, with the monks not returning until just before Christmas 882, with a stay in Chooz, to allow them to repair the roofs of the monastic buildings. Relics from Aachen, which had been entrusted to the monks at Stavelot because of the Norman threat, were returned intact. In gratitude, on 13 November 882, Charles the Fat—Carolingian emperor and king of East Francia, Alemannia, and Italy—granted the abbeys the lands of Blendef, a dependency of Louveigné, and restored to them the chapel in Bra (now a part of Lierneux in Liège). In 885, Normans extracted ransom from Hesbaye and passed through the Meuse valley, marching on Prüm, causing the monks of Stavelot to flee again, finding refuge in the county of Logne and Chèvremont; the Miracula Remacli details the flight from the invaders and follows the monks' wanderings. After the invasions, abbot Odilon began to rebuild the ruined abbey of Stavelot, with support from bishops of Liège—including Notker, the first prince-bishop. The abbots Odilon and Werinfride rebuilt the abbeys, with new building; re-established the monastic community; re-organised the principality. By the time of the Ottonian dynasty in the early 10th century, the abbeys were once again of suitable Imperial stature. A new abbey church was built in Malmedy in 992, dedicated to St Quirinus; in 1007, a parish church was consecrated to Saint Gereon. Another danger threatened the abbey—and the Western Empire—in the 10th century: the Hungarian invasions. Having been deposed as duke of Lotharingia, Conrad the Red invited the Hungarians to undermine his opponents, Bruno the Great, archbishop of Cologne, and Reginar III, Count of Hainaut. The Annales Stabulensis reports: Anno 954 Ungri populantur regiones Galliæ ... Anno 955. Victoria des Ungris ["In the year 954, Hungarians ravage the regions of Gaul ... In the year 955, victory over the Hungarians"]. On 1 July 960, Eraclus, bishop of Liège, driven by the fears of the time, granted the monks a place to build a refuge in Liège, although five years earlier, the victory of emperor Otto I over the Hungarians at Lechfeld had removed the danger of Hungarian sack. The key building period at the abbey of Stavelot corresponds to the rule of prince-abbot Poppo of Deinze, the second founder of the abbey, who was made abbot by Holy Roman Emperor Henry II in 1020. He built an imposing church over 100 metres (330 ft) in length, which was consecrated in the presence of Emperor Henry III on 5 June 1040. Thietmar was the lay patron who assembled carpenters and stonemasons to build the abbey church. As well as confirming the authenticity of the relics of St Quirinus at Malmedy in 1042, Poppo revived the cult of St Remaclus. Poppo died in 1048; his cult, which began almost immediately, focused on his resting place in the crypt. Malmedy developed around the monastery; until the end of the tenth century, the villagers used the chapel of Saint Laurent, an apsidiole of the abbey church, as their place of worship. In 1065, controversy arose when Anno II, Archbishop of Cologne, named Tegernon of Brauweiler abbot of Malmedy, on dubious authority—whilst Malmedy was in the archdiocese of Cologne, the two abbeys were linked and, thus, under the purview of the diocese of Liège, where Stavelot lay. This occurred despite several previous Imperial bulls reinforcing the position that the two abbeys should be subject to a single abbot. The monks from Stavelot processed to Malmedy with the crosier and relics of St Remaclus to remind the rebellious monks of the traditional ordering of the abbeys that the saint had instituted. The relics and crosier were also transported to an Imperial Diet of Henry IV in Goslar. In 1066, they processed again, this time to Aachen and Fritzlar; they processed to Bitburg and Bamberg the following year. That their prayers were not answered apparently led the monks to despair that the relics were becoming impotent or that the monks were being punished by their patron; in 1067 and 1068, abbot Thierry even went to Rome to appeal to Pope Alexander II. This impasse lasted for a further three years, until Henry held court at Liège during Easter in 1071; with great ceremony, the monks processed with Remaclus's relics to meet with his legendary fellow bishop St Lambert, joined en route by the relics of St Symmetrus. Numerous miracles convinced the emperor to recognise the union of the two abbeys and reiterate the superiority of Stavelot, forcing Anno eventually to capitulate. A rejoiceful procession back to Stavelot paused en route to celebrate Mass on the banks of the Meuse; finally, the monks processed with Remaclus's relics to the abbey at Malmedy, to symbolise the restoration of his and their authority. This series of episodes is recounted in the heroic narrative of the Triumph of St Remaclus and confirmed by several contemporary sources. In 1098, Wibald was born in the hamlet of Chevrouheid, near Stavelot. Elected prince-abbot in 1130, he played a key role in the religious life of the region and the abbeys. In 1138, he granted permission for the castle to be built in Logne, first mentioned in an 862 abbey charter. In the 12th to 15th centuries, however, the abbacy experienced a slow decline. In the 14th and 15th centuries, several Imperial edicts, initially issued by Emperor Charles IV, put the abbacy under the protection of the counts of Luxembourg. ### Early Modern Age In 1509, William of Manderscheid organised a procession to induce the recalcitrant county of Logne, a fief of the abbey, to submit to his jurisdiction. The cortège was pious, rather than fraught with tension; with Stavelot monks carrying the shrines of Remaclus and Babolene with other reliquaries; and the monks of Malmedy with reliquaries of Quirinus, Just, Peter, and Philip; joined by parishioners from Lierneux with the relics of Symmetrus. In 1521, after the castle in Logne had been dismantled, William added "Count of Logne" to the abbots' titles, with the county representing most of the western portion of the principality's territory. The abbey church served as a monastic church and as a church of pilgrimage until the French Revolution. Its imposing gatehouse tower was rebuilt in 1534; (its ground floor and some further foundation still remain). Malmedy began to flourish particularly in the 16th century with the development of tannery; in 1544 there were only 216 houses with a thousand inhabitants, but that more than tripled by 1635. After the death of abbot Christopher of Manderscheid, there was a series of absent abbots, including Maximilian Henry of Bavaria (also bishop of Liège and of Hildesheim), who reformed the abbey in 1656. In the 17th century, Stavelot and Malmedy were major centres of tanning in Europe. Papermaking was particularly important to Malmedy, as was the manufacture of gunpowder. Other industries included cotton manufacturing, manufacture of chess sets and dominoes, and gingerbread baking. In 1659, a Capuchin convent was built in Stavelot. Despite the abbacy's neutrality and the protection of the prince-abbots, the territory was invaded at least 50 times by troops passing through, whose depredations had disastrous consequences for the population, including the 4 October 1689 razing of both Stavelot and Malmedy on the orders of Nicolas Catinat, general to Louis XIV of France, during the Nine Years' War. In Stavelot, the entire town, including over 360 houses, was destroyed, leaving just the abbey and its farmyard standing. In Malmedy, some 600 out of the 660 houses of the town were destroyed and it took more than a century to completely rebuild. Malmedy's 1601 city walls had previously been destroyed by French troops in 1658, during the 1635–59 Franco-Spanish War. The wars—and passage by troops of Brandenburg-Prussia, the Dutch Republic, France, and Liège—had cost the principality the sum of 2.75 million Reichsthaler. The abbey had to borrow 134 000 thalers from Liège and Verviers; another loan, shared amongst the communities, totalled 109 000 thalers, with annual interest of 14 161 thalers and arrears of 26 000 thalers. By the start of the 18th century the principality had lost a third of its territory, as a result of war, fires, pillage, and unjust encroachments. The deputies to the Imperial Diet complained that, in the 16th century, the Spanish Netherlands had seized several territories and that the Bishopric of Liège had stolen over half a dozen seigneuries totalling over 2000 households; adding that the principality itself retained only 1693 households, having had 3780 households before the upheavals and that the suffering of the principality had caused some of the richest and most powerful families to emigrate. The Imperial Diet was moved to halve the Reichsmatrikel for the abbeys (reducing the sums and troops the abbeys needed to provide towards the Imperial army) and exempting any need for the abbeys to send troops to the Imperial army for three years, an exemption extended for four more years on 24 March 1715. ### Abolition During the French Revolutionary Wars, from 1793 to 1804, the abbey was abandoned by the monks and the principality extinguished. Stavelot was incorporated into the French Republic by a decree of 2 March 1793, along with Franchimont and Logne. Despite opposition from local notables, Malmedy was similarly incorporated by a decree of 9 Vendémiaire of the Year IV (1 October 1795). Stavelot abbey itself was sacked and the church sold and demolished; of the church just the western doorway remains, as a free-standing tower. Two cloisters—one secular, one for the monks—survive as the courtyards of the brick-and-stone 17th-century domestic ranges. The foundations of the abbey church are presented as a footprint, with walls and column bases that enable the visitor to visualize the scale of the Romanesque abbey. ## Geography and administration Based largely in the Amblève and Ourthe river valleys, the principality occupied a substantial proportion of what is now the arrondissement of Verviers in the province of Liège. By the time of the French Revolution, the principality was bounded on the north by the duchy of Limburg, on the south and east by the duchy of Luxembourg and on the north-west by the marquisate of Franchimont and the Condroz. The principality was divided into three administrative districts: the postelleries of Stavelot and Malmedy, and the county of Logne, totalling around 28,000 inhabitants. The postellerie of Stavelot contained 14 communities and that of Malmedy contained the town itself and the bans of Waimes and Francorchamps. The county of Logne was divided into four quartiers: Hamoir (7 communities), Ocquier (6), Comblain (5) and Louveigné (2), with public assemblies being based in Bernardfagne. In addition, six other communities were exclaves, and there were the seigneuries of Anthisnes and Vien, in the Confroz. In 1768, these two seigneuries were exchanged with Liège for Chooz, Sclessin, and Ougrée. Several sources note that there were disputes between the two abbeys, with Stavelot assuming primacy over Malmedy, to the latter's discontent; though new abbots were invested in Stavelot on behalf of both abbeys. Whilst an absolute principality, in some matters the prince-abbot would consult a general assembly or états of clergy, dignitaries, prince's officers, mayors, and aldermen, whose main role was to vote for taxes. Each of the three districts had its own provincial assembly and court, with a Princely Council for highly contested cases. As a court of last resort, citizens could appeal to the Reichskammergericht (Imperial Chamber Court), created by Emperor Maximilian I (reigned 1508–19) on the model of the parliaments in Paris and Mechelen and headquartered in Frankfurt (1495–1527), Speyer (1527–1693) and Wetzlar (1693–1806). Shortly before the principality's extinction, it contributed just over 81 Reichsthaler per session for the maintenance of the Imperial Chamber Court, from annual revenues of around 25 000 Rhenish guilder. ## Art The abbeys at Stavelot and Malmedy commissioned some of the finest surviving works of Mosan art, one of the leading schools of Romanesque art, especially in goldsmith metalwork, which was then the most prestigious art form. Their collections were dispersed by wars and, finally, the French Revolution. Works from the abbeys are now in museums across the world. The illuminated manuscript Stavelot Bible (now in the British Library) was probably the abbey's main bible, and was created there by several hands over a four-year period ending in 1097 (other works have been identified as being from the same scriptorium). The bible has been described as "a perfect microcosm of the influences and interests that gave rise to the first Romanesque painting". A group of manuscripts from the less productive scriptorium at Malmedy were donated to the Vatican Library in 1816 by Pope Pius VII, including the Malmedy Bible and two lectionaries from about 1300. Malmedy illuminations show a particular closeness with metalwork styles. Abbot Wibald (ruled 1130–58) was an important Imperial minister and diplomat, and was regarded as one of the greatest patrons of Mosan art in its best period, although much of the evidence for this is circumstantial. Some of his surviving letters discuss works which may be identifiable with existing pieces, and an "aurifaber G", who some have identified with Godefroid de Claire, a shadowy figure to whom many masterpieces are attributed. Several important commissions were certainly placed by Wibald with Mosan workshops of goldsmiths and metalworkers, and other works later connected with Stavelot are also presumed to have been commissioned by him. The works, mostly champlevé enamels of very high quality, include the Stavelot Triptych, a portable altar reliquary for two fragments of the True Cross, c. 1156, (now in the Morgan Library & Museum in New York), the Stavelot Portable Altar of 1146, and a head-shaped reliquary of Pope Alexander II, c. 1150, possibly by Godefroid (both now Cinquantenaire Museum, Brussels). A gold relief retable of the Pentecost (1160–70) is in the Musée national du Moyen Âge in Paris. An important and more elaborate retable of Saint Remaclus, of about 1150, about nine square metres in extent, was broken up during the French Revolution; and only two round enamel plaques survive, in Berlin and Frankfurt, though a 17th-century drawing survives in Liège. ## Coat of arms The coat of arms granted to the town of Stavelot, in 1819, is also that of the abbey—parted fesswise between an image of St Remaclus and the wolf, which in Stavelot's founding legend carried bricks for the building of the abbey after having killed Remaclus's donkey. ## See also - List of Carolingian monasteries - Carolingian architecture
58,512,877	Richard Worsam Meade I	1,162,243,285	American merchant (1778-1828)	[ "1778 births", "1828 deaths", "American Roman Catholics", "American art collectors", "American emigrants to Spain", "Businesspeople from Philadelphia", "Meade family", "People from Cádiz" ]	Richard Worsam Meade (June 23, 1778 – June 25, 1828) was an American merchant and art collector, and the father of Civil War General George Gordon Meade. After growing up in his father George Meade's shipping business, he became successful in his own right in the American–Spanish trade. Meade lived in Cadiz, Spain, from 1803 to 1820, and was the U.S. naval agent there. He became quite wealthy and was one of the first American collectors of European art. Sometimes controversially outspoken, he lost favor and was imprisoned by political enemies after the Spanish government incurred large debts to him during the Peninsular War. Upon returning to Philadelphia he donated much of his art and became a trustee of St. Mary's Roman Catholic Church, where he participated in the Hogan schism. Under the Adams–Onís Treaty he unsuccessfully sought compensation from the U.S. government for the nearly \$400,000 Spanish debt. The Meade claim became known for its longevity as his descendants continued to pursue it long after his death. ## Early life Meade was born on June 23, 1778, in Chester County, Pennsylvania, during the British occupation of Philadelphia. He was the fourth son of George Meade, a Philadelphia merchant, and Henrietta Constantia Meade, the daughter of Barbados planter Richard Worsam. He grew up in the city attending private schools before entering his father's foreign trading company. In 1794 he served in the force that suppressed the Whiskey Rebellion. As supercargo on board his father's ships he traveled to the West Indies, and in 1795 to Europe, returning the next year after touring England and France. Meade then went into business on Hispaniola for three years, returning to Philadelphia a wealthy man. While operating his own business he administered his now-bankrupt father's affairs. By 1802 Meade's home was in a fashionable neighborhood on High Street, depicted in Birch's Views of Philadelphia. His voyage to Spain the next year to collect claims other merchants had against the Spanish government, which Meade estimated to be close to US\$1 million (equivalent to \$ million in ), was unsuccessful. However, he decided to move his business to the port of Cadiz—center of Spain's trans-Atlantic trade—where his family relocated in 1804. ## Merchant in Cadiz At Cadiz the business prospered, with him being among the first to export merino sheep and sherry to the United States. Meade was additionally appointed the U.S. naval agent from 1806 to 1816. He did feud with the U.S. consulate, writing to Secretary of State James Madison to call Vice-Consul Richard Hackley without "Capacity or Respectability". President Thomas Jefferson, a relative of Hackley's, referred to Meade as "lying, malicious and impudent". But the matter was happily resolved when James Leander Cathcart became consul and also the ever-wealthier Meade's business partner. During the siege of Cadiz in the Peninsular War, Meade provided the Spanish monarchy with "supplies of all kinds" against the French invasion; in 1810 his ships brought 250,000 barrels of flour into the city. While Meade spent much of his money the government ran up a large debt. He declined Spanish citizenship as a reward. His attempts to collect on the debt backfired. In 1812 he published a pamphlet accusing Treasurer-General Victor Soret of misappropriation: Scandalous Attempt by the Regency of Spain to Ruin Richard W. Meade. According to his own account > he published in warm and manly language a Pamphlet ... in consequence of said publication, he was seized at midnight by an armed force, and imprisoned in the common jail of the city[.] Duke Pedro de Alcántara had Meade imprisoned for three months, and in a political move he was fined two thousand ducats (about two thousand U.S. dollars) for libel. The merchant wrote six different pamphlets while in jail in 1812–1813; one of them was Pasatiempos de Don Ricardo Meade ("Pastimes of Richard Meade"), a scornful response to the director of military provisions's purchase of a large amount of rotten cheese. Along with a series of rhyming insults, Meade calls the director the Campeón de Manchego—the champion of manchego cheese. In 1815 he commissioned an expensive full-length portrait by renowned court painter Vicente López y Portaña; this work only became publicly known in 2010 and may be one the artist's most important portraits. Probably paid for with credit against the government, the portrait could have been in anticipation of Cathcart naming him vice-consul, which ultimately did not occur. Spain's debt to Meade embroiled him in a worsening conflict in 1814. The Consulado of Cadiz (a tribunal of commerce) had appointed him to manage the bankrupt estate of James W. Glass, a broker for Hunter, Rainey & Company of London. He had calculated that \$52,000 was due to John McDermot, a representative of the firm. In February the Consulado ordered him to pay it to the treasury instead of to McDermot, which he did—but after a dispute over the legitimacy of the payment, it ordered him to pay the money a second time. On appeal the Spanish Council of War involved itself, and on a pretext to avoid paying the government's huge debt, caused him to be imprisoned in the Castle of Santa Catalina on May 2, 1816. He wrote to U.S. minister George W. Erving, and despite letters from Erving and Secretary of State John Quincy Adams to the Spanish government, Meade was not released. Finally he called on Philadelphia connections like Congressman John Sergeant, and addressed a memorial (perhaps actually composed by Sergeant) to President James Monroe and Congress. The anti-Spanish faction seized the political opportunity: Speaker Henry Clay led the House of Representatives in resolving that "the imprisonment of Richard W. Meade is an act of cruel and unjustifiable oppression", and was joined by the Senate. With Spanish–U.S. tensions running high, the king ordered him released on June 26, 1818. The Meade family had already returned to Philadelphia, while Richard moved to Madrid to collect his money. ## Unpaid claim In 1820 a Spanish tribunal agreed that he was owed \$491,153.62: for Peninsular War debt \$298,879.88, for wrongful imprisonment \$75,000, and \$117,273.45 as agent for others. However, the Adams–Onís Treaty, signed in 1819, would transfer all American claims against Spain to the U.S. government if it were ratified. Thus Meade returned to the United States in the late spring of 1820, moving from Philadelphia to Washington. He clandestinely lobbied the Senate and the President to make ratification dependent on payment of his claim. This earned him the ire of its negotiator John Quincy Adams: "There was malice and treachery in the transaction, as well as intrigue and cupidity." The treaty was ratified regardless, and Meade filed a claim for \$373,879.88 with the U.S. commission set up to hear the Spanish claims. His claim was denied in 1822 because he had presented only the certificate of debt from the Spanish tribunal, not the original evidence of his losses (now in possession of the Spanish government). Before he could obtain the documents, the commission disbanded on June 8, 1824, dismissing Meade's case without hearing the merits. Meade spent the rest of his life lobbying the government for payment, employing such famous attorneys as Daniel Webster, Henry Clay and Rufus Choate. In 1827 a petition in his favor signed by 1100 people was submitted to Congress. The political situation however was against him: John Quincy Adams rose to the presidency in 1824 while the Meades had supported Clay, and their sympathy in Congress quickly waned. After Meade's death in 1828 the cause was taken up by his widow, then his son Richard, then his daughter Margaret, as the claim became famous for its longevity. They petitioned every session of Congress until in 1856 it passed a joint resolution referring the matter to the newly created Court of Claims. The Court of Claims ruled that it was bound by the decision of the commission and the Spanish ruling was outside its jurisdiction; Congress sent the case back to the Court of Claims in 1863 with the same result. The second decision was affirmed by the Supreme Court in 1870, which held that "an appeal to the equity of Congress" was the Meade heirs' only remedy. They continued to petition Congress into the 20th century. ## Art collection Meade used his merchant wealth to purchase paintings and statues, becoming one of the first American collectors of European art. Sometimes accepting paintings to satisfy debts, he acquired works by Titian, Correggio, Veronese, Rubens, Van Dyck, Velázquez and Murillo. While in prison, Meade had sent much of his artwork to the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts. This included a copy by Mariano Salvador Maella of a contemporary portrait of Christopher Columbus, now lost. Another of the important canvases was Murillo's Roman Charity. The collection arrived in April 1818 and was installed in the Academy's southwest gallery, which came to be called the Meade Gallery. A fire in 1845 destroyed the original building as well as Roman Charity. To thank the government for negotiating his release, Meade gifted the U.S. legation in Madrid a copy of the Lansdowne portrait of George Washington. Inscribed with his name and the date December 11, 1818, it hung at the embassy until 1951. Congressman James G. Fulton of Pennsylvania saw the painting while lecturing in Spain and had it transported to America to be placed in the U.S. Capitol's Statuary Hall. Since 1962 it has hung in the Rayburn Room. The Meade family art collection was dispersed when they sold it at auction in 1853. ## Hogan schism After returning from Spain, Meade became a trustee of St. Mary's Roman Catholic Church just as its priest William Hogan was in a dispute with Bishop Henry Conwell. The trustees defied the bishop by keeping Hogan, who was excommunicated, as their priest. Meade believed that in a republic, where the people are sovereign, the trustees of a parish should have the right to appoint priests—in the same way that the Pope had granted European monarchs this right. A pamphlet defending the trustees was published by exiled priest John Rico, whom Meade had helped escape from Spain to the United States. Meade became close friends with another parishioner, diplomat Manuel Torres, through whom he met the radical priest Servando Teresa de Mier. Mier quickly joined the St. Mary's controversy, while Torres tried to help Meade out with his financial problems. When Torres died in 1822, the funeral procession left from Meade's house, and with William Duane he was the executor of Torres' estate. ## Personal life Meade married Margaret Coates Butler in 1801. She was the daughter of Anthony Butler, a merchant of Perth Amboy, New Jersey, and Elizabeth Coates (or Coats) of Philadelphia. Margaret was Episcopalian though Richard was Roman Catholic, a pattern repeated in several generations of the Meade family. He was the only son to pass on the Meade family name; he and Margaret had 11 children, most of them born in Cadiz: 1. Henrietta Constantia (1801–1831), who married U.S. Navy officer Alexander J. Dallas 2. Charlotte Hustler (1803–1843), who married U.S. Army officer James Duncan Graham 3. Elizabeth Mary (1805–1872), who married banker Alfred Ingraham of Philadelphia 4. Richard Worsam II (1807–1870), who became a Navy captain 5. Margaret Gordon (1808–1887), who became a clerk in the Department of War 6. Maria del Carmen (1810–1877), who married Army officer Hartman Bache 7. Salvadora (1812–1886), who married Navy officer John T. McLaughlin 8. Catherine Hustler (b. 1814), who died in infancy 9. George Gordon (1815–1872), who became a Union Army general famous for the Battle of Gettysburg 10. Robert Leamy (1817–1841), who married Elizabeth Ricketts, sister of General James B. Ricketts 11. Mariamne Williams (1822–1857), who married Navy officer Thomas B. Huger The "Gordon" middle name was in honor of James Gordon, a Scottish merchant in Spain; his daughter Catherine Gordon Prendergast was George's godmother. Meade was on the board of examiners of the American Classical and Military Lyceum, a Mount Airy school which George attended for two years. The family's diminished finances due to the failed claim may be the reason that the younger Richard and George sought a free education as military officers. Meade died in the Washington suburb of Georgetown on June 25, 1828, at the relatively young age of 50. In his will he left everything to his widow Margaret, including properties valued at \$68,251.99 when the estate was settled in 1832. He was buried in the Meade family vault at St. Mary's Church.
73,203,902	Sun in fiction	1,172,824,338	null	[ "Fiction about the Sun" ]	The Sun has appeared as a setting in fiction since at least classical antiquity, but for a long time it received relatively sporadic attention. Many of the early depictions viewed it as a basically Earth-like and thus potentially habitable body—a once-common belief about celestial objects in general known as the plurality of worlds—and depicted various kinds of solar inhabitants. Once more became known about the Sun through advances in astronomy, in particular its temperature, solar inhabitants fell out of favour save for the occasional more exotic alien lifeforms. Instead, many stories focused on the eventual death of the Sun and the havoc it would wreak on life on Earth. Before it was understood that the Sun is powered by nuclear fusion, the prevailing assumption among writers was that combustion was the source of its heat and light and it was expected to run out of fuel relatively soon. Even after the true source of the Sun's energy was discovered in the 1920s, the dimming or extinction of the Sun remained a recurring theme in disaster stories. The theme of averting disaster by reigniting the Sun appears occasionally. Another common way for the Sun to cause destruction is by exploding ("going nova"), and other mechanisms such as solar flares also appear on occasion. Besides being a source of destruction, the Sun has been used in fiction as a source of power—both in the form of solar power and superpowers. The solar wind is also used for propulsion by spacecraft equipped with solar sails. Solar eclipses have appeared in a large number of stories, initially often used as a ruse by characters who know that they can be predicted mathematically against those who do not by pretending to cause them, perhaps inspired by the story of Christopher Columbus doing the same with a lunar eclipse. When audiences grew weary of this trope by the 1930s or 1940s, eclipses became much more rare in fiction writing, though they saw a comeback towards the end of the century as harbingers of social upheaval. Sunspots, and their 11-year cycle of frequency in occurrence, appear in a small number of works. The Sun poses a danger to spacecraft that approach it closely, a situation that occurs by necessity or design in several stories. The Sun is sometimes depicted as being sentient, though this is rare compared to other stars getting the same treatment. The Sun remains relatively uncommon as a point of focus in science fiction, particularly in comparison to Mars and Venus in fiction. Says science fiction bibliographer Richard Bleiler in the 2005 reference work The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Science Fiction and Fantasy, "Perhaps because it is generally taken for granted, the fictive potential of the Sun has barely been tapped". ## Early depictions: inhabited The Sun received comparatively little specific attention in early science fiction; prior to the late 1800s, when Mars became the most popular celestial object in fiction, the Sun was a distant second to the Moon. A large proportion of the works that nevertheless did focus on the Sun portrayed it as having inhabitants. In Lucian of Samosata's work True History from the second century CE, described by science fiction scholar Gary Westfahl as the first depiction of space travel in fiction, the inhabitants of the Sun are at war with those of the Moon. Later stories with an inhabited Sun include Athanasius Kircher's 1656 work Itinerarium exstaticum and Cyrano de Bergerac's posthumously published 1657 novel Comical History of the States and Empires of the Moon. In the 1700s, solar inhabitants were depicted by French authors Chevalier de Béthune [Wikidata], whose 1750 novel Relation du Monde de Mercure describes them ruling over the inhabitants of Mercury, and Marie-Anne de Roumier-Robert, whose 1765 novel Voyage de Milord Céton dans les sept planètes [fr] portrays a society on the Sun characterized by equality of the sexes. The concept of the plurality of worlds—the notion that other heavenly bodies should be essentially Earth-like and therefore habitable—endured in fiction with regard to the Sun well into the 1800s. These works include George Fowler's 1813 novel A Flight to the Moon; or, The Vision of Randalthus, the anonymously published 1837 novel Journeys into the Moon, Several Planets and the Sun, and Joel R. Peabody's 1838 novel A World of Wonders. Even in the early 1900s, when the temperature of the surface of the Sun had been determined by spectroscopic measurement, the portrayal of the Sun as inhabited persisted in some works of juvenile fiction such as John Mastin [Wikidata]'s 1909 novel Through the Sun in an Airship and Donald Horner [Wikidata]'s 1910 novel By Aeroplane to the Sun. In the 1900s, more exotic solar lifeforms started appearing in fiction. Some of these live inside the Sun itself rather than on its surface, as in Jack Williamson's 1935 short story "Islands of the Sun", Raymond Z. Gallun's 1935 short story "Nova Solis", and Henry J. Kostkos 1936 short story "We of the Sun". Others take up residence elsewhere in the Solar System: in Leigh Brackett's 1942 short story "Child of the Sun", an intelligent alien from the Sun lives on the fictional planet Vulcan inside the orbit of Mercury, and the titular creatures of Olaf Stapledon's 1947 novel The Flames are lizard-like solar beings residing inside igneous rocks on Earth. Arthur C. Clarke's 1958 short story "Out of the Sun" features life "formed of tangles of magnetic flux on the surface of our Sun", and Edmond Hamilton's 1962 short story "Sunfire!" depicts an energy-based lifeform living in the Sun's corona. ## Disaster The Sun has been a source of destruction or the threat thereof in many stories, most commonly either by fading or exploding. ### Dimming and extinction The dimming or extinction of the Sun has been a recurring theme. The earliest such stories were inspired by the assumption that the heat and light of the Sun were products of combustion, and that the fuel sustaining it would eventually run out. Physicist Lord Kelvin estimated in 1862 that the Sun would fade within a few million years, a timeframe that was later incorporated in stories by Camille Flammarion and H. G. Wells, among others. In Flammarion's 1894 novel Omega: The Last Days of the World humanity survives an encounter with a comet but succumbs to the dimming of the Sun thousands of years later, while the time traveller in Wells' 1895 novel The Time Machine discovers a cooled and reddened Sun over a barren Earth in the far future. Similarly, stories about the end of the world involving the death of the Sun were written in the early 1900s by among others George C. Wallis, whose 1901 short story "The Last Days of Earth" depicts the last survivors leaving a frozen Earth for a potentially habitable planet in another solar system, and William Hope Hodgson, whose 1908 novel The House on the Borderland describes one character's vision of the destruction of both the Earth and Sun. By the 1920s, the combustion hypothesis was superseded by the notion that the Sun was fuelled by nuclear fusion, pioneered by astrophysicist Arthur Eddington. As a result, science fiction authors started incorporating much longer solar lifespans in their stories, with J. B. S. Haldane's 1927 essay "The Last Judgment" and Olaf Stapledon's 1930 novel Last and First Men both outlining the future evolution of humanity throughout millions of years of variation in solar luminosity. Stories depicting the Sun waning nevertheless kept appearing, such as Clark Ashton Smith's stories about the fictional future continent Zothique starting with the 1932 short story "The Empire of the Necromancers", and Jack Vance's Dying Earth series starting with the 1950 anthology The Dying Earth which also gave its name to the dying earth subgenre of science fiction. Nat Schachner's 1934 short story "When the Sun Dies" describes the entire Earth freezing over in the 1980s as a result of a reduction in solar activity, and in Arthur C. Clarke's 1949 short story "History Lesson", future Venusians find humanity extinct due to the environmental changes brought about by the Sun fading. Clarke also touched upon the subject in the 1938 poem "The Twilight of the Sun" and the 1979 novel The Fountains of Paradise. In a variation on the theme, Fritz Leiber's 1951 short story "A Pail of Air" depicts Earth having been pulled away from the gravitational influence of the Sun and thus turned into a rogue planet, with a climate so cold that air has frozen and needs to be collected and thawed to turn it gaseous and breathable. Edmond Hamilton's 1934 short story "Thundering Worlds" sees all the planets leaving the Solar System to find a new star as the Sun dies, while his 1963 comic book story "Superman Under the Red Sun" depicts Superman travelling into the far future and losing his superpowers as a result of the aging red Sun. Eric C. Williams' 1965 short story "Sunout" depicts scientists reacting to the realization that the Sun is about to go out and they are powerless to do anything about it. In the 2019 film The Wandering Earth, the death of the Sun prompts humanity to relocate the entire Earth to a new solar system. A handful of stories describe efforts to reignite the fading Sun. In Clark Ashton Smith's 1954 short story "Phoenix" (written c. 1935), this is accomplished by detonating several nuclear weapons on the Sun's surface. In Gene Wolfe's 1980–1983 four-volume novel The Book of the New Sun and its sequels, a white hole is used to reinvigorate the dying Sun. The concept of using an explosive device for this purpose is revisited in the 2007 film Sunshine. ### Exploding Several stories depict the Sun exploding, or "going nova". It was recognized early on that the immense destructive power of such an event would leave little to no hope of survival for humanity, and so while Simon Newcomb's 1903 short story "The End of the World" depicts a few survivors in the immediate aftermath, Hugh Kingsmill's 1924 short story "The End of the World" instead focuses on the anticipation of the destruction of the Earth. According to science fiction writer Brian Stableford, writing in the 2006 work Science Fact and Science Fiction: An Encyclopedia, it was thus not until the concept of space travel became widespread in science fiction—hence making evacuation of the Earth a conceivable prospect—that such stories became popular. In John W. Campbell's 1930 short story "The Voice of the Void" humanity leaves Earth ahead of this disaster, while in Joseph W. Skidmore [Wikidata]'s 1931 short story "Dramatis Personae" the Sun explodes without warning, leaving a few people already in spaceships as the only survivors. In Arthur C. Clarke's 1946 short story "Rescue Party", aliens come to Earth to save humanity from the violent demise of the Sun only to find evacuation already underway, whereas in his 1954 short story "No Morning After", the aliens' warning goes unheeded. J. T. McIntosh's 1954 novel One in Three Hundred deals with the allocation of the limited capacity aboard the evacuating spaceships. In Norman Spinrad's 1966 novel The Solarians, the Sun is intentionally made to explode in an act of interstellar warfare, while in Larry Niven's 1971 short story "The Fourth Profession" aliens seek to induce such an event to use as a power source for space travel. In Edward Wellen [de]'s 1971 novel Hijack, the Mafia is duped into abandoning Earth by being misled that the Sun will turn into a nova. Connie Willis' 1979 short story "Daisy, in the Sun" is a coming-of-age parable that relates a young girl getting her first period to the imminent end of the world. ### Other The heat of the Sun dooms life on Earth when the Earth's orbit is disrupted in John Hawkins's 1938 short story "Ark of Fire" and the 1961 film The Day the Earth Caught Fire. More fancifully, Clare Winger Harris' 1928 short story "The Menace of Mars" depicts an increase in heat from the Sun threatening the Earth as a result of a general cosmological change in the properties of the universe, which leads Mars to adjust Earth's orbit to serve as a shield against the Sun's radiation. Solar storms such as solar flares appear in some stories. In Larry Niven's 1971 short story "Inconstant Moon", the sudden brightening of the Moon in the night sky leads the characters to conclude that the Sun has undergone a nova event that will destroy all life on Earth, though they later realize that a large solar flare would produce the same effect and that all hope might not be lost. The 1990 film Solar Crisis depicts a mission to bomb the Sun to avert the destruction that could be caused by an immense predicted solar flare, while the 2005 novel Sunstorm by Arthur C. Clarke and Stephen Baxter portrays mankind constructing a large shielding object at the Sun–Earth L<sub>1</sub> Lagrange point as protection against the threat posed by a similar event. More long-lasting changes in solar output appear in Arthur G. Stangland [Wikidata]'s 1932 short story "50th Century Revolt", where an increase in solar activity forces humanity to slow the rotation of the Earth to a synchronous rotation—where the same side of the Earth faces the Sun at all times, thus protecting the other half of the planet from the scorching heat—for two millennia until the Sun dims again, and George O. Smith's 1953 novel Troubled Star, where aliens seek to turn the Sun into a variable star. ## Properties and phenomena ### Orbital mechanics The Sun hides Counter-Earth—a planet diametrically opposite Earth in its orbit—in some stories including Edgar Wallace's 1929 novel Planetoid 127 and John Norman's Gor series starting with the 1966 novel Tarnsman of Gor. The 1972 anthology The Day the Sun Stood Still contains three different short stories (by Poul Anderson, Robert Silverberg, and Gordon R. Dickson) where the Sun stops in the sky as in the Biblical Book of Joshua. ### Power source The energy output of the Sun was harnessed for power production in fiction as early as Hugo Gernsback's 1911 novel Ralph 124C 41+ and in several stories since, with Robert A. Heinlein's 1940 short story "Let There Be Light" describing economically viable solar panels and Isaac Asimov's 1941 short story "Reason" (later included in the 1950 fix-up novel I, Robot) depicting solar power produced in space but consumed on Earth. Other works have depicted solar arrays in close orbits around the Sun itself. The Sun is also the source of comic book superhero Superman's superpowers, as well as those of supervillains Sun Girl from DC Comics and Solarr from Marvel Comics. ### Solar wind Following German astronomer Ludwig Biermann's 1951 discovery of the solar wind—a stream of charged particles from the Sun—stories emerged about spacecraft with solar sails. These devices capture the small amount of pressure pointing away from the Sun exerted by the solar wind, as well as the radiation pressure from the sunlight itself, and use it for propulsion. The idea was popular in 1960s science fiction, appearing among others in Jack Vance's 1962 short story "Gateway to Strangeness" and Cordwainer Smith's 1963 short story "Think Blue, Count Two". Arthur C. Clarke's 1964 short story "Sunjammer" ( "The Wind from the Sun") depicts a race to the Moon between solar sail-propelled spacecraft. A proto-variation on the concept appears in Robert A. Heinlein's 1939 short story "Misfit". The 1990 anthology Project Solar Sail edited by Clarke and David Brin collects various stories and essays about solar sails. ### Eclipses Solar eclipses are plot points in many stories. The earliest work of fiction in which an eclipse appears is the ancient Sumerian c. 2100 BCE Epic of Gilgamesh. Using understanding of the underlying astronomy to be able to predict eclipses mathematically is a common trope—says Stableford, it "became a key method by which European explorers could impress superstitious native populations in adventure stories". Several sources attribute the popularity of this trope to the possibly-apocryphal story of Christopher Columbus using foreknowledge of the March 1504 lunar eclipse to defuse a situation of increasingly strained relations with the Arawak people on Jamaica by pretending to cause the eclipse. H. Rider Haggard's 1885 novel King Solomon's Mines originally featured a solar eclipse in this manner, though later editions substituted a lunar eclipse to address the issue of the event having a several-hour duration, whereas solar eclipses last for a maximum of a few minutes. In a variation on the theme, Mark Twain's 1889 novel A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court depicts a time traveller using an almanac in this way to impress the people in Medieval Britain and become a person of influence. The eclipse prediction motif recurred in fiction until the 1930s or 1940s, by which time it fell out of favour. Eclipses continued to appear, but much more rarely. In William Lemkin's 1930 short story "The Eclipse Special", scientists construct an aircraft that will allow them to move with the eclipse's path of totality and remain in the Sun's umbra for longer in order to extend the amount of time available to study the eclipse. The 1961 film Barabbas portrays the crucifixion darkness during the Biblical crucifixion of Jesus as a solar eclipse, and the scene was filmed during the solar eclipse of February 15, 1961. According to science fiction scholar Lisa Yaszek, the decades around the turn of the millennium saw the emergence of a trend wherein marginalized groups "experience a reversal of fortunes when the Moon takes center stage and blots out the Sun". ### Sunspots The 11-year solar cycle of sunspot activity appears in a small number of works such as Clifford D. Simak's 1940 short story "Sunspot Purge" and Philip Latham's 1959 short story "Disturbing Sun". In Robert A. Heinlein's 1952 short story "The Year of the Jackpot", this cycle is one of many that herald the end of the world when they align. Hyman Kaner [Wikidata]'s 1946 novel The Sun Queen is set on a sunspot, where two humans from Earth encounter two factions at war. ## Close encounters The Sun appears as a hazard to spaceships that approach it too closely in some stories. In John W. Campbell's 1935 short story "Blindness", a scientist studies the Sun at close range at great personal cost in order to solve the mysteries of nuclear energy, only to find that the method for getting there was worth more than the discoveries made. Willy Ley's 1937 short story "At the Perihelion" involves a close approach to the Sun as part of an escape from Mars, and Charles L. Harness' 1949 novel The Paradox Men ( Flight into Yesterday) is a space opera that climaxes with a swordfight atop a space station on the surface of the Sun. In Ray Bradbury's 1953 short story "The Golden Apples of the Sun", a crewed solar sample-return mission requires a spaceship to be cooled to near-absolute zero to endure the extreme heat during the critical phase. A fleet of near-Sun spacecraft that modulate the solar output for weather control purposes appears in Theodore L. Thomas' 1962 short story "The Weather Man". David Brin's 1980 novel Sundiver revolves around a hard science fiction journey into the Sun. ## Sentient Some works depict the Sun as being sentient. According to The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction, this is more commonly applied to other stars; in Olaf Stapledon's 1937 novel Star Maker, all stars are sentient, and in Diana Wynne Jones' 1975 novel Dogsbody, both the Sun and Sirius are sentient. In Gregory Benford and Gordon Eklund's 1977 novel If the Stars are Gods, aliens come to the Solar System to communicate with the Sun. According to The Encyclopedia of Fantasy, the Sun is usually male in fictional mythologies where it is personified, though some exceptions exist such as the legendarium of J. R. R. Tolkien, in whose cosmology it is female. The Sun is likewise female in Alasdair Gray's 1983 short story "The Problem", and concerned with her spots. ## See also - The Sun in culture
34,240,882	Coal ball	1,095,007,346	Stone of peat that did not turn into coal	[ "Carboniferous geology", "Fossil record of plants", "Mineralogy" ]	A coal ball is a type of concretion, varying in shape from an imperfect sphere to a flat-lying, irregular slab. Coal balls were formed in Carboniferous Period swamps and mires, when peat was prevented from being turned into coal by the high amount of calcite surrounding the peat; the calcite caused it to be turned into stone instead. As such, despite not actually being made of coal, the coal ball owes its name to its similar origins as well as its similar shape with actual coal. Coal balls often preserve a remarkable record of the microscopic tissue structure of Carboniferous swamp and mire plants, which would otherwise have been completely destroyed. Their unique preservation of Carboniferous plants makes them valuable to scientists, who cut and peel the coal balls to research the geological past. In 1855, two English scientists, Joseph Dalton Hooker and Edward William Binney, made the first scientific description of coal balls in England, and the initial research on coal balls was carried out in Europe. North American coal balls were discovered and identified in 1922. Coal balls have since been found in other countries, leading to the discovery of hundreds of species and genera. Coal balls may be found in coal seams across North America and Eurasia. North American coal balls are more widespread, both stratigraphically and geologically, than those in Europe. The oldest known coal balls date from the Namurian stage of the Carboniferous; they were found in Germany and on the territory of former Czechoslovakia. ## Introduction to the scientific world, and formation The first scientific description of coal balls was made in 1855 by Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker and Edward William Binney, who reported on examples in the coal seams of Yorkshire and Lancashire, England. European scientists did much of the early research. Coal balls in North America were first found in Iowa coal seams in 1894, although the connection to European coal balls was not made until Adolf Carl Noé (whose coal ball was found by Gilbert Cady) drew the parallel in 1922. Noé's work renewed interest in coal balls, and by the 1930s had drawn paleobotanists from Europe to the Illinois Basin in search of them. There are two theories – the autochthonous (in situ) theory and the allochthonous (drift) theory – that attempt to explain the formation of coal balls, although the subject is mostly speculation. Supporters of the in situ theory believe that close to its present location organic matter accumulated near a peat bog and, shortly after burial, underwent permineralisation – minerals seeped into the organic matter and formed an internal cast. Water with a high dissolved mineral content was buried with the plant matter in a peat bog. As the dissolved ions crystallised, the mineral matter precipitated out. This caused concretions containing plant material to form and preserve as rounded lumps of stone. Coalification was thus prevented, and the peat was preserved and eventually became a coal ball. The majority of coal balls are found in bituminous and anthracite coal seams, in locations where the peat was not compressed sufficiently to render the material into coal. Marie Stopes and David Watson analysed coal ball samples and decided that coal balls formed in situ. They stressed the importance of interaction with seawater, believing that it was necessary for the formation of coal balls. Some supporters of the in situ theory believe that Stopes' and Watson's discovery of a plant stem extending through multiple coal balls shows that coal balls formed in situ, stating that the drift theory fails to explain Stopes' and Watson's observation. They also cite fragile pieces of organic material projecting outside some coal balls, contending that if the drift theory was correct, the projections would have been destroyed, and some large coal balls are large enough that they could never have been able to be transported in the first place. The drift theory holds that the organic material did not form in or near its present location. Rather, it asserts that the material that would become a coal ball was transported from another location by means of a flood or a storm. Some supporters of the drift theory, such as Sergius Mamay and Ellis Yochelson, believed that the presence of marine animals in coal balls proved material was transported from a marine to a non-marine environment. Edward C. Jeffrey, stating that the in situ theory had "no good evidence", believed that the formation of coal balls from transported material was likely because coal balls often included material formed by transport and sedimentation in open water. ### Contents Coal balls are not made of coal; they are non-flammable and useless for fuel. Coal balls are calcium-rich permineralised life forms, mostly containing calcium and magnesium carbonates, pyrite, and quartz. Other minerals, including gypsum, illite, kaolinite, and lepidocrocite also appear in coal balls, albeit in lesser quantities. Although coal balls are usually about the size of a man's fist, their sizes vary greatly, ranging from that of a walnut up to 3 feet (1 m) in diameter. Coal balls have been found that were smaller than a thimble. Coal balls commonly contain dolomites, aragonite, and masses of organic matter at various stages of decomposition. Hooker and Binney analysed a coal ball and found "a lack of coniferous wood ... and fronds of ferns" and noted that the discovered plant matter "appear[ed] to [have been arranged] just as they fell from the plants that produced them". Coal balls usually do not preserve the leaves of plants. In 1962, Sergius Mamay and Ellis Yochelson analysed North American coal balls. Their discovery of marine organisms led to classification of coal balls were sorted into three types: normal (sometimes known as floral), containing only plant matter; faunal, containing animal fossils only; and mixed, containing both plant and animal material. Mixed coal balls are further divided into heterogeneous, where the plant and animal material was distinctly separated; and homogeneous, lacking that separation. ## Preservation The quality of preservation in coal balls varies from no preservation to the point of being able to analyse the cellular structures. Some coal balls contain preserved root hairs, pollen, and spores, and are described as being "more or less perfectly preserved", containing "not what used to be the plant", but rather, the plant itself. Others have been found to be "botanically worthless", with the organic matter having deteriorated before becoming a coal ball. Coal balls with well-preserved contents are useful to paleobotanists. They have been used to analyse the geographical distribution of vegetation: for example, providing evidence that Ukrainian and Oklahoman plants of the tropical belt were once the same. Research on coal balls has also led to the discovery of more than 130 genera and 350 species. Three main factors determine the quality of preserved material in a coal ball: the mineral constituents, the speed of the burial process, and the degree of compression before undergoing permineralisation. Generally, coal balls resulting from remains that have a quick burial with little decay and pressure are better preserved, although plant remains in most coal balls almost always show differing signs of decay and collapse. Coal balls containing quantities of iron sulfide have far lower preservation than coal balls permineralised by magnesium or calcium carbonate, which has earned iron sulfide the title "chief curse of the coal ball hunter". ## Distribution Coal balls were first found in England, and later in other parts of the world, including Australia, Belgium, the Netherlands, the former Czechoslovakia, Germany, Ukraine, China, and Spain. They were also encountered in North America, where they are geographically widespread compared to Europe; in the United States, coal balls have been found from Kansas to the Illinois Basin to the Appalachian region. The oldest coal balls were from the early end of the Namurian stage (326 to 313 mya) and discovered in Germany and former Czechoslovakia, but their ages generally range from the Permian (299 to 251 mya) to the Upper Carboniferous. Some coal balls from the US vary in age from the later end of the Westphalian (roughly 313 to 304 mya) to the later Stephanian (roughly 304 to 299 mya). European coal balls are generally from the early end of the Westphalian Stage. In coal seams, coal balls are completely surrounded by coal. They are often found randomly scattered throughout the seam in isolated groups, usually in the upper half of the seam. Their occurrence in coal seams can be either extremely sporadic or regular; many coal seams have been found to contain no coal balls, while others have been found to contain so many coal balls that miners avoid the area entirely. ## Analytical methods Thin sectioning was an early procedure used to analyse fossilised material contained in coal balls. The process required cutting a coal ball with a diamond saw, then flattening and polishing the thin section with an abrasive. It would be glued to a slide and placed under a petrographic microscope for examination. Although the process could be done with a machine, the large amount of time needed and the poor quality of samples produced by thin sectioning gave way to a more convenient method. The thin section technique was superseded by the now-common liquid-peel technique in 1928. In this technique, peels are obtained by cutting the surface of a coal ball with a diamond saw, grinding the cut surface on a glass plate with silicon carbide to a smooth finish, and etching the cut and the surface with hydrochloric acid. The acid dissolves the mineral matter from the coal ball, leaving a projecting layer of plant cells. After applying acetone, a piece of cellulose acetate is placed on the coal ball. This embeds the cells preserved in the coal ball into the cellulose acetate. Upon drying, the cellulose acetate can be removed from the coal ball with a razor and the obtained peel can be stained with a low-acidity stain and observed under a microscope. Up to 50 peels can be extracted from 2 millimetres (0.079 in) of coal ball with this method. However, the peels will degrade over time if they contain any iron sulfide (pyrite or marcasite). Shya Chitaley addressed this problem by revising the liquid-peel technique to separate the organic material preserved by the coal ball from the inorganic minerals, including iron sulfide. This allows the peel to retain its quality for a longer time. Chitaley's revisions begin after grinding the surface of the coal ball to a smooth finish. Her process essentially entails heating and then making multiple applications of solutions of paraffin in xylene to the coal ball. Each subsequent application has a greater concentration of paraffin in xylene to allow the wax to completely pervade the coal ball. Nitric acid, and then acetone, are applied to the coal ball. Following that, the process merges back into the liquid peel technique. X-ray powder diffraction has also been used to analyse coal balls. The X-rays of a predetermined wavelength are sent through a sample to examine its structure. This reveals information about the crystallographic structure, chemical composition, and physical properties of the examined material. The scattered intensity of the X-ray pattern is observed and analysed, with the measurements consisting of incident and scattered angle, polarisation, and wavelength or energy. ## See also - Petrified wood
23,635,063	Bop Gun (Homicide: Life on the Street)	1,171,950,552	null	[ "1994 American television episodes", "Homicide: Life on the Street (season 2) episodes", "Television episodes written by David Simon" ]	"Bop Gun" is the second season premiere of the American police drama television series Homicide: Life on the Street, and the tenth overall episode of the series. It originally aired on NBC in the United States on January 6, 1994. In the episode, the Baltimore homicide unit investigates the shooting death of the wife of a tourist, played by guest star Robin Williams. The episode was written by David Mills and David Simon based on a story by executive producer Tom Fontana, and directed by Stephen Gyllenhaal. In response to network feedback and poor ratings from the first season, "Bop Gun" marked several changes in the series, including a less bleak visual style and a greater focus on one plot, rather than multiple subplots. It was also the first episode to focus primarily on a homicide victim, rather than on the detectives. Simon felt the dialogue was realistic, especially that of the dark humor employed by detectives as a coping mechanism for dealing with the horrors of the job. Williams previously worked with Homicide executive producer Barry Levinson on the films Good Morning, Vietnam (1987) and Toys (1992). This led to speculation that Williams took the role on "Bop Gun" as a favor to Levinson, but the actor insisted it was out of admiration for the series itself. A young Jake Gyllenhaal, the son of the episode's director, makes an appearance as Williams' son. The episode was the first to feature Chris Tergesen as music coordinator, which resulted in the use of more songs than previous episodes, including "Killer" by Seal and "Feels Like Rain" by Buddy Guy. "Bop Gun" was seen by 16.3 million viewers, one of the highest Nielsen ratings of the week, thanks in large part due to interest in Williams' appearance. The episode received generally positive reviews, with several particularly complimenting the dramatic performance by Williams. "Bop Gun" won a Writers Guild of America Award for Best Screenplay of an Episodic Drama. Williams also received an Emmy Award nomination for Guest Actor in a Drama Series. The episode, along with the rest of the first and second seasons of Homicide: Life on the Street was released on DVD in the United States on May 27, 2003. ## Plot summary Felton (Daniel Baldwin) and Howard (Melissa Leo) investigate the murder of an Iowa woman who was shot to death in front of her husband Robert Ellison (Robin Williams) and two young children during a stick-up. Since the victims are tourists, the case becomes a "red ball" and receives considerable attention from the press, city officials and top police brass. Bayliss (Kyle Secor) tries to interview the two young children, but Ellison stops him, protesting that the experience is too hard on them. After obtaining information from street thugs, the police arrest Marvin (Antonio Charity), who possesses 45-caliber bullets matching those used in the shooting. Marvin tells the detectives that he's a "stone stick-up man" who has robbed dozens of people and never shot anyone because people don't argue with a .45-carrying man, and also that he knows he will spend decades in prison anyway because he was involved in the shooting so there is no reason he would lie about being the shooter. A mournful Ellison overhears Felton making jokes about the investigation and bragging about the overtime he expects to receive from it. He angrily demands Felton be thrown off the case, but Gee (Yaphet Kotto) calms him down by explaining the police have to be detached from the victims because they encounter so many. Ellison takes his children back to their hotel room, where his daughter Abby (Julia Devin) is in denial about her mother's death, and his son Matt (Jake Gyllenhaal) angrily refuses to talk to his father. The police arrest a second suspect named Tweety (Vincent Miller), who was found in possession of the murdered woman's locket. The detectives question Marvin and Tweety separately until Tweety identifies the shooter as 19-year-old Vaughn Perkins (Lloyd Goodman). Howard is surprised to learn Vaughn has a mostly clean criminal record, and his family insists Vaughn would never kill anybody. Vaughn is arrested without incident, but Ellison is unable to identify the three suspects because he does not remember their faces. Meanwhile, Ellison sees his wife's body in the morgue, and gets upset that her clothes and wedding ring have been removed. Bayliss later returns the ring to Ellison, who admits he feels guilty for not protecting his wife or stopping the shooter. Ellison asks to hold Bayliss' gun just to know how it feels, and Bayliss reluctantly agrees. Howard repeatedly questions Vaughn, believing he is acting as the fall guy for his two friends. Vaughn says nothing, but eventually writes a letter of apology to Ellison. Felton closes the case despite Howard's protests for more time to investigate. Vaughn eventually pleads guilty at his arraignment and insists on serving life without parole. Marvin and Tweety are sentenced to 30 years in prison, but Ellison tells Howard he feels no comfort because his wife is still dead. Howard tries to give Vaughn's letter to Ellison, but he refuses to accept it. Howard eventually speaks directly to Vaughn in prison, where Vaughn admits he handled the gun during the stick-up because he thought if he had the gun, he could control the situation and prevent anyone from getting hurt. Vaughn said he lost control of the robbery, and insists he needs to serve the life sentence to make amends. A devastated Howard finally agrees with Felton's opinion that Vaughn was indeed the shooter. ## Production Despite critical acclaim, Homicide: Life on the Street suffered from poor ratings throughout its first season, prompting NBC to consider taking it off the air. After a nine-episode first season, the network approved four more episodes for the show's second season as a trial run to determine whether to continue or cancel the show. The script for "Bop Gun" was completed before the first season ended, but NBC executives asked for several refinements – including less involved plots and fewer camera movements – before approving a second season. In an attempt to appease the network and improve ratings, executive producers Barry Levinson and Tom Fontana sought to make subtle changes to give the show a stronger mainstream appeal, while aiming not to compromise its integrity or originality. With "Bop Gun", the producers slightly toned down the bleak visual style and hand-held photography motif. It is also the first episode to focus on a single story, rather than multiple subplots, which Fontana felt allowed the writers to tell the main story better. Fontana said of the changes to the series, "We were experimenting with our first nine episodes. Whenever you try something new, you tend to err on the side of breaking ground. But we'd rather have more people watching, so the colors and lighting are slightly brighter, and the camera movements are not as jarring." "Bop Gun" marked the first episode with Jean de Segonzac as director of photography. The first scene, which depicts the moments immediately before the shooting, juxtaposes shots of the Ellison family admiring the tourist attractions of Baltimore with shots of their shooters playing basketball before following the family. The photography depicts the different sides of Baltimore by presenting the Ellison family shots like a cheerful tourist advertisement, with the other shots presenting a grittier image of the city. "Bop Gun" marked the first episode in its new time slot on Thursdays at 10 p.m., occupying a period previously filled by L.A. Law. The show previously aired 9 p.m. on Wednesdays, where it was regularly defeated in the ratings by the ABC comedy Home Improvement. "Bop Gun" was written by David Mills and David Simon based on a story by Fontana. It was directed by Stephen Gyllenhaal, a feature director then-best known for such films as Waterland (1992) and A Dangerous Woman (1993). It was the first television script written by Mills, who previously worked as a reporter and became friends with Simon while studying journalism at the University of Maryland, College Park. Mills said of "Bop Gun", "That script inspired me to quit journalism. It was a golden opportunity, even though I didn't know what I was doing. I developed bad habits as a newspaper feature writer. I would always stretch a project to fill the available time." "Bop Gun" served as a departure from previous Homicide: Life on the Street episodes by focusing more strongly on a murder victim, rather than on the detectives. Simon felt the script's dialogue, particularly the detectives' use of dark humor as a coping mechanism for dealing with the horrors of the homicide unit, were faithful to reality. He particularly cited the scene in which Felton angers Ellison by talking excitedly about how much overtime he expected to get. Simon said, "That's a conversation that would happen. It would happen in any homicide unit in America, and when I saw it actually being acted out I got a real kick in the pants because I thought, 'Wherever there are homicide detectives watching this, they're cracking up because they know how true it is.'" "Bop Gun" was originally meant to serve as the second season finale, but NBC decided to make it the season premiere with the hopes of getting increased ratings from a guest appearance by Robin Williams. Williams portrayed Robert Ellison, the husband of a slain woman tourist. Several news sources indicated Williams took on the role as a favor to Homicide executive producer Barry Levinson, who directed Williams in the films Good Morning, Vietnam (1987) and Toys (1992). But Fontana said Williams agreed to take the part based on the actor's positive impression of both the show in general and the "Bop Gun" script in particular. Fontana said of Williams, "He read the script, responded instantly and said, 'When do you want me there?'. He could not have been more prepared or more of a gentleman to everyone, and he worked his tail off. That whole experience was a joy." Williams himself said of the show, "Visually, it was just so different from anything else on television." Although Williams was primarily known for his comedic work, the Homicide producers and Williams himself consciously decided to remain true to the original script, rejecting the idea of adding humor or jokes to the episode. Williams' scenes were filmed over three days, and the actors found the part emotionally draining. Fontana said, "[Williams] worked like a dog. It was quite a special event for all of us. It's very intense." A 13-year-old Jake Gyllenhaal, son of the episode's director Stephen, made one of his earliest acting performances in "Bop Gun" as Matt, the young son of Robert Ellison. Williams and Homicide regular Richard Belzer were acquainted from a HBO comedy special they both appeared in, although the two had never acted together before. The two often joked between filming takes, except for during Williams' most dramatic scenes. The episode also featured Vincent Miller, an actor who worked primarily in the Washington, D.C. area, as Tweety. ## Music "Bop Gun" was the first episode to feature Chris Tergesen as music coordinator, and thus more music is featured in it than any previous episodes. During the opening scene, the song "Killer" by Seal and Adamski plays over a brief montage of images of Vaughn Perkins, just as Tweety and Marvin preparing to rob the Ellison family. When he is arrested, Marvin is wearing headphones, listening to the Public Enemy song "Gett off My Back". The Eric B. & Rakim song "Chinese Arithmetic" plays during the scene in which police simultaneously interview Tweety and Marvin. "Feels Like Rain", by the blues guitarist and singer Buddy Guy, plays as Howard arrives to talk to Vaughn, and when she leaves after talking to him, in the episode's final scene. The song "Don't Start Me to Talkin'", by blues harmonica player Sonny Boy Williamson II, was also featured in the episode. Tergesen was a fan of the funk band Parliament-Funkadelic, and the episode has several references to the group as a result. The episode's title derives from the band's song "Bop Gun (Endangered Species)", and during one scene a criminal claims he shot someone over the destruction of a rare record by Eddie Hazel, a member of Funkadelic. Additionally, one of the street thug characters is named Kid Funkadelic. ## Reception ### Ratings In its original American broadcast on January 6, 1994, "Bop Gun" was seen by 16.3 million viewers, a higher-than-usual Homicide: Life on the Street rating in large part to interest in Williams' appearance. It received a 17.3 Nielsen rating and a 28 share, the highest rating for a 10 p.m. drama series since January 1992. The rating placed Homicide among the top ten network television Nielsen ratings for the week, and outperformed the ratings of L.A. Law, which normally filled the 10 p.m. Thursday timeslot. NBC Entertainment president Warren Littlefield said the ratings "far exceeded expectations", and said he expected the series to return for a third season if the viewership remained strong. Littlefield said of the Homicide ratings: > "These are outstanding numbers for a dramatic television series. If we can keep a reasonable level of audience, we believe in the work, we believe in the creative team we think we have, perhaps the most outstanding ensemble cast in all of television. We just would like to see continued signs of life." ### Reviews "Bop Gun" received generally positive reviews, and was identified by The Baltimore Sun as one of the ten best episodes of the series. Sun writer David Zurawik said Gyllenhaal's direction was as good as anything he had done in film, and called the script "one of the most ambitious scripts you'll see on TV this year". Lon Grahnke of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the episode his highest rating of four stars, and called Williams portrayal "a piercing dramatic performance". Grahnke also said, "In one hour, 'Bop Gun' says more about firearms, urban tragedies, crime victims and racial politics than any yammering congressman trying to blame television for our violent society." Entertainment Weekly critic Ken Tucker complimented the episode, noting, "Don't let Williams distract you from the real stuff here: the brilliantly jagged murder-investigation scenes and the exceptional performances from homicide-detective costars Daniel Baldwin and Melissa Leo." Tribune Company television critic Kate O'Hare praised "Bop Gun" for focusing on characterization and dialogue rather than action, and said of the episode, "With a mix of intense emotion, dogged police work and humorous banter among the detectives, "Bop Gun" typifies the philosophy of Homicide." David P. Kalat, author of Homicide: Life on the Street - The Unofficial Companion, called it a "grueling" episode, and that Williams performed "probably his finest noncomedic performance ever". The Philadelphia Inquirer television critic Jonathan Storm lauded the cast, the "visual art of the camera" and the "realistic, yet nearly literary dialogue" of "Bop Gun". The Times-Picayune writer Benjamin Morrison praised the "unexpectedly understated" performance of Williams and praised the episode for not being simple or formulaic. He suggested viewers who were crime victims themselves would be particularly moved by the script. Hal Boedeker, television critic with The Miami Herald, called the episode an "uncompromising hour" and "the highest order for network TV". He said Williams "astonishes in every scene", and praised the script for not racing over topics as many television shows do, but rather taking "full measure of the weight of grief". Elaine Liner, television critic with the Corpus Christi Caller-Times, described Williams' performance as "heartbreaking", but particularly praised the writers for "taking the show to a higher level" by making the perpetrator sympathetic and three-dimensional, not only the victim. Liner said, "Fontana succeeds in fleshing out the characters on both sides of this tragedy." Bob Langford of The News & Observer called the episode "brilliant" and praised it for focusing not on the crime but on the effects of it, as well as the realistic portrayals regarding race, such as concerns the crime would keep away white tourists. Langford said it was occasionally preachy, but said "Sometimes, a good sermon is what we need. Amazing that one this powerful can come from a TV show." Adam Sandler of Daily Variety praised the cast, the hysteria and confusion conveyed in Gyllenhaal's direction, and the "themes of police insensitivity, victims rights and dysfunctional families" in the script. The Washington Post writer Harriet Winslow called Williams' performance poignant and riveting, and called the fact that it did not overshadow the other actors a "tribute to the quality of this cast". John J. O'Connor of The New York Times called the episode "extraordinary" and said "The senselessness of the incident is heartbreakingly captured". St. Louis Post-Dispatch writer Gail Pennington praised Williams' "controlled performance" as well as several "terrific scenes". Among them, she said, were Gee's explanation of how police use humor as a buffer from the horrors of their jobs, and the scene where detectives simultaneously interrogate two suspects in different rooms, which she said was "choreographed as tightly as the Bolshoi Ballet". Not all reviews were so positive. The Dallas Morning News writer Ed Bark called Williams' a "sometimes overly transparent effort to underscore the grief of the victims' survivors", and said the episode "works overtime" to make the world seem like a "bleak and scary place". Bark also said the show made itself a "target for charges of racism" by making the three murderers black, but also credited the script with making one of the perpetrators so sympathetic. Tom Shales of The Washington Post said the writers "try a little too hard" to create sympathy for the three murder suspects, and the episode suffers due to the absence of actor Andre Braugher, who plays Detective Frank Pembleton. But Shales also praised Williams' performance and said the episode was particularly powerful because the actual violence is off-screen. Buzz McCain, columnist with The Washington Times, called the episode "irritating" and "as pointless as the killing". He particularly criticized the script, which he said was clichéd and overly "misty-eyed", particularly the extended moments of Williams talking about the shooting. In a later article, McCain said, "Nothing I've written in this column generated as much visceral response as my nine paragraphs about ("Bop Gun")." In addition to responses from angry fans, McCain received a call from David Mills, who McCain said "simply wanted some insight as to what specifically I didn't like about his show and how the writers might improve on the next one." Robin Williams' performance in "Bop Gun" was among a list of the ten best guest star moments in television history, compiled by the Star Tribune in April 2001. ### Awards "Bop Gun" won a Writers Guild of America Award for Best Screenplay of an Episodic Drama. It defeated competing episodes of Northern Exposure and NYPD Blue, as well as another second season Homicide episode, "A Many Splendored Thing". Robin Williams also received an Emmy Award nomination for Guest Actor in a Drama Series. It was the only Emmy nomination Homicide: Life on the Street received in the 46th Primetime Emmy Awards; the series received four nominations the previous year. Williams lost the award to Richard Kiley for his performance in CBS drama series Picket Fences; the other nominees were Dan Hedaya, James Earl Jones and Tim Curry. ## Home media "Bop Gun" and the rest of the first and second season episodes were included in the four-DVD box-set "Homicide: Life on the Street: The Complete Seasons 1 & 2", which was released by A&E Home Video on May 27, 2003 for \$69.95.
3,799,130	Japanese cruiser Izumo	1,160,513,003	Izumo-Class armored cruizer by Japan	[ "1899 ships", "Cruisers sunk by aircraft", "Izumo-class cruisers", "Maritime incidents in July 1945", "Russo-Japanese War cruisers of Japan", "Second Sino-Japanese War cruisers of Japan", "Ships built by Armstrong Whitworth", "Ships built on the River Tyne", "Ships sunk by US aircraft", "Shipwrecks of Japan", "World War I cruisers of Japan", "World War II cruisers of Japan" ]	Izumo (出雲, sometimes transliterated Idzumo) was the lead ship of her class of armored cruisers (Sōkō jun'yōkan) built for the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) in the late 1890s. As Japan lacked the industrial capacity to build such warships itself, the ship was built in Britain. She often served as a flagship and participated in most of the naval battles of the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905. The ship was lightly damaged during the Battle off Ulsan and the Battle of Tsushima. Izumo was ordered to protect Japanese citizens and interests in 1913 during the Mexican Revolution and was still there when World War I began in 1914. She was then tasked to search for German commerce raiders and protect Allied shipping off the western coasts of North and Central America. The ship assisted the armored cruiser Asama in early 1915 when she struck a rock off Baja California. In 1917, Izumo became the flagship of the Japanese squadron deployed in the Mediterranean Sea. After the war, she sailed to Great Britain to take control of some ex-German submarines and then escorted them part of the way back to Japan. The ship spent most of the 1920s as a training ship for naval cadets and became flagship of the IJN's China forces in 1932 during the First Shanghai Incident. Izumo participated in the Battle of Shanghai five years later and was not damaged, despite repeated aerial attacks. The ship played a minor role in the Pacific War, supporting Japanese forces during Philippines Campaign until she struck a mine. She returned to Japan in 1943 and again became a training ship for naval cadets. Izumo was sunk by American carrier aircraft during the attack on Kure in July 1945. Her wreck was refloated and scrapped in 1947. ## Background and description The 1896 Naval Expansion Plan was made after the First Sino-Japanese War and included four armored cruisers in addition to four more battleships, all of which had to be ordered from British shipyards as Japan lacked the capability to build them itself. Further consideration of the Russian building program caused the IJN to believe that the battleships ordered under the original plan would not be sufficient to counter the Imperial Russian Navy. Budgetary limitations prevented ordering more battleships and the IJN decided to expand the number of more affordable armored cruisers to be ordered from four to six ships. The revised plan is commonly known as the "Six-Six Fleet". Unlike most of their contemporaries which were designed for commerce raiding or to defend colonies and trade routes, Izumo and her half-sisters were intended as fleet scouts and to be employed in the battleline. The ship was 132.28 meters (434 ft) long overall and 121.92 meters (400 ft) between perpendiculars. She had a beam of 20.94 meters (68 ft 8 in) and had an average draft of 7.26 meters (23 ft 10 in). Izumo displaced 9,503 metric tons (9,353 long tons) at normal load and 10,305 metric tons (10,142 long tons) at deep load. The ship had a metacentric height of 0.88 meters (2 ft 11 in). Her crew consisted of 672 officers and enlisted men. Izumo had two 4-cylinder triple-expansion steam engines, each driving a single propeller shaft. Steam for the engines was provided by 24 Belleville boilers and the engines were rated at a total of 14,500 indicated horsepower (10,800 kW). The ship had a designed speed of 20.75 knots (38.43 km/h; 23.88 mph) and reached 21.74 knots (40.26 km/h; 25.02 mph) during her sea trials from 16,078 ihp (11,989 kW). She carried up to 1,527 long tons (1,551 t) of coal and could steam for 7,000 nautical miles (13,000 km; 8,100 mi) at a speed of 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph). The main armament for all of the "Six-Six Fleet" armored cruisers was four eight-inch guns in twin-gun turrets fore and aft of the superstructure. The secondary armament consisted of 14 Elswick Ordnance Company "Pattern Z" quick-firing (QF), 6-inch (152 mm) guns. Only four of these guns were not mounted in armored casemates on the main and upper decks and their mounts on the upper deck were protected by gun shields. Izumo was also equipped with a dozen QF 12-pounder 12-cwt guns and eight QF 2.5-pounder Yamauchi guns as close-range defense against torpedo boats. The ship was equipped with four submerged 457 mm (18 in) torpedo tubes, two on each broadside. All of the "Six-Six Fleet" armored cruisers used the same armor scheme with some minor differences. The waterline belt of Krupp cemented armor ran the full length of the ship and its thickness varied from 178 millimeters (7 in) amidships to 89 millimeters (3.5 in) at the bow and stern. It had a height of 2.13 meters (7 ft), of which 1.39 meters (4 ft 7 in) was normally underwater. The upper strake of belt armor was 127 millimeters (5 in) thick and extended from the upper edge of the waterline belt to the main deck. It extended 51.18 meters (167 ft 11 in) from the forward to the rear barbette. The Izumo class had oblique 127 mm armored bulkheads that closed off the ends of the central armored citadel. The barbettes, gun turrets and the front of the casemates were all 6 inches thick while the sides and rear of the casemates were protected by 51 millimeters (2 in) of armor. The deck was 63 millimeters (2.5 in) thick and the armor protecting the conning tower was 356 millimeters (14 in) in thickness. ## Construction and career The contract for Izumo, named after the eponymous province, was signed on 24 September 1897 with Armstrong Whitworth. The ship was laid down at their shipyard in Elswick on 14 May 1899 and launched on 19 September. She was completed on 25 September 1900 and departed for Japan on 2 October under the command of Captain Inoue Toshio, who had been appointed to supervise her construction and bring her back to Japan on 29 September 1899. Izumo arrived in Yokosuka on 8 December and Inoue was confirmed in his command. ### Russo-Japanese War At the start of the Russo-Japanese War, Izumo, now under the command of Captain Miyaoka Naoki, was the flagship of Vice Admiral Kamimura Hikonojō, commander of the 2nd Fleet. She participated in the Battle of Port Arthur on 9 February 1904, when Vice Admiral Tōgō Heihachirō led the Combined Fleet in an attack on the Russian ships of the Pacific Squadron anchored just outside Port Arthur. Tōgō had expected the surprise night attack by his destroyers to be much more successful than it was, anticipating that the Russians would be badly disorganized and weakened, but they had recovered from their surprise and were ready for his attack. The Japanese ships were spotted by the protected cruiser Boyarin, which was patrolling offshore and alerted the Russians. Tōgō chose to attack the Russian coastal defenses with his main armament and engage the ships with his secondary guns. Splitting his fire proved to be a poor decision as the Japanese eight- and six-inch guns inflicted little damage on the Russian ships, which concentrated all their fire on the Japanese ships with some effect. Although many ships on both sides were hit, Russian casualties numbered some 150, while the Japanese suffered roughly 90 killed and wounded before Tōgō disengaged. In early March, Kamimura was tasked to take the reinforced 2nd Division north and make a diversion off Vladivostok. While scouting for Russian ships in the area, the Japanese cruisers bombarded the harbor and defenses of Vladivostok on 6 March to little effect. Upon their return to Japan a few days later, the 2nd Division was ordered to escort the transports ferrying the Imperial Guards Division to Korea and then to join the ships blockading Port Arthur. Kamimura was ordered north in mid-April to cover the Sea of Japan and defend the Korea Strait against any attempt by the Vladivostok Independent Cruiser Squadron, under the command of Rear Admiral Karl Jessen, to break through and unite with the Pacific Squadron. The two units narrowly missed each other on the 24th in heavy fog and the Japanese proceeded to Vladivostok where they laid several minefields before arriving back at Wonsan on the 30th. The division failed to intercept the Russian squadron as it attacked several transports south of Okinoshima Island on 15 June due to heavy rain and fog. The Russians sortied again on 30 June and Kamimura finally was able to intercept them the next day near Okinoshima. The light was failing when they were spotted and the Russians were able to disengage in the darkness. Jessen's ships sortied again on 17 July headed for the eastern coast of Japan to act as a diversion and pull Japanese forces out of the Sea of Japan and the Yellow Sea. The Russian ships passed through Tsugaru Strait two days later and began capturing ships bound for Japan. The arrival of the Russians off Tokyo Bay on the 24th caused the Naval General Staff to order Kamimura to sail for Cape Toi Misaki, Kyūshū, fearing that Jessen would circumnavigate Japan to reach Port Arthur. Two days later he was ordered north to the Kii Channel and then to Tokyo Bay on the 28th. The General Staff finally ordered him back to Tsushima Island on the 30th; later that day he received word that Jessen's ships had passed through the Tsugaru Strait early that morning and reached Vladivostok on 1 August. #### Battle off Ulsan On 10 August, the ships at Port Arthur attempted a breakout to Vladivostok, but were turned back in the Battle of the Yellow Sea. Jessen was ordered to rendezvous with them, but the order was delayed. His three armored cruisers, Rossia, Gromoboi, and Rurik, had to raise steam, so he did not sortie until the evening of 13 August. By dawn he had reached Tsushima, but turned back when he failed to see any ships from the Port Arthur squadron. 36 miles (58 km) north of the island he encountered Kamimura's squadron, which consisted of four modern armored cruisers, Iwate, Tokiwa, Azuma, and Izumo. The two squadrons had passed during the night without spotting one another and each had reversed course around first light. This put the Japanese ships astride the Russian route to Vladivostok. Jessen ordered his ships to turn to the northeast when he spotted the Japanese at 05:00 and they followed suit, albeit on a slightly converging course. Both sides opened fire around 05:23 at a range of 8,500 meters (9,300 yd). The Japanese ships concentrated their fire on Rurik, the rear ship of the Russian formation. She was hit fairly quickly and began to fall astern of the other two ships. Jessen turned southeast in an attempt to open the range, but this blinded the Russian gunners with the rising sun and prevented any of their broadside guns from bearing on the Japanese. About 06:00, Jessen turned 180° to starboard in an attempt to reach the Korean coast and to allow Rurik to rejoin the squadron. Kamimura followed suit around 06:10, but turned to port, which opened the range between the squadrons. Azuma then developed engine problems and the Japanese squadron slowed to conform with her best speed. Firing recommenced at 06:24 and Rurik was hit three times in the stern, flooding her steering compartment; she had to be steered with her engines. Her speed continued to decrease, further exposing her to Japanese fire, and her steering jammed to port around 06:40. Jessen made another 180° turn in an attempt to interpose his two ships between the Japanese and Rurik, but the latter ship suddenly turn to starboard and increased speed and passed between Jessen's ships and the Japanese. Kamimura turned 180° as well so that both squadrons were heading southeast on parallel courses, but Jessen quickly made another 180° turn so that they headed on opposing courses. The Russians reversed course for the third time around 07:45 in another attempt to support Rurik although Rossia was on fire herself; her fires were extinguished about twenty minutes later. Kamimura circled Rurik to the south at 08:00 and allowed the other two Russian ships to get to his north and gave them an uncontested route to Vladivostok. Despite this, Jessen turned back once more at 08:15 and ordered Rurik to make her own way back to Vladivostok before turning north at his maximum speed, about 18 knots (33 km/h; 21 mph). About this time Kamimura's two elderly protected cruisers, Naniwa and Takachiho, were approaching from the south. Their arrival allowed Kamimura to pursue Jessen with all of his armored cruisers while the two new arrivals dealt with Rurik. They fought a running battle with the Russians for the next hour and a half; scoring enough hits on them to force their speed down to 15 knots (28 km/h; 17 mph). The Japanese closed to a minimum of about 5,000 meters (5,500 yd), but Kamimura then opened the range up to 6,500 meters (7,100 yd). About 10:00, Kamimura's gunnery officer erroneously informed him that Izumo had expended three-quarters of her ammunition and he turned back after a five-minute rapid-fire barrage. He did not wish to leave the Tsushima Strait unguarded and thought that he could use his remaining ammunition on Rurik. By this time she had been sunk by Naniwa and Takachiho. They had radioed Kamimura that she was sunk, but he did not receive the message. Shortly after the Japanese turned back, Gromoboi and Rossia were forced to heave-to to make repairs. None of the Japanese ships were seriously damaged; despite Izumo receiving over 20 hits, she only suffered 3 men killed and 16 wounded during the battle. She began repairs at Sasebo Naval Arsenal in mid-September. On 26 January 1905, Kamimura hoisted his flag again in Izumo at Sasebo and then escorted several troop convoys to Wonsan on February. On 13 April, the 2nd Division, including the armored cruisers Tokiwa and Kasuga, sailed to escort minelayers as they laid 715 mines off Vladivostok. #### Battle of Tsushima As the Russian 2nd and 3rd Pacific Squadrons approached Japan on 27 May, having sailed from the Baltic Sea, they were spotted by patrolling Japanese ships early that morning, but visibility was limited and radio reception poor. The preliminary reports were enough to cause Tōgō to order his ships to put to sea and the 2nd Division spotted the Russian ships under the command of Vice Admiral Zinovy Rozhestvensky at around 11:30. Kamimura closed to about a range of 8,000 meters (8,700 yd) before sheering off under fire to join Tōgō's battleships. Izumo was leading the 2nd Division when Tōgō opened fire on the 2nd Pacific Squadron at 14:10 and, like most of the ships in the division, engaged the battleship Oslyabya which was forced to fall out of formation at 14:50 and sank 20 minutes later. By this time the Russian formation was in disorder and Knyaz Suvorov suddenly appeared out of the mist at 15:35 at a range of about 2,000 meters (6,600 ft). All of Kamimura's ships engaged her for five minutes or so with Azuma and the armored cruiser Yakumo also firing torpedoes at the Russian ship without effect. After 17:30 Kamimura led his division in a fruitless pursuit of some of the Russian cruisers, leaving Tōgō's battleships to their own devices. He abandoned his chase around 18:03 and turned northwards to rejoin Tōgō. His ships spotted the rear of the Russian battleline around 18:30 and opened fire when the range closed to 8,000–9,000 meters (8,700–9,800 yd). Nothing is known of any effect on the Russians and they ceased fire by 19:30 and rejoined Tōgō at 20:08 as night was falling. The surviving Russian ships were spotted the next morning and the Japanese ships opened fire around 10:30, staying beyond the range at which the Russian ships could effectively reply. Rear Admiral Nikolai Nebogatov therefore decided to surrender his ships as he could neither return fire nor close the range. Over the course of the battle, Izumo was struck by five large shells, mostly 12-inch, and three smaller shells, mostly 6-inch. They caused only minor damage, although one 12-inch shell, which pierced a boiler uptake, could have disabled all of the middle boilers had it detonated. The shells killed 4 men and wounded 26 others. As the IJN was preparing to invade Sakhalin Island in early July, Kamimura's 2nd Division, now reduced to Iwate, Izumo, and Tokiwa, was tasked to defend the Korea Strait before it escorted troops that made an amphibious landing in northeastern Korea. In mid-August, the division covered the landing at Chongjin, closer to the Russian border. On 20 September 1909, under command of Captain Takeshita Isamu, Izumo departed Yokohama for the United States to participate in the Portola Festival at San Francisco, a citywide fair held on 19–23 October to mark the 140th anniversary of the Portolà expedition, the first recorded Spanish (and European) land entry and exploration of present-day California, and to proclaim to the world that San Francisco was recovered from its devastating 1906 earthquake. Lieutenant Prince Shimazu Tadashige was assigned to the ship during this visit. Lieutenant Allen B. Reed, engineering officer on the USS Albany (CL-23) and the future commissioning captain of the heavy cruiser USS New Orleans (CA-32) was assigned as Captain Takeshita's escort during the ship's visit at San Francisco. Izumo made port calls in Hawaii, Monterrey, Santa Barbara, and San Diego en route. On 12 November 1913, Izumo was ordered to patrol the west coast of Mexico to safeguard Japanese interests and nationals during the Mexican Revolution. ### World War I When Japan declared war on the Central Powers in August 1914, Izumo was still off the Mexican coast and was ordered to protect Allied shipping there and search for German commerce raiders. On 1 November, the ship, then off San Francisco, was ordered to join a British task force commanded by Admiral Sir George Patey off San Clemente Island that included the battlecruiser and the light cruiser Newcastle. After the German gunboat SMS Geier was interned by the Americans on 8 November, the ex-Russian battleship Hizen and Asama, which had been patrolling off Honolulu, Hawaii, to prevent the German ship from leaving, rendezvoused with the other ships of the American Expeditionary Squadron at Magdalena Bay, Baja California on 22 November. The squadron, now commanded by Rear Admiral Moriyama Keizaburo in Izumo, then headed south to search along the western coast of South America for German ships. On 11 December, after the receiving the news of the British victory in the Battle of the Falkland Islands, the squadron moved north to search off the western coast of Central America and then Mexican and U.S. waters in January. During a patrol off the coast of Oregon, the Izumo picked up an SOS from the steam schooner Francis H. Leggett, but did not provide aid due to the presence of a German cruiser nearby. The Leggett later sank, with only 2 survivors out of 62 on board. While searching Baja California, Asama was badly damaged when she struck an uncharted rock on 31 January. Izumo, delayed by poor communications, arrived on 12 February and Moriyama radioed for repair and salvage ships to be sent from Japan. Izumo was relieved by Tokiwa on 19 March and the ship returned home. Izumo relieved the protected cruiser Akashi in June 1917 at Malta as the flagship of Rear Admiral Kōzō Satō, commander of the Second Special Mission Squadron that controlled the Japanese destroyers that escorted convoys in the Mediterranean Sea. In December 1918, Izumo, accompanied by the destroyers Hinoki and Yanagi, sailed from Malta to Scapa Flow to assume control of seven captured German U-boats as prizes of war. They returned to Malta with the U-boats in March 1919 and the armored cruiser Nisshin accompanied eight destroyers and the U-boats to Japan, while Izumo made port calls at Naples, Genoa and Marseilles before arriving in Japan with the remaining destroyers on 2 July 1919. ### Interwar years Izumo participated in the 1919 Naval Review by Emperor Taishō. She was re-designated a 1st class coast-defense ship on 1 September 1921 and used primarily for training duties in long-distance oceanic navigation and officer training for cadets in the Imperial Japanese Navy Academy. In this capacity, she participated six voyages in the 1920s and 1930s to Europe, North and South America, and Oceania, including a circumnavigation of the globe from August 1921 to April 1922 with Yakumo. Two of the naval cadets that participated in this cruise were Princes Kuni Asaakira and Kachō Hirotada. While in Vancouver, British Columbia, on 7 February 1925, on one of these cruises, a tugboat collided with one of the ship's boats at night, drowning 11 crewmen. In 1924, four of Izumo's 12-pounder guns were removed, as were all of her QF 2.5-pounder guns, and a single 8 cm/40 3rd Year Type anti-aircraft (AA) gun was added. Refitted again in 1930–31, her torpedo tubes were removed as were all of her main deck 6-inch guns and their casemates plated over; she now carried only four 12-pounders. In 1935 her boilers were replaced by six Kampon water-tube boilers with an output of only 7,000 ihp (5,200 kW) which reduced her top speed to 16 knots (30 km/h; 18 mph). She now carried 1,428 metric tons (1,405 long tons) of coal and 329 metric tons (324 long tons) of fuel oil which increased her deep displacement to 10,864 metric tons (10,692 long tons). ### China service and World War II On 2 February 1932, during the First Shanghai Incident, Izumo became the flagship of the newly re-established 3rd Fleet under Admiral Kichisaburō Nomura and arrived in Shanghai six days later. In 1934, Izumo was equipped to operate a floatplane at the Sasebo Naval Arsenal. Shortly after the beginning of the Second Sino-Japanese War in July 1937, Izumo was attacked on 14 August 1937 in a series of raids by Chinese Air Force aircraft during the Battle of Shanghai. Most of the bombs landed in the river without effect, but two bombs landed among spectators, killing hundreds. Izumo's Nakajima E4N floatplane and another from the light cruiser Sendai managed to get into the air and they claimed to have shot down one Curtiss Hawk biplane fighter and a Northrop Gamma bomber. Two days later, her E4N claimed to have shot down another Hawk. Izumo was attacked that same day by a Chinese torpedo boat, but the torpedoes missed and the boat was abandoned by its crew. The ship provided naval gunfire support to Japanese troops ashore during the battle. Izumo was repeatedly attacked without effect by Chinese aircraft for the duration of the Battle of Shanghai. Still in Shanghai at the beginning of the Pacific War on 8 December 1941, Izumo captured the American river gunboat USS Wake and assisted in sinking the British river gunboat HMS Peterel. On 31 December, the cruiser struck a mine in Lingayen Gulf while supporting Japanese forces during the Philippines Campaign. She was towed to Hong Kong in February 1942 for repairs. Izumo was re-classified as a 1st-class cruiser on 1 July. She returned to Japan in late 1943 and was reclassified as a training ship for the Kure Naval District. On 19 March 1945, Izumo was attacked by American carrier aircraft off Etajima, although they failed to inflict any damage. Shortly afterwards, her 8-inch guns were replaced by four 12.7 cm (5.0 in) Type 89 dual-purpose guns in two twin mounts and four of her remaining 6-inch guns were removed. Her light anti-aircraft armament was significantly reinforced by the addition of 14 license-built Hotchkiss 25-millimeter Type 96 light AA guns in two triple, two twin, and four single-gun mounts and two 13.2-millimeter Hotchkiss machine guns in single mounts. The ship was damaged by an American mine on 9 April off Hiroshima. Izumo was not attacked on the first day of the American aerial attack on Kure on 24 July 1945, but she was near missed three times four days later. The shockwave from the detonations sprang the ship's seams and the resulting flooding caused her to capsize at coordinates . She was removed from the navy list on 20 November and her hulk was raised and scrapped in 1947 by the Harima Dock Company.
36,289,100	Numb (Usher song)	1,138,184,367	null	[ "2012 singles", "2012 songs", "Dance-pop songs", "Music videos directed by Chris Applebaum", "Song recordings produced by Alesso", "Song recordings produced by Steve Angello", "Songs written by Alesso", "Songs written by Axwell", "Songs written by Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis", "Songs written by Klas Åhlund", "Songs written by Usher (musician)", "Synth-pop ballads", "Usher (musician) songs" ]	"Numb" is a song recorded by American singer Usher for his seventh studio album Looking 4 Myself (2012). Usher co-wrote it with Ryon Lovett and Terry Lewis, with production and additional writing provided by Swedish House Mafia, Alesso, and Klas Åhlund. After their joint performance at the 2010 American Music Awards, Usher and Swedish House Mafia managed to start working on recording sessions for Usher's seventh studio album in Atlanta. RCA Records solicited "Numb" to contemporary hit radio stations on August 21, 2012 in the US as fourth single from the album. "Numb" is a dance-pop and electropop song with house elements which contains revolutionary pop music influences. Lyrically, it is "an inspirational song about finding one’s destiny, and becoming numb to the negativity and just following your dreams". The song received generally positive acclaim from contemporary music critics with many of them praising its club-oriented production. "Numb" was a moderate worldwide success and reached the top-forty in five countries including Belgium, Germany and Australia. American directors Chris Applebaum and Grace Harry shot the music video for "Numb"; it premiered October 11, 2012 on Usher's Vevo channel. It represents footage of Usher's life in the near past and features several dramatic scenes of him including taking care of his sons, standing towards a microphone unable to perform and lying together with a sick woman in a hospital. Critics were divided on the video; although some of them praised the choreography, others criticized Usher's emotions. The singer performed the song during his American Express show on June 11, 2012 in London and at the 2012 American Music Awards. ## Production and release Usher co-wrote "Numb" with Ryon Lovett and Terry Lewis, with production, complete instrumentation, and additional writing provided by EDM group Swedish House Mafia with Alesso and Klas Åhlund. Swedish House Mafia also produced one more song from Looking 4 Myself entitled "Euphoria". Speaking to The BoomBox, Usher explained that he had wanted to work with Swedish House Mafia ever since he performed with the group at the 2010 American Music Awards. The group agreed to work with Usher, saying they would attempt to make it to Atlanta to start "moving the ball forward". In an interview with MTV News, regarding the collaboration with Usher, Angello stated that they met Usher couple years ago and did the American Music Awards together before recruiting in Ibiza. He further elaborated that they were in Atlanta for five days working on a music for the then upcoming album. Angello commented that Usher is a great artist and as a trio they like to work with somebody who they respect, than to rather work with "just big name". Mark "Exit" Goodchild recorded the song Silent Sound Studios in Atlanta and Glenwood Place Studios in Burbank, while Jorge Velasco, Kory Aaron and Randy Warnken served as recording assistants. It was mixed by Manny Marroquin at Larrabee Sound Studio, Universal City, with Chris Galland and Delbert Bowers serving as mixing assistants and Natural providing vocal production of "Numb". RCA Records released "Numb" to contemporary hit radio stations in the United States on August 21, 2012 as the fourth single from Looking 4 Myself. "Numb" was solicited to US rhythmic radio on August 28, 2012. It was also physically released as a CD single in Germany on October 26, 2012. Although it failed to reach the top 40, it appeared as the 13th track on Now That's What I Call Music! 44. ## Composition "Numb" is a dance-pop and electropop song with R&B elements and contains revolutionary pop influences; it has a length of 3 minutes and 46 seconds. According to Lewis Corner of Digital Spy both "Euphoria" and "Numb" "include the DJs' glimmering synths while he [Usher] croons in his coolly-controlled falsetto." Jim Farber of The New York Daily News wrote that the songs which were produced by Swedish House Mafia propose a possible crossover point from electronica to R&B like Usher’s biggest hit "Yeah!" did from crunk to soul. Lyrically, it is "an inspirational song about finding one’s destiny, and becoming numb to the negativity and just following your dreams". "Numb"'s lyrical message was described by Erika Ramirez of Billboard to simply be "Forget your troubles and fist-pump!". The single opens with the lines, "They say life is a battlefield / I say bring it on" and its chorus consists of "Just go numb / You never know until you let go". Ryan Hadfield of Consequence of Sound explained that Usher inadvertently describes the logic behind the musical ambition of Looking 4 Myself in "Numb", when he sings "Keep on doing the same old thing/Are you expecting change/Is that really insanity/Or just a loser’s game". ## Reception ### Critical DeeKay of SoulCulture commented that "even with the straightforward, hugely predictable electro-pop on the Swedish House Mafia-produced 'Numb' and 'Euphoria', Usher is operating at a level above his David Guetta and RedOne-loving peers." Meelz of ThisGoesIn concluded that "Numb" is a single quality track, "which we can see seeping through the radio in the latter half of 2012 – with the mantra of letting your problems go and dance." The Lantern'''s Alex Antonetz wrote that both "Numb" and "Euphoria" are future Charlie Bear fare. Trent Fitzgerald of PopCrush commented that the song is perfect for the clubs. Ryan Hadfield of Consequence of Sound labeled "Numb" together with "Can't Stop Won't Stop" and "Sins of My Father" as essential tracks on Looking 4 Myself. Andrew Unterberger of Popdust wrote that the single's production is appropriate for an Usher and Swedish House Mafia collaboration, though criticised its lack of originality. Despite this, Unterberger commended the song, writing "it does have the mind-numbing, body-activating effect the song is so explicitly searching for" and even though you can call it "an EDM cash-in [...] Usher was embracing club music way before most of his American pop star peers hopped on the bandwagon". ### Commercial Upon the release of Looking 4 Myself, due to digital downloads, "Numb" entered the singles chart in South Korea. It debuted on the South Korea Gaon International Chart at number 40 on June 10, 2012, with sales of 7,195 digital copies. In Australia, the song debuted and peaked at number 39 on November 4, 2012. "Numb" debuted at number 62 in Austria on November 2, 2012. After three weeks on the chart, it reached its peak of 18. The song was more successful in Belgium where reached a peak of two and 13 on Flanders Tip and Wallonia Tip chart respectively. On the week of September 17, 2012, the song debuted at number 31 on the US Pop Songs chart. It peaked at number 21 on the chart for the issue dated November 2, 2012. "Numb" debuted at number 97 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart for the issue dated October 6, 2012. It eventually peaked at number 69 on the chart for the issue dated November 3, 2012. The single reached a peak of 41 on the Canadian Hot 100. ## Music video An accompanying music video for "Numb" was shot by directors Chris Applebaum and Grace Harry, and edited by Jacquelyn London; all three reprised their roles for the video as they had previously worked together on Usher's video for "Dive" (2012). On October 9, 2012, a sneak peek of the video was posted on the singer's official Vevo channel on YouTube. Subsequently, via his official Twitter account, he tweeted: "Sometimes we take for granted moments that allow us to make it thru, ability to just wakeup every morning&take a breath", together with the link from the sneak peek. The sneak peek features Usher dancing in a glass box as different personal scenes including shots of his sons and footage from various concerts are projected towards the background. The full music video premiered on his Vevo channel October 11, 2012. The video begins with a footage of Usher walking offstage during a show part of his OMG Tour (2010—11), held at the O2 Arena, Berlin in January 2011. Subsequently, announcer explains, "He tried because he loves Berlin and he really wanted to give you guys a show, but he just couldn’t do it. Thanks for understanding." Usher then speaks with a remorse, "I felt like a failure, hopeless, paralyzed, numb." As the song starts Usher is seen chanting the lyrics while several sequence shots of him with his son and a sick woman in hospital are shown. The scenes are intercuted by Usher performing in a room full with bright white lights. Several other short scenes of Usher taking care of the sick woman, his son having a meal and Usher throwing money at strippers are shown. Several natural environments are projected onto a wall the singer stands in front off. As the song progresses, he enters in a glass box and starts dancing during the chorus. Scenes of Usher having toast with his friends, smoking a cigar and watching strippers performing lap-dance for him are shown. The singer is shown holding man's hand while he dies in a hospital. Then, he is seen unable to perform and cries in front of the microphone. The video ends with Usher managing to break the glass box. Zara Golden of VH1 regarding the video commented that, although Usher had a lot of troubles in his life "he gives the kid a hug, enjoys a dance at the strip club (why not?) and sings out all the rest in a recording booth." Billboard's David Greenwald praised the choreography and noted that Usher shows no signs of sickness as he performs the compound choreography, "which ends with a forceful escape". Sam Lansky of Idolator was divided on the video and wrote that the singer "could have dug a little deeper to tap into some of that very real personal pain to bring something more emotionally charged to this video; as it stands, it’s a little too polished to feel anything but contrived." ## Live performances Usher performed "Numb" for first time in a medley with "Euphoria" during his American Express Unstaged show on June 11, 2012 at London's HMV Hammersmith Apollo. The show was directed by British director Hamish Hamilton. The singer performed the song at the 2012 American Music Awards in a medley with "Climax" and "Can't Stop Won't Stop". ## Track listing \; CD single 1. "Numb" (Album version) 2. "Numb" (Wideboys radio mix) \; Numb (UK Remixes) 1. "Numb" (Wideboys club mix) – 6:08 2. "Numb" (Wideboys dub) – 5:53 3. "Numb" (Wideboys radio mix) – 4:00 4. "Numb" (Jakwob remix) – 4:15 5. "Numb" (Mike Delinquent dub) – 4:23 6. "Numb" (Mike Delinquent remix) – 5:34 ## Credits and personnel Recording and mixing - Recorded at Silent Sound Studios, Atlanta, Georgia; Glenwood Place Studios, Burbank, California; mixed at Larrabee Sound Studio, Universal City, California Personnel - Songwriting – Alessandro Lindblad, Axel Hedfors, Klas Åhlund, Ryon Lovett, Sebastian Ingrosso, Steve Angello, Terry Lewis, Usher Raymond IV - Production – Lindblad, Åhlund, Axwell, Ingrosso, Angello - Vocal production – Natural - Mixing – Manny Marroquin - Mixing assistants – Chris Galland, Delbert Bowers - Recording – Mark "Exit" Goodchild - Recording assistants – Jorge Velasco, Kory Aaron, Randy Warnken - Instrumentation – Lindblad, Åhlund, Axwell, Ingrosso, Angello Credits adapted from the liner notes of Looking 4 Myself'', RCA Records. ## Charts and certifications ### Weekly ### Year-end ### Certifications ## Release history
49,502,537	Olga Tufnell	1,173,304,363	British archaeologist	[ "1905 births", "1985 deaths", "20th-century British archaeologists", "20th-century British women scientists", "20th-century British women writers", "Archaeologists of the Near East", "British women archaeologists", "British women historians", "Civil Defence Service personnel", "Fellows of the Society of Antiquaries of London", "People from Sudbury, Suffolk", "Tel Lachish" ]	Olga Tufnell FSA (26 January 1905 – 11 April 1985) was a British archaeologist who assisted on the excavation of the ancient city of Lachish in the 1930s. She had no formal training in archaeology, but had worked as a secretary for Flinders Petrie for a number of years before being given a field assignment. Olga then went on to join James Leslie Starkey in the expedition to find Lachish in 1929 and remained part of the team for the following seasons. When Starkey was killed in 1938, the team finished the season then closed the site. Olga volunteered to write up the report of the dig and spent the following twenty years researching and writing up the majority of the excavation report. Olga's work has been regarded as the "pre-eminent source book for Palestinian archeology". Once the report was published, she turned her attention to cataloguing scarabs and other seals. Many of Olga Tufnell's original letters and photographs are housed today at the Palestine Exploration Fund in London. Those published from 1927-1938 provide insights into dig life and archaeology, as well as the wider socio-cultural, political, and gendered context of colonial life within Mandate-era Palestine. ## Early life Olga Tufnell was born on 26 January 1905 in Sudbury, Suffolk to a prominent landholding family. Her father, Beauchamp Le Fevre Tufnell had been a second lieutenant in the 4th Battalion of Essex Regiment, and her mother, Blanche, maintained a broad range of cultural interests, as well as working with the Anglo-Czech Society. Olga was a middle child with two brothers, Joliffe Gilbert Tufnell and Louis de Saumarez Tufnell. She spent her early life in Little Waltham, and was educated at schools in London and Belgium before going to finishing school in Italy. When Olga had completed her time at the finishing school in 1922, she went to help her mother's close friend Hilda Petrie and her husband Sir Flinders Petrie, with an exhibition of their recent finds at University College London, before taking on a secretarial role at the British School of Archaeology in Egypt. She held the position of Hilda Petrie's secretary for five years, though she described it as "dull and repetitive work" in fundraising, but also spent some time drawing and repairing pottery. Olga's work evidently impressed Sir Flinders who, at the end of 1927, offered her an opportunity to assist him in the field in 1928. ## Expeditions Although Sir Flinders himself did not join the expedition in 1929, he sent Olga with a group of other archaeologists to Qau, where they spent two months recording the reliefs from the tombs of the ancient rulers. She and a few colleagues, including Gerald Lankester Harding, then joined the season's primary expedition, which was being led by James Leslie Starkey at the Tell Far'a tomb group in Palestine. During the time she would not only supervise the work of a team, but also ran an evening clinic for the Arab workers and families, as well as other local people. In all, she would help up to forty people per day with minor injuries or upset stomachs. Sir Flinders joined the group in 1930 and after reviewing Olga's work, allowed her to publish it under her own name. In 1931, during the Petrie expedition to Tell el-'Ajjul, Olga discovered a Hyksos tomb which included a horse burial. In 1932, Starkey secured funding from Charles Marston and Henry Wellcome to start an expedition apart from the Petries, which Olga joined. The Wellcome-Marston expedition was to focus on the excavation of the ancient city of Lachish, a stronghold mentioned in the Bible. Over the next six years, the team made some important finds, including the Lachish letters, but the work was interrupted by the murder of Starkey, while he was en route to the opening of the Rockefeller Museum in Jerusalem. The remaining team finished during the 1938/9 season, then closed the site. Olga wrote the final report. ## Return to London The Wellcome Foundation allowed Olga some rooms at St John's Lodge in London's Regent's Park, where the University College London's Institute of Archaeology had recently been established. Her work was almost immediately put on hold due to the outbreak of World War II, as Olga was co-opted to the BBC Arabic radio station due to her association with the Middle East. Around the same time, she also became an air raid warden. At the end of the war, she returned to her work on the report. She controversially published findings that held that the time period between two occupational levels, Level II (preceding Babylonian conquest by Nebuchadnezzar) and Level III (preceding Assyrian conquest by Sennacherib) was likely to be in the range of 100 years, rather than a decade, as Starkey had suggested. Although the majority held that Starkey's interpretation was more likely, in 1973 subsequent excavations vindicated her opinion. In 1951, Olga became a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London. She was proud of this award and called it one of her "greatest achievements". Olga continued to study and to write up the Lachish report for 20 years, with the final publication (Lachish IV) in 1957. Whilst writing the report, she dealt with requests related to the excavation, including distributing the Lachish finds and sending some "unwanted pots" to a school museum. The multi-volume report was described as the "pre-eminent source book for Palestinian archaeology". ## Later life Once the full report had been published, Olga turned her attention to the study of scarabs, working with William Ayres Ward. Although many scholars dismissed the field of scarabs and seals as "unreliable of chronology", Olga meticulously recorded the dimensions and styles of the artefacts. She was an early adopter of the use of computers for measurement of the scarabs and she was due to present a paper on that use of computers just days after her death in April 1985. In 1983, 50 years after the initial excavations, Olga was invited back to the site of Lachish, to see the more modern excavations by University of Tel Aviv. There she was greeted by 200 local archaeologists, who welcomed her enthusiastically.
206,001	Ptolemy XII Auletes	1,172,151,059	King of Egypt, 80–51 BC	[ "1st-century BC Pharaohs", "2nd-century BC Egyptian people", "2nd-century BC births", "51 BC deaths", "Ancient Greek flautists", "Cleopatra", "Hellenistic Cyprus", "Pharaohs of the Ptolemaic dynasty" ]	Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysus (Koinē Greek: Πτολεμαῖος Νέος Διόνυσος, romanized: Ptolemaios Neos Dionysos, lit. 'Ptolemy the new Dionysus' – 51 BC) was a king of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt who ruled from 80 to 58 BC and then again from 55 BC until his death in 51 BC. He was commonly known as Auletes (Αὐλητής, "the Flautist"), referring to his love of playing the flute in Dionysian festivals. A member of the Ptolemaic dynasty, he was a descendant of its founder Ptolemy I Soter, a Macedonian Greek general and companion of Alexander the Great. Ptolemy XII was an illegitimate son of Ptolemy IX by an uncertain mother. In 116 BC, Ptolemy IX became co-regent with his mother, Cleopatra III. However, he was forced into a civil war against his mother and his brother, Ptolemy X, leading to his exile in 107 BC. Cleopatra III sent her grandsons to Kos in 103 BC. They were captured by Mithridates VI of Pontus probably in 88 BC, around the time Ptolemy IX returned to the Egyptian throne. After their father died in 81 BC, Ptolemy XII's half-sister Berenice III took the throne. She was soon murdered by her cousin and co-regent, Ptolemy XI, who was then killed. At this point, Ptolemy XII was recalled from Pontus and proclaimed pharaoh, while his brother, also named Ptolemy, was installed as king of Cyprus. Ptolemy XII married his relative Cleopatra V, who was likely one of his sisters or cousins; they had at least one child together, Berenice IV, and Cleopatra V was likely also the mother of his second daughter, Cleopatra VII. The king's three youngest children – Arsinoe IV, Ptolemy XIII, and Ptolemy XIV – were born to an unknown mother. Ptolemy XII's uncle Ptolemy X had left Egypt to Rome in the event there were no surviving heirs, making Roman annexation of Egypt a possibility. In an effort to prevent this, Ptolemy XII established an alliance with Rome late into his first reign. Rome annexed Cyprus in 58 BC, causing Ptolemy of Cyprus to commit suicide. Shortly afterwards, Ptolemy XII was deposed by the Egyptian people and fled to Rome, and his eldest daughter, Berenice IV, took the throne. With Roman funding and military assistance, Ptolemy XII recaptured Egypt and had Berenice IV killed in 55 BC. He named his daughter Cleopatra VII as his co-regent in 52 BC. He died the next year and was succeeded by Cleopatra VII and her brother Ptolemy XIII as joint rulers. ## Background and early life Ptolemy XII was the oldest son of Ptolemy IX. The identity of his mother is uncertain. Ptolemy IX was married twice, to his sister Cleopatra IV from around 119 BC until he was forced to divorce her in 115 BC, and secondly to another sister, Cleopatra Selene, from 115 BC until he abandoned her during his flight from Alexandria in 107 BC. However, Cicero and other ancient sources refer to Ptolemy XII as an illegitimate son; Pompeius Trogus called him a "nothos" (bastard), while Pausanias wrote that Ptolemy IX had no legitimate sons at all. Some scholars have therefore proposed that his mother was a concubine – if so, probably an Alexandrian Greek. It had been speculated by Werner Huß that Ptolemy's mother was an unknown woman belonging to the Egyptian elite, based upon a speculated earlier marriage between Psenptais II, high priest of Ptah, and a certain "Berenice", once argued to possibly be a daughter of Ptolemy VIII. However, the speculation of this marriage was refuted by Egyptologist Wendy Cheshire. Chris Bennett argues that Ptolemy XII's mother was Cleopatra IV and that he was considered illegitimate simply because she had never been co-regent. This theory is endorsed by the historian Adrian Goldsworthy. The date of Ptolemy XII's birth is thus uncertain. If he was the son of Cleopatra IV, he was probably born around 117 BC and followed around a year later by a brother, known as Ptolemy of Cyprus. In 117 BC, Ptolemy IX was governor of Cyprus, but in 116 BC his father Ptolemy VIII died and he returned to Alexandria, becoming the junior co-regent of his grandmother Cleopatra II and his mother Cleopatra III. Cleopatra II died in 115 BC; shortly afterwards Cleopatra III forced Ptolemy IX to divorce Cleopatra IV, who fled into exile. The former Egyptian queen married the Seleucid king Antiochus IX, but she was murdered by his half-brother and rival Antiochus VIII in 112 BC. Ptolemy IX meanwhile had been remarried to Cleopatra Selene, with whom he had a daughter, Berenice III. By 109 BC, Ptolemy IX had begun the process of introducing Ptolemy XII to public life. In that year, Ptolemy XII served as the Priest of Alexander and Ptolemaic kings (an office which Ptolemy IX otherwise held himself throughout his reign) and had a festival established in his honour in Cyrene. Relations between Ptolemy IX and his mother deteriorated. In 107 BC she forced him to flee Alexandria for Cyprus and replaced him as co-regent with his younger brother, Ptolemy X. Justin mentions that Ptolemy IX left two sons behind when he fled Alexandria. Chris Bennett argues that these sons should be identified as Ptolemy XII and Ptolemy of Cyprus. Ptolemy IX made an attempt to reclaim the Ptolemaic throne in 103 BC by invading Judaea. At the start of this war, Cleopatra III sent her grandsons to the island of Kos along with her treasure in order to protect them. There, Ptolemy XII and Ptolemy of Cyprus seem to have been captured by Mithridates VI of Pontus in 88 BC, at the outbreak of the First Mithridatic War. Ironically, their father had reclaimed the Egyptian throne around the same time. They were held by Mithridates as hostages until 80 BC. At some point during this period, probably in 81 or 80 BC, they were engaged to two of Mithridates' daughters, Mithridatis and Nyssa. Meanwhile, Ptolemy IX died in December 81 BC and was succeeded by Berenice III. In April 80 BC, Ptolemy X's son Ptolemy XI was installed as Berenice III's co-regent. He promptly murdered her and was himself killed by an angry Alexandrian mob. The Alexandrians then summoned Ptolemy XII to Egypt to assume the kingship; his brother, also named Ptolemy, became king of Cyprus, where he would reign until 58 BC. ## First reign (80–58 BC) On his arrival in Alexandria, in April 80 BC, Ptolemy XII was proclaimed king. His reign was officially dated as having begun on the death of his father in 81 BC, thereby eliding the reigns of Berenice III and Ptolemy XI. Shortly after his accession, Ptolemy XII married one of his relatives, Cleopatra V. Her parentage is uncertain – modern scholarship often interprets her as a sister, but Christopher Bennett argues that she was a daughter of Ptolemy X. The couple became co-regents and they were incorporated into the Ptolemaic dynastic cult together as the Theoi Philopatores kai Philadelphoi (Father-loving and Sibling-loving Gods). This title was probably meant to reinforce Ptolemy XII's claim to the throne in the face of claims that his parentage meant that he was an illegitimate son of Ptolemy IX and therefore not entitled to rule. In 76 BC, the High Priest of Ptah in Memphis died and Ptolemy XII travelled to Memphis to appoint his fourteen-year-old son, Pasherienptah III, as the new High Priest. In turn, Pasherienptah III crowned Ptolemy as Pharaoh and then went to Alexandria, where he was appointed as Ptolemy XII's 'prophet'. These encounters are described in detail on Pasherienptah's funerary stela, Stele BM 866, and they demonstrate the extremely close and mutually reinforcing relationship that had developed between the Ptolemaic kings and the Memphite priesthood by this date. In August 69 BC, Cleopatra V ceases to be mentioned as co-regent. The images of her that had been carved on the main pylon of the Temple of Horus at Edfu were covered over at this time. The reason for this sudden shift is unknown, but presumably she was divorced at this time. Ptolemy adopted a new royal epithet Neos Dionysos (New Dionysus) at some time after this; Chris Bennett proposes that the epithet was linked to the break with Cleopatra. ### Relations with Rome When Ptolemy X had died in 88 BC, his will had left Egypt to Rome in the event that he had no surviving heirs. Although the Romans had not acted on this, the possibility that they might forced the following Ptolemies to adopt a careful and respectful policy towards Rome. Ptolemy XII continued this pro-Roman policy in order to protect himself and secure his dynasty's fate. Egypt came under increasing Roman pressure nevertheless. In 65 BC, the Roman censor, Marcus Licinius Crassus proposed that Rome annex Egypt. This proposal failed in the face of opposition from Quintus Lutatius Catulus and Cicero. In light of this crisis, however, Ptolemy XII began to expend significant resources on bribing Roman politicians to support his interests. In 63 BC, when Pompey was reorganising Syria and Anatolia following his victory in the Third Mithridatic War, Ptolemy sought to form a relationship with Pompey by sending him a golden crown. Ptolemy also provided pay and maintenance for 8,000 cavalry to Pompey for his war with Judaea. He also asked Pompey to come to Alexandria and help to put down a revolt which had apparently broken out in Egypt; Pompey refused. The money required for these bribes was enormous. Initially, Ptolemy XII funded them by raising taxes. A strike by farmers of royal land in Herakleopolis which is attested in a papyrus document from 61/60 BC has been interpreted as a sign of widespread discontent with this taxation. Increasingly, Ptolemy XII also had recourse to loans from Roman bankers, such as Gaius Rabirius Postumus. This gave the Romans even more leverage over his regime and meant that the fate of Egypt became an increasingly immediate issue in Roman politics. Finally, in 60 BC, Ptolemy XII travelled to Rome, where the First Triumvirate, composed of Pompey, Crassus, and Julius Caesar, had just taken power, in order to negotiate official recognition of his kingship. Ptolemy paid Pompey and Caesar six thousand talents – an enormous sum, equivalent to the total annual revenue of Egypt. In return, a formal alliance or foedus was formed. The Roman Senate recognised Ptolemy as king and Caesar passed a law that added Ptolemy to the list of friends and allies of the people of Rome (amici et socii populi Romani) in 59 BC. In 58 BC, the Romans took control of Cyprus, causing its ruler, Ptolemy XII's brother, to commit suicide. Ptolemy XII took no action in response to his brother's death and Cyprus remained a Roman province until returned to Ptolemaic control by Julius Caesar in 48 BC. ## Exile in Rome (58–55 BC) The bribery policy had been unpopular in Egypt for a long time, both because of its obsequiousness and because of the heavy tax burden that it entailed, but the annexation of Cyprus demonstrated its failure and enraged the people of Alexandria. The courtiers in Alexandria forced Ptolemy to step down from the throne and leave Egypt. He was replaced by his daughter Berenice IV, who ruled jointly with Cleopatra Tryphaena (known to modern historians as Cleopatra VI), who was probably Ptolemy XII's former wife but may be an otherwise unattested daughter. Following Cleopatra Tryphaena's death a year later, Berenice ruled alone from 57 to 56 BC. Probably taking his daughter Cleopatra VII with him, Ptolemy fled for the safety of Rome. On the way, he stopped in Rhodes where the exiled Cato the Younger offered him advice on how to approach the Roman aristocracy, but no tangible support. In Rome, Ptolemy XII prosecuted his restitution but met opposition from certain members of the Senate. His old ally Pompey housed the exiled king and his daughter and argued on behalf of Ptolemy's restoration in the Senate. During this time, Roman creditors realized that they would not get the return on their loans to the king without his restoration. In 57 BC, pressure from the Roman public forced the Senate's decision to restore Ptolemy. However, Rome did not wish to invade Egypt to restore the king, since the Sibylline books stated that if an Egyptian king asked for help and Rome proceeded with military intervention, great dangers and difficulties would occur. Egyptians heard rumours of Rome's possible intervention and disliked the idea of their exiled king's return. The Roman historian Cassius Dio wrote that a group of one hundred men were sent as envoys from Egypt to make their case to the Romans against Ptolemy XII's restoration. Ptolemy seemingly had their leader Dio of Alexandria poisoned and most of the other protesters killed before they reached Rome. ## Restoration and second reign (55–51 BC) In 55 BC, Ptolemy paid Aulus Gabinius 10,000 talents to invade Egypt and so recovered his throne. Gabinius defeated the Egyptian frontier forces, marched to Alexandria, and attacked the palace, where the palace guards surrendered without fighting. The exact date of Ptolemy XII's restoration is unknown; the earliest possible date of restoration was 4 January 55 BC and the latest possible date was 24 June the same year. Upon regaining power, Ptolemy acted against Berenice, and along with her supporters, she was executed. Ptolemy XII maintained his grip on power in Alexandria with the assistance of around two thousand Roman soldiers and mercenaries, known as the Gabiniani. This arrangement enabled Rome to exert power over Ptolemy, who ruled until he fell ill in 51 BC. On 31 May 52 BC his daughter Cleopatra VII was named as his coregent. At the moment of Ptolemy XII's restoration, Roman creditors demanded the repayment of their loans, but the Alexandrian treasury could not repay the king's debt. Learning from previous mistakes, Ptolemy XII shifted popular resentment of tax increases from himself to a Roman, his main creditor Gaius Rabirius Postumus, whom he appointed dioiketes (minister of finance), and so in charge of debt repayment. Perhaps Gabinius had also put pressure on Ptolemy XII to appoint Rabirius, who now had direct access to the financial resources of Egypt but exploited the land too much. The king had to imprison Rabirius to protect his life from the angry people, then allowed him to escape. Rabirius immediately left Egypt and went back to Rome at the end of 54 BC. There he was accused de repetundis, but defended by Cicero and probably acquitted. Ptolemy also permitted a debasing of the coinage as an attempt to repay the loans. Near the end of Ptolemy's reign, the value of Egyptian coinage dropped to about fifty per cent of its value at the beginning of his first reign. Ptolemy XII died sometime before 22 March 51 BC. His will stipulated that Cleopatra VII and her brother Ptolemy XIII should rule Egypt together. To safeguard his interests, he made the people of Rome executors of his will. Since the Senate was busy with its own affairs, his ally Pompey approved the will. ## Legacy and assessments Generally, descriptions of Ptolemy XII portray him as weak and self-indulgent, drunk, or a lover of music. According to Strabo, his practice of playing the flute earned him the ridiculing sobriquet Auletes ('flute player'): > Now all of the kings after the third Ptolemy, being corrupted by luxurious living, administered the affairs of government badly, but worst of all were the fourth, seventh, and the last, Auletes, who, apart from his general licentiousness, practised the accompaniment of choruses with the flute, and upon this he prided himself so much that he would not hesitate to celebrate contests in the royal palace, and at these contests would come forward to vie with the opposing contestants. According to the author Mary Siani-Davies: > Throughout his long-lasting reign the principal aim of Ptolemy was to secure his hold on the Egyptian throne so as to eventually pass it to his heirs. To achieve this goal he was prepared to sacrifice much: the loss of rich Ptolemaic lands, most of his wealth and even, according to Cicero, the very dignity on which the mystique of kingship rested when he appeared before the Roman people as a mere supplicant. ## Marriage and issue Ptolemy married his sister Cleopatra V, who was with certainty the mother of his eldest known child, Berenice IV. Cleopatra V disappears from court records a few months after the birth of Ptolemy XII's second known child, and probably hers, Cleopatra VII in 69 BC. The identity of the mother of the last three of Ptolemy XII's children, in birth order Arsinoe IV, Ptolemy XIII, and Ptolemy XIV, is also uncertain. One hypothesis contends that possibly they (and perhaps Cleopatra VII) were Ptolemy XII's children with a theoretical half Macedonian Greek, half Egyptian woman belonging to a priestly family from Memphis in northern Egypt, but this is only speculation. The philosopher Porphyry (c. 234 – c. 305 AD) wrote of Ptolemy XII's daughter Cleopatra VI, who reigned alongside her sister Berenice IV. The Greek historian Strabo (c. 63 BC – c. AD 24) stated that the king had only three daughters of whom the eldest has been referred to as Berenice IV. This suggests that the Cleopatra Tryphaena mentioned by Porphyry may not have been Ptolemy XII's daughter, but his wife. Many experts now identify Cleopatra VI with Cleopatra V.
4,451,714	Halo: Ghosts of Onyx	1,141,021,685	2006 novel by Eric Nylund	[ "2006 novels", "2006 science fiction novels", "Military science fiction novels", "Novels based on Halo (franchise)", "Novels set on fictional planets" ]	Halo: Ghosts of Onyx is a military science fiction novel by Eric Nylund, based on the Halo series of video games. The book was released in October 2006 and is the fourth Halo novel; Nylund's third contribution to the series. Onyx was also the first of three Halo novels to be published by Tor Books, rather than the previous publisher, Del Rey. Ghosts of Onyx details the creation of a group of supersoldiers known as the SPARTAN-IIIs to defend humanity against the alien collective known as the Covenant. After the events of Halo 2, the SPARTAN's training world of Onyx is beset by robotic attackers. The SPARTANs and their trainers must fight the robots and the Covenant as they work to uncover the planet's secrets. Upon release, Ghosts of Onyx garnered generally positive reviews. The novel debuted on The New York Times bestseller list and became an international bestseller. ## Background and writing Ghosts of Onyx author Eric Nylund had previously written two of the three past Halo novels, The Fall of Reach and First Strike, and went to Halo's developer Bungie with an outline of what he wanted to do next. According to Nylund, Bungie gave him room to write the story as long as he accomplished some "very specific [story] goals", sometimes making changes to the Halo universe to incorporate his ideas. However, he acknowledged the difficulty of fitting his story into the rest of the Halo universe was far greater for Ghosts of Onyx than the other novels as more of the story had been made public and was no longer able to be modified. Nylund mentioned in an interview with IGN that writing a Halo novel had both its positive aspects and drawbacks. "It's better because I have all these great toys and characters to play with," Nylund stated in an interview, "It's not so good because I have to work and play well with other parts of the intellectual property so everything meshes." Ghosts of Onyx, originally known as Ghosts of Coral, was the first Halo novel to be published by Tor Books instead of Del Rey. Nylund had 15 weeks to write the book, as opposed to the 7 weeks for The Fall of Reach, but he claimed he still "lost sleep... ate a bunch of chocolate and drank too much coffee." Tor's editors also had more time than those of Del Rey and helped "untangle" the complicated plot of Onyx. On writing, Nylund pointed out that "tension is the cornerstone of any good story", and that Ghosts of Onyx would be no different. IGN's reviewer, Douglass C. Perry, found that by using short paragraphs and many jumps in time "[the novel's] style of writing keeps the pace going, even when nothing much is going on." This technique is used deliberately by Nylund to hasten the pace to avoid "fatiguing the reader and losing them." ## Synopsis ### Setting Ghosts of Onyx takes place in the 26th century, where humanity, under the auspices of the United Nations Space Command, has developed faster-than-light travel and colonized hundreds of worlds. Without warning, an alien collective known as the Covenant attacks the outer human colony of Harvest. The Covenant begin to hunt down human colonies, vitrifying the surface of each world. Humanity's best weapon against the technologically superior Covenant are the SPARTAN-IIs, supersoldiers equipped with powerful armor; unfortunately, there are too few of the SPARTANs to turn the tide of the war. ### Characters Kurt-051 Kurt is a SPARTAN-II who serves in John-117's squad. Kurt is known for his sense of intuition, which saves his team on several occasions. Recruited to train a new series of Spartans, Kurt is devastated by the massive casualties his trainees suffer. In response, Kurt begins instituting illegal brain modifications to give his soldiers a better chance at survival. Due to the secretive lengths taken by his superiors to recruit him to the program, none of Kurt's former colleagues know he is alive. Franklin Mendez Mendez is one of the SPARTAN-III project's trainers. In Nylund's previous novel, Halo: The Fall of Reach, Mendez is the SPARTAN-II's trainer and leaves shortly after humanity's first encounter with the Covenant to train the next generation of Spartans. After the next batch of SPARTAN-IIs are postponed, Mendez returns to active duty fighting against the Covenant before training the SPARTAN-IIIs. Catherine Halsey Halsey is the creator behind the SPARTAN-II project. In order to train the young recruits whom she has selected for the program, Halsey abducts the children and replaces them with clones. Though her soldiers are phenomenally successful, Halsey abruptly leaves with the injured SPARTAN Kelly in Halo: First Strike on an unspecified mission. After years of willingly manipulating her "children", Halsey decides to attempt to save them all instead of throwing them into a war she believes humanity will lose. James Ackerson Ackerson is a Colonel in the Army, and a fierce opponent of the SPARTAN-II program; during The Fall of Reach, Ackerson goes as far as attempting to kill John-117 in a training exercise. Ackerson proposes his own SPARTAN program, which would attempt to duplicate the SPARTAN-II's operational record at a lower cost—creating "disposable Spartans." The existence of this program is kept a secret from the public and much of the UNSC, especially Halsey. ### Plot summary The story begins with a group of SPARTAN-IIIs being deployed to a Covenant fleet refueling depot in the year 2545. The soldiers destroy the facility, but all save two of the three hundred SPARTANs are killed. The narrative then moves back to 2531, where SPARTAN-IIs are deployed against human insurrectionists; though the team is almost captured, the timely intervention of Kurt-051 allows the team to complete their mission. Meanwhile, Colonel James Ackerson meets with the Office of Naval Intelligence (ONI). Ackerson announces his plan to create a new breed of SPARTANs which retains much of the supersoldiers' effectiveness, without the high price tag of the SPARTAN-II program. These SPARTAN-IIIs are trained by Franklin Mendez, as well as Kurt-051. With his death staged by ONI, Kurt-051 is placed in full charge of SPARTAN-III training, under the name and rank of Lieutenant Kurt Ambrose. The SPARTAN-III project is carried out on a secret ONI planet named Onyx, where there is also an archaeological excavation of ancient Forerunner ruins in an area known as "Zone 67". When a company of SPARTAN-IIIs goes missing in Zone 67, it is declared off-limits to all personnel. Like the SPARTAN-IIs, the SPARTAN-III candidates undergo radical cybernetic and biological enhancements and are outfitted with special armor to increase their abilities. The first SPARTAN-III company proves highly successful, but is wiped out when ordered to destroy a Covenant orbital shipyard in 2537. Shaken by the massacre of his troops, Kurt improves the training regimen for his next batch of SPARTAN-III recruits, but they too are all killed in action so Kurt, in an effort to reduce casualties, institutes illegal biological modifications on the third company of SPARTANs. While conducting a training exercise near Zone 67, UNSC personnel find themselves under attack by alien robotic drones. Meanwhile, Dr. Catherine Halsey, the SPARTAN-II project's creator, along with the SPARTAN Kelly-087 arrive in the Onyx system. As they near the surface of the planet they are attacked by more robot drones and crash, meeting up with the human survivors of the attacks. Halsey identifies the robotic drones as Forerunner Sentinels from the artificial intelligence Cortana's logs of the events of Halo: Combat Evolved. Halsey sends a message back to Earth, which is under attack by Covenant; in response, Lord Hood sends the SPARTAN-IIs Fred-104, Linda-058, and Will-043 to Onyx. At the Forerunner ringworld Delta Halo, the Covenant are in the midst of a civil war. Elites intercept Halsey's distress signal and learn of the existence of Onyx and its Forerunner technology. Both the Covenant and the UNSC forces which arrive at Onyx are attacked by Sentinels. The entire UNSC fleet at Onyx is destroyed by the ensuing battle, save for one stealth ship, the Dusk, which stays hidden, observing the events. The remaining human forces on Onyx discover a Forerunner city being rapidly uncovered by the Sentinels, and are guided into a massive sphere by Dr. Halsey. She determines that the entire planet is actually a "Shield World" constructed by the Forerunners to protect themselves from the firing of the Halo ringworlds, which are designed to eradicate all sentient life. Fighting off Covenant pursuers, the humans discover an entrance leading to a Dyson Sphere. Kurt remains behind in order to detonate two nuclear weapons to stop the Covenant from following the humans into the Sphere. Hiding at a distance from Onyx, the Dusk watches as Onyx's surface rips apart to reveal that the entire world is constructed of Sentinels, all connected together to provide an impenetrable defense around the Dyson Sphere at the heart of the planet. The Sentinels annihilate the remaining Covenant fleet vessels orbiting the planet and the Prowler retreats. Fred, now inside the Dyson Sphere, takes command of the survivors and orders everyone to search for method of escape. ## Reception IGN gave Ghosts of Onyx good marks, praising Nylund's writing style and how Onyx managed to tie up many plot threads that were left hanging from both the novels and the games. The publication did note, however, that the Master Chief made only a cameo appearance, and that Ghosts of Onyx is "about the supporting cast of characters", rather than the heroes of the video game. Offering a less positive outlook on the book were publications like Subnova.com, which blasted the novel as being much worse than Halo: First Strike, introducing characters the reader didn't care about and using too much jargon. The reviewer stated that "It's a good book. Honest. It just doesn't measure up to the standard set by the other books in the series." In response to complaints about typographical errors, Nylund responded that a reprint of the book fixing these issues would appear. Ghosts of Onyx debuted as The New York Times bestseller, remaining on the list for eleven weeks. The novel would go on to become an international bestseller; a mass-market paperback would be released on April 7, 2007.
198,336	Wilhelm Reich	1,173,727,323	Austrian-American psychoanalyst (1897–1957)	[ "1897 births", "1957 deaths", "20th-century American psychologists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century Austrian writers", "American agnostics", "American people of Ukrainian-Jewish descent", "American people who died in prison custody", "American psychiatrists", "American psychoanalysts", "American psychotherapists", "American socialists", "American spiritualists", "Austrian Marxist writers", "Austrian agnostics", "Austrian conspiracy theorists", "Austrian expatriates in Norway", "Austrian people of Ukrainian-Jewish descent", "Austrian psychiatrists", "Austrian refugees", "Austrian sexologists", "Austrian socialists", "Austro-Hungarian Army officers", "Austro-Hungarian military personnel of World War I", "Bukovina Jews", "Freudo-Marxism", "Jewish American scientists", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish emigrants from Austria after the Anschluss to the United States", "Jewish psychiatrists", "Jewish psychoanalysts", "Jewish socialists", "Marxist theorists", "Members of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society", "Narcissism writers", "Orgonomy", "People from Chernivtsi Oblast", "People from Forest Hills, Queens", "People from Hancock County, Maine", "People from Lviv Oblast", "People from Peremyshliany", "People from the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria", "Philosophers of psychology", "Philosophers of sexuality", "Prisoners who died in United States federal government detention", "Psychoanalysts from Vienna", "Refugees in Norway", "Sex educators", "The New School faculty", "UFO conspiracy theorists", "Ufologists", "Wilhelm Reich" ]	Wilhelm Reich (/raɪx/ RYKHE, ; 24 March 1897 – 3 November 1957) was an Austrian doctor of medicine and a psychoanalyst, a member of the second generation of analysts after Sigmund Freud. The author of several influential books, The Impulsive Character (1925), The Function of the Orgasm (1927), Character Analysis (1933), and The Mass Psychology of Fascism (1933), he became one of the most radical figures in the history of psychiatry. Reich's work on character contributed to the development of Anna Freud's The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defence (1936), and his idea of muscular armour—the expression of the personality in the way the body moves—shaped innovations such as body psychotherapy, Gestalt therapy, bioenergetic analysis and primal therapy. His writing influenced generations of intellectuals; he coined the phrase "the sexual revolution" and according to one historian acted as its midwife. During the 1968 student uprisings in Paris and Berlin, students scrawled his name on walls and threw copies of The Mass Psychology of Fascism at police. After graduating in medicine from the public University of Vienna in 1922, Reich became deputy director of Freud's outpatient clinic, the Vienna Ambulatorium. During the 1930s, he was part of a general trend among younger analysts and Frankfurt sociologists that tried to reconcile psychoanalysis with Marxism. He established the first sexual advisory clinics in Vienna, along with Marie Frischauf. He said he wanted to "attack the neurosis by its prevention rather than treatment". He moved to New York in 1939, after having accepted a position as Assistant Professor at the New School of Social Research. During his five years in Oslo, he had coined the term "orgone energy"—from "orgasm" and "organism"—for the notion of life energy. In 1940 he started building orgone accumulators, unlike a faraday cage the orgone accumulator isn’t grounded, it’s built of alternating layers of steel and a dielectric such as wool. Studies were conducted and positive results led to the FDA hunting down Mr. Reich. He claimed that his laboratory cancer mice had had remarkable positive effects from being kept in the orgone accumulator, so he built human-size versions, where one could sit inside. This led to newspaper stories about "sex boxes" that cured cancer. Following two critical articles about him in The New Republic and Harper's in 1947, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration obtained an injunction against the interstate shipment of orgone accumulators and associated literature, calling them "fraud of the first magnitude". Charged with contempt in 1956 for having violated the injunction, Reich was sentenced to two years imprisonment, and that summer over six tons of his publications were burned by order of the court. He died in prison of heart failure just over a year later. ## Early life ### Childhood Reich was born the first of two sons to Leon Reich, a farmer, and his wife Cäcilie (née Roniger) in Dobzau, Galicia, then part of Austria-Hungary, now in Ukraine. Wilhelm Reich's parents were married by Rabbi Schmelkes on June 4, 1895. Baby Wilhelm was circumcised four days after his birth. There was a sister too, born one year after Reich, but she died in infancy. Shortly after his birth the family moved to Jujinetz, a village in Bukovina, where his father ran a cattle farm leased by his mother's uncle, Josef Blum. His father was described as a jealous man. Both parents were Jewish, but decided against raising the boys as practicing Jews. Reich and his brother, Robert, were brought up to speak only German, were punished for using Yiddish expressions and forbidden from playing with the local Yiddish-speaking children. ### Death of parents Reich was taught at home until he was 12, when his mother was discovered having an affair with his live-in tutor. Reich wrote about the affair in 1920 in his first published paper, "Über einen Fall von Durchbruch der Inzestschranke" (German: "About a Case of Breaching the Incest Taboo"), presented in the third person as though about a patient. He wrote that he would follow his mother when she went to the tutor's bedroom at night, feeling ashamed and jealous, and wondering if they would kill him if they found out that he knew. He briefly thought of forcing her to have sex with him on the threat of telling his father. In the end, he did tell his father, and after a protracted period of beatings, his mother committed suicide on October 1, 1910, for which Reich blamed himself. With the tutor ordered out of the house, Reich was sent to an all-male gymnasium in Czernowitz. It was during this period that a skin condition appeared, diagnosed as psoriasis, that plagued him for the rest of his life, leading several commentators to remark on his ruddy complexion. His father died of tuberculosis on May 3, 1914, and because of rampant inflation the father's insurance was worthless, so no money was forthcoming for the brothers. Reich managed the farm and continued with his studies, graduating in 1915 with Stimmeneinhelligkeit (German: "unanimous approval"). The Russians invaded Bukovina that summer and the Reich brothers fled, losing everything. Reich wrote in his diary: "I never saw either my homeland or my possessions again. Of a well-to-do past, nothing was left." ## 1919–1930: Vienna ### Undergraduate studies Reich joined the Austro-Hungarian Army during the First World War, serving from 1915 to 1918, for the last two years as a lieutenant at the Italian front with 40 men under his command. When the war ended he headed for Vienna, enrolling in law at the University of Vienna, but found it dull and switched to medicine after the first semester. He arrived with nothing in a city with little to offer; the overthrow of the Austria-Hungarian empire a few weeks earlier had left the newly formed Republic of German-Austria in the grip of famine. Reich lived on soup, oats and dried fruit from the university canteen, and shared an unheated room with his brother and another undergraduate, wearing his coat and gloves indoors to stave off the cold. He fell in love with another medical student, Lia Laszky, with whom he was dissecting a corpse, but it was largely unrequited. Myron Sharaf, his biographer, wrote that Reich loved medicine but was caught between a reductionist/mechanistic and vitalist view of the world. Reich wrote later of this period: > The question, "What is Life?" lay behind everything I learned. ... It became clear that the mechanistic concept of life, which dominated our study of medicine at the time, was unsatisfactory ... There was no denying the principle of creative power governing life; only it was not satisfactory as long as it was not tangible, as long as it could not be described or practically handled. For, rightly, this was considered the supreme goal of natural science. ### Introduction to Freud Reich first met Sigmund Freud in 1919, when he asked Freud for a reading list for a seminar concerning sexology. It seems they left a strong impression on each other. Freud allowed him to start meeting with analytic patients in September that year, although Reich was just 22 years old and still an undergraduate, which gave him a small income. He was accepted as a guest member of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Association, becoming a regular member in October 1920, and began his own analysis with Isidor Sadger. He lived and worked out of an apartment on Berggasse 7, the street on which Freud lived at no. 19, in the Alsergrund area of Vienna. One of Reich's first patients was Lore Kahn, a 19-year-old woman with whom he had an affair. Freud had warned analysts not to involve themselves with their patients, but in the early days of psychoanalysis the warnings went unheeded. According to Reich's diaries, Kahn became ill in November 1920 and died of sepsis after sleeping in a bitterly cold room she had rented as a place for her and Reich to meet (both his landlady and her parents had forbidden their meetings). ### First marriage, graduation Two months after Kahn's death, Reich accepted her friend, Annie Pink (1902–1971), as an analysand. Pink was Reich's fourth female patient, a medical student three months shy of her 19th birthday. He had an affair with her too, and married her in March 1922 at her father's insistence, with psychoanalysts Otto Fenichel and Edith Buxbaum as witnesses. Annie Reich became a well-known psychoanalyst herself. The marriage produced two daughters, Eva (1924–2008) and Lore (b. 1928), both of whom became physicians; Lore Reich Rubin also became a psychiatrist and psychoanalyst. Because he was a war veteran, Reich was allowed to complete a combined bachelor's and M.D. in four years, instead of six, and graduated in July 1922. After graduating, he worked in internal medicine at the city's University Hospital, and studied neuropsychiatry from 1922 to 1924 at the hospital's neurological and psychiatric clinic under Professor Julius Wagner von Jauregg, who won the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1927. ### Vienna Ambulatorium In 1922, Reich began working in Freud's psychoanalytic outpatient clinic, known as the Vienna Ambulatorium, which was opened on May 22 that year at Pelikangasse 18 by Eduard Hitschmann. Reich became the assistant director under Hitschmann in 1924 and worked there until his move to Berlin in 1930. Between 1922 and 1932, the clinic offered free or reduced-cost psychoanalysis to 1,445 men and 800 women, many suffering from shell shock after World War I. It was the second such clinic to open under Freud's direction; the first was the Poliklinik in Berlin, set up in 1920 by Max Eitingon and Ernst Simmel. Sharaf writes that working with labourers, farmers and students allowed Reich to move away from treating neurotic symptoms to observing chaotic lifestyles and anti-social personalities. Reich argued that neurotic symptoms such as obsessive–compulsive disorder were an unconscious attempt to gain control of a hostile environment, including poverty or childhood abuse. They were examples of what he called "character armour" (Charakterpanzer), repetitive patterns of behaviour, speech and body posture that served as defence mechanisms. According to Danto, Reich sought out patients at the Ambulatorium who had been diagnosed as psychopaths, believing that psychoanalysis could free them of their rage. Reich joined the faculty of the Psychoanalytic Institute in Vienna in 1924 and became its director of training. According to Danto, he was well-regarded for the weekly technical seminars he chaired at the Ambulatorium, where he gave papers on his theory of character structure, arguing that psychoanalysis should be based on the examination of unconscious character traits, later known as ego defences. The seminars were attended, from 1927, by Fritz Perls, who went on to develop Gestalt therapy with his wife, Laura Perls. Several commentators remarked on how captivating the seminars were and how eloquently Reich spoke. According to a Danish newspaper in 1934: > The moment he starts to speak, not at the lectern, but walking around it on cat's paws, he is simply enchanting. In the Middle Ages, this man would have been sent into exile. He is not only eloquent, he also keeps his listeners spellbound by his sparking personality. ### Der triebhafte Charakter Reich's first book, Der triebhafte Charakter: eine psychoanalytische Studie zur Pathologie des Ich ("The Impulsive Character: A Psychoanalytic Study of the Pathology of the Self"), was published in 1925. It was a study of the anti-social personalities he had encountered in the Ambulatorium, and argued the need for a systematic theory of character. The book won him professional recognition, including from Freud, who in 1927 arranged for his appointment to the executive committee of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society. The appointment was made over the objection of Paul Federn, who had been Reich's second analyst in 1922 and who, according to Sharaf, regarded Reich as a psychopath. Reich found the society dull and wrote that he behaved "like a shark in a pond of carps". ### Orgastic potency Beginning in 1924, Reich published a series of papers on the idea of "orgastic potency", the ability to release the emotions from the muscles and lose the self in an uninhibited orgasm, an idea that Freud came to call Reich's "Steckenpferd" (hobby horse). Reich argued that psychic health and the ability to love depended on orgastic potency, the full discharge of the libido: "Sexual release in the sex act must correspond to the excitement which leads up to it." He wrote: "It is not just to fuck ... not the embrace in itself, not the intercourse. It is the real emotional experience of the loss of your ego, of your whole spiritual self." He argued that orgastic potency was the goal of character analysis. Whereas Reich's work on character was well received by the psychoanalytic community, Sharaf writes, his work on orgastic potency was unpopular from the start and later ridiculed. He came to be known as the "prophet of the better orgasm" and the "founder of a genital utopia". ### Rest cure in Switzerland Reich's brother died of tuberculosis (TB) in 1926, the same disease that had killed their father. Turner writes that a quarter of deaths in Vienna were caused by TB in the 1920s. Reich himself contracted it in 1927 and spent several weeks in the winter of that year in a sanitorium in Davos, Switzerland, where TB patients went for rest cures and fresh air before antibiotics became widely available around 1945. Turner writes that Reich underwent a political and existential crisis in Davos; he returned home in the spring angry and paranoid, according to Annie Reich. Some months later he and Annie were on the streets during the July Revolt of 1927 in Vienna, when 84 workers were shot and killed by police and another 600 were injured. It seems that the experience changed Reich; he wrote that it was his first encounter with human irrationality. He began to doubt everything, and in 1928 joined the Communist Party of Austria: > As if struck by a blow, one suddenly recognizes the scientific futility, the biological senselessness, and the social noxiousness of views and institutions, which until that moment had seemed altogether natural and self-evident. It is a kind of eschatological experience so frequently encountered in a pathological form in schizophrenics. I might even voice the belief that the schizophrenic form of psychic illness is regularly accompanied by illuminating insight into the irrationalism of social and political mores. ### Sex-pol movement Partly in response to the shooting he had witnessed in Vienna, Reich, then 30, opened six free sex-counseling clinics in the city in 1927 for working-class patients. Each clinic was overseen by a physician, with three obstetricians and a lawyer on call, and offered what Reich called Sex-Pol counseling. Sex-Pol stood for the German Society of Proletarian Sexual Politics. Reich offered a mixture of "psychoanalytic counseling, Marxist advice and contraceptives", Danto writes, and argued for a sexual permissiveness, including for young people and the unmarried, that unsettled other psychoanalysts and the political left. The clinics were immediately overcrowded by people seeking help. He also took to the streets in a mobile clinic, driving to parks and out to the suburbs with other psychoanalysts and physicians. Reich would talk to the teenagers and men, while a gynaecologist fitted the women with contraceptive devices, and Lia Laszky, the woman Reich fell in love with at medical school, spoke to the children. They also distributed sex-education pamphlets door to door. ### Die Funktion des Orgasmus Reich published Die Funktion des Orgasmus ("The Function of the Orgasm") in 1927, dedicating it to Freud. He had presented a copy of the manuscript to Freud on the latter's 70th birthday on 6 May 1926. Freud had not appeared impressed. He replied, "That thick?" when Reich handed it to him, and took two months to write a brief but positive letter in response, which Reich interpreted as a rejection. Freud's view was that the matter was more complicated than Reich suggested, and that there was no single cause of neurosis. He wrote in 1928 to another psychoanalyst, Dr. Lou Andreas-Salomé: > We have here a Dr. Reich, a worthy but impetuous young man, passionately devoted to his hobby-horse, who now salutes in the genital orgasm the antidote to every neurosis. Perhaps he might learn from your analysis of K. to feel some respect for the complicated nature of the psyche. ### Visit to the Soviet Union In 1929, Reich and his wife visited the Soviet Union on a lecture tour, leaving the two children in the care of the psychoanalyst Berta Bornstein. Sharaf writes that he returned even more convinced of the link between sexual and economic oppression, and of the need to integrate Marx and Freud. In 1929 his article "Dialectical Materialism and Psychoanalysis" was published in Unter dem Banner des Marxismus, the German Communist Party journal. The article explored whether psychoanalysis was compatible with historical materialism, class struggle and proletarian revolution. Reich concluded that they were compatible if dialectical materialism was applied to psychology. This was one of the central theoretical statements of his Marxist period, which included The Imposition of Sexual Morality (1932), The Sexual Struggle of Youth (1932), The Mass Psychology of Fascism (1933), "What is Class Consciousness?" (1934) and The Sexual Revolution (1936). ## 1930–1934: Germany, Denmark, Sweden ### Verlag für Sexualpolitik Reich and his wife moved to Berlin in November 1930, where he set up clinics in working-class areas, taught sex education and published pamphlets. He joined the Communist Party of Germany, but grew impatient over their delay in publishing one of his pamphlets, Der sexuelle Kampf der Jugend (1932) – later published in English as The Sexual Struggle of Youth (1972) – and so set up his own publishing house, Verlag für Sexualpolitik, to produce the pamphlet himself. His subsequent involvement in a conference promoting adolescent sexuality caused the party to announce that it would no longer publish his material. On 24 March 1933 Freud told him that his contract with the International Psychoanalytic Publishers to publish Character Analysis had been cancelled. Sharaf writes that this was almost certainly because of Reich's stance on teenage sex. ### Character Analysis Reich published what Robert Corrington called his masterpiece, Charakteranalyse: Technik und Grundlagen für studierende und praktizierende Analytiker, in 1933. It was revised and published in English in 1946 and 1949 as Character Analysis. The book sought to move psychoanalysis toward a reconfiguration of character structure. For Reich, character structure was the result of social processes, in particular a reflection of castration and Oedipal anxieties playing themselves out within the nuclear family. Les Greenberg and Jeremy Safran write that Reich proposed a functional identity between the character, emotional blocks, and tension in the body, or what he called character (or muscular/body) armour (Charakterpanzer). Reich proposed that muscular armour was a defence that contained the history of the patient's traumas. For example, he blamed Freud's jaw cancer on his muscular armour, rather than his smoking: Freud's Judaism meant he was "biting down" impulses, rather than expressing them. Dissolving the armour would bring back the memory of the childhood repression that had caused the blockage in the first place. ### End of first marriage Reich had several affairs during his marriage to Annie Reich, which ended in 1933 after he began a serious relationship in May 1932 with Elsa Lindenberg, a dancer and pupil of Elsa Gindler. He was living with Lindenberg in Germany when Hitler became Chancellor in January 1933. On March 2 that year, the Nazi newspaper Völkischer Beobachter published an attack on Der Sexuelle Kampf der Jugend. Reich and Lindenberg left for Vienna the next day. They moved from there to Denmark, where Reich was excluded from the Danish Communist Party in November 1933 (without ever having joined it) because of his promotion of teenage sex and the publication that year of The Mass Psychology of Fascism, which they regarded as "counterrevolutionary". There were multiple complaints about his promotion of abortion, sex education, and the attempted suicide of a teenage patient. According to Turner, when Reich's visa expired, it was not renewed. He tried to find support among psychoanalysts in the UK so that he could settle there, and was interviewed in London by Ernest Jones, Melanie Klein, Joan Riviere and James Strachey. They decided that he had been "insufficiently analysed" and had an unresolved hostility toward Freud. Anna Freud, Freud's daughter—whom Jones had contacted about Reich's desire to relocate to England—wrote in 1938: "There is a wall somewhere where he stops to understand the other person's point of view and flies off into a world of his own ... He is an unhappy person ... and I am afraid this will end in sickness." Reich and Lindenberg moved instead to Malmö in Sweden, which Reich described as "better than a concentration camp", but he was placed under surveillance when police suspected that the hourly visits of patients to his hotel room meant he was running a brothel, with Lindenberg as the prostitute. The government declined to extend his visa, and the couple had to move briefly back to Denmark, Reich under an assumed name. ### Vegetotherapy From 1930 onwards, Reich began to treat patients outside the limits of psychoanalysis's restrictions. He would sit opposite them, rather than behind them as they lay on a couch (the traditional psychoanalyst's position), and begin talking to them and answering their questions, instead of offering the stock, "Why do you ask?" analyst's response. He had noticed that after a successful course of psychoanalysis his patients would hold their bodies differently, so he began to try to communicate with the body using touch. He asked his male patients to undress down to their shorts, and sometimes entirely, and his female patients down to their underclothes, and began to massage them to loosen their body armour. He would also ask them to simulate physically the effects of certain emotions in the hope of triggering them. He first presented the principles of what he called character-analytic vegetotherapy in August 1934, in a paper entitled "Psychischer Kontakt und vegetative Strömung" ("Psychological Contact and Vegetative Current") at the 13th International Congress of Psychoanalysis at Lucerne, Switzerland. His second wife, Ilse Ollendorf, said vegetotherapy replaced the psychoanalytic method of never touching a patient with "a physical attack by the therapist". The method eliminated the psychoanalytic doctrine of neutrality. Reich argued that the psychoanalytic taboos reinforced the neurotic taboos of the patient, and that he wanted his patients to see him as human. He would press his thumb or the palm of his hand hard (and painfully) on their jaws, necks, chests, backs, or thighs, aiming to dissolve their muscular, and thereby characterological, rigidity. He wrote that the purpose of the massage was to retrieve the repressed memory of the childhood situation that had caused the repression. If the session worked, he would see waves of pleasure move through their bodies, which he called the "orgasm reflex". According to Sharaf, the twin goals of Reichian therapy were the attainment of this orgasm reflex during sessions and orgastic potency during intercourse. Reich briefly considered calling it "orgasmotherapy", but thought better of it. Just before the crucial August 1934 Lucerne conference (13th International Congress of Psycho-analysis), Reich was (perhaps naively) ignorant of the ground-swell of opinion against him. At the meeting, he was asked to resign from the International Psychoanalytical Association, where Anna Freud was the "acknowledged leader" at the time, for prioritizing his revolutionary political-social (Communist) views over Freud's psychoanalytic ideas. Besides the theoretical differences, there was also, by that time, a significant level of "appeasement" to the increasing power of National Socialism. Reich had protested to Anna Freud (Secretary of the International Association) about the omission of his name from the list of German members of the Association, apparently on the spurious grounds that he was going to join the Scandinavian branch. Ernest Jones was the President of the International Association and he had also turned against Reich, combined with Paul Federn and Max Eitingon, who had all levelled personal attacks against Reich. According to Lore Reich Rubin, Reich's daughter, Anna Freud was responsible for destroying her father's career: "She got rid of him". However, there is also some evidence that she later regretted this. He arrived at the conference, relatively unconscious about his future treatment. He presented a significant paper and was then informed that he was to be excluded. Turner writes that he cemented his reputation as a madman, camping in a tent outside the conference hall and reportedly carrying a large knife in his belt. According to the psychiatrist Grete L. Bibring, Paul Federn declared, "Either Reich goes or I go." ## 1934–1939: Norway ### Bioelectricity In October 1934, Reich and Lindenberg moved to Oslo, Norway, where Harald K. Schjelderup, professor of psychology at the University of Oslo, had invited Reich to lecture on character analysis and vegetotherapy. They ended up staying for five years. During his time in Norway, Reich attempted to ground his orgasm theory in biology, exploring whether Freud's metaphor of the libido was in fact electricity or a chemical substance, an argument Freud had proposed in the 1890s but had abandoned. Reich argued that conceiving of the orgasm as nothing but mechanical tension and relaxation could not explain why some experience pleasure and others do not. He wanted to know what additional element had to be present for pleasure to be felt. Reich was influenced by the work of the Austrian internist Friedrich Kraus, who argued in his paper Allgemeine und Spezielle Pathologie der Person (1926) that the biosystem was a relay-like switch mechanism of electrical charge and discharge. Reich wrote in an essay, "Der Orgasmus als Elektro-physiologische Entladung" ("The Orgasm as an Electrophysiological Discharge", 1934), that the orgasm is just such a bioelectrical discharge and proposed his "orgasm formula": mechanical tension (filling of the organs with fluid; tumescence) → bioelectrical charge → bioelectrical discharge → mechanical relaxation (detumescence). In 1935, Reich bought an oscillograph and attached it to friends and students, who volunteered to touch and kiss each other while Reich read the tracings. One of the volunteers was Willy Brandt, the future chancellor of Germany. At the time, he was married to Reich's secretary, Gertrude Gaasland, and was living in Norway to organize protests against Nazi Germany. Reich also took measurements from the patients of a psychiatric hospital near Oslo, including catatonic patients, with the permission of the hospital's director. Reich described the oscillograph experiments in 1937 in Experimentelle Ergebnisse über die elektrische Funktion von Sexualität und Angst (The Bioelectrical Investigation of Sexuality and Anxiety). ### Bion experiments From 1934 to 1939, Reich conducted what he called the bion experiments, which he published as Die Bione: zur Entstehung des vegetativen Lebens in Oslo in February 1938 (published in English in 1979 and later called The Bion Experiments on the Origin of Life). He examined protozoa and grew cultured vesicles using grass, sand, iron and animal tissue, boiling them and adding potassium and gelatin. Having heated the materials to incandescence with a heat-torch, he wrote that he had seen bright, glowing, blue vesicles. His photographs and films of his experiments were taken by Kari Berggrav. He called them "bions" and believed they were a rudimentary form of life, halfway between life and non-life. He wrote that when he poured the cooled mixture onto growth media, bacteria were born, dismissing the idea that the bacteria were already present in the air or on other materials. In what Sharaf writes was the origins of the orgone theory, Reich said he could see two kinds of bions, the blue vesicles and smaller red ones shaped like lancets. He called the former PA-bions and the latter T-bacilli, the T standing for Tod, German for death. He wrote in his book The Cancer Biopathy (1948) that he had found T-bacilli in rotting cancerous tissue obtained from a local hospital, and when injected into mice they caused inflammation and cancer. He concluded that, when orgone energy diminishes in cells through aging or injury, the cells undergo "bionous degeneration". At some point the deadly T-bacilli start to form in the cells. Death from cancer, he believed, was caused by an overwhelming growth of the T-bacilli. ### Opposition to his ideas In 1937, Reich faced strong opposition from Norwegian scientists regarding his theories on bions, many deriding them as nonsense. To counter this, he allowed the Norwegian pathologist Leiv Kreyberg to examine one of his bion preparations under a microscope. Kreyberg wrote that, while the broth Reich had used as his culture medium was indeed sterile, the bacteria were ordinary staphylococci, and thus concluded that Reich's control measures to prevent infection from airborne bacteria were not as foolproof as Reich believed. Kreyberg accused Reich of being ignorant of basic bacteriological and anatomical facts, while Reich accused Kreyberg of having failed to recognize living cancer cells under magnification. Reich sent a sample of the bacteria to a Norwegian biologist, Theodor Thjøtta of the Oslo Bacteriological Institute, who also blamed airborne infection. As a result, Tidens Tegn, a leading liberal newspaper, launched a campaign against him with support from scientists and other newspapers. By February 1938, Reich's visa had expired. Several Norwegian scientists argued against an extension, Kreyberg saying, "If it is a question of handing Dr. Reich over to the Gestapo, then I will fight that, but if one could get rid of him in a decent manner, that would be the best." The writer Sigurd Hoel asked: "When did it become a reason for deportation that one looked in a microscope when one was not a trained biologist?" Reich received support from overseas, first from the anthropologist Bronisław Malinowski, who in March wrote to the press in Norway that Reich's sociological works were "a distinct and valuable contribution toward science", and from A. S. Neill, founder of Summerhill, a progressive school in England, who argued that "the campaign against Reich seems largely ignorant and uncivilized, more like fascism than democracy". Norway was proud of its intellectual tolerance, so the "Reich affair", especially following the country's 1936 expulsion of Leon Trotsky, put Nygaardsvold's government on the spot. A compromise was found in which Reich was given his visa, but a royal decree was later issued stipulating that anyone wanting to practice psychoanalysis needed a licence, which Reich was not permitted to have. The affair drew much attention between March and December 1938, with more than 165 articles and letters appearing in 13 Norwegian newspapers denouncing Reich's work. The most prominent was published by the country's largest newspaper, Aftenposten, on 19 and 21 April 1938, containing the views of both Kreyberg and Thjøtta, in which the former alleged that "Mr. Reich" knew less about bacteria and anatomy than a first-year medical student. When Reich requested a detailed control study, Kreyberg responded that his work did not merit it. Throughout the affair Reich issued just one public statement, when he asked for a commission to replicate his bion experiments. Sharaf writes that the opposition to his work affected his personality and relationships. He was left humiliated, no longer comfortable in public, and seething with bitterness against the researchers who had denounced him. ### Personal life According to Sharaf, 1934–1937 was the happiest period of Reich's personal life, despite the professional problems. His relationship with Elsa Lindenberg was good and he considered marrying her. When she became pregnant in 1935, they were initially overjoyed, buying clothes and furniture for the child, but doubts developed for Reich, who saw the future as too unsettled. To Lindenberg's great distress, Sharaf writes, Reich insisted on an abortion, at that time illegal. They went to Berlin, where the psychoanalyst Edith Jacobson helped to arrange it. In 1937, Reich began an affair with a female patient, an actress who had been married to a colleague of his. According to Sigurd Hoel, the analysis would stop because of the relationship, then the relationship would end and the analysis would start up again. The patient eventually threatened to go to the press, but was persuaded that it would harm her as much as it would Reich. Around the same time, Reich also had an affair with Gerd Bergersen, a 25-year-old Norwegian textile designer. Despite the affairs, Sharaf writes that, as the newspaper campaign against Reich gained pace, he developed an intense jealousy toward Lindenberg, demanding that she not have a separate life of any kind. He even physically assaulted a composer with whom she was working. Lindenberg considered calling the police but decided Reich could not afford another scandal. His behaviour took its toll on their relationship, and when Reich asked her to accompany him to the United States, she said no. ## 1939–1947: United States ### Teaching, second marriage When Hitler annexed Austria in March 1938, Reich's ex-wife and daughters had already left for the United States. Later that year, Theodore P. Wolfe, a professor of psychiatry at Columbia University, traveled to Norway to study under Reich. Wolfe offered to help Reich settle in the States, and managed to arrange an invitation from The New School in New York for Reich to teach a course on "Biological Aspects of Character Formation". Wolfe and Walter Briehl, a former student of Reich's, put up \$5,000 to guarantee his visa. Wolfe also pulled strings with Adolph Berle, an official in the State Department. Reich wrote in his diary in May 1939: > I am sitting in a completely empty apartment waiting for my American visa. I have misgivings as to how it will go. ... I am utterly and horribly alone! > > It will be quite an undertaking to carry on all the work in America. Essentially, I am a great man, a rarity, as it were. I can't quite believe it myself, however, and that is why I struggle against playing the role of a great man. He received the visa in August 1939, and sailed out of Norway on August 19 on the SS Stavangerfjord, the last ship to leave for the United States before the war began on September 3. He began teaching at The New School, where he remained until May 1941, living first at 7502 Kessel Street, Forest Hills, Queens, where he conducted experiments on mice with cancer, injecting them with bions. He built a small Faraday cage to examine the vapors and lights he said the bions were producing. In October 1939, his secretary Gertrud Gaasland introduced him to Ilse Ollendorf, 29 years old at the time. Reich was still in love with Lindenberg, but Ollendorf started organizing his life for him, becoming his bookkeeper and laboratory assistant. They began living together in the Kessel Street house on Christmas Day 1939. She was eight weeks pregnant, but according to Turner he insisted that she have an abortion. Five years later, in 1944, they had a son, Peter, and were married in 1946. Sharaf writes that Reich's personality changed after his experience in Oslo. He became socially isolated and kept his distance even from old friends and his ex-wife. His students in the United States came to know him as a man that no colleague, no matter how close, called by his first name. In January 1940 he wrote to Lindenberg to end their relationship once and for all, telling her that he was in despair and that he believed he would end up dying like a dog. ### Orgonomy It was shortly after he arrived in New York in 1939 that Reich first said he had discovered a biological or cosmic energy, an extension of Freud's idea of the libido. He called it "orgone energy" or "orgone radiation", and the study of it "orgonomy". Reich said he had seen orgone when he injected his mice with bions and in the sky at night through an "organoscope", a special telescope. He argued that it is in the soil and air (indeed, is omnipresent), is blue or blue-grey, and that humanity had divided its knowledge of it in two: aether for the physical aspect and God for the spiritual. The colour of the sky, the northern lights, St Elmo's Fire, and the blue of sexually excited frogs are manifestations of orgone, he wrote. He also argued that protozoa, red corpuscles, cancer cells and the chlorophyll of plants are charged with it. In 1940, he began to build insulated Faraday cages, "orgone accumulators", that he said would concentrate the orgone. The earliest boxes were for laboratory animals. The first human-sized, five-foot-tall box was built in December 1940, and set up in the basement of his house. Turner writes that it was made of plywood lined with rock wool and sheet iron, and had a chair inside and a small window. The boxes had multiple layers of these materials, which caused the orgone concentration inside the box to be three to five times stronger than in the air, Reich said. Patients were expected to sit inside them naked. The accumulators were tested on plant growth and mice with cancer. Reich wrote to his supporters in July 1941 that orgone is "definitely able to destroy cancerous growth. This is proved by the fact that tumors in all parts of the body are disappearing or diminishing. No other remedy in the world can claim such a thing." Although not licensed to practise medicine in the United States, he began testing the boxes on human beings diagnosed with cancer and schizophrenia. In one case the test had to be stopped prematurely because the subject heard a rumour that Reich was insane; there were stories, which were false, that he had been hospitalized in the Utica State Mental Hospital. In another case the father of an eight-year-old girl with cancer approached him for help, then complained to the American Medical Association that he was practising without a licence. He asked his supporters to stick with him through the criticism, believing that he had developed a grand unified theory of physical and mental health. ### Experiment with Einstein In December 1940, Reich wrote to Albert Einstein saying he had a scientific discovery he wanted to discuss, and, in January 1941, visited Einstein at his home in Princeton, where they talked for nearly five hours. He told Einstein that he had discovered a "specific biologically effective energy which behaves in many respects differently to all that is known about electromagnetic energy". He said it could be used against disease, and as a weapon "in the fight against the Fascist pestilence". (Einstein had signed a letter to President Roosevelt in August 1939 to warn of the danger of Nazi Germany building an atom bomb, and had urged the United States to establish its own research project.) Einstein agreed that if an object's temperature could be raised without an apparent heating source, as Reich was suggesting, it would be "a bomb". Reich was much encouraged by the meeting and hoped he would be invited to join Princeton's Institute for Advanced Study. During their next meeting, he gave Einstein a small accumulator, and over the next 10 days Einstein performed experiments with it in his basement, which involved taking the temperature above, inside and near the device, and stripping it down to its Faraday cage to compare temperatures. He observed an increase of temperature, which Reich argued was caused by orgone. One of Einstein's assistants pointed out that the temperature was lower on the floor than on the ceiling. Einstein concluded that the effect was simply due to the temperature gradient inside the room. "Through these experiments I regard the matter as completely solved", he wrote to Reich on 7 February 1941. Reich responded with a 25-page letter in which he tried to change Einstein's mind. To rule out the influence of convection he told Einstein that he had taken certain measures, including introducing a horizontal plate above the accumulator, wrapping it in a blanket, hanging it from the ceiling, burying it underground and placing it outside. He wrote that in all these circumstances the temperature difference remained, and was in fact more marked in the open air. Einstein did not respond to this or to Reich's future correspondence—Reich would write regularly reporting the results of his experiments—until Reich threatened three years later to publish their previous exchange. Einstein replied that he could not devote any further time to the matter and asked that his name not be misused for advertising purposes. Reich believed that Einstein's change of heart was part of a conspiracy of some kind, perhaps related to the communists or prompted by the rumours that Reich was ill. Reich published the correspondence in 1953 as The Einstein Affair. ### Arrest by the FBI Reich lost his position at the New School in May 1941, after writing to its director, Alvin Johnson, to say he had saved several lives in secret experiments with the accumulator. Johnson was aware of Reich's claims that he could cure cancer, and told him the New School was not an appropriate institution for the work. Reich was also evicted from Kessel Street after his neighbours complained about the animal experiments. His supporters, including Walter Briehl, gave him \$14,000 to buy a house, and he settled into 9906 69th Avenue. On 12 December 1941, five days after the attack on Pearl Harbor and a day after Germany declared it was at war with the United States, Reich was arrested in his home at 2 a.m. by the FBI and taken to Ellis Island, where he was held for over three weeks. He identified himself at the time as the Associate Professor of Medical Psychology, Director of the Orgone Institute. He was at first left to sleep on the floor in a large hall, surrounded by members of the fascist German American Bund, who Reich feared might kill him, but when his psoriasis returned he was transferred to the hospital ward. He was questioned about several books the FBI found when they searched his home, including Hitler's Mein Kampf, Trotsky's My Life, a biography of Lenin and a Russian alphabet book for children. After threatening to go on hunger strike he was released, on 5 January, but his name remained on the "key figures list" of the Enemy Alien Control Unit, which meant he was placed under surveillance. Turner writes that it seems Reich was the victim of mistaken identity; there was a William Reich who ran a bookstore in New Jersey, which was used to distribute Communist material. The FBI acknowledged the mistake in November 1943 and closed Reich's file. In 2000 it released 789 pages of the file: > This German immigrant described himself as the Associate Professor of Medical Psychology, Director of the Orgone Institute, President and research physician of the Wilhelm Reich Foundation and discoverer of biological or life energy. A 1940 security investigation was begun to determine the extent of Reich's communist commitments. A board of Alien Enemy Hearing judged that Dr. Reich was not a threat to the security of the U.S. In 1947, a security investigation concluded that neither the Orgone Project nor any of its staff were engaged in subversive activities or were in violation of any statute within the jurisdiction of the FBI. ### Purchase of Orgonon In November 1942, Reich purchased an old farm for \$4,000 on Dodge Pond, Maine, near Rangeley, with 280 acres (1.1 km<sup>2</sup>) of land. Calling it Orgonon, he started spending summers there, and had a one-room cabin built in 1943, a laboratory in 1945, a larger cabin in 1946, and an observatory in 1948. In 1950, he decided to live there year-round, and in May that year moved from New York with Ilse, their son, Peter, and Reich's daughter Eva, with the idea of creating a centre for the study of orgone. Several colleagues moved there with him, including two physicians with an interest in orgone, and Lois Wyvell, who ran the Orgone Press Institute. The artist William Moise joined Reich as an assistant at Orgonon, later marrying Eva Reich. Orgonon still houses the Wilhelm Reich Museum, as well as holiday cottages available to rent, one of which is the cottage in which the Reichs lived. ## 1947–1957: Legal problems ### Brady articles, FDA Until 1947, Reich enjoyed largely uncritical attention from the press in the United States. One journal, Psychosomatic Medicine, had called orgone a "surrealist creation", but his psychoanalytic work had been discussed in the Journal of the American Medical Association and the American Journal of Psychiatry, The Nation had given his writing positive reviews, and he was listed in American Men of Science. His reputation took a sudden downturn in April and May 1947, when articles by Mildred Edie Brady were published in Harper's and The New Republic, the latter entitled "The Strange Case of Wilhelm Reich", with the subhead, "The man who blames both neuroses and cancer on unsatisfactory sexual activities has been repudiated by only one scientific journal." Brady's ultimate target was not Reich but psychoanalysis, which according to Turner she saw as akin to astrology. Of Reich she wrote: "Orgone, named after the sexual orgasm, is, according to Reich, a cosmic energy. It is, in fact, the cosmic energy. Reich has not only discovered it; he has seen it, demonstrated it and named a town—Orgonon, Maine—after it. Here he builds accumulators of it, which are rented out to patients, who presumably derive 'orgastic potency' from it." She claimed, falsely, that he had said the accumulators could cure not only impotence but cancer. Brady argued that the "growing Reich cult" had to be dealt with. On his copy of the New Republic article, Reich wrote "THE SMEAR". He issued a press release, but no one published it. In July 1947, Dr. J. J. Durrett, director of the Medical Advisory Division of the Federal Trade Commission, wrote to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) asking them to investigate Reich's claims about the health benefits of orgone. The FDA assigned an investigator to the case, who learned that Reich had built 250 accumulators. The FDA concluded that they were dealing with a "fraud of the first magnitude". According to Sharaf, the FDA suspected a sexual racket of some kind; questions were asked about the women associated with orgonomy and "what was done with them". From that point on, Reich's work came increasingly to the attention of the authorities. ### Orgonomic Infant Research Center Reich established the Orgonomic Infant Research Center (OIRC) in 1950, with the aim of preventing muscular armouring in children from birth. Meetings were held in the basement of his house in Forest Hills. Turner wrote that several children who were treated by OIRC therapists later said they had been sexually abused by the therapists, although not by Reich. One woman said she was assaulted by one of Reich's associates when she was five years old. Children were asked to stand naked in front of Reich and a group of 30 therapists in his basement, while Reich described the children's "blockages". Reich's daughter, Lore Reich Rubin, told Turner that she believed Reich himself had been abused as a child, which is why he developed such an interest in sex and childhood sexuality. The sexual allegations apart, several people discussed how the vegetotherapy had hurt them physically as children, as therapists pressed hard on the body to loosen muscular armour. Reich's son, Peter, wrote in his autobiography, Book of Dreams (1973) about the pain this had caused him. Susanna Steig, the niece of William Steig, the New Yorker cartoonist, wrote about being pressed so hard during Reichian therapy that she had difficulty breathing, and said that a woman therapist had sexually assaulted her. According to Turner, a nurse complained in 1952 to the New York Medical Society that an OIRC therapist had taught her five-year-old son how to masturbate. The therapist was arrested, but the case was dropped when Reich agreed to close the OIRC. ### Divorce, cloudbusters Reich and Ilse Ollendorff divorced in September 1951, ostensibly because he thought she had an affair. She continued working with him for another three years. Even after the divorce, he suspected her of having affairs, and persuaded her to sign confessions about her feelings of fear and hatred toward him, which he locked away in the archives of his Orgone Institute. He wrote several documents denouncing her, while having an affair himself with Lois Wyvell, who ran the Orgone Institute Press. In 1951, Reich said he had discovered another energy that he called deadly orgone radiation (DOR), accumulations of which played a role in desertification. He designed a "cloudbuster", rows of 15-foot aluminium pipes mounted on a mobile platform, connected to cables that were inserted into water. He believed that it could unblock orgone energy in the atmosphere and cause rain. Turner described it as an "orgone box turned inside out". He conducted dozens of experiments with the cloudbuster, calling his research "Cosmic Orgone Engineering". During a drought in 1953, two farmers in Maine offered to pay him if he could make it rain to save their blueberry crop. Reich used the cloudbuster on the morning of July 6, and according to Bangor's Daily News—based on an account from an anonymous eyewitness who was probably Peter Reich—rain began to fall that evening. The crop survived, the farmers declared themselves satisfied, and Reich received his fee. ### Injunction Over the years the FDA interviewed physicians, Reich's students and his patients, asking about the orgone accumulators. A professor at the University of Oregon who bought an accumulator told an FDA inspector that he knew the device was phoney, but found it helpful because his wife sat quietly in it for four hours every day. The attention of the FDA triggered belligerent responses from Reich, who called them "HiGS" (hoodlums in government) and the tools of red fascists. He developed a delusion that he had powerful friends in government, including President Eisenhower, who he believed would protect him, and that the U.S. Air Force was flying over Orgonon to make sure that he was all right. On 29 July 1952 three inspectors arrived at Orgonon unannounced. Sharaf writes that Reich detested unannounced visitors; he had once chased some people away with a gun just for looking at an adjacent property. He told the inspectors they had to read his work before he would interact with them, and ordered them to leave. In February 1954, the United States Attorney for the District of Maine filed a 27-page complaint seeking a permanent injunction, under Sections 301 and 302 of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, to prevent interstate shipment of orgone accumulators and to ban promotional literature. Reich refused to appear in court, arguing that no court was in a position to evaluate his work. In a letter to Judge John D. Clifford, Jr. in February, he wrote: > My factual position in the case as well as in the world of science of today does not permit me to enter the case against the Food and Drug Administration, since such action would, in my mind, imply admission of the authority of this special branch of the government to pass judgment on primordial, pre-atomic cosmic orgone energy. I, therefore, rest the case in full confidence in your hands. The injunction was granted by default on 19 March 1954. The judge ordered that all accumulators, parts and instructions be destroyed, and that several of Reich's books that mentioned orgone be withheld. ### Chasing UFOs According to Turner, the injunction triggered a further deterioration in Reich's mental health. From at least early 1954, he came to believe that the planet was under attack by UFOs, which he called "energy alphas". He said he often saw them flying over Orgonon, shaped like thin cigars with windows, leaving streams of black Deadly Orgone Radiation in their wake, which he believed the aliens were scattering to destroy the Earth. He and his son would spend their nights searching for UFOs through telescopes and binoculars, and sometimes, when they believed they had found one, they would roll out a cloudbuster to suck the energy out of it (the perceived-or imagined-UFO). Reich claimed he had shot several of them down. Armed with two cloudbusters, they fought what Reich called a "full-scale interplanetary battle" in Arizona, where he had rented a house as a base station. In Contact with Space (1956), he wrote of the "very remote possibility" that his own father had been from outer space. In late 1954, Reich began an affair with Grethe Hoff, a former patient. Hoff was married to another former student and patient of his, the psychologist Myron Sharaf, who decades later, with his Fury on Earth (1983), became Reich's main biographer. Hoff and Sharaf had had their first child the year before Hoff left him for Reich; the marriage was never repaired although the affair had ended by June 1955. Two months later Reich began another relationship, this time with Aurora Karrer, a medical researcher, and, in November, he moved out of Orgonon to an apartment in Alban Towers, Washington, D.C., to live with her, using the pseudonym Dr. Walter Roner. ### Contempt of court While Reich was in Arizona in May 1956, one of his associates sent an accumulator part through the mail to another state, in violation of the injunction, after an FDA inspector posing as a customer requested it. Reich and another associate, Dr. Michael Silvert, were charged with contempt of court; Silvert had been looking after the inventory in Reich's absence. Reich at first refused to attend court, and was arrested and held for two days until a supporter posted bail of \$30,000. Representing himself during the hearing, he admitted the violation but pleaded not guilty and hinted at conspiracies. During a recess the judge apparently suggested a psychiatric evaluation to Reich's ex-wife, Ilse Ollendorff, but this was not communicated to Reich. The jury found him guilty on 7 May 1956, and he was sentenced to two years' imprisonment. Silvert was sentenced to a year and a day, the Wilhelm Reich Foundation was fined \$10,000, and the accumulators and associated literature were to be destroyed. ### Book burning On 5 June 1956, two FDA officials arrived at Orgonon to supervise the destruction of the accumulators. Most of them had been sold by that time and another 50 were with Silvert in New York, leaving only three accumulators at Orgonon. The FDA agents were not allowed to destroy them, only to supervise the destruction, so Reich's friends and his son, Peter, chopped them up with axes as the agents watched. Once they were destroyed, Reich placed an American flag on top of them. On 26 June, the agents returned to supervise the destruction of the promotional material, including 251 copies of Reich's books. The American Civil Liberties Union issued a press release criticizing the book burning, although coverage of the release was poor, and Reich ended up asking them not to help because he was annoyed that they had failed to criticize the destruction of the accumulators. In England, A. S. Neill and the poet Herbert Read signed a letter of protest, but it was never published. On July 23 the remaining accumulators in New York were destroyed by S. A. Collins and Sons, who had built them. On 23 August, six tons of Reich's books, journals and papers were burned in New York, at the Gansevoort incinerator, a public incinerator on 25th Street. The material included copies of several of his books, including The Sexual Revolution, Character Analysis and The Mass Psychology of Fascism. Although these had been published in German before Reich ever discussed orgone, he had added mention of it to the English editions, so they were caught by the injunction. It has been cited as one of the worst examples of censorship in U.S. history. As with the accumulators, the FDA was supposed only to observe the destruction. The psychiatrist Victor Sobey (d. 1995), an associate of Reich's, wrote: > All the expenses and labor had to be provided by the [Orgone Institute] Press. A huge truck with three to help was hired. I felt like people who, when they are to be executed, are made to dig their own graves first and are then shot and thrown in. We carried box after box of the literature. ### Imprisonment Reich appealed the lower court's decision in October 1956, but the Court of Appeals upheld it on 11 December. He wrote several times to J. Edgar Hoover, director of the FBI, requesting a meeting, and appealed to the Supreme Court, which decided on 25 February 1957 not to review the case. On 12 March 1957 Reich and Silvert were sent to Danbury Federal Prison. (Silvert committed suicide in May 1958, five months after his release.) Richard C. Hubbard, a psychiatrist who admired Reich, examined him on admission, recording paranoia manifested by delusions of grandiosity, persecution, and ideas of reference: > The patient feels that he has made outstanding discoveries. Gradually over a period of many years he has explained the failure of his ideas in becoming universally accepted by the elaboration of psychotic thinking. "The Rockerfellows [sic] are against me." (Delusion of grandiosity.) "The airplanes flying over prison are sent by the Air Force to encourage me." (Ideas of reference and grandiosity.) On March 19, Reich was transferred to the Lewisburg Federal Penitentiary and examined again. This time it was decided that he was mentally competent and that his personality seemed intact, though he might become psychotic when stressed. A few days later, on his 60th birthday, he wrote to his son, Peter, then 13: > I am in Lewisburg. I am calm, certain in my thoughts, and doing mathematics most of the time. I am kind of "above things", fully aware of what is up. Do not worry too much about me, though anything might happen. I know, Pete, that you are strong and decent. At first I thought that you should not visit me here. I do not know. With the world in turmoil I now feel that a boy your age should experience what is coming his way—fully digest it without getting a "belly ache", so to speak, nor getting off the right track of truth, fact, honesty, fair play, and being above board—never a sneak ... . He applied for a presidential pardon in May, to no avail. Peter visited him in jail several times, where one prisoner said Reich was known as the "flying saucer guy" and the "Sex Box man". Reich told Peter that he cried a lot, and wanted Peter to let himself cry too, believing that tears are the "great softener". His last letter to his son was on 22 October 1957, when he said he was looking forward to being released on 10 November, having served one third of his sentence. A parole hearing had been scheduled for a few days before that date. He wrote that he and Peter had a date for a meal at the Howard Johnson restaurant near Peter's school. Peter's mother Ilse, who was a Quaker, stated that Wilhelm attended some Protestant services during his imprisonment and sent his son various prayers. ### Death Reich failed to appear for roll call on 3 November 1957, and was found at 7 a.m. in his bed. The prison doctor said he had died during the night of "myocardial insufficiency with sudden heart failure". He was buried in a vault at Orgonon that he had asked his caretaker to dig in 1955. He had left instructions that there was to be no religious ceremony, but that a record should be played of Schubert's "Ave Maria" sung by Marian Anderson, and that his granite headstone should read simply: "Wilhelm Reich, Born March 24, 1897, Died ... " None of the academic journals carried an obituary. Time magazine wrote on 18 November 1957: > Died. Wilhelm Reich, 60, once-famed psychoanalyst, associate and follower of Sigmund Freud, founder of the Wilhelm Reich Foundation, lately better known for unorthodox sex and energy theories; of a heart attack; in Lewisburg Federal Penitentiary, Pa; where he was serving a two-year term for distributing his invention, the "orgone energy accumulator" (in violation of the Food and Drug Act), a telephone-booth-size device that supposedly gathered energy from the atmosphere, and could cure, while the patient sat inside, common colds, cancer, and impotence. ## Reception and legacy ### Psychotherapy The psychoanalyst Richard Sterba wrote in 1982 that Reich had been a brilliant clinician and teacher in the 1920s; even the older analysts had wanted to attend his technical seminars in Vienna. But according to Sharaf, they came to consider Reich as paranoid and belligerent. Psychologist Luis Cordon wrote that Reich's slide from respectability concluded with the consensus inside and outside the psychoanalytic community that he was at best a crackpot and perhaps seriously ill. There were inaccurate rumours from the late 1920s that he had been hospitalized. Paul Federn became Reich's second analyst in 1922; he later said he had detected "incipient schizophrenia" and called Reich a psychopath. Similarly, Sandor Rado had Reich as an analyst and in 1931 declared him schizophrenic "in the most serious way". Reich's daughter, Lore Reich Rubin, a psychiatrist, speculated that he had bipolar disorder and may have been sexually abused as a child. Sharaf argued that psychoanalysts tended to dismiss as ill anyone from within the fold who had transgressed, and this was never done so relentlessly as with Reich. His work was split into the pre-psychotic "good" and the post-psychotic "bad", the date of the illness's onset depending on which parts of his work a speaker disliked. Psychoanalysts preferred to see him as sane in the 1920s because of his work on character, while political radicals regarded him as sane in the 1930s because of his Marxist-oriented research. Despite Reich's precarious mental health, his work on character and the idea of muscular armouring contributed to the development of what is now known as ego psychology, gave rise to body psychotherapy, and helped shape the Gestalt therapy of Fritz Perls, the bioenergetic analysis of Reich's student Alexander Lowen, and the primal therapy of Arthur Janov. ### Humanities Reich's work influenced a generation of intellectuals, including Saul Bellow, William Burroughs and Norman Mailer, and the founder of Summerhill School in England, A. S. Neill. The French philosopher Michel Foucault wrote in The History of Sexuality (1976) that the impact of Reich's critique of sexual repression had been substantial. The Austrian-American philosopher Paul Edwards said that the FDA's pursuit of Reich had intensified Edwards' attachment to him. He wrote in 1977 that for years he and his friends regarded Reich as "something akin to a messiah". Paul Mathews and John M. Bell started teaching a course on Reich in 1968 at New York University through its Division of Continuing Study, and it was still being taught at the time Sharaf was writing Reich's biography in 1983, making it the longest-running course ever taught in that division. Several well-known figures used orgone accumulators, including Orson Bean, Sean Connery, Allen Ginsberg, Paul Goodman, Jack Kerouac, Isaac Rosenfeld, J. D. Salinger, William Steig and Robert Anton Wilson. Norman Mailer—who owned several orgone accumulators, including some in the shape of eggs—wrote about Reich enthusiastically in The Village Voice, as a result of which Orgonon became a place of pilgrimage and the orgasm a symbol of liberation. ### Popular culture Reich continued to influence popular culture after his death. Turner writes that the evil Dr. Durand Durand in the feature film Barbarella (1968) seems to be based on Reich; he places Barbarella (Jane Fonda) in his Excessive Machine so that she would die of pleasure, but rather than killing her the machine burns out. A film about Reich and the implications of his ideas, W.R.: Mysteries of the Organism (1971), was made by Yugoslav director Dušan Makavejev. An orgone accumulator made an appearance as the Orgasmatron in Woody Allen's comedy feature film Sleeper (1973). The use of orgone accumulators, a cloudbuster and representations of Reich's orgone therapy with patients, together with a snapshot of the FDA's hostile actions against Reich were dramatised in a short film called It Can Be Done, which was made by British director Jon East in 1999. The film screened at the 56th Venice Film Festival on 11 September 1999. Patti Smith's "Birdland" on her album Horses (1975) is based on Reich's life. Hawkwind's song "Orgone Accumulator", on their album Space Ritual (1973) is named for his invention. In Bob Dylan's "Joey" from Desire (1976), the eponymous gangster spends his time in prison reading Nietzsche and Reich. Reich is also a character in the opera Marilyn (1980) by Italian composer Lorenzo Ferrero. Kate Bush's single "Cloudbusting" (1985) described Reich's arrest through the eyes of his son, Peter, who wrote his father's story in A Book of Dreams (1973). The video for the song features Donald Sutherland as Reich and Bush as Peter. Robert Anton Wilson's play, Wilhelm Reich in Hell (1987), is about Reich's confrontation with the American government. Four-beat Rhythm: The Writings of Wilhelm Reich (2013) is a compilation album on which Reich's writings are adapted to music. The Australian designer Marc Newson has produced a range of orgone furniture, most famously his Orgone Chair (1993). In James Reich's novel Soft Invasions (2017), a fictionalized Wilhelm Reich is treating a Hollywood mogul using an orgone accumulator. ### Science The mainstream scientific community dismissed Reich's orgone theory as pseudoscience. James Strick, a historian of science at Franklin and Marshall College, wrote in 2015 that the dominant narrative since Reich's death has been that "there is no point in looking more closely at Reich's science because there was no legitimate science from Reich". From 1960, apparently in response to the book burning, the New York publisher Farrar, Straus and Giroux began republishing his major works. Reichian physicians organized study groups. In 1967 one of his associates, Dr. Elsworth Baker, established the bi-annual Journal of Orgonomy, still published as of 2015, and in 1968 founded the American College of Orgonomy in Princeton, New Jersey. According to Sharaf, contributors to the Journal of Orgonomy who worked in academia often used pseudonyms. The Orgone Biophysical Research Laboratory was founded in 1978 by James DeMeo and the Institute for Orgonomic Science in 1982 by Morton Herskowitz. There was renewed interest in November 2007, when the Reich archives at the Francis A. Countway Library of Medicine at Harvard University were unsealed; Reich had left instructions that his unpublished papers be stored for 50 years after his death. James Strick began studying Reich's laboratory notebooks from the 1935–1939 bion experiments in Norway. In 2015 Harvard University Press published Strick's Wilhelm Reich, Biologist, in which he writes that Reich's work in Oslo "represented the cutting edge of light microscopy and time-lapse micro-cinematography". He argues that the dominant narrative of Reich as a pseudoscientist is incorrect and that Reich's story is "much more complex and interesting". Speaking to Christopher Turner in 2011, Reich's son, Peter, said of his father, "He was a nineteenth-century scientist; he wasn't a twentieth-century scientist. He didn't practice science the way scientists do today. He was a nineteenth-century mind who came crashing into twentieth-century America. And boom!" ## Works ## See also - Aether (classical element) - Aether (mythology) - Élan vital - Energy (esotericism) - Luminiferous aether - Qi
59,347,399	United States Zouave Cadets	1,167,799,707	null	[ "1856 establishments in Illinois", "France–United States military relations", "Illinois National Guard units", "Illinois in the American Civil War", "Military units and formations disestablished in 1861", "Military units and formations established in 1856" ]	The United States Zouave Cadets (also known as the Chicago Zouaves and Zouave Cadets of Chicago) was a short-lived zouave unit of the Illinois militia that has been credited as the force behind the surge in popularity of zouave infantry in the United States and Confederate States in the mid-19th century. The United States Zouave Cadets were formed by Elmer Ellsworth in 1859 from the National Guard Cadets of Chicago, established three years earlier. The unit's 1860 tour of the eastern United States popularized the distinctive zouave appearance and customs, directly and indirectly inspiring the formation of dozens of similar units on the eve of the American Civil War. During the governorship of William Henry Bissell, the United States Zouave Cadets were granted the ceremonial designation of Governor's Guard of Illinois on 23 January 1860. Its march was the "Zouave Cadets Quickstep". ## History ### Background In the years following the War of 1812, many northern states defunded and demobilized their militias. In their place, units of volunteer militia organized themselves. These units, often drawn from members of society, elected their own officers, adopted their own uniforms and customs, and generally financed themselves. Well-drilled and commanded units could petition for recognition by their state government; if approved, their officers would be issued commissions by the Governor and their troops permitted access to the state's armories and munitions stores, all while maintaining their otherwise independent character. Nevertheless, such volunteer militia companies of this period – despite forming a nucleus around which a state could build and expand its military forces in an emergency – were characterized by Phil Reyburn, an historian, as "more fraternal than martial". A far greater emphasis was placed on drill and ceremony than on battlefield tactics. The National Guard Cadets of Chicago was formed as a volunteer militia company on March 19, 1856, under commanding officer Captain Joseph R. Scott. After three years, however, its strength sat at just 15 men. ### Under command of Elmer Ellsworth While commanding officer of the Rockford Greys militia company, Elmer Ellsworth introduced his men to drills inspired by those used by French zouave units. Ellsworth, himself, had been introduced to zouave military customs by his fencing instructor, Charles A. De Villiers, a French physician, immigrant, and veteran of a zouave unit during the Crimean War. In 1859, soldiers of the National Guard Cadets of Chicago saw the Rockford Greys performing zouave-inspired drills and offered Ellsworth command of their unit. Ellsworth accepted the offer, transforming the National Guard Cadets of Chicago into the United States Zouave Cadets. On July 4, 1859, the United States Zouave Cadets – now 46 members strong – first publicly appeared in their new Zouave uniforms and executed the unique Franco-Algerian Zouave drill in front of Chicago's Tremont Hall. With a training schedule of three evenings per week, the United States Zouave Cadets established a reputation for parade ground excellence, described by one observer as "unsurpassed this side of West Point". The United States Zouave Cadets saw their biggest audience, estimated to be 70,000 in number, the following September during the seventh annual United States Agricultural Society Fair which was hosted by Chicago. In March 1860, the invalid and partially paralyzed Governor of Illinois, William Henry Bissell, succumbed to pneumonia. The Zouave Cadets formed part of the military escort during Bissell's state funeral, occupying a position in the cortège between the Quincy City Guards and a volunteer company of veterans of the Mexican–American War. Having previously been named as the Governor's Guard of Illinois by Governor Bissell on January 23, 1860, the Zouave Cadets were also given the task of firing three volleys during the interment. That May the unit was again in the public spotlight when it executed its exotic drill and maneuver for the 1860 Republican National Convention, held that year in Chicago. #### The 1860 tour In July 1860, the unit undertook a tour of the eastern United States, appearing in parades and performing exhibition drills in Adrian, Michigan; Detroit, Michigan; Cleveland, Ohio; Buffalo, New York, Rochester, New York; Utica, New York; Troy, New York; Albany, New York; New York, New York; and Boston, Massachusetts. A crowd of tens of thousands turned-out to watch the unit's parade through the streets of New York City. Their tour closed with exhibition drills for General Winfield Scott at West Point, for President of the United States James Buchanan at the White House, and in one final public appearance in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. ### Later history The United States Zouave Cadets effectively ceased to exist with the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861, most of its personnel scattering to other units. In April 1861 – following the capitulation of Fort Sumter and in response to Abraham Lincoln's call for an initial mobilization of 75,000 volunteers – officers of the United States Zouave Cadets raised three separate zouave companies each comprising between 80 and 89 men, which were integrated into the 19th Illinois Infantry Regiment. Ellsworth, who had worked on Abraham Lincoln's campaign in the 1860 U.S. presidential election, took command of the 11th New York Infantry, New York's so-called "Fire Zouaves". On May 24, 1861 — the day following the ratification of Virginia's Ordinance of Secession — federal forces, among them the Fire Zouaves, seized the city of Alexandria, Virginia. Ellsworth was shot and killed by innkeeper James Jackson while confiscating a Confederate States flag that had been flying from the roof of Jackson's establishment, thereby becoming the first fatality among Union officers in the war. Ellsworth's national reputation earned as the head of the Chicago Zouaves inspired a period of national mourning; according to Adam Goodheart, it was "Ellsworth’s death, even more than the attack on Sumter, that made Northerners ready not just to take up arms, but to kill". Ellsworth's remains were placed in repose in the White House while a New York Times war correspondent reported that the entire city of Alexandria faced the possibility of being razed "from the uncontrollable fury of the troops" of Ellsworth's regiment. Later efforts in New York, Ellsworth's home state, resulted in the raising of a regiment of zouaves to avenge his death; that unit, the 44th New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment, was known as "Ellsworth's Avengers". A.J. Vaas, composer of the Chicago Zouave's unit march, wrote a requiem that year titled the "Ellsworth Requiem" in commemoration of the officer's death. De Villiers, the French physician and veteran of the Crimean War who had originally inspired Ellsworth's interest in zouaves, was later employed as an informal inspector of the Camp Dennison recruiting post. He was described in one account by a Camp Dennison soldier as "a dapper little gentleman of very dark complexion". The 11th Ohio Infantry later elected De Villiers its commander and he was commissioned a colonel. ## Uniforms The Chicago Zouaves had uniforms that borrowed heavily from, without strictly copying, French Zouaves from which they drew inspiration. Enlisted men in the Chicago Zouaves wore uniforms that consisted of red kepi, red chasseur trousers with white gaiters, and an open-fronted, beaded blue blouse worn with a yellow waist sash. Officer uniforms consisted of straight-legged trousers and blue blouses with choker collars. The loose-fitting chasseur trousers worn by enlisted personnel allowed greater fluidity of movement than traditional, straight-legged trousers allowing them to perform their drill movements. ## Unit march The "Zouave Cadets Quickstep" by A.J. Vaas was registered for copyright on April 13, 1860; sheet music to the march was published by Root & Candy. It became briefly popular, with the Chicago Daily Herald reporting that the publisher was – by August – receiving "daily orders in the hundreds" for it. It was included in the Caxton Club's 2018 volume Chicago by the Book: 101 Publications That Shaped the City and Its Image. ## Legacy The popularity of the public appearances undertaken by the United States Zouave Cadets during their 1860 national tour helped inspire the formation of additional zouave units in other states. Writing in 1910 James Gross, a veteran of the Albany Zouave Cadets (Company A, 10th New York Infantry), recalled that the demonstration drill of the Chicago Zouaves in Albany "aroused such enthusiasm among my young friends and companions that we held a meeting on the upper floor of the Bank of Albany building, located on Broadway, and then and there decided to form a company to be known as the Albany Zouave Cadets, to drill and contest the honors with the Chicago Cadets, not dreaming of the great Rebellion which was soon to follow" [sic]. During the American Civil War, more than 50 zouave units existed in the Union Army alone, with additional zouave forces raised by the Confederate States. However, units inspired by the Chicago Zouaves later found the zouave uniform impractical in combat conditions with the colorful chasseur trousers making easy targets of their wearers. During the American Civil War, zouave units soon switched to more conventional uniforms, though, in the post-war era zouave-style uniforms gradually reappeared among some militia. ## See also - 114th Pennsylvania Infantry Regiment - Papal Zouaves - Zouaves of Death
3,298,784	North Yemen Civil War	1,173,298,207	1962–1970 civil war in North Yemen	[ "1960s conflicts", "1960s in North Yemen", "1970 in North Yemen", "Civil wars involving the states and peoples of Asia", "Civil wars of the 20th century", "Egypt–Yemen relations", "North Yemen Civil War", "Proxy wars", "Wars involving Egypt", "Wars involving Jordan", "Wars involving Saudi Arabia", "Wars involving Yemen" ]	The North Yemen Civil War (Arabic: ثورة 26 سبتمبر, romanized: Thawra 26 Sabtambar, lit. '26 September Revolution') was fought in North Yemen from 1962 to 1970 between partisans of the Mutawakkilite Kingdom and supporters of the Yemen Arab Republic. The war began with a coup d'état carried out in 1962 by revolutionary republicans led by the army under the command of Abdullah as-Sallal, who dethroned the newly crowned King and Imam Muhammad al-Badr and declared Yemen a republic under his presidency. The Imam escaped to the Saudi Arabian border where he rallied popular support from northern Shia tribes to retake power, escalating rapidly to a full-scale civil war. On the royalist side, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, and Israel supplied military aid, and Britain gave covert support, while the republicans were supported by Egypt (then formally known as the United Arab Republic) and were supplied warplanes from the Soviet Union. Both foreign irregular and conventional forces were involved. Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser supported the republicans with as many as 70,000 Egyptian troops and weapons. Despite several military actions and peace conferences, the war sank into a stalemate by the mid-1960s. Egypt's commitment to the war is considered to have been detrimental to its performance in the Six-Day War of June 1967, after which Nasser found it increasingly difficult to maintain his army's involvement and began to pull his forces out of Yemen. The surprising removal of Sallal on November 5 by Yemeni dissidents, supported by republican tribesmen, resulted in an internal shift of power in the capital, while the royalists approached it from the north. The new republic government was headed by Qadi Abdul Rahman Iryani, Ahmed Noman and Mohamed Ali Uthman, all of whom shortly either resigned or fled the country, leaving the disarrayed capital under the control of Prime Minister Hassan al-Amri. The 1967 siege of Sanaa became the turning point of the war. The remaining republican Prime Minister succeeded in keeping control of Sana'a and by February 1968, the royalists lifted the siege. Clashes continued in parallel with peace talks until 1970, when Saudi Arabia recognized the Republic, and a ceasefire came into effect. Egyptian military historians refer to the war in Yemen as "their Vietnam". Historian Michael Oren (former Israeli Ambassador to the U.S.) wrote that Egypt's military adventure in Yemen was so disastrous that the imminent Vietnam War could easily have been dubbed "America's Yemen". ## Background ### Yemen Imam Ahmad bin Yahya inherited the Yemeni throne in 1948. In 1955, Iraq-trained Colonel Ahmad Thalaya led a revolt against him. A group of soldiers under his command surrounded the royal palace of Al Urdhi at Taiz, a fortified stronghold where the Imam lived with his harem, the royal treasure, an arsenal of modern weapons, and a 150 strong palace-guard, and demanded Ahmad's abdication. Ahmad agreed, but demanded that his son, Muhammad al-Badr succeed him. Thalaya refused, preferring the king's half brother, the Emir Saif el Islam Abdullah, the 48-year-old Foreign Minister. While Abdullah began forming a new government, Ahmad opened the treasury coffers and secretly began buying off the besieging soldiers. After five days, the number of besiegers was reduced from 600 to 40. Ahmad then came out of the palace, wearing a devil's mask and wielding a long scimitar, terrifying the besiegers. He slashed two sentries dead before exchanging the sword for a sub-machine gun and leading his 150 guards onto the roof of the palace to begin a direct attack on the rebels. After 28 hours, 23 rebels and one palace guard were dead and Thalaya gave up. Abdullah was later reported executed, and Thalaya was publicly decapitated. In March 1958, al-Badr arrived in Damascus to tell Nasser of Yemen's adherence to the United Arab Republic (UAR). However, Ahmad was to keep his throne and his absolute power, and the arrangement constituted only a close alliance. In 1959, Ahmad went to Rome for treatment of his arthritis, rheumatism, heart trouble and, reportedly, drug addiction. Fights between tribal chieftains erupted, and al-Badr unsuccessfully tried to buy off the dissidents by promising "reforms", including the appointment of a representative council, more army pay and promotions. Upon his return, Ahmad swore to crush the "agents of the Christians". He ordered the decapitation of one of his subjects and the amputation of the left hand and right foot of 15 others, in punishment for the murder of a high official the previous June. Al-Badr was only rebuked for his leniency, but the Yemeni radio stopped broadcasting army officers' speeches, and talks of reforms were silenced. In June 1961, Ahmad was still recovering from an assassination attempt four months earlier, and moved out of the capital, Taiz, into the pleasure palace of Sala. Already Defense and Foreign Minister, Badr became acting Prime Minister and Interior Minister as well. Despite being Crown Prince, al-Badr still needed to be picked by the Ulema in San'a. Al-Badr was not popular with the Ulema due to his association with Nasser, and the Ulema had refused Ahmad's request to ratify Badr's title. Imam Ahmad died on September 18, 1962, and was succeeded by his son, Muhammad al-Badr. One of al-Badr's first acts was to appoint Colonel Abdullah Sallal, a known socialist and Nasserist, as commander of the palace guard. ### Egypt Nasser had looked to a regime change in Yemen since 1957 and finally put his desires into practice in January 1962 by giving the Free Yemen Movement office space, financial support, and radio airtime. Anthony Nutting's biography of Nasser identifies several factors that led the Egyptian President to send expeditionary forces to Yemen. These included the unraveling of the union with Syria in 1961, which dissolved his UAR in all but name, damaging his prestige. A quick decisive victory in Yemen could help him recover leadership of the Arab world. Nasser was also keen to maintain his reputation as an Arab nationalist, setting his sights on expelling British forces from South Yemen, including Britain's presence in the strategic port city of Aden. Mohamed Heikal, a chronicler of Egyptian national policy decision making and confidant of Nasser, wrote in For Egypt Not For Nasser, that he had engaged Nasser on the subject of supporting the coup in Yemen. Heikal argued that Sallal's revolution could not absorb the massive number of Egyptian personnel who would arrive in Yemen to prop up his regime, and that it would be wise to consider sending Arab nationalist volunteers from throughout the Middle East to fight alongside the republican Yemeni forces, suggesting the Spanish Civil War as a template from which to conduct events in Yemen. Nasser refused Heikal's ideas, insisting on the need to protect the Arab nationalist movement. Nasser was convinced that a regiment of Egyptian Special Forces and a wing of fighter-bombers would be able to secure the Yemeni republican coup d'état. Nasser's considerations for sending troops to Yemen may have included the following: (1) impact of his support to the Algerian War of Independence from 1954–62; (2) Syria breaking up from Nasser's UAR in 1961; (3) taking advantage of a breach in British and French relations, which had been strained by Nasser's support for the FLN in Algeria and primarily for his efforts to undermine the Central Treaty Organization (CENTO), which caused the downfall of the Iraqi monarchy in 1958; (4) confronting imperialism, which Nasser saw as Egypt's destiny; (5) guaranteeing dominance of the Red Sea from the Suez Canal to the Bab-el-Mandeb strait; (6) retribution against the Saudi royal family, whom Nasser felt had undermined his union with Syria. ## History ### Coup d'état #### Plot At least four plots were going on in San'a. One was headed by Lieutenant Ali Abdul al Moghny. Another one was conceived by Sallal. His plot merged into a third conspiracy prodded by the Hashid tribal confederation in revenge for Ahmad's execution of their paramount sheik and his son. A fourth plot was shaped by several young princes who sought to get rid of al-Badr but not the imamate. The only men who knew about those plots were the Egyptian chargé d'affaires, Abdul Wahad, and al-Badr himself. The day after Ahmad's death, al-Badr's minister in London, Ahmad al Shami, sent him a telegram urging him not to go to San'a to attend his father's funeral because several Egyptian officers, as well as some of his own, were plotting against him. Al-Badr's private secretary did not pass this message to him, pretending he did not understand the code. Al-Badr may have been saved by the gathering of thousands of men at the funeral. Al-Badr learned of the telegram only later. A day before the coup Wahad, who claimed to have information from the Egyptian intelligence service, warned al-Badr that Sallal and fifteen other officers, including Moghny, were planning a revolution. Wahad's purpose was to cover himself and Egypt in case the coup failed, to prompt the plotters into immediate action, and drive Sallal and Moghny into a single conspiracy. Sallal got imamic permission to bring in the armed forces. Then, Wahad went to Moghny, and told him that al-Badr had somehow discovered the plot, and that he must act immediately before the other officers would be arrested. He told him that if he could hold San'a, the radio and the airport for three days, the whole of Europe would recognize him. Sallal ordered that the military academy in San'a go on full alert — opening all armories and issuing weapons to all junior officers and troops. On the evening of September 25, Sallal gathered known leaders of the Yemeni nationalist movement and other officers who had sympathized or participated in the military protests of 1955. Each officer and cell would be given orders and would commence as soon as the shelling of al-Badr's palace began. Key areas that would be secured included Al-Bashaer palace (al-Badr's palace), Al-Wusul palace (Reception area for dignitaries), the radio station, the telephone exchange, Qasr al-Silaah (The Main Armory), and the central security headquarters (Intelligence and Internal Security). #### Execution At 10:30 p.m., al-Badr heard tanks moving through the nearby streets and reckoned that they were the ones Sallal had asked to move. At 11.45 p.m. the army began shelling the palace. Al-Badr seized a machine gun and began firing at the tanks, although they were out of range. Moghny sent an armored car to Sallal's house and invited him to the headquarters, where he asked him to join the revolution. Sallal agreed on condition that he would be President. Moghny agreed. The coup d'état was carried out with 13 tanks from the Badr Brigade, six armored cars, two mobile artillery cannons, and two anti-air guns. Command and control of the forces loyal to the coup would take place at the Military Academy. A unit of revolutionary officers accompanied by tanks headed towards Al-Bashaer Palace. By microphone, they voiced an appeal to the imamate Guard for tribal solidarity and to surrender Muhammad al-Badr, who would be sent peacefully into exile. The imamate Guard refused to surrender and opened fire, prompting the revolutionary leaders to respond with tank and artillery shells. The rebels planned to deploy tanks and artillery in the coup. The battle at the palace continued until guards surrendered to the revolutionaries the following morning. The radio station was first to fall, secured after a loyalist officer was killed and resistance collapsed. The armory was perhaps the easiest target, as a written order from Sallal was sufficient to open the storage facility, beat the royalists, and secure rifles, artillery and ammunition for the revolutionaries. The telephone exchange likewise fell without any resistance. At the Al-Wusul Palace, revolutionary units remained secure under the guise of granting and protecting diplomats and dignitaries staying there to greet the new Imam of Yemen. By late morning on September 26, all areas of San'a were secure and the radio broadcast that Muhammad al-Badr had been overthrown by the new revolutionary government in power. Revolutionary cells in the cities of Taiz, Al-Hujja and the port city of Hodeida then began securing arsenals, airports and port facilities. #### Coup aftermath Al-Badr and his personal servants managed to escape through a door in the garden wall in the back of the palace. Because of the curfew, they had to avoid the main streets. They decided to escape individually and meet in the village of Gabi al Kaflir, where they were reunited after a 45-minute walk. Sallal had to defeat a fellow revolutionary, Al-Baidani, an intellectual holding a doctorate degree, who did not share Nasser's vision. On September 28, there were radio broadcasts announcing al-Badr's death. Sallal gathered tribesmen in San'a and proclaimed: "The corrupt monarchy which ruled for a thousand years was a disgrace to the Arab nation and to all humanity. Anyone who tries to restore it is an enemy of God and man!" By then, he had learned that al-Badr was still alive and had made his way to Saudi Arabia. Egyptian General Ali Abdul Hameed was dispatched by plane, and arrived on September 29 to assess the situation and needs of the Yemeni Revolutionary Command Council. Egypt sent a battalion of Special Forces (Saaqah) on a mission to act as personal guards for Sallal. They arrived at Hodeida on October 5. Fifteen days after he had left San'a, al-Badr sent a man ahead to Saudi Arabia to announce that he was alive. He then went there himself, crossing the border near Khobar, at the north-eastern edge of the kingdom. ### Diplomatic attempts Saudi Arabia, fearing Nasserist encroachment, moved troops along its border with Yemen, as King Hussein of Jordan dispatched his Army chief of staff for discussions with al-Badr's uncle, Prince Hassan. Between October 2–8 four Saudi cargo planes left Saudi Arabia loaded with arms and military material for Yemeni royalist tribesmen; however, the pilots defected to Aswan. Ambassadors from Bonn, London, Washington D.C. and Amman supported the Imam while ambassadors from Cairo, Rome and Belgrade declared support for the republican revolution. The USSR was the first nation to recognize the new republic, and Nikita Khrushchev cabled Sallal: "Any act of aggression against Yemen will be considered an act of aggression against the Soviet Union." The United States was concerned that the conflict might spread to other parts of the Middle East. President John F. Kennedy rushed off notes to Nasser, Faisal of Saudi Arabia, Hussein and Sallal. His plan was that Nasser's troops should withdraw from Yemen while Saudi Arabia and Jordan halted their aid to the Imam. Nasser agreed to pull out his forces only after Jordan and Saudi Arabia "stop all aggressive operations on the frontiers". Faisal and Hussein rejected Kennedy's plan, since it would involve US recognition of the "rebels". They insisted that the US should withhold recognition of Sallal's Presidency since the Imam might still regain control of Yemen, and that Nasser had no intention of pulling out. The Saudis argued that Nasser wanted their oil fields and was hoping to use Yemen as a springboard for revolt in the rest of the Arabian peninsula. King Hussein of Jordan was also convinced that Nasser's target was Saudi Arabia's oil, and that if the Saudis went, he would be next. Sallal declared "I warn America that if it does not recognize the Yemen Arab Republic, I shall not recognize it!". US Chargé d'Affaires in Taiz, Robert Stookey, reported that the republican regime was in full control of the country, except in some border areas. However, the British government was insisting on the strength of the Imam's tribal support. A letter written by President Kennedy to Faisal dated October 25, which was kept confidential until January 1963, said: "You may be assured of full US support for the maintenance of Saudi Arabian integrity". American jet aircraft twice staged shows of force in Saudi Arabia. The first involved six F-100 jets staging stunt-flying demonstrations over Riyadh and Jeddah; on the second, two jet bombers and a giant jet transport, while returning to their base near Paris after a visit to Karachi, Pakistan, put on a demonstration over Riyadh. Sallal proclaimed Yemen's "firm policy to honor its international obligations", including a 1934 treaty pledging respect for Britain's Aden Protectorate. Nasser promised to "start gradual withdrawal" of its 18,000-man force, "provided Saudi and Jordanian forces also retire from border regions", but would leave his technicians and advisers behind. On December 19, the US became the 34th nation to recognize the Yemen Arab Republic. United Nations recognition followed that of the US by a day. The UN continued to consider the republic the only authority in the land and completely ignored the royalists. Britain, with its commitment to South Arabia and its base in Aden, considered the Egyptian intervention a real threat. Recognition of the republic posed a problem to several treaties Britain had signed with the sheiks and sultans of the South Arabian Federation. Saudi Arabia urged the British to identify themselves with the royalists. On the other hand, there were some in the British Foreign Office who believed Britain could buy security for Aden by recognizing the republic. However, Britain eventually decided not to recognize. Iran, Turkey and most of western Europe also withheld recognition. The republic did receive the recognition of West Germany, Italy, Canada and Australia, as well as the remaining Arab governments, Ethiopia and the entire communist bloc. A week after the American recognition, Sallal boasted at a military parade the republic had rockets that could strike "the palaces of Saudi Arabia", and in early January the Egyptians again bombed and strafed Najran, a Saudi Arabian city near the Yemenite border. The US responded with another aerial demonstration over Jeddah and a destroyer joined on January 15. The US reportedly agreed to send antiaircraft batteries and radar-control equipment to Najran. In addition, Ralph Bunche was sent to Yemen, where he met with Sallal and Egyptian Field Marshal Abdel Hakim Amer. On March 6 Bunche was in Cairo, where Nasser reportedly assured him that he would withdraw his troops from Yemen if the Saudis would stop supporting the royalists. ### Operation Hard-surface While Bunche was reporting to UN Secretary-General U Thant, the United States Department of State sought the help of ambassador Ellsworth Bunker. His mission was based on a decision made by the National Security Council, which was conceived by McGeorge Bundy and Robert Komer. The idea behind what became known as "Operation Hard-surface" was to trade American protection (or the appearance of it) for a Saudi commitment to halt aid to the royalists, on the basis of which the Americans would get Nasser to withdraw his troops. The operation would consist of "eight little planes." Bunker arrived in Riyadh on March 6. Faisal refused Bunker's offer, which was also hitched to pledges of reform. The original instructions for Operation Hard-surface were that American planes would "attack and destroy" any intruders over Saudi air space, but were later changed to read that the Saudis could defend themselves if attacked. Bunker evidently stuck to the original formula and stressed that if only Faisal would halt his aid to the royalists, the US would be able pressure Nasser to withdraw. Faisal eventually accepted the offer, and Bunker went on to meet with Nasser in Beirut, where the Egyptian President repeated the assurance he had given Bunche. The Bunche and Bunker mission gave birth to the idea of an observer mission to Yemen, which eventually became the United Nations Yemen Observation Mission. The U.N. observer team, which would be set up by the former UN Congo commander, Swedish Major General Carl von Horn. His disengagement agreement called for (1) Establishment of a demilitarized zone extending twenty kilometers on either side of a demarcated Saudi Arabian Yemen border, from which all military equipment was to be excluded; (2) Stationing of UN observers within this zone on both sides of the border to observe, report and prevent any continued attempt by the Saudis to supply royalist forces. On April 30, von Horn was sent to discover what kind of force was required. A few days later, he met with Amer in Cairo and found out that Egypt had no intention of drawing all its troops from Yemen. After a few more days, he was told by the Saudi deputy Minister for Foreign Affairs, Omar Saqqaff, that the Saudis would not accept any attempt by Egypt to leave security forces after their withdrawal. Saudi Arabia had already been cutting back on its support to the royalists, in part because Egypt's projected plan for unity with Syria and Iraq made Nasser seem too dangerous. By that time, the war cost Egypt \$1,000,000 a day and nearly 5,000 casualties. Although promising to remove her troops, Egypt had the privilege of leaving an unspecified number for the "training" of Yemen's republican army. In June, von Horn went to San'a, unsuccessfully trying to achieve the objective of 1) ending Saudi aid to the royalists, 2) creating a 25-mile demilitarized strip along the Saudi border, and 3) supervising the phased withdrawal of the Egyptian troops. In September, von Horn cabled his resignation to U Thant, who announced that the mission would continue, due to "oral assurances" by Egypt and Saudi Arabia to continue financing it. The number of Egyptian troops increased, and in the end of January, the "Hard-surface" squadron was withdrawn after a wrangle with Faisal. On September 4, 1964, the UN admitted failure and withdrew its mission. ### Egyptian offensives The Egyptian General Staff divided the Yemen War into three operational objectives. The first was the air phase, it began with jet trainers modified to strafe and carry bombs and ended with three wings of fighter-bombers, stationed near the Saudi-Yemeni border. Egyptian sorties went along the Tihama Coast of Yemen and into the Saudi towns of Najran and Jizan. It was designed to attack royalist ground formations and substitute the lack of Egyptian formations on the ground with high-tech air power. In combination with Egyptian air strikes, a second operational phase involved securing major routes leading to San'a, and from there secure key towns and hamlets. The largest offensive based on this operational tactic was the March 1963 "Ramadan Offensive" that lasted until February 1964, focused on opening and securing roads from San'a to Sadah to the North, and San'a to Marib to the East. The success of the Egyptian forces meant that royalist resistance could take refuge in hills and mountains to regroup and carry out hit-and-run offensives against republican and Egyptian units controlling towns and roads. The third strategic offensive was the pacification of tribes and their enticement to the republican government, meaning the expenditures of massive amounts of funds for humanitarian needs and outright bribery of tribal leaders. #### Ramadan offensive The Ramadan offensive began in February 1963 when Amer and Sadat arrived in San'a. Amer asked Cairo to double the 20,000 men in Yemen, and in early February the first 5,000 of the reinforcement arrived. On February 18 a task force of fifteen tanks, twenty armored cars, eighteen trucks and numerous jeeps took off from San'a' moving northwards, heading for Sadah. More garrison troops followed. A few days later another task force, spearheaded by 350 men in tanks and armored cars, struck out from Sadah southeastwards toward Marib. The maneuvered into the Rub al-Khali desert, perhaps well into Saudi territory, and there they were built up by an airlift. Then they headed westwards. On February 25 they occupied Marib and on March 7 they took Harib. A royalist force of 1,500 men ordered down from Najran failed to stop them on their way out from Sadah. The royalist commander at Harib fled to Beihan, on the British-protected side of the border. In the battle of El Argoup, 25 miles (40 km) southeast of San'a, 500 royalists under Prince Abdullah's command attacked an Egyptian position on top of a sheer-sided hill that was fortified with six Soviet T-54 tanks, a dozen armored cars and entrenched machine guns. The royalists advanced in a thin skirmish line and were plastered by artillery, mortars and strafing planes. They replied with rifles, one mortar with 20 rounds, and a bazooka with four rounds. The battle lasted a week and cost the Egyptians three tanks, seven armored cars and 160 dead. The Egyptians were now in positions from which they could hope to interdict the royalist movement of supplies in the mountains north and east of San'a'. In the beginning of April the royalists held a conference with Faisal in Riyadh. They decided to adopt new tactics, including attempts to get supplies around the positions now held by the Egyptians by using camels instead of trucks to cross the mountains to reach the positions east of San'a. Camel caravans from Beihan would swing into the Rub al-Khali and enter Yemen north of Marib. It was also decided that the royalists must now strengthen their operations west of the mountains with three "armies". By the end of April, they began to recover and contended to have regained some of the positions the Egyptians had taken in the Jawf, particularly the small but strategic towns of Barat and Safra, both in the mountains between Sadah and the Jawf, and were able to move freely in the eastern Khabt desert. In the Jawf they claimed to have cleaned up all Egyptian strong-points except Hazm, and in the west the town of Batanah. #### Haradh offensive On June 12, Egyptian infantry numbering at about 4,000, reinforced by the republican army and mercenaries from the Aden protectorate invaded the town of Beit Adaqah, about 30 miles (48 km) west of San'a, where Prince Abdullah held a front extending from the Hodeida road, through Kawakaban Province, to southern Hajjah. In two days, the attackers advanced about 12 miles (19 km), before being repelled by a counter-attack. The royalists admitted about 250 casualties. Next, the Egyptians attacked Sudah, about 100 miles (160 km) north-west of San'a. They used the unpopularity of the local royalist commander to bribe several local sheiks and occupied the town unopposed. After a month, the sheiks sent delegations to al-Badr soliciting pardons and asking for guns and money with which to fight the Egyptians. Al-Badr sent new forces and managed to regain the surroundings of Sudah, though not the town itself. On August 15, the Egyptians launched an offensive from their major north-western base in Haradh. They had 1,000 troops and about 2,000 republicans. The plan, as interpreted by British intelligence, seemed to have been to cut the 30 miles (48 km) track southward through the mountains from the Saudi border at Al Khubah to al-Badr's headquarters in the Qara mountains near Washa, and then to split into two task forces, one moving east through Washa to the headquarters and the other north-eastwards along the track to the Saudi border below the Razih mountains. The Egyptians began their move on Saturday morning, moving along the Haradh and Tashar ravines. On Saturday and Sunday afternoons they were caught in heavy rain and their vehicles, including twenty tanks and about forty armored cars sank axle deep into the mud. The defenders left them alone until Monday at dawn. Al-Badr left his headquarters at three that morning with 1,000 men to direct a counterattack in the Tashar ravine, while Abdullah Hussein attacked in the Haradh ravine. Meanwhile, the Egyptians had planned a coordinated drive from Sadah to the southwest, below the Razih mountains, hoping to link up with the force coming from Haradh. They were counting on a local sheik, whose forces were to supposed to join 250 Egyptian parachutists. The sheik failed to deliver, and the parachutists made their way back to Sadah, suffering losses from snipers on the way. Al-Badr had sent radio messages and summonses by runner in all directions calling for reinforcement. He asked reserve forces training in the Jawf to arrive in trucks mounting 55- and 57-millimeter cannon and 81 millimeter mortars and heavy machine guns. They arrived within forty-eight hours, in time to face the attackers. They outflanked the Egyptian columns, still stuck in mud in the ravines. They later announced they had knocked out ten of the Egyptian tanks and about half of their armored cars, and claimed to have shot down an Ilyushin bomber. The royalists also carried out two supporting movements. One was a raid on Jihana, in which several staff officers were killed. The second was an attempt, involving British advisors and French and Belgian mercenaries from Katanga, to bombard San'a from a nearby mountain peak. Other diversionary operations included raids on Egyptian aircraft and tanks at the south airport of San'a and a mortar at the Egyptian and republican residence in a suburb of Taiz. Although the Egyptians managed to drive al-Badr out of his headquarters to a cave on Jabal Shedah, they could not close the Saudi border. They declared victory on the radio and on the press, but were obliged to agree to a ceasefire on the upcoming Erkwit conference on November 2. ### Alexandria summit and Erkwit ceasefire In September, 1964, Nasser and Faisal met in the Arab summit in Alexandria. By that time Egypt had 40,000 troops in Yemen and had suffered an estimated 10,000 casualties. In their official communiqué the two leaders promised to 1) cooperate fully to solve the existing differences between the various factions in Yemen, 2) work together in preventing armed clashes in Yemen, and 3) reach a solution by peaceful agreement. The communiqué was widely hailed in the Arab world, and Washington called it a "statesmanlike action" and a "major step toward eventual peaceful settlement of the long civil war." Nasser and Faisal warmly embraced at Alexandria's airport and called each other "brother". Faisal said he was leaving Egypt "with my heart brimming with love for President Nasser." On November 2, at a secret conference in Erkwit, Sudan, the royalists and republicans declared a ceasefire effective at 1:00 PM on Monday, November 8. Tribesmen of both sides celebrated the decision until that day, and for two days after it went into effect, they fraternized at several places. On November 2 and 3, nine royalists and nine republicans, with a Saudi and an Egyptian observer, worked out the terms. A conference of 168 tribal leaders was planned for November 23. For the royalists, the conference was to become an embryo national assembly that would name a provisional national executive of two royalists, two republicans and one neutral, to administer the country provisionally and to plan a plebiscite. Until that plebiscite, which would decide whether Yemen would be a monarchy or a republic, both Sallal and al-Badr were to step aside. At the end of the two days the Egyptians resumed their bombing of royalist positions. The conference planned for November 23 was postponed to the 30th, then indefinitely. The republicans blamed the royalists for not arriving, while the royalists blamed the Egyptian bombings. ### Royalist offensive Between December 1964 and February 1965 the royalists discerned four Egyptian attempts to drive directly into the Razih mountains. The intensity of these thrusts gradually diminished, and it was estimated that the Egyptians lost 1,000 men killed, wounded and taken prisoner. Meanwhile, the royalists were building up an offensive. The Egyptian line of communications went from San'a to Amran, then Khairath, where it branched off north-eastwards to Harf. From Harf it turned due south to Farah, and then South-eastwards to Humaidat, Mutamah and Hazm. From Hazm it led south-eastwards to Marib and Harib. A military convoy went over this route twice a month. Since the royalists had closed the direct route across the mountains from San'a to Marib, the Egyptians had no other way. The royalists under the command of Prince Mohamed's objective was to cut the Egyptians' line and force them to withdraw. They intended to take over the garrisons along this line and establish positions from which they could interdict the Egyptian movement. They had prepared the attack with the help of the Nahm tribe, who tricked the Egyptians into believing that they were their allies and would take care of the mountain pass known as Wadi Humaidat themselves. The royalist deal was that the Nahm would be entitled to loot the ambushed Egyptians. The Egyptians may have suspected something was up, as they sent a reconnaissance aircraft over the area a day before the attack. The royalists thus occupied two mountains known as Asfar and Ahmar and installed 75-mm guns and mortars overlooking the wadi. On April 15, the day after the last Egyptian convoy went through, the royalists launched a surprise attack. Both forces numbered at only a couple of thousands. The guns positioned on Asfar and Ahmar opened fire, and then the Nahm came out from behind the rocks. Finally, Prince Mohamed's troops followed. This time, the royalists' operation was fully coordinated by radio. Some of the Egyptians surrendered without resistance, others fled to Harah 800 yards to the north. Both sides brought reinforcements and the battle shifted between Harf and Hazm. Meanwhile, Prince Abdullah bin Hassan began to raid Egyptian positions north-east of San'a at Urush, Prince Mohamed bin Mohsin was attacking the Egyptians with 500 men west of Humaidat, Prince Hassan struck out from near Sadah and Prince Hassan bin Hussein moved from Jumaat, west of Sadah, to within mortar-firing distance of the Egyptian airfield west of Sadah. Fifty Egyptians surrendered at Mutanah, near Humaidat. They were eventually allowed to evacuate to San'a with their arms. Mohamed's policy was to keep officers as prisoners for exchange, and to allow soldiers to go in return for their arms. Three to five thousand Egyptian troops in garrisons on the eastern slopes of the mountains and in the desert now had to be supplied entirely by air. ### Stalemate The royalist radio tried to widen the split in republican ranks by promising amnesty to all non-royalists once the Egyptians were withdrawn. Al-Badr also promised a new form of government: "a constitutionally democratic system" ruled by a "national assembly elected by the people of Yemen". At Sallal's request, Nasser provided him with ammunition and troop reinforcements by transport plane from Cairo. By August, the royalists had seven "armies", each varying in strength between 3,000 and 10,000 men, with a total somewhere between 40,000 and 60,000. There were also five or six times as many armed royal tribesmen, and the regular force under Prince Mohamed. In early June they moved into Sirwah in eastern Yemen. On June 14 they entered Qaflan and on July 16 they occupied Marib. According to official Egyptian army figures, they had 15,194 killed. The war was costing Egypt \$500,000 a day. The royalists had lost an estimated 40,000 dead. In late August, Nasser decided to get the Soviets more involved in the conflict. He convinced them to cancel a \$500 million debt he had incurred and provide military aid to the republicans. In early May, Sallal fired his Premier, General Hassan Amri, and appointed Ahmed Noman in his place. Noman was considered a moderate who believed in compromise. He had resigned as president of the republican Consultative Council in December in protest against Sallal's "failure to fulfill the people's aspirations". Noman's first act was to name a new 15-man Cabinet, maintaining an even balance between Yemen's two main tribal groupings, the mountain Zaidi Shias, who were mostly royalist, and the Shafi'i Sunnis, who were mostly republican. ### Nasser's "long-breath" strategy Egypt had run up a foreign debt of nearly \$3 billion, and the gap between exports and imports had widened to a record \$500 million for 1965. On Victory Day in Port Said, Nasser conceded that "We are facing difficulties. We must all work harder and make sacrifices. I have no magic button that I can push to produce the things you want". Premier Zakaria Mohieddin raised Egypt's income tax, added a "defense tax" on all sales, and boosted tariffs on nonessential imports. He also hiked the cost of luxury goods 25% and set low price ceilings on most foodstuffs. He sent 400 plainclothesmen to Cairo's to arrest 150 shopkeepers for price violations. In March 1966, the Egyptian forces, now numbering almost 60,000, launched their biggest offensive. The royalists counterattacked but the stalemate resumed. Egyptian-supported groups executed sabotage bombings in Saudi Arabia. In a speech on May Day, 1966, Nasser said the war was entering a new phase. He launched what he called a "long-breath strategy." The plan was to pare the army from 70,000 men to 40,000, withdraw from exposed positions in eastern and northern Yemen, and tighten the hold on particular parts of Yemen: the Red Sea coastline; a northern boundary that takes in the well-fortified town of Hajja and Sanaa; and the border with the South Arabian Federation, which was to become independent in 1968. Nasser insisted that attacks on Najran, Qizan and other "bases of aggression" would continue, arguing that "these were originally Yemeni towns, which the Saudis usurped in 1930". The Assistant Secretary of State for the Near East and South Asia, flew in for talks with both Faisal and Nasser. In Alexandria, Nasser refused to pull out his troops, despite the risk of losing part or all of a new \$150 million US food-distribution program, and another \$100 million worth of industrial-development aid. Later that month, Alexei Kosygin counseled Nasser not to risk a stoppage of the U.S. Food for Peace program because Russia could not afford to pay the bill. The Soviets were also willing to aid Nasser with arms and equipment in Yemen, but feared that a widening of the conflict to Saudi Arabia would lead to a "hot war" confrontation in the Middle East. Nasser was warned that "the Soviet Union would be displeased to see an attack on Saudi Arabia." In October, Sallal's palace in Sanaa was attacked with a bazooka, and insurgents began targeting an Egyptian army camp outside the city and setting fire to Egyptian installations, killing a reported 70 Egyptian troops. Sallal arrested about 140 suspects, including Mohamed Ruwainy, the ex-Minister for Tribal Affairs, and Colonel Hadi Issa, former deputy chief of staff of the armed forces. Sallal accused Ruwainy and Issa of organizing a "subversive network seeking to plunge the country into terrorism and panic" and planning a campaign of assassination, financed by Saudi Arabia, Britain, Israel and the US. Ruwainy, Issa and five others were executed, while eight others received prison sentences ranging from five years to life. In February, 1967, Nasser vowed to "stay in Yemen 20 years if necessary", while Prince Hussein bin Ahmed said "We are prepared to fight for 50 years to keep Nasser out, just as we did the Ottoman Turks." Tunisia broke diplomatic relations with the republic, saying that the Sallal government no longer has power to govern the country. Sallal's chargé d'affaires in Czechoslovakia flew to Beirut and announced that he was on his way to offer his services to the royalists. Nasser said that "As the situation now stands, Arab summits are finished forever." #### Chemical warfare The first use of gas took place on June 8, 1963 against Kawma, a village of about 100 inhabitants in northern Yemen, killing about seven people and damaging the eyes and lungs of twenty-five others. This incident is considered to have been experimental, and the bombs were described as "home-made, amateurish and relatively ineffective". The Egyptian authorities suggested that the reported incidents were probably caused by napalm, not gas. The Israeli Foreign Minister, Golda Meir, suggested in an interview that Nasser would not hesitate to use gas against Israel as well. There were no reports of gas during 1964, and only a few were reported in 1965. The reports grew more frequent in late 1966. On December 11, 1966, fifteen gas bombs killed two people and injured thirty-five. On January 5, 1967, the biggest gas attack came against the village of Kitaf, causing 270 casualties, including 140 fatalities. The target may have been Prince Hassan bin Yahya, who had installed his headquarters nearby. The Egyptian government denied using poison gas, claiming that Britain and the US were using the reports as psychological warfare against Egypt. On February 12, 1967, it said it would welcome a UN investigation. On March 1, U Thant said he was "powerless" to deal with the matter. On May 10, the twin villages of Gahar and Gadafa in Wadi Hirran, where Prince Mohamed bin Mohsin was in command, were gas bombed, killing at least seventy-five. The Red Cross was alerted and on June 2, it issued a statement in Geneva expressing concern. The Institute of Forensic Medicine at the University of Berne made a statement, based on a Red Cross report, that the gas was likely to have been halogenous derivatives – phosgene, mustard gas, lewisite, chlorine or cyanogen bromide. The gas attacks stopped for three weeks after the Six-Day War of June, but resumed on July, against all parts of royalist Yemen. Casualty estimates vary, and an assumption, considered conservative, is that the mustard and phosgene-filled aerial bombs caused approximately 1,500 fatalities and 1,500 injuries. ### Egyptian withdrawal By 1967, Egyptian forces relied exclusively on defending a triangle linking Hodeida, Taiz and San'a, while striking southern Saudi Arabia and North Yemen with air sorties. In August, 1967, in order to make up for the 15,000 Egyptian killed, captured or missing, as a result of the Six-Day War, Nasser recalled 15,000 of his troops from Yemen. Egypt imposed higher taxes on its middle and upper classes, raised workers' compulsory monthly savings by 50%, reduced overtime pay, cut the sugar ration by a third, and curtailed practically all major industrial programs. Only military expenditures were increased, by \$140 million to an estimated \$1 billion. Nasser also increased the price of beer, cigarettes, long-distance bus and railroad fares and admission to movies. Egypt was losing \$5,000,000 a week in revenues from the closing of the Suez Canal, on the other side of which, the Israelis were sitting on the Sinai wells that had produced half of Egypt's oil supply. Egypt's hard-currency debt was now approaching \$1.5 billion and its foreign-exchange reserves were down to \$100 million. As part of the Khartoum Resolution of August, Egypt announced that it was ready to end the war in Yemen. Egyptian Foreign Minister, Mahmoud Riad, proposed that Egypt and Saudi Arabia revive their Jeddah Agreement of 1965. Faisal expressed satisfaction with Nasser's offer, and al-Badr promised to send his troops to fight with Egypt against Israel, should Nasser live up to the Jeddah agreement Nasser and Faisal signed a treaty under which Nasser would pull out his 20,000 troops from Yemen, Faisal would stop sending arms to al-Badr, and three neutral Arab states would send in observers. Sallal accused Nasser of betrayal. Nasser unfroze more than \$100 million worth of Saudi assets in Egypt, and Faisal denationalized two Egyptian-owned banks that he had taken over earlier that year. Saudi Arabia, Libya, and Kuwait agreed to provide Egypt with an annual subsidy of \$266 million, out of which \$154 million was to be paid by Saudi Arabia. Sallal's popularity among his troops declined, and after two bazooka attacks on his home by disaffected soldiers, he took Egyptian guards. He ordered the execution of his security chief, Colonel Abdel Kader Khatari, after Khatari's police fired into a mob attacking an Egyptian command post in San'a, and had refused to recognize the committee of Arab leaders appointed at Khartoum to arrange peace terms. He also fired his entire Cabinet and formed a new one, installing three army men in key ministries, and took over the army ministry and the foreign ministry for himself. Meanwhile, Nasser announced the release of three republican leaders who had been held prisoner in Egypt for more than a year, and who were in favor of peace with the royalists. The three were Qadi Abdul Rahman Iryani, Ahmed Noman and General Amri. When Sallal met with Nasser in Cairo in early November, Nasser advised him to resign and go into exile. Sallal refused and went to Baghdad, hoping to get support from other Arab Socialists. As soon as he left Cairo, Nasser sent a cable to San'a, instructing his troops there not to block an attempt at a coup. ### Siege of Sanaa On November 5, Yemeni dissidents, supported by republican tribesmen called down to San'a, moved four tanks into the city's dusty squares, took over the Presidential Palace and announced over the government radio station that Sallal had been removed "from all positions of authority". The coup went unopposed. In Baghdad, Sallal asked for political asylum, saying "every revolutionary must anticipate obstacles and difficult situations". The Iraqi government offered him a home and a monthly grant of 500 dinars. The new republican government was headed by Qadi Abdul Rahman Iryani, Ahmed Noman, and Mohamed Ali Uthman. The Prime Minister was Mohsin al-Aini. Noman, however, remained in Beirut. He was doubtful of his colleagues reluctance to negotiate with the Hamidaddin family, preferring to expel it instead. On November 23, he resigned, and his place was taken by Hassan Amri. Prince Mohamed bin Hussein told the country's chiefs "We have money, and you will have your share if you join us. If not, we will go on without you". The chiefs agreed to mobilize their tribes. 6,000 royalist regulars and 50,000 armed tribesmen known as "the Fighting Rifles" surrounded San'a, captured its main airport and severed the highway to the port of Hodeida, a main route for Russian supplies. In a battle twelve miles east of the capital, 3,200 soldiers of both sides were killed, and an entire republican regiment reportedly deserted to the royalists. Bin Hussein gave them an ultimatum: "Surrender the city or be annihilated". Iryani went to Cairo for what the Egyptian official press agency called "a medical checkup". Foreign Minister Hassan Makki also left Yemen, leaving the government in charge of Amri. Amri declared a 6 p.m. curfew and ordered civilians to form militia units "to defend the republic". In Liberation Square, six suspected royalist infiltrators were publicly executed by a firing squad, and their bodies were later strung up on poles. The republicans boasted a new air force, while the royalists claimed to have shot down a MiG-17 fighter with a Russian pilot. The US State Department said that this claim, as well as reports of twenty-four MiGs and forty Soviet technicians and pilots who had arrived in Yemen, were correct. In January, the republicans were defending San'a with about 2,000 regulars and tribesmen, plus armed townsmen and about ten tanks. They also had the backing of a score or more fighter aircraft piloted by Russians or Yemenis who passed a crash course in the Soviet Union. The city could still feed itself from the immediately surrounding countryside. Between 4,000 and 5,000 royalists suffered from republican air power, but had the advantage of high ground. However, they did not have enough ammunition, as the Saudis had halted arms deliveries after the Khartoum agreement and stopped financing the royalists after December. ### Final accords By February 1968, the siege was lifted and the republicans had essentially won the war. Meanwhile, the British had withdrawn from the Federation of South Arabia, which had now become South Yemen. The royalists remained active until 1970. Talks between the two sides commenced while the fighting went on. The Foreign Minister, Hassan Makki, said "Better years of talk than a day of fighting". In 1970, Saudi Arabia recognized the Republic, and a ceasefire was effected. The Saudis gave the republic a grant of \$20 million, which was later repeated intermittently, and Yemeni sheikhs received Saudi stipends. ## Aftermath By 1971, both Egypt and Saudi Arabia had disengaged from Yemen. South Yemen formed a connection with the Soviet Union. In September 1971, Amri resigned after murdering a photographer in San'a, and more power was given to Iryani, the effective President. By then, the royalists were integrated into the new republic, except for al-Badr's family, and a consultative Council was established. Clashes along the border between the states rose, and in 1972 a small war broke. After the war, the tribes were better represented in the republican government. In 1969, sheikhs were brought into the National Assembly and in 1971 into the Consultative Council. Under Iryani, the sheikhs, particularly the ones who fought for the republicans and were close to the mediation attempt. By the end of the war there was a breach between the older and more liberal politicians and republican sheiks, and certain army sheiks and activists from South Yemen. In the summer of 1972, a border war broke and ended with a declaration from both North Yemen and South Yemen that they would reunite, but they did not. There were complaints in North Yemen about foreign influence by Saudi Arabia. ## Opposing forces ### Royalists Muhammad al-Badr led his campaign with the princes of the house of Hamidaddin. Those included Hassan bin Yahya, who had come from New York, Mohamed bin Hussein, Mohamed bin Ismail, Ibrahim al Kipsy, and Abdul Rahman bin Yahya. At fifty-six, Hassan bin Yahya was the oldest and most distinguished. Prince Hassan ibn Yahya was made Prime Minister and Commander-in-Chief. The Imam was joined by his childhood pen pal, American Bruce Conde, who set up the post office and would later rise to the rank of general in the Royalist forces. In 1963, the Saudis spent \$15 million to equip royalist tribes, hire hundreds of European mercenaries, and establish their own radio station. Pakistan, which saw a chance to make money in the conflict, extended rifles to the royalists. Remnants of the Imam's Army also had elements of the Saudi National Guard fight alongside its ranks. Iran subsidized royalist forces on and off, as the Shah (a ruler of a predominantly Shia country) felt compelled to provide al-Badr (a Zaidi Shia leader) with financing. The British allowed convoys of arms to flow through one of its allies in Northern Yemen, the Sheriff of Beijan, who was protected by the British administration in Aden. RAF planes conducted night operations to resupply al-Badr's forces. The MI6 was responsible for contacting the royalists, and used the services of a private company belonging to Colonel David Stirling, founder of the Special Air Service (SAS), who recruited dozens of former SAS men as advisors to the royalists. Britain participated in a \$400 million British air defense program for Saudi Arabia. The Lyndon Johnson administration was more willing than Kennedy's to support long-range plans in support of the Saudi army. In 1965, the US authorized an agreement with the Corps of Engineers to supervise the construction of military facilities and in 1966 it sponsored a \$100 million program which provided the Saudi forces with combat vehicles, mostly trucks. Faisal also initiated an Islamic alignment called the Islamic Conference, to counter Nasser's Arab socialism. The tribes of Southern Saudi Arabia and Northern Yemen were closely linked, and the Saudis enticed thousands of Yemeni workers in Saudi Arabia to assist the royalist cause. In addition to the Saudis and British, the Iraqis also sent plane loads of Baathist Yemenis to undermine Sallal's regime. The royalists fought for the Imam despite his father's unpopularity. One sheik said "The Imams have ruled us for a thousand years. Some were good and some bad. We killed the bad ones sooner or later, and we prospered under the good ones". The hill tribes were Shia, like the Imam, while the Yemenis of the coast and the south were Sunni, as were most Egyptians. President Sallal was himself a mountain Shia fighting with lowland Sunnis. Al-Badr himself was convinced that he was Nasser's biggest target, saying "Now I'm getting my reward for befriending Nasser. We were brothers, but when I refused to become his stooge, he used Sallal against me. I will never stop fighting. I will never go into exile. Win or lose, my grave will be here". Al-Badr had formed two royalist armies — one under his uncle Prince Hassan in the east and one under his own control in the west. Both armies controlled most of the north and east of Yemen, including the towns of Harib and Marib. The provincial capital of Northern Yemen, Sadah, which would have given the Imam a key strategic road towards the main capital San'a, was controlled by the republicans. There were also areas like the town of Hajjah, where the royalists controlled the mountains while the Egyptians and republicans controlled the town and fortress. Mercenaries from France, Belgium and England, who had fought in Rhodesia, Malaya, Indochina and Algeria, were sent to assist the Imam in planning, training and giving the irregular forces the ability to communicate with one another and the Saudis. They trained tribesmen in the use of antitank weapons, such as the 106mm gun and in mining techniques. The numbers of mercenaries are estimated in the hundreds, although Egyptian sources at the time reported 15,000. Royalist tactics were confined to guerilla warfare, isolating conventional Egyptian and republican forces, and conducting attacks on supply lines. #### British involvement 1962–1965 Between 1962 and 1965 Britain engaged in covert operations in support of Royalist forces fighting the Egyptian backed Republican regime that had seized power in the Yemeni capital Sana'a in September 1962. Until the end of 1965, the British presence in Aden was considered of high interest to the United Kingdom, linked to the realization of oil assets in the Middle East. The means to secure this presence however involved a bitter argument within the British government, with no coherency in decision making on the Yemen issue. The objective of the British was mainly keeping the Aden base via cooperating with the Federation of South Arabia, which complicated British relations with many global and regional players, as well as with the rulers of South Arabia themselves. The British involvement was executed mainly via the British Mercenary Organization (BMO), which was capable to stage its own covert operations, independent of London and away from the view of their sponsor Saudi Arabia. The BMO was specifically formed to train and support the royalists on the course of the war. According to Duff Hart-Davis, the British mercenary leader Jim Johnson had originally considered buying their own aircraft, a Lockheed Constellation 749. He then flew to Teheran to try to persuade the Iranians to do an air drop. Hart-Davis further claims that success was finally achieved by an adviser to the mercenaries, the MP Neil "Billy" McLean, who privately (without the British government's knowledge) flew to Tel Aviv to meet Moshe Dayan, defense minister, and Meir Amit, head of Mossad. According to "Haaretz" newspaper, Tony Boyle contacted David Karon, the head of the Middle East department in the Tevel (Cosmos) section of the Mossad, and met with IAF commander Ezer Weizman and his officers. It was decided that the airdrops would be made. Haaretz suggested the crew of the airdrops were British; while according to Hart-Davis the crew were Israeli (including the pilot named Arieh Oz), with Tony Boyle on board as an observer. Three decades after the war, former Mossad director, Shabtai Shavit, and Ariel Sharon both said Israel had been clandestinely involved in Yemen, though both remained vague concerning the nature and scale of the involvement. The airlifts were originally codenamed Operation Gravy, but were later renamed Operation Porcupine. The IAF's largest transport plane, a Stratofreighter, was recruited for the British operation. According to Jones, what is clear however is that some of the mercenary air drops to the royalists (code-named "Mango") were organized by the British using an aircraft, which were contracted privately from IAF to the British mercenary operation and were either using Israeli air bases or Israeli transport planes themselves making the drops. According to Hart-Davis, the Israelis had systematically concealed the source of the weapons delivered by the mercenaries, brazing out all the serial numbers, using Italian parachutes, and even ensuring that the packaging consisted of wood-shavings from Cyprus. The contracted aircraft flew along the Saudi coastline. The Saudis did not have radar systems, and would later state they were not aware of the airlifts. The planes would make the drops and then refuel in French Somaliland (now Djibouti) and return to bases in Israel. The Porcupine operation went on over a period of slightly more than two years, during which the Stratofreighter carried out 14 nighttime sorties from Tel Nof to Yemen. British support to the royalists remained covert throughout. The Prime Minister Alec Douglas-Home replied to Michael Foot's parliamentary question on 14 May 1964, having according to Hart-Davis "to skate across thin ice" by saying "Our policy towards the Yemen is one of non-intervention in the affairs of that country. It is not therefore our policy to supply arms to the Royalists in the Yemen, and the Yemen Government have not requested these or other forms of aid." To a further question (by George Wigg), Douglas-Home said that "at no time in the last eighteen months have British arms been supplied to the Imam's Government". Hart-Davis notes that this "may have been strictly true; but ... a great many weapons of non-British provenance had been spirited into the Yemen through Jim Johnson's machinations." Their content was published by Al-Ahram and then broadcast by Cairo radio on 1 May 1964. Al-Ahram quoted an estimate for British, French and other foreigners of "over 300 officers", "directed from Britain and most probably under the command of British Intelligence". On 5 July 1964 the Sunday Times published the letters, connecting "these Buchanesque freebooters" (Cooper and his team) with Tony Boyle. However, the British Government was able to continue denying any knowledge of mercenary activity. On 21 July 1964, Douglas-Home replied to a parliamentary question by saying "Both the present High Commissioner and his predecessor have assured us that they were not aware that the person in question (Tony Boyle) was involved in any way". The following day (22 July 1964), Douglas-Home sent a memorandum to the Foreign Secretary Rab Butler, in which he "decreed that the United Kingdom should 'make life intolerable' for Nasser, 'with money and arms', and that this 'should be deniable if possible'." The result was that a secret Joint Action Committee was created to handle British policy on Yemen. The British support continued until 1965, when the Kingdom decided to abandon its Aden Colony. #### Saudi and Jordanian support Saudis and Jordanians provided an active support to the royalists through the first years of war. The September 1962 coup d'état in Yemen was perceived a threat to the monarchies in both Saudi Arabia and Jordan, prompting shipments of weapons to the royalists, beginning October 1. The support to the monarchists was quickly countered by the Egyptian aid to the Republicans, rapidly spiraling the country into a full-scale war, as the Republicans called for general mobilization and the Egyptians dispatched their troops. On November 4, with the war expanding across North Yemen, the Mecca Radio reported of Egyptian air force attacks on Saudi villages. The same day, a military alliance of Saudi Arabia and Jordan became widely known. Following the Egyptian raids on Saudi Arabia and the official Joint Defense Pact formed between Egypt and the Republicans, the Saudis decided to launch attacks on the Republicans in North Yemen. The Jordanians withdrew from the war in 1963, by recognizing the Republicans, but the Saudi support continued. At some point Saudi border towns and airfields were attacked by Egyptian forces in order to "prevent Saudi supplies and ammunition from reaching Royalist-held areas in the Yemen". ### Republicans and Egyptian deployment The republicans were supported by Egypt and were supplied warplanes from the Soviet Union. Anwar Sadat was convinced that a regiment reinforced with aircraft could firmly secure Al-Sallal and his free officer movement, but within three months of sending troops to Yemen, Nasser realized that this would require a larger commitment than anticipated. A little less than 5,000 troops were sent in October 1962. Two months later, Egypt had 15,000 regular troops deployed. By late 1963, the number was increased to 36,000; and in late 1964, the number rose to 50,000 Egyptian troops in Yemen. In late 1965, the Egyptian troop commitment in Yemen was at 55,000 troops, which were broken into 13 infantry regiments of one artillery division, one tank division and several Special Forces as well as paratroop regiments. Ahmed Abu-Zeid, who served as Egypt's ambassador to royalist Yemen from 1957 to 1961, sent numerous reports on Yemen that did not reach Ministry of Defense officials. He warned Egyptian officials in Cairo, including Defense Minister Amer, that the tribes were difficult and had no sense of loyalty or nationhood. He opposed sending Egyptian combat forces and, arguing that only money and equipment be sent to the Yemeni Free Officers, and warned that the Saudis would finance the royalists. Egyptian field commanders complained of a total lack of topographical maps causing a real problem in the first months of the war. Commanders had difficulty planning military operations effectively or sending back routine and casualty reports without accurate coordinates. Field units were given maps that were only of use for aerial navigation. Chief of Egyptian Intelligence, Salah Nasr, admitted that information on Yemen was nonexistent. Egypt had not had an embassy in Yemen since 1961; therefore when Cairo requested information from the US ambassador to Yemen, all he provided was an economic report on the country. In 1963 and 1964, the Egyptians had five squadrons of aircraft in Yemen at airfields near San'a and Hodeida. They were using Yak-11 piston-engined fighters, MiG-15 and MiG-17 jet fighters, Ilyushin Il-28 twin-engined bombers, Ilyushin Il-14 twin-engined transports and Mil Mi-4 transport helicopters. They were also flying four-engined Tupolev bombers from bases in Egypt, such as Aswan. All the air crew were Egyptian, except for the Tupolev bombers which were thought to have mixed Egyptian and Russian personnel. The Ilyushin transports flying between Egypt and Hodeida had Russian crews. Throughout the war, the Egyptians relied on airlift. In January 1964, when royalist forces placed San'a under siege, Egyptian Antonov heavy-lift cargo planes airlifted tons of food and kerosene into the region. The Egyptians estimate that hundreds of millions of dollars were spent to equip Egyptian and republican Yemeni forces, and in addition, Moscow refurbished the Al-Rawda Airfield outside San'a. The politburo saw a chance to gain a toehold on the Arabian Peninsula and accepted hundreds of Egyptian officers to be trained as pilots for service in the Yemen War. Egyptian air and naval forces began bombing and shelling raids in the Saudi southwestern city of Najran and the coastal town of Jizan, which were staging points for royalist forces. In response, the Saudis purchased a British Thunderbird air defense system and developed their airfield in Khamis Mushayt. Riyadh also attempted to convince Washington to respond on its behalf. President Kennedy sent only a wing of jet fighters and bombers to Dhahran Airbase, demonstrating to Nasser the seriousness of American commitment to defending U.S. interests in Saudi Arabia. ## Peace attempts: Khamir, Jeddah, and Haradh conferences ### Khamir Noman spoke over Radio San'a, offering reconciliation and inviting "all tribes of all persuasions" to meet with him the following week at Khamir, 50 miles north of San'a, to achieve "the one thing which we all prize over anything else: peace for the nation." In order to convince al-Badr to come the conference, Noman announced that he personally would head the republican delegation at Khamir, and that Sallal would stay in San'a. Al-Badr and his ranking chiefs did not attend the conference, but a handful of pro-royalist sheiks were present. The conference named a committee of five tribal and four religious leaders who were charged with seeking out the "beguiled brothers", al-Badr and his friends. Noman's effort, including a private promise to reach a withdrawal of Egyptian troops, was backed by Nasser. Radio Cairo hailed the Khamir conference as the "dawn of a new era." Sallal called the talks "a complete success", while al-Badr stated that "It is essential that the conflict which has devastated our beloved country be brought to an end by peaceful negotiations between the Yemeni people themselves." However, by early June, when Noman said that Egypt's 50,000 troops would have to be replaced by a joint royalist-republican peace force, the Nasserites lost interest in the deal. After Noman flew to Cairo to protest directly to Nasser, Sallal threw seven civilian Cabinet ministers into jail. Noman resigned, saying "It is obvious that Sallal and his cronies are more interested in war than peace". Sallal soon named a new Cabinet to replace Noman's, with 13 military men and two civilians. ### Jeddah By August, the war was costing Nasser \$1,000,000 a day, when he arrived in Jedda harbor aboard his presidential yacht Hurriah (Freedom) to negotiate with Faisal. It was Nasser's first visit to Saudi Arabia since 1956. At the request of the Egyptians, due to assassination rumors, the banners and flags normally put up to celebrate a visiting dignitary were omitted, the sidewalks were cleared of people, and the car was a special bulletproof model. On the evening of his arrival, Nasser was welcomed at a banquet and reception for 700 guests. In less than 48 hours they reached full agreement. Once the agreement was signed, Faisal embraced Nasser and kissed him on both cheeks. The agreement provided for: 1. The gradual withdrawal of the Egyptian force within a ten-month period and the cessation of all Saudi help to the royalists; and 2. The formation of a Yemen Congress of fifty, representing all factions, which would be charged with forming a transitional regime and establishing procedures for a national plebiscite to determine Yemen's future government. ### Haradh On November 23, the two sides met in Haradh. The first issue was the name of the transition state that was supposed to exist until a plebiscite could be held the following year. The royalists wanted the name "Kingdom of Yemen" but were willing to settle for a neutral title like "State of Yemen". The republicans insisted on having the word "republic" or "republican" in the title. It was agreed to suspend the conference until after the month-long fast of Ramadan, which was about to begin the following week. The conference reached a deadlock when the Egyptians, possibly due to a tactical decision made by Amer, encouraged the republicans to take a headstrong stand. ## See also - Aden Emergency - Bruce Conde - Houthi takeover in Yemen - List of modern conflicts in the Middle East - Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen - Saudi Arabian–led intervention in Yemen - Houthi insurgency in Yemen
12,219,151	Aubrey Gibson	1,168,312,106	Australian businessman	[ "1901 births", "1973 deaths", "20th-century Australian businesspeople", "20th-century Australian philanthropists", "Australian art collectors", "Australian art patrons", "Australian people of English descent", "Australian people of Scottish descent", "Businesspeople from Melbourne", "People educated at Melbourne Grammar School", "People from Kew, Victoria", "University of Melbourne alumni" ]	Aubrey Hickes Lawson Gibson (4 May 1901 – 26 March 1973) was an Australian businessman, arts patron and art collector. Born and educated in Melbourne, Gibson became a successful businessman in the city, establishing his own company, A.H. Gibson Industries, which was listed on the stock exchange in the 1950s. He was also a director of other major manufacturers and distributors, including Volkswagen Australasia and Hoover Australia. Gibson is notable for his services to the arts. He maintained a substantial private art collection. He was a founding director of the Australian Elizabethan Theatre Trust and of the National Trust of Australia, and deputy-chairman of the National Gallery of Victoria. ## Personal Gibson was born on 4 May 1901 in Kew, Melbourne. The third child of Scottish business manager John Gibson and English born wife Ellen née Lawson, he was schooled at Melbourne Grammar and the University of Melbourne. He briefly studied art at the National Gallery of Victoria drawing school, but concluded that art was not his vocation. He said of that time that "with little resistance I allowed myself to be guided into commercial fields". He married twice, with children from both marriages. His first wife was Marjorie Isabel Kimpton, whom he married in Melbourne on 3 February 1930, and with whom he had a daughter and a son. They were later divorced, and on 19 September 1947 in Colombo he remarried to Gertrude Jean Balfour, with whom he also had a son. Gibson lived in Hopetoun Rd, Toorak, Victoria for much of his life, but toward the end of his career he maintained a residence in Arthur Circle, Forrest in Canberra. Gibson died on 26 March 1973, survived by his second wife and a child of each of his marriages. ## Professional career Gibson pursued a successful business career. He worked as a salesman for Hoover products. In January 1933 he established his own company A.H. Gibson (Electrical), which was a distributor of electrical appliances and parts. He also spent some time working in New York. His company became A.H. Gibson Industries Ltd, and was listed on the stock exchange from 1949 to 1959, during which period he was chairman and managing director. Gibson also held other directorships, most notably of Volkswagen Australasia from 1961 to 1967 and Hoover Australia from 1964 to 1970. An active member of Victoria's wider business community in the 1940s, he was President of the Electricity and Radio Federation of Victoria (1947–1949) and President of the Institute of Sales and Business Management (1946–1949). Gibson's business interests were complemented by other activities, including farming land at Berwick, Victoria. Gibson was active in what is now the army reserve. He was made a lieutenant in the Melbourne University Rifles in 1922, and by the time of World War II had risen to the rank of major in the reserves. Seconded to the Second Australian Imperial Force on 13 May 1940, Gibson served in Australia and in the middle east (1940–1942), where he performed adjutant and quartermaster-general duties. He was made a lieutenant-colonel in the Reserve of Officers on 13 May 1945, and was made honorary colonel when placed on the retired list in 1951. ## Collecting and commissioning works of art Although his career as an artist was fleeting, Gibson's career as a patron and lover of art was lifelong. In the 1950s and 1960s Gibson made major contributions to the arts in Australia, both as a collector and a patron of arts organisations. He acquired the works of some of Australia's most highly regarded artists, such as Russell Drysdale, Albert Tucker and John Brack. Other artists well represented in his collection included Noel Counihan, John Passmore, Clifton Pugh, Arnold Shore and Clive Stephen. As a collector, Gibson's tastes were eclectic. At the same time as acquiring paintings by "the younger Australian painters" of his time, he was also collecting antique English silver. This led one writer to exclaim of his collection that "it must surely cover more ground than almost any other private one in this country". Toward the end of his life the collection included over 560 items from artists of over 30 countries. His fascination with silver also led him to spend time during a visit to Europe in 1952, learning from the British silversmith Robert Stone how silverware was made. This was an experience recounted in Gibson's only book The Rosebowl, so named because of a commission Gibson sought of Stone. The Rosebowl was an account of a trip around the world taken by Gibson and his wife in 1951. It described his visits to cultural institutions and contained ruminations on cultural collections policy. Reflecting on the damage caused by World War II to cultural artifacts, art and architecture, he advocated a wide distribution of works of art around the world, to afford them greater protection. He was to have an opportunity to pursue these views in later roles with the National Gallery of Victoria. The silver rosebowl was one of a range of works commissioned by Gibson. Others included three portraits of himself: one by Manx artist Bryan Kneale, one by Australian artist Noel Counihan, and a sketch by Archibald Prize-winning artist Louis Kahan, this last being in the University of Melbourne's Clem Christesen collection. ## Gibson and the arts in Australia Gibson actively supported many Australian arts organisations. He was director of the Australian Elizabethan Theatre Trust at its foundation in 1954, as well as being its Victorian chairman from 1955 to 1967, and president from 1968 to 1971. The Trust was instrumental in the foundation of major Australian arts institutions including Opera Australia, orchestras in Sydney and Melbourne, and the National Institute of Dramatic Arts. Gibson was variously trustee, treasurer and deputy chairman of the National Gallery of Victoria (NGV) in the period 1956 to 1964. The NGV was Australia's oldest public gallery, its acquisitions largely funded by the massive but dwindling Felton Bequest. Gibson was one of several new faces brought to the Gallery's board at a critical time: the Victorian government had announced a decision to build a new National Gallery in Melbourne, and governance of the existing institution was undergoing significant upheaval. Gibson was reported to be "always a man of strong opinions", bringing a robust and blunt character to some of the meetings of the Gallery's trustees. The trustees were concerned that the substantial resources of the institution's rich Felton Bequest were not being applied effectively to ensure the representation of contemporary schools of art in the Gallery's collection. Seeking to directly support the NGV, Gibson financed the purchase of works by and for the Gallery, as well as making his personal collection available for exhibition. He provided a donation in 1962 allowing the NGV to purchase the Clement Meadmore sculpture Duolith III. Gibson purchased Tom Roberts' major painting Coming South, for \$20000, presenting it to the NGV in 1967. A selection from Gibson's extensive personal collection was presented as an NGV exhibition in 1969. Gibson played many other roles in the arts, through societies of artists, of collectors, and through boards of which he was a member as a result of his involvement with the Australian Elizabethan Theatre Trust. These included Deputy Chairman of the Melbourne Theatre Company from 1960 to 1968. He was a foundation member of the National Trust of Australia (Victoria) in 1955, and co-founded the Society of Collectors of Fine Arts.
42,467,942	Dovecot at Blackford Farm	1,072,160,757	Grade II* listed building	[ "Dovecotes", "Exmoor", "Grade II* listed buildings in West Somerset", "Scheduled monuments in West Somerset" ]	The Dovecot At Blackford Farm in Selworthy on Exmoor within the English county of Somerset was probably built in the 11th century. It is a Grade II\* listed building, and scheduled monument. The cylindrical stone dovecote has a cone shaped roof. It contains over 300 nest boxes. The pigeons would have been domesticated for food, possibly by Montacute Priory or by the local lord of the manor. It is now owned by the National Trust and used as a store for the neighbouring farm. ## History The earliest written record of the dovecote was in 1393 although the exact date of construction is not known. It was attached to a mansion house which burnt down in 1875. The manor previously belonged to Montacute Priory, a Cluniac priory of the Benedictine order, founded between 1078 and 1102 although it is not known if the construction of the dovecote was undertaken by the priory or the Lovel family who later held the manor. Pigeons and doves were an important food source historically kept for their eggs, flesh (squab), and dung. The dovecote which forms part of the property of the Holnicote Estate, was donated to the National Trust by Sir Richard Thomas Dyke Acland, 15th Baronet in 1944. It was scheduled as an ancient monument in 1949 and designated as a Grade II\* listed building in 1969. Repairs were undertaken to the dovecote in 1993. The building is used as a store by the neighbouring farmer. ## Architecture The building is cylindrical with an external diameter of 23 feet 6 inches (7.16 m) and is 15 feet (4.6 m) high to the eaves. The walls, which are 4 feet (1.2 m) thick, are built of Devonian sandstone. The doorway was widened to its current height of 6 feet 3 inches (1.91 m) high and 3 feet 6 inches (1.07 m) wide in the 19th century replacing a much smaller door which would have been present when it was used as a dovecote. It contains over 300 nest holes. These are arranged into 11 tiers with an irregular pattern. Each of the boxes is approximately 11 inches (280 mm) wide and 20 inches (510 mm) wide but the opening is smaller than the interior of the box. The lowest boxes are about 2 feet 6 inches (0.76 m) above the earth floor which kept them above the damp and away from brown rats which became common in the area in the 18th century. The original hole in the roof for the entry of the pigeons was covered by a flat stone and is now covered with glass to keep the interior dry. The interior of the roof has putlog holes rather than nesting boxes but may also have been used by pigeons.
69,203,588	Hans (comic book)	1,140,303,661	Franco-Beglian comic book series	[ "1980 comics debuts", "2000 comics endings", "Bandes dessinées", "Fiction about time travel", "Polish comics", "Post-apocalyptic comics", "Science fiction comics", "Works originally published in Tintin (magazine)" ]	Hans (Polish: Yans) is a science fiction Franco-Belgian comic with the story written by the Belgian writer André-Paul Duchâteau and drawn by Polish artists Grzegorz Rosiński and later by Zbigniew Kasprzak [pl] (Kas). It was published from 1980 to 2000 and has been collected in twelve volumes published in France by Le Lombard. It has also been translated into Polish, German, Italian, and Greek (the first six issues). The primary motif of the series is the desire for freedom. The first books have an oppressive post-apocalyptic setting, while the later books move into a space opera setting; the shift in the tone is relevant to the end of the Cold War. ## Plot summary The series tells the story of special agent Hans, caught up in a struggle for power in a totalitarian city, the only one left on Earth after a nuclear war. During his adventures, which include both space and time travel, Hans falls in love with Orchid, one of the outlaws who live in the ravaged areas around his home city. Eventually, Orchid gives birth to their daughter, Mahonia. With time, Hans becomes the ruler of the city and has to face numerous threats both within the city and outside it. ## Development In 1976 young Polish comic book artist Grzegorz Rosiński met Belgian comic book writers Jean Van Hamme and André-Paul Duchâtea during an exhibition in Germany. The Belgians were impressed by Rosiński's art style and decided to work with him on some unspecified future project, tentatively "about Vikings", since Rosiński, because of the ongoing Cold War, did not want to work on any story set in the modern world. The Viking project would eventually materialize in the form of the Thorgal series, which debuted in 1977. In 1978, Duchâteau drafted a new, science-fiction themed story, and again asked Rosiński to work in it. The series debuted with La Tour du désespoir, a short story, in early August 1980 in the Franco-Belgian magazine Tintin. At first, Duchâteau was unsure if he wanted to develop Hans into a full-fledged series, and so in the internal chronology of the series, that first story is set an unspecified time after the events of Volume 1 (La Dernière Île, 1983); it is also often omitted from smaller reprint runs. Hans also appeared in few other short stories. In 1986 a one page short story featuring Hans was published in French magazine Circus [fr] and another, two page short story was part of Tintin's 40th anniversary special edition (featuring Hans saving Tintin from a meteor strike). The series was at first published in comic book magazines (in Tintin until 1989, then in La Suisse [fr] and Hello Bédé [fr]), before being collected in larger volumes, of which twelve were eventually published. From Volume 7 (Les Enfants de l'infini, 1994) onward, the stories were not published elsewhere before appearing in book form. Work on Volume 13, tentatively called Les Amazones, was eventually cancelled due to publishers preferring other projects (although Duchâteau finished the work on the script for Volume 13), with Volume 12 (Le Pays des abysses), published in 2000, marking the final volume of the series. The series has been republished in France by Le Lombard in twelve volumes. In the late 1980s, Rosiński became increasingly busy working on the popular Thorgal series, and started looking for someone to take over Hans, eventually deciding on another Polish artist Zbigniew Kasprzak [pl] (pen name Kas), whose style, Rosiński felt, would be most true to his own. Kasprzak started working with Rosiński during Volume 5 (La Loi d'Ardélia), with Kasprzak focused on drawing the characters, and Rosiński on the backgrounds. Kasprzak took over from Volume 6 (La Planète aux sortilèges) onward, although some early editions incorrectly listed Rosiński as contributing to volumes 6, 7 and 8. From early 1990s, Kasprzak's wife Grażyna (pen name Graza [pl]) took over coloring of the series. ## Volumes The series is composed of 12 volumes (not counting the first, the short story La Tour du désespoir). - 0, La Tour du désespoir, August 1980. Story: André-Paul Duchâteau Art: Grzegorz Rosiński - 1, La Dernière Île, (), June 1983. Story: André-Paul Duchâteau Art: Grzegorz Rosiński - 2, Le Prisonnier de l'éternité, (), July 1985. Story: André-Paul Duchâteau Art: Grzegorz Rosiński - 3, Les Mutants de Xanaïa, (), September 1986. Story: André-Paul Duchâteau Art: Grzegorz Rosiński - 4, Les Gladiateurs, (), October 1988. Story: André-Paul Duchâteau Art: Grzegorz Rosiński - 5, La Loi d'Ardélia, (), April 1990. Story: André-Paul Duchâteau Art: Grzegorz Rosiński, Kas - 6, La Planète aux sortilèges, (), September 1993. Story: André-Paul Duchâteau Art: Kas - 7, Les Enfants de l'infini, (), April 1994. Story: André-Paul Duchâteau Art: Kas Colors: Graza - 8, Le Visage du monstre, (), February 1996. Story: André-Paul Duchâteau Art: Kas Colors: Graza - 9, La Princesse d'Ultis, (), December 1997. Story: André-Paul Duchâteau Art: Kas Colors: Graza - 10, Le Péril arc-en-ciel, (), October 1998. Story: André-Paul Duchâteau Art: Kas Colors: Graza - 11, Le Secret du temps, (), November 1999. Story: André-Paul Duchâteau Art: Kas Colors: Graza - 12, Le Pays des abysses, (), December 2000. Story: André-Paul Duchâteau Art: Kas Colors: Graza The series has been translated to several languages, including Polish Italian and German. A number of collected editions have also been released; for example the Egmont Polska volumes compile the series in three books, each composed of four volumes. ## Reception The series has received a number of reprints and translations. In 2001, Ksenia Chamerska, reviewing the series for the Polish magazine Świat Komiksu [pl], praised Duchâteau for the novel ideas and surprising plot twists. Daniel Koziarski, reviewing the series in 2015 for the Polish portal Rebelya, commented that the quality of the series, impressive at first, declined near the end. ## Analysis Duchâteau listed Brave New World and Alice in the Wonderland as inspirations, and described the motifs of the series as primarily praise of escaping to freedom and democracy, and secondarily a critique of tyranny. Adventure and love were also important aspects. He also considered that his troubled childhood, and the oppressive figure of his father, might be represented in some of the antagonists found in the series. Duchâteau also noted that Hans was inspired by Rosiński himself, and the dystopian theme of the struggle against the brutal, totalitarian ruler of the city was a nod towards the reality of the Cold War (Rosiński and Kasprzak lived in the communist People's Republic of Poland). The end of the communist regime in Poland in 1989 is represented by the shift in the tone of the series. The first books have an oppressive post-apocalyptic setting, while the latter move into a space opera setting; they also become less focused on Hans and more on other members of his growing family. Duchâteau also noted that the series allowed him to be more creative than the realistic Ric Hochet series he worked on concurrently. Duchâteau chose the German name Hans for the character, as he wanted a simple, recognizable name, and decided to settle on the one known through the Hansel and Gretel fairy tale. When the series was published in Poland in the 1980s, the publisher decided to change the protagonist's name and the title to Yans, as the German name was unpopular in Poland, due to the long history of troubled Polish-German relations, and particularly the recent memory of World War II. Early Polish editions used the Polish version of Hans (Jan) instead of Yans before settling on the latter.
5,087,387	Nan Chiau High School	1,151,731,414	null	[ "1947 establishments in Singapore", "Anchorvale", "Education in North-East Region, Singapore", "Educational institutions established in 1941", "Educational institutions established in 1947", "Schools in Sengkang", "Secondary schools in Singapore", "Sengkang", "Singapore Hokkien Huay Kuan schools" ]	Nan Chiau High School (NCHS) (traditional Chinese: 南僑中學; simplified Chinese: 南侨中学; pinyin: Nánqiáo Zhōngxué; Wade–Giles: Nan<sup>2</sup>Ch'iao<sup>2</sup> Chung<sup>1</sup>hsüeh<sup>2</sup>) is a co-educational government-aided institution in Sengkang, Singapore affiliated to the Singapore Hokkien Huay Kuan. It offers the four-year Express (Special) course for secondary education. Founded in 1947, the institution operates under the Special Assistance Plan (SAP), with the mission to nurture bilingual and bi-cultural scholars who are highly knowledgeable in the Chinese language and culture. Affirmed as the North Zone Centre of Excellence for Chinese Language, the institution is known for its strong Chinese foundation in terms of teaching of the language and promulgation of the heritage and culture, which are not confined to the classrooms. To date, Nan Chiau High has nurtured three President's Scholars, and is currently one of Singapore's leading schools for Infocomm Technology. It is also one of the joint organisers of the National Secondary School Chinese Creative Writing Competition. ## History ### Nan Chiau Teachers' Training College (1941–1947) Nan Chiau High School was initially established as Nan Chiau Teachers' Training College in 1941 by Mr Tan Kah Kee, a Chinese businessman, community leader and philanthropist, to support the local education needs. The initial schooling site was incorporated from mansions donated by Mr Lee Kong Chian, on a plot of land in River Valley. The campus was used as the base and training barracks for Dalforce, a Chinese volunteers’ army formed promptly before the Japanese invasion in 1942. ### Nan Chiau Girls High School (1947–1984) After the war, the demand for education rose, especially for high school education. There was also a rising need to cater to students enrolled in the elementary schools affiliated to the Singapore Hokkien Huay Kuan. Thus, Nan Chiau Teachers' Training College was converted into a girls' high school on 8 March 1947, featuring a primary school section. Mr Yang Zhen Li was the first principal of the institution, which had an initial student enrolment of 900 students. A female hostel was also built in the 1950s. By the 1960s, Nan Chiau Girls' High had gained reputation as one of the state's top high schools. In 1965, the Singapore Hokkien Huay Kuan spent 2 million dollars to rebuild Nan Chiau Girl's High School to meet the needs of an increased student enrolment. During the re-construction, the high school section conducted lessons at a temporary campus at Guillemard Road, while the primary school section continued lessons at the unaffected classroom blocks of the Kim Yam Road campus. The new campus was officially opened by then Minister for Education Mr. Ong Pang Boon, on 8 March 1969. In 1974, the student population of the institution went up to 2700, the highest in the school's history, with 48 classes in the six-year high-school section and 24 classes at the primary-school section. Two-year pre-university classes were also offered to top students alongside senior high classes, with good GCE Advanced Level examination results yearly. To cope with the increased enrolment, additional 300 thousand dollars was spent for constructing the 5th storey of the school building. In 1978, Nan Chiau Girls' High was initially included in the list of 12 newly accorded Special Assistance Plan schools. However, with the concern from the Ministry of Education over the surplus of school places that might hinder the success of the scheme, the number of SAP schools were amended to nine, which excluded Nan Chiau Girl's High School. In 1980, the institution ceased senior high and pre-university classes following the changes to the education system, and adopted English as its language medium. As student enrolment started to decline, the institution went co-educational in 1984 with the enrolment of male students, and was renamed "Nan Chiau High School" ### Relocation to Sengkang In the 1990s, calls for Nan Chiau High to consider attaining independent status surfaced amidst shrinking student population, stating of the institution's ample human and financial backing along with its affiliation with several Special Assistance Plan primary schools, under the auspices of Singapore Hokkien Huay Kuan. Nearing the end of the decade, the declining student population became more significant and the institution was on the verge of permanent closure. In 2000, Nan Chiau High School relocated to Sengkang New Town under an agreement with the Singapore Land Authority. The primary section separated to form Nan Chiau Primary School and relocated to 50 Anchorvale Link. That year, Nan Chiau High School was also ranked the top value-added school in the Ministry of Education's 1999 ranking of Special/Express schools in Singapore. ### Attainment of SAP status In November 2010, Nan Chiau High School was formally recognised by the Ministry of Education to be included as the 11th Special Assistance Plan (SAP) school, with effect from 2012. The news was given by minister of education Dr Ng Eng Hen during his opening address at the Singapore Hokkien Festival, and was welcomed by numerous school alumni and educators, noting that the institution could finally fulfil its mission to preserve and advocate the Chinese heritage and culture with more support from the government. In commemoration, a public musical performance was staged at Nanyang Polytechnic on 23 June 2012. Themed "Equilibrium", the musical was the first public performance in the institution's history to have the production and songs composed entirely by teachers and students. On 29 December 2013, a home-coming event was held at the former Nan Chiau High School campus at 46 Kim Yam Road, which thousands of alumni, former and present principals, teachers and staff of the institution gathered at the former school hall in a brunch buffet setting. The event was held before the official relaunch of the site of the former campus as a commercial development of offices, schools and F&B establishments. In March 2015, Nan Chiau High School celebrated its 68th anniversary. Themed "Appreciating our Past, Inspiring the Future", the event was graced by Guest-of-Honour, Minister for Defence, Dr Ng Eng Hen, which saw the school and the community coming together to mark the occasion with a celebration of SG50, the outstanding achievements of the students, as well as the completion of the school's upgrading works which cost 2.67 million dollars. The school upgrading works were co-funded by the Singapore Hokkien Huay Kuan, comprising a revamp of the canteen and the air-conditioned library, as well as the construction of the park square and a new 300-seat auditorium. ### 70th anniversary Nan Chiau High School commemorated its 70th anniversary in 2017 along with Nan Chiau Primary School (its former ancillary primary section before 2001). On 27 January 2017, a total of 3,398 staff and students of both institutions came together to craft knots on a triple-ring with red strings, which resembles the school logo. The event set a national record for the most people making knotted rings together. A dedicated maker-space was also opened on 10 March 2017. Named The Nest, the tools-equipped space allow students to design, construct or modify meaningful or handy items in their own accord. On 1 August 2017, Nan Chiau High was featured in an episode of Channel 8's "When The Bell Rings" documentary series. This eight episode documentary series featured eight Special Assistance Plan (SAP) Schools in Singapore, and told stories of their transformation through the times. The episode on Nan Chiau High was the fourth episode to be aired. In January 2018, Nan Chiau High School became one of the first 62 institutions in Singapore to pilot the Singapore Student Learning Space (SLS), a nationwide online learning portal developed jointly by the Ministry of Education and GovTech. The SLS empower students to conduct self-directed learning through a variety of interactive resources, and assist teachers in designing meaning learning experiences that promote critical thinking and teamwork among students. ### Introduction of Language Elective Programme (LEP) On 28 May 2019, Minister of Education Ong Ye Kung announced that Nan Chiau High School will offer two year Chinese Language Elective Programme (C-LEP, or 语特 in Chinese) at upper secondary level along with nine other selected institutions from 2020. First introduced in 1990 at the junior college level, the LEP programme aims to nurture students who excel in mother tongue languages through the study of literature and participating in cultural activities, and has been highly regarded for nurturing effectively bi-cultural and bilingual leaders across industries. ## School identity and culture Nan Chiau High shares its heritage with several other institutions in Singapore with the same founder. The name of the institution is a direct phonic translation of the term "南僑" in Chinese which meant the Overseas Chinese of the Southeast Asian region (南洋華僑), particularly the Malayan Peninsula. The name of the institution is a reflection of its mission to empower youths through education, shared along with several other institutions which share the same identity, such as The Chinese High School (presently Hwa Chong Institution) as well as Nanyang Girls' High School. ### Motto Nan Chiau High School's motto, Sincerity & Perseverance (誠·毅), is set after the philosophy of its founder, Mr Tan Kah Kee. The motto is also shared by all Hokkien Huay Kuan schools, as well as several institutions in mainland China with the same founder, such as Xiamen Jimei Middle School of Fujian, Jimei University & Xiamen University. - "Sincerity" or 誠, meant to be truthful to self and others - "Perseverance" or 毅, meant the dedication and persistence in the pursuit of excellence in the face of challenges. ### Crest The school crest of Nan Chiau High School is represented by three interlocking rings, which symbolises its students' moral, physical and intellectual development. The red colour of the rings depicts a persevering spirit in the pursuit of a bright and promising future, as represented by the golden background. The heart shape in the centre of the overlapping rings symbolizes care and concern for the total welfare of the pupils in a student-oriented system. ### Anthem Nan Chiau High School keeps its original school anthem in Mandarin. The anthem was written by Ms Lin Zhen Ru, and moderated by Professor Zhao Xingdao (Mr.) in the early 1950s. The same anthem is shared with Nan Chiau Primary School, which was formerly its ancillary primary school before 2001. ### Attire and appearance Nan Chiau High School's uniform is closely linked to its heritage as a former traditional Chinese school. Originally, the school uniform was in full white with the Chinese name of the school sewed on the right chest level of the blouse, much similar to other institutions with Chinese heritage. Students in the senior high and pre-university section wore white shirts with dark coloured skirts, before the pre-university classes were made mandatory to be taught at junior colleges, a policy declared by the ministry of education in 1979. Nearing the 1990s, the school uniform was switched to be worn with dark coloured school pants or skirt, with dark coloured school tag was sewed on the left side of the shirt. The uniform was redesigned as an effort to preserve the school's identity along with the relocation of the campus in 2000, which integrated the original heritage of the uniform in the 1960s and the 1990s. Currently, male students wear white studded shirts with Traditional Chinese characters of the school name on it in red. Navy blue shorts are worn for years one and two, and long pants for upper secondary levels. The six metal buttons bearing the school name is sewed onto the shirt as a modification to the traditional design adopted by other traditional Chinese schools, where rings were used to secure the buttons. Female students wear white blouses bearing the Traditional Chinese characters of the school name on it in red, with navy blue pleated skirts. During Assemblies and important functions, every student will wear a red-coloured school tie. ### Discipline Nan Chiau High School is known for its strict regulations and discipline, with minimal tolerance of misbehaviour by its students. In 2004 the school gained attention for its disciplinary action on a student over misconduct, which was deemed overly harsh. This came despite the backing of many alumni, educators and parents, who claimed that the action taken was justified. ## Campus Nan Chiau High School's current campus covers 7.6 acres of land off Sengkang East Avenue, constructed under the School Management Model granted by the Ministry of Education in 2000. The campus was officially declared open by then Minister for Education and Second Minister for Defence Mr. Teo Chee Hean on 8 March 2003. The five-storey building cluster consists of an Administrative Block, a Science & Research Block, an Aesthetics block, and three classroom blocks. The Kong Chian Hall (main hall of Nan Chiau High School) was named after the school's co-founder, Mr Lee Kong Chian. The air-conditioned hall is the common venue for weekly assemblies and dialogue sessions, as well as hosting competitions and symposiums such as the National Secondary School Chinese Creative Writing Competition and the NYP-YTSS-NCHS Science Research Symposium. The 300-seat auditorium, housed at the fourth level of the aesthetics block, was converted from an Air Rifle Shooting Range under the two-year school upgrading project in 2012 funded by the school management and Singapore Hokkien Huay Kuan. The auditorium provides a venue for performances apart from the main hall, as well as conducting sharing talks and academic lectures. The revamped library, opened in 2013, features dedicated study areas, a small platform to hold forums and press conferences, as well as three discussion rooms available for student-teacher consultations, projects and group studies. The Nest, a dedicated maker-space which was opened in March 2017, allows students to design, construct or modify meaningful or handy items with specialised tools in the lab, and supports the school's Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics Applied Learning Programme (STEM ALP). As a North Zone Centre of Excellence for Chinese Language, Nan Chiau High School also features two language labs catering for enhanced Chinese programmes and activities. The labs are currently used to host the Young Writer's Programme for students of six schools in the North 4 Cluster, as well as the school's Chinese calligraphy society. Other facilities in NCHS include a gymnasium, an indoor sports hall, a central plaza, an open-concept canteen, an eco-garden and a 1.3 acres field. ## Academic details and curriculum ### O Level Express Course As a Special Assistance Plan (SAP) school, Nan Chiau High School offers the four-year Express course which leads up to the Singapore-Cambridge GCE Ordinary Level national examination, complemented by its signature cultural intelligence and global classroom programmes. Throughout the 4 years, NCHS students are exposed to a broad range of cultural knowledge and life skills alongside the academic curriculum. All NCHS students expect a 2-week based timetable, with supplementary lessons for four days allocated to individual subjects according to their academic needs (with the exception for Wednesdays). A common educational procedure for the four-year Express course, subject combination streaming for NCHS students is carried out at Secondary Two level. Usually, nine classes (A to I) will be allocated per cohort for upper secondary levels, with 2 classes allocated for students taking 3 pure science subjects (commonly known as "Triple-Science" combinations). Nan Chiau High students has sustained academic and non-academic results. A Band 1 school since 2006, the institution has developed students with exceptional results for both GCE ‘O’ Level academic subjects as well as Co-Curricular Activities (or CCA). In 2014, Nan Chiau High School's ‘O’ Level students achieved a Mean-Score (based on L1R5 Grading) of 10.6, with more than 90% of the students obtaining A1 grading for CCA involvement. #### Academic subjects The examinable academic subjects for Singapore-Cambridge GCE Ordinary Level offered by Nan Chiau High School for upper secondary level (via. streaming in secondary 2 level), as of 2020, are listed below. Notes: 1. Subjects indicated with ' \* ' are mandatory subjects. 2. All students in Singapore are required to undertake a Mother Tongue Language as an examinable subject, as indicated by ' ^ '. Mathematics and science - Additional Mathematics\* - Mathematics\* - Physics - Chemistry\* - Biology - Science (Chemistry/Physics, Chemistry/Biology), offered as a last resort to students unable to cope with pure science subjects. Language and literature - English Language\* - English Literature - Chinese Language\* ^ - Higher Chinese Language - Chinese Literature - Malay (Special Programme) Humanities - Geography - History - Combined Humanities (Social Studies & History/Geography/English Literature/Chinese Literature Elective)\* Arts and aesthetics - Art & Design - Design & Technology - Food & Nutrition - Higher Art - Music - Higher Music ### SAP Flagship Programme (Cultural Intelligence) The SAP Flagship Programme forms a major part of Nan Chiau High's niche curriculum as a SAP school. It is designed with the incorporation of Howard Gardner’s "Five Minds for the Future" (Disciplined Mind, Synthesizing Mind, Ethical Mind, Creating Mind, Respectful Mind), with an additional sixth mind, the ‘Bi-cultural Mind’. The flagship programme develops students' interest in learning about eastern and western cultures by providing them with opportunities to integrate both cultures and to be immersed in other cultures, and to have in-depth understanding of the essence of both the east and the west, thus preparing students to become inclusive talents who are effectively bilingual and able to make strong and meaningful connections with the world. The four-year flagship programme is mainly made up of two segments, namely 'Broad-Base Curriculum' and 'Peaks of Excellence', which include cultural intelligence and life education to groom students to be world-ready. The 'Broad-Base Curriculum' spans the first year of the students' admission, with the introduction to Chinese culture and history, the history of Chinese immigrants and understanding diversity of local cultures. This is inculcated through various platforms such as cultural intelligence forums, bi-cultural camps, and Chinese lyrics competitions, as well as local and regional learning journeys. The 'Peaks of Excellence' curriculum is continuous with the 'Broad-Base Curriculum', with more elaborate programmes that cater to students’ talent development. For instance, the Young Writers Programme, which is open to students who are interested in writing, has lessons conducted by various renowned Chinese language essayists in the region to expose and familiarise students to different forms of writing, and encourage them to appreciate different forms of written work. Students also have opportunities to attend cultural symposiums, national and international bi-cultural forums, research on contemporary issues, and embark on refined overseas immersions to strengthen their world and cultural views under the Global Classroom Programme. ### Life Education Programme Apart from development of cultural intelligence, life skills are also incorporated into the curriculum to prepare students for the future, by assisting students in the acquisition of various life skills that will be useful as they become part of the 21st century workforce. The Learning for Life Programme (LLP) provides a unique cognitive-aesthetic domain of learning through drama, public speaking, debate, puppetry and creative Chinese lyrical composition, to strengthen self-expression and nurtures aesthetics appreciation in students, as well as to allow them to learn and embrace cultural diversity. In the Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics Applied Learning Programme (STEM ALP), students explore using Arduino Micro-controller in health related science and technology. Students also acquire science research skills to deepen their proficiency in Sciences. #### Collaboration with the Singapore University of Technology and Design (SUTD) On 16 February 2019, a new collaboration with Singapore University of Technology and Design (SUTD) was announced by Singapore Hokkien Huay Kuan, and was followed by a signing of Memorandum of Understanding. Students from Nan Chiau High School, as well as the other five institutions affiliated to Singapore Hokkien Huay Kuan, will benefit from corporate partnership through school-based programmes co-developed with SUTD. These programmes aim to inspire students to empower and embrace the developments in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM), with focus in technology, design and innovation. ### Enhanced Art Programme (EAP) Since 2013, Nan Chiau High School is a certified education centre for the Enhanced Art Programme (EAP) for students who have keen interest in pursuing arts and design. Introduced in 2011 by the Ministry of Education, the two-year programme provide an enriched learning environment for Secondary 3 and 4 students who are inclined towards Art, as a complementary to the Art Elective Programme (AEP). Enrichment programmes such as the Aesthetics Week, Student-Initiated Project in Art and Lower Secondary Integrated Art Modules are also integrated for deepened understanding and application opportunities for the art students. ### Exchange Programmes (Global Classroom Programme) Nan Chiau High School has its unique overseas learning programme that offers all students an opportunity to go on subsidised learning trips to deepen their understanding on their academic subjects, perform community projects or involvement as part of the programmes within their Co-Curricular Activities (CCAs). Through this programme, opportunities are also infused for interaction with students, educators and subject specialists around the region and the globe. These included famous writers, entrepreneurs, and students from sister schools such as Ming-Dao High School of Taiwan & Sagano High School of Kyoto, Japan. ## Co-curricular activities Nan Chiau High School offers a wide variety of extra-curricular activities, labelled Co-Curricular Activities (CCA) by the Ministry of Education, consisting of sports groups, uniformed groups, performing arts, clubs and societies. Of which, many CCAs have attained spectacular performances throughout the years of history of the institution since its relocation to Sengkang in 2001. The NCHS National Cadet Corps unit (NCHSNCC) has been awarded Gold for 19 consecutive years, winning the Distinction Unit Recognition (UR) Award in 2021. The National Police Cadet Corps (NPCC, currently the largest uniformed group in Singapore) unit of the institution have attained Gold Award consecutively for 11 years in the annual Unit Overall Proficiency Award (UOPA). The NCHS Red Cross Youth attained the Community Service Award (Gold) for years 2010 and 2013, and the Excellence Unit Award (Gold) for years 2011 and 2012. The Scouts of Nan Chiau High School, despite newly established in 2011, have attained the National Patrol Camp Best Newcomer Award, and National Patrol Camp Overall Silver in 2013. A niche of Nan Chiau High School, the performing arts groups have consistently attained Certificates of Accomplishment and Certificates of Distinction in the Singapore Youth Festival (SYF) since the change of Central Judging Assessment to Arts Presentation Assessment in 2012. The 2007 SYF Central Judging Assessment saw the Chinese dance, String Orchestra and Choir attained Gold with Honour, with Chinese Orchestra, Chinese LDDS, English LDDS, Contemporary Dance and Wind Orchestra attaining Silver. In 2011 saw the Chinese Dance, Choir and English LDDS attaining Gold with Honours at the SYF Central Judging. Performing Arts groups of the institution also reaches out to the community through public performances, for instance the FOCUS held in 2016 at the Anchorvale Community Club. The clubs and societies of Nan Chiau High School allowed for more varieties of exposure to skills and interests of the students, and have achieved outstanding achievements. The NCHS Robotics Club is the retaining zonal champion of the DSTA-DSO East Zone Robotics Challenge since 2014, and have been organising annual competition for primary and secondary school students since 2009. The Multimedia Club attained the Best School Award for consecutive years 2014 and 2015 in the Canon Photo Marathon. The full listing of co-curricular activities (CCAs) offered by Nan Chiau High School is featured below. ### Sports and games - Basketball - Badminton - Table Tennis - Wushu - Track & Field (2nd CCA) ### Uniformed groups - National Cadet Corps - National Police Cadet Corps - Red Cross Youth - Scouts ### Performing arts - Chinese Dance - Chinese Orchestra - Choir - Chinese Drama (CLDDS) - English Drama (ELDDS) - Contemporary Dance - String Orchestra - Wind Orchestra ### Clubs and societies - Multimedia and Photography Club - Infocomm Club - Robotics Club - Library Society - Green Club - Debate Club ### Visual arts and culture - Visual Arts Club (Ceramic / Art & Design) - Chinese Calligraphy ### Student council The student council is a co-curricular appointment for student leaders, which serves as a platform of communication within the institution. Distinguished by their striped red ties, the student councillors take up responsibilities of daily functions of the school, and are involved in the running of school events, initiatives and services that concerns the welfare of the school cohort. Student councillors also take up the role of ambassadors of the school during major school events and functions. ### Class council The class council is formed by the representatives of individual classes. Apart maintaining discipline procedures in the class, the class council functions alongside the student council as a bridge between the school and the students, and building unity and class spirit through the participation in organising inter-class competitions. ### NCHS Falcons The NCHS Falcons is a voluntary student leadership team in Nan Chiau High School composed of able CCA leaders, taking responsibility of school leadership training and school-based events. The name "F.A.L.C.O.N.S." stands as an acronym for the team's cause, "Focused on Adding values to others, to Lead, build Character with ON-going learning to Serve". The annual events handled by NCHS Falcons include school camps as well as school-based leadership workshops for year one, two and three students. ## Community outreach ### SHINES in Harmony Since 2005, Nan Chiau High School organises the single day community fund raising event annually to raise funds for the community welfare organisations around the district such as the CDAC, REACH Family Service Centre. The event is open to the public, which the students, alumni and the parents support group of the institution set up food and games booths around the campus, as well as put up performances for the community to engage for a good cause. ## Relation with other schools ### Combined sports meet Nan Chiau High School, Xinmin Secondary School & Yishun Town Secondary School (in 2017, only Nan Chiau High School and Xinmin Secondary School held combined sports meet) hold combined sports meets yearly since 2013 to give student athletes from the participating schools a platform to showcase their physical talent and also for the schools to unite to celebrate and enjoy. Apart from the inter-school competitions among students, parent-teacher races are also featured to engage the parents and school staff. ### NCHS-NYP Science and Technology Research Programme The NCHS-NYP Science and Technology Research Programme is a collaborated initiative between Nanyang Polytechnic and Nan Chiau High School for upper secondary levels with the aim of providing opportunities for capable science students to acquire science knowledge beyond academic syllabus, carry out research modules using contemporary technology, and interact with specialists in the relevant fields of Sciences and Information Technology. The research projects are presented in the form of an annual symposium hosted by Yishun Town Secondary and Nan Chiau High alternately, which serves as a platform for students involved to showcase their work to fellow schoolmates and counterparts from other schools. ## School alumni Nan Chiau High School boosts a significant alumni community, comprising alumni from both Nan Chiau High School and Nan Chiau Primary School, which were once affiliated. The community under various bodies continues to organise events and programmes that bonds the alumni together, as well as contributing alongside the school committee to benefit the students’ of both institutions. ### Nan Chiau Alumni Association Nan Chiau Alumni Association (NCAA) is the main alumni body of Nan Chiau High School and Nan Chiau Primary School. Formed on 12 January 1990 at the Kim Yam Road campus, the association works closely with the two institutions to preserve the traditional values of the schools while placing emphasis on the moral, physical, cognitive, social and aesthetic aspects of students’ development. It also serves as a platform for all members from the Nan Chiau family to socialise and stay in contact with each other. With the relocation and separation of Nan Chiau High School with the ancillary primary school section in December 2000, NCAA presently functions at both Nan Chiau Primary School and Nan Chiau High School. In 2001, the NCAA started the Weekend Activities Program at Nan Chiau Primary School to complement the school curriculum, and is highly successful for providing a holistic education for the primary school pupils. ### Youth of Nan Chiau Youth of Nan Chiau is the youth wing of the Nan Chiau Alumni Association that comprises the youth graduates from both Nan Chiau High and Nan Chiau Primary. The youth wing plays a supportive role alongside the NCAA during events, gatherings when need arises. The youth wing also organizes activities for students of Nan Chiau High and Nan Chiau Primary on an ad-hoc basis. ### Nan Chiau Youth Mentors The Nan Chiau Youth Mentors (NCYM) consists of young graduates from Nan Chiau High School who have strong passion of providing assistance to the juniors within the scope of a holistic education. The members of team works alongside the school to provide assistance and sharing for upper secondary levels preparing for national examinations, as well as individual mentorship of their former Co-curricular Activities (CCAs). ## Notable alumni ### Medicine and healthcare - Lim Woan Huah: President's Scholar, 1984; Specialist, Paediatric Medicine ### Education and politics - Peh Chin Hua: Former Member of Parliament, Jalan Besar Group Representation Constituency (1988–2001); Executive Chairman, White Group (Singapore); Former Executive Chairman (1992–2005), Dragon Land Limited. - Chan Soo Sen: Former Minister of State for Prime Minister's Office, Community Development and Sports, Education, and Trade and Industry; Member of Parliament, East Coast Group Representation Constituency (1997-2001), Joo Chiat Single Member Constituency (2001-2011); Adjunct Professor, Nanyang Centre of Public Administration, Nanyang Technological University - Leong Chan-Hoong: Deputy Head, Social Lab, Lee Kuan Yew Institute of Policy Studies, National University of Singapore - Lee Guan Kin: Pioneer Head of Division (1998 - 2007) & Distinguished Senior Research Fellow, Centre for Chinese Language & Culture, Nanyang Technological University ### Arts - Goh Lay Kuan: Singapore pioneer dance choreographer and arts educator; Winner, Cultural Medallion, 1995; Co-founder, Singapore Performing Arts School - Yang Libing: Mediacorp actress. - Yang Lina: Mediacorp actress. - Zeng Huifen: Mediacorp actress. ### Business and enterprise - Jason Yeo - Founder and Chief Executive of JCS Group. ## Gallery ### Campus ### Events
10,722,115	Kamorta-class corvette	1,172,621,246	Anti-submarine warfare stealth corvettes of the Indian Navy	[ "Kamorta-class corvettes", "Naval ships of India", "Ships built in India" ]	The Kamorta-class corvettes or Project 28 are a class of anti-submarine warfare stealth corvettes currently in service with the Indian Navy. Built at Garden Reach Shipbuilders & Engineers (GRSE), Kolkata, they are the first anti-submarine warfare stealth corvettes to be built in India. Project 28 was approved in 2003, with construction of the lead ship, commencing on 12 August 2005. All of the four corvettes, INS Kamorta, , and were commissioned in 2014, 2016, 2017 and 2020 respectively. The platform and major internal systems of this class of corvettes are indigenously designed and built. The corvettes are named after the islands in the Lakshadweep archipelago. The Kamorta-class corvettes are intended to succeed the Kora class by precedence and the Abhay class by role. ## Design and description In 2003, under the code name Project 28, the Indian Navy placed an order for four anti-submarine warfare (ASW) corvettes. The corvette's design was originally planned to be based on the Russian corvette Project 2038.2, however the basic design was later provided by the Indian Navy's Directorate of Naval Design, followed by the detailed design by Garden Reach Ship Builders and Engineers (GRSE). The design includes many stealth ship features, including reductions in acoustic signature and vibration of the vessels. The class incorporates some major features including but not limited to the 'X'-shaped hull form to improve stealth, a raft-mounted propulsion system to reduce vibration, and an infrared signature suppression system. It also includes networks such as the Total Atmospheric Control System (TACS), Integrated Platform Management System (IPMS), Integrated Bridge System (IBS), Battle Damage Control System (BDCS) and Personnel Locator System (PLS). The ships also include technology that enables them to fight in nuclear, biological and chemical warfare (NBC) scenarios. The Indian Navy claims that the indigenisation achieved in these ships is about 90%. ### General characteristics and propulsion The overall length of the Kamorta-class corvettes is 109 metres (357 ft 7 in), and the beam spans 13.7 m (44 ft 11 in). The ships displace about 2,500 tonnes (2,500 long tons) at standard load and 3,500 tonnes (3,400 long tons) when fully loaded. Each ship retains a complement of 180 sailors and 13 officers. They are propelled by four Pielstick 12 PA6 STC diesel engines, each with a power of 5,096 horsepower (3,800 kW) in CODAD configuration. They also have two controllable pitch propellers which helps the ship achieve maximum speeds in excess of 25 knots (46 km/h; 29 mph). ### Electronics and sensors The Kamorta-class corvettes boast a wide variety of sensors. Given below are the list of known sensors in the corvette: - BEL Revathi 3-D E/F-band radar - HUMSA-NG bow-mounted sonar - BEL Lynx U1 fire-control radar - IAC Mod C fire-control system - 1 × Atlas Elektronik towed array sonar (to be fitted) ### Armament The armament of the class includes a license-built OTO Melara 76 mm Super Rapid Gun in a stealth mount and a weapons layout similar to what is found on the Talwar-class and Shivalik-class frigates, two Larsen & Toubro built derivatives of the RBU-6000 anti-submarine rocket launcher, as well as Larsen & Toubro torpedo tube launchers, and a pair of AK-630M close-in weapon system (CIWS). The fire-control system is the Bharat Electronics IAC Mod C system. There is an option on the ship to include surface-to-air missiles (SAM). As of 2022 Navy is planning to integrated VL-SRSAM. The corvette can hold one helicopter, which currently is a Westland Sea King Mk.42B helicopter. ## Construction The order for four Kamorta-class corvettes were placed in 2003 by the Indian Navy. Construction of the lead ship, INS Kamorta began in the year 2005 and the keel was laid down in 2006 at GRSE, Kolkata. The ship was launched in the year 2010 and was inducted into the navy in 2014 after a series of delays. Construction of the second ship, followed and the keel was laid in 2007. The corvette was launched in 2011 and was inducted in the early 2016. was laid down in 2010 and launched in 2013. While the last ship of its class, was laid down in 2012 and launched in 2015. Both the ships were commissioned in 2017 and 2020 respectively. The project's objective was to enhance localization and development of warship construction industry in India. The navy asked the Indian industries to deliver equipment of higher sophistication levels than usual. This led to some unforeseen delays in the product delivery, and struggles perfecting the products. All the ships of this class are built using DMR 249A special grade high-tensile steel, produced by the state-owned Steel Authority of India Limited (SAIL), and carbon fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP) materials. The main machinery is raft mounted, and each gear unit and its associated engines are mounted on a common raft. The diesel engines are license built by Kirloskar under SEMT Pielstick of France. DCNS supplies the noise-suppressing raft-mounted gearbox for CODAD propulsion. Wärtsilä India manufactures the low-vibration diesel alternators to power the on-board electronics. The ships also includes an integrated ship management system (ISMS) from L-3 MAPPS which combines an integrated platform management system and bridge management system into a single integrated system. INS Kiltan and INS Kavaratti are to be more advanced than their elder ships. In a first, composite materials, imported from Kockums, Sweden, are used for the construction of the superstructures. This resulted in increased stealth features, reduced weight relative to typical superstructures built with steel, anti-corrosive and fire resistant. It's also projected for the ships to have some additional armament and new features. The last ship of the class Kavaratti was commissioned by Indian Army's COAS General Manoj Mukund Naravane on 22 October 2020. ## Ships of the class All the ships names of the class are reincarnations of ships from the previous Arnala-class corvettes which are considered to be the spiritual predecessors of the Kamorta class. ## Export ### Failed Bids #### Philippines Under a modernisation program, the Philippines Navy sought to purchase two light frigates, each displacing 2,000 tonnes (2,000 long tons), spanning 109 m (357 ft 7 in) in length, capable of cruising at 25 knots (46 km/h; 29 mph) and be able to sail in sea state 7. In the bidding process, GRSE was selected as the lowest bidder among the contenders, Daewoo Shipbuilding & Marine Engineering, Hyundai Heavy Industries and Navantia. The deal was said to cost more than . However, based on a post qualification assessment, GRSE was disqualified on the grounds of not meeting the financial capability requirements A heavily modified version of the Korean Incheon-class frigates built by Hyundai Heavy Industries was eventually chosen. #### Brazil In June 2018, GRSE submitted proposal for Brazilian Navy's Tamandaré-class future corvette program. GRSE offered a modified Kamorta class of 2,800 tonnes with weapons and sensors on par with its Philippines offer. The project was planned to be completed in Brazil's local shipyard for which GRSE teamed up with Sinergy Group Corporate for local production. GRSE's proposal did not make the downselect in October 2018. With a design by TKMS based on the MEKO design winning the contract. ## Gallery ## See also - List of active Indian Navy ships - Future ships of the Indian Navy
5,656,738	Pac-Man (Atari 2600 video game)	1,163,195,496	Atari 2600 version of Pac-Man	[ "1982 video games", "Articles containing video clips", "Atari 2600 games", "Maze games", "Pac-Man", "Pack-in video games", "Video games developed in the United States" ]	Pac-Man is a 1982 maze video game developed and published by Atari, Inc. under official license by Namco, and an adaptation of the 1980 hit arcade game of the same name. The player controls the title character, who attempts to consume all of the wafers while avoiding four ghosts that pursue him. Eating flashing wafers at the corners of the screen will cause the ghosts to turn temporarily blue and flee, allowing Pac-Man to eat them for bonus points. (Once eaten, a ghost was reduced to a mobile pair of eyes, which had to return to the center of the maze to be restored.) The game was programmed by Tod Frye, taking six months to complete. The game was heavily anticipated, and expecting high sales, Atari produced over 1 million copies for its launch and held a "National Pac-Man Day" on April 3, 1982, to help promote its release. It remains the best-selling Atari 2600 game of all time, selling over 8 million copies, and was the all time best-selling video game for several years. Despite its commercial success, Pac-Man was panned by critics for poor visuals and sound, and for bearing little resemblance to the original game. It has been considered one of the worst video games ever made and one of the worst arcade game ports released on the system. ## Gameplay Pac-Man is a variation of the original arcade game, which was released by Namco in 1980. It features similar—but not identical—gameplay. The player uses a joystick to control Pac-Man, navigating him through a maze of consumable dashes called Video Wafers, opposed by a quartet of multi-colored ghosts. The goal of the game is to consume all the wafers in each level in order to proceed to the next level. The score from each level is then combined to a total, with the aim of achieving the highest possible score. The four ghosts roam the maze, trying to kill Pac-Man. If any of the ghosts touches Pac-Man, he loses a life; when all lives have been lost, the game ends. Each game starts with four lives, and the player is awarded a bonus life upon successful completion of each level, up to a maximum of nine lives in reserve at any given time. Near the corners of the maze are four larger, flashing consumables known as Power Pills that provide Pac-Man with the temporary ability to eat the ghosts and earn bonus points. When a Power Pill is in effect the enemies turn blue and try to evade Pac-Man. When a ghost is eaten its disembodied eyes return to the nest (center box) to respawn. The blue ghosts turn reddish during the last moments of a Power Pill's effect, signaling that they are about to become dangerous again, and the length of time for which the enemies remain vulnerable varies from one level to the next, becoming shorter as the game progresses. The final consumable items are the Vitamins, which appear periodically directly below the nest. The game has eight variations, offering two different starting speeds for Pac-Man and four speeds for the ghosts. The ghosts get slightly faster each subsequent round, but Pac-Man stays at the same speed. The console's A–B difficulty switches can also be used to handicap one or both players: in the A (hard) position, the power pills' effects do not last as long. ### Differences from the original Overall the game follows the format of the original, but it differs in a number of key respects. The design is oriented in landscape rather than portrait mode; the wraparound Warp Tunnel is located at the top and bottom of the screen rather than the sides. The maze layout and overall color scheme also differ from the original. Pac-Man himself features an eye and he only faces left and right, never turning to face up or down when traveling in those directions. The ghosts' eyes constantly cycle through four directions rather than being fixed in their current direction of travel. The maze contains 126 wafers, just over half of the arcade's 244 dots. The nest from which the ghosts emerge is significantly smaller and has its entrance on its right side instead of the top, and the arcade's eight distinct and differently valued bonus items (mostly fruits) are replaced by the nondescript single-value Vitamin. Ghost behaviors are different from the original and dispense with the brief "rest" states whereby the ghosts periodically do not track Pac-Man, but each ghost still features a distinct individual method of tracking Pac-Man, with one pair being "smarter" in their pursuit choices and one member of each pair being faster than the other. In the arcade, when a ghost is eaten, its eyes return to the nest and it respawns and exits immediately in its normal (not vulnerable) state; in this version, the eyes remain in the nest until any Power Pill effects expire before they respawn and reemerge. A significant and notable difference with the arcade version is the ghosts' constant flickering. The scoring for the home version is proportionally identical to the original except that each item is worth one-tenth its arcade value, with the bonus Vitamins as the only variation, being worth 100 points, which is the equivalent of the 1000 point scoring melon bonus item that appears in the seventh and eighth levels of the arcade game. Unlike the arcade version, if Pac-Man loses a life while the vitamin appears, the vitamin may not necessarily be forfeited. This version does not feature the marquee screen and interstitial animations. Neither does it attempt to approximate the sounds of the original, reducing the iconic "wakka wakka" dot-eating and other bonus sounds to a single tone clank sound and single beep respectively, replacing the game start tune with a four-note motif, and dispensing with both the extra-life and omnipresent siren sounds. ## Development After Pac-Man proved to be a success in the United States, Atari decided to license the game and produce it for its Atari 2600 console. Programming was assigned to Tod Frye, who was not provided with any arcade design specifications to work from and had to figure out how the game worked by playing it. He spent 80-hour weeks over six months developing it. The finished game uses a 4 KB ROM cartridge, chosen for its lower manufacturing costs compared to 8 KB bank-switched cartridges which had recently become available. As with any contemporary arcade port, the simple Atari 2600 hardware was a considerable limitation. The arcade PAC-MAN system board contained 2 KB of main RAM (random-access memory) in which to run the program, 2 KB of video RAM to store the screen state, and 16 KB of ROM (read-only memory) to store the game code, whereas the Atari 2600 featured only 128 bytes of RAM memory and none dedicated to video: effectively 32 times less RAM. The Zilog Z80 CPU microprocessor used by the Namco Pac-Man arcade system is clocked at three times the speed of the MOS 6507 CPU in the Atari 2600 - though the Z80 typically does less work per clock cycle. To deal with these limitations, Frye simplified the maze's intricate pattern of corridors to a more repetitive pattern. The small tan pellets in the arcade original were changed to rectangular "wafers" that shared the wall color on 2600; a change necessitated because both the pellets and walls were drawn with the 2600's Playfield graphics, which have a fixed width. To achieve the visual effect of wafers disappearing as Pac-Man eats them, the actual map of the maze was updated as the data was written into the Playfield registers, excluding those pellets that had been eaten. The 2600's Player-Missile graphics system (sprites) was used for the remaining objects; the one-bit-wide Missiles were used to render the flashing power pills and the center of the vitamin. Pac-Man and ghost characters were implemented using the 2600's two Player objects, with one being used for Pac-Man and the other being used for all four ghosts, with the result that each ghost only appears once out of every four frames, which creates a flickering effect. This effect takes advantage of the slow phosphorescent fade of CRT monitors and the concept of persistence of vision, resulting in the image appearing to linger on screen longer, but the flickering remains noticeable, and makes each individual ghost's color nearly impossible to discern. Frye chose to abandon plans for a flicker-management system to minimize the flashing in part because Atari didn't seem to care about that issue in its zeal to have the game released. According to Frye, his game also did not conform to the arcade game's color scheme in order to comply with Atari's official home product policy that only space-type games should feature black backgrounds. Another quality impact was his decision that two-player gameplay was important, which meant that the 23 bytes required to store the current difficulty, state of the dots on the current maze, remaining lives, and the score had to be doubled for a second player, consuming 46 of the 2600's meager 128-byte memory, which precluded its use for additional game data and features. Oft-repeated stories claim that the company wanted to or did release a prototype in order to capitalize on the 1981 holiday season; however, the retail release was a final product. Frye states that there were no negative comments within Atari about these elements, but, after seeing the game, Coin Division marketing manager Frank Ballouz reportedly informed Ray Kassar, Atari's president and CEO, that he felt enthusiasts would not want to play it. His opinion, however, was dismissed. The company ran newspaper ads and promoted the product in catalogs, describing it as differing "slightly from the original". To help sales, Atari promoted and protected its exclusive licensing of Pac-Man. It took legal action against companies that released clones similar to Pac-Man. Atari sued Philips for its 1981 Magnavox Odyssey2 game K.C. Munchkin! alleging copyright infringement. In the landmark case Atari, Inc. v. North American Philips Consumer Electronics Corp., the Court of Appeals allowed a preliminary injunction against Philips to prevent the sale of Munchkin cartridges. However, Atari failed to stop other games, such as On-Line Systems' Jawbreaker and Gobbler. Several retailers assisted Atari with the release of the game. JCPenney was the first retailer to launch a nationwide advertising campaign on television for a software title. Continuing a long-standing relationship between it and Sears, Atari also produced Pac-Man cartridges under the department store's label. ## Reception ### Sales Anticipation for the game was high. Atari stated in 1981 that it had preorders for "three or four million" copies of the Atari 2600 version. Goldman Sachs analyst Richard Simon predicted the sale of 9 million units during 1982, which would yield a profit of \$200 million. Pac-Man met with initial commercial success; more than one million cartridges had been shipped in less than one month, helped by Atari's \$1.5 million publicity campaign. It was the best-selling home video game of 1982, with over 7.2 million cartridges sold that year and over \$200 million (\$million adjusted for inflation) in gross revenue. It replaced Space Invaders as the best-selling Atari 2600 title and also became the overall best-selling video game up until then (a title it held for several years until eventually being surpassed by Super Mario Bros). Pac-Man also propelled Atari VCS sales to 12 million units by 1982. Frye reportedly received \$0.10 in royalties per copy. Purchases had slowed by the summer of 1982, with unsold copies available in large quantities. Atari went on to sell over 684,000 cartridges in 1983. It had sold a cumulative 7,956,413 cartridges by 1983, and a further 139,173 units for \$706,967 (equivalent to \$1,800,000 in 2022) between 1986 and 1990, for a total of over 8 million cartridges sold by 1990. By 2004, the cartridges were still very common among collectors and enthusiasts—though the Sears versions were rarer—and priced lower. ### Critical response At release, critics negatively compared the port to its original arcade form, panning the audio-visuals and gameplay. On May 11, 1982, Electronic Games Magazine published its first bad review ever for an Atari video game, saying, "Considering the anticipation and considerable time the Atari designers had to work on it, it’s astonishing to see a home version of a classic arcade contest so devoid of what gave the original its charm". Video Magazine admitted it was "challenging, and there are a few visual pluses", before lamenting, "Unfortunately those who cannot evaluate Pac-Man through lover's eyes are likely to be disappointed". The premiere issue of Video Games Player from Fall 1982 called Pac-Man "just awful". Electronic Games gave the game a rating of four out of ten. Video Games Player magazine gave the graphics and sound its lowest rating of C, while giving the game an overall B− rating. Electronic Fun with Computers & Games gave it an overall B− rating, with a C rating for graphics. In 1983, Creative Computing Video & Arcade Games reviewer Danny Goodman commented that the game fails as a replica of its arcade form: "Atari stated clearly in its description of the cartridge that Atari's Pac-Man 'differs slightly from the original'. That, perhaps, was an understatement." Conversely, he stated that such criticism was unfair because the hardware could not properly emulate the arcade game. Goodman further said that the port is a challenging maze game in its own right, and it would have been a success if fans had not expected to play a game closer to the original. That year Phil Wiswell of Video Games criticized the game's poor graphics, mockingly referring to it as "Flickerman", while Softline questioned why Atari opposed Pac-Man clones when the 2600 version was less like the original "than any of the pack of imitators". The game has remained poorly rated. Computer and Video Games magazine rated the game 57% in 1989. Next Generation magazine editors in 1998 called it the "worst coin-op conversion of all time", and attributed the mass dissatisfaction to its poor quality. In 2006, IGN's Craig Harris echoed similar statements and listed it as the worst arcade conversion, citing poor audio-visuals that did not resemble the original. Another IGN editor, Levi Buchanan, described it as a "disastrous port", citing the color scheme and flickering ghosts. Skyler Miller of AllGame said that although the game was only a passing resemblance to the original, it was charming despite its many differences and faults. Frye did not express regret over his part in Pac-Man's port and felt he made the best decisions he could at the time. However, Frye stated that he would have done things differently with a larger capacity ROM. Video game industry researchers Nick Montfort and Ian Bogost attribute the poor reception to the technical differences between the 1977 Atari 2600 console and the 1980 arcade hardware used in Pac-Man cabinets. They further stated that the conversion is a lesson in maintaining the social and cultural context of the original source. Montfort and Bogost commented that players were disappointed with the flickering visual effect, which made the ghosts difficult to track and tired the players' eyes. The two further said that the effect diminishes the ghosts' personalities present in the arcade version. Chris Kohler of Wired commented that the game was poorly received upon its release and in contemporary times because of the poor quality. However, he further described the game as an impressive technical achievement given its console's limitations. ## Impact and legacy Initially, the excitement generated by Pac-Man's home release prompted retail stores to expand their inventory to sell video games. Drugstores began stocking video game cartridges, and toy retailers vied for new releases. Kmart and J. C. Penney competed against Sears to become the largest vendor of video games. The game's release also led to an increase in sales of the Atari 2600 console. In retrospect, however, critics often cite Atari's Pac-Man as a major factor in the drop of consumer confidence in the company, which contributed to the video game crash of 1983. Bill Loguidice and Matt Barton of Gamasutra stated that the game's poor quality damaged the company's reputation. Buchanan commented that it disappointed millions of fans and diminished confidence in Atari's games. Former Next Generation editor-in-chief Neil West attributes his longtime skepticism of Atari's quality to the disappointment he had from buying the game as a child. Calling the game the top video game disaster, Buchanan credits Pac-Man as a factor to the downfall of Atari and the industry in the 1980s. Author Steven Kent also blames the game, along with Atari's E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial, for severely damaging the company's reputation and profitability. Montfort and Bogost stated that the game's negative reception seeded mistrust in retailers, which was reinforced by later factors that culminated in the crash. On December 7, 1982, Atari owner Warner Communications announced that revenue forecasts for 1982 were cut from a 50 percent increase over 1981 to a 15 percent increase. Immediately following the announcement, the company's stock value dropped by around 35 percent—from \$54 to \$35—amounting to a loss of \$1.3 billion in the company's market valuation. Warner admitted that Pac-Man's good sales despite poor quality made Atari overconfident about E.T. and Raiders of the Lost Ark, which did not sell well. In 1983, the company decreased its workforce by 30 percent and lost \$356 million. In late 1982, Atari ported Pac-Man to its new console, the Atari 5200. This version was a more accurate conversion of the original arcade game and was a launch title for the console, along with eleven other games. The port was followed by conversions of Pac-Man's arcade sequels, Ms. Pac-Man and Jr. Pac-Man, for the Atari 2600. These used 8 KB ROM cartridges instead of Pac-Man's 4 KB and dispensed with two-player games. They were better received than Atari's first Pac-Man title and addressed many critics' complaints of Pac-Man.
23,666,730	Bramhope Tunnel	1,149,628,905	Railway tunnel in West Yorkshire, England	[ "1849 establishments in England", "Bramhope", "North Eastern Railway (UK)", "Rail transport in West Yorkshire", "Railway tunnels in England", "Tunnels completed in 1849" ]	Bramhope Tunnel is on the Harrogate Line between Horsforth station and the Arthington Viaduct in West Yorkshire, England. Services through the railway tunnel are operated mainly by Northern. The tunnel was constructed during 1845–1849 by the Leeds and Thirsk Railway. It is notable for its 2.138-mile (3.441 km) length and its Grade II listed, crenellated north portal. The deaths of 24 men who were killed during its construction are commemorated in Otley churchyard by a monument that is a replica of the tunnel's north portal. Thomas Grainger was the engineer for the line and James Bray the contractor. Two sighting towers were erected and 20 shafts sunk along the tunnel's line. Men excavated rock from the shaft faces until the shafts were connected and the tunnel was completed in 1848. Thousands of navvies lived locally in temporary bothies with their families, and worked in dangerous and wet conditions to facilitate the grand opening in 1849. ## History In the mid-1840s Railway Mania was taking hold and railway companies competed with each other to bring forward schemes to access Wharfedale. Most of these schemes did not come to fruition but the Leeds and Thirsk Railway Company's proposal, a counter to George Hudson's "megalomania", to build a line from Leeds to Thirsk received approval in an Act of Parliament in 1845. The line would open up trade in Leeds to the North East and access lower Wharfedale. Among the several major obstacles on the route was the ridge between Airedale and Wharfedale requiring a long tunnel between Horsforth and Arthington under Bramhope village. The company appointed Thomas Grainger as engineer for the project and James Bray was the contractor for the Bramhope contract. Bray, of Black Bull Street in Leeds, was originally a brass and iron founder. Water was taken at first from the town well opposite St Giles' Church, but the excessive demand diminished the supply and spoiled its quality. The tunnellers' water was then pumped from a site near the Dyneley Arms crossroads. At the same time the tunnel was draining away the local farmers' natural water supply and the source of Bramhope town well. Litigation on this subject continued for some years. To mitigate the situation, a public waterworks scheme with a reservoir and an aqueduct was proposed but not implemented. The tunnel was planned to be 3,344 yards in length but during construction it was extended to 3,743 yards. The cost of building the whole line was estimated to be £800,000 but the final total rose to £2,150,313 () by 1849 because of costs incurred for labour, unforeseen extra costs for tunnelling at Bramhope and work in Leeds and on the Arthington Viaduct. At a shareholders meeting in September 1848 it was reported that only 100 yards of new ground were left to be penetrated and Bray stated it would be possible to run a locomotive through the tunnel in the following May. Work on the tunnel cost the lives of 24 men. The grand opening was 9 July 1849, a week later than intended, but the first train, full of Leeds and Thirsk railway officials, pulled by Bray's locomotive Stephenson, went through a few weeks earlier on 31 May. The railway was opened to the public on 10 July. When built it was the third-longest rail tunnel in the country. The Leeds and Thirsk Company was renamed the Leeds Northern Railway shortly after the line was completed. Since 2016 most services on the line through the tunnel are operated by the Northern franchise on behalf of Rail North which represents the Local Transport Authorities in West and North Yorkshire and other parts of the North of England. ## Construction Two sighting towers were built at a cost of £140 for the surveyors to keep the line true, then from 20 October 1845 twenty shafts were sunk to enable tunnelling. Tunnelling started after the foundation stone was laid at the bottom of No. 1 airshaft in July 1846. The separate working faces were joined into a single tunnel on 27 November 1848, and work was completed in summer 1849. The four shafts retained for ventilation cost £35,000. The shaft north of Otley Road is 240 feet deep, the one behind Park House is 239 feet, Camp House Farm 204 feet and the one nearest to Horsforth station is 175 feet deep. The ventilation shafts measure 40 feet (12 m) by 30 feet (9.1 m) – wider than the tunnel. The finished tunnel is 2 miles, 243 yd or 2.138 miles (3.441 km) long; 25.5 feet (7.8 m) wide by 25 feet (7.6 m) high. It is a double track tunnel, with a gradient of 1 in 94 (0.01%) falling from just north of Horsforth station towards Arthington. The line enters and leaves the tunnel on a curve. ### Working conditions Work was carried out by up to 2,300 navvies and 400 horses were brought in for the work. The workforce included 188 quarrymen, 102 stonemasons, 732 tunnel men, 738 labourers and 18 carpenters. Each day around 2150 wagon loads of rock and earth was removed from the workings to be tipped on the Wharfe embankment leading to the Arthington Viaduct. Men were lowered by bucket down the airshafts to dig by candlelight. They were paid £1.50 per week to shovel 20 tons (20.32 tonnes) of rock and earth per 12–hour shift, seven days a week. Conditions were constantly wet, with foul air and gunpowder fumes and the danger of roof–collapse. The tunnel cuts through hard sandstone, shale and clay, and there are seven major faults in the rock near the centre point. The work was dangerous because the rock at the Horsforth end was difficult to blast, and there was frequent flooding and subsidence. About 1,563,480,000 gallons (7,107,580,080 litres) of water were pumped out of the workings between 1845 and 1849. Metal sheets had to be used to divert water inside the tunnel. ### Living conditions For four years the workmen, some of whom brought their families, lived in 300 temporary wooden bothies either in a field alongside the offices and workshops, opposite the cemetery, or elsewhere along the line of the tunnel. Day– and night–shift workers lived up to 17 per hut taking turns to use the beds in unsanitary conditions. Workers' children overwhelmed the village school. It had been built by the township copyholders and freeholders on Eastgate in 1790. There were originally 30 children but their number increased fourfold, and with a grant of £100 from the railway company the school building was enlarged to accommodate them. The workers and their families used St Ronan's Methodist Chapel in Bramhope and the Methodist Chapel at Pool-in-Wharfedale. The Leeds Mission spread bibles and tracts to families who lived in the bothies. Many navvies had been farm labourers from the Yorkshire Dales, North East England and the Fens, or had come for work from Scotland and Ireland. Drunkenness and fighting was such that Jos Midgeley, a railway police inspector, was hired for £1.25 per week to keep order. At one time he was attacked by a group of men, and at Wescoe Hill, two miles away on the opposite side of the River Wharfe, a riot occurred when the contractors tried to cut off the beer supply to keep the men sober enough to work. ## What is visible today Four of the twenty construction shafts were retained as ventilation shafts. One of the two sighting towers, a tall, cylindrical sandstone structure, two metres in diameter with four vertical slits near the top and flat coping stones is still standing in the field opposite Bramhope cemetery. The other one, now demolished, was behind Dyneley Hall. About 250,000 cubic yards (190,000 m<sup>3</sup>) of sandstone and shale spoil was tipped close to the ventilation shafts along the line of the tunnel. One of the tips is in an area around the scout hut north of Otley Road through to the Knoll, another is south of Breary Lane, one is in a field opposite the cemetery and another near None Go Bye Farm. The sandstone sighting tower, the north and south portals and the retaining walls to the south portal are all Grade II listed structures. The portals are on Network Rail land with no public access. The southern portal at the Horsforth end is a plain sandstone horseshoe-shaped arch with rusticated voussoirs below a cornice and a parapet. It is approached by a slightly curved 300-metre cutting faced with sandstone retaining walls. They have a concave batter, slightly projecting piers at regular intervals and are topped with square coping stones. During the Railway Mania period in which the tunnel was constructed, the powerful landowners often had a strong influence on the railways being built on their land, and it was due to the demands of William Rhodes of the adjoining Bramhope and Creskeld Halls that the north portal is to an intricate Gothic revival castellated design; it was not simply an entrance and exit for trains, but a fantasy medieval gatehouse garden feature. After it was finished, was lived in for a while by railway workers. It is built of rock–faced sandstone and has three side towers with turrets. The keystone on its horseshoe–shaped archway features a portrait of a bearded man thought to be Rhodes. Its crenellated parapet has a carved cartouche in the centre featuring a wheatsheaf, fleece and fish – the heraldic device of the Leeds and Thirsk Railway. ## Incidents A southbound passenger train and a pilot engine left Arthington station on 19 September 1854 heading for Leeds. A pilot engine had travelled northbound through the tunnel earlier the same day with no problems but this time the train ran into a pile of stone debris and was derailed when it was three-quarters of the way into the tunnel. The debris was from a roof fall that affected both tracks. The train engine collided with the pilot engine tender causing considerable damage. Trains have been cancelled or delayed because of flooding in the tunnel. Water still runs fast into the tunnel, and in the 1960s a train was derailed by a 3-ton (3.3 tonne) icicle. ## Repairs Major repair work was done in 2003 and 2006, when the Victorian drainage culvert was replaced and the track lowered to allow access for larger passenger and freight stock at a cost of £10 million. The 16 closed airshafts were deteriorating and had to be re-capped. In 2003 the excavated material from the works was recycled to shore up the railway embankment near Castley. ## Human cost Records of death and injury were kept from 1847 to 1849, and grants were made to the Leeds Infirmary and a special sprung handcart was provided to transport the injured to hospital. Five men died in 1846, twelve died in 1847 and seven more had died by 1849. The 24 men who died are commemorated in Otley churchyard by a Grade II listed monument in the shape of the north portal. It was erected by the contractor. > The sadness of the harsh conditions of those days is captured by the simple epitaph on the gravestone of James Myers who is buried in the Methodist Cemetery at Yeadon behind the Town Hall. James was a married man just 22 years old who 'died by an accident in the Bramhope Tunnel on the 14th day of April, 1848'. Next to him lies the body of his 3 years old daughter who died two weeks later of some unspecified illness. ## See also - Listed buildings in Bramhope - Listed buildings in Guiseley and Rawdon
31,772,741	One Direction	1,173,695,527	English-Irish boy band	[ "2010 establishments in England", "ARIA Award winners", "Brit Award winners", "Columbia Records artists", "English boy bands", "English pop music groups", "English pop rock music groups", "English vocal groups", "Irish boy bands", "MTV Europe Music Award winners", "MTV Video Music Award winners", "Musical groups established in 2010", "Musical groups from London", "NME Awards winners", "One Direction", "Shorty Award winners", "Sony BMG artists", "Sony Music Publishing artists", "Syco Music artists", "Teen pop groups", "The X Factor (British TV series) contestants", "Vocal quartets", "Vocal quintets" ]	One Direction, often shortened to 1D, are an English-Irish pop boy band formed in London in 2010. The group is composed of Niall Horan, Liam Payne, Harry Styles, Louis Tomlinson, and previously Zayn Malik until his departure from the group in March 2015. The group signed with Simon Cowell's record label Syco Records after forming and were the last contestant eliminated in the seventh series of the British televised singing competition The X Factor in 2010. Propelled to global success by social media, One Direction's five albums, Up All Night (2011), Take Me Home (2012), Midnight Memories (2013), Four (2014), and Made in the A.M. (2015), topped charts in several countries, and generated hit singles including "What Makes You Beautiful" (their first number one on the UK Singles Chart, and the highest debut for a British act on the US Billboard Hot 100 since 1998), "Live While We're Young", "Best Song Ever", "Story of My Life" and "Drag Me Down". After the release of Four, One Direction became the first band in the US Billboard 200 history to have their first four albums debut at number one. Their third album, Midnight Memories, was the best-selling album worldwide of 2013. Considered teen idols, One Direction were often subject to fan hysteria. They embarked on four world tours, two of which were all-stadium. The band's Where We Are Tour, in support of Midnight Memories, was the highest-grossing concert tour in 2014, the highest-grossing tour by a vocal group in history, and the 15th highest-grossing concert tour of all time, grossing \$290.2 million (unadjusted for inflation). The band went on indefinite hiatus in January 2016, allowing all members to pursue other projects. As of 2020, the band have sold a total of 70 million records worldwide, making them one of the best-selling boy bands of all time. The band have won nearly 200 awards, including seven Brit Awards, four MTV Video Music Awards, six Billboard Music Awards, seven American Music Awards (including Artist of the Year in 2014 and 2015), and 28 Teen Choice Awards. In 2013, they earned an estimated \$75 million, becoming the second highest earning celebrity under 30 according to Forbes. As the world's best-selling artist of 2013, the group was named the Global Recording Artist of the Year by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry. In 2014, Billboard named the band "Artist of the Year". Forbes ranked them as the fourth highest-earning celebrities in the world in 2015, and subsequently in second in 2016. ## History ### 2010–2011: The X Factor Niall Horan, Zayn Malik, Liam Payne, Harry Styles, and Louis Tomlinson auditioned as solo candidates for the 2010 series of the British singing competition The X Factor. They all failed to progress in the "Boys" category at the bootcamp stage of the competition, but were instead put together to form a five-piece boy band, thus qualifying for the "Groups" category. American singer Nicole Scherzinger, a guest judge, and long-time judge Simon Cowell both claimed to have come up with the idea of forming the band. In 2013, Cowell said that it "took [him] 10 minutes to put them together as a group". In 2022, a never-before-seen video proved that Scherzinger did indeed play the most significant role in forming the band. The video revealed Horan being chosen as the band's first member, followed by Styles, Tomlinson, Payne, and Malik. The band got together for two weeks to get to know each other and rehearse. Styles came up with the band's name. For their qualifying song at "judges' houses", and their first song as a group, One Direction sang an acoustic version of "Torn". Cowell later commented that their performance convinced him that they "were confident, fun, like a gang of friends, and kind of fearless as well." Within the first four weeks of the live shows, they were his final act in the competition. The group quickly gained popularity in the UK. One Direction were the last contestant eliminated in the competition and immediately after the final, their song "Forever Young", which would have been released if they had won The X Factor, was leaked onto the internet. Shortly afterwards it was confirmed that One Direction had been signed by Cowell to a reported £2 million Syco Records record contract. Recording for their debut album began in January 2011, as they flew to Los Angeles to work with RedOne, a record producer. A book licensed by One Direction, One Direction: Forever Young (Our Official X Factor Story), was published by HarperCollins in February 2011, subsequently topping The Sunday Times Best Seller list. The same month, the boy band and other contestants from the series participated in the X Factor Live Tour. During the tour, the group performed for 500,000 people throughout the UK. After the tour concluded in April 2011, the group continued working on their debut album. Recording took place in Stockholm, London and Los Angeles, as One Direction worked with producers Carl Falk, Savan Kotecha, Steve Mac, and Rami Yacoub, among others. ### 2011–2012: Up All Night Released in September 2011 in the UK and Ireland, One Direction's debut single, "What Makes You Beautiful", was a commercial and international success. It reached number one on the UK Singles Chart after becoming the most pre-ordered Sony Music Entertainment single in history. Subsequent singles, "Gotta Be You" and "One Thing", peaked in the UK Singles Chart top ten. In November 2011, they signed a record deal with Columbia Records in North America. Steve Barnett, the co-chairman of Columbia Records, said it was not a difficult decision to sign One Direction; "I just thought there was a void, and maybe they could seize and hold it." That same month, they released Up All Night, their debut studio album, in the UK and Ireland. Critically commended for its appeal to the teenage audience, it became the UK's fastest-selling debut album of 2011. In December 2011, they embarked on their first headlining UK concert tour, the Up All Night Tour. Upon One Direction's arrival in the US in February 2012, the group embarked on a radio promotion spree, as well as their first North American concert tour as an opening act for Big Time Rush, opening 16 shows after they had completed the first leg of the Up All Night Tour. That month, they announced that an Oceania leg had been added to the tour. They made their first US television appearance on The Today Show, at the Rockefeller Center; an estimated 15,000 fans descended on the plaza. "What Makes You Beautiful" was officially released in the United States that same month, where it debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 28, becoming the highest debut for a British act in more than a decade. On the US Billboard Hot 100, it reached as high as number four. As of June 2016, it has sold 4.8 million copies in the US and over 7 million copes worldwide. Up All Night was released internationally in March, and One Direction became the first UK group to have their debut album reach number one in the US, and were inducted into the Guinness World Records as a result. After the album's international release, it topped the charts in sixteen countries. Up All Night also became the first album by a boy band to sell 500,000 digital copies in the US and, by August 2012, had sold over 3 million copies worldwide. It was the third global best-selling album of the year, selling 4.5 million copies. Following the success of the album, a North American leg of the tour was announced later that month. The Up All Night Tour, comprising 62 shows, was met with positivity both critically and commercially, with critics praising their singing abilities and stage presence, and with tickets selling out in minutes. A recording of a concert from the tour, Up All Night: The Live Tour, was released in May 2012. In addition to the DVD topping the charts in twenty-five countries, its global sales had exceeded 1 million copies by August 2012. One Direction's first book to be licensed in America, Dare to Dream: Life as One Direction, published in the US in May 2012, topped The New York Times Best Seller list. In June 2012, Nick Gatfield, the chairman and chief executive officer of Sony Music Entertainment UK, stated how he expects One Direction to represent a \$100 million business empire over 2013. Gatfield stated, "What you might not know about One Direction is that they already represent a \$50 million business and that's a figure we expect to double next year". In August 2012, the group's record sales exceeded 8 million singles, 3 million albums, and 1 million DVDs, and they performed "What Makes You Beautiful" at the 2012 Summer Olympics closing ceremony in London, which represented the handover to Rio de Janeiro as the host of the 2016 Summer Olympics. One Direction were the biggest winners of the 2012 MTV Video Music Awards winning their three nominations on 6 September 2012, including Best New Artist. In April 2012, an American band that went by the same name filed a trademark infringement lawsuit. According to the lawsuit, the US band had been using the name since 2009, recorded two albums and filed an application to register the trademark name in the US in February 2011. The US band said they were entitled to three times the profits made by the UK band, as well as compensatory damages in excess of US\$1 million. The lawsuit claimed that Syco and Sony Music "chose to ignore the plaintiff's rights and wilfully infringed them" after they realised in early 2011 that the two bands shared the same name. Syco Records subsequently counter-sued, suggesting the US group was trying to make money from One Direction's success and that the boy band was the first to use the name in US interstate commerce. The BBC reported in September 2012 that the UK group won the legal dispute over the right to keep using their band name; the US band changed its name to Uncharted Shores. The change of name was announced in a joint statement that also noted both groups were happy with the outcome. ### 2012–2013: Take Me Home In September 2012, "Live While We're Young", the lead single from the group's second album, was released, and was a global success. It reached the top ten in almost every country it charted in and recorded the highest one-week opening sales figure for a song by a non-US artist in the US. A second single, "Little Things", resulted in the band's second number one single in the UK. In November 2012, One Direction's second studio album, Take Me Home, was released. Take Me Home sold 540,000 copies in its first week in the US, debuted atop the Billboard 200, and topped the charts in more than thirty-four other countries. Additionally, Up All Night and Take Me Home were the number three and number four best-selling albums of 2012 globally, each album selling over 4.4 million units worldwide. Upon reaching number one on the Billboard 200, the group became the first boy band in US chart history to record two number-one albums in the same calendar year alongside becoming the first group since 2008 to record two number-one albums in the same year. One Direction became the first group ever to have their first two albums reach atop the Billboard 200. The album and "Little Things" both debuted at number one in the UK simultaneously, making One Direction the youngest act in British chart history to achieve that. Take Me Home was written in groups and has an average of just under five songwriters per track. Savan Kotecha, Rami Yacoub, and Carl Falk, who composed One Direction's hits "What Makes You Beautiful" and "One Thing", spent six months in Stockholm developing songs for the album, and were able to shape melodies around their tones. One Direction began recording the album in May 2012, in Stockholm at Kinglet Studios. The album cover artwork features the group surrounding a traditional British K2 red telephone box, a familiar sight on the streets of the UK. Take Me Home garnered generally favorable reviews from music critics. There was praise for its quality of production although it was criticised for its generic, rushed nature. One Direction performed "Little Things" at the 2012 Royal Variety Performance in the presence of Queen Elizabeth II, and headlined a sold-out show at New York City's Madison Square Garden on 3 December 2012. In February 2013, One Direction released a cover version of "One Way or Another" and "Teenage Kicks", "One Way or Another (Teenage Kicks)", as the 2013 Comic Relief single. The charity single reached number one in the UK and Ireland alongside various other countries while peaking at 13 in the US. As part of their involvement with the UK charity, One Direction travelled to Ghana to volunteer at a children's hospital, visit a school and make donations. Following the release of Take Me Home, One Direction embarked on their second concert tour and first all-arena tour in February 2013, the Take Me Home Tour. The concert tour consisted of 123 shows in Europe, North America, Asia, and Oceania. Ticket sales reached 300,000 within a day of release in the UK and Ireland, which included a six-date sell-out at the O<sub>2</sub> Arena in London. In the Australian and New Zealand markets, tickets grossed US\$15.7 million, with all 190,000 tickets being sold for the eighteen shows to be held. The tour received critical acclaim from music critics who praised the band's live vocals and their performance abilities and was a commercial success, selling 1,635,000 tickets from 134 shows. In total, the tour grossed \$114 million. The Official Charts Company revealed that One Direction had sold 2,425,000 records in the UK by February 2013. ### 2013–2014: Midnight Memories and This Is Us "Best Song Ever", the lead single of the group's then-upcoming third studio album Midnight Memories, was released on 22 July 2013. The song is their highest charting single in the US to date, reaching number two. It broke the 24-Hour Vevo Record with 10.9 million views on YouTube (this was the second time the band held the record with "Live While We're Young" attaining 8.2 million views on 20 September 2012). One Direction: This Is Us, a 3D documentary and concert film about the group directed by Morgan Spurlock and produced by Spurlock, Ben Winston, Adam Milano and Simon Cowell, was released by TriStar Pictures on 30 August 2013. The film was a box office success, topping the UK and US box offices and grossing over \$60 million worldwide, and became the fourth highest-grossing concert movie. On 16 May 2013, the band announced their first all-stadium tour, the Where We Are Tour. Tickets for the tour sold out in minutes and more shows were added due to "overwhelming demand". On 23 November 2013, in support of Midnight Memories, the band participated in "1D Day", a day dedicated to One Direction fans. The day constituted of a landmark 7.5-hour socially interactive YouTube live-stream featuring live band performances, celebrity guests including, Simon Cowell, Cindy Crawford, Piers Morgan, and Jerry Springer. On 28 October 2013, the second single from Midnight Memories, "Story of My Life", was released, charting at number six in the US and at number two in the UK, while charting at number one in countries such as Mexico, Spain, Bulgaria, Denmark, and Ireland. Midnight Memories was released globally on 25 November 2013. It debuted at number one in the UK and in the US, making them the first group to debut at number one on the Billboard 200 with its first three albums, and the second to reach the top after The Monkees in 1967. The album has since been recognized as a turning point in the musical style of the band, with sites quoting it as having a "significant shift in sound" in addition to the solos in songs being more evenly spread out in contrast to their previous two albums. 15 of the album's 18 songs were written by members in the band (Tomlinson being the leader with 12 writing credits) compared to only four songs being written by the group on Take Me Home and three on Up All Night. The album was described by the band as edgier and as having a "slightly rockier tone" than their previous efforts. Despite being released at the year's end, it was the best-selling album worldwide in 2013 with 4 million copies sold globally. To promote the album, the band performed on both the American and British versions of The X Factor. In December 2013, One Direction broke yet another UK sales record with the DVD and Blu-ray release of This Is Us. Nearly 270,000 copies of the film were sold in the UK within three days of its release, beating the record previously set by Michael Jackson's This Is It in 2010 by 10,000 copies. The group was named among the Top Global artists of 2013 by the IFPI because of strong digital downloads, physical albums, on-demand streams, and music videos. In 2013, they became the first boy band in history to gross \$1 billion dollars. The band embarked on the Where We Are Tour on 25 April 2014, and it was concluded on 5 October 2014. Playing 69 shows with an average of 49,848 fans per show, the tour grossed over \$290 million, becoming the highest-grossing concert tour in 2014 (grossing \$87 million more than the second highest-grossing tour, Justin Timberlake's The 20/20 Experience World Tour), the 15th highest-grossing concert tour of all time, and the highest-grossing tour of all time by a vocal group. The tour was attended by 3.4 million fans. In August of that same year, the group released their third book, One Direction: Where We Are: Our Band, Our Story: 100% Official. ### 2014–2015: Four On 21 July 2014, One Direction announced One Direction: Where We Are - The Concert Film, a film which documents the concerts of 28 and 29 June 2014 that took place in San Siro Stadium during their Where We Are Tour. After the announcement, the band announced the film would also have a limited 10–11 October 2014 international cinema release before its home media release in November 2014. The group also released an autobiography book titled Who We Are on 25 September 2014. On 8 September 2014, One Direction announced their fourth studio album to be titled Four, set to be released on 17 November 2014. As part of the announcement, one of the songs from the album, "Fireproof" was released for free download for 24 hours on their official website. "Steal My Girl", the album's lead single, was released on 29 September 2014, receiving critical acclaim for its classic rock sound. The second single from the album, "Night Changes", was released on 14 November, three days before the album's release. It also achieve platinum status, selling over one million units in the United States. Four was released on 17 November 2014, topping the Billboard 200 and the UK Album Chart. In total, in debuted at number one in 18 countries, selling 3.2 million copies. It became the top charted album on iTunes in 67 countries. One Direction became the only group in the 58-year history of the Billboard 200 albums chart to have their first four albums debut at number one. In February 2015, the group embarked on their fourth world tour and second all-stadium tour, the On the Road Again Tour, grossing \$208 million, making it the second highest-grossing tour of 2015. ### 2015–2017: Malik's departure, Made in the A.M. and hiatus On 25 March 2015, the band released a statement announcing Malik's departure. In the official statement, Malik stated "I'd like to apologise to the fans if I've let anyone down, but I have to do what feels right in my heart" and that "I am leaving because I want to be a normal 22-year-old who is able to relax and have some private time out of the spotlight. I know I have four friends for life in Louis, Liam, Harry and Niall. I know they will continue to be the best band in the world." Malik denied rumours of any rift between the members and stated "my band has been really supportive". In later interviews, Malik stated that he left the group due to being unhappy with the group's musical direction and his inability to "put any input in". The group made their first official public appearance as a four-piece on The Late Late Show with James Corden on 14 May, where they confirmed that they would continue working without a new fifth member. The On the Road Again tour concluded on 31 October 2015 after playing eighty shows in stadiums across Australia, Asia, Africa, Europe, and North America. Grossing \$208 million, over 2.3 million tickets were sold. On 31 July 2015, the group released "Drag Me Down" without promotional material or announcement. Despite this, it still topped the charts in multiple countries, including France and Australia, making the song their first single to reach number one in those respective countries. It also reached number one in multiple other countries, including Ireland and the UK, while charting third in the United States. The single was the first single from their fifth studio album, Made in the A.M., and the first material released by the group after Malik's departure. On 22 September, Made in the A.M. was officially announced along with promotional single "Infinity" being released. The group began to reveal the track listing on their Snapchat stories to which it was later confirmed on iTunes. In October, another single, "Perfect", was released. It reached the Billboard top ten, making it the group's second consecutive (after "Drag Me Down") and fifth overall top ten hit, breaking The Beatles' record for the most top ten Hot 100 debuts among bands. In August 2015, it was revealed that the group would be going on hiatus in 2016 to work on individual projects but that "they will remain together and plan to work together in the future". Styles stated in a 2017 interview that he was the first member of the group to bring up the idea of the hiatus in late 2014, saying he "didn't want to exhaust our fanbase" and that all members later eventually agreed. Tomlinson later stated in a 2020 interview that he was "fuming" and not ready when the idea was brought up and that "even though I don't fully understand everyone's individual reasons, I respect them". Made in the A.M. was released on 13 November 2015, topping the charts in the UK amongst other countries, while reaching number two in the U.S. It was the sixth-best selling album of 2015. At the 2015 American Music Awards on 22 November, One Direction won the award for Artist of the Year for the second year in succession. On 13 December, One Direction performed on The X Factor final. Their last televised performance as a group, before their hiatus, was on Dick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve on 31 December 2015. On 13 January 2016, Us Weekly published a report claiming that the group's hiatus would become a permanent split, with unnamed sources citing that each of the four remaining group members did not renew their contracts following the completion of the On the Road Again Tour in October 2015. Representatives for the group denied the report in a statement to Billboard, stating, "nothing has changed regarding hiatus plans for the group, and all will be revealed in due time from the band members' own mouths." At the 2017 Brit Awards on 22 February, One Direction won the Video of the Year award for their song "History". Payne, the only member in attendance, accepted the award on behalf of the band. By May 2017, all members of the group had released solo singles. Since then, all band members have pursued other projects and released at least one solo album. In February 2018, it was reported that the group had folded its touring company after applying for removal within the Companies House registry in October 2017. ## Artistry One Direction's debut studio album, Up All Night (2011), is predominantly a pop music record, containing elements of teen pop, dance-pop, pop rock, with electropop and rock influences. Digital Spy's Robert Copsey described the album as a "collection of PG pop rock with killer choruses", while The New York Times considered it "full of easy rock-inflected pop, blithe and sometimes clever". Jason Lipshutz of Billboard acknowledged that the album demonstrates an originality in sound that was "necessary for the revitalization of the boy band movement". The songs "One Thing" and "What Makes You Beautiful" were particularly noted for the genres of power pop and pop rock, for their "powerhouse" guitar riffs and "forceful" choruses. Their second studio album, Take Me Home (2012), is characterised by rock-inherited pop, prominent electric guitar riffs, bright synthesisers, a homogeneous sound and message, and the pitch-correcting software Auto-Tune. Alexis Petridis of The Guardian interpreted its signature sound as a "peppy, synth-bolstered take on early-80s new-wave pop, heavy on clipped rhythms and chugging guitars", which, he said, is at least an improvement on the substitute contemporary R&B "that was once the grim lot of the boyband". Jon Caramanica, writing in The New York Times, considered the album "far more mechanical" than their debut album, although noted that it is sonically and lyrically similar. The album's lyricism speaks of falling in love, unrequited love, the insistence that flaws are what make a person unique, commitment, jealousy and longing for past significant others. Erica Futterman for Rolling Stone favoured their live acoustic performances as both showing, "Horan's ability to play guitar, as well as One Direction's admirable live vocals. There was no need to worry about a backing track or a bum note, a pleasant realization at a pop show." Herald Sun's Cameron Adams opined that One Direction have "strong pop voices". Melody Lau of the National Post wrote, "It's easy to get lost in inherent appeal of their perfectly coiffed dos and almost-too-put-together preppy style but somewhere in the midst of all the love-struck squeals of teenage girls are guys who can actually sing and, to a certain extent, entertain." Jane Stevenson of the portal site Canoe concurred: "What I didn't really prepare myself for was that they all can actually sing in concert." Chris Richards, writing in The Washington Post, dissented from the approval: "As the five traded couplets, it was tough to imagine a future Justin Timberlake, Ricky Martin or Bobby Brown emerging from the pack. No one voice stood out." Mike Wass of Idolator felt One Direction's "surprisingly accomplished effort" of Kings of Leon's "Use Somebody" proved that One Direction are "more than capable" of evolving their sound. Their third album Midnight Memories (2013) is a pop rock record, a slight departure from the band's original teen pop sound. Liam Payne called Midnight Memories a "slightly rockier and edgier" album than their previous material. The album is heavily influenced by 80's rock and folk music and briefly integrates elements of dubstep, notably in "Little White Lies". The album's lyrical themes primarily revolve around love, heartbreak and sexual intercourse. Many critics praised its lyrical depth and musical composition, as well as the group's level of involvement in the production process. Their fourth album Four (2014) was released on 17 November 2014. Payne once again claimed that the album would be "edgier" and that the group had written most of the songs for it; Horan came up with the name of the album, commemorating the fact that it is One Direction's fourth record to date and that it has been four years since the band's formation. Signifying a further maturation of their pop sound, the album's first single, "Steal My Girl", was dubbed by Billboard as "no What Makes You Beautiful, but its Coldplay-like piano pop could be a good direction", and that the band was "not entirely ready to let go of its bubble-gum days". Rolling Stone described the record as "saturated with retro vibes"; its songs "split the difference between big, splashy Eighties pop rock and more elegant Seventies flavours – a very pesky whipper-snapper move that's not so far from what Haim's hit "Days Are Gone" did last year". ## Other ventures ### Endorsements In 2011, One Direction became the face of Pokémon Black and White, starring in a series of television adverts. They were the first installments in the fifth generation of the Pokémon series of role-playing games. They also launched Nokia C3 and Nokia C2-02 phones. To promote the launch Nokia made a series of photos of the band members using the phones to take photos of themselves. In 2012, they teamed up with Colgate to launch their own One Direction Colgate MaxFresh Power Toothbrush, the One Direction Colgate Maxfresh Manual Toothbrush, and the One Direction Colgate MaxFresh Toothpaste. The band was signed by Pepsi in a multimillion-dollar advertising deal in 2012. Social media marketing included a tie up with Shazam, whereby consumers that used the digital music app in conjunction with the ad both on TV and online were able to view exclusive content and link back to iTunes to buy One Direction's single, "Live While We're Young". Mini figures based on members of the group were launched for the band's US fans after the agreement was signed by American firm Hasbro. In October 2012, the band also signed up to endorse Filipino clothing brand, Penshoppe. In 2013, One Direction announced pop-up shops around the world, including Brisbane, Toronto, Chicago, New York, Tokyo and Stockholm, selling exclusive merchandise. Nabisco became the title sponsor of One Direction's North American tour. The band became the new faces of Toyota VIOS, releasing behind-the-scenes look at their commercial for the vehicle. One Direction's debut fragrance, Our Moment, launched at Harrods in London and on their website in 2013. The full length advert for the fragrance was released on 24 August 2013, featuring the song "My Favourite Things". The perfume was the best-selling famous fragrance of Christmas 2013. In 2014, the band released their second scent That Moment. The fragrance was released with a matching shower gel and body lotion. They released a commercial for their third fragrance, "You & I", named after their 2014 song of the same name. In 2015, One Direction appeared in an advert for the Toyota Vios, which aired in Thailand. Coca-Cola Mexico launched the session and full interview with One Direction, with a series of commercials in which Tomlinson, Payne, Styles and Horan showed us what it means to be a True Friend. One Direction revealed their fourth fragrance 'Between Us' at The Sanderson in London, England on 24 June. The band appeared in a Honda Civic ad which shows the quartet testing out the car's stereo, style and trunk space with a humorous tone and the tagline "It's all One Direction approved." The ad is set to the 1D single "Drag Me Down". The group's 2015 U.S. tour was also supported by Honda. ### Philanthropy In 2011, the band performed on the BBC's Children in Need 2011 charity telethon. In 2012, they extended their involvement with Children in Need as they opened the telecast with a performance of their single "Live While We're Young". A prominent annual event in British television, the group said it was "incredible" to be involved in Children in Need as it was something that they had "always watched as children". In February 2013, One Direction released "One Way or Another (Teenage Kicks)" (a medley of "One Way or Another" and "Teenage Kicks") as the 2013 single for the UK's other major charity telethon Comic Relief. For ITV's Santa charity Christmas campaign, they filmed a set of pleas to their fans and the general public, asking them to donate £2. The band have made numerous other appearances for charitable causes, including the 2011 Pride of Britain Awards where they presented 13-year-old quadruple amputee Danielle Bailey the Child of Courage award at her school assembly, and the 2014 Royal Variety Performance where they played in front of Prince William and Catherine at the London Palladium. In September 2012, Niall Horan organised an event to raise money for Irish Autism Action and another charity, called Temporary Emergency Accommodation Mullingar, based in his hometown. Due to overwhelming demand to participate in the fundraising, the ticket website for the event broke down. Horan's brother Greg commented on the website crash, saying that "there were 500 tickets and they were all snapped up pretty quick". In 2013, band members Liam Payne and Harry Styles partnered with Trekstock, a leading cancer charity to help raise money for cancer research. As ambassadors of the charity, the duo collaborated to offer the chance for one fan and a friend to win an evening out with them in return for a donation to the charity as part of an exclusive "#HangwithLiam&Harry" global campaign. They had originally set a goal of raising \$500,000 and ended up raising \$784,984. Trekstock later added that this amount would allow them to "complete funding of their Hodgkin's lymphoma trial, in the hope of offering a much brighter future to thousands of children and young people affected by this form of disease". One Direction were named the most charitable in 2013 behind Taylor Swift by social change organisation DoSomething.org. On 30 May 2013, the band announced a partnership with Office Depot on a limited-edition capsule collection of back to school supplies. They also confirmed that a portion of the proceeds from the alliance would go toward an anti-bullying educational program intended to promote kinder behaviour in schools. In 2014, One Direction donated £600,000 for the Stand up to Cancer campaign by giving portions of their ticket sales revenues from their Where We Are Tour. On 15 November 2014, One Direction joined the charity group Band Aid 30 along with other British and Irish pop acts, recording the latest version of the track "Do They Know It's Christmas?" at Sarm West Studios in Notting Hill, London, to raise money for the 2014 Ebola crisis in Western Africa. In 2015, One Direction launched 'Action 1D' campaign to raise awareness of global issues. The initiative aims to end extreme poverty, tackle inequality and slow down climate change with the help of their millions of fans. It is part of the wider action/2015 campaign, a global citizen's movement that is all about the idea that 2015 can be the year when the world can set the agenda to end major global issues. One Direction will be asking their fans to describe the kind of world they want to live in by sharing powerful pieces of creative content, including videos and photos, using the hashtag \#Action1D. The quartet also starred in a campaign video, appealing to fans to join the movement. ## Image During the mid-2010s, One Direction were dubbed as teen idols, and were often subject to fan hysteria. Neil McCormick of The Daily Telegraph, in an article on One Direction's success in North America, notes that Americans had left a gap in the market and it took the prominence of Justin Bieber to demonstrate that there still was a market for "clean cut, wholesome, whiter-than-white, middle class parent friendly pop: cute boys advocating puppy love. And what could be better than one cute boy, if not five?" Bill Werde, a representative of Billboard magazine, commented, "There's a lot of possibility here, there's a lot of upside, that level of talent with those kinds of looks, it's really a perfect storm for a massive, massive successful phenomenon." In NPR, Maria Sherman noticed that before One Direction's breakthrough, boy bands were "off the radar" since NSYNC went on an indefinite hiatus in 2002. Horan commented on One Direction as a boy band, "People think that a boy band is air-grabs and [being] dressed in all one colour. We're boys in a band. We're trying to do something different from what people would think is the typical kind of boy band. We're trying to do different kinds of music and we're just trying to be ourselves, not squeaky clean." Leah Collins, writing for the National Post, remarked they had succeeded on the latter front. "For the most part, that just means the group presents themselves as typical, goofy and uncensored teenage boys – posting jokey YouTube videos, for instance, or boozing at awards shows." Writing for The Observer, Kitty Empire opined, "One Direction fulfill a great many boy band prerequisites (looks, soppy lyrics, tune-grasp, fame-lust) but their lack of routines points to the subtle digressions afoot here". Each member's individual identity is reinforced by their intentionally different personal styles. Caroline Watson, the band's original stylist, spoke about styling the band, "At the beginning I didn't want them all in black or all in leather – that whole stereotypical boy band thing." Instead, her original idea was for them to be the "male equivalent to the Spice Girls", with each member being a part of the group but still having his own individual style. ## Legacy One Direction have been described as sparking a resurgence in the interest in boy bands as well as forming part of a new "British Invasion" (along with acts like Adele) in the United States. Many media outlets noted that One Direction was the first boyband to rise to and eventually surpass a level of popularity comparable to NSYNC, Backstreet Boys, and New Kids on the Block before their respective hiatuses and breakups. HuffPost wrote that "One Direction's level of fame surpassed anything that modern audiences had seen" and that "fans and non-fans alike widely agree that such intense levels of fandom hadn't been seen since The Beatles in the 1960s". NPR described the group as "one of the biggest boy bands the world had ever seen" and the group has been described as "the world's biggest boy band" as recently as 2020, four years since their hiatus. Rolling Stone named "What Makes You Beautiful" the sixth greatest boy band song of all time. Billboard named Four the best boy band album of the last thirty years, calling it "the absolute standard-bearer for the last decade of pop". One Direction's music was considered pop that was rooted in guitar rock which was rare during their active years, with Rolling Stone calling the group "one of the great rock bands of the 21st century." One Direction was widely considered the biggest boy band in the world with band "barreling into international success" and falling into "seemingly effortless superstardom". Their main "competitor", in terms of boy bands, was The Wanted, who formed in 2009 (one year prior to One Direction), with many expecting a "rivalry" between the two groups similar to the one between NSYNC and the Backstreet Boys. However, in a 2014 story by Billboard, they wrote "the boy band war was over before it even began" and that "the boy band war was not a war at all; it had been a one-sided stomping". The Wanted went on indefinite hiatus in 2014, and they cited One Direction's global success as part of the reason, saying "One Direction are a phenomenon that no one else can compete with" and "For The Wanted to try and compete against one of the biggest bands in the world ... it's almost impossible". One Direction's rise to fame has been called "meteoric" with the group becoming the first British band to ever have their debut album top the US charts. Forbes noted that their "meteoric rise has surpassed any other boy band in history, NSYNC included". During their continued rise in the United States in 2012, the mania surrounding the group was dubbed "One Direction Infection". That same year, "1D World" stores were opened around the United States as the group worked on their second studio album to meet the high demand for the band and "to give fans the ultimate One Direction experience". Part of the group's rise to popularity was their "atypical construct" in the sense that they don't dance, rarely wear matching outfits, and are heavily tattooed, all three which were rare in boybands of the past. The Huffington Post added that they "didn't just sing cheesy ballads" and instead "embraced their differences". Slate noted that One Direction portrayed more of a "joking" and "fun" manner in their songs, music videos, and individual personas when compared to boy bands of the past. They were credited with breaking "the boy band mold". Despite their differences in that regard, the group still used an approach pioneered by The Beatles in which each member was applied a persona; Horan as "the cute Irish one", Malik as "the quiet and mysterious one", Payne as "the sensible one", Styles as "the charming flirt" and Tomlinson as "the funny one". TMRW Magazine wrote in a 2020 story that the group "helped defy traits typically associated with toxic masculinity" and that "their friendship set them apart, made them more real". One Direction are also widely considered to have been one of the first groups and celebrities to have been propelled to global recognition by social media. Sonny Takhar, the chief executive officer of Syco Records, attributes the breakthrough to the power of social media, saying "sometimes you feel the song's the star, but it's not like that here – it's the act," he said. "It's a real moment. Social media has become the new radio, it's never broken an act globally like this before." Will Bloomfield, the group's manager, added, "These guys live online, and so do their fans." Their management employs a social media team and the members all tweet themselves, "which helps create the illusion that they couldn't be any closer to their fans", according to Caspar Llewellyn Smith, writing for The Guardian. Sunil Singhvi, Twitter head of entertainment in the UK, stated that "the fans' ability, via Twitter, to tell Europeans about One Direction really catapulted them there, then from Europe to America, and now it's a global phenomenon." Savan Kotecha, who wrote multiple songs for the band, said in an interview with Rolling Stone that "they instinctively had this - [...] they just knew how to speak to their fans. And they did that by being themselves. That was a unique thing about these boys: When the cameras turned on, they didn't change who they were". Their rise in success has been greatly credited to social media, which allowed fans to not only spread the word about the group, but get live updates from concerts and interviews as well as about the band's whereabouts daily. One Direction, in their active years, were extremely present on social media and interacted with fans daily, giving them "an army of online fans". The Detroit News named them "the first megastar boyband of the Social Media Era." In 2017, ABC premiered the television series Boy Band which aims to find male vocalists to become a member of a new five-piece boy band. Many media outlets suspected the show's premise and inspiration was to find "the next One Direction". ### Fandom One Direction's fans dubbed themselves as "Directioners" and were considered one of the largest fandoms on the internet. Huffington Post noted the fandom as "making news for forming unprecedented mobs outside hotels, at airports and outside concert venues. For years, the boys would discreetly exit buildings to remain safe". The Independent wrote that "the legacy of One Direction isn't anything to do with the 1D boys or Simon Cowell, but the extraordinary power of teenage girls" while calling them "sole engineers of the band's unbelievable success" and "alchemists". A 2022 article by Fast Company writes that "One Direction fangirls made the internet a better place" and that "we should thank Harry Styles-obsessed fandoms for shaping our social interactions online". In a 2020 story in honor of the band's 10-year anniversary, Billboard wrote that their "groundbreaking success" was "all made possible by the group's fervent international fanbase, characterized by its rabid devotion and accelerated by the rise of social media and music streaming, ultimately rivaling the fandom of any other boy band in history". After Malik left the band in March 2015, fan reactions went viral on social media, with Bustle titling an article "Zayn leaves, fans lose it". Specifically, candlelight vigils held in memory of Malik went viral, with sites like Rolling Stone writing stories over fan reactions. In 2022, Kaitlyn Tiffany released a book titled Everything I Need I Get From You: How Fangirls Created the Internet as We Know It, focusing on the cultural impact and online community created by Directioners. ### 10-year anniversary event On 22 July 2020, One Direction posted on their Twitter, Instagram and YouTube accounts an image with the words "10 Years of One Direction" and the caption "Tomorrow! You and me got a whole lot of history \#10YearsOf1D" in anticipation of their tenth anniversary the following day. The Instagram post received 7.5 million likes. The tweet received 1.8 million likes and the hashtag "10YearsofOneDirection" trended on Twitter. On 23 July, One Direction launched a new anniversary website, however, the site crashed shortly after its announcement due to the high volume of fans entering at once. Members Payne, Horan, Tomlinson and Styles also posted on their individual social media pages, thanking their fans and all five initial members for their support. Styles' tweet reached one million likes in just over an hour, making it the fastest tweet ever to reach one million likes. On 23 July, One Direction premiered a retrospective video in celebration of their anniversary. Select remastered 4K versions of their past music videos and concert recordings were released between 23 and 28 July. ## Discography - Up All Night (2011) - Take Me Home (2012) - Midnight Memories (2013) - Four (2014) - Made in the A.M. (2015) ## Filmography ## Tours Headlining - Up All Night Tour (2011–12) - Take Me Home Tour (2013) - Where We Are Tour (2014) - On the Road Again Tour (2015) Opening act - X Factor Tour 2011 (2011) - Better with U Tour (Big Time Rush) (2012) ## Awards and honours As of 2020, One Direction have sold a total of 70 million records worldwide, making them one of the best-selling boy bands of all time. In 2013, they earned an estimated \$75 million, becoming the second highest earning celebrity under 30 according to Forbes. Forbes ranked them as the fourth highest-earning celebrities in the world in 2015, and second in 2016. The band has received seven Brit Awards, seven American Music Awards, six Billboard Music Awards, five Billboard Touring Awards, and four MTV Video Music Awards, among other awards. One Direction holds the record as the most awarded act at the Teen Choice Awards with 28 wins from 31 nominations. Being the world's best-selling artist of 2013, the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI) named them the Global Recording Artist of the Year. In 2014, Billboard named the band "Artist of the Year". ## Publications - One Direction: Forever Young, HarperCollins (17 February 2011) - One Direction: The Official Annual 2012, HarperCollins (1 September 2011) - Dare to Dream: Life as One Direction, HarperCollins (15 September 2011) - One Direction: Where We Are: Our Band, Our Story: 100% Official, HarperCollins (19 November 2013) - One Direction: Who We Are: Our Official Autobiography, HarperCollins (25 September 2014) ## See also - Best-selling boy bands - List of Billboard Social 50 number-one artists - List of artists who reached number one on the UK Singles Chart - List of highest-grossing concert tours ## Explanatory notes
2,924,699	Brian McGrattan	1,158,443,886	Canadian ice hockey player	[ "1981 births", "Adirondack Flames players", "Binghamton Senators players", "Calgary Flames coaches", "Calgary Flames players", "Canadian expatriate ice hockey players in England", "Canadian ice hockey coaches", "Canadian ice hockey right wingers", "Canadian people of Irish descent", "Guelph Storm players", "Ice hockey people from Hamilton, Ontario", "Living people", "Los Angeles Kings draft picks", "Milwaukee Admirals players", "Mississauga IceDogs players", "Nashville Predators players", "Nottingham Panthers players", "Oshawa Generals players", "Ottawa Senators players", "Owen Sound Attack players", "Providence Bruins players", "San Antonio Rampage players", "San Diego Gulls (AHL) players", "Sault Ste. Marie Greyhounds players", "Sudbury Wolves players", "Syracuse Crunch players" ]	Brian McGrattan (born September 2, 1981) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey player and current member of the Calgary Flames player development staff. McGrattan was a fourth-round selection of the Los Angeles Kings (104th overall) at the 1999 NHL Entry Draft but never signed with the team. He signed with the Ottawa Senators organization in 2002 and made his NHL debut with the team three years later. McGrattan has also played in the NHL with the Phoenix Coyotes, Nashville Predators and Calgary Flames. As a career journeyman, he was also a member of five American Hockey League (AHL) teams, and ended his career in 2017 in England as a member of the Nottingham Panthers of the Elite Ice Hockey League (EIHL). An enforcer, he holds the AHL record for most penalty minutes in one season with 551, set in 2004–05 with the Binghamton Senators. McGrattan overcame an alcohol abuse problem that plagued him early in his career and has become a lead member of the NHL's substance abuse program and mentor to fellow players. Upon the conclusion of his playing career, McGrattan rejoined the Calgary Flames in a player development role. ## Playing career ### Junior A native of Hamilton, Ontario, McGrattan played minor hockey in the city where he was one of his teams' best scorers before moving to Toronto to play bantam and junior hockey. He played five seasons in the Ontario Hockey League (OHL) between 1997 and 2002. He appeared in 25 games with the Guelph Storm in 1997–98, and although he did not appear in any playoff games, he was a member of the Storm's J. Ross Robertson Cup winning team as OHL champions. After only six games with Guelph the following season, McGrattan was sent to the Sudbury Wolves where he recorded 153 penalties in minutes (PIM) in 53 games to go along with 17 points. He followed that season up by scoring 32 points and recording 245 PIM in 1999–2000 in a season split between Sudbury and the Mississauga IceDogs. Playing the entire 2000–01 season with Mississauga, McGrattan led the IceDogs with 20 goals despite playing only 31 games. He missed the majority of the season after suffering a knee injury in a January 1, 2001, game against the Kingston Frontenacs. He began the 2001–02 OHL season as Mississauga's captain, but was traded to the Owen Sound Attack in October 2001, then to the Oshawa Generals a few days later. He was traded again, to the Sault Ste. Marie Greyhounds in January 2002. Split between the four teams, McGrattan appeared in 60 games, scored 20 goals and 35 points, and had 159 PIM. ### Ottawa Senators McGrattan was selected by the Los Angeles Kings in the fourth round, 104th overall, of the 1999 NHL Entry Draft, but the Kings opted not to sign him to a contract following his knee injury. He attended the Detroit Red Wings' development camp prior to the 2001–02 season, before signing a contract with the Ottawa Senators on June 2, 2002. He spent three seasons in the American Hockey League (AHL) with Ottawa's affiliate, the Binghamton Senators. McGrattan scored his first professional point on October 11, 2002, against the Bridgeport Sound Tigers; an assist on a Jeff Ulmer goal that also stood as the first goal in Binghamton's history. Due to his size, McGrattan believed his best chance of making it to the NHL was as an enforcer. Dennis Bonvie, the all-time penalty leader in professional hockey, taught him to be a better fighter while the two were teammates in Binghamton. After posting 173 PIM in 2002–03, McGrattan finished second in the AHL with 327 in 2003–04. He then set an AHL single-season record for penalties with 551 in 2004–05. Having established himself as an enforcer, and with the Senators seeking to add physical toughness to their lineup, McGrattan earned a spot on Ottawa's roster for the 2005–06 season. He appeared in 60 games with Ottawa where he recorded five points and 141 PIM. McGrattan scored his first NHL goal on November 19, 2005, against goaltender Martin Brodeur of the New Jersey Devils, and led the league with 19 fights. His most famous battle came against Tie Domi of the Toronto Maple Leafs. McGrattan knocked his opponent down with one punch, which the Toronto Star called Domi's "most decisive loss in 10 years". His role with the team diminished over the following two seasons, as McGrattan appeared in only 45 games in 2006–07 and 38 in 2007–08. He had only five points and 146 PIM combined between the two seasons. McGrattan made headlines midway through the 2007–08 campaign when he fought teammate and goaltender Ray Emery – himself a noted fighter – in practice. McGrattan's on-ice performance had suffered over time in Ottawa as a result of a worsening drinking problem he had developed beginning early in his career with Binghamton. ### Phoenix, Calgary and Nashville The Senators struggled late in the 2007–08 season, leading general manager Bryan Murray to make changes to the team. Both Emery and McGrattan were sent from Ottawa in separate transactions. McGrattan, a pending free agent, was traded to the Phoenix Coyotes on June 25, 2008, in exchange for a fifth-round draft pick in the 2009 NHL Entry Draft. The Coyotes subsequently signed him to a one-year contract for the 2008–09 season. However, he played only three games with Phoenix before he voluntarily entered the league's substance abuse program. McGrattan's struggles with alcohol abuse reached its lowest point and he spent over two months at an Arizona rehab centre as he worked toward changing his life. He returned to the Coyotes late in the season but played only two additional games before he suffered a shoulder injury that required surgery to repair. McGrattan was six months sober when he signed with the Calgary Flames for the 2009–10 season. He recorded his first career "Gordie Howe hat trick" – a goal, assist and fight – on October 16, 2009, in a 5–3 victory over the Vancouver Canucks. The goal was his first NHL marker in three years. He added only two assists to finish with four points in 34 games. McGrattan also fought 14 times and was allowed to go to free agency following the season. McGrattan attended the Boston Bruins camp on a try-out basis, and earned a one-year contract with the team. He was assigned to the Providence Bruins to begin the 2010–11 season and spent the entire campaign in the AHL. The Bruins traded him to the Anaheim Ducks, along with Sean Zimmerman, in exchange for David Laliberte and Stefan Chaput on February 27, 2011. He was assigned to the Syracuse Crunch, where he set a franchise record for shots in one game with 13 in a March 12 game against the Rochester Americans. McGrattan scored 10 goals combined between Providence and Syracuse, the highest single-season total of his AHL career. After beginning the 2011–12 NHL season in the Ducks' organization, McGrattan was claimed off waivers by the Nashville Predators on October 11, 2011. The transaction resurrected his NHL career and earned praise from his former teammates who praised him as being a "great guy" and a hard worker. McGrattan appeared in 30 games for Nashville, including his 200th career game on December 8 against the Columbus Blue Jackets. After two games with the Predators in the lockout-shortened 2012–13 season, McGrattan was assigned to the AHL's Milwaukee Admirals. After only six games in Milwaukee, McGrattan was traded back to the Flames, in exchange for Joe Piskula, on February 28, 2013. McGrattan's positive influence in the locker room as a player always prepared to play was cited as a reason why Calgary re-acquired him. The Flames also expected he would add a physical presence to the team, which he did in his re-debut with the Flames, a 4–2 victory over Vancouver that included several hits and a fight with Tom Sestito – his first NHL fight in over a year. He gave the crowd a salute following the fight, sending the fans into a frenzy and earning a ten-minute misconduct. He finished the season with three goals and 49 PIM in 19 games with the Flames, and earned a two-year contract extension from the team. McGrattan was a regular in the Flames lineup throughout 2013–14. He set career highs in games played (76), goals (4) and points (8) in a season. He appeared in his 300th NHL game late in the campaign. Though best known for his fighting skills, McGrattan played a prominent role as a peacekeeper during a January 18, 2014, incident between the Flames and Canucks. Vancouver coach John Tortorella, upset over a line brawl between the two teams at the start of the game, attempted to accost Calgary's coach Bob Hartley in the hallway between the two teams' locker rooms during the first intermission. McGrattan stepped between Tortorella and members of the Flames to ensure that the dispute did not develop into a violent altercation. A league-wide change in philosophy prior to the 2014–15 NHL season favouring speed over strength for a team's role players resulted in the near elimination of the enforcer role. As a consequence, McGrattan appeared in only 8 of Calgary's first 42 games. The team ultimately placed him on waivers, and upon clearing, demoted him to the AHL's Adirondack Flames in mid-January. With Adirondack, McGrattan abandoned fighting and tried to play an all-round game in the hopes of returning to the NHL. Leaving the Flames organization, McGrattan signed a one-year contract with the Anaheim Ducks, and was subsequently assigned to the AHL's San Diego Gulls for the 2015–16 season. During a January 19, 2016, game against the San Antonio Rampage, McGrattan was knocked unconscious in a fight with Daniel Maggio. The incident, in which he fell face-first to the ice and had to be stretchered off the ice, renewed the debate over the place of fighting in hockey. After 14 seasons associated with the NHL, McGrattan opted to play the 2016–17 season in England and agreed to a one-year deal with the Nottingham Panthers of the Elite Ice Hockey League (EIHL). In 42 games with the Panthers, he recorded 12 goals and 19 points while adding 138 minutes in penalties. It was the final season of his playing career as in 2017, McGrattan re-joined the Calgary Flames in an off-ice role as a member of the team's player development staff to offer on and off-ice support for the team's players and prospects. ## Personal life McGrattan married his wife Michelle in 2012. His nickname is "Big Ern", after the Bill Murray character "Big Ern McCracken" in the movie Kingpin. Sober for four years by the time he began his second tenure with the Flames in 2013, McGrattan had also become a mentor and friend to former Nashville teammate Jordin Tootoo in Tootoo's own efforts to overcome similar addictions. McGrattan's experiences led to a desire to help others; he works with the NHL substance abuse program to act as a mentor for others seeking the advice of a fellow player, and plans to spend his off-seasons earning a university degree in addiction counseling. McGrattan is also an advocate for anti-bullying charities and volunteers with Be The Game, a camp that supports underprivileged children. ## Career statistics
9,250,448	OS MX3000	1,168,935,351	Electric multiple unit used on the Oslo Metro	[ "2005 establishments in Norway", "750 V DC multiple units", "Multiple units of Norway", "Oslo Metro stock", "Siemens multiple units" ]	MX3000 is an electric train used on Oslo Metro in Oslo, Norway. The multiple units are produced by Siemens Mobility, who started serial delivery in 2007. Seventy-eight three-car units were ordered by Sporveien, and five by Akershus County Municipality. They replaced the older T1000 and T1300 stock that was used on the Oslo Metro since 1966. By 2010, the last T1000 and T1300 trains had been retired and replaced by 83 three-car units. 32 additional sets were ordered, and the final train set was delivered in 2014, increasing the fleet to 115 units. The trains are built as 3-car units, though they often operate 2 coupled units in regular service. The units are 54.34 metres (178 ft 3 in) long, and weigh 98 tonnes (96 long tons; 108 short tons) empty. They have twelve 140-kilowatt (190 hp) traction motors, allowing speeds of 70 kilometres per hour (43 mph). Seated capacity is 138 seats, and total capacity is 493 passengers. The first series of 33 units were ordered in 2003, followed by an additional order for 30 in 2005, 15 in 2008, and 32 in December 2010. Financed by Oslo Package 2, each unit cost about . ## History In 1966, the Oslo Metro opened as an upgrade of two existing suburban tramways, the Østensjø- and Lambertseter Lines (Lines 3 and 4). By 1970, the system was supplemented by the Grorud- and Furuset Lines. They only operated to the eastern suburbs. In 1987, the system was expanded to connect to the western network, that remained a suburban tramway with overhead wires, two-car platforms and an inferior signaling system. In 1993, the Sognsvann Line was converted to metro standard, with the Røa Line following two years later. When the order for the MX3000 trains was placed, the Kolsås- and Holmenkoll Lines still used overhead wires, and would not be able to use the new stock. Both systems were at the time being considered for conversion to light rail systems, that would connect to the Lilleaker- and Ullevål Hageby Line, respectively. The old fleet of T1000 and T1300 consisted of 195 cars in eight series. The T1000 was the original series delivered between 1966 and 1978, while the T1300 was a later adoption built until 1987. The T1000 series had only a third rail shoe, while the T1300 also had a pantograph, and could be used on the Kolsås- and Holmenkoll Lines. In 1995, six two-car T2000 units were delivered for the Holmenkoll Line. They were, at the time, proposed as a possible replacement for all the T1000 and T1300 stock, but were prone to technical problems. They featured both third rail shoes and pantographs. In 1996, the work to establish a financing package for new investments in public transport in Akershus and Oslo started. It was passed, in 2001, by the city and county councils, as well as the Norwegian Parliament. Oslo Package 2 allowed municipal and state grants to be supplemented by increased fare and toll road revenue to finance, among other things, new trains for the metro. The initial order by Oslo Sporveier was for 33 units (or 99 cars), and was approved by the board on 28 June 2003. The initial order cost NOK 1.6 billion, and included options for further orders. Five other manufactures had been rejected during the procurement process. Combined with other investments in the network, the new trains will allow faster travel times on the metro. In 2005, the city council voted to replace all existing T1000 and T1300 stock with the MX3000, increasing the quantity by another 30 units. With the second order, the price had increased to NOK 2.5 billion. Two test units were delivered in October 2005, and the serial production started in April 2006, with the first deliveries in April 2007. With the delivery of the new trains, Oslo Sporveier received criticism that they had been disloyal to the old red color of the metro, and that they did not follow up on their former design concept from the 1960s through the 80s. During the first 30 days, two errors occurred: one in the closing mechanism of the doors, and one with a switch in the cab that was not water tight. However, it turned out that Oslo Sporveier had not been accurate enough in specifying the energy consumption of the trains, and the rectifiers on parts of the line needed to be upgraded to supply sufficient power to the trains. During 2007, there were four incidents where the trains were not able to brake at stations. The worst incident occurred when a train slid 1.3 kilometres (0.81 mi) from Blindern down to Majorstuen. Following the 2006 decision to convert the Kolsås Line to metro standard, Akershus County Council announced that they would order five units. In November 2006, the city government proposed that the maintenance of the new trains be privatized. This resulted in protests from the employees, who performed a partial strike by refusing to work overtime. As a result, after a few weeks, the company lacked 57 trains to provide adequate service. The issue was solved when the socialist opposition parties along with the Liberal Party agreed to postpone the matter until after all the new trains were delivered in 2009. As part of the agreement, a new limited company, Oslo Vognselskap, wholly owned by Sporveien, would take ownership of all metro trains and trams used by the operating companies Oslo T-banedrift and Oslo Sporvognsdrift, the latter being the operator of the tramway. Responsibility for the debt accumulated after buying the trains was to be managed by Oslo Vognselskap, while operation and management of the maintenance contracts was transferred to Oslo T-banedrift. In January 2008, an additional 15 units were ordered by Oslo Municipality, with an option for further orders later. This would allow all the eastern lines to have a 7-minute-30-second headway on their services into the city center, instead of the current 15-minute headway. Trains would start using the balloon loop located at Stortinget, and the western lines would continue to have a 15-minute headway. Additionally, the trains serving the Ring Line were extended to six cars, with a double train set. The order cost NOK 675 million. In addition, Akershus finalized their order for five units, costing NOK 240 million. Unlike the Oslo-owned units, Akershus' five units are owned by the transit authority Ruter. The same year, the city council in Oslo decided to upgrade the Holmenkoll Line to metro standard, to allow six-car MX3000 trains to be the main mode of transport to Holmenkollen during the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships 2011. This allowed 9,000 people per hour to be transported to the sports venue. In 2009, the T2000 units were taken out of service, and on 22 April 2010 the last T1300 was taken out of service, making the MX3000 the only units in traffic on the Oslo Metro. The city council was considering ordering 15 additional MX3000 to replace the T2000, as an alternative for a NOK 50-million renovation. In November 2010, the Accident Investigation Board Norway criticized the braking system of the trains. In 2009, there were 83 incidents where trains with locked wheels slid down steep sections of track. The Accident Investigation Board found that the metro had conducted insufficient testing of the braking system on steep slippery lines, had not adjusted the brakes satisfactorily, and had not maintained the trains and tracks sufficiently. In December 2010, Oslo Vognselskap ordered another 32 three-car units, bringing the total order up to 115 three-car units. The last trains would be delivered by 2012. There was political disagreement regarding the final purchase, with the Liberal Party and socialist opposition securing a majority for the purchase, while the right-winged parties voted to order 19 units. The extra trains will make it possible to run all lines except the Holmenkollen Line (Line 1) with six-car lines, compared to a situation with only three-car trains on the Lambertseter Line, the Ring Line and the Kolsås Line (lines 4, 5 and 3) would only use three-car trains. ## Specifications The MX3000 is a three-car electric multiple unit built exclusively for the Oslo Metro by Siemens in Vienna, Austria. It is a modification of trains used on the Vienna U-Bahn. The units are designed by Porsche Design Studio. Unlike the red predecessors, the trains are painted white with black and grey detailing. The chassis is in aluminum. A three-car train is 54.34 meters (178 ft 3 in) long; the end cars are 18.21 meters (59 ft 9 in) long each, while the center car is 17.92 meters (58 ft 10 in) long. The cars are 3.16 meters (10 ft 4 in) wide and 3.68 meters (12 ft 1 in) tall. An empty three-car unit weighs 98 tonnes (96 long tons; 108 short tons), while it with full payload weighs 147 tonnes (145 long tons; 162 short tons). This gives a maximum axle load of 12.5 tonnes (12.3 long tons; 13.8 short tons). Each three-car unit has 138 seats, and a total capacity of 493 passengers. The height of the floor is 1.12 meters (3 ft 8 in) above the track, allowing step-free access to the platforms. There are three doors on each side of each car, measuring 1,300 millimeters (51 in) wide and 1,960 millimeters (77 in) high. Unlike the older T1000 trains, the triple-car configuration allows passengers to walk between the cars. Combined with a better spatial design, it reduces the feeling of crowding. The MX3000 also introduced air conditioning in the driver's cab. The units run either in single configuration (with three cars) or in multiple (with six cars). Each car is equipped with four three-phase asynchronous 140-kilowatt (190 hp) motors, giving each three-car unit a power output of 1,680 kilowatts (2,250 hp). In each car, the four motors are fed by the car's own insulated-gate bipolar transistor. They transform the 750 volt direct current collected from the third rail shoe to the three-phase alternating current used in the motors. The frequency and amplitude of the current fed to the engines varies depending on the train's speed. The MX3000 introduced regenerative brakes, that allow the electromagnetic brakes to feed power back to the power supply when braking. In addition, there is a back-up disc brake on each axle. Acceleration in the range 0 to 40 kilometers per hour (0 to 25 mph) is limited to 1.3 meters per second squared (4.3 ft/s<sup>2</sup>). In this phase, the fully loaded train uses 5.0 kiloampere. For use in areas without a third rail, such as at depots, the trains are equipped with a 110 V battery. This removes the need for shunting at the depots, and makes maintenance more cost efficient. Energy usage is reduced by 30%, estimated to save the operating company NOK 13 million per year, compared to using the old stocks. There are two bogies per car, each with two axles. The wheel diameter is 850 millimeters (33 in) for new wheels, and 770 millimeters (30 in) when fully worn-down. The center distance between the bogies is 11.00 meters (36 ft 1 in). The primary suspension is steel coil spring between the axles and the bogies, with a secondary air suspension between the frame and the bogies. The latter, which the MX3000 was the first to use on the metro, gives reduced noise, better comfort and makes it possible to adjust the height with changed passenger weight. The units are controlled by a distributed system connected by a double multifunction vehicle bus. It has two vehicle control units, that monitor and control all main functions of the train; in addition, there are systems for controlling the brakes, traction, doors, ventilation, passenger information system and compressor. Like the older stock, the train's speed is controlled by an automatic train protection (ATP) system. The speed codes are transferred from the ATP points in the infrastructure, using 75 hertz pulses in the tracks. The trains pick up the signals via antennas. The speed codes are 15 km/h (9.3 mph), 30 km/h (19 mph), 50 km/h (31 mph) and 70 km/h (43 mph). They are informed to the engineer via signals in the driver's cab; in addition, the system will automatically reduce the speed, should the limit be exceeded. The driver can put the trains in an automatic mode, where the train itself adjusts the trains speed to the speed limit. The driver is always responsible for starting and halting the train at stations. The driver's cabs are more ergonomic than in the T1000, and the mirrors to monitor the platforms have been replaced with cameras and screens. ## Formation The MX3000 carriage numbers range from 3x01–3x99 (first 99 sets) and continued with 3x100–3x115 upon delivery of the 100th set. Many of the train sets have also been given a girls' name.
37,124,082	Boletus abruptibulbus	1,164,094,911	Species of fungus	[ "Boletus", "Fungi described in 2009", "Fungi of Florida", "Fungi without expected TNC conservation status" ]	Boletus abruptibulbus is a species of bolete mushroom in the family Boletaceae. Described as new to science in 2009, it is found only in the Gulf Coast of the Florida Panhandle, where it grows on the ground in coastal sand dunes, one of only three North American boletes known to favor this habitat. The fruit bodies have convex brownish caps up to 8 cm (3.1 in) in diameter, supported by solid yellowish to reddish stems measuring 3–5 cm (1.2–2.0 in) long by 10–15 mm (0.4–0.6 in) thick. The pores on the underside of the cap measure about 1–2 mm in diameter and are initially pale yellow before developing a greenish tinge in age. The mushroom's spores, about 20 micrometers long, are unusually long for a member of the Boletaceae. The stem base is bulbous, a diagnostic feature for which the species is named. ## Taxonomy The species was described as new to science in 2009 by Beatriz Ortiz-Santana, William Roody, and Ernst Both in the journal Mycotaxon. The holotype material was collected at St. Joseph Peninsula State Park in Florida in January 2005. In 2007, Roody and Both published a short description and color photograph of the species in their field guide Mushrooms of the Southeastern United States, but this was not a valid name as it lacked a Latin description. The specific epithet abruptibulbus refers to the abruptly (abrupti-) swollen (-bulbus) shape of the bulb at the base of the stem. ## Description The convex cap measures 30–80 mm (1.2–3.1 in) in diameter. Slightly sticky when wet, the cap surface is shiny and smooth. Sometimes, the surface has flattened filaments (formed from aggregated hyphae), and may develop cracks. The thin and easily detached cap cuticle is initially reddish brown to dark brown, later becoming cinnamon brown. The cap margin is curved inward when young, but becomes bent downward when mature. The white to very pale yellow cap flesh does not change color when exposed to air, and has a pleasant odor and mild taste. The tubes comprising the hymenophore on the underside of the cap measure 3–8 mm (0.1–0.3 in) long and are pale yellow initially before developing a greenish tinge in age. The pore surface does not stain when it is bruised. The pores are roughly spherical or polyhedral at first, becoming angular to pentagonal in age, and almost gill-like near the attachment to the stem. Pores are about 1–2 mm in diameter. The stem is solid (i.e., not hollow) 3–5 cm (1.2–2.0 in) long, 10–15 mm (0.4–0.6 in) thick in the upper part, expanding to 2–2.5 cm (0.8–1.0 in) at the bulbous base. It has pseudorrhiza (cord-like structures resembling a plant root) that are 0.5–1.5 cm (0.2–0.6 in) long. The stem surface is dry and smooth except for a powdery region near the apex. The top of the stem is yellow, but it gradually becomes reddish approaching the bulbous base. The stem tissue is pale yellow, although tunnels dug by insect larvae are reddish brown. A drop of dilute ammonia (as a 12% NH<sub>4</sub>OH solution) placed on the cap surface immediately turns dark red. If placed on the bulbous part of the stem base of a dried specimen, it will turn dark for roughly 15 seconds before starting to fade. The spores are smooth, spindle-shaped, and measure 13.5–19.8 by 5.0–7.2 μm—rather large for a member of the Boletaceae. Grayish-yellow or greenish yellow when mounted in a dilute potassium hydroxide, they are dextrinoid (yellowish- or reddish-brown) when stained with Melzer's reagent. The basidia (spore-bearing cells in the hymenium) are club-shaped, hyaline (translucent), four-spored, and measure 28.8–42.3 by 7.2–11.7 μm. The hymenium contains basidioles (immature or aborted basidia), which are club-shaped and measure 20.7–35.1 by 7.2–9.0 μm. Pleurocystidia (cystidia on the surface of the tubes) range in shape from somewhat spindle-shaped to cylindrical, and are hyaline, smooth, and thin-walled, with dimensions of 41.4–61.2 by 7.2–10.8 μm. Cystidia on the edges of the pores (cheilocystidia) are 31.5–49.5 by 7.2–13.5 μm, spindle-shaped to centrally swollen, hyaline, smooth, and thin-walled. Clamp connections are absent from the hyphae. The bulbous base, large spores, and distinctive habitat are characteristic features that make this species readily distinguishable from other boletes. It has a coloration and cap texture similar to Boletus flaviporus and B. auriporus, but the spores of these species are shorter (11–15 μm and 11–16 μm, respectively). ## Habitat and distribution The fruit bodies of Boletus abruptibulbus grow singly or in groups in sand. The species is known only from the Gulf Coast of the Florida Panhandle, where fruiting occurs on older sand dunes, particularly in areas where the habit changes from coastal scrub to oak-pine woods. This latter habitat is characterized by the presence of the tree species Sand Live Oak (Quercus geminata), Myrtle Oak (Q. myrtifolia), and Sand Pine (Pinus clausa). Fruiting occurs from December to March. Boletus abruptibulbus is one of only three North American Boletaceae species that occur in coastal sand dunes; the others are Leccinum arenicola, found in New Brunswick, Canada, and Phylloporus arenicola, described from Oregon. ## See also - List of Boletus species
1,529,479	Treehouse of Horror IV	1,170,946,806	null	[ "1993 American television episodes", "Animated television episodes about vampires", "Cultural depictions of Benedict Arnold", "Cultural depictions of Blackbeard", "Cultural depictions of John Dillinger", "Cultural depictions of John Wilkes Booth", "Cultural depictions of Lizzie Borden", "Cultural depictions of Richard Nixon", "Fiction about the Devil", "Halloween television episodes", "Lawsuits against the Devil", "Parodies of films", "Parodies of paintings", "Parody television episodes", "Philadelphia Flyers", "Television episodes about Dracula", "Television episodes about nightmares", "Television episodes set in Pennsylvania", "Television episodes set in hell", "Television episodes written by Conan O'Brien", "The Devil and Daniel Webster", "The Simpsons (season 5) episodes", "Treehouse of Horror", "Works set in castles" ]	"Treehouse of Horror IV" is the fifth episode of the fifth season of the American animated television series The Simpsons and the fourth episode in the Treehouse of Horror series of Halloween specials. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on October 28, 1993, and features three short stories called "The Devil and Homer Simpson", "Terror at 5+1⁄2 Feet", and "Bart Simpson's Dracula". The episode was co-written by Conan O'Brien, Bill Oakley, Josh Weinstein, Greg Daniels, Dan McGrath, and Bill Canterbury, and directed by David Silverman. As with the rest of the Halloween specials, the episode is considered non-canon and falls outside the show's regular continuity. The episode makes cultural references to television series such as The Twilight Zone, Night Gallery, and Peanuts, as well as films such as The Devil and Daniel Webster, Bram Stoker's Dracula and The Lost Boys. Since airing, the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics. It acquired a Nielsen rating of 14.5, and was the highest-rated show on the Fox network the week it aired. ## Plot In the wraparound, Bart introduces each of the three segments by walking through a gallery of paintings and each time choosing one of them as the focus of his story. In "The Devil and Homer Simpson", Homer sells his soul to Ned, who is the devil, for a donut. After Marge and Lisa plead with Ned, he agrees to put Homer on trial. At the trial, Marge saves Homer from being sent to Hell by displaying a photo from their wedding day. On the back of the photo, Homer has written that, in return for Marge giving him her hand in marriage, he pledges his soul to her forever; therefore, it was not his property to sell at the time of his deal with Ned. The case is dismissed, and Ned frees Homer, but Ned gets his revenge by turning Homer's head into a donut. In "Terror at 5+1⁄2 Feet", Bart tries to warn the passengers on the school bus that a gremlin is loosening the lug nuts on one of the wheels, but nobody can see the gremlin. In desperation, Bart climbs halfway out the window to scare off the gremlin with an emergency flare. As Bart is pulled back into the bus by Principal Skinner and Groundskeeper Willie, he drops the flare on the gremlin, who catches fire and falls from the bus, but is found by Ned. Even though everyone sees the damage when they make it to school, Bart is sent to a psychiatric hospital for his disruptive behavior. Bart is relieved as he is finally able to rest, but the gremlin appears in the back window of the ambulance, holding Ned's decapitated head. In "Bart Simpson's Dracula", the Simpson family is invited to Mr. Burns' castle in Pennsylvania for a midnight feast. Bart and Lisa discover a secret staircase descending to a basement with coffins. Vampires emerge from the coffins and encircle them while Lisa reads through Burns' autobiography Yes, I Am a Vampire. Lisa escapes and tries to warn her parents that Burns has bitten Bart, but Homer and Marge pay little attention until Bart tries to bite Lisa later that night. Homer drives a stake through Burns' heart, and kills him, as Lisa believes doing so will restore Bart. The next morning, Lisa discovers that everyone else in the Simpson family is a vampire, with Marge as their head. The family breaks character and wishes the audience a happy Halloween. ## Production "Treehouse of Horror IV" was directed by David Silverman and co-written by Conan O'Brien (his final assignment for The Simpsons; by the time this episode aired, his brand-new late night show on NBC had been on for a little over a month), Bill Oakley, Josh Weinstein, Greg Daniels, Dan McGrath, and Bill Canterbury. It is the fourth episode of the annual Treehouse of Horror Halloween specials. As with the rest of the Halloween specials, the episode is considered non-canon and falls outside the show's regular continuity. O'Brien worked on the "wrap-arounds" of Bart introducing each segment to make sure that they "pulled" the episode together. The wrap-arounds are based on Rod Serling's television series Night Gallery, in which Serling appears at an art gallery and introduces each episode by unveiling paintings depicting the stories. Executive producer James L. Brooks loved the show, so it was "great fun" for him to do the parody. Show runner David Mirkin thought the Treehouse of Horror episodes were the hardest episodes to do because the staff had to fit in all three stories in only 22 minutes. Mirkin said, "Things had to happen really fast. They're really just crammed with jokes and story beats and everything." The first segment, "The Devil and Homer Simpson", was written by Daniels and McGrath. The first time Devil Flanders appears, he looks the same as the devil Chernabog from the 1940 Walt Disney produced film Fantasia; Silverman particularly admired the animation in that sequence. Oakley loved the idea of Flanders being the Devil because he was the character whom viewers would least expect. He also thought Harry Shearer did a good job of playing Flanders in a much darker way, while remaining very true to the character. Many scenes had to be cut to shorten the segment, including one that showed Homer's severed head being used as a bowling ball by a demon in hell. This scene later appeared in the clip show episode "The Simpsons 138th Episode Spectacular", which aired in the show's seventh season. The second segment, "Terror at 5+1⁄2 Feet", was written by Oakley and Weinstein. It was inspired by an episode of The Twilight Zone called "Nightmare at 20,000 Feet", in which William Shatner's character is inside an airplane watching a gremlin tear apart the wing. Silverman watched the episode to get inspiration for Bart's facial expressions. Oakley said there was a lot of work put into the design of the gremlin in "Terror at 5+1⁄2 Feet" to make him scary "within The Simpsons universe". Mirkin said he felt the gremlin was well-done because he looked scary and "yet it looks like a completely organic Simpsons character". Üter, a character from Germany, makes his first appearance on the show in this segment; he was conceived as a one-time joke, but reappeared in later episodes because Mirkin felt he was "such a perfect stereotype". The third segment, "Bart Simpson's Dracula", was written by Canterbury. It is based on Francis Ford Coppola's film Bram Stoker's Dracula. Mirkin was a big fan of the film and pushed for a segment about vampires inspired by the movie. He liked the final result and felt Mr. Burns was perfect in the role of Dracula. Dracula and his castle were designed by Silverman. Mirkin, a "big" Peanuts fan, came up with the idea for the ending of "Bart Simpson's Dracula". ## Cultural references The wrap-around segments are a reference to Rod Serling's television series Night Gallery. The paintings seen in these segments are parodies of well-known works, including The Scream, The Son of Man, The Death of Marat, The Persistence of Memory, Three Musicians and Ascending and Descending, all featuring members of the Simpson family. "Terror at 5+1⁄2 Feet" is a parody of the final segment seen in Twilight Zone: The Movie and The Twilight Zone episode "Nightmare at 20,000 Feet". The title and a majority of the plot of "Bart Simpson's Dracula" is a parody of the Francis Ford Coppola film Bram Stoker's Dracula. The ending is a reference to A Charlie Brown Christmas. The demon who is feeding Homer donuts says: "I don't understand it. James Coco went mad in fifteen minutes!", referencing an actor who received attention for his culinary talents and best-selling cookbooks. The jury at Homer's trial consists of John Wilkes Booth, Lizzie Borden, John Dillinger, Blackbeard, Benedict Arnold, the starting lineup of the 1976 Philadelphia Flyers, and Richard Nixon (who points out that he is not yet dead). The first time the Devil appears, he resembles the demon Chernabog from the Walt Disney film Fantasia, especially after Homer discovers a technicality and starts taunting the Devil that he's "smarter than the devil", until the Devil turns into the Chernabog-esque demon and glares at him before disappearing. The scene in Hell where Homer is fed all the doughnuts in the world, and asks for more, is a direct parody of the cartoon Pigs is Pigs, in which the character Piggy (known for being a glutton) is taken in by a scientist and forced to eat all the food in the world. In the school bus, Martin wears a shirt reading Wang Computers. At Mr. Burns' castle, Lisa notices a tome resting on a stand in the basement. She runs over and reads the title: "Yes, I Am a Vampire, by Monty Burns. Foreword by Steve Allen," a reference to American actor Steve Allen. Shortly after she finds the tome, she makes allusions to Shemp and Curly Howard of the Three Stooges, mistaking Bart's fearful attempts at getting her attention as impressions of the two. Bart floating outside Lisa's bedroom window is a parody of The Lost Boys as well as Stephen King's novel Salem's Lot. The family's plan to kill the head vampire is also a reference to both the film and novel. In particular, the twist revelation that Burns is not the head vampire is also a reference to the twist ending of The Lost Boys. The closing credits of the episode features a version of the Simpsons theme that is a combination of the instruments used in The Munsters theme song and the harpsichord and clicking from The Addams Family theme song. ## Reception ### Critical reception Since airing, the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics. The authors of the book I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide, Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, said the episode included many notable sequences and was "probably the best" Treehouse of Horror episode. They particularly liked the scenes in Hell where Homer is punished by the Devil, and Chief Wiggum's attempts to deal with Dracula (who he thinks is a mummy) in the "Bart Simpson's Dracula" segment by ordering the Egyptian wing of the Springfield museum to be destroyed. DVD Movie Guide's Colin Jacobson thought "Terror at 5+1⁄2 Feet" was the best segment of the episode. Jacobson praised "The Devil and Homer Simpson" as clever funny, and described "Bart Simpson's Dracula" as "easily the least effective", claiming it, "presents some good moments but never quite takes flight". Patrick Bromley of DVD Verdict gave the episode an A grade and called it "one of the very best" Halloween specials, although said "Treehouse of Horror V" was better. Central Michigan Life's John Thorpe named it the tenth best episode of the series, and wrote: "The best part comes when Homer decides not to eat the last part of the doughnut, thus saving him from hell. Hilarious." DVD Talk's Bill Gibron gave the episode a 4 out of 5 score. Kim Nowacki of Yakima Herald-Republic named "Treehouse of Horror IV" her "all-time favorite" episode. She praised the parodies of The Twilight Zone and A Charlie Brown Christmas. The episode's reference to Bram Stoker's Dracula was named the 32nd greatest film reference in the history of the show by Total Film's Nathan Ditum. James Whitbrook of Gizmodo called "Bart Simpson's Dracula" the "best sketch in what is the best Treehouse of Horror." ### Ratings In its original American broadcast, "Treehouse of Horror IV" finished 17th in the ratings for the week of October 25 to October 31, 1993, with a Nielsen rating of 14.5, translating to 13.6 million households. The episode was the highest-rated show on the Fox network that week.
11,826,414	Maryland Route 235	1,171,937,368	Highway in Maryland	[ "Roads in St. Mary's County, Maryland", "State highways in Maryland" ]	Maryland Route 235 (MD 235) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Maryland. Known as Three Notch Road, the state highway runs 30.63 miles (49.29 km) between its southern intersection with MD 5 in Ridge and its northern intersection with MD 5 near Mechanicsville. While the southern part of the state highway is a two-lane undivided rural road, the northern part of MD 235 is a four- to six-lane divided highway connecting Naval Air Station Patuxent River (NAS Patuxent River) and the Washington, D.C., metro area in conjunction with MD 5. Three Notch Road has been the main highway between northern St. Mary's County and Point Lookout since the colonial era. The highway was reconstructed as the modern MD 235 between 1923 and 1938. The state highway was then completely rebuilt during World War II to serve the recently established NAS Patuxent River. Between 1960 and 1985, MD 235 was converted into a four-lane divided highway to the west and north of the military base. In the face of increasing activity at the base, the highway adjacent to NAS Patuxent River was expanded to six lanes in the early 2000s. ## Route description MD 235 begins at an intersection with MD 5 (Point Lookout Road) in Ridge. The state highway heads north as a two-lane undivided road that passes through the community of Dameron and to the west of The Elms Wildlife Management Area. MD 235 meets the eastern end of MD 489 (Park Hall Road), a connector between MD 235 and MD 5, east of Park Hall Estates. The state highway passes a section of old alignment, Poplar Ridge Road, on the east, then curves northwest and intersects MD 712 (Forest Park Road) and Hermanville Road in the hamlet of Hermanville at the southern edge of NAS Patuxent River. MD 235 expands to a four-lane road with a center left-turn lane and the highway runs along the western edge of the military base. The state highway intersects MD 246 (Great Mills Road), which serves the main gate of NAS Patuxent River, in the center of Lexington Park. MD 235 continues northwest along the boundary of NAS Patuxent River as a six-lane divided highway. Beyond Pegg Road, which heads east to another entrance to the military base, the highway leaves the vicinity of the naval air station. MD 235 continues into California, where the highway meets the northern end of MD 237 (Chancellors Run Road). A short distance to the north, MD 235 intersects MD 4, which heads west as St. Andrew's Church Road and east as Patuxent Beach Road toward the Governor Thomas Johnson Bridge over the Patuxent River to Calvert County. Beyond MD 4, the highway reduces to a four-lane divided highway and passes to the east of St. Mary's County Regional Airport. The first of several sections of old alignment, Mervell Dean Road, splits to the north; the northern portion of the old highway is MD 944. MD 235 continues past Clarks Landing Road, which is unsigned MD 944C, before it receives the northern end of MD 944 a little south of the main road's intersection with MD 245 (Hollywood Road/Sotterley Road) in Hollywood. MD 235 receives Old Three Notch Road as it leaves Hollywood, then it parallels another of its former courses, Clover Hill Road, as the highway passes through Hillville. Beyond the intersection with MD 472 (North Sandgates Road), MD 235 passes through Oakville, where another old alignment, Oakville Road, splits to the north before the main road intersects MD 247 (Loveville Road). Mt. Zion Church Road, yet another old alignment, splits to the north in the hamlet of Laurel Grove before MD 235 intersects the eastern terminus of MD 6 (New Market–Turner Road) and Morganza–Turner Road in Oraville. The final old alignment of MD 235, Harpers Corner Road, splits to the west shortly before the state highway reaches its northern terminus at MD 5 near Mechanicsville. MD 5 heads southwest as two-lane Point Lookout Road toward Leonardtown. Northbound MD 5 continues straight on the divided highway as Three Notch Road toward Charlotte Hall and Waldorf. MD 235 is part of the main National Highway System from MD 246 in Lexington Park to its northern junction with MD 5 in Mechanicsville. The highway is also a National Highway System principal arterial between MD 712 and MD 246 in Lexington Park. ## History MD 235 follows the path of what was the first major long-distance highway in St. Mary's County, the Patuxent Main Road. The road, established by 1692, connected Point Lookout and northern St. Mary's County along the drainage divide between the Potomac River and Chesapeake Bay. The Patuxent Main Road later became known as the Three Notch Road based on a 1704 law that stated "three notches of equal distance marked on the trees indicated a road leading to a ferry." The whereabouts of the ferry to which this road led are unknown. After 200 years of little improvement, reconstruction of the Three Notch Road by the Maryland State Roads Commission began in 1923 when the highway was rebuilt as a 15-foot (4.6 m) wide gravel road from MD 5 near Mechanicsville south to MD 472 in Oakville. The gravel road was extended south from Oakville 1 mile (1.6 km) to Friendship School Road in 1924. Construction on Three Notch Road resumed in 1926 when two sections were placed under construction. A 1-mile (1.6 km) segment of gravel highway was constructed south from MD 246 in Jarboesville (now Lexington Park) toward Hermanville in 1926 and 1927. The northern segment of MD 235 was extended to Hillville in 1928 and to Hollywood in 1929. The southern gravel section of the highway was extended 1 mile (1.6 km) south to Hermanville in 1930. Also in 1930, construction on the 6.5-mile (10.5 km) gap between Hollywood and Jarboesville began and a new segment of MD 235 was started from Ridge north 3 miles (4.8 km) to Dameron. The Ridge–Dameron segment was completed in 1932 and the gravel highway from Hollywood to Jarboesville was finished in 1933. The gravel section constructed from Ridge reached Bay Forest Road by 1935 and Hermanville in 1938, completing MD 235. Immediately after the beginning of U.S. involvement in World War II, the U.S. Navy made plans to construct a naval air station on the Cedar Point peninsula near Jarboesville. MD 235 was marked for an upgrade from MD 5 to Jarboesville both to connect the new military installation with Washington and to allow the road to handle the heavy military traffic that would travel the highway during the military base's construction and operations. The highway was under construction by the end of 1942. The highway's gravel surface was widened as a first layer and surface treated in autumn 1943 to help heavy traffic during the winter. In spring 1944 the first layer was scarified and the top 4 inches (10 cm) were mixed with asphalt to form a base. This base was covered with a 2-inch (5.1 cm) wearing surface of bituminous concrete. MD 235 was also reconstructed in this manner from Jarboesville to Hermanville in 1944 and 1945; included in that project was the construction of MD 712 to provide a modern highway to the naval air station's South Gate. During the reconstruction of MD 235, the highway was relocated in many places between Mechanicsville and Hollywood to remove substandard curves and avoid grade crossings with the southern extension of the Washington, Brandywine and Point Lookout Railroad that the U.S. Navy constructed contemporaneously to provide a rail link to the military base. Many of the bypassed stretches of highway—which included Harpers Corner Road in Oraville, Mount Zion Church Road in Laurel Grove, Oakville Road in Oakville, Clover Hill Road in Hillville, Old Three Notch Road in Hollywood, and the southernmost portion of Mervell Dean Road—were designated as sections of MD 722. The next major project along MD 235 was the reconstruction of the 1930s gravel highway between Ridge and Hermanville. Construction began in 1957 from Hermanville and was completed south to Park Hall in 1959, with the remainder of the highway completed around 1960. MD 235 was relocated between Park Hall and Hermanville, leaving behind Poplar Ridge Road as an old alignment. Also in 1960, the state highway was expanded to a divided highway from Hermanville to Lexington Park. MD 235 was widened to a divided highway from Hollywood to Hillville in 1968, from Mechanicsville to Oakville in 1969, and from MD 246 in Lexington Park to Town Creek Drive in California in 1973. Two sections of divided highway were completed in 1982: from Town Creek Drive to just north of the newly constructed MD 4 intersection in California; and from Oakville to Hillville. The final segment of MD 235 between Hermanville and Mechanicsville to be expanded to a divided highway was completed from California to Hollywood in 1985. The portion of the state highway from just north of St. Mary's County Regional Airport to just south of MD 245 in Hollywood was relocated to the west along the right-of-way of the Washington, Brandywine and Point Lookout Railroad, which had earlier been abandoned. The bypassed highway was renamed as a northward extension of Mervell Dean Road and designated MD 944. MD 235 was widened in Lexington Park and California between 2000 and 2004 due to increased activity at the military base and its supporting industries. The state highway was widened to six lanes from north of Pegg Road to Town Creek Drive in 2000 and from Town Creek Drive to just north of MD 4 in 2001. Expansion to six lanes occurred from FDR Boulevard to north of Pegg Road in 2003. The final section of widening occurred in 2004 when the six-lane section was extended south from FDR Boulevard to MD 246. MD 235 between MD 712 and MD 246 was transformed from a four-lane divided highway to a five-lane road with center turn lane in 2004 as well. ## Junction list ## See also
45,599,704	Davison House	1,149,085,119	Vassar College dormitory	[ "Buildings of the Rockefeller family", "Houses completed in 1902", "University and college dormitories in the United States", "Vassar College buildings" ]	Davison House (officially the Eliza Davison House) is a five-story dormitory on the campus of Vassar College in the town of Poughkeepsie, New York. Designed by Boston architecture firm Allen & Vance and built 1902, it was the fourth dorm built on Vassar's residential quadrangle. It houses 191 students of any grade or gender and it became Vassar's first disabled-accessible dorm following a 2008–2009 renovation. ## History Davison House was the fourth residential quadrangle (quad) dormitory to be built on the campus Vassar College in the town of Poughkeepsie, New York. Construction of Davison came during a period of rapid dorm-building spanning 1893–1902 during which the older seminary-style model of housing—a single large hall in which all a college's residents lived, in Vassar's case Main Building—was quickly waning in popularity in favor of smaller individual houses. The project began with the opening of Strong House in 1893 and continued with Raymond House in 1897, Lathrop House in 1901, and finally Davison in 1902. Davison House was built with funds provided by magnate and philanthropist John D. Rockefeller, then a trustee at the college. Named in honor of his mother as the Eliza Davison House, it was the third structure at Vassar that Rockefeller paid for, after Strong House and Rockefeller Hall. Roofers replaced Davison's roof in 1960 and new windows were installed in 1980. A new staircase on the side of the dorm facing away from the quad was built in 2005. The dorm underwent a major renovation during the 2008–2009 school year, reopening at the beginning of the 2009–2010 academic year. The renovation included plans for upgraded accessibility, including an elevator and disabled-accessible bathrooms and doors, making it Vassar's first dorm to offer those features. ## Architecture and features Davison was designed by the Boston architectural firm of Francis Richmond Allen and J. McArthur Vance who were also responsible for the design of its neighbor, Lathrop House, in 1901. Formulating a design for these two buildings was not difficult as a template had already been set by way of the preexisting Strong and Raymond Houses. Frederick Law Olmsted, a consultant of design for the college, recommended that any new dorms in the area be built in an "echelon formation" in order to provide for a greater sense of openness. Allen disregarded this advice, instead opting to place the dorm, along with Lathrop, in "two long unbroken rows of buildings on the bias". Davison was ultimately placed north of Raymond, across the quad to the west of Lathrop, and diagonally across from Strong. Standing a total of five stories tall with an additional basement level, Davison is an Elizabethan brick building. It is capped with a pitched Pennsylvania slate roof and five chimneys, each multiple wythes thick. Several cupolas also jut from the roof, each fitted with louvers. The dorm features elements of brownstone trim and brownstone-capped brick parapets. Inside the building, dorm room floors are made of wood paneling. Walls are painted cream and fifth floor rooms feature sloped ceilings and inlaid skylights. Bathrooms have tile floors and marble sinks, while communal spaces utilize motion-sensing lighting technology. The house is co-ed and currently has a capacity of 191 students. Residents of Davison, which houses students of all grades, may live in either single rooms, one-room doubles, or three-room triples with bathrooms being shared by all members of a hall. The dorm has a kitchen, a parlor abutting the quad, and, as of 2011, its basement was a frequent practice space for student bands. In a 2005 guide to the school published by College Prowler, Davison was named one of the three best dorms at Vassar, along with Main and Jewett.
6,526,508	Janjucetus	1,148,378,394	Extinct genus of mammals	[ "Baleen whales", "Fossil taxa described in 2006", "Oligocene cetaceans", "Oligocene mammals of Australia", "Prehistoric cetacean genera" ]	Janjucetus is an extinct genus of cetacean, and a basal baleen whale (Mysticeti), from the Late Oligocene around 25 million years ago (mya) off southeast Australia, containing one species J. hunderi. Unlike modern mysticetes, it possessed large teeth for gripping and shredding prey, and lacked baleen, and so was likely to have been a predator that captured large single prey animals rather than filter feeding. However, its teeth may have interlocked, much like those of the modern-day filter-feeding crabeater seal (Lobodon carcinophaga), which would have allowed some filter-feeding behavior. Its hunting behaviour was probably similar to the modern-day leopard seal (Hydrurga leptonyx), probably eating large fish. Like baleen whales, Janjucetus could not echolocate; however, it did have unusually large eyes, and so probably had an acute sense of vision. The only specimen was found on the Jan Juc beach, where the remains of the extinct whales Mammalodon, Prosqualodon and Waipatia have also been discovered. ## Discovery and naming The only known fossil of Janjucetus was found in Australia in the late 1990s by a teenaged surfer named Staumn Hunder, near the Victorian township of Jan Juc, in marine sediment that was deposited 27–23.9 million years ago (mya) in the Late Oligocene. The name Janjucetus hunderi honours both the township and the discoverer. Hunder is said to have seen the brown fossils on a boulder while he surfed. Soon after discovering the site, Hunder and his father removed the boulder and transported it to Monash University for further research. The well-preserved fossil remains, specimen NMV P216929, include a nearly complete skull, mandibles, vertebrae, ribs, scapulae and a radius, and are held in the Museums Victoria Palaeontology Collection in Melbourne. It was formally described by Erich Fitzgerald in 2006, and it represents the most complete Paleogene cetacean fossil from Australia. ## Description Janjucetus is estimated to have been about 3.5 m (11 ft) in length, about the size of the modern bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops spp.) and much smaller than any living baleen whale. The snout was broad and triangular, and was not flattened or elongated like those of modern baleen whales. The upper jaw (maxilla) made up around 79% of the snout. The two-halves of the lower jaw were fused (mandibular symphysis), as opposed to the flexible mandibular symphysis of modern baleen whales which allows them to significantly increase the size of their mouth. Compared to archaeocetes, primitive whales, the snout is wider, which may have been a precursor to the large mouths of modern baleen whales. Like other baleen whales, Janjucetus did not possess the ability to echolocate; however, it may have had a large line of fat along its lower jaw, similar to modern toothed whales (Odontoceti), which would mean it could detect ultrasonic signals. It had unusually large eyes for baleen whales compared to its body size, which were positioned high up on the skull; likewise, it probably relied on good eyesight instead of echolocation to navigate. Janjucetus did not have baleen, and instead had large teeth. The incisors and canines formed a row of conical stabbing teeth, while the premolars and molars were shaped like serrated blades. The teeth were deeply rooted, and the cheek teeth had two roots, perhaps adaptations for handling large prey. The teeth decreased in size towards the back of the mouth. It had sizable temporalis muscles, indicated by their location on the top of the head, meaning it had a strong bite. It had four or six incisor teeth, two canine teeth, eight premolars, and four or six molars in the upper jaw. The teeth had heavily-ridged enamel, and upper teeth were more widely spaced apart than the lower teeth. These teeth perhaps showcase how highly specialised Janjucetus was to its niche, or indicate that it was an evolutionary dead-end given the later proliferation of baleen-bearing baleen whales. ## Classification Janjucetus is considered to be a baleen whale (Mysticeti), despite not having baleen, due to key synapomorphies of the skull anatomy, for example in the way the nasal bones meet the bones of the braincase. Janjucetus is one of two genera, along with the extinct Mammalodon which is also from southeastern Australia, in the family Mammalodontidae. Janjucetus was initially assigned to its own monotypic family, Janjucetidae, but a subsequent cladistic analysis by Fitzgerald in 2010 reassigned it to the Mammalodontidae, making Janjucetidae a junior synonym. Janjucetus is one of the six toothed baleen whales of the Oligocene, the other being M. colliveri, M. hakataramea, Chonecetus, Aetiocetus and Llanocetus. ## Palaeoecology Unlike other baleen whales, Janjucetus did not use baleen to filter feed, and instead used teeth to catch large prey such as fish and sharks. Its skull morphology seems to be convergent with the modern-day leopard seal (Hydrurga leptonyx), and so it may have used a similar grip-and-tear feeding method. However, it is possible that the front teeth interlocked, and the cheek teeth sheared against each other when the mouth was closed, which perhaps allowed the whale to filter feed similar to the modern day crabeater seal (Lobodon carcinophaga). This may have been a precursor to the evolution of baleen and associated feeding habits. The head of Janjucetus is similar to the wide and blunt heads of modern-day, suction-feeding toothed whales, indicating it could suction feed. ## Palaeobiology Jan Juc Beach, where Janjucetus was discovered, also has yielded some fragmentary vertebrate species, such as sharks, rays and teleost fish. A couple unidentified bird fossils have been found. Other than Mammalodon, the other cetacean remains found there were those of Prosqualodon and Waipatia.
51,604,831	Carl Diggler	1,170,356,819	Fictional American journalist	[ "2016 United States presidential election in popular culture", "2016 podcast debuts", "American political blogs", "American political satire", "Comedy podcasts", "Fictional characters introduced in 2015", "Fictional journalists and mass media people", "Parody social media accounts", "Political podcasts", "Satirical columns", "Works about divorce" ]	Carl "The Dig" Allison Diggler is a fictional American journalist. Introduced in 2015, the character was created by Blake Zeff and mostly written by Felix Biederman and Virgil Texas for CAFE, an online publisher of political news and satire, in the run-up to the 2016 United States presidential election. Diggler, a middle-aged, centrist pundit who prides himself on his "inside the Beltway" knowledge of the Washington, D.C. political scene, is the purported author of a column published at CAFE and a keen, if clueless, Twitter user. Portrayed as a smug, ignorant blowhard, the character hero-worships the bombast and theatre of American politics with little concern for its consequences. His writing frequently exposes details of his failed marriage and protracted family court proceedings for custody of his son Colby. Texas described the target of the character as "ridiculous" pundits. During 2016 Diggler also hosted The DigCast, a podcast featuring weekly guests, with Biederman giving voice to Diggler and Texas playing Diggler's millennial intern. Biederman also established the Chapo Trap House podcast in 2016, which Texas has co-hosted. Writing as Diggler, Biederman and Texas began using their intuition to guess the outcomes of primary contests in the election. By the end of the primary season, Diggler claimed to have correctly predicted more winners than data journalist Nate Silver's FiveThirtyEight blog. However, that comparison may be misleading: depending how predictive success is measured, Diggler either comes out ahead or roughly on par with FiveThirtyEight's model. Texas ran an op-ed in The Washington Post about their predictive success and the ways Diggler exposed the flaws of supposedly objective data-journalistic techniques. ## Authorship Cafe editor-in-chief Blake Zeff came up with the original idea for Carl Diggler, and hired Biederman and Texas to develop the character and write his columns. Biederman was then a freelance writer on various topics, and Texas was a former contributor to The Onion; both were popular Twitter personalities. Zeff contributed ideas, edits the columns, and helped to run Carl Diggler's in-character Twitter account, but the articles and social media posts by the character were largely the work of Biederman and Texas. In addition to tweeting in-character as Diggler, Biederman and Texas typically wrote one to four Diggler columns a week. Splitsider writer Eddie Brawley said Texas has "the more polished, literary style" and a skill for tonal imitation of writers like Hunter S. Thompson when the occasion calls, while Biederman possesses a "preternatural ability to observe and exploit the tiny absurdities of online behavior." Biederman and Texas had semi-fictional counterparts under their own names as Diggler's interns. They occasionally broke the fourth wall in the column to write articles as themselves when they were, in real life, on-location covering political events on the 2016 campaign trail—under the fictional pretext that Diggler, meanwhile, is stuck moping back in his Park Slope apartment. ## Character ### Sources and targets of parody Diggler is a satirical parody of the American political pundit class. Diggler has worked in national political journalism for thirty years, starting as chief political editor at the Minnetonka Bugle, and is the author of the book Think-ocracy: The Rise Of The Brainy Congressman. Most Diggler articles begin with a credo reminding readers that Diggler uses "gut, conventional wisdom and personal experience" when analyzing politics. Texas offered this summation of Diggler's persona and satiric purpose: > Carl exists to satirize all that is vacuous, elitist and ridiculous about the media class. From his sycophantic love of candidates in uniform to his hatred of Bernie Bros, from his reverence for "the discourse" to his constant threats of suing the people who troll him on Twitter, Carl is predicated on being myopic, vain and — frankly — wrong. Biederman said Diggler "grew out of the craven inanity and absurd self-importance you see in the worst 'wonks' and horserace pundits, but we exaggerated it to make him as much of a clown as we personally saw these people." Diggler writes with adoration for the ceremonial decorum of American politics, but blithe, often oblivious disregard for the plight faced by real voters. Diggler's persona and political outlook are drawn from specific real-life journalists. In an episode of the podcast Chapo Trap House, Biederman and Texas listed Digger's biggest influences as Chris Cillizza, Mark Halperin, and above all, "greatest hack of all time" Ron Fournier. Cillizza wrote for the Washington Post blog The Fix, and his tone and tendency to refer to his wife as Mrs. Fix and his son as Fix Jr. were borrowed for Diggler. From Halperin, author of campaign books Game Change and Double Down: Game Change 2012, Diggler received his desire to ingratiate himself with politicians and to make himself the focus of attention. Fournier, the most significant source for Diggler, covered Bill Clinton's career as governor of Arkansas and worked at the Associated Press D.C. bureau during Clinton's presidency. In Biederman and Texas's view, Fournier gave Diggler journalistic credulousness and centrist belief that both sides of any issue are at fault. Biederman and Texas also cited columnists David Brooks and Richard Cohen for "bullshitting most of the time" but with an "unearned tone of authority." Diggler's resemblance to specific journalists has been spotted by other writers: for instance, Silver has been described as "the natural O'Reilly to Diggler's Colbert," while Fournier was once called "the real life Carl Diggler". When a Niall Ferguson article compared the prospect of Brexit to his divorce, Jeet Heer compared Ferguson's writing to Diggler's "habit of linking every public event with his failed marriage." Because of the continuous, online, interactive, and source material recycling nature of Diggler, the character has been described as a work of metafiction. Through Twitter, Diggler has been mistaken for a real person by journalists and even presidential candidate Jim Webb, who retweeted Diggler's over-the-top, sarcastic endorsement. Journalists who Diggler has duped include Abby Huntsman (then co-host of The Cycle on MSNBC), Jill Filipovic (a writer whose work appears in Cosmopolitan), and even Diggler's chief inspiration Fournier. ### Diggler's personal life Mediaite's Sam Reisman described Diggler's personal life as a "richly detailed canon" and a "batshit American picaresque." Diggler is an unhappily divorced father of a "round son," Colby, over whom he is locked in a never-ending custody battle with his ex-wife, only called Ex-Mrs. The Dig. The custody battle has caused Diggler to resent the family court system, and he constantly invokes his concerns about family court in his column and even incorporates them into his political thought in contrived ways. It is also often implied that Diggler is a sex addict, with the character unwittingly making references to his foot fetish and interest in sex tourism and camgirls. In search of love, Diggler briefly dates a feminist NYU student referred to by her Tumblr handle, KweenTrashWytch✨✨ (including the two sparkle emoji). During his period of dating KweenTrashWytch✨✨, Diggler became "woke" and, claiming to follow his newfound understanding of intersectional feminism, endorsed Carly Fiorina in an attempt to impress his girlfriend. After a bad breakup sparked by KweenTrashWytch✨✨ destroying his posters of Senator Lindsey Graham, Diggler disappeared from the website. He later emerged as the subject of a hostage video, after being captured in Syria by Assad loyalists and then turned over to the Russian government. However, he was able to return to America after the Russians decided he wasn't worth keeping around and put him on a plane to New York. Diggler's life took a turn for the worse when his horribly-mistaken predictions for the 2016 US Presidential Election led to Cafe replacing him with Diggler superfan David "The Milk" Milkberg as their "Chief Politics Writer" at the site. On top of that, Diggler was evicted from his studio apartment and lost partial custody of Colby. Diggler has partially recovered by writing independent political analysis pieces and posting them on Medium, but his efforts to crowdfund his future journalism work have been hamstrung after he previously used crowdfunding sites to donate to Russian camgirls he met online and accidentally "donated several thousands of dollars to Hamas." ## 2016 presidential primary predictions Following the practice of many other political journalists and news publications, Diggler published predictions for who would win each contest of the 2016 presidential primary season. Diggler's predictions were actually made by Biederman and Texas, without reliance on data or traditional analysis. Diggler backed up his picks with absurd, often grotesque rationales, based on the character's "gut" reading of a state electorate's supposed tendencies and mindsets. Biederman said the predictions were made based on "personal hate of a candidate, the broad prejudices of their voters, anecdotal experience, and sexual pathology." In an in-character interview with Complex, Diggler himself attributed his predictive success to "two variables: gut and experience." In a surprise to observers, as well as to Biederman and Texas themselves, Diggler's predictions proved to be highly accurate, and even seemed to match or outperform rigorous, statistical predictive models used by other publications. Most conspicuously, Diggler correctly predicted more primary outcomes than the models used by Nate Silver's FiveThirtyEight, a prominent data journalism and statistics blog owned by ESPN. After his predicting streak became apparent, Diggler gloated to Silver on Twitter and in his column, even challenging Silver to a head-to-head contest. Cafe launched "SixThirtyEight," a tally of Diggler's predictive wins over FiveThirtyEight. According to the "SixThirtyEight" tally, Diggler predicted with 89% accuracy, calling 81 of 91 total contests comprising the primaries for both major parties in every state and United States territory. By contrast, FiveThirtyEight had a 56% success rate in the total 91 contests. FiveThirtyEight had chosen not to make predictions in some contests, all of which Diggler counted as forfeits. The FiveThirtyEight predictive model left contests without a prediction if there was too little data to make a prediction or if the race was too close to call (for example, FiveThirtyEight did not make a prediction in the Alaska primaries), while Diggler made a prediction in every race (including small contests like the Guam primaries). Diggler predicted many more total winners, but if FiveThirtyEight's non-predictions are ignored rather than counted as forfeits, then Diggler and FiveThirtyEight still had a roughly equal rate of success. Following the attention given to Diggler's results, Texas wrote an op-ed in The Washington Post explaining the Diggler character, their methodology, and what he believed Diggler's results revealed about the flaws of purportedly objective, detached journalism. In the editorial, Texas said that Silver's predictions were, despite their reliance on data, not falsifiable and thus unscientific, and that they overstated the statistical impact of factors like endorsements based on subjective assumptions about historical elections. Texas wrote that readers of data journalism—such as voters, other journalists, and members of the political establishment—rely on quasi-scientific predictions and analysis when making political decisions, in ways that adversely shapes the real outcomes: > If the quants had not ignored Trump's soaring popularity all last year, perhaps the GOP establishment would not have sat on their hands as he waltzed to the nomination. And if the same pundits had not been writing Sanders's obituary before any votes were cast, perhaps that race would be even closer. Maybe a more subjective form of analysis, such as going out and listening to voters, would have understood their passions better than the data journalists' models. In interviews, Biederman said that they do believe there is a place for data journalism, but that its prominent practitioners had relied on outdated theories of how elections work and failed to account for the unprecedented anger of voters in an ahistorical election. ## The DigCast Diggler is voiced by Biederman, who increases the pitch of his ordinarily deep voice and adopts an accent similar to The Simpsons character Ned Flanders. Either Biederman and Texas speaking about Diggler, or Biederman playing Diggler, appeared on multiple podcasts prior to getting their own show, including District Sentinel Radio, Reply All, Chapo Trap House, and a live taping of The Katie Halper Show on WBAI. Biederman and Texas launched The DigCast on July 1, 2016, with Biederman voicing Diggler and Texas playing his intern. Guests have included former Gawker editor Alex Pareene, comedian Brandon Wardell, Braddock, Pennsylvania Mayor John Fetterman, writer and MSNBC host Steve Kornacki, and The Intercept editor Glenn Greenwald. Biederman tweeted on February 25, 2017 that The Digcast had ended. Episodes can be streamed from SoundCloud or iTunes. ### Episodes ## Reception According to Eddie Brawley, Diggler's writing has a niche appeal, because understanding the column's many elaborate in-joke references requires a reader to closely follow media discourse on Twitter and the character's own idiosyncrasies and intricate storylines. Diggler's audience and social media following include many "hip" establishment media figures who are "in on the joke." Biederman said he had seen positive feedback to Diggler from people with a wide variety of political identifications. Diggler's primary predictions have generally received a positive response. Corinne Grinapol wrote in the blog FishbowlDC that "Diggler exists in opposition to objective analysis, but is also a reminder that the idea of objective analysis is an often-impossible ideal disguised as an attainable one. Diggler's biases are not the only ones worth being aware of." In National Review, Theodore Kupfer cited Diggler's predictions and Texas' op-ed as prescient, in contrast to Silver and other pundits who had been blindsided by the unexpected rise of Donald Trump. However, Washington Post blogger Callum Borchers dismissed the SixThirtyEight project as misleading, believing Biederman and Texas inflated the appearance of Diggler's success, and urged readers to "not be silly and pretend like [Diggler]'s some kind of proof that data journalism and poll-based prognostication is B.S.; he isn't more accurate than Nate Silver." In 2018, Yale University's humor magazine The Yale Record resurrected its "Humorist of the Year Award" and gave it to Biederman and Texas, in recognition of their work on Diggler and Chapo Trap House. ## See also - Chapo Trap House, a podcast that features Felix Biederman and Virgil Texas as hosts
27,903,466	2010–11 York City F.C. season	1,170,271,789	Association football club season	[ "2010s in York", "2010–11 Football Conference by team", "York City F.C. seasons" ]	The 2010–11 season was the 89th season of competitive association football and seventh season in the Football Conference played by York City Football Club, a professional football club based in York, North Yorkshire, England. Their fifth-place finish in 2009–10 meant it was their seventh successive season in the Conference Premier. The season covers the period from 1 July 2010 to 30 June 2011. Ahead of Martin Foyle's second start to a season as York manager, six signings were made before the summer transfer window closed. With York 15th in the table 10 matches into the season Foyle resigned, and was succeeded by Tamworth's Gary Mills in October 2010. Under his guidance, York enjoyed an unbeaten run at home in the league that lasted until April 2011, when they were beaten by Mills' former team. York's push for a play-off place was ended late in the season and they finished eighth in the table. They reached the third round of the 2010–11 FA Cup, being beaten 2–0 away by Bolton Wanderers, and were knocked out in the first round of the 2010–11 FA Trophy after losing 1–0 at home to Boston United. 32 players made at least one appearance in nationally organised first-team competition, and there were 20 different goalscorers. Goalkeeper Michael Ingham and defender James Meredith missed only one of the 52 competitive matches played over the season. Michael Rankine finished as leading scorer with 14 goals, of which 12 came in league competition and two came in the FA Cup. The winner of the Clubman of the Year award, voted for by the club's supporters, was Daniel Parslow for the second time in three seasons. ## Background and pre-season The 2009–10 season was Martin Foyle's first full season as manager of York City and the team reached the play-offs after finishing fifth in the Conference Premier table. After defeating Luton Town 2–0 on aggregate in the semi-final, York were beaten 3–1 by Oxford United in the 2010 Conference Premier play-off final at Wembley Stadium. Jamie Clarke, Kevin Gall, Josh Mimms, Craig Nelthorpe, Alan O'Hare, Richard Pacquette and Simon Russell were released by York following the play-off defeat, with Luke Graham, Ben Purkiss and Adam Smith leaving for Kettering Town, Oxford and Mansfield Town respectively. Andy McWilliams was loaned out to Stalybridge Celtic. Levi Mackin and Djoumin Sangaré signed new contracts with the club. Goalkeeper David Knight was brought in on a season-long loan from Histon before the start of the season, while two defenders, Duane Courtney and Greg Young, signed from Kidderminster Harriers and Altrincham respectively. Midfielder Jonathan Smith was signed from Forest Green Rovers, with wingers David McDermott and Peter Till joining from Kidderminster and Walsall respectively. Striker George Purcell was signed from Braintree Town for an undisclosed fee. Defender Dean Lisles and winger Jamie Hopcutt entered the first-team squad from the youth team after agreeing professional contracts. The team adopted a new home kit, which featured red shirts with white collars, white trims on the shoulders and white sleeves that included red trims. York started the season wearing red shorts with white trims, but these were replaced later in the season with navy blue shorts with white trims. The home kit also included red shorts with white trims. The away kit, retained from the previous season, comprised light blue shirts with white horizontal stripes, light blue shorts and light blue socks. Pryers Solicitors continued as shirt sponsors for the second successive season. ## Review ### August York started the season with a 2–1 defeat at home to Kidderminster Harriers, who opened the scoring with a goal direct from a corner kick. After Michael Rankine equalised on 68 minutes with a penalty, Kidderminster won the match with a penalty three minutes later. Hopcutt was loaned out to Northern Premier League Premier Division club Whitby Town for a month. The team's first away match of the season was against Grimsby Town, with the match finishing a 0–0 draw. This was followed by another away draw, with Michael Gash and Till scoring against Bath City as the match finished 2–2. York then drew 0–0 at home to Barrow and the team's first victory of the season came after Rankine and Richard Brodie scored to beat Altrincham 3–0 at home. The team were defeated 2–1 away by Fleetwood Town, where Young made his debut and scored York's only goal. Brodie joined fellow Conference Premier club Crawley Town for an undisclosed fee, believed to be around £300,000, with the transfer being completed three minutes before the transfer deadline. ### September Following Brodie's departure, two strikers were signed; Leon Constantine joined on a contract until the end of the season after leaving Hereford United and youth-team coach Steve Torpey was registered as a player. Till and debutant Constantine scored in the space of two minutes in a 2–0 home win over Rushden & Diamonds. Striker David Dowson, defender Jamal Fyfield and midfielder Danny Racchi joined the club on trial and played for the reserve team against Chesterfield. Having fallen a goal behind, York earned a 1–1 draw away to Wrexham after Till scored the equalising goal. Ahead of York's home match against Hayes & Yeading United, the club signed Fyfield from Maidenhead United for a nominal fee and Racchi from Wrexham, where he had been on non-contract terms. The same day, York beat Hayes & Yeading 2–0 with goals from Rankine and Constantine, the latter making his first start for the club. York were defeated 5–0 away by Mansfield Town, with Jonathan Smith being sent off on 34 minutes after receiving a second yellow card. Hopcutt and Lisles were loaned out to Stokesley of the Northern League Division One. Manager Foyle resigned 10 matches into the season, with the team 15th in the table, and assistant manager Andy Porter was appointed caretaker manager. Porter's first match in charge was a 3–1 away victory over Tamworth, York's first away win of the season, with goals scored from Rankine, Alex Lawless and debutant Fyfield. Ahead of this match, Dowson was signed and made his debut as an 85th-minute substitute. The first home match of Porter's tenure was a 0–0 draw with Darlington, which was York's first televised appearance on sports channel Premier Sports. ### October A 2–1 defeat away by Eastbourne Borough followed, with Lawless scoring York's only goal. McDermott was released after his month-to-month contract was not extended, having made four appearances. Striker Mark Beesley was signed on a one-month loan from Fleetwood before the match against Kettering Town. York lost this match 1–0 at home and the following day Porter left the club after four matches in charge, with Torpey being appointed caretaker manager. He led the team for a 4–0 away loss to Newport County before Tamworth manager Gary Mills was appointed as manager, with Darron Gee following as assistant manager. Mills' first match in charge was a 1–1 draw at home to Bath, with York taking the lead through a first-half penalty scored by Rankine before Bath equalised in the second half. McDermott rejoined the club on another month-to-month contract to become Mills' first signing. Former York defender Chris Smith, who played under Mills at Tamworth, was signed from Mansfield on a three-month loan, with a view to a permanent transfer. With Mills stating his desire to reduce the size of a squad that was "too big", Dowson, Hopcutt and Lisles were released by the club. The first victory under Mills' management was a 2–0 win away to Kidderminster in the fourth qualifying round of the FA Cup, with Racchi and Jonathan Smith scoring their first goals for the club. Courtney was made available for loan having made seven appearances for the club. Mills' first defeat came in a 2–1 away loss against Forest Green Rovers, with former Forest Green player Lawless scoring York's only goal. ### November Beesley returned to Fleetwood after Mills decided to terminate his loan. York drew 0–0 away to League Two team Rotherham United in the first round of the FA Cup, which resulted in a replay at home. Lawless joined York's divisional rivals Luton on loan until January 2011, when a permanent transfer for an undisclosed fee would take place. Two loan signings were subsequently made; Leicester City striker Ashley Chambers joined until January 2011 and Sunderland midfielder Robbie Weir joined for one month. Rankine scored York's equaliser in a 1–1 home draw against Wrexham with a second-half penalty. York beat Rotherham 3–0 at home in their FA Cup first round replay, with Chris Smith opening the scoring before Rankine scored twice. David McGurk handed in a transfer request having expressed his desire to join Luton, after they had a number of bids for him rejected and he had turned down a contract extension with York. York recorded their first league win under Mills with a 4–0 victory away to Rushden with Racchi, Rankine, Chambers and Neil Barrett scoring. Purcell was loaned out to Conference South team Dartford until January 2011 to regain match fitness following his return from injury. The Rushden win was followed by the season's first successive league victory, after York beat Southport 2–0 at home with late goals from Constantine and McDermott. Midfielder Andre Boucaud was signed from Kettering on loan until January 2011, with a view to a permanent transfer. York progressed to the third round of the FA Cup for the second season running after beating Darlington 2–0 away in the second round. The team's run of three straight wins came to an end after a 0–0 away draw against Kidderminster. ### December Weir's loan from Sunderland was extended until January 2011, with Mills commenting: "He's a fit lad who's totally committed in what he does and I've been impressed with him". Mills was named the Conference Premier Manager of the Month for November 2010 after leading York to a seven-match unbeaten run, while Michael Ingham picked up the Player of the Month award after keeping six clean sheets and conceding one goal in this period. York were knocked out of the FA Trophy in the first round after being beaten 1–0 by Conference North team Boston United, which was the team's first home defeat under Mills. Racchi's contract with York expired, although Mills stated his intention to re-sign him once the January 2011 transfer window opened. York's away match with Luton was abandoned after 55 minutes due to heavy snow, with the score at the time being 0–0. Sangaré agreed to sign for Moroccan Botola champions Wydad Casablanca pending the expiry of his York contract at the end of December 2010, although after the transfer fell through he signed for Oxford. McDermott and Racchi agreed to sign new contracts with York once the January 2011 transfer window opened, which would keep them at the club until the end of the season. Having failed to establish a place in the team under Mills, Gash agreed to join Rushden in January 2011 on loan for the rest of the season. ### January York started the New Year with a 3–0 victory away to Gateshead, with Jonathan Smith, Barrett and Constantine scoring in the second half. Chambers' loan at the club was extended until the end of the season. Boucaud signed a two-and-a-half-year contract for a £20,000 fee and Chris Smith signed a one-and-a-half-year contract to join the club permanently, while Lawless departed for Luton permanently. Jamie Reed was signed from Welsh Premier League club Bangor City for an undisclosed fee, on a two-and-a-half-year contract, after York had a bid for him rejected in November 2010. York were defeated 2–0 away by Premier League team Bolton Wanderers in the FA Cup third round, with Kevin Davies and Johan Elmander scoring late in the match. Weir returned to Sunderland after his loan expired, although Mills wanted to re-sign the player. Constantine scored the only goal in a 1–0 victory at home to Grimsby with a lob over goalkeeper Kenny Arthur. York came from behind to beat Histon 2–1 away after Constantine and Till scored in the last 15 minutes. A 5–0 defeat away to Luton followed after Ingham was sent off in the 15th minute, with Chris Smith subsequently playing in goal until half-time when Young took over. Following a trial with League Two club Cheltenham Town, Courtney was released by the club after having his contract cancelled. Mackin scored the winning goal in the 85th minute of a 2–1 home victory over Forest Green, in which Reed scored his first goal for the club. Leeds United midfielder Will Hatfield was signed on a one-month loan following a trial. York were beaten 4–0 away by Southport, with McGurk being sent off in the second minute. On transfer deadline day, former Leeds defender Liam Darville signed a contract until the end of the season and former Lincoln City midfielder Scott Kerr signed a one-and-a-half-year contract, following their release by their respective clubs. Fyfield joined former club Maidenhead on a one-month loan and Purcell joined Eastbourne on loan until the end of the season. ### February Daniel Parslow, James Meredith, Rankine and Chambers scored as York beat league leaders AFC Wimbledon 4–1 at home. Young returned to Altrincham on an emergency loan for the rest of the season. York played a second consecutive match against AFC Wimbledon, being beaten 1–0 away. This was followed by a 1–0 victory at home to Fleetwood, with Reed scoring the only goal of the match in the second half. York drew 0–0 away to Altrincham, which was the team's first draw since November 2010, before Jonathan Smith and Rankine scored as York won 2–1 away to Hayes & Yeading. ### March Jonathan Smith scored in a second successive match to give York the lead at home to Gateshead, although the winning goal of a 2–1 victory was scored by Constantine with a penalty. Hatfield's loan from Leeds was extended until the end of the season, after he made two appearances during his first month at the club. McGurk signed a new contract with York, which contracted him to the club until June 2013. York drew 0–0 away to Barrow. Fyfield opted not to extend his loan at Maidenhead, to fight for a place in the team. Rankine scored the only goal to give York a 1–0 victory at home to Eastbourne, with a header from a Till cross during the first half. Reed came off the bench to score both goals as York came from behind to beat Mansfield 2–1 at home. He scored for a second successive match away to Cambridge United, although York lost 2–1. Winger Aidan Chippendale was signed on loan from Huddersfield Town for the rest of the season. Reed scored his fourth goal in three matches as York beat Histon 1–0 at home. ### April and May Rankine missed an 87th-minute penalty for York away to Kettering, with Reed scoring the team's goal in a 1–1 draw. Jonathan Smith scored in the first half for York at home to league-leaders Crawley, who equalised in the second half, with the match finishing a 1–1 draw. Racchi was released from his contract with immediate effect after requesting a transfer, having failed to establish himself in the team. York beat Newport 2–1 at home, with Rankine opening the scoring before assisting Reed for the second goal. McGurk picked up an ankle ligament injury in this match, which ruled him out for the rest of the season. York suffered their first defeat at home since December 2010 after losing 2–1 to Tamworth, in which Constantine scored a consolation goal in the 89th minute. Having not made any appearances for the club, Chippendale was recalled by Huddersfield. Reed scored the only goal to give York a 1–0 victory at home to Luton. Young was recalled from his loan at Altrincham after Parslow suffered a head injury during the match against Luton. York were beaten 2–1 away to Darlington, in which Chris Carruthers scored a consolation goal in the 87th minute. York's hopes of making the play-offs were ended after drawing 0–0 with Cambridge in the last home match of the season. The last match of the season was a 1–1 draw away to champions-elect Crawley. York took the lead in the fifth minute through an own goal scored by David Hunt, before the home team equalised with a Matt Tubbs penalty in the 68th minute. York finished the season in eighth place in the Conference Premier table, seven points adrift of a play-off place. The Clubman of the Year award, voted for by the club's supporters, was won by Parslow for the second time in three seasons. He was presented with the trophy at an awards' ceremony held at Bootham Crescent. ## Summary and aftermath York spent most of the season in midtable, and having been as low as 19th in the table in November went on to reach sixth place during the last month of the season. The team's goals scored tally of 55 was the lowest of any team in the top half of the table, and the sixth lowest of any team in the division. Ingham and Meredith made the highest number of appearances during the season, each appearing in 51 of York's 52 matches. Rankine was York's top scorer in the league and in all competitions, with 12 league goals and 14 in total. He was the only player to reach double figures, and was followed by Reed with nine goals. Before the start of the new season York released Barrett, Carruthers, Constantine, Darville, Gash, Mackin and McWilliams, with Purcell, Rankine, Jonathan Smith, Till and Young leaving for Dover Athletic, Aldershot Town, Swindon Town, Fleetwood and Alfreton Town respectively. Fyfield, Ingham and Meredith signed new contracts with York, and McDermott was retained on non-contract terms. The club's new arrivals were goalkeeper Paul Musselwhite from Lincoln, defender Lanre Oyebanjo from Histon, midfielders Paddy McLaughlin from Newcastle United, Adriano Moke from Jerez Industrial and Michael Potts from Blackburn Rovers, winger Matty Blair from Kidderminster, and strikers Chambers from Leicester, Liam Henderson from Watford and Jason Walker from Luton. ## Match details League positions are sourced by Statto, while the remaining information is referenced individually. ### Conference Premier ### League table (part) ### FA Cup ### FA Trophy ## Transfers ### In Brackets around club names denote the player's contract with that club had expired before he joined York. ### Out Brackets around club names denote the player joined that club after his York contract expired. ### Loans in ### Loans out ## Appearances and goals Source: Numbers in parentheses denote appearances as substitute. Players with names struck through and marked left the club during the playing season. Players with names in italics and marked \* were on loan from another club for the whole of their season with York. Players listed with no appearances have been in the matchday squad but only as unused substitutes. Key to positions: GK – Goalkeeper; DF – Defender; MF – Midfielder; FW – Forward ## See also - List of York City F.C. seasons
152,557	Art Tatum	1,172,595,426	American jazz pianist	[ "1909 births", "1956 deaths", "20th-century African-American musicians", "20th-century American male musicians", "20th-century American pianists", "African-American jazz pianists", "American blind people", "American male jazz musicians", "American male pianists", "American musicians with disabilities", "Black Lion Records artists", "Blind musicians", "Burials at Angelus-Rosedale Cemetery", "Burials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale)", "Capitol Records artists", "Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award winners", "Jazz musicians from Ohio", "Musicians from Toledo, Ohio", "Stride pianists", "Swing pianists", "Verve Records artists" ]	Arthur Tatum Jr. (/ˈteɪtəm/, October 13, 1909 – November 5, 1956) was an American jazz pianist who is widely regarded as one of the greatest ever. From early in his career, fellow musicians acclaimed Tatum's technical ability as extraordinary. Tatum also extended jazz piano's vocabulary and boundaries far beyond his initial stride influences, and established new ground through innovative use of reharmonization, voicing, and bitonality. Tatum grew up in Toledo, Ohio, where he began playing piano professionally and had his own radio program, rebroadcast nationwide, while still in his teens. He left Toledo in 1932 and had residencies as a solo pianist at clubs in major urban centers including New York, Chicago, and Los Angeles. In that decade, he settled into a pattern he followed for most of his career – paid performances followed by long after-hours playing, all accompanied by prodigious consumption of alcohol. He was said to be more spontaneous and creative in such venues, and although the drinking did not hinder his playing, it did damage his health. In the 1940s, Tatum led a commercially successful trio for a short time and began playing in more formal jazz concert settings, including at Norman Granz-produced Jazz at the Philharmonic events. His popularity diminished towards the end of the decade, as he continued to play in his own style, ignoring the rise of bebop. Granz recorded Tatum extensively in solo and small group formats in the mid-1950s, with the last session only two months before Tatum's death from uremia at the age of 47. ## Early life Tatum's mother, Mildred Hoskins, was born in Martinsville, Virginia, around 1890, and was a domestic worker. His father, Arthur Tatum Sr., was born in Statesville, North Carolina, and had steady employment as a mechanic. In 1909, they made their way from North Carolina to begin a new life in Toledo, Ohio. The couple had four children; Art was the oldest to survive, and was born in Toledo on October 13, 1909. He was followed by Arline nine years later and Karl after another two years. Karl went to college and became a social worker. The Tatum family was regarded as conventional and church-going. From infancy, Tatum had impaired vision. Several explanations for this have been posited, most involving cataracts. As a result of eye operations, by the age of 11 Tatum could see objects close to him and perhaps distinguish colors. Any benefits from these procedures were reversed, however, when he was assaulted, probably in his early twenties. The attack left him completely blind in his left eye and with very limited vision in his right. Despite this, there are multiple accounts of him enjoying playing cards and pool. Accounts vary on whether Tatum's parents played any musical instruments, but it is likely that he was exposed at an early age to church music, including through the Grace Presbyterian Church that his parents attended. He also began the piano at a young age, playing by ear and aided by an excellent memory and sense of pitch. Other musicians reported that he had perfect pitch. As a child he was sensitive to the piano's intonation and insisted it be tuned often. He learned tunes from the radio, records, and by copying piano roll recordings. In an interview as an adult, Tatum denied the story that his playing ability developed because he had attempted to reproduce piano roll recordings that, without his knowing, had been made by two performers. His interest in sports was lifelong, and he displayed an encyclopedic memory for baseball statistics. Tatum first attended Jefferson School in Toledo, then moved to the School for the Blind in Columbus, Ohio, late in 1924. After probably less than a year there, he transferred to the Toledo School of Music. Overton G. Rainey, who gave him formal piano lessons in the classical tradition at either the Jefferson School or the Toledo School of Music, was also visually impaired, did not improvise, and discouraged his students from playing jazz. Based on this history, it is reasonable to assume that Tatum was largely self-taught as a pianist. By the time he was a teenager, Tatum was asked to play at various social events, and he was probably being paid to play in Toledo clubs from around 1924–25. Growing up, Tatum drew inspiration principally from Fats Waller and James P. Johnson, who exemplified the stride piano style, and to some extent from the more modern Earl Hines, six years Tatum's senior. Tatum identified Waller as his biggest influence, while pianist Teddy Wilson and saxophonist Eddie Barefield suggested that Hines was one of his favorite jazz pianists. Another influence was pianist Lee Sims, who did not play jazz, but used chord voicings and an orchestral approach (i.e. encompassing a full sound instead of highlighting one or more timbres) that appeared in Tatum's playing. ## Career and adult life ### 1927–1937 In 1927, after winning an amateur competition, Tatum began playing on Toledo radio station WSPD during interludes in a morning shopping program and soon had his own daily program. After regular club dates, he often visited after-hours clubs to be with other musicians; he enjoyed listening to other pianists and preferred to play after all the others had finished. He frequently played for hours on end into the dawn; his radio show was scheduled for noon, allowing him time to rest before evening performances. During 1928–29, the radio program was rebroadcast nationwide by the Blue Network. Tatum also began to play in larger Midwestern cities outside his home town, including Cleveland, Columbus, and Detroit. As word of Tatum spread, national performers passing through Toledo, including Duke Ellington and Fletcher Henderson, visited clubs where he was playing. They were impressed by what they heard: from near the start of his career, "his accomplishment [...] was of a different order from what most people, from what even musicians, had ever heard. It made musicians reconsider their definitions of excellence, of what was possible", his biographer reported. Although Tatum was encouraged by comments from these and other established musicians, he felt that he was not yet, in the late 1920s, musically ready to move to New York City, the center of the jazz world and home to many of the pianists he had listened to growing up. This had changed by the time that vocalist Adelaide Hall, touring the United States with two pianists, heard Tatum play in Toledo in 1932 and recruited him: he took the opportunity to go to New York as part of her band. On August 5 that year, Hall and her band recorded two sides ("I'll Never Be the Same" and "Strange as It Seems") that were Tatum's first studio recordings. Two more sides with Hall followed five days later, as did a solo piano test-pressing of "Tea for Two" that was not released for several decades. After his arrival in New York, Tatum participated in a cutting contest at Morgan's bar in Harlem with the established stride piano masters – Johnson, Waller, and Willie "The Lion" Smith. Standard contest pieces included Johnson's "Harlem Strut" and "Carolina Shout" and Waller's "Handful of Keys". Tatum played his arrangements of "Tea for Two" and "Tiger Rag". Reminiscing about Tatum's debut, Johnson said, "When Tatum played 'Tea for Two' that night I guess that was the first time I ever heard it really played." Tatum thus became the preeminent jazz pianist. He and Waller became good friends, with similar lifestyles: both drank excessively and lived as lavishly as their incomes permitted. Tatum's first solo piano job in New York was at the Onyx Club, which was later reported to have paid him "\$45 a week and free whiskey". The Onyx was one of the first jazz clubs to open on 52nd Street, which became the city's focal point for public jazz performance for more than a decade. Tatum recorded his first four released solo sides, for Brunswick Records, in March 1933: "St. Louis Blues", "Sophisticated Lady", "Tea for Two", and "Tiger Rag". The last of these was a minor hit, impressing the public with its startling tempo of approximately 376 (quarter note) beats per minute, and with right-hand eighth notes adding to the technical feat. Tatum's only known child, Orlando, was born in 1933, when Tatum was 24. The mother was Marnette Jackson, a waitress in Toledo; the pair were not married. It is likely that neither parent had a major role in raising their son, who pursued a military career and died in the 1980s. During the hard economic times of 1934 and 1935, Tatum mostly played in clubs in Cleveland, but also recorded in New York four times in 1934 and once in 1935. He also performed on national radio, including for the Fleischman Hour broadcast hosted by Rudy Vallee in 1935. In August of that year, he married Ruby Arnold, who was from Cleveland. The next month, he began a residence of about a year at the Three Deuces in Chicago, initially as a soloist and then in a quartet of alto saxophone, guitar, and drums. At the end of his first Three Deuces stint, Tatum moved to California, traveling by train because of his fear of flying. There, he followed the pattern he had adopted early in his career: paid performances followed by long after-hours sessions, all accompanied by prodigious drinking. A friend from his early days in California observed that Tatum drank Pabst Blue Ribbon beer by the case. This lifestyle contributed to the effects of the diabetes that Tatum probably developed as an adult, but, as highlighted by his biographer, James Lester, Tatum would have faced a conflict if he wanted to address his diabetes: "concessions – drastically less beer, a controlled diet, more rest – would have taken away exactly the things that mattered most to him, and would have removed him from the night-life that he seemed to love more than almost anything (afternoon baseball or football games would probably come next)". In California, Tatum also played for Hollywood parties and appeared on Bing Crosby's radio program late in 1936. He recorded in Los Angeles for the first time early the following year – four tracks as the sextet named Art Tatum and His Swingsters, for Decca Records. Continuing to travel by train, Tatum settled into a pattern of performances at major jazz clubs in Los Angeles, Chicago, and New York interspersed with appearances at minor clubs where musicians of his standing did not normally play. Thus, in 1937 he left Los Angeles for another residence at the Three Deuces in Chicago, and then went on to the Famous Door club in New York, where he opened for Louis Prima. Tatum recorded for Brunswick again near the end of that year. ### 1938–1949 In March 1938, Tatum and his wife embarked on the Queen Mary for England. He performed there for three months, and enjoyed the quiet listeners who, unlike some American audiences, did not talk over his playing. While in England, he appeared twice on the BBC Television program Starlight. Four of his very limited number of compositions were also published in Britain. He then returned to the Three Deuces. The overseas trip appeared to have boosted his reputation, particularly with the white public, and he was able to have club residencies of at least several weeks at a time in New York over the following few years, sometimes with stipulations that no food or drink be served while he was playing. Tatum recorded 16 sides in August 1938, but they were not released for at least a decade. A similar thing happened the next year: of the 18 sides he recorded, only two were issued as 78s. A possible explanation is that the increasing popularity of big band music and vocalists limited the demand for solo recordings. One of the releases, a version of "Tea for Two", was added to the Grammy Hall of Fame in 1986. One recording from early in 1941, however, was commercially successful, with sales of perhaps 500,000. This was "Wee Baby Blues", performed by a sextet and with the addition of Big Joe Turner on vocals. Informal performances of Tatum's playing in 1940 and 1941 were released decades later on the album God Is in the House, for which he was posthumously awarded the 1973 Grammy for Best Jazz Performance by a Soloist. The album title came from Waller's reaction when he saw Tatum enter the club where Waller was performing: "I only play the piano, but tonight God is in the house." Tatum was able to earn a more than adequate living from his club performances. Billboard magazine suggested that he could make at least \$300 a week as a soloist in 1943; when he formed a trio later that year, it was advertised by booking agents at \$750 a week. The other musicians in the trio were guitarist Tiny Grimes and bassist Slam Stewart. They were a commercial success on 52nd Street, attracting more customers than any other musician, with the possible exception of vocalist Billie Holiday, and they also appeared briefly on film, in an episode of The March of Time. Up to that point, critics had praised Tatum as a solo pianist, but the paying public had given him relatively little attention; with the trio, he enjoyed more popular success, although some critics expressed disappointment. Nevertheless, Tatum was awarded Esquire magazine's prize for pianists in its 1944 critics' poll, which led to his playing alongside other winners at the Metropolitan Opera House in New York. All of Tatum's 1944 studio recordings were with the trio, and radio appearances continued. He abandoned the trio in 1944, possibly at an agent's behest, and did not record with one again for eight years. Early in 1945, Billboard reported that the Downbeat Club on 52nd Street was paying Tatum \$1,150 a week to play four 20-minute sets per night as a soloist. This was described much later as an "unheard-of figure" for the time. The Billboard reviewer commented, "Tatum is given a broken-down instrument, some bad lights and nothing else", and observed that he was almost inaudible beyond the front seating because of the audience noise. Aided by name recognition from his record sales and reduced entertainer availability because of the World War II draft, Tatum began to play in more formal jazz concert settings in 1944, appearing at concert halls in towns and universities all around the United States. The venues were much larger than jazz clubs – some had capacities in excess of 3,000 people – allowing Tatum to earn more money for much less work. Despite the more formal concert settings, Tatum preferred not to adhere to a set program of pieces for these performances. He recorded with the Barney Bigard Sextet and cut nine solo tracks in 1945. A fellow pianist from the years after World War II estimated that Tatum routinely drank two quarts (1.9 L) of whiskey and a case of beer over the course of 24 hours. Almost all reports are that such drinking did not hinder his playing. Rather than being deliberately or uncontrollably self-destructive, this habit was probably a product of his being careless about his health, a common characteristic of jazz musicians, and his enthusiasm for life. Performances at concert settings continued in the second half of the 1940s, including participation in Norman Granz-produced Jazz at the Philharmonic events. In 1947, Tatum again appeared on film, in The Fabulous Dorseys. Columbia Records recorded and released a 1949 concert at the Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles as Gene Norman Presents an Art Tatum Concert. In the same year, he signed to Capitol Records and recorded 26 pieces for it. He also played for the first time at Club Alamo in Detroit, but stopped when a black friend was not served. The owner subsequently advertised that black customers were welcome, and Tatum played there frequently in the next few years. Although Tatum remained an admired figure, his popularity waned in the mid-to-late 1940s, likely due in large part to the advent of bebop, a musical style he did not embrace. ### 1950–1956 Tatum began working with a trio again in 1951. The trio – this time with bassist Stewart and guitarist Everett Barksdale – recorded in 1952. In the same year, Tatum toured the U.S. with fellow pianists Erroll Garner, Pete Johnson, and Meade Lux Lewis, for concerts billed as "Piano Parade". Tatum's four-year absence from the recording studios as a soloist ended when Granz, who owned Clef Records, decided to record his solo playing in a way that was "unprecedented in the recording industry: invite him into the studio, start the tape, and let him play whatever he felt like playing. [...] At the time this was an astonishing enterprise, the most extensive recording that had been done of any jazz figure." Over several sessions starting late in 1953, Tatum recorded 124 solo tracks, all but three of which were released, spread over a total of 14 LPs. Granz reported that the recording tape ran out during one piece, but Tatum, instead of starting again from the beginning, asked to listen to a playback of just the final eight bars, then continued the performance from there on the new tape, keeping to the same tempo as on the first attempt. Clef released the solo pieces as The Genius of Art Tatum, which was added to the Grammy Hall of Fame in 1978. Granz also recorded Tatum with a selection of other stars in seven more recording sessions, which led to 59 tracks being released. The critical reception was mixed and partly contradictory. Tatum was, variously, criticized for not playing real jazz, the choice of material, and being past his best, and praised for the enthralling intricacy and detail of his playing, and his technical perfection. Nevertheless, the releases renewed attention on him, including for a newer generation; he won DownBeat magazine's critics' poll for pianists three years in a row from 1954 (he never won a DownBeat readers' poll). Following a deterioration in his health, Tatum stopped drinking in 1954 and tried to control his weight. That year, his trio was part of bandleader Stan Kenton's 10-week tour named "Festival of Modern American Jazz". The trio did not play with Kenton's orchestra on the tour, but had the same performance schedule, meaning Tatum sometimes traveled long distances by overnight train while the others stayed in a hotel and took a morning flight. He also appeared on television in The Spike Jones Show on April 17, to promote the imminent release of The Genius of Art Tatum. Black American musicians were not often filmed at this time, so very few visual recordings of Tatum exist, but his solo performance of "Yesterdays" on the show has survived as a video recording. After two decades of marriage, Tatum and Ruby divorced early in 1955. They probably did not travel much together and she had become an alcoholic; the divorce was acrimonious. Later that year he married Geraldine Williamson, with whom he had probably already been living. She had little interest in music, and did not normally attend his performances. By 1956, Tatum's health had deteriorated due to advanced uremia. Nevertheless, in August of that year he played to the largest audience of his career: 19,000 gathered at the Hollywood Bowl for another Granz-led event. The next month, he had the last of the Granz group recording sessions, with saxophonist Ben Webster, and then played at least two concerts in October. He was too unwell to continue touring, so returned to his home in Los Angeles. Musicians visited him on November 4, and other pianists played for him as he lay in bed. Tatum died the next day, at Queen of Angels Medical Center in Los Angeles, from uremia. He was buried at Rosedale Cemetery in Los Angeles, but was moved to the Forest Lawn cemetery in Glendale, California, in 1992 by his second wife, so she could be buried next to him. Tatum was inducted into the DownBeat Jazz Hall of Fame in 1964 and given a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 1989. ## Personality and habits Tatum was independent-minded and generous with his time and money. Not wanting to be restricted by Musicians' Union rules, he avoided joining for as long as he could. He also disliked having attention drawn to his blindness: he did not want to be physically led and so planned his independent walk to the piano in clubs if possible. People who met Tatum consistently "describe him as totally lacking in arrogance or ostentation" and as gentlemanly. He avoided discussing his personal life and history in interviews and conversation with acquaintances. Although marijuana use was common among musicians during his lifetime, Tatum was not linked to the use of illegal drugs. ## After hours and repertoire Tatum was said to be more spontaneous and creative in free-form nocturnal sessions than in his scheduled performances. Whereas in a professional setting he would often give audiences what they wanted – performances of songs that were similar to his recorded versions – but decline to play encores, in after-hours sessions with friends he would play the blues, improvise for long periods on the same sequence of chords, and move even further away from a composition's melody. Tatum also sometimes sang the blues in such settings, accompanying himself on piano. Composer and historian Gunther Schuller describes "a night-weary, sleepy, slurry voice, of lost love and sexual innuendos which would have shocked (and repelled) those 'fans' who admired Tatum for his musical discipline and 'classical' [piano] propriety". In after-hours performances, Tatum's repertoire was much wider than in professional appearances, at which his staples were American popular songs. During his career, he also played his own arrangements of a few classical piano pieces, including Dvořák's Humoresque and Massenet's "Élégie", and recorded around a dozen blues pieces. Over time, he added to his repertoire – by the late 1940s, most of the new pieces were medium-tempo ballads but also included compositions that presented him with harmonic challenges, such as the simplicity of "Caravan" and complexity of "Have You Met Miss Jones?" He did not add to the classical pieces he had used earlier. ## Style and technique Saxophonist Benny Green wrote that Tatum was the only jazz musician to "attempt to conceive a style based upon all styles, to master the mannerisms of all schools, and then synthesize those into something personal". Tatum was able to transform the styles of preceding jazz piano through virtuosity: where other pianists had employed repetitive rhythmic patterns and relatively simple decoration, he created "harmonic sweeps of colour [and] unpredictable and ever-changing shifts of rhythm". Musicologist Lewis Porter identified three aspects of Tatum's playing that a casual listener might miss: the dissonance in his chords; his advanced use of substitute chord progressions; and his occasional use of bitonality (playing in two keys at the same time). There are examples on record of the last of these going back to 1934, making Tatum the furthest harmonically out of jazz musicians until Lennie Tristano. On occasion, the bitonality was against what another musician was playing, as in "Lonesome Graveyard Blues" with guitarist Oscar Moore. Before Tatum, jazz harmony was mainly triadic, with flattened sevenths and infrequent ninths; he went beyond that, influenced by Debussy and Ravel. He incorporated upper intervals such as elevenths and thirteenths, and added tenths (and greater intervals) to the left-hand vocabulary of stride. Tatum improvised differently than is typical in modern jazz. He did not try to create new melodic lines over a harmonic progression; instead, he implied or played the original melody or fragments of it, while superimposing countermelodies and new phrases to create new structures based around variation. "The harmonic lines may be altered, reworked or rhythmically rephrased for moments at a time, but they are still the base underneath Tatum's superstructures. The melodic lines may be transformed into fresh shapes with only a note or a beat or a phrase particle retained to associate the new with the original, yet the melody remains, if only in the listener's imagination." This flexibility extended to his use of rhythm: regardless of the tempo, he could alter the number of notes per beat and use other techniques at the same time to alter his phrasing's rhythmic intensity and shape. His rhythmic sense also allowed him to move away from an established tempo for extended periods without losing the beat. For critic Martin Williams, there was also the matter of Tatum's sly humor when playing: "when we fear he is reaching the limits of romantic bombast, a quirky phrase, an exaggerated ornament will remind us that Tatum may be having us on. He is also inviting us to share the joke and heartily kidding himself as well as the concert hall traditions to which he alludes." Until the 1940s, Tatum's style was based on popular song form, which often meant two bars of melodic development followed by two more melodically static bars, which he filled with rapid runs or arpeggios. Beginning in the 1940s, he progressively lengthened the runs to eight or more bars, sometimes continuing them across the natural eight-bar boundaries of a composition's structure, and began to use a harder, more aggressive attack. He also increased the frequency of harmonic substitutions and the variety of musical devices played by his left hand, and developed a greater harmonic and contrapuntal balance across the piano's upper and lower registers. Schuller argues that Tatum was still developing toward the end of his life – he had greater rhythmic flexibility when playing at a given tempo, more behind-the-beat swing, more diverse forms of expression, and he employed far fewer musical quotations than earlier in his career. Critic Whitney Balliett wrote of Tatum's style, "his strange, multiplied chords, still largely unmatched by his followers, his laying on of two and three and four melodic levels at once [...] was orchestral and even symphonic." This style was not one that could be adapted to the form of bebop: "the orchestral approach to the keyboard [...] was too thick, too textured to work in the context of a bebop rhythm section." Tatum's approach has also been criticized on other grounds. Pianist Keith Jarrett has said that Tatum played too many notes, and a criticism of him in a band setting was that he often did not modify his playing, overwhelming the other musicians and appearing to compete with any soloist he was ostensibly supporting. Clarinetist Buddy DeFranco said that playing with Tatum was "like chasing a train", and Tatum himself said that a band got in his way. Tatum had a calm physical demeanor at the keyboard, not attempting crowd-pleasing theatrical gestures. This increased his playing's impact, as did his seemingly effortless technique, as pianist Hank Jones observed: the apparently horizontal gliding of his hands across the keys stunned his contemporaries. Tatum's relatively straight-fingered technique, compared to the curvature taught in classical training, contributed to this visual impression: a critic wrote in 1935 that, when playing, "Tatum's hand is almost perfectly horizontal, and his fingers seem to actuate around a horizontal line drawn from wrist to finger tip." Tatum was able to use his thumbs and little fingers to add melody lines while playing something else with his other fingers; drummer Bill Douglass, who played with Tatum, said that he would "do runs with these two fingers up here and then the other two fingers of the same hand playing something else down there. Two fingers on the black keys, and then the other two fingers would be playing something else on the white keys. He could do that in either hand". His large hands allowed him to play a left-hand trill with thumb and forefinger while also using his little finger to play a note an octave lower. He was also capable of reaching twelfth intervals in either hand, and could play a succession of chords such as the illustrated examples at high speed. He was able to play all of his chosen material in any key. Tatum's touch has also attracted attention: for Balliett, "No pianist has ever hit notes more beautifully. Each one [...] was light and complete and resonant, like the letters on a finely printed page. Vast lower-register chords were unblurred, and his highest notes were polished silver." Tatum maintained these qualities of touch and tone even at the quickest tempos, when almost all other pianists would be incapable of playing the notes at all. Pianist Chick Corea said, "Tatum is the only pianist I know of before Bill [Evans] that also had that feather-light touch – even though he probably spent his early years playing on really bad instruments." Among the musicians who said that Tatum could make a bad piano sound good were Billy Taylor and Gerald Wiggins. Wiggins said that Tatum could identify and avoid using any keys on a piano that were not working, while guitarist Les Paul recounted that Tatum sometimes resorted to pulling up stuck keys with one hand, mid-performance, so that he could play them again. ## Influence Tatum's improvisational style extended what was possible on jazz piano. The virtuoso solo aspects of his style were taken on by pianists such as Adam Makowicz, Simon Nabatov, Oscar Peterson, and Martial Solal. Even musicians who played in very different styles, such as Bud Powell, Lennie Tristano, and Herbie Hancock, memorized and recreated some of his recordings to learn from them. Although Powell was of the bebop movement, his prolific and exciting style showed Tatum's influence. Mary Lou Williams said, "Tatum taught me how to hit my notes, how to control them without using pedals. And he showed me how to keep my fingers flat on the keys to get that clean tone." Tatum's influence went beyond the piano: his innovations in harmony and rhythm established new ground in jazz more broadly. He made jazz musicians more aware of harmonic possibilities by changing the chords he used with great frequency; this helped lay the foundations for the emergence of bebop in the 1940s. His modern chord voicing and chord substitutions were also pioneering in jazz. Other musicians sought to transfer elements of Tatum's pianistic virtuosity to their instruments. When newly arrived in New York, saxophonist Charlie Parker worked for three months as a dishwasher in a restaurant where Tatum was performing and often listened to him. "Perhaps the most important idea Parker learned from Tatum was that any note could be made to fit in a chord if suitably resolved." Trumpeter Dizzy Gillespie was also affected by Tatum's speed, harmony, and daring solos. Vocalist Tony Bennett incorporated aspects of Tatum into his singing: "I'd listen to his records almost daily and try to phrase like him. [...] I just take his phrasing and sing it that way." Saxophonist Coleman Hawkins changed his playing style after hearing Tatum play in Toledo in the 1920s: Hawkins's "arpeggio-based style and his growing vocabulary of chords, of passing chords and the relationships of chords, were confirmed and encouraged by his response to Art Tatum." This style was hugely influential on the development of jazz saxophone playing, and put the sax on course to becoming the dominant jazz instrument. Some musicians were hampered by exposure to Tatum's abilities. Many pianists tried to copy him and attain the same level of ability, hindering their progress toward finding their own styles. Others, including trumpeter Rex Stewart and pianists Oscar Peterson and Bobby Short, were overwhelmed and began to question their own abilities. Some musicians, including Les Paul and Everett Barksdale, stopped playing the piano and switched to another instrument after hearing Tatum. ## Critical standing There is little published information available about Tatum's life. One full-length biography has been published – Too Marvelous for Words (1994), by James Lester. This lack of detailed coverage may be attributable to Tatum's life and music not fitting any of the established critical narratives or frameworks for jazz: many historians of the music have marginalized him for this, so "not only is Tatum underrepresented in jazz criticism but his presence in jazz historiography seems largely to prompt no particular effort in historians beyond descriptive writing designed to summarize his pianistic approach". Critics have expressed strong opinions about Tatum's artistry: "Some applaud Tatum as supremely inventive, while others say that he was boringly repetitive, and that he barely improvised." Gary Giddins suggests that Tatum's standing has not been elevated to the very highest level of jazz stars among the public because he did not employ the expected linear style of improvisation, and instead played in a way that requires listeners to concentrate, so he "becalms many listeners into hapless indifference". ## Other forms of recognition In 1989, Tatum's hometown of Toledo established the Art Tatum African American Resource Center in its Kent Branch Library. It contains print and audio materials and microfiche, and organizes cultural programs, including festivals, concerts, and a gallery for local artists. In 1993, Jeff Bilmes, an MIT student in the field of computational musicology coined the term "tatum" in recognition of the pianist's speed. It has been defined as "the smallest time interval between successive notes in a rhythmic phrase", and "the fastest pulse present in a piece of music". In 2003, a historical marker was placed outside Tatum's childhood home at 1123 City Park Avenue in Toledo, but by 2017 the unoccupied property was in a state of disrepair. In 2021, Art Tatum Zone, a nonprofit organization, was awarded grants to restore the house and improve the neighborhood. Also in Toledo, the Lucas County Arena unveiled a 27-feet-high sculpture, the "Art Tatum Celebration Column", in 2009. ## Discography
402,412	Padma Vibhushan	1,170,468,074	Second highest civilian award of the Republic of India	[ "Awards established in 1954", "Civil awards and decorations of India", "Recipients of the Padma Vibhushan" ]	The Padma Vibhushan ("Lotus Decoration") is the second-highest civilian award of the Republic of India, after the Bharat Ratna. Instituted on 2 January 1954, the award is given for "exceptional and distinguished service". All persons without distinction of race, occupation, position or sex are eligible for these awards. However, government servants including those working with PSUs, except doctors and scientists, are not eligible for these Awards. As of 2022, the award has been bestowed on 325 individuals, including nineteen posthumous and twenty-one non-citizen recipients. During 1 May and 15 September of every year, the recommendations for the award are submitted to the Padma Awards Committee, constituted by the Prime Minister of India. The recommendations are received from all the state and the union territory governments, the Ministries of the Government of India, the Bharat Ratna and previous Padma Vibhushan award recipients, the Institutes of Excellence, the Ministers, the Chief Ministers and the Governors of State, and the Members of Parliament including private individuals. The committee later submits their recommendations to the Prime Minister and the President of India for the further approval. The award recipients are announced on Republic Day. The first recipients of the award were Satyendra Nath Bose, Nand Lal Bose, Zakir Husain, Balasaheb Gangadhar Kher, Jigme Dorji Wangchuck, and V. K. Krishna Menon, who were honoured in 1954. The 1954 statutes did not allow posthumous awards but this was subsequently modified in the January 1955 statute. The "Padma Vibhushan", along with other personal civil honours, was briefly suspended twice, from July 1977 to January 1980 and from August 1992 to December 1995. Some of the recipients have refused or returned their conferments. P. N. Haksar, Vilayat Khan, E. M. S. Namboodiripad, Swami Ranganathananda, and Manikonda Chalapathi Rau refused the award, the family members of Lakshmi Chand Jain (2011) and Sharad Anantrao Joshi (2016) declined their posthumous conferments, and Baba Amte returned his 1986 conferment in 1991. Most recently on 26 January 2023, the award has been bestowed upon six recipients; Balakrishna Doshi, Zakir Hussain, S. M. Krishna, Dilip Mahalanabis, S. R. Srinivasa Varadhan, and Mulayam Singh Yadav. ## History On 2 January 1954, a press release was published from the office of the secretary to the President of India announcing the creation of two civilian awards—Bharat Ratna, the highest civilian award, and the three-tier Padma Vibhushan, classified into "Pahela Varg" (Class I), "Dusra Varg" (Class II), and "Tisra Varg" (Class III), which rank below the Bharat Ratna. On 15 January 1955, the Padma Vibhushan was reclassified into three different awards: the Padma Vibhushan, the highest of the three, followed by the Padma Bhushan and the Padma Shri. The award, along with other personal civilian honours, was briefly suspended twice in its history; for the first time in July 1977 when Morarji Desai was sworn in as the fourth Prime Minister of India, for being "worthless and politicized". The suspension was rescinded on 25 January 1980 after Indira Gandhi returned as Prime Minister. The civilian awards were suspended again in mid-1992, when two Public-Interest Litigations were filed in the High Courts of India, one in the Kerala High Court on 13 February 1992 by Balaji Raghavan and another in the Madhya Pradesh High Court (Indore Bench) on 24 August 1992 by Satya Pal Anand. Both petitioners questioned the civilian awards being "titles" per an interpretation of Article 18 (1) of the Constitution of India. On 25 August 1992, the Madhya Pradesh High Court issued a notice temporarily suspending all civilian awards. A Special Division Bench of the Supreme Court of India was formed comprising five judges: A. M. Ahmadi C. J., Kuldip Singh, B. P. Jeevan Reddy, N. P. Singh, and S. Saghir Ahmad. On 15 December 1995, the Special Division Bench restored the awards and delivered a judgment that the "Bharat Ratna and Padma awards are not titles under Article 18 of the Constitution of India". ## Regulations The award is conferred for "exceptional and distinguished service", without distinction of race, occupation, position, or sex. The criteria include "service in any field including service rendered by Government servants", but excludes those working with the public sector undertakings, with the exception of doctors and scientists. The 1954 statutes did not allow posthumous awards, but this was subsequently modified in the January 1955 statute; Aditya Nath Jha, Ghulam Mohammed Sadiq, and Vikram Sarabhai became the first recipients to be honoured posthumously in 1972. The recommendations are received from all state and union territory governments, the Ministries of the Government of India, the Bharat Ratna and previous Padma Vibhushan award recipients, the Institutes of Excellence, the Ministers, the Chief Ministers, the Governors of State, and the Members of Parliament, including private individuals. The recommendations received during 1 May and 15 September of every year are submitted to the Padma Awards Committee, convened by the Prime Minister of India. The Awards Committee later submits its recommendations to the Prime Minister and the President of India for further approval. The Padma Vibhushan award recipients are announced every year on Republic Day of India and registered in The Gazette of India—a publication released weekly by the Department of Publication, Ministry of Urban Development used for official government notices. The conferral of the award is not considered official without its publication in the Gazette. Recipients whose awards have been revoked or restored, both of which actions require the authority of the President, are also registered in the Gazette and are required to surrender their medals when their names are struck from the register. ## Specifications The original 1954 specifications of the award called for a circle made of gold gilt 1+3⁄8 inches (35 mm) in diameter, with rims on both sides. A centrally located lotus flower was embossed on the obverse side of the medal and the text "Padma Vibhushan" written in Devanagari script was inscribed above the lotus along the upper edge of the medal. A floral wreath was embossed along the lower edge and a lotus wreath at the top along the upper edge. The Emblem of India was placed in the centre of the reverse side with the text "Desh Seva" in Devanagari Script on the lower edge. The medal was suspended by a pink riband 1+1⁄4 inches (32 mm) in width divided into two equal segments by a white vertical line. A year later, the design was modified. The current decoration is a circular-shaped bronze toned medallion 1+3⁄4 inches (44 mm) in diameter and 1⁄8 inch (3.2 mm) thick. The centrally placed pattern made of outer lines of a square of 1+3⁄16 inches (30 mm) side is embossed with a knob carved within each of the outer angles of the pattern. A raised circular space of 1+1⁄16 inches (27 mm) in diameter is placed at the centre of the decoration. A centrally located lotus flower is embossed on the obverse side of the medal and the text "Padma" written in Devanagari script is placed above and the text "Vibhushan" is placed below the lotus. The Emblem of India is placed in the centre of the reverse side with the national motto of India, "Satyameva Jayate" (Truth alone triumphs), in Devanagari Script, inscribed on the lower edge. The rim, the edges. and all embossing on either side is of white gold with the text "Padma Vibhushan" of silver gilt. The medal is suspended by a pink riband 1+1⁄4 inches (32 mm) in width. The medal is ranked fourth in the order of precedence of wearing of medals and decorations. The medals are produced at Alipore Mint, Kolkata along with the other civilian and military awards like Bharat Ratna, Padma Bhushan, Padma Shri, and Param Veer Chakra. ## Recipients The first recipients of the Padma Vibhushan were Satyendra Nath Bose, Nandalal Bose, Zakir Husain, Balasaheb Gangadhar Kher, V. K. Krishna Menon, and Jigme Dorji Wangchuck, who were honoured in 1954. As of 2020, the award has been bestowed on 314 individuals, including seventeen posthumous and twenty-one non-citizen recipients. Some of the conferments have been refused or returned by the recipients; P. N. Haksar, Vilayat Khan, E. M. S. Namboodiripad, Swami Ranganathananda, and Manikonda Chalapathi Rau refused the award. The family members of Lakshmi Chand Jain (2011) and Sharad Anantrao Joshi (2016) declined their posthumous conferments. Baba Amte returned his 1986 conferment in 1991. ## Explanatory notes
39,304,890	Ramsey Dardar	1,150,406,679	American football player (born 1959)	[ "1959 births", "20th-century African-American sportspeople", "21st-century African-American people", "African-American players of American football", "LSU Tigers football players", "Living people", "People from Cecilia, Louisiana", "Players of American football from Louisiana", "Prisoners and detainees of Louisiana", "St. Louis Cardinals (football) players" ]	James Ramsey Dardar (born October 3, 1959) is a former National Football League (NFL) defensive lineman. He appeared in 16 NFL games, all for the 1984 St. Louis Cardinals, and he spent brief periods on the rosters of the New York Giants and Houston Oilers. A native of Cecilia, Louisiana, Dardar was named to the 1982 All-Southeastern Conference football team while playing defensive tackle for Louisiana State University (LSU). He reached the school's top five all-time in career sacks and was part of the LSU team that went to the 1983 Orange Bowl. He was selected by the New Jersey Generals in the third round of the 1983 USFL Draft, but he decided to sign with the Cardinals after they selected him in the third round (71st overall) of the 1983 NFL Draft. After missing all of the 1983 season with an injury, Dardar played in 16 games for the 1984 Cardinals, starting six of them. The team released him before the 1985 season, and he did not play football that year. He was signed by the New York Giants and the Houston Oilers in 1986 and 1987, respectively, but he was cut from both teams before playing any regular-season games. Injuries ended his career in 1987. The same year, his two-year-old son was killed in an auto-pedestrian accident. Dardar became addicted to crack cocaine during his time in professional football, and after his playing days he turned to burglary to make money for drugs. He has been in prison for burglaries for much of his post-NFL life. The third time he was sent to prison, in late 1997, he was sentenced to 32 years. He was paroled in 2017. ## Early life Dardar was the youngest of four children and grew up on a farm in rural Louisiana. He grew up with a Breaux Bridge address and attended school in nearby Cecilia, so football fans from both communities have claimed Dardar as one of their hometown players. Dardar is of African, Native American and French ancestry. His father, a laborer, spoke French and only a few words of English. Dardar said that he spoke only French himself until he started school. As a child, he spent much of his time fishing and riding horses. At Cecilia High School, Dardar participated in football, basketball and track. He once threw a shot put 59 feet, setting a state record. In the spring of 1979, Dardar threw a discus more than 156 feet to establish a new St. Martin Parish record. He received All-State honors in track that year. The same year, he averaged 18.5 points per game in basketball, earning Second Team All-Acadiana honors. In football, Dardar had been named the defensive most valuable player in a fall 1978 St. Martin Parish coaches poll, and Cecilia High School finished tied for the District 5-AAA championship with a 9–1 win–loss record. Dardar later said that high school football taught him versatility, as he might be expected to play any position other than quarterback, depending on the opponent. Heavily recruited by college football programs, Dardar was thinking of attending the University of Houston or the University of Oklahoma, but Charlie Pevey, the offensive coordinator under LSU coach Charles McClendon, convinced him to come to LSU. Dardar signed letters of intent with LSU, Southern University and Northwestern State University, but he said he never intended to go to Southern or Northwestern State; he just wanted coaches from those schools to stop bothering him. ## LSU Dardar enrolled at LSU in 1979 to play defensive tackle. He injured cartilage and ligaments in his knee before the season started, so he was sent to the junior varsity team for rehabilitation. Though he made it back to the varsity team during the season, Dardar never played in a game, and he criticized defensive line coach Lynn LeBlanc for convincing him during team practices that he would be playing. While Dardar was frustrated by his lack of playing time, he said he was determined to play for LSU rather than transferring to another school. At the start of the 1980 season, Dardar was playing right tackle as a backup to Leonard Marshall, but after he played well in the opening game of the season against Florida State, he was named to the first team. When announcing that decision, LSU head coach Jerry Stovall said that Dardar had gotten involved in more big defensive plays than Marshall in the Florida State game. In Dardar's first game as a starter, a 21-0 win against Kansas State on September 13, he recorded seven tackles, blocked a field goal attempt, and registered a fourth-down quarterback sack at the goal line. He ended the season with 77 tackles (nine tackles for loss) and five sacks. Going into the 1981 season, Bill Elko joined the LSU defensive line as a transfer from Arizona State, but Dardar and Marshall were the starters at defensive tackle, while Greg Bowser and Terry Roussel competed for the starting position at nose guard. After LSU lost their first two games to top five teams (Alabama and Notre Dame), Stovall announced that Dardar would play at both nose guard and defensive tackle, but would spend most of his time at the former. That season he recorded 77 tackles (14 tackles for loss), recovered four fumbles, and blocked two field goal attempts. At the end of the season, he was included on the All-Louisiana Collegiate First Team by the Louisiana Sports Writers Association. By his senior season in 1982, Dardar had increased his weight to 255 pounds (up from 212 pounds his freshman year) and had taken 0.2 seconds off of his 40-yard dash time. Jenkins said that Dardar had also become more physical and played with better technique. LSU beat Alabama that year for the first time in 12 seasons, holding the Crimson Tide to 132 yards of total offense, and the Associated Press named Dardar and the other members of the LSU front seven, collectively, as its regional defensive lineman of the week. The team finished the regular season with an 8-2-1 record and went to the Orange Bowl against Nebraska, where Dardar was lined up opposite Dave Rimington, the Cornhuskers' center who had won his second Outland Trophy, an award given to the nation's best interior offensive lineman. The Cornhuskers gained 218 rushing yards in a 21-20 victory, but the head coaches of both teams praised Dardar's play and noted that Rimington did not dominate the matchup. Dardar was named a First Team All-SEC nose guard by both the Associated Press and United Press International that year, and the Touchdown Club of Atlanta recognized him as its SEC defensive lineman of the year. By the end of his senior season, Dardar was ranked in the top five in career sacks (15) in school history. In January 1983, Dardar was selected by the United States Football League's New Jersey Generals in the third round of the USFL Draft. Dardar said that he was hesitant to report to a USFL training camp since they started so soon after the end of the college football season. After the Generals signed the highly regarded running back Herschel Walker as a free agent, the team gave up on negotiating with Dardar and all of their top four draft picks. Three months later, Dardar was selected by the St. Louis Cardinals in the third round (71st overall) of the 1983 NFL Draft, and he agreed to a series of one-year contracts with the team in late June. While he was at LSU, Dardar met a fellow student named Lorraine, and they later married and had three children. ## NFL career Soon after arriving at training camp for the Cardinals, Dardar sustained a knee injury that caused him to miss most of camp. He was placed on injured reserve just prior to the 1983 season. In December 1983, Cardinals coach Jim Hanifan discussed moving Dardar to the offensive line to play guard. Asked whether the team would select an offensive lineman in the upcoming NFL draft, Hanifan replied that he "just drafted one today. From the defense. Ramsey Dardar. That was the first thing I did this morning. We had our draft right there." Hanifan said he thought Dardar had a better chance of becoming a star player on the offensive line. During training camp before the 1984 season, Dardar was working out as an offensive guard. By the last preseason game, however, he was playing defensive end, and he forced a fumble on quarterback Archie Manning. He played in sixteen games for St. Louis that year. He sprained an ankle during the next year's preseason, and he was waived by St. Louis in early September 1985. Dardar had preseason trials as both an offensive and defensive lineman before his release. While with the Cardinals, Dardar had become addicted to crack cocaine. He used marijuana recreationally at LSU and even tried cocaine there, but he said that he was not addicted to cocaine until he got into the NFL. He first went to drug rehabilitation during his time with the Cardinals, but drugs were so readily available in the league that he found it difficult to resist them. He said that people wanted to use drugs with him because of his fame, so he never had to pay for them. Dardar was signed by the New York Giants after the 1985 season and cut before the 1986 season began. Upon Dardar's release, Giants coach Bill Parcells said that the team just had a lot of other talent on the defensive line but that Dardar had a chance to be picked up by another team. Greg LaFleur, Dardar's teammate at LSU and in St. Louis, said that the Giants had signed Dardar because the Giants defensive line coach was close friends with LSU assistant coach Pete Jenkins. LaFleur said that the Giants sent Dardar back to drug rehabilitation and that Dardar "came out and then he messed up again". In May 1987, Dardar was signed by the Houston Oilers. He was placed on injured reserve before the start of the season and was waived by Houston that October. That same year, his two-year-old son, Ramsey Dardar Jr, was killed in an auto-pedestrian accident. Dardar said that his NFL injuries and the death of his son both worsened his drug addiction. He said that drugs made him want to kill himself. ## Personal life In October 1990, Dardar pleaded guilty to three counts of burglary after admitting to break-ins that occurred in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, between May 1989 and May 1990. "I was hooked on cocaine and I had a hard time dealing with myself when my career was over," Dardar said after his arrest. In court, a defense attorney said that Dardar had an IQ of 71 and that he had scored a 3 out of a possible 36 on the ACT, a college admissions test. He said that Dardar should not have been admitted to college, but there were no entrance requirements for athletes when Dardar enrolled at LSU. Dardar faced up to 36 years in prison, but he was sentenced to five years on each count, with all but 18 months suspended. He was also required to perform community service, undergo treatment for substance abuse and pay \$5500 in restitution to victims of his crimes. Dardar was released from his first stay in prison after six months. He had been free for a week when he was arrested again in the spring of 1991. He had been caught in someone else's house. Dardar said that he had begun using drugs again a couple of months before his release from prison. He said he went into the home to steal some items but became paranoid and was about to leave without taking anything. Police did not find any items missing from the house, but there was jewelry in Dardar's truck that was thought to have been stolen from another home the night before. In May 1992, Dardar was sentenced to six years in prison after a guilty plea to charges of simple burglary and possession of stolen goods. After being released from prison in March 1997, Dardar was arrested again that November for burglary and injuring a police dog. In that incident, a woman flagged down a canine officer with the Baton Rouge Police Department after seeing Dardar break into a shed. Dardar hid under a house and then struck a police dog with an ax handle and a screwdriver before surrendering. He was initially charged with 43 counts of burglary and could have been sentenced to more than 100 years in prison, but he pleaded guilty to eight counts in June 1998 and received a 32-year prison sentence. Dardar remained married during his time in prison. He said that Lorraine would bring his children to visit him, but for the first few years she did not go in to visit herself. Dardar was paroled in the fall of 2017. In August 2020, Dardar moved into a new home in Lake Charles, Louisiana, but the house was destroyed by Hurricane Laura the day after he moved into it. Dardar is the uncle of Reggie Dardar, a former track and field athlete at LSU.
44,834,192	Mississippi Highway 366 (Tishomingo County)	1,054,759,713	Highway in Tishomingo County, Mississippi	[ "State highways in Mississippi" ]	Mississippi Highway 366 (MS 366) is a short highway in northeastern Mississippi. The road starts at MS 25 in Belmont, and travels southeastward through Golden to the Alabama state border. The route was created in 1958, and hasn't changed significantly since. ## Route description All of the route is in Tishomingo County. MS 366 starts at MS 25 in Belmont, locally known as Second Street. The route travels southeastward out of the town, through farmland and small areas of trees. At Searcy Road, MS 366 travels along a railway owned by Redmont Railway. The road soon enters the village of Golden. Near the center of the village, the route intersects the eastern terminus of MS 760. MS 366 then crosses over the railroad and temporarily travels east. Past Bear Creek Road, the route curved southeastward, intersecting a few more county roads. After passing County Road 78, MS 366 ends at the Alabama state line. The road continues as Fourth Street Northwest into Red Bay. In 2013, Mississippi Department of Transportation (MDOT) calculated as many as 3,900 vehicles traveling east of Long Street, and as few as 2,800 vehicles traveling south of Shady Cove. The route is legally defined in Mississippi Code § 65-3-3. MS 366 is maintained by MDOT. ## History In 1958, a new road in southeastern Tishomingo County was designated MS 366. The new, paved route started from MS 25 and ended at the Alabama state line. The road has not changed significantly since. ## Major intersections
9,019,649	Bees and toxic chemicals	1,149,739,899	null	[ "Bee ecology", "Beekeeping", "Environmental effects of pesticides", "Honey", "Sustainable agriculture" ]	Bees can suffer serious effects from toxic chemicals in their environments. These include various synthetic chemicals, particularly insecticides, as well as a variety of naturally occurring chemicals from plants, such as ethanol resulting from the fermentation of organic materials. Bee intoxication can result from exposure to ethanol from fermented nectar, ripe fruits, and manmade and natural chemicals in the environment. The effects of alcohol on bees are sufficiently similar to the effects of alcohol on humans that honey bees have been used as models of human ethanol intoxication. The metabolism of bees and humans is sufficiently different that bees can safely collect nectars from plants that contain compounds toxic to humans. The honey produced by bees from these toxic nectars can be poisonous if consumed by humans. Natural processes can also introduce toxic substances into nontoxic honey produced from nontoxic nectar. Microorganisms in honey can convert some of the sugars in honey to ethanol. This process of ethanol fermentation is intentionally harnessed to produce the alcoholic beverage called mead from fermented honey. ## Ethanol ### Effects of intoxication The introduction of certain chemical substances—such as ethanol or pesticides or defensive toxic biochemicals produced by plants—to a bee's environment can cause the bee to display abnormal or unusual behavior and disorientation. In sufficient quantities, such chemicals can poison and even kill the bee. The effects of alcohol on bees have long been recognized. For example, John Cumming described the effect in an 1864 publication on beekeeping. When bees become intoxicated from ethanol consumption or poisoned with other chemicals, their balance is affected, and they are wobbly when they walk. Charles Abramson's group at Oklahoma State University has put inebriated bees on running wheels, where they exhibit locomotion difficulties. They also put honey bees in shuttle-boxes that used a stimulus to encourage the bees to move, and found that they were less mobile as they became more intoxicated. A temulent bee is more likely to stick out its tongue, or proboscis. Inebriated bees spend more time flying. If a bee is sufficiently intoxicated, it will just lie on its back and wiggle its legs. Inebriated bees typically have many more flying accidents as well. Some bees that consume ethanol become too inebriated to find their way back to the hive, and will die as a result. Bozic et al. (2006) found that alcohol consumption by honeybees disrupts foraging and social behaviors, and has some similar effects to poisoning with insecticides. Some bees become more aggressive after consuming alcohol. Exposure to alcohol can have a prolonged effect on bees, lasting as long as 48 hours. This phenomenon is also observed in fruit flies and is connected to the neurotransmitter octopamine in fruit flies, which is also present in bees. ### Bees as ethanol inebriation models In 1999, research by David Sandeman led to the realization that bee inebriation models are potentially valuable for understanding vertebrate and even human ethanol intoxication: > "Advances over the past three decades in our understanding of nervous systems are impressive and come from a multifaceted approach to the study of both vertebrate and invertebrate animals. An almost unexpected by-product of the parallel investigation of vertebrate and invertebrate nervous systems that is explored in this article is the emergent view of an intricate web of evolutionary homology and convergence exhibited in the structure and function of the nervous systems of these two large, paraphyletic groups of animals." The behavior of honey bees intoxicated by ethanol is being studied by scientists at Ohio State University, Oklahoma State University, University of Ljubljana in Slovenia, and other sites as a potential model of the effects of alcohol on humans. At the Oklahoma State University, for example, Abramson's research found significant correlations between the reactions of bees and other vertebrates to ethanol exposure: > "The purpose of this experiment was to test the feasibility of creating an animal model of ethanol consumption using social insects.... The experiments on consumption, locomotion, and learning suggest that exposure to ethanol influences behavior of honey bees similarly to that observed in experiments with analogous vertebrates." It has thus been found that "the honey bee nervous system is similar to that of vertebrates". These similarities are pronounced enough to even make it possible to derive information on the functioning of human brains from how bees react to certain chemicals. Julie Mustard, a researcher at Ohio State, explained that: > "On the molecular level, the brains of honey bees and humans work the same. Knowing how chronic alcohol use affects genes and proteins in the honey bee brain may help us eventually understand how alcoholism affects memory and behavior in humans, as well as the molecular basis of addiction." The evaluation of a bee model for ethanol inebriation of vertebrates has just begun, but appears to be promising. The bees are fed ethanol solutions and their behavior observed. Researchers place the bees in tiny harnesses, and feed them varying concentrations of alcohol introduced into sugar solutions. Tests of locomotion, foraging, social interaction and aggressiveness are performed. Mustard has noted that "Alcohol affects bees and humans in similar ways—it impairs motor functioning along with learning and memory processing." The interaction of bees with antabuse (disulfiram, a common medication administered as a treatment for alcoholism) has been tested as well. ## Bee exposure to other toxic and inebriating chemicals ### Synthetic chemicals Bees can be severely and even fatally affected by pesticides, fertilizers, copper sulfate (more lethal than spinosad), and other chemicals that man has introduced into the environment. They can appear inebriated and dizzy, and even die. This is serious because it has substantial economic consequences for agriculture. This problem has been the object of growing concern. For example, researchers at the University of Hohenheim are studying how bees can be poisoned by exposure to seed disinfectants. In France, the Ministry of Agriculture commissioned an expert group, the Scientific and Technical Committee for the Multifactorial Study on Bees (CST), to study the intoxicating and sometimes fatal effects of chemicals used in agriculture on bees. Researchers at the Bee Research Institute and the Department of Food Chemistry and Analysis in the Czech Republic have pondered the intoxicating effects of various chemicals used to treat winter rapeseed crops. Romania suffered a severe case of widespread bee intoxication and extensive bee mortality from deltamethrin in 2002. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) even has published standards for testing chemicals for bee intoxication. ### Natural compounds Bees and other Hymenoptera can also be substantially affected by natural compounds in the environment besides ethanol. For example, Dariusz L. Szlachetko of the Department of Plant Taxonomy and Nature Conservation, Gdańsk University observed wasps in Poland acting in a very sleepy (possibly inebriated) manner after eating nectar derived from the North American orchid Neottia. Detzel and Wink (1993) published an extensive review of 63 types of plant allelochemicals (alkaloids, terpenes, glycosides, etc.) and their effects on bees when consumed. It was found that 39 chemical compounds repelled bees (primarily alkaloids, coumarins, and saponins) and three terpene compounds attracted bees. They report that 17 out of 29 allelochemicals are toxic at some levels (especially alkaloids, saponins, cardiac glycosides and cyanogenic glycosides). Various plants are known to have pollen which is toxic to honey bees, in some cases killing the adults (e.g., Toxicoscordion), in other cases creating a problem only when passed to the brood (e.g., Heliconia). Other plants which have toxic pollen are Spathodea campanulata and Ochroma lagopus. Both the pollen and nectar of the California Buckeye (Aesculus californica) are toxic to honeybees, and it is thought that other members of the Buckeye family are also. ### Bee inebriation in pollination Some plants reportedly rely on using intoxicating chemicals to produce inebriated bees, and use this inebriation as part of their reproductive strategy. One plant that some claim uses this mechanism is the South American bucket orchid (Coryanthes sp.), an epiphyte. The bucket orchid attracts male euglossine bees with its scent, derived from a variety of aromatic compounds. The bees store these compounds in specialized spongy pouches inside their swollen hind legs, as they appear to use the scent (or derivatives thereof) in order to attract females. The flower is constructed in such a way as to make the surface almost impossible to cling to, with smooth, downward-pointing hairs; the bees commonly slip and fall into the fluid in the bucket, and the only navigable route out is a narrow, constricting passage that either glues a "pollinium" (a pollen sack) on their body (if the flower has not yet been visited) or removes any pollinium that is there (if the flower has already been visited). The passageway constricts after a bee has entered, and holds it there for a few minutes, allowing the glue to dry and securing the pollinium. It has been suggested that this process involves "inebriation" of the bees, but this effect has never been confirmed. In this way, the bucket orchid passes its pollen from flower to flower. This mechanism is almost but not quite species specific, as it is possible for a few closely related bees to pollinate any given species of orchid, as long as the bees are similar in size and are attracted by the same compounds. Van der Pijl and Dodson (1966) observed that bees of the genera Eulaema and Xylocopa exhibit symptoms of inebriation after consuming nectar from the orchids Sobralia violacea and Sobralia rosea. The Gongora horichiana orchid was suspected by Lanau (1992) of producing pheromones like a female euglossine bee and even somewhat resembles a female euglossine bee shape, using these characteristics to spread its pollen: > "A hapless male bee, blind drunk with the flower's overpowering pheromones, might well mistake a toadstool for a suitable mate, but the flower has made at least a modest attempt at recreating a beelike gestalt." This seems unlikely, given that no one has ever documented that female euglossines produce pheromones; male euglossines produce pheromones using the chemicals they collect from orchids, and these pheromones attract females, rather than the converse, as Cullina (2004) suggests. ## Toxic plant honey A number of plants produce alkaloids which can taint honey made from their flowers. ### Grayanotoxin Some substances which are toxic to humans have no effect on bees. If bees obtain their nectar from certain flowers, the resulting honey can be psychoactive, or even toxic to humans, but innocuous to bees and their larvae. Poisoning from this honey is called mad honey disease. Accidental intoxication of humans by mad honey has been well documented by several Classical authors, notably Xenophon, while the deliberate use of such honey as a medicine and intoxicant (even hallucinogen) is still practiced by the Gurung tribe of Nepal, who have a long tradition of hazardous cliff-climbing to wrest the precious commodity from the nests of Apis laboriosa, the giant Himalayan honeybee. The honey thus collected by the Gurung owes its inebriating properties to the nectar which the giant bees gather from a deep red-flowered species of Rhododendron, which, in turn, owes its toxicity to the compound grayanotoxin, widespread in the plant family Ericaceae, to which the genus Rhododendron belongs. ### Tutu The New Zealand native plant Tutu produces poisonous honey, due to the toxin tutin. ### Opium Morphine-containing honey has been reported in areas where opium poppy cultivation is widespread. ### Ethanol Honey, can ferment, and produce ethanol. Animals, such as birds, that have consumed honey fermented in the sun can be found incapable of flight or other normal movement. Sometimes honey is fermented intentionally to produce mead, an alcoholic beverage made of honey, water, and yeast. The word for "drunk" in classical Greek is sometimes translated as "honey-intoxicated" and indeed the shared Indo-European antiquity of such a conception is enshrined in the names of at least two (euhemerised) goddesses of personified intoxication : the Irish Medb (see also Maeve (Irish name) ) and the Indian Madhavi of the Mahabharata (- see page Yayati), cognate with the English word mead and the Russian word for bear медведь ( - medved - literally 'honey-eater'). ## See also - Colony collapse disorder - Honey bee starvation - Pesticide toxicity to bees - Diseases of the honey bee - Pollinator decline - List of honey plants
7,098,174	Battle of White Marsh	1,138,896,418	Part of the American Revolutionary War	[ "1777 in Pennsylvania", "1777 in the United States", "Battles involving Great Britain", "Battles involving Hesse-Kassel", "Battles involving the United States", "Battles of the American Revolutionary War in Pennsylvania", "Battles of the Philadelphia Campaign", "Conflicts in 1777", "History of Montgomery County, Pennsylvania" ]	The Battle of White Marsh or Battle of Edge Hill was a battle of the Philadelphia campaign of the American Revolutionary War fought December 5–8, 1777, in the area surrounding Whitemarsh Township, Pennsylvania. The battle, which took the form of a series of skirmish actions, was the last major engagement of 1777 between British and American forces. George Washington, commander-in-chief of the American revolutionary forces, spent the weeks after his defeat at the Battle of Germantown encamped with the Continental Army in various locations throughout Montgomery County, just north of British-occupied Philadelphia. In early November, the Americans established an entrenched position approximately 16 miles (26 km) north of Philadelphia along the Wissahickon Creek and Sandy Run, primarily situated on several hills between Old York Road and Bethlehem Pike. From here, Washington monitored British troop movements in Philadelphia and evaluated his options. On December 4, Gen. Sir William Howe, the commander-in-chief of British forces in North America, led a sizable contingent of troops out of Philadelphia in one last attempt to destroy Washington and the Continental Army before the onset of winter. After a series of skirmishes, Howe called off the attack and returned to Philadelphia without engaging Washington in a decisive conflict. With the British back in Philadelphia, Washington was able to march his troops to winter quarters at Valley Forge. ## Background and movement to battle After their October 4, 1777, defeat at the Battle of Germantown, Washington's army retreated along Skippack Pike to Pawling's Mill, beyond the Perkiomen Creek, where they remained encamped until October 8. They then marched east on Skippack Pike, turned left on Forty-Foot Road (present-day Old Forty-Foot Road), and marched to Sumneytown Pike, where they camped on the property of Frederick Wampole near Kulpsville in Towamencin Township. While there, Brig. Gen. Francis Nash died of wounds incurred at Germantown and was buried in the Mennonite Meeting Cemetery. Washington remained at Towamencin for one week, gathering supplies and waiting to see if Howe would move against him. On October 16, Washington moved his forces to Methacton Hill in Worcester Township. After learning of Howe's withdrawal from Germantown to Philadelphia, Washington moved his army to Whitpain, 5 miles (8.0 km) closer to Philadelphia, on October 20. On October 29, Washington's army numbered 8,313 Continentals and 2,717 militia, although the terms of enlistment of many soldiers from Maryland and Virginia were due to expire. With his ranks reinforced, Washington dispatched a brigade to assist with the defense of Forts Mifflin and Mercer, on the Delaware River. On November 2, at the recommendation of his council of war, Washington marched his forces to White Marsh, approximately 13 miles (21 km) northwest of Philadelphia. Washington established headquarters at the Emlen House, where he and his aides were quartered. At White Marsh, the army began to build redoubts and defensive works, including abatis in front of their encampment. After the surrender of British Lt. Gen. John Burgoyne after the Battles of Saratoga, Washington began drawing troops from the north, including the 1,200 men of Varnum's Rhode Island brigade, and about 1,000 more men from various Pennsylvania, Maryland and Virginia units. Maj. Gen. Horatio Gates sent Col. Daniel Morgan's rifle corps, and the brigades of Paterson and Glover. With these additional forces, and the pending onset of winter, Washington had to face the problem of supplying his army. A quarter of the troops were barefooted, and there were very few blankets or warm clothing. Washington became so desperate that he even offered a reward of \$10 to the person who could supply the "best substitute for shoes, made of raw hides". Morale was so low and desertion so common that Washington offered a pardon on October 24 to all deserters who returned by January 1. Washington's loss of Philadelphia and inactivity brought criticism from Congress, who pressured him to attack the city. He therefore called a council of war on November 24 which voted against an attack 11 to 4. Nonetheless, Washington rode out the next day to view the British defenses, which turned to be stronger than he had expected. On October 19, Howe withdrew the British forces from Germantown and focused on the defense of Philadelphia. British military engineer Capt. John Montresor supervised the building of a series of fourteen formidable redoubts that began at Upper Ferry, along the Schuylkill River, and extended eastward to the shores of the Delaware River, just north of Philadelphia. Howe took advantage of his time in Philadelphia to raise additional forces from the loyalist population in the region. Newly-promoted Maj. John Graves Simcoe reinforced his unit, the Queen's Rangers, which had lost over a quarter of its men at the Battle of Brandywine. William Allen, Jr., the son of notable loyalist William Allen, raised the 1st Battalion of Pennsylvania Loyalists, and was made its lieutenant colonel. Loyalist James Chalmers raised the 1st Battalion of Maryland Loyalists, and was given its command. Recruitment also took place among the city's Irish Catholic population, with the formation of the Irish Catholic Volunteers, and in the counties immediately surrounding Philadelphia. In mid-November, the fall of Forts Mifflin and Mercer effectively ended American control of the Delaware River, and much-needed supplies began arriving at the city's docks, along with 2,000 additional British soldiers. The weeks with two major armies sitting within miles of each other were not without conflict, and a petite guerre ensued in the no man's land between White Marsh and Northern Liberties. Minor skirmishes between light troops increased in intensity throughout November, with almost daily losses being incurred by both the British and the Americans. In retaliation, on November 22, Howe ordered his troops to set fire to several large country houses in the Germantown area, including Fair Hill, a mansion and country estate that had previously belonged to John Dickinson. Eleven houses in all were burned to the ground, and residents of Philadelphia climbed onto rooftops and church steeples to watch the spectacle. Just one day earlier, crowds had gathered to watch the burning of Commodore John Hazelwood's Pennsylvania Navy in the Delaware. On the same morning the mansions were burned, an earthquake struck Philadelphia, and was felt as far away as Lancaster. On November 27, an aurora borealis lit up the night skies. The two events caused quite a stir among both the residents of Philadelphia and the troops, British and American alike, who took them as an ominous sign of things to come. By early December, Howe decided, despite having written to Colonial Secretary Lord George Germain requesting to be relieved of his command, that he was in a position to make one last attempt to destroy Washington's army before the onset of winter, and he began preparations for an attack on the American forces. Washington's intelligence network in Philadelphia, led by Maj. John Clark, became aware of British plans to surprise the Americans. According to a historically unsubstantiated story, Howe's movements were revealed to the Americans by a Quaker woman named Lydia Darragh, who overheard British officers quartered in her house discussing Howe's plan, and crossed the British lines to deliver this information to Col. Elias Boudinot of the Continental Army, who was at the Rising Sun Tavern between Germantown and Northern Liberties, (located at the present day intersection of Germantown Avenue and Old York Road) attempting to secure provisions. Boudinot immediately relayed this information to Washington, and the Continental Army was ready when Howe, with a force of approximately 10,000 men, marched out of Philadelphia just prior to midnight on December 4. The advance column, led by Lt. Gen. Lord Cornwallis, headed up Germantown Pike. A second column, led by Lt. Gen. von Knyphausen, marched toward the American left. ## First day of battle Just after midnight on December 5, Cornwallis' vanguard, which consisted of two British light infantry battalions, skirmished with an American cavalry patrol under the command of Capt. Allen McLane near Three Mile Run on Skippack Road. McLane sent a messenger to Washington, alerting him of the British movements. While the main body of the British troops marched through Germantown, Beggarstown, and Flourtown, American alarm cannons were sounded and positions manned. At 3:00 am, the British halted on Chestnut Hill, just south of the American defenses, and waited for daybreak. During the night, Washington ordered his troops to build additional campfires to deceive the British. "...[I]t looked as if fifty thousand men were encamped there. By day we could see this was merely a trick...," wrote Hessian Maj. Carl von Bauermeister. Expecting a confrontation, Washington took the precaution of striking his tents before sunrise, and sent the heavy baggage north to Trappe. He then dispatched troops to find out the size and intent of the British column. Brig. Gen. James Irvine of the Pennsylvania militia took 600 men and marched them through the Wissahickon Valley toward Chestnut Hill. Brig. Gen. James Potter's brigade of about 1,000 Pennsylvania militia and Webb's 2nd Connecticut Regiment of 200 men moved to screen Irvine's right. Around noon, Irvine's detachment encountered the British light infantry on the north side of Chestnut Hill. The Pennsylvania militia got off the first volley, but were soon routed by the British. While attempting to rally his fleeing troops, Irvine had three fingers shot off, and was taken prisoner when he fell from his horse. Potter's brigade immediately fled, despite orders to advance and skirmish with the British light infantry. The 2nd Connecticut made a brief stand, killing three and wounding eleven, including British Capt. Sir James Murray-Pulteney. British Lt. Col. Robert Abercromby decided to push his advantage after scattering Irvine's troops. He pushed north and captured St. Thomas Episcopal Church, located on a hillock. Howe arrived a short while later, and ascended to the top of the church's bell tower in an attempt to view the American positions. Deciding the American defenses were too strong to attack with his present force, he opted to shell their defenses with artillery fire; however, his guns did not have the range to hit Washington's defenses. His forces camped on Chestnut Hill that night, and planned a new way of attack for the following day. ## Second and third days of battle The two armies spent December 6 watching each other across the Wissahickon Valley. Howe hoped that Washington would leave his positions to attack the British; Washington did not, preferring instead to let the British do the maneuvering. By day's end, Howe decided upon a flanking movement toward the Americans' left, toward Jenkintown and Cheltenham Township, while Maj. Gen. Charles Grey's forces would create a distraction by attacking the American center. Sometime after 1:00 am on December 7, Howe marched the British Army back through Germantown, and then to Jenkintown, where they remained until noon. As the British movements were concealed by a ridge on Chestnut Hill, Washington did not become aware of Howe's maneuvering until 8:00 am. He immediately moved Morgan's Rifle Corps. and Col. Mordecai Gist's Maryland militia eastward to cover his left flank. About a mile to the right of this detachment, Brig. Gen. James Potter's brigade of Pennsylvania militia, and Webb's 2nd Connecticut Regiment, under Lieut. Col. Isaac Sherman, proceeded down Limekiln Road toward Edge Hill. Movement of the British rear guard, including the Jägers and the Queen's Rangers, was hindered by the burning of the villages of Cresheim and Beggarstown by troops at the front of the column. Howe's right was now situated near the Abington Presbyterian Meeting. His main force moved to situate itself on Edge Hill, a ridge that ran parallel to, and a mile in front of, the American lines. Grey's column had broken off from the main column, and proceeded up Whitemarsh Church Road toward the American center. Gen. Grey had been instructed not to attack until he heard the sound of firing from Howe's column, but after several hours, he became impatient and decided to proceed on his own. He formed his column into three divisions, with the Queen's Rangers on the left, the Jägers on each side of the road, and the light infantry of the Guards on the right, and headed in the direction of Tyson's Tavern on Limekiln Road. As Grey advanced toward the American center, his troops took fire from American militia on Edge Hill. The militia were quickly routed, with between twenty and thirty killed, and fifteen of them taken as prisoners. Gens. John Cadwalader and Joseph Reed, out reconnoitering on horse near Twickenham, the country estate of Thomas Wharton Jr., attempted to rally Potter's fleeing Pennsylvania militia. Lieut. Col. Sherman, the officer in charge of the 2nd Connecticut Continentals, resented Reed's assumption of command, and later complained to Washington that it put "...Officers and Men into such confusion that it rendered it impossible to keep that regularity so necessary when going into Action." The British soon had them surrounded and outnumbered, and the Pennsylvania militia again panicked and fled. The 2nd Connecticut Continentals made a stand, firing between two and five rounds per man; Sherman only gave the order to retreat when the Jägers were within 15–20 yards of his position. At some point, Cadwalader and Reed became separated from the militia, and Reed's horse was shot out from under him. A body of Hessians charged at the two officers with bayonets, but Capt. McLane rode up with a few dragoons and ordered a charge that scattered the Hessians. McLane then took the two officers to safety. The Pennsylvania militia fled in panic down Edge Hill, across Sandy Run, and toward the main American camp. Right behind them were men of the 2nd Connecticut, also in disorderly retreat. They were pursued to within yards of their encampment by the Queen's Rangers and Jägers, who then fell back and took a position on Edge Hill, between Grey's troops and Howe's main column. Morgan's Rifle Corps and Gist's Maryland militia had taken position on Edge Hill, about a mile to the east of Grey's troops, and higher up on the ridge. A small group of Americans moved down to attack Col. Twistleton's Light Infantry of the Guards, but were quickly repulsed by the British. William Augustus West, Lord Cantelupe, who was stationed with the light infantry, noted that the 4th and 23rd Regiments engaged the Americans with 9 men killed and 19 wounded. British Maj. John André reported that one American was killed. Meanwhile, the main body of Morgan's and Gist's troops engaged Howe's main column in dense woods, where they fought "Indian style", from tree to tree. The Maryland militia attacked Abercromby's 1st Light Infantry Battalion with unusual vigor: British officers, who were used to encountering militia who would flee at the first sign of battle, would later express admiration at the skill of Morgan's and Gist's men. Morgan's troops were not reinforced, and were forced to retreat back to the main camp after Cornwallis sent in the 33rd Regiment of Foot. ## British withdrawal On the morning of December 8, British generals and engineers once again studied the American positions, looking for any advantage they could exploit in the American defenses. To the astonishment of both the British and the Americans, Howe decided to withdraw and return to Philadelphia. Despite being successful in two major skirmishes over the previous days, his maneuvering had not gotten as far around the American flank as he had hoped and his troops' provisions were running low. Also, the nights were getting colder and the troops had left their tentage and gear in Philadelphia. Mark Boatner says that Howe "decided that Washington's defenses were too strong to warrant the risk of a general assault. At 2:00 pm, the British began their withdrawal, lighting numerous campfires—in a tactic similar to one used by Washington three days prior—to conceal their movements. An American reconnaissance party, led by Capt. McLane, discovered that Howe was marching back down Old York Road into Philadelphia and communicated this information back to Washington. Morgan's troops harassed the enemy's rear, in particular Grey's column, which was hindered by the weight of the artillery that it was transporting. A contingent of Hessians formed to oppose them with their fieldpieces and Morgan's troops retreated. The British arrived in Philadelphia later that day. ## Casualties No American official casualty return from December 5 to 8 is known to exist. Some information, however, can be pieced together from various sources. For December 5, David Martin says that General Irvine's force took about 40 casualties, while a Loyalist officer with the British Army wrote that Irvine was captured along with 23 of his men. For December 6, Howard Peckham says that the Americans lost 30 killed, 40 wounded and 15 captured. The figure of 15 prisoners taken was confirmed by John André in his journal. For December 7, Colonel John Laurens stated that "the loss of Morgan's riflemen was 27 killed and wounded", while John Donaldson, an American cavalryman wrote that "Morgan had 44 killed & wounded & among them was Major Morris a brave & gallant officer" This reference was to Major Joseph Morris of the 1st New Jersey Regiment, so Donaldson's figure was evidently for the whole force under Morgan's command, while Laurens' figure was for the Corps of Riflemen only. Benson Lossing confirms that "twenty-seven were killed and wounded in Morgan's Corps", while Major Morris was badly wounded and the Maryland Militia lost "16 or 17" wounded. For December 8, David Martin says that the Maryland Militia lost 20 killed or wounded and 15 prisoners. From these sources, the aggregate American loss from December 5–8 would appear to have been 16 killed or wounded and 24 captured on the 5th; 70 killed or wounded and 15 captured on the 6th; 44 killed or wounded on the 7th and 20 killed or wounded and 15 captured on the 8th. This gives 150 killed or wounded and 54 captured, for a total loss of 204 men. Lord Cantelupe wrote in his diary that "the number of killed & wounded on our side amount to one hundred & twenty, one officer killed. Cantelupe's figure agrees approximately with Howe's official casualty return for "the different skirmishes from 4th to 8th December", which gives 19 killed, 60 wounded and 33 missing. David Martin gives the total British loss, including deserters, as 350, which would suggest that 238 men deserted. ## Aftermath Washington, frustrated at not being able to confront Howe in a more decisive action, wrote in his report to Henry Laurens, president of Congress, "I sincerely wish, that they had made an Attack; the Issue in all probability, from the disposition of our Troops and the strong situation of our Camp, would have been fortunate and happy. At the same time I must add that reason, prudence, and every principle of policy, forbade us quitting our post to attack them. Nothing but Success would have justified the measure, and this could not be expected from their position." On December 11, the Continental Army left White Marsh for Valley Forge. It took the soldiers eight days to make the 13-mile (21 km) journey. The following April, Howe resigned his post and returned to Britain, and was replaced by Gen. Sir Henry Clinton. Following France's entry into the war, the British evacuated Philadelphia overland the following spring, and while en route to New York City, they were attacked by Washington at the Battle of Monmouth. Remains of the American redoubts were visible near Farmar Mill, as were vestiges of stone chimneys from the soldier's makeshift huts, as late as 1860. The battle is alluded to in Sally Wister's Journal, and the author later views the remains of the nearby camp. Fort Washington State Park, which encompasses a portion of the area occupied by the American forces, was established in the early 1920s by Philadelphia's Fairmount Park Commission and is today managed by the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. The park's Fort Hill marks the spot where a temporary fort once stood at the western end of the American position. The Pennsylvania Militia (under Gens. Armstrong, Cadwalader and Irvine) held positions on the park's Militia Hill. Nearby, Emlen House, Washington's headquarters between November 2 and December 11, remains standing despite destructive modernization in 1854. ## See also - American Revolutionary War § British northern strategy fails. Places 'Battle of White Marsh' in overall sequence and strategic context.
1,364,064	Zahava Burack	1,170,445,539	Polish-American activist and Holocaust survivor	[ "1932 births", "2001 deaths", "20th-century American Jews", "20th-century American philanthropists", "20th-century Polish Jews", "20th-century women philanthropists", "American political activists", "American women philanthropists", "Deaths from cancer in New York (state)", "Haganah members", "Holocaust survivors", "Israeli emigrants to the United States", "New York (state) Democrats", "People from Busko County", "People from Westchester County, New York", "Philanthropists from New York (state)", "Polish emigrants to Israel", "Social leaders" ]	Zahava Burack (née Radza, December 14, 1932 – September 28, 2001) was a Jewish Holocaust survivor from Poland who went on to become a well-known philanthropist, community leader and political activist in the United States. During her childhood, she survived the Holocaust by hiding with her family in a crawlspace beneath the home of a Polish Catholic family for two and a half years. After the liberation of occupied Poland in 1945, she was smuggled to Israel, where she lived for twelve years, two of which she spent serving with the Haganah paramilitary organization. In 1958, Burack moved to the United States, where she worked with both American and Israeli politicians for Jewish causes. ## Surviving the Holocaust Zahava Burack was born in 1932 in the shtetl of Nowy Korczyn, Poland, to Louis and Gitla Radza. Louis was a juice manufacturer. Burack had three sisters, Rita, Miriam and Sarah. In 1942, at the age of 9, Burack, her parents, and her sisters Miriam and Sarah were forced into hiding after German soldiers instructed the Jewish residents of Nowy Korczyn to march to the railway station for "relocation." Her parents, aware that this was a euphemism for deportation to concentration camps, slipped out of the line unseen to escape. In the confusion, her older sister Rita became separated from the family and boarded the train; she was eventually taken to the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp. The Radza family sought refuge with a Polish Catholic family, Stephania and Jozef Macugowski. Jozef was an old friend of Louis Radza's, and had previously offered assistance if the family ever required it. To hide the Radza family, the Macugowskis dug a secret trench beneath the floorboards of their home. The crawlspace was no more than 5 feet (1.5 m) wide, 7 ft (2.1 m) long, and 20 inches (51 cm) deep. The family would spend the next two and a half years hidden within, their presence a secret not only from the outside world, but from the Macugowskis' children and elderly parents as well. Over that span of time, several other Jewish people sought refuge with the Macugowskis. Eventually, nine refugees, including a cousin of the Radzas, were packed inside. Much later, Burack's sister Miriam described their packed state to reporters: "When one turned on his side, the others would have to do the same. We were like sardines." The Macugowskis would come down at night to bring the family bread, water, and a bucket for waste. The Radzas, despairing their situation, sometimes begged them for poisoned food or a gun to end their misery, but the Macugowskis refused. Burack later recalled that they insisted, "As long as we are alive, we will save you.'' On one occasion, Jozef brought the family unleavened bread so they could observe the Jewish Passover. In 1945, the German High Command took over the Macugowskis house as a local headquarters and forced the Macugowskis out. According to Burack's recollection, the Radzas took out their prayer book, said Kaddish, the Jewish prayer for the dead, and "all thanked God that we were going to die." However, the Macugowskis were able to convince the German soldiers that they should be allowed to stay on as the home's caretakers. Once or twice a week, after waiting until all the German soldiers were asleep, Jozef and Stephania were able to bring a small amount of supplies for the family. At one point, the Germans in the house were overheard discussing efforts to track down one remaining Jewish family rumored to still be hidden in town. Jozef was able to spread a rumor in a nearby town that this family had drowned in the Wista River while fleeing the Nazis, and the search was called off. ## Liberation and move to Israel In 1945, the town was liberated by the Red Army. The Radza family, at last, emerged from the crawlspace beneath the Macugowskis' home. It was the first time they had seen daylight in two and a half years, and it burned their eyes at first. Their legs were so wobbly that Soviet soldiers believed they were drunk and beat them, thinking they were hiding vodka. Their vocal cords had atrophied because they had not spoken above a whisper during their entire confinement. Jozef took the family to a town some miles away where no one knew them, and made them promise that they would never reveal who had protected them. Nearly six months after the war, the family was reunited with Rita, who had survived the camp at Bergen-Belsen. The Razdas eventually lost track of the Macugowskis. Burack was given false identity papers that declared her a war orphan and, at no more than 12 years old, was smuggled into the part of Palestine that would soon become the state of Israel. She was the only member of her family to emigrate to Israel. Her family remained in Poland, visiting her occasionally at the girls' school where she lived. While living in Israel, she served in Haganah, the Jewish paramilitary organization. She remained in service when it became the Israel Defense Forces in 1948. She would ultimately remain in Israel for twelve years before emigrating to the United States. ## Political activism in the United States After twelve years in Israel, Burack moved to the United States in 1958 to work for the Israeli Consulate in New York City. She eventually settled in Westchester County, New York, where she would marry Robert H. Burack. Burack's sisters had also settled in and around the New York area with their families. The Buracks split their time between Westchester and Palm Beach, Florida, for the remainder of their lives. They had one son, Jeffrey Burack. Through her adult life, Burack maintained her search for the Polish couple that had saved her and her family. Burack was politically active for her entire adult life, and used her wealth philanthropically to further Jewish, Israeli, and Democratic Party causes. She was known as a political and social leader, and both "Israeli prime ministers and American presidents call[ed] on her for her political activism." She is known to have worked with the United Jewish Appeal, the Westchester-Putnam Boy Scouts of America Council, the Mental Health Association of Westchester County, and the David Yellin College of Education, among numerous others. She was the chairman of the board of Palm Beach Israel Bonds at the time of her death in 2001. She met Jimmy Carter in 1975, before he was officially nominated as the Democratic Party candidate for the 1976 election, and later organized his election campaign in Westchester. Burack was a marcher at Carter's inauguration parade after he won the 1976 presidential election. In 1981, Burack ran as a Democrat for a seat in Westchester County government, but was defeated by the Republican incumbent, John L. Messina, by 2,500 votes. In 1984, Senator Joseph R. Pisani introduced a resolution to the New York State Senate to honor Burack for her long record of service to the Westchester community. In 1986, Burack finally made contact with Stephania and Jozef Macugowski. In collaboration with the David Yellin College, Burack arranged for the Macugowskis to be flown to New York for a special recognition ceremony. The Polish couple was recognized as Righteous Among the Nations, an honorific given by the State of Israel to denote non-Jews who risked their lives to protect and shelter Jewish people during the Holocaust. Zahava's husband Robert died in 1988. Zahava died from cancer on September 28, 2001.
56,554,389	Mississippi Highway 569	1,054,760,073	Highway in Mississippi	[ "State highways in Mississippi", "Transportation in Amite County, Mississippi", "Transportation in Lincoln County, Mississippi" ]	Mississippi Highway 569 (MS 569) is a state highway in southwestern Mississippi. The route starts at the Mississippi–Louisiana state line, and it travels northeastward from that point. It intersects MS 48 southwest of Liberty, and MS 569 becomes concurrent with it. Inside Liberty, MS 569 is also concurrent with MS 24 briefly before travelling northeastward out of the city. It continues through Amite County and it ends at U.S. Route 98 (US 98) in extreme southwestern Lincoln County. The road was designated in 1955, as part of projects initiated by the Mississippi State Highway Department (MSHD). The route was finished by 1956, and the majority of it was paved by 1958. MS 569 was officially opened in a ceremony in Liberty on October 17, 1958. The road was completely paved by 1960. ## Route description The route is located in Amite and Lincoln counties. MS 569 is legally defined in Mississippi Code § 65-3-3, and is maintained by the Mississippi Department of Transportation (MDOT) as part of the state highway system. MS 569 starts at the Mississippi–Louisiana state line, where it meets the northern terminus of Louisiana Highway 67 (LA 67). The road travels northeastward, intersecting Homer Road and crossing over Beaver Creek. It then intersects Lower Centreville Road, which leads to the unincorporated area of Olio. MS 569 and Lower Centreville Road are briefly concurrent to cross the Mart Branch, and the latter continues eastward. MS 569 then crosses Mill Creek past Banks Road. Travelling through the forest and small tracts of farmland, the road turns north at Street Road. It continues over Shaw and Causey Creeks before meeting MS 48 at a three-way junction at Beechwood. The route becomes concurrent with MS 48 and both routes travel northeastward towards Liberty. Between the routes' intersection with Enterprise Road, it crosses over Wagoner Creek and West Fork of the Amite River. The road enters Liberty past County Farm Road. MS 48 and 569 bends northward near the center of the town. Known as South Broad Street, the routes intersect West Borden Avenue and Washington Street before meeting MS 24 at a signalized intersection. The Amite County Courthouse is located to the southeast of the intersection. MS 48 and 569 become concurrent with MS 24 and travel eastward. The three routes travel along East Main Street, intersecting some city streets and the northern terminus of MS 584 at Gillsburg Road. Several yards later, MS 569 turns north, ending concurrencies with MS 24 and 48. The road then turns northeastward at Broken Street, and it leaves the city at Tower Hill Road. The road travels northeastward across multiple creeks and meeting multiple gravel roads through the forest. An incorporated area, Hustler, is located off Rollison Road, which meets MS 569 and Thompson Road. After crossing a branch of East Fork of the Amite River, the route intersects MS 570. MS 569 enters Lincoln County past Branch Road. After crossing the county line, the route ends at US 98. The road continues as Frances Trail Southwest north of US 98. ## History The route was designated in January 1955, as part of new projects announced by MSHD. The project, known as Federal Aid Secondary Project S-0242, included excavation, grading of the road from the Louisiana–Mississippi state line to the community of Beechwood, and building multiple culverts and one bridge. The contract was awarded to W.L. Wells for \$314,214 () later that month. By 1956, the road appeared on the state map, extending from the state line to Auburn, with a small section near Liberty already paved. MS 569 was extended northward along a paved road to Lucien in Franklin County by 1957. The section from the state line to Beechwood was paved by 1958, with a cost of \$69,978.98 (). The road from Liberty to Smithdale was paved during 1958 by the Road Builders Construction Company, with a contract worth \$72,432. MS 569 was officially opened on October 17, 1958, with a ribbon ceremony in Liberty. By 1960, the state map showed all of the route already paved. The section in Franklin County was removed from the state highway system by 1967. ## Major intersections ## See also - Mississippi Highway 572 – Now known as Lower Centreville Road
23,846,264	Covenant (Millennium)	1,164,298,733	null	[ "1997 American television episodes", "Millennium (season 1) episodes" ]	"'Covenant" is the sixteenth episode of the first season of the American crime-thriller television series Millennium. It premiered on the Fox network on March 21, 1997. The episode was written by Robert Moresco, and directed by Roderick J. Pridy. "Covenant" featured guest appearances by John Finn, Michael O'Neill and Sarah Koskoff. Millennium Group consultant Frank Black (Lance Henriksen) travels to Utah to construct a profile on a convicted murderer (Finn) who is asking for the death sentence. Reconstructing the crime, Black begins to doubt the man's guilt. Elements of "Covenant" were inspired by real-life murderers Susan Smith and Arthur Shawcross. The episode was viewed by approximately 6.7 million households in its original broadcast. It has received positive reviews, with Moresco's script praised for its subtlety. ## Plot Millennium Group member Frank Black (Lance Henriksen) travels to Provo, Utah to meet Calvin Smith (Michael O'Neill), the prosecutor in a local murder case; and Didi Higgens (Sarah Koskoff), a pathologist for the County Medical Examiner's office. Smith and Higgens have been involved in the trial of former sheriff William Garry (John Finn), who has been convicted of killing his three children and wife. Garry pleaded guilty to murders, and forensic evidence has linked him to a wood-carving chisel used to commit the murders. Black has been asked to construct an offender profile for Garry, to determine whether the man is sufficiently dangerous to society for a judge to issue a death penalty. Garry himself is asking to be executed. Black travels to Garry's home with a deputy, Kevin Reilly (Steve Bacic). Daubed in blood on the kitchen window are the numbers "1 28 15", which Reilly notes no one has been able to understand. Black also listens to a recording of Garry's confession, which details the murders meticulously. Black convinces Garry's attorney to allow him an interview, insisting he will be entirely impartial. Garry tells Black he had planned the murders for some time, motivated by hatred for his wife and monetary concerns. Black refutes this, pointing out that Garry had carved a wooden angel as a gift for his wife that same day, using the chisel that was the murder weapon. Smith, realizing that Black does not believe Garry to be guilty, dismisses him from the case. Black discovers that Garry had been having an affair, having previously believed that Mrs. Garry was the unfaithful one; he also realizes that Garry was unaware that his wife was pregnant. Black has Higgens help him in getting the bodies exhumed, allowing the two to see that Mrs. Garry's wounds were not defensive, but self-inflicted. Black also determines that the message written in blood was in fact "I 28 15"—Book of Isaiah, chapter 28, verse 15; which is concerned with lies and falsehoods. Black pieces together the actual events of the night of the murders, realizing that Mrs. Garry killed her children before committing suicide; before she died she blamed Garry for her actions, causing him to seek atonement by admitting to the crimes. Reilly admits to having helped Garry rearrange the crime scene to incriminate himself; Black urges him to come forward with the real events to save his friend's life. ## Production "Covenant" was written by Robert Moresco and directed by Roderick J. Pridy, and was the first contribution to the series by either of the two. Moresco would go on to write "Broken World" later in the first season, and also acted as a producer during the series' run. Pridy would return to helm the second season episode "The Mikado". Guest star John Finn would go on to appear in Millennium's sister show The X-Files, playing the recurring character Michael Kritschgau in several episodes beginning with season four's "Gethsemane". Sarah Koskoff, who portrayed assistant pathologist Didi Higgens, also had a minor recurring role in The X-Files, making several appearances as an alien abductee. "Covenant" featured the last appearance in the series by Don MacKay as the Black family's neighbour Jack Meredith. MacKay had previously portrayed the character in "Pilot", "Gehenna" and "Weeds". The murders may have been inspired by the case of Susan Smith, a mother of two who drowned her children by sinking her car in a lake. Mention is also made in the episode of Arthur Shawcross, whose recidivism is cited by Garry's prosecutors as an example of why murder should warrant a death penalty. Shawcross was released from prison after serving a sentence for killing two children, only to kill eleven women while on parole. ## Broadcast and reception "Covenant" was first broadcast on the Fox Network on March 21, 1997. The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 6.9 during its original broadcast, meaning that 6.9 percent of households in the United States viewed the episode. This represented approximately 6.7 million households, and left the episode the sixty-third most-viewed broadcast that week. The episode received positive reviews from critics. The A.V. Club's Emily VanDerWerff rated the episode a B+, praising Moresco's script for its subtlety. VanDerWerff noted the premise's similarity to the Susan Smith case, and felt that the episode "actually gains strength from a certain distance from when it originally aired. Back then, it was just another ripped-from-the-headlines tale of a murderous mother. Now, it’s a crafty mystery that doesn’t reveal its cards until late". Bill Gibron, writing for DVD Talk, rated the episode 4 out of 5, noting that the episode "broke clichés and trampled all over formulas". Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson, in their book Wanting to Believe: A Critical Guide to The X-Files, Millennium & The Lone Gunmen, rated "Covenant" four-and-a-half stars out of five, calling it "Millennium's version of Twelve Angry Men". Shearman praised Morseco's writing, noting that the episode was "tightly plotted and boast[ed] extremely good dialogue". Shearman felt that Koskoff's acting showed a "naivety that isn't as subtle as the script demands", but overall felt that the episode was "fresh and exciting".
2,147,375	Parthenon Frieze	1,169,413,593	Sculpture from the Parthenon in Athens	[ "5th-century BC Greek sculptures", "Ancient Greek and Roman sculptures in the British Museum", "Architectural sculpture", "Elgin Marbles", "Friezes", "Sculptures by Phidias" ]	The Parthenon frieze is the high-relief Pentelic marble sculpture created to adorn the upper part of the Parthenon's naos. It was sculpted between c. 443 and 437 BC, most likely under the direction of Phidias. Of the 160 meters (524 ft) of the original frieze, 128 meters (420 ft) survives—some 80 percent. The rest is known only from the drawings attributed to French artist Jacques Carrey in 1674, thirteen years before the Venetian bombardment that ruined the temple. Along with the Metopes of the Parthenon and Pediments of the Parthenon it forms the bulk of surviving sculpture from the building. The majority of the frieze is at the British Museum in London (forming the major part of the Elgin Marbles); the largest proportion of the rest is at the Acropolis Museum in Athens, and the remainder of fragments shared between six other institutions. Casts of the frieze may be found in the Beazley archive at the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford, at the Spurlock Museum in Urbana, in the Skulpturhalle at Basel and elsewhere. The part of the frieze in London has been claimed by Greece, and British and Greek authorities are negotiating over its future. On March 24, 2023, a relief fragment of a young man from "Block 5" of the frieze was repatriated to the Acropolis Museum from the Vatican Museums. ## Construction Plutarch's Life of Pericles, 13.4–9, informs us "the man who directed all the projects and was overseer [episkopos] for him [Pericles] was Phidias... Almost everything was under his supervision, and, as we have said, he was in charge, owing to his friendship with Perikles, of all the other artists". The description was not architekton, the term usually given to the creative influence behind a building project, rather episkopos. But it is from this claim, the circumstantial evidence of Phidias's known work on the Athena Parthenos and his central role in the Periclean building programme that he is attributed authorship of the frieze. The frieze consists of 378 figures and 245 animals. It was 160 meters (524 ft) in length when complete, as well as 1 meter in height, and it projects 5.6 cm forward at its maximum depth. It is composed of 114 blocks of an average 1.22 meters in length, depicting two parallel files in procession. It was a particular novelty of the Parthenon that the cella carries an Ionic frieze over the hexastyle pronaos rather than Doric metopes, as would have been expected of a Doric temple. Judging by the existence of regulae and guttae below the frieze on the east wall this was an innovation introduced late in the building process and replaced the ten metopes and triglyphs that might otherwise have been placed there. The marble was quarried from Mount Pentelicus and transported 19 km to the acropolis of Athens. A persistent question has been whether it was carved in situ. Just below the moulding and above the tenia there is a channel 17 mm high that would have served to give access to the sculptor's chisel when finishing the heads or feet on the relief; this scamillus or guide strip is the best evidence there is that the blocks were carved on the wall. Additionally, on practical grounds it is easier to move a sculptor than a sculpture, and to use a crowbar to put them into place, potentially, could have chipped the edges. No information is recoverable on the workshop, but estimates range from three to 80 sculptors on the basis of style. However, American archeologist Jenifer Neils suggests nine, on the grounds that this would be the least number necessary to produce the work in the time given. It was finished with metal detailing and painted. No colour, however, survives, but perhaps the background was blue, judging by comparison with grave stelae and the paint remnants on the frieze of the Hephaisteion. Possibly figures held objects that were also rendered in paint such as Poseidon's trident and the laurel in Apollo's hand. The many drill holes found in Hera's and Apollo's heads indicate that a gilded bronze wreath would probably have crowned the deities. The system of numbering the frieze blocks dates back to Adolf Michaelis's 1871 work Der Parthenon, and since then Ian Jenkins has revised this scheme in the light of recent discoveries. The convention, here preserved, is that blocks are numbered in Roman and figures in Arabic numerals, the figures are numbered left to right against the direction of the procession on the north and west and with it on the south. ## Description The narrative of the frieze begins at the southwest corner where the procession appears to divide into two separate files. The first third of the west frieze is not part of the procession, but instead, seems to be the preparatory stages for the participants. The first figure here is a marshal dressing, W30, followed by several men preparing the horses W28–23 until figure W22 who, it has been suggested, may be engaged in the dokimasia, the tryout or enrollment of the knights. W24 is an ambiguous figure who might be either the protesting owner of a rejected horse or a keryx (herald) whose hand held part of an otherwise lost salpinx (trumpet), but either way this point marks the beginning of the procession proper. The following ranks W21–1 along with N75–136 and S1–61 are all of horsemen and constitute 46% of the whole frieze. They are divided into two lines of ten ranks – the same number as that of the Attic tribes. All figures are beardless youths with the exception of two, W8 and W15, who along with S2–7 wear Thracian dress of fur cap, a patterned cloak, and high boots; these have been identified by Martin Robertson as hipparchs. Next are the four-horse chariots, each with charioteer and armed passenger, there are ten on the south frieze and eleven on the north. Since these passengers are sometimes depicted as dismounting they may be taken to represent the apobatai, participants in the ceremonial race found in Attica and Boeotia. By N42 and S89 the equestrian parade is at an end, and the following 16 figures on the north and 18 on the south are taken to be the elders of Athens judging by their braided hair, an attribute of distinguished age in Classical art. Four of these figures raise their right hand in a clenched fist gesture suggestive of a pose associated with the thallophoroi (olive branch bearers) who were older men chosen in competition for their good looks alone. No drill holes, however, exist for any branch to be inserted in their hands. Next in line (S107–114, N20–28) are the musicians: four kithara (a variant of the lyre) and four aulos (flute) players. N16–19 and S115–118 (conjectured) perhaps, as hydriaphoroi, the water-vessel carriers, here men, rather than metic girls mentioned in the literature on the Panathenaia. N13–15, S119–121 are the skaphephoroi, the tray bearers of the honeycombs and cakes used to entice the sacrificial animals to the altar. N1–12, S122–149 are the four cows and four sheep on the north and ten cows on the south meant for sacrifice on the acropolis, presumably an abbreviated form of the hecatomb usually offered on this occasion – there is an a-b-a rhythm of placid and restive cows. As the files converge on the east frieze we encounter the first women celebrants E2–27, E50–51, E53–63. The priestesses carry the sacrificial instruments and paraphernalia including the phiale (phial or jug), oinochoai (wine jars), thymiaterion (incense burner), and in the case of E50–51, evidently they have just handed the marshal E49 a kanoun, making the girl the kanephoros. The next groups E18–23, E43–46, are problematic. Six on the left and four on the right, if one does not count two other figures who may or may not be marshals, then this group might be taken to be the ten eponymous heroes who gave their names to the ten tribes. Their proximity to the deities indicates their importance, but selecting differently, then nine of them may be the archons of the polis or athlothetai officials who managed the procession; there is insufficient iconographic evidence to determine which interpretation is correct. Interpretations of the figures varies. The twelve seated deities are taken to be the Olympians, they are one third taller than any other figure on the frieze and are arranged in two groups of six on diphroi (backless) stools, common forms of ancient furniture, with the exception of Zeus who is enthroned. Their backs are turned to what must be the culminating event of the procession E31–35; five figures (three children and two adults, and although badly corroded, the two children on the left appear to be girls bearing objects on their heads, while a third, perhaps a boy, assisting an adult who may be the archon basileus, in folding a piece of cloth. This frieze often is interpreted as the presentation of Athena's peplos, perhaps by the arrhephoroi, but debate exists regarding who the figures represent more than what ritual is represented. ## Style The Parthenon frieze is the defining monument of the High Classical style of Attic sculpture. It stands between the gradual eclipse of the Severe style, as witnessed on the Parthenon metopes, and the evolution of the Late Classical Rich style, exemplified by the Nike balustrade. What sources the designer of the frieze drew upon is difficult to gauge, certainly large scale narrative art was familiar to 5th-century Athenians as in the Stoa poikile painting by Polygnotos of Thasos. While there is an overall coherence to the work there are design differences on opposing sides of the frieze that has suggested to some scholars the possibility of more than one designer and a pattern of influence amongst them. There is greater nudity and frontally on the north than the south, the massing and distribution of figures is greatly different on the east than the more widely spaced west, and the east and north generally exhibit greater innovation. This evidence, along with the frequency with which Greek artists are thought to have collaborated, has led Jenifer Neils to hypothesize the existence of two designers working on the sculpture. This would admit the possibility of a later designer comparing and competing with the earlier, and so, explain the observable changes in composition. Geographical orientations also may have dictated what would be represented on one side versus another, i.e., Amazons to the west, and so forth. This artistic period is one of discovery of the expressive possibilities of the human body; there is a greater freedom in the poses and gestures, and an increased attention to anatomical verisimilitude, as may be observed in the ponderated stances of figures W9 and W4, who partially anticipate the Doryphoros of Polykleitos. There is a noticeable ease to the physiques of the frieze compared with the stiffness of the metopes along with an eye for such subtleties as knuckle joints, veins, and the careful articulation of musculature. One important innovation of the style is the use of drapery as an expression of motion, or to suggest the body beneath; in archaic and early classical sculpture, clothing fell over the body as if it were a curtain obscuring the form below, in these sculptures there is the billowing chlamydes of the horsemen and the multi-pleated peploi of the women that lends a surface movement and tension to their otherwise, static poses. Variation in the manes of the horses has been of particular interest to some scholars attempting to discern the artistic personalities of sculptors who laboured on the frieze or perhaps, indicating deliberate representation of different regional traditions, so far this Morellian analysis has been without conclusion. ## Interpretation and conjecture As no description of the frieze survives from antiquity and many religious rituals involved secret symbolism and traditions left unspoken, so the question of the meaning of the sculpture has been a persistent and unresolved one. The first published attempt at interpretation belongs to Cyriacus of Ancona in the 15th century, who referred to it as the "victories of Athens in the time of Pericles". What is now the more accepted view of the piece, however, namely that it depicts the Greater Panathenaic procession from the Leokoreion by the Dipylon Gate, to the Acropolis, was mooted by Stuart and Revett in the second volume of their Antiquities of Athens, 1787. Subsequent interpretations have built largely on this theory, even if they disallow that a temple sculpture could represent a contemporary event rather than a mythological or historical one. It has only been in recent years that an alternative thesis in which the frieze depicts the founding myth of the city of Athens instead of the festival pompe has emerged. The contention that the scene depicts the festival for Athena is fraught with problems. Later sources indicate that a number of classes of individual who performed a role in the procession are not present in the frieze, these include: the hoplites, the allies in the Delian League, the skiaphoroi or umbrella bearers, the female hydraiphoroi (only male hydrai bearers are portrayed), the thetes, slaves, metics, the Panathenaic ship, and some would suggest the kanephoros, although there is evidence that she is accounted for. That what we now see was meant to be a generic image of the religious festival is problematic since no other temple sculpture depicts a contemporary event involving mortals. Locating the scene in mythical or historical time has been the principal difficulty of the line of inquiry. John Boardman has suggested that the cavalry portray the heroization of the Marathonomachoi, the hoplites who fell at Marathon in 490, and that, therefore these riders were the Athenians who took part in the last pre-war Greater Panathenaia. In support, he points out the number of horsemen, chariot passengers (but not charioteers), grooms, and marshals comes to the same as the number Herodotos gives for the Athenian dead: 192. Equally suggestive of a reference to the Persian Wars is the similarity several scholars have noted of the frieze to the Apadana sculpture in Persepolis. This has variously been posited to be democratic Athens counter-posing itself to oriental tyranny, or, aristocratic Athens emulating the Imperial East. Further to this zeitgeist argument there is J.J. Politt's contention that the frieze embodies a Periclean manifesto, which favours the cultural institutions of agones (or contests, as witnessed by the apobatai), sacrifices, and military training as well as a number of other democratic virtues. More recent scholarship pursuing this vein has made the frieze a site of ideological tension between the elite and the demos with perhaps, only the aristocracy present, and merely veiled reference to the ten tribes. The pediments, metopes, and shield of the Parthenos all illustrate the mythological past and as the deities are observing on the east frieze, it is natural to reach for a mythological explanation. Chrysoula Kardara, has ventured that the relief shows us the first Panathenaic procession instituted under the mythical King Kekrops. This explanation would account for the absence of the allies and the ship, as these post-date the original practice of the sacrificial rite. In evidence she offers E35 as the future King Erichthonios presenting the first peplos to his predecessor Kekrops, iconographically similar to the boy's depiction on a fragmentary kylix of the 450s. A recent interpretation by Joan Breton Connelly identifies the central scene on the east frieze (hence above the door to the cella and focal point of the procession) not as the handing over of Athena's peplos by the arrhephoroi, but the donning of sacrificial garb by the daughter of King Erechtheus in preparation for the sacrifice of her life. An interpretation suggested by the text of the fragmentary papyrus remains of Euripides's Erichtheus, wherein her life is demanded in order to save the city from Eumolpos and the Eleusinians. Thus, the deities turn their backs to prevent pollution from the sight of her death. A contentious subject in the field, Connelly's solution to the problem of meaning poses as many problems as it answers. A more recent interpretation advanced by William St Clair is that the frieze depicts the celebration of the birth of Ion, a descendant of Erechtheus. This interpretation has been rejected by Catharine Titi, who agrees with St Clair that the mood is one of celebration (rather than sacrifice) but argues that the celebration of the birth of Ion requires the presence of an infant but there is no infant on the frieze. ## Influence The earliest surviving works of art that exhibit traces of the influence of the Parthenon frieze belong to the media of vase painting and grave stelae where we may find some echo not just of motifs, themes, poses, but tenor, as well. Direct imitation, and indeed quotation, of the frieze begins to be pronounced around 430 BC. One example, an explicit copy, is a pelike attributed to the Wedding Painter of a youth "parking up" a horse exactly in the manner of figure W25 on the frieze. While those vase paintings that resemble the frieze cluster around 430, the vases that quote the pediments are datable nearer to the end of the century, giving further evidence of the priority of the sculptural program. More accomplished painters also found inspiration in the sculpture, namely Polygnotos I and his group, especially the Peleus Painter, the Kleophon Painter and the late work of the Achilles Painter. Later painters of talent also managed to capture the mood of eusebeia, or thoughtful piety of the procession, as, for example, on the volute krater of the Kleophon Painter of a sacrifice to Apollo, which shares the quiet dignity of the best of High Classical sculpture. The impact of the frieze may be sought in the Attic relief sculpture of the late fifth century; this resonance also may be discovered to some degree in the public works of the Hephaisteion frieze and the Nike Athena balustrade, where the imagery of the seated deities and the sandal-binder respectively, likely owes a debt to the Parthenon. There also are traces found on the private commissions of grave stelae from the period, for example, the "cat stele" from Aegina bears a distinct similarity to figures N135–6. As does the Hermes of the four-figure relief known from a Roman copy. Later classicizing art of the Hellenistic and Roman eras also looked to the frieze for inspiration as attested by the Lycian Sarcophagus of Sidon, Phoenicia, the Ara Pacis Augustae, the Gemma Augustea, and many pieces of the Hadrianic generation.
56,616,697	Welsh Streets, Liverpool	1,145,251,697	Streets in England	[ "Redevelopment projects in Liverpool", "Streets in Liverpool", "Toxteth" ]	The Welsh Streets are a group of late 19th century Victorian terraced streets in Toxteth, Liverpool, England. The houses were designed by Richard Owens and built by Welsh workers to house migrants from Wales seeking work; the streets were named after Welsh villages and landmarks. The Beatles drummer Ringo Starr was born in Madryn Street, before moving at age 4. Although some houses were lost in World War II bombing and rebuilt, albeit in a different architectural style, many of the terraced properties in the original street configuration remain in the present day. Following a period of decline in the late 20th century, plans were announced in the early 2000s as part of the Housing Market Renewal Initiative programme to demolish the estate and build new, but fewer, houses in their place. Despite the area being cleared of residents and houses prepared for demolition at a cost to Liverpool City Council of nearly £22 million, funding was withdrawn in 2011 following the change in government and the demolition did not take place. Subsequent revised demolition and renewal proposals by the council and housing group Plus Dane were rejected by the government due to concerns about the negative impact they would have on the city's cultural heritage. Instead, a housing renewal company took ownership of some of the properties, initially in a pilot scheme, to extensively renovate them and make them available for rent. The first new tenants moved into Voelas Street around September 2017. Placefirst, the company renovating the properties, won an award in November 2018 for the standard of the refurbishments. ## Geography The streets include Wynnstay Street, Voelas Street, Rhiwlas Street, Powis Street, Madryn Street, Kinmel Street, Gwydir Street, Pengwern Street and Treborth Street. Other streets in the vicinity, such as Vronhill Street and Pimhill Street were built on the west side of High Park Street as shown on maps from the early 20th century, although have since been lost through regeneration of newer housing. The moniker Welsh Streets is given as they were constructed by Welsh builders for Welsh migrants seeking work and housing in Liverpool and named after Welsh towns, valleys and villages. When constructed, the street widths were generous, allowing for trees to be planted in the early 20th century which were well-spaced and did not intrude upon the housing. The streets are close to Liverpool City Centre and within 15 minutes' walking distance to Liverpool Cathedral, which is clearly visible throughout the area. Situated right next to the streets is Princes Park, designed and laid out by Joseph Paxton in 1840, an architect and later Member of Parliament for Coventry. Median house prices in the area are below the average prices for the wider Liverpool area and nearly 90% of properties fall within Council Tax Band A, the lowest band. The area falls within the Princes Park ward for local councillors. ## History ### Early history By the 1830s, Welsh migrants were well established within Welsh firms in Liverpool. Maps from 1846 show that South Street, the road which runs along the end of each of the Welsh Streets, would have been a rear access lane. A map from 1846-1848, prior to the housing estate construction, shows an area clear of any significant dwellings, with a tanyard located in what would become Kelvin Grove. There was a street of dwellings named Simcock Street close to where Kinmel Street is now located. By 1850, there were over 20,000 Welsh builders working in Liverpool who required housing. Land in Toxteth was leased for housing development, with the streets designed by Richard Owens and built by David Roberts, Son and Co. While working on the design of Mynydd Seion chapel, Abergele in 1867, Owens came into contact with Roberts' company, who were land surveyors and subsequently became dominant in Liverpool's housebuilding industry. Through his collaboration with David Roberts, Owens designed over 10,000 terraced houses in the city of Liverpool, particularly those in the surrounding Toxteth area where the Welsh Streets are located. In the latter part of the 19th century, just under a third of the city's population of 450,000 were Irishmen born in Ireland, just ahead of Welsh migrant numbers, of whom there were 80,000, who had been persuaded to migrate by the promise of work. Welsh migrants made significant contributions to the urban development of Victorian Liverpool. ### Later history The terraced houses have outlasted many subsequent housing developments, such as towers and tenements. Some properties were lost during World War II bombing and were replaced during the 1950s and 1960s with housing typical of that period, but not in keeping with the original architecture. The streets with post-war houses were Kelvin Grove, Wynnstay Street and Madryn Street, with the replacement houses built detached from the original houses, thus reducing the number of properties in the available space compared to the original terraced arrangement. During the early 1970s, the Welsh Streets Residents' Association was formed, as part of a campaign by residents to help seek an "improvement area" designation for their district out of fear that blight and neglect could risk houses becoming derelict. During a public meeting in September 1973, a motion calling for the area to designated an improvement area was supported by 60 tenants in attendance. The motion was followed by a wider survey of all 780 homes to ascertain the opinions of all residents. A map from the 1970s showed partial demolition and redevelopment had already started on the opposite side of the Welsh Streets, specifically in Jolliffe Street and Foxhill Street, with those streets and others to the south having been entirely redeveloped by the end of the 1980s. Around half of the houses originally constructed by Richard Owens around Liverpool had already been lost by the early 21st century, with the original clearance plans accounting for the loss of over 10% of the remaining houses. In 2006, the then Leader of the Opposition David Cameron visited the streets with Michael Heseltine and said he was baffled by the proposed clearance plans. The area went through a decline during the latter part of the 20th century, with half of Voelas Street being demolished and properties gradually becoming derelict as residents moved out. Most of the houses were still inhabited until early 2007. ## Decline and Pathfinder renewal In the early 2000s, the Housing Market Renewal Initiative programme was launched, intended to renew housing stock across the country and raise house values in perceived areas of deprivation, with the Welsh Streets area incorporated into the renewal programme. A survey in 2003 found that 72% of respondents were at least satisfied with their home and over half were at least satisfied with the quality of housing in the area, whilst only 1% believed demolition would improve the area. The renewal programme's proposals were to demolish 500 Victorian terraced houses and replace with 370 new build houses, with a smaller scale refurbishment elsewhere. When the plans were submitted, over half of the properties were under social landlord control. The basis of the demolition plans was due to the location affording an attractive development site once cleared. Council survey data published in 2005 showed the Welsh Streets were broadly popular with residents and in better than average condition, but the council nevertheless recommended demolition because of a perceived over-supply of obsolete terraced houses in Liverpool. When residents were consulted over the clearance plans in 2005, a 58% majority favoured retaining the houses over demolition. In Madryn Street alone, residents voted 33-1 against plans to demolish the houses. The land was offered to private developer Gleeson Group plc and social landlord Plus Dane, with proposals published for lower density houses. Some residents were happy to be offered new homes, while others were determined to stay, dividing the local community. Some residents who were keen on staying expressed concern that the planned new housing would cost around double (£120,000) what they were being offered for their home (£62,000), with mortgages unlikely to be offered to older residents. The Neighbourhood Renewal Assessment in 2005 stated that the environment around the Welsh Streets was bleak and that effective redevelopment following a clearance would significantly contribute towards regenerating the area. Much of a property's value came from investors who acquired the properties during Liverpool's European Capital of Culture period in the hope they could profit from reselling to the local authority. The majority of houses in the streets transferred ownership to the Housing Market Renewal Initiative, predominantly throughout 2005 to 2008. By 2009, over 100 residents had been rehoused together into a neighbourhood nearby which they had helped to design, whilst others had left the area altogether. Homes acquired by the council were reduced in value by 20% each year to allow transfer to the council's preferred development partner for a nominal sum, whilst still being within the legal parameters for achieving fair market value. A three-storey townhouse in Kelvin Grove, acquired for £110,000 in 2011 had been reduced in value to just £1100 by 2015. Following the formation of the coalition government in 2010, schemes funded by the previous government were reviewed and ultimately funding for the pathfinder scheme was withdrawn with effect from 30 March 2011. The sudden withdrawal of funding left many schemes half-finished and some neighbourhoods only partially demolished, whilst others such as the Welsh Streets had not commenced demolition. ### Opinions and renewal proposals Clearance proved contentious, with some taking the view that the houses were beyond rescue, while others believed them to be fundamentally sound. Campaigning charities led by Merseyside Civic Society and Save Britain's Heritage asserted that renovation would be preferable and cheaper. Although predominantly of Victorian architecture, some of the properties had been constructed during the 1950s and 1960s as post-war replacement houses and these were described in an Affordable Housing Program assessment as having "no value in the context of the 19th century terraced houses". In 2011, Secretary of State for Housing, Communities and Local Government Eric Pickles quashed planning permission for demolition and required an Environmental Impact Assessment. New proposals for demolition of 250 houses were endorsed by Liverpool Mayor Joe Anderson in 2012 and Housing Minister Grant Shapps, who visited the area to announce retention of 9 Madryn Street and 15 adjacent homes. Plans submitted in 2013 suggested that 150 houses could be built and 40 refurbished, including those around the house where Ringo Starr was born. The cost was estimated to be in the region of £15 million which would have seen the demolition of houses from the other surrounding Welsh Streets to be replaced with semi-detached properties. The managing director of the proposed regeneration, Claire Griffiths, suggested that 70% of residents had favoured the plans, yet housing charity Empty Homes disputed the credibility of the public opinion report, given the criteria used would have made it difficult to conclude refurbishment as a favourable option. The development proposed retaining and refurbishing properties on Kelvin Grove, numbers 1 to 16 on Madryn Street and a handful on South Street and High Park Street. The total number of properties proposed for demolition in the first phase were 279, while the number of new builds would be 152. Anderson wrote to Pickles in July 2013, confirming his support on the proposed redevelopment, suggesting the decision should be a local matter and believed the scale of the proposal was "not of national importance" and with "no design or heritage issues arising". The plans ultimately fell through when in January 2015 following a public inquiry, Eric Pickles halted the demolition plans. Pickles agreed with the argument put forward by Save Britain's Heritage and the National Trust, specifically in relation to Madryn Street, in that demolition of much of the street, together with the wider Welsh Streets region would "significantly harm the ability to understand and appreciate this part of Liverpool's Beatles heritage", citing the potential impact for future tourism if the proposals had been accepted. Although the streets had not been designated as a heritage asset, Pickles disputed that the streets were of low significance and believed the proposals would be significantly harmful to cultural heritage and have a detrimental impact on the character and appearance of the nearby Princes Park, directly contradicting the view of an inspector. ## Refurbishment With few alternative options, refurbishment was deemed viable by the council. A partnership was agreed with Placefirst, who had experience in renewing derelict properties. A pilot scheme in 2017 involved the refurbishment of houses in Voelas Street to demonstrate how the houses could be remodelled and to determine public opinion and uptake. Upon launching the scheme to prospective tenants, all properties were taken within the first weekend, with residents expected to move in around September 2017. The renovations involved remodelling some floorplans and knocking through to adjacent homes to create larger houses, whilst retaining some of the original houses in order to cater for various residential requirements. Following the success of the pilot scheme, refurbishment of other Welsh Streets was approved, meaning that 300 homes would be refurbished or constructed. The council hoped that around 75% of existing housing stock could be retained, with over two thirds available to rent and around 10 percent available to purchase. Long-standing vacant land on Voelas Street, Wynnstay Street and South Street became occupied by 52 new-build properties, described by the contractor as a continuation of the refurbishment of existing properties with the same landscaped communal spaces to replace the traditional yards and alleys. ## Aftermath The cost to the council to instigate and process the scheme was in the region of £21.7 million, of which the majority, nearly £20.9 million was required for the purchase of properties and the associated legal fees. The cost to make the properties secure was a little over £525,000 and just over £280,000 was spent to disconnect services. In November 2018, contractor Placefirst won the Refurbishment Project of the Year Award 2018 and the 2018 Inside Housing Development Awards later that month, attended by more than 750 housing professionals. The following year in October 2019, the project was named as the top residential scheme at the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors Awards Grand Final. Tracey Hartley, chair of the judging panel, commented: > "The Welsh Streets is a fine example of how to breathe new life into tired, rundown terraced housing. Instead of bringing in the bulldozers, sacrificing the established street layout and embedded energy of the existing buildings, Placefirst has imaginatively refurbished the houses and surrounding areas to create desirable, modern homes in an attractive community setting." Housing and Communities Secretary Robert Jenrick MP gave a speech in October 2019, committing to the redevelopment of Victorian-era properties over demolition, specifically referring to the Welsh Streets project as being part of "a new wave of regeneration and renewal". Jenrick suggested the programme of past governments to needlessly destroy pre-1919 terraced houses was ill-fated, suggesting focus should be on sustainability and protection of communities. ## Notability and culture ### Ringo Starr birthplace Ringo Starr, drummer for The Beatles, was born in 9 Madryn Street, where he lived until the age of 4 before moving to nearby 10 Admiral Grove. The threat to Starr's birthplace was announced in 2003, whilst a proposal was made in September 2005 to take down the house brick by brick and rebuild it as a centrepiece for the Museum of Liverpool Life, contradicting Liverpool Council's earlier claim the house had no historic value. Starr said it was not worth taking the house down simply to rebuild it elsewhere, as it would not then be his birthplace. Many suggested demolition of the area surrounding Starr's home was unsatisfactory, claiming "People liked the city's character, not packaged replicas". The house forms part of Liverpool's "Magical Mystery Tour" and tourists would still visit even during the period of neglect and dereliction. Among the various owners of the house were The Beatles Story, who were the registered owners in October 2010. By 2014, the value of the derelict house had fallen to just £525, having been valued around £60,000 just the year before. At one time, the house was owned by Merseytravel with frequent tourist groups visiting the property. Madryn Street remained derelict up to 2018 until refurbishment by Placefirst NorthWest as with the surrounding streets. ### Peaky Blinders TV series One of the Welsh Streets, Powis Street, doubled as Watery Lane in 1920s Birmingham for the TV series Peaky Blinders. All house exteriors were painted black to achieve the desired look and feel of the period. Filming on the street had to cease in 2017 due to refurbishment work commencing.
144,364	Jonathan Pryce	1,173,183,714	Welsh actor (born 1947)	[ "1947 births", "20th-century Welsh male actors", "21st-century Welsh male actors", "Actors awarded knighthoods", "Alumni of Edge Hill University", "Alumni of RADA", "Audiobook narrators", "Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Actor winners", "Commanders of the Order of the British Empire", "Drama Desk Award winners", "Knights Bachelor", "Laurence Olivier Award winners", "Living people", "People from Holywell, Flintshire", "Royal Shakespeare Company members", "Tony Award winners", "Welsh Presbyterians", "Welsh male Shakespearean actors", "Welsh male film actors", "Welsh male musical theatre actors", "Welsh male television actors", "Welsh male voice actors", "Welsh-speaking actors" ]	Sir Jonathan Pryce CBE (born John Price; 1 June 1947) is a Welsh actor who is known for his performances on stage and in film and television. He has received numerous awards, including two Tony Awards and two Laurence Olivier Awards, and a knighthood for services to drama. After studying at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art, he began his career as a stage actor in the early 1970s. His work in theatre includes an Olivier Award-winning performance in the title role of the Royal Court Theatre's Hamlet in 1980 and as The Engineer in the stage musical Miss Saigon in 1990. On the Broadway stage he earned Tony Awards—the first for Best Featured Actor in a Play for his Broadway debut role in Comedians (1977), the second for Best Actor in a Musical for the Broadway transfer of the musical Miss Saigon (1991). Pryce's theatre work led to several supporting roles in film and television. His breakthrough screen performance was in Terry Gilliam's satirical dystopian black comedy film Brazil (1985). Critically lauded for his versatility, Pryce has appeared in big-budget films including Evita (1996), Tomorrow Never Dies (1997) and Pirates of the Caribbean series (2003–2007), as well as independent films such as the film adaptation of the David Mamet play Glengarry Glen Ross (1992), Martin Scorsese's period drama The Age of Innocence (1993), Christopher Hampton's Carrington (1995), Terrence Malick's historical film The New World (2005) and the drama The Wife (2017) opposite Glenn Close. In 2019, he earned his first Academy Award nomination for his portrayal of Pope Francis in The Two Popes alongside Anthony Hopkins playing Pope Benedict XVI. For his work on television, he received two Primetime Emmy Award nominations for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Limited Series or Movie for his performances in Barbarians at the Gate (1993) and Return to Cranford (2010). Pryce has gained acclaim for his roles as Thomas Wolsey in the BBC limited series Wolf Hall (2015), the High Sparrow in the HBO series Game of Thrones (2015–2016) and Sir Stuart Strange in the series Taboo (2017). In 2022, he succeeded Tobias Menzies as Prince Philip in the final two seasons of the award-winning Netflix historical drama series The Crown, gaining a nomination for a Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor. ## Early life Pryce was born John Price on 1 June 1947 in Carmel, Flintshire, the son of Margaret Ellen (née Williams) and Isaac Price, a former coal miner who ran a small general grocery shop with his wife. He has two older sisters and was raised a Welsh Presbyterian. He was educated at Holywell Grammar School and, at the age of 16, went to art college before he started training to be a teacher at Edge Hill College (now Edge Hill University) in Ormskirk, Lancashire. While studying, he took part in a college theatre production. An impressed tutor suggested he should become an actor, and applied to the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art (RADA) for an application form on his behalf. Pryce was subsequently awarded a scholarship to RADA. When he joined Equity, he took "Jonathan Pryce" as his stage name because his birth name was too similar to that of a performer already represented by Equity. While at RADA, he worked as a door-to-door salesman of velvet paintings. ## Career ### 1970s Despite finding RADA "strait-laced" and being told by his tutor that he could never aspire to do more than playing villains on Z-Cars, Pryce joined the Everyman Theatre in Liverpool upon graduation and eventually became its artistic director. He performed with the Royal Shakespeare Company and the Nottingham Playhouse. To gain his Equity card, he made his first screen appearance in a minor role in "Fire & Brimstone", a 1972 episode of the science fiction drama series Doomwatch. He then starred in two television films directed by Stephen Frears: Daft as a Brush and Playthings. After leaving Everyman, Pryce joined Sir Richard Eyre at the Nottingham Playhouse and starred in Trevor Griffiths' play Comedians, in a role specially written for him. The production moved to the Old Vic Theatre in London. Pryce reprised the role on Broadway in 1976, this time directed by Mike Nichols, and for which Pryce won the 1977 Tony Award for Best Featured Actor in a Play. It was around this time that he appeared in his first film role, playing the character Joseph Manasse in the drama Voyage of the Damned, starring Faye Dunaway. He did not, however, abandon the stage, appearing from 1978 to 1979 in the Royal Shakespeare Company's productions of The Taming of the Shrew as Petruchio, and Antony and Cleopatra as Octavius Caesar. ### 1980s In 1980, his performance in the title role of Hamlet at the Royal Court Theatre won him an Olivier Award, and was acclaimed by some critics as the definitive Hamlet of his generation. That year, Pryce had a small but pivotal role as Zarniwoop in the 12th episode of the Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy radio series, one that he reprised for the Quintessential Phase which was broadcast in 2005. In his original role as Zarniwoop, Pryce's character questions the "ruler of the Universe", a solipsist who has been chosen to rule arguably because of either his inherent manipulability, or immunity therefrom, on his philosophical opinions. Around the same time, in 1980, he also appeared in the film Breaking Glass. In 1983, Pryce played the role of the sinister Mr Dark in Something Wicked This Way Comes, based on the Ray Bradbury novel of the same title. After appearing mostly in films, such as the Ian McEwan-scripted The Ploughman's Lunch, and Martin Luther, Heretic (both also 1983), he achieved a breakthrough with his role as the subdued protagonist Sam Lowry in the Terry Gilliam film, Brazil (1985). After Brazil, Pryce appeared in the historical thriller The Doctor and the Devils (also 1985) and then in the Gene Wilder-directed film Haunted Honeymoon (1986). During this period of his life, Pryce continued to perform on stage, and gained particular notice as the successful but self-doubting writer Trigorin in a London production of Anton Chekhov's The Seagull in late 1985. From 1986 to 1987 Pryce played the lead part in the Royal Shakespeare Company's production of Macbeth, which also starred Sinéad Cusack as Lady Macbeth. Pryce worked once again with Gilliam in The Adventures of Baron Munchausen (1988), playing "The Right Ordinary Horatio Jackson". The film was a notorious financial fiasco, with production costing more than \$40 million, when the original budget was \$23.5 million. The following year Pryce appeared in three of the earliest episodes of the improvisation show Whose Line Is It Anyway?, alongside Paul Merton and John Sessions, and in Uncle Vanya, again a play by Chekhov, at the Vaudeville Theatre. ### 1990s After a series of major dramatic roles on stage, including Vanya and Macbeth, Pryce decided he wanted to do musicals after seeing his friend Patti LuPone in the original London production of Les Misérables. He successfully returned to the stage originating the role of The Engineer, a Eurasian pimp, in the West End musical Miss Saigon. His performance was praised in England where he won the Olivier and Variety Club awards, but when the production transferred to Broadway the Actors' Equity Association (AEA) tried to stop Pryce from portraying The Engineer because, according to their executive secretary, "[t]he casting of a Caucasian actor made up to appear Asian is an affront to the Asian community." The London production featured Pryce in yellowface, wearing prosthetics to alter the shape of his eyes and makeup to alter the color of his skin. The show's producer, Cameron Mackintosh, decided to cancel the \$10 million New York production. Realizing that its decision would result in the loss of many jobs, and after Pryce received much support from fellow actors (both Charlton Heston and John Malkovich threatened to leave the union if Pryce was not allowed to perform) the AEA decided to make a deal with Mackintosh, allowing Pryce to appear in the production. He won a Tony Award for his performance in 1991. The controversy over Pryce's casting in Miss Saigon provided playwright David Henry Hwang the inspiration for his plays Face Value and Yellow Face. Made in the same period, Pryce starred in the ITV mini-series Selling Hitler (1991) as Gerd Heidemann. Pryce returned to the London stage the following year to star for one night only at the Royal Festival Hall for an AIDS charity alongside Elaine Paige and Lilliane Montivecchi in the 1992 revival of the Federico Fellini-inspired musical Nine. Pryce featured, alongside Kathy Burke and Minnie Driver, in the BBC serial Mr. Wroe's Virgins (1993), directed by Danny Boyle. Pryce played Henry Kravis in the HBO produced made-for-TV movie Barbarians at the Gate (1993). He was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award and for a Golden Globe Award for his role. Also during 1993, Pryce starred alongside River Phoenix and Judy Davis in the unfinished film Dark Blood, but production had to be shut down when, 11 days short of completion, Phoenix died from a drug overdose. Director George Sluizer, who owns the rights to what has been filmed, has made available some of the raw material, which features Pryce and Phoenix on a field in Utah, on his personal website. Between 1993 and 1997, Pryce, on a multimillion-dollar contract became the spokesman for the Infiniti automobile marque in a series of American television commercials, in particular for the Infiniti J30 and Infiniti Q45. In one of these advertisements Pryce appeared alongside jazz singer Nancy Wilson in a Prague nightclub. In 1994, Pryce portrayed Fagin in a revival of the musical Oliver!, and starred alongside Emma Thompson in the film Carrington (1995), which centres on a platonic relationship between gay writer Lytton Strachey and painter Dora Carrington. For his portrayal of Strachey, Pryce received the Best Actor Award at the 1995 Cannes Film Festival. ### 2000s During the early 2000s Pryce starred and participated in a variety of movies, such as The Affair of the Necklace (2001), Unconditional Love (2002), What a Girl Wants (2003), and Terry Gilliam's aborted project, The Man Who Killed Don Quixote. While the success of some of these films was variable, the 2001 London stage production of My Fair Lady and his portrayal of Professor Henry Higgins was acclaimed by observers. Martine McCutcheon, who portrayed Eliza Doolittle, was sick during much of the show's run. McCutcheon was replaced by her understudy Alexandra Jay, who would also fall sick hours before a performance, forcing her understudy, Kerry Ellis, to take the lead. On her first night, Pryce introduced Ellis to the audience before the show by saying "This will be your first Eliza, my second today and my third this week. Any member of the audience interested in playing Eliza can find applications at the door. Wednesday and Saturday matinee available." Pryce performed with four Elizas during the course of 14 months. The show was nominated for four Laurence Olivier Awards on 2001: Best Actress in a Musical for Martine McCutcheon, Outstanding Musical Production, Best Theatre Choreographer and Best Actor in a Musical for Pryce. Pryce lost to Philip Quast, and McCutcheon won in her category. In April 2003 Pryce returned to the non-musical stage with A Reckoning, written by American dramatist Wesley Moore. The play co-starred Flora Montgomery and after premiering at the Soho Theatre in London was described by The Daily Telegraph as "one of the most powerful and provocative new American plays to have opened since David Mamet's Oleanna." Pryce had a role in Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl (2003), in which he portrayed a fictional Governor of Jamaica, Weatherby Swann, a film he has described as "one of those why-not movies." After Pirates, Pryce appeared in several large-scale motion pictures, such as De-Lovely (2004), his second musical film, a chronicle of the life of songwriter Cole Porter, for which Kevin Kline and Pryce covered a Porter song called "Blow, Gabriel, Blow". The Brothers Grimm (2005), Pryce's third completed film with Terry Gilliam, starred Matt Damon and Heath Ledger, and The New World (2005), in which he had a cameo role as King James I. In 2005, Pryce was nominated for another Olivier Award in the best actor category for his role in the 2004 London production of The Goat or Who is Sylvia?, where he played Martin, a goat-lover who has to face the recriminations of his cheated-on wife, played by his real-life wife Kate Fahy. Pryce's performance was highly praised, but he lost the Olivier to Richard Griffiths. Pryce lent his voice to the French animated film, Renaissance (2006), which he stated he wanted to do because he had never "done anything quite like it before." He reprised the role of Governor Weatherby Swann for the Pirates of the Caribbean sequels, Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest (2006) and Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End (2007). Both were filmed at the same time but released a year apart. Pryce returned to the Broadway stage replacing John Lithgow, from January to July 2006, as Lawrence Jameson in the musical version of Dirty Rotten Scoundrels. During early 2007, the BBC serial Sherlock Holmes and the Baker Street Irregulars was first broadcast with Pryce in the lead. From September 2007 through June 2008, he returned to the theatre portraying Shelly Levene in a new West End production of David Mamet's Glengarry Glen Ross at the Apollo Theatre, London. Pryce also appeared as part of an ensemble cast in the 2008 real-time strategy video game Command & Conquer: Red Alert 3, playing the role of Marshall Robert Bingham alongside Tim Curry, J.K. Simmons, George Takei and several other veteran actors. ### 2010s In 2015, he joined the cast of the HBO series Game of Thrones in Season 5 as the High Sparrow. Pryce admitted that one of the main reasons he took on the role was because of how influential the character is plot-wise. While initially being quite sceptical about "sword and sorcery" shows, Pryce later had a change of heart after his positive experiences on the Thrones sets. In 2015, he also appeared at The Globe Theatre as Shylock in The Merchant of Venice. His real life daughter Phoebe played Shylock's daughter Jessica. In 2015, he joined the cast of The Healer starring with Oliver Jackson-Cohen, Camilla Luddington, and Jorge Garcia. In 2018, Pryce starred alongside Dame Eileen Atkins in Florian Zeller's play, The Height of the Storm at Wyndham's Theatre in the West End to rapturous reviews. The play was named best play of the year by The Guardian. The play was transferred to Broadway stage where it ran from September to November 2019 at the Samuel J. Friedman Theatre produced by the Manhattan Theatre Club with Pryce and Atkins reprising their performances. The play and the performances received a strong reception from New York critics. Late that same year, Pryce portrayed Pope Francis, opposite Anthony Hopkins playing Pope Benedict XVI, in the acclaimed Netflix film The Two Popes, directed by Fernando Meirelles, which was released that winter on Netflix. The film and their performances received critical acclaim. He received his first ever Academy Award nomination for Best Actor for the film. ### 2020s In August 2020, it was announced that Pryce would portray Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh in the final two seasons of Netflix's The Crown. His performance in the fifth season earned him a nomination for the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor in a Television Series – Comedy/Musical or Drama. ## Personal life While working at the Everyman Theatre in 1972, Pryce met actress Kate Fahy; after a decades-long relationship, they married in 2015. They live in London and have three children: Patrick (born 1983), Gabriel (born 1986), and Phoebe (born 1990). Pryce was raised in the Christian faith, but is no longer religious. In 2006, Pryce was awarded an honorary doctorate by the University of Liverpool. He is a fellow of the Royal Welsh College of Music & Drama and a Companion of the Liverpool Institute for Performing Arts (LIPA). He was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2009 Birthday Honours. Pryce was knighted in the 2021 Birthday Honours for services to drama and charity. ## Acting credits ### Film Note: The source for Pryce's filmography is taken from the British Film Institute. ### Television Note The source for Pryce's television appearances comes from the British Film Institute. ### Theatre ### Video games ## Awards and honours
1,649,463	SSX 3	1,169,288,556	2003 snowboarding video game by EA Canada	[ "2003 video games", "D.I.C.E. Award for Sports Game of the Year winners", "D.I.C.E. Award winners", "EA Sports Big games", "EA Sports games", "Exient Entertainment games", "Game Boy Advance games", "GameCube games", "Games with GameCube-GBA connectivity", "Gizmondo games", "Multiplayer and single-player video games", "Multiplayer online games", "Open-world video games", "PlayStation 2 games", "SSX", "Video games developed in Canada", "Xbox games" ]	SSX 3 is a snowboarding video game developed by EA Canada and published by Electronic Arts under the EA Sports BIG label. The game was originally released on October 21, 2003, for the PlayStation 2, Xbox, and GameCube. It was later ported to the Game Boy Advance by Visual Impact on November 11, 2003, and to the Gizmondo by Exient Entertainment on August 31, 2005, as a launch title. It is the third installment in the SSX series. Set on a fictional mountain, the single-player mode follows snowboarders competing in the SSX Championship. Players choose from a variety of characters and take part in various events in different locations, earning points and money by performing tricks, winning races, completing goals, and finding collectables. Money can be used to upgrade character attributes, buy new clothes and boards, and unlock music and extras. Multiple players can play against each other in local multiplayer modes, and an online multiplayer mode also allowed players to connect to games and play against each other online on the PS2 version of the game, but it has since been discontinued. Development of SSX 3 initially began in 2001 following the release of SSX Tricky, the previous title in the series. The development team was composed of people from various different employment backgrounds, including an Oscar-nominated visual effects designer who worked as one of the game's art directors. The game includes thirty different types of snow and general visual improvements over the previous game, such as enhanced models and shadows. It was initially confirmed through a trailer in NBA Street Vol. 2 in 2003. A soundtrack album, SSX 3 Soundtrack, was released on September 30, 2003. SSX 3 was critically acclaimed, with reviewers praising the game's open world, trick system, presentation, and soundtrack. It was the first game in the SSX series to sell 1 million copies. IGN's Douglass C. Perry called it the best snowboarding game he had ever played, and GameSpot's Greg Kasavin recommended it not only to veterans but also for novices of the series. SSX 3 received the Academy of Interactive Arts and Sciences' awards for Console Action Sports Game of the Year and Outstanding Achievement in Licensed Soundtrack. Its 2018 re-release for Xbox One was also a success and was critically acclaimed. ## Gameplay SSX 3 is a snowboard racing game played from a third-person view. Players control one of various snowboarders and compete in events set across individual courses in peaks on a mountain. Unlike previous games in the series, which contain unconnected courses, a freeride mode also allows players to freely roam the open world consisting of all the courses in the game; it is possible for the player to ride from the top of the mountain to the bottom without stopping or reloading each course. New areas are progressively unlocked throughout the game. Players can gain points by performing tricks, such as grabs, grinds, flips, and spins. A feature returning from previous games in the SSX series is the adrenaline meter, which gains adrenaline when the player executes tricks. It can be used to provide a speed boost or, once it becomes full, perform advanced tricks called übers, which grant more points than regular tricks. Performing übers increases the level of the adrenaline meter, which leads to progressively more advanced super über tricks and faster adrenaline boosts. Performing multiple tricks of different kinds creates a combo, doubling the points acquired from tricks, while repeating the same trick causes the number of points it earns to drop. Landing tricks poorly or hitting an object in mid air will cause the snowboarder to wipe out, falling over. The player has the ability to recover their snowboarder more quickly by tapping a button, or alternatively reset the snowboarder back to the course if they get stuck in an area. Both wiping out and resetting result in a loss of adrenaline and the ability to perform übers until the adrenaline meter is filled again. Players complete peak goals—set objectives—to progress through the single-player mode and unlock all three peaks of the mountain. Peak goals are achieved by completing events, earning money or completing big challenges and finding collectables, both during freeride mode, which can be accessed outside of events. The player only has to complete one of these goals to progress to the next peak. Completing each peak goal unlocks a trophy for the player. Each course in the game has a designated event that players can compete in. Events fall under two categories: race and freestyle. Coming first in an event provides the player a gold medal, coming second provides the player a silver medal, and coming third provides the player a bronze medal. It is also possible to obtain a platinum medal by beating certain times or getting a high enough score. The race event objective is to get to the end of the course as quickly as possible. Players race against other snowboarder NPCs on the same course. Races contain multiple routes and shortcuts, which can give the player an advantage over opponents. Players can also use melee combat to knock other snowboarders over, slowing them down and providing the player with adrenaline. Race events have three heats, and the player must come third place or above in each heat to progress. Once all race events are completed on a peak, the player's snowboarder is challenged to a backcountry race by their rival snowboarder. Winning unlocks a peak race, where the player aims to beat their rival's best time from the peak to the bottom of the mountain; both races have only one heat. Completing the races unlocks the next peak. The freestyle events include slopestyle, big air, and super pipe. Their objectives are to get as many points as possible. Slopestyle courses are similar to race courses, as players must ride through a downhill track with multiple paths. While the goal of slopestyle courses is for the player to gain points by performing tricks, big air courses are short, with one or two ramps that are designed to allow the player to perform large jumps and multiple tricks in a small amount of time, and super pipe courses contain half-pipes that the player can repeatedly perform tricks on. Freestyle events are structured similarly to race events; each have three heats, and the player is invited to backcountry jams and peak jams, where points are scored through performing tricks. Completing the freestyle events unlocks the next peak. Outside of events, players can take part in big challenges. The objectives of the challenges include jumping through hoops and collecting items, among others. Collectable crystals items can also be found on every course, and can be collected in any event and in freeride. Obtaining enough crystals and completing enough big challenges on a peak unlocks the next peak. In addition to peak goals, SSX 3 contains smaller challenges called career highlights. Similar to big challenges, objectives can vary, and include holding a handplant for five seconds or doing a certain number of übers in one event. In freeride, players can travel to any courses they have unlocked and can also go to stations; these areas contain lodges, which allow the player to save their game, edit music playlists, buy attributes to improve their snowboarder, purchase new übers, and buy or equip gear and boards to change the aesthetics of the snowboarder. Money can also be used to buy extras, such as videos, cheat characters, and game art. Money can be earned in game by performing tricks, completing big challenges and events, or collecting crystals. Earning enough money on a peak will unlock the next peak. In station areas, game narrator DJ Atomika talks to the player via EA Radio Big, a fictional radio station. He gives the player information about events and weather, as well as other miscellaneous information. While the player is on a course, the soundtrack of the game is played through EA Radio Big. Depending on how well the player is performing, the music becomes quieter and louder. The player can change what music is allowed to play at lodges. The PlayStation 2 version of SSX 3 had an online multiplayer mode that allowed two players to race against each other over the internet. The service required an EA account to use. Players could join lobbies, where they could challenge players to races, view player statistics such as the global rank of a player, and chat with players using supported USB headsets and keyboards. Players could send messages and add up to forty friends, called buddies, using EA Messenger, an in-game instant messaging service. The online service has since been discontinued. ## Development SSX 3 was developed by EA Canada and published by Electronic Arts under the EA Sports Big label. Its development began after the release of SSX Tricky, the previous title in the series, in 2001. During the development of SSX and SSX Tricky, there were plans for both games to allow the player to explore a mountain, but this was never implemented, and was instead made the focus for SSX 3. EA Canada stated that SSX 3 was designed so "just about anyone can pick up and play". Larry LaPierre, the producer of the game, stated that the developers wanted "to give people the first ever full mountain experience" and allow players to choose what they wanted to do on the mountain. The game was initially confirmed through a trailer in the 2003 game NBA Street Vol. 2 with the working title SSX 3, which later became the official title. The game was available to play by journalists before release at the July 2003 Camp EA event, and earlier in May at E3 2003. The Gizmondo version was also available to play by journalists at E3 2005. The open ended nature of the game was influenced by Battlefield 1942 and NBA Street Vol. 2, both EA titles, as the developers of SSX 3 enjoyed features in both games that allow players to choose the way they want to play. Developers were also inspired by their own personal experiences with snowboarding at Island Lake Lodge. EA Canada hired people from various different work backgrounds to develop the game, including the Academy Award-nominated visual effects designer Henry LaBounta, who worked as one of the game's three art directors. The game contains thirty different types of snow, ranging in consistency, and rendered using various shading techniques and more realistic lighting effects than SSX Tricky. Improvements to graphics over the previous game in the series also include better models and shadows, as well as more reflections in the in-game snow. SSX 3 is the first game in the SSX series and one of the first games in general to be THX certified. ## Reception SSX 3 received critical acclaim upon its release. Metacritic calculated an average score of 93 out of 100 for the PlayStation 2 (PS2) version based on 41 reviews, and 92 out of 100 for the Xbox and GameCube (GC) versions, both based on 27 reviews. All scores indicate universal acclaim. It is EA Sports Big's second-highest rated game on Metacritic before the first title in the SSX series. On aggregate website GameRankings, the game holds 92% for PS2 and GC based on 60 reviews and 38 reviews, respectively, and 90% for Xbox based on 41 reviews. Reviewers liked the addition of an open world, the presentation, and trick system, while finding issues with the difficulty of the controls and customization options. Douglass C. Perry of IGN stated that it "expands upon Tricky in every way", while GameSpot's Greg Kasavin wrote that it "delivers a rush like few racing games or action sports games have ever achieved". Reviewers particularly praised SSX 3's technical advancements, with Game-Revolution's Ben Silverman calling the game's snow effects unrivaled, while also recognising its "consistently high" frame rate. Eurogamer's Tom Bramwell directed his praise at the game's draw distances, seamless animation and colourful environments, and GameSpy's Bryn Williams commended the game's lighting and particle effects. Reviewers also recognised SSX 3's open world as innovative, with Williams finding that the loading times allow players to ride across long distances "without having to wait a single second for the environments to load into memory". With a score of 9.4 out of 10, Louis Bedigian of GameZone called the PS2 version "extremely fun. The gameplay is as good as snowboarding games come." Carlos McElfish, Bedigian's colleague, was a bit less positive of the GC version but did not rate it below a score of 9.0 out of 10, saying: "The lack of fantastical obstacles and other Tricky-exclusive elements is admittedly missed, but the inclusion of so many other excellent improvements makes you quickly forget that this ain't Tricky." Tim Surette, also of GameZone, gave the Xbox version a score of 9.7 out of 10, which is a higher score than the other console versions, and called it "one of the tightest games out there... there's nothing that stands out as a negative, and everything else is a glaring positive. The abundance of 'stuff to do' keeps the gameplay fresh and makes 100% completion a task for the gods." In a slightly less positive review with a score of 70 out of 100, the reviewer for GamesTM stated that "given the constraints of the sport", the game does a great job of staying as open as possible. The trick system was well received. Bramwell called the new super-über tricks "astonishingly cool" and stated that he was pleased that the game introduced "a much more clear-cut combo system". Perry said that the addition of board presses "make playing SSX 3 an entirely new game", adding that performing tricks is "a pleasure on the PS2 and Xbox", but criticised the GC's controls, citing that "the controller just doesn't provide enough buttons to do" the game justice. Kasavin also said that the PS2 pad was "especially well suited for the game". SSX 3's sound and voice acting were widely praised, with Silverman commending the "varied soundtrack and great effects", stating that they make the game "sound terrific". Perry commented that SSX 3 is "a legitimate THX endorsed game, ensuring high-quality sound clarity". Williams thought highly of the voice acting, calling it "clear, simple, and not annoying in the slightest". He also considered the DJ commentary to be slick and unobtrusive. Kasavin praised the soundtrack, calling it "one of the highlights of the experience", and gave recognition to the way it layers in with the racing, saying that "it contributes heavily to the intensity and excitement of playing SSX 3". Non-video game publications sang the praises of the game. Noah Robischon of Entertainment Weekly gave the PS2 version an A and said that all of the smooth music, "along with the 'Uber' and 'Super Uber' combo tricks, will have you stumbling away from the console at 4 a.m., your fingers aching and your voice hoarse." Playboy gave the GC, PS2, and Xbox versions a score of 100% and said: "While other snowboarding games run out of steam mid-shred, the SSX series continues to gain momentum." The Game Boy Advance (GBA) version of SSX 3 was more poorly received, gaining a score of 63 out of 100 based on 14 reviews on Metacritic, indicating mixed or average reviews. On GameRankings, the GBA version received a score of 57% based on 12 reviews. A review by Computer and Video Games called the game slow and sluggish, and its controls unresponsive. Craig Harris of IGN said that the graphics engine has difficulty "keeping up with all that the designers throw at it". In a more positive review, Frank Provo of GameSpot wrote that it "duplicates many of the same features found in the console versions", stating that the game's 3D graphics engine is "unrivaled by anything else currently available for the system". Bedigian of GameZone said that this version was "not even close to the exciting console versions". The Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences awarded SSX 3 with "Console Action Sports Game of the Year" and "Outstanding Achievement in Licensed Soundtrack" during the 7th Annual Interactive Achievement Awards; it also received nominations for "Game of the Year", "Console Game of the Year", "Outstanding Innovation in Console Gaming", and "Outstanding Achievement in Visual Engineering". By July 2006, its PS2 version had sold 750,000 copies and earned \$28 million in the United States. It was the first game in the SSX series to sell 1 million copies. Next Generation ranked it as the 83rd highest-selling game launched for the PS2, Xbox, or GC between January 2000 and July 2006 in that country. Combined sales of the SSX series reached 3 million units in the United States by July 2006. SSX 3's PS2 version also received a Gold sales award from the ELSPA, indicating sales of at least 200,000 copies in the United Kingdom.
6,316,662	Rupert D'Oyly Carte	1,152,202,877	British theatre manager and hotelier (1876–1948)	[ "1876 births", "1948 deaths", "British hoteliers", "Businesspeople from London", "English theatre managers and producers", "Impresarios", "Opera managers", "People associated with Gilbert and Sullivan", "People educated at Winchester College", "Theatre owners" ]	Rupert D'Oyly Carte (3 November 1876 – 12 September 1948) was an English hotelier, theatre owner and impresario, best known as proprietor of the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company and Savoy Hotel from 1913 to 1948. Son of the impresario and hotelier Richard D'Oyly Carte, Rupert inherited the family businesses from his stepmother Helen. After serving in the First World War, he took steps to revitalise the opera company, which had not appeared in central London since 1909, hiring new designers and conductors to present fresh productions of the Gilbert and Sullivan operas in seasons in the West End. The new productions generally retained the original text and music of the operas. Carte launched international and provincial tours, as well as the London seasons, and he released the first complete recordings of the operas. He also rebuilt the half-century-old Savoy Theatre in 1929, opening the house with a season of Gilbert and Sullivan. As an hotelier, Carte built on his father's legacy, expanding the Savoy Hotel, refreshing the other hotels and restaurants in the Savoy group, including Claridge's and the Berkeley Hotel, and introducing cabaret and dance bands that became internationally famous. He also increased marketing activities, including foreign marketing, of the hotels. P. G. Wodehouse based a character in his novels, Psmith, on a Wykehamist schoolboy whom he identified as Rupert D'Oyly Carte. At his death, Carte passed the opera company and hotels to his only surviving child, Bridget D'Oyly Carte. The Gilbert and Sullivan operas, nurtured by Carte and his family for over a century, continue to be produced frequently today throughout the English-speaking world and beyond. ## Life and career ### Early life Rupert D'Oyly Carte was born in Hampstead, London, the younger son of the impresario Richard D'Oyly Carte and his first wife Blanche (née Prowse), who died in 1885. Like his elder brother, Lucas (1872–1907), he was given his father's middle name. He was educated at Winchester College, noted as among the most intellectually rigorous of English public schools. He then worked for a firm of accountants before joining his father as an assistant in 1894. In a newspaper interview given in the year of his death, Rupert recalled that as a young man he was entrusted, during his father's illness, with helping W. S. Gilbert with the first revival of The Yeomen of the Guard at the Savoy Theatre. He was elected a director of the Savoy Hotel Limited in 1898, joining his father and Sir Arthur Sullivan, who had served on the board since the Savoy Hotel was built. By 1899 he was assistant managing director. Richard D'Oyly Carte died in 1901, and Rupert's stepmother, the former Helen Lenoir, who had married Richard in 1888, assumed full control of most of the family businesses, which she had increasingly controlled during her husband's decline. Rupert's brother, Lucas, a barrister, was not involved in the family businesses and died of tuberculosis, aged 34. ### Taking over the family businesses In 1903, at the age of 27, Rupert took over his late father's role as chairman of the Savoy group, which included the Savoy Hotel, Claridge's, The Berkeley Hotel, Simpson's-in-the-Strand and the Grand Hotel in Rome. At this time, the whole group was officially valued at £2,221,708. He immediately issued £300,000 of debentures to raise capital for a large extension to the Savoy (the "East Block"). Like his father, Carte was willing to go to great lengths to secure the best employees for his hotels. When Claridge's needed a new chef in 1904, he secured the services of François Bonnaure, formerly chef at the Élysée Palace in Paris. The press speculated on how much Carte must have paid to persuade Bonnaure to join him, and compared the younger Carte's audacity with his father's coup in securing Paris's most famous maître d'hôtel, M. Joseph, a few years earlier. Between 1906 and 1909, Helen Carte, Rupert's stepmother, staged two repertory seasons at the Savoy Theatre. Directed by Gilbert and received with much success, they revitalised the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company, which had been in decline after Richard D'Oyly Carte's death. In 1912, when theatre censorship was under discussion in Britain, Carte was strongly in favour of retaining censorship, because it gave managements complete certainty about what they could or could not stage without fear of interference by the police or others. He joined with other London theatre managers, including Herbert Beerbohm Tree, George Edwardes and Arthur Bourchier in signing a petition for the retention of censorship. In the same year, together with Herbert Sullivan and theatre managers including Beerbohm Tree and Squire Bancroft, Carte was an instigator of a memorial to W. S. Gilbert at Charing Cross. In 1913, Rupert's stepmother Helen died. She left all her holdings in the Savoy Hotel group, the Savoy Theatre and the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company to her stepson. ### Revitalising the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company After London seasons in 1906–07 and 1908–09, the opera company did not perform in the West End again until 1919, although it continued to tour in Great Britain. According to the theatre writer H. M. Walbrook, "Through the years of the Great War they continued to be on tour through the country, drawing large and grateful audiences everywhere. They helped to sustain the spirits of the people during that stern period, and by so doing they helped to win the victory." Nevertheless, Carte later recalled, "I went and watched the Company playing at a rather dreary theatre down in the suburbs of London. I thought the dresses looked dowdy . . . I formed the view that new productions should be prepared, with scenery and dresses to the design of first class artists who understood the operas but who would produce a décor attractive to the new generation." In a 1922 memoir, Henry Lytton, having admired Richard D'Oyly Carte's keen eye for stagecraft, added, "That 'eye' for stagecraft ... has been inherited in a quite remarkable degree by his son, Mr. Rupert D'Oyly Carte. He, too, has the gift of taking in the details of a scene at a glance, and knowing instinctively just what must be corrected". In 1910 the company engaged J. M. Gordon as stage manager, and Carte promoted him to stage director in 1922. Under Carte's supervision Gordon preserved the company's traditions in exacting detail for 28 years. During the First World War Carte served in the Royal Navy, and his plans for reviving the operas in London proceeded slowly. By the end of the war he had reorganised the whole structure of the opera company, assembled new artists and staff and had planned the redressing and restaging of many of the operas. After the war he put his plans into effect. In an interview in The Observer in August 1919 he set out his policy for staging the operas: "They will be played precisely in their original form, without any alteration to the words, or any attempt to bring them up to date." This uncompromising declaration was modified in a later interview in which he said, "the plays are all being restaged ... Gilbert's words will be unaltered, though there will be some freshness in the method of rendering them. Artists must have scope for their individuality, and new singers cannot be tied down to imitate slavishly those who made successes in the old days." Carte's first London season, at the Prince's Theatre, 1919–20, featured ten of the thirteen extant Gilbert and Sullivan operas. It did not include Ruddigore, Utopia, Limited or The Grand Duke. Princess Ida had its first London performances since the original 1883 production. The new productions retained the text and music of the original 1870s and 1880s productions, and Gordon preserved much of Gilbert's original direction. As his father and stepmother had done, Carte licensed the operas to the J. C. Williamson company and to amateur groups, but he required all licensees to present them in approved productions that closely followed the libretto, score and D'Oyly Carte production stagings. In an interview with The Times in 1922, Carte said that the Savoy "tradition" was an expression that was frequently misunderstood: "It did not by any means imply any hidebound stage 'business' or an attempt to standardize the performances of artists so as to check their individual method of expression. All that it implied, in his view, was the highest possible standard of production – with especial attention to clear enunciation . . . Many people seemed to think that Gilbert believed in absolutely set methods but this was not by any means the case. He did not hesitate to alter productions when they were revived." Although he had told the press that the original words and music would not be altered, Carte was willing to make changes in certain cases. In 1919–20, he authorised cuts and alterations in both Princess Ida and Ruddigore. In 1921 Cox and Box was produced in an extensively cut-down version, to allow it to be played as a companion piece with the shortest of the two-act Savoy operas. He also authorised changes to Gilbert's text: he wrote to The Times in 1948: "We found recently in America that much objection was taken by coloured persons to a word used twice in The Mikado." The word in question was Gilbert's reference to "nigger" (blackface) minstrels, and Carte asked A. P. Herbert to suggest an acceptable revision. "He made several alternative suggestions, one of which we adopted in America, and it seems well to go on doing so in the British Empire." A similar reference in Princess Ida was also altered. Carte commissioned new costumes and scenery throughout his proprietorship of the company. He engaged Charles Ricketts to redesign The Gondoliers and The Mikado, the costumes for the latter, created in 1926, being retained by all the company's subsequent designers. Other redesigns were by Percy Anderson, George Sheringham, Hugo Rumbold and Peter Goffin, a protégé of Carte's daughter, Bridget. For London seasons, Carte often engaged guest conductors, first Geoffrey Toye, then Malcolm Sargent, who examined Sullivan's manuscript scores and purged the orchestral parts of accretions. So striking was the orchestral sound produced by Sargent that the press thought he had retouched the scores, and Carte had the pleasant duty of correcting their error. In a letter to The Times, he noted that "the details of the orchestration sounded so fresh that some of the critics thought them actually new ... the opera was played last night exactly as written by Sullivan." Carte also engaged Harry Norris, who started with the touring company, and then was Toye's assistant before becoming musical director. Isidore Godfrey joined the company as assistant musical director in 1925 and became musical director in 1929, remaining in that post until 1968. The possibilities of the gramophone appealed to Carte. After the First World War he supervised a series of complete recordings of the scores of the operas on the HMV label, beginning with The Mikado in 1918. The first nine HMV sets, made between 1918 and 1925, were recorded by the early acoustic process. At first, guest singers were chosen who were known for their ability to record well in this technology. Later in this series, more of the regular members of the company were featured. With the introduction of electrical recording and its greatly improved recording process and sound, a new round of recordings began in 1927. For the electrical series, Carte's own singers were mostly used. Carte also recognised the potential of radio and worked with the BBC to relay live broadcasts of D'Oyly Carte productions. A 1926 relay of part of a Savoy Theatre performance of The Mikado was heard by up to eight million people. The London Evening Standard noted that this was "probably the largest audience that has ever heard anything at one time in the history of the world." Under Carte, the company continued to make broadcasts during the interwar years. In 1932, The Yeomen of the Guard became the first Gilbert and Sullivan opera to be broadcast in its entirety. ### Rebuilding the Savoy Theatre and later years In 1929 Carte had the 48-year-old Savoy Theatre rebuilt and modernised. It closed on 3 June 1929 and was gutted and completely rebuilt to designs by Frank A. Tugwell with décor by Basil Ionides. The old house had three tiers; the new one had two. The seating capacity (which had decreased to 986 from its original 1,292) was restored nearly completely, to 1,200. The theatre reopened 135 days later on 21 October 1929, with The Gondoliers, designed by Ricketts and conducted by Sargent. The critic Ernest Newman wrote, "I can imagine no gayer or more exhilarating frame for the Gilbert and Sullivan operas than the Savoy as it is now." Despite its historical connection with Gilbert and Sullivan, most of Carte's London seasons were staged not at the Savoy but at two larger houses: the Prince's (now the Shaftesbury) Theatre (1919–20, 1921–22, 1924, 1926, 1942 and Sadler's Wells (1935, 1936, 1937, 1939, 1947 and 1948). His three Savoy Theatre seasons were in 1929–30, 1932–33, and 1941. In addition to year-round UK tours, Carte mounted tours of North America in 1927, 1928–29, 1934–35, 1936–37, 1939 and 1947–48). During the 1936 tour an American critic wrote, "If there were only some way of keeping them on this side permanently. I humbly suggest to the New Deal that it cancel England's war debt in exchange for the D'Oyly Cartians. We should be much the gainer." Carte was deeply affected by the death of his son Michael in 1932. The actor Martyn Green said, "The heart dropped right out of him. His interest in both the operas and the hotel seemed to fade away." Nevertheless, in 1934 the company made a highly successful eight-month North American tour with Green as its new principal comedian, replacing Lytton. Carte gave approval for, and was closely consulted about, a 1938 film version of The Mikado produced and conducted by Geoffrey Toye, starring Green and released by Universal Pictures, but his only new stage production after 1932 was of The Yeomen of the Guard designed in 1939 by Peter Goffin. The re-staging was regarded as radical, but when Goffin took fright at the storm of controversy, Carte told him, "I don't care what they say about the production. I should care if they said nothing." On 3 September 1939, at the outbreak of the Second World War, the British government ordered the immediate and indefinite closure of all theatres. Carte cancelled the autumn tour and disbanded the company. Theatres were permitted to reopen from 15 September, but it took some weeks to re-form the company. It resumed touring in Edinburgh on Christmas Day 1939, and continued to perform throughout the war. German bombing destroyed the sets and costumes for five D'Oyly Carte productions: Cox and Box, The Sorcerer, H.M.S. Pinafore, Princess Ida and Ruddigore. The old productions of Pinafore and Cox and Box were recreated shortly after the war, but the other two operas took longer to rejoin the company's repertory. Peter Goffin designed and directed the new production of The Yeomen of the Guard first seen in January 1940, and his new Ruddigore debuted in 1948, shortly after Carte's death. A return of the company to the US for 21 weeks in 1947 was very successful. ### Savoy Hotel group From the beginning of his career, Carte maintained the Savoy group in London, disposing in 1919 of the Grand Hotel, Rome, which his father had acquired in 1896. In the 1920s, he ensured that the Savoy continued to attract a fashionable clientele by a continuous programme of modernisation and the introduction of dancing in the large restaurants. The Savoy Orpheans and the Savoy Havana Band were described in The Times as "probably the best-known bands in Europe". In 1927 Carte appointed his opera company's general manager, Richard Collet, to run the cabaret at the Savoy, which began in April 1929. Until the 1930s, the Savoy group had not thought it necessary to advertise, but Carte and his manager George Reeves-Smith changed their approach. Reeves-Smith told The Times, "We are endeavouring by intensive propaganda work to get more customers; this work is going on in the U.S.A., in Canada, in the Argentine and in Europe." Towards the end of the Second World War, Carte added to the Savoy group the bombed-out site near Leicester Square of Stone's Chop House, the freehold of which he purchased with a view to reopening the restaurant there on the lines of the group's Simpson's-in-the-Strand. The revived Stone's reopened after his death. ### Personal life In 1907, Carte married Lady Dorothy Milner Gathorne-Hardy (1889–1977), the third and youngest daughter of the 2nd Earl of Cranbrook, with whom he had a daughter, Bridget, and a son, Michael (1911–1932). Michael was killed at the age of 21 in a motor accident in Switzerland. In 1925, Carte and his wife had a country house built for them in Kingswear, Devon named Coleton Fishacre. The house is still known for its design features and garden with exotic tropical plants. After her parents' divorce, Bridget D'Oyly Carte took over the house, which her father, who lived in London, would visit for long weekends. She sold the house after his death, and it is now owned by the National Trust. Carte's private pastimes included gardening, notably at Coleton Fishacre, driving and yachting. He was an early devotee of the motor car and incurred the displeasure of the courts more than once. He was fined £3 for driving at 19 miles an hour in 1902, and the following year he was subject to criminal prosecution for knocking down and injuring a child when driving at the speed of 24 miles an hour. He made "every provision for the comfort of the child", who recovered from the accident. In the years after the First World War he was a frequent competitor in yachting races. From 1919 he raced his yacht Kali in the Hamble River class. Later, he owned and raced a 19-ton cutter, Content. In 1941, Carte divorced his wife for adultery. The suit was undefended. Lady Dorothy moved to the island of Tobago and married St Yves de Verteuil, who had been the co-respondent in the divorce case. De Verteuil died in 1963, and Lady Dorothy de Verteuil died on February 21, 1977. P. G. Wodehouse based the character Psmith, seen in several of his comic novels, on either Rupert D'Oyly Carte or his elder brother Lucas. In the introduction to his novel Something Fresh, Wodehouse says that Psmith (originally named Rupert, then Ronald) was "based more or less faithfully on Rupert D'Oyly Carte, son of the Savoy theatre man. He was at school with a cousin of mine, and my cousin happened to tell me about his monocle, his immaculate clothes and his habit, when asked by a master how he was, of replying, 'Sir, I grow thinnah and thinnah'." Bridget D'Oyly Carte, however, believed that the Wykehamist schoolboy described to Wodehouse was not her father but his brother Lucas, who was also at Winchester College. Rupert D'Oyly Carte was "shy, reserved and at times distinctly taciturn." Psmith, by contrast, is outgoing and garrulous. ### Death and legacy Carte died at the Savoy Hotel, after a brief illness, at the age of 71. A memorial service was held for him at the Savoy Chapel on 23 September 1948. His ashes were scattered on the headland at Coleton Fishacre. He left an estate valued at £288,436. At his death, the family businesses passed to his daughter, Bridget D'Oyly Carte. The Savoy hotel group remained under the control of the Carte family and its associates until 1994. Carte's hotels have remained among the most prestigious in London, with the London Evening Standard calling the Savoy "London's most famous hotel" in 2009. The year after Carte's death, the opera company, which had been the personal possession of Richard, Helen and Carte, became a private company, of which Bridget retained a controlling interest and was chairman and managing director. She inherited a company in strong condition, but the rising costs of mounting professional light opera without any government support eventually became unsustainable, and she closed the company in 1982. The Gilbert and Sullivan operas, nurtured by Carte and his family for over a century, continue to be produced frequently today throughout the English-speaking world and beyond. By keeping the Savoy operas popular throughout the mid-20th century, Carte continued to influence the course of the development of modern musical theatre. ## Notes, references and sources
72,154,960	2019 Alta helicopter crash	1,173,181,528	Crash in Norway	[ "2019 disasters in Norway", "2019 in Norway", "Accidents and incidents involving the Eurocopter AS350", "Aviation accidents and incidents in 2019", "Aviation accidents and incidents in Norway", "History of Finnmark" ]	On 31 August 2019, an Airbus AS350 helicopter operated by a contracted Helitrans pilot from Sweden crashed in the mountains of Skoddevarre in Alta, Norway, during a sightseeing tour, killing all six people on board. The tour was offered by a local music festival, Høstsprell, who had been providing the service for seven years. The helicopter, registered as LN‐OFU, had recently been delivered and had undergone security checks hours before takeoff. An investigation by the Norwegian Safety Investigation Authority (NSIA) found no technical faults with the machinery, and concluded that LN‐OFU had entered servo transparency; the stresses on the rotors had exceeded the hydraulic servomotor's capacity, causing the controls to lock up. This was caused by the helicopter's heavy load and rapid fluctuations in velocity and height. The pilot tried to regain control, but was ultimately unable to do so and crashed into the terrain. As the aircraft did not have a crash-resistant fuel system (CRFS), the wreck promptly caught fire, destroying most of it and inflicting lethal burns to the people on board; autopsies of the victims' bodies suggested that they died from their burns. The NSIA consequently called for the ban of commercial flights on rotorcraft without CRFSs in the European Union. Helitrans received criticism for allowing an inexperienced pilot to fly with passengers, and for not having CRFSs installed on their helicopters. After the incident, they started replacing their fleet of aircraft with new ones installed with CRFSs. Both Høstsprell and Helitrans stopped providing sightseeing tours. ## Background Høstsprell, a music festival held in Kvenvik, Alta, Northern Norway, had been arranging helicopter tours for attendees every year since 2012 for apiece. The company operating the tours, Helitrans, rented helicopters from Skjolden Cruisekai, who had acquired seven helicopters in June 2019 from Østnes Helicopters, the Norwegian representative for European aerospace manufacturer Airbus. Both Helitrans and Skjolden Cruisekai were owned in whole by Røysi Invest, an investment firm run by father-daughter pair Oddvar and Anne Line Røysi. Of their fleet of 25 helicopters, 15 were of the type Airbus AS350. Around 100 people were employed by Helitrans in 2019, one of whom was the Swedish pilot Fredrik Lindmark, who operated the flights in Kvenvik. Fredrik Lindmark was a contract worker from Nyköping, Sweden, who lived with his partner and her son in Honningsvåg. He had worked with Helitrans as a loadmaster for two years since his first seasonal contract with them on 9 May 2017. His final contact with Helitrans was to last from 1 April to 30 November 2019. After having undergone an operator proficiency check on 26 August, he was now able to operate helicopters for them. 27 years old at the time of his death, he held a Swedish commercial flight certificate and a first-class medical certificate. He had obtained an AS350 rating from Airbus' facility in Marignane, France, in May 2018, where he scored a 96% on the knowledge test, and passed with full marks on the flight assessment. Airbus' training did not include supervised passenger flights. He underwent several successful proficiency checks, the last one performed in April 2019 by the Norwegian government. He had not undergone any training with a flight simulator. He was still in the process of gaining experience, having a combined flight time of 256 hours, 17 of which were conducted in AS350 type helicopters, and 50 hours in passenger flights. His employers at Helitrans viewed sightseeing tours as a less demanding task, therefore being fit for building the experience he lacked. Lindmark's coworkers described him as a thorough, structured, calm, and cautious individual, who was unlikely to invite danger by seeking thrills. The helicopter operated by Lindmark, registered as LN‐OFU, was an AS350 with a flight time of 73 hours. It was ordered in September 2018 by Skjolden Cruisekai, and was delivered with an airworthiness certificate on 12 June 2019. Airbus had been working on crash-resistant fuel systems (CRFS) since 2011, which would be ready by 2014. They did not, however, make these obligatory in production until October 2019, and customers could therefore choose to leave them out. EU legislation from 2003 made it so any helicopter designs certified in or before 1994 did not require CRFSs. LN‐OFU did not have a CRFS, making it more vulnerable to catching fire in case of a crash. The installment of such a system would have cost . When questioned, CEO Oddvar Røysi denied that they left it out deliberately, noting that it was only considered "additional equipment" by the manufacturers. ## Incident On 31 August 2019, a 100-hour inspection of LN‐OFU was performed at 13:30, with no anomalies found, except a slight oil leak from the gasket of the gearbox's input shaft. At 16:05, the pilot and the loadmaster took off from Alta Airport to the festival grounds at Kvenvik, landing seven minutes later. At 16:40, the pilot gave his first sightseeing tour of the day for atendees of that year's Høstsprell in Kvenvik, which ended without incident at 16:50. At 16:59, he took off for another tour with five passengers in clear weather conditions. During the flight, the passengers sent media over Snapchat to acquaintances as they were heading toward the mountains of Skoddevarre. At 17:05, LN‐OFU disappeared from Helitrans' GSM network, and was last recorded by Flightradar24 as being stationary at the coordinates of the crash site at 17:08. Several witnesses reported seeing and hearing the helicopter, but no witnesses reported seeing the crash itself. LN‐OFU's loadmaster was notified of smoke coming from the mountains by a bystander, after which he started observing. Initially, he did not believe it to be from the aircraft, but after he was unable to hear any helicopter sounds, he contacted Helitrans' traffic centre, the police, the Joint Rescue Coordination Centre of Northern Norway (JRCC), and air traffic control at Alta Airport. At 17:06, the JRCC received a report of the accident after the emergency position-indicating radiobeacon of the helicopter went off. Helitrans' traffic centre last received notice of LN‐OFU at 17:08, after which they started a rescue operation. At 17:16, another civilian Bell 205 helicopter operated by Heli‐Team came across the crashed helicopter by coincidence when returning from a transport order in the east to their base in Kvænangen. By the time they arrived, LN‐OFU had nearly burnt to a crisp. At 17:18 they started sending messages by radio, which were picked up by a Widerøe plane flying over. The crew of the plane started relaying information about the situation from Heli‐Team to the air traffic control tower at Alta Airport, including GPS-coordinates. The crew of the Heli‐Team spotted a survivor on the ground, around 50 meters (164 feet) from the crash site, after which they landed a safe distance away to try and assist him. After the loadmaster of the aircraft approached the survivor, they realised he was conscious and able to speak, but their conversation was not able to elucidate how the crash had happened. A Sea King rescue helicopter was sent from the military airbase at Banak at 17:20, and arrived at the scene of the crash at 17:50. Four of the victims were declared dead by the JRCC at 18:17, with one victim still missing, and one being treated by rescuers. The victim being treated was flown to the University Hospital of North Norway, where they died overnight. The missing person was found dead at 20:40. The entirety of the helicopter's airframe except the tail was destroyed by the fire, including all electronic devices on board, and it lit the terrain c. 50 m<sup>2</sup> (538.2 ft<sup>2</sup>) around it on fire. ## Investigation Three representatives of the Norwegian Safety Investigation Authority (NSIA) arrived at the crash site on 1 September to gather information. The Norwegian Civil Defence assisted in safeguarding and searching the area, in addition to providing food and shelter for the investigators at the scene. A team of Airbus technicians from France were sent to aid in investigation, in addition to the French Bureau of Enquiry and Analysis for Civil Aviation Safety and the engine manufacturer Safran Aircraft Engines. The NSIA asked airport operator Avinor for any additional data they had from radar and the air traffic control tower in Alta. Police in Finnmark notified the public that they had introduced a restriction on entry and flight within 500 metres of the crash site on 1 September. They also asked people to refrain from spreading rumours about the situation, as they were worried about the effect it could have on witness reports. On 3 September, the NSIA started transporting the wreck to Kjeller in Southern Norway. The restrictions on travel to the area ended on 5 September. During the NSIA's investigation at the crash site, they retrieved the flight recorder of the helicopter, but it had been destroyed by fire, making the cause of the crash difficult to identify. The flight recorder was nevertheless sent to its producers in France to try and retrieve information. They also found that five out of six bolts connecting the gearbox to the motor were missing, with only half a bolt remaining, leading investigators to hypothesise that they had been severed from one another before the crash. On 9 October, police started searching for the bolts that had gone missing in the mountains with metal detectors and magnets. Two days later, police reported that they had found several, but did not specify whether they came from the helicopter. Out of a total of eleven missing bolts, ten were eventually found. After preliminary investigations at the crash site, Airbus released an emergency alert service bulletin on 11 September, asking for immediate inspection of any new AS350, AS550, and EC130 helicopters. Helitrans found no anomalies in their other aircraft, and the director of communications at the Civil Aviation Authority of Norway stated that they had found no anomalies in any Norwegian companies that operated these helicopter types. Media sent by the passengers through Snapchat, one captured half a minute before the crash, were initially analysed by the police, but were ultimately not useful in identifying any problems with the helicopter. One video, taken seconds before the crash, was however identified as important by the police, as they believed it could contain information not found in the others. The police were not able to acquire a warrant to recover the video from Snapchat's servers in the United States, as the video did not contain evidence of a criminal offence. ### NSIA report In March 2022, the NSIA released a report on the incident. Early drafts of the report had been given out to affected parties such as the manufacturers after quality insurance of translations. They concluded that the most likely cause of the crash was a servo transparency, a phenomenon that occurs when stress on the rotor exceeds the capacity of the hydraulic servomotor, causing flight controls to stiffen and become harder to handle. Such stress can be caused by a combination of factors, including high speeds, mass and density altitude. The report attributed 11 prior accidents with AS350s to servo transparency. In their report, the NSIA estimated that LN‐OFU had an excessive amount of fuel on board, which induced high stress on the main rotor. The flight data in their report also revealed that the aircraft had experienced great variations in velocities and heights, the latter of which was below the legal limit of at least 500 ft (152.4 m) above the terrain. The aircraft's pitch was recorded to be pointing 30° downward, which was outside the limit of 15° that Helitrans had set due to safety recommendations from the NSIA following the 2011 Dalamot helicopter crash [no]. They therefore concluded that the pilot's inexperience led him to eschew these safety standards during the flight; an earlier passenger noted that the pilot promised to fly low to the ground to give a sense of speed during the flight, which was corroborated by the report's flight-tracking data. The pilot of a helicopter undergoing servo transparency can try to regain control by lowering the collective pitch, therefore reducing the stress on the rotor. This will in turn increase the helicopter's sink rate, bringing it closer to the ground. The NSIA's report stated that their evaluation of the wreck and crash site indicated the pilot had nearly regained control, but did not have enough height to avoid crashing into the terrain. There was no evidence to suggest that he had a debilitating clinical condition, weakened sense of awareness or judgement, or any other health problems during his flight. The distribution of the wreckage led the NSIA to suggest that the crash was a "low energy impact", and stated that the chance of survival for the victims would have been higher if the aircraft hadn't caught fire, a consequence of it lacking a CRFS. They therefore recommended that helicopters not fly any passengers without being equipped with a CRFS. ## Victims The five passengers that died in the crash were locals from Alta. Two of the victims, Kevin Berg and Kine Johnsen, were the son and niece, respectively, of local politician Ronny Berg, who had previously served as State Secretary of Ministry of Trade, Industry and Fisheries from 2015 to 2017 in Solberg's Cabinet. The deceased were not immediately identifiable, as the wreck had started burning after the crash, so the police service Kripos were asked for help in identifying their bodies. The family of Berg were asked to take DNA tests to positively identify him. The identities of four of the passengers were released on 1 September, with the last passenger's identity released by police the following day. The bodies were transported to Tromsø on 2 September by helicopter to be autopsied and identified. The autopsies revealed that the likely cause of death for all on board was damage caused by the fire. On 5 September, the victims from Alta were escorted back home by police in separate hearses. People across Troms and Finnmark chose to stand by the roadside of the E6 motorway when the cortege was driving to Alta to pay their respects. On the final stretch, the entourage was followed by hundreds of cars, and was greeted by lit candles in Talvik. Hundreds of people from Alta, including the local fire department, congregated in the town centre to welcome the hearses. The funerals of the victims from Alta were held between 10 and 13 September. Due to difficulties with getting clearance, the pilot was not transported to Sweden until 25 September. With assistance from SOS International, he was flown to Stockholm Arlanda Airport, then driven home to his family. His identity was not revealed until 3 October, when his obituary was published in Nyköping's local newspaper Södermanlands Nyheter. His funeral was held on 14 October. The expenses for the pilot's transport and funeral were covered by Helitrans' insurance. ## Reactions On the day following the incident, representatives of every political party in Alta agreed to suspend their political campaigning for the local elections held that year to mourn the victims. All debates, internet campaigns, and official visits were cancelled. The political parties in the neighbouring municipalities of Karasjok, Kautokeino, and Loppa soon followed suit. School debates and elections were cancelled at the secondary schools in Alta and Karasjok, but in Kautokeino, only the debates were stopped. The secondary school in Alta also suspended all their lessons on Monday in order to provide care for any students that may have been affected. Prime Minister Erna Solberg offered her condolences to the families of the victims and the community of Alta, in particular to Ronny Berg, who had worked in her cabinet. She also sent condolences to the people working at Helitrans. The Northern Lights Cathedral in Alta held a memorial service for the passengers on 4 September. The attendees numbered in the hundreds, exceeding the capacity of the venue. Karasjok Church did the same for two of the victims whose parents and extended family were from Karasjok. Around 30 people showed up. On 13 September, a fundraiser was started on Spleis [no] to support the family of the pilot after a Facebook user commented on the lack of support for him compared to the passengers: "If we all give , we could send it to Helitrans to have them order and deliver a flower from the people of Alta". The fundraiser reached in less than a day, exceeding its initial goal of , and reached a total of by its conclusion. Helitrans stated that they would transfer the money to an account administered by them until the family had decided what to do with it. Another fundraiser was started the following day to support the families of the victims from Alta, with money to be split equally among them. It earned a total of . Several monuments were unveiled in the area on 31 August 2020, a year after the incident took place, to commemorate the victims; One was located at the Northern Lights Cathedral, which was unveiled by Alta Councillor Bjørn-atle Hansen. Around 200 people attended the ceremony. Another memorial was made by local youth at Kvenvikmoen where a makeshift memorial was held the previous year. It was located on the grounds of a local golf club, who did not mind its presence. The last one was unveiled at Skoddevarre by Helitrans general manager Richard Simonsen, who invited the families of the victims to attend. The pilot's family could not come due to the COVID-19 pandemic. After a speech at the memorial, Simonsen laid down a wreath next to it, followed by families of the deceased laying down flowers. Helitrans also grounded all of their helicopters for an hour. After the NSIA's report came out in March 2022, people in Alta voiced their criticism of the practice of flying sightseeing tours with passengers to build experience. The families of the victims were, according to their lawyer, also critical of Helitrans for not securing their helicopters with CRFSs. ## Aftermath Alta municipality mobilised a crisis response team at the town hall shortly after news of the accident was reported. The Regional Psychiactric Centre for Western Finnmark set up a phone number that the next-of-kin and friends of the victims could call for immediate support from emergency personnel or a crisis response team. The Municipal Medical Officer of Alta ordered local psychiatric institutions such as the Finnmark Hospital Trust to prioritise supporting the bereaved over other non-emergency cases. General practitioners were consequently ordered to always be ready to pick up phone calls, and if they were unable to, were asked to call back as quickly as possible. The local church (the Northern Lights Cathedral), youth centre, and hospital were fully staffed by doctors and nurses to provide support. The Høstsprell festival cancelled all events, but allowed for people to gather at the premises. The general manager of Alta Event, the company behind the festival, stated they would stop providing sightseeing tours in helicopters. Helitrans grounded their fleet of helicopters following the incident; the helicopters were back in service on 11 September. On 2 September 2020, Helitrans general manager Richard Simonsen stated that they would no longer provide sightseeing tours out of respect for the victims. By September 2021, Helitrans had invested in two new flight simulators to "promote a culture of safety" and enhance the safety standards of their pilots. They also invited other companies to assist in building a competency centre to raise safety standards in the industry. Airbus made crash-resistant fuel systems part of the standard equipment on every new AS350 on 1 October 2019, and strongly suggested that operators retrofit their old helicopters with the new systems. An AS350 flight simulator facility was opened in Vantaa, Finland, by flight training company Coptersafety on 17 October, with the highest level of certification from the European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA). In March 2022, the NSIA requested a ban on commercial flights of helicopters without CRFSs within the European Union, noting that the occupants could have "probably survived" if a fire had not broken out immediately after. In November, the EASA released a Notice of Proposed Amendment to mandate the installation of CRFSs onto old helicopter designs still in production, and the retrofitting of existing aircraft with such systems. Any opinions provided by interested parties will be submitted to the European Commission in 2023, who will decide if the installation of CRFSs on helicopters should be a requirement to earn an airworthiness certificate. In light of the NSIA's report, Helitrans stated that they had replaced 60% of their old fleet with new helicopters installed with a CRFS; they did not view retrofitting their old rotorcraft with the system as cost-effective. ### Lawsuits Hours after the crash took place, the Troms and Finnmark Public Prosecution Office ordered the police in Finnmark to investigate Helitrans in regards to their pilot licencing and certificates, among other things. On 22 July 2022, the public prosecutor decided to drop the case against the pilot because of his death, and the case against Helitrans due to the lack of evidence. Police attorney Hanne Bernhardsen stated that the accident had been thoroughly investigated by police. A lawyer representing four of the families did not want to comment on any potential appeal against the ruling. On 4 September 2019, days after the crash had occurred, the newly established consulting firm Helicopter Solutions sent e-mails to various lawyers in Alta, claiming that they would assist in any potential lawsuits against Helitrans as "independent specialists providing testimony on helicopter operations and technical maintenance". In their correspondences, they used preliminary information about the crash to assign fault to Helitrans and the pilot, noting that the company had previously been implicated in deadly crashes. Three of the lawyers contacted by the firm condemned their proposition as speculative and distasteful, saying that it was too early to draw conclusions. Helitrans general manager Richard Simonsen called it untimely and tasteless. Helicopter Solutions did not return any requests for comment from Altaposten or Finnmark Dagblad.
21,691,720	Back to Tennessee (song)	1,171,627,920	null	[ "2009 singles", "2009 songs", "Billy Ray Cyrus songs", "Country rock songs", "Lyric Street Records singles", "Song recordings produced by Mark Bright (record producer)", "Songs about Tennessee", "Songs written by Billy Ray Cyrus", "Songs written by Matthew Wilder", "Walt Disney Records singles" ]	"Back to Tennessee" is a country rock song by American singer-songwriter and actor Billy Ray Cyrus. It released as the second single from Cyrus' eleventh studio album of the same name on February 2, 2009 by Lyric Street Records. Cyrus drafted the song after learning that Hannah Montana: The Movie, a film he would star in, would be set in Tennessee. The song, developed with the aid of co-songwriters Tamara Dunn and Matthew Wilder, includes country rock elements while describing Cyrus' longing to return to the South, where he grew up, after spending several years in Los Angeles. "Back to Tennessee" was featured in both Hannah Montana: The Movie and its soundtrack. "Back to Tennessee" was well received by critics, though some felt it took the album's message too literally. It was a moderate commercial achievement for Cyrus and charted within the top fifty of the Billboard magazine chart Hot Country Songs. The song's music video was directed by Declan Whitebloom and features scenes of Cyrus at a beach inter cut with clips of Hannah Montana: The Movie. The song was performed in several venues. ## Development Cyrus moved to Los Angeles to star on the Disney Channel television series Hannah Montana in 2006. Cyrus's character, Robby Ray Stewart, is a former country singer and the father of Miley Stewart, a popstar played by Miley Cyrus, Cyrus' real life daughter. The television series became a worldwide hit and the basis for Hannah Montana: The Movie, a feature film released in 2009. Cyrus first read the script for Hannah Montana: The Movie while in Malibu in early 2008. The film's plot features the Stewarts leaving Hollywood for a summer and returning to Tennessee, their home state, to reconnect with their southern roots. Having grown up in Kentucky, Cyrus was excited to learn the film would be set in the country and fought for it to be filmed on location. "They were gonna film it in a different state [but] I just knew that Tennessee had all the facilities, the man power, and the ability to make this film great," said Cyrus. In addition, Cyrus believed that "in real life, Miley and [he] needed to come back home", saying, "It was important for us to come back to where we are from and remember who we are." Once filming in Tennessee was settled, Cyrus was "overcome with a very positive emotion of coming back home" and wrote "Back to Tennessee" with the aid of songwriters Tamara Dunn and Matthew Wilder. Cyrus recorded "Back to Tennessee" for the film Hannah Montana: The Movie, in which his character performs the song at a fundraiser to save the meadows near his hometown from development. Cyrus says the song is "part of the cornerstone" of the film because it reflects the film's theme of escaping the fast-paced, glitzy world of Hollywood in search of a simpler country lifestyle. Cyrus commented, > "It's about remembering, you know, where you come from. It's always important to be aware of where you're at and always be looking to where you wanna go, but most importantly don't forget where you come from. That's 'Back to Tennessee' is all about [...] With me, I always try to keep it real with the music, you know. Line by line you listen to the song and you know that I'm walking the walk and talking the talk. It's what this song's all about. It definitely comes from the heart." ## Composition "Back to Tennessee" is one of the more rock music influenced tracks on Back to Tennessee. It is set in common time with a country rock tempo of 120 beats per minute. The song is written in the key of C major. The song has the following chord progression, C—C7—C. Cyrus said of the lyrics, "If you download "Back to Tennessee" and listen to the whole song, you'll hear exactly how I felt after four years of Hannah Montana, and living in Los Angeles and giving up my previous life and existence and who I am and where I come from. You'll hear a guy who's immersed in music, and my love and desire and need to go back home." Jon Caramanica of The New York Times interpreted the song as an apology "both to [Cyrus's] teenage self and, by extension, to the daughter under his wing." Both Caramanica and Alison Stewart of The Washington Post took interest in the lines, "Great big town/So full of users". Caramanica said the line recognized that "fame is illusory" and "talk[ed] about some of his daughter’s famous friends", while Stewart interpreted the line as a description of Hollywood life in general. ## Critical reception The song received generally positive reviews from critics. Shelly Fabian of About.com said, "There's a special quality to this single that might be able to help people get past 'that one song' from Billy Ray Cyrus's past and realize there's so much more to the man than something from two decades ago." While reviewing the Hannah Montana: The Movie soundtrack, Heather Phares of Allmusic said the song "fits in smoothly with an acoustic version of Rascal Flatts' witty 'Backwards'". Jon Caramanica of The New York Times said, "His hard-won insight is the next best thing to a good swaddle." Allison Stewart of The Washington Post described "Back to Tennessee" as a "fusillade of strident twang rock track". She added that the song was "eager" and that it explained "Country as Country Can Be". Yahoo! Music thought the song was followed Back to Tennessee's message "too literally". The song was included on the short list for Best Original Song at the 82nd Academy Awards, but failed to achieve a nomination. ## Chart performance In the United States, "Back to Tennessee" failed to reach the Billboard Hot 100, the country's main singles chart, but charted on the country-genre chart. In the week ending March 7, 2009, "Back to Tennessee" debuted at number fifty-nine on Billboard'''s Hot Country Songs. "The Climb", by Cyrus' daughter, Miley Cyrus, debuted at number forty-eight the same week, the first time a father and daughter had separate charting songs on the chart since Johnny Cash and Rosanne Cash charted in 1990 with "Silver Stallion" and "One Step over the Line", respectively. On the week ending April 25, 2009, the song reached its peak at number forty-seven on the chart. ## Music video The music video for "Back to Tennessee" was directed by Declan Whitebloom and premiered on March 12, 2009 on CMT. It was partially shot in Malibu, California, where Cyrus wrote the song. Like the song, the video represents Cyrus' desire to return home. Cyrus explained, > "When I see the video for 'Back to Tennessee,' there's a lot of emotion there. It's a combination between the Hannah Montana movie and going back to the actual spot where I wrote the song. I wrote the song in Malibu, and we went back to Malibu to film the video. I had never done a video exactly where I wrote the song. Then we take my little blue truck from the movie and travel back across the country. Again, it becomes a very articulate picture of what that song's about. It's everything a video is supposed to be." Cyrus's "little blue truck" is the blue 1990 Ford Ranger that he drove in the film, which was transported to California to be used in the video. The video prominently features clips of Hannah Montana: The Movie, particularly the scene in which Cyrus performs "Back to Tennessee". Cyrus's backup band in that performance includes part of Taylor Swift's band, Bucky Covington, and Marcel. About the video as a whole, Cyrus said, "I hope when people, you know, watch the video. I hope that they can feel what this song is about. I hope they can relate to that in their life and their world." The video commences with the Hannah Montana: The Movie performance, in which Cyrus and his backup band perform atop a stage in a crowded barn. The video then switches to its principal setting, which features Cyrus on a beach at sunset. Cyrus is seen in a black T-shirt tossing rocks at the ocean and looking at a picture of a blond woman. The woman is portrayed by Melora Hardin, who plays Lorelai, Robby Ray's love interest in Hannah Montana: The Movie. As the video progresses, Cyrus is also seen with the blue Ford Ranger, either driving it or leaning against it while playing an acoustic guitar. The video also includes clips of Lorelai, Robby Ray, Miley Stewart, and Miley Stewart's love interest, Travis Body. The video ends with Cyrus, looking down, walking next to the seashore. ## Live performances Cyrus performed "Back to Tennessee" as part of the AOL Sessions on April 13, 2009. He also performed the song and several others in a London Apple Store on April 24, 2009. The set, along with some songs by Miley, were recorded and sold exclusively by the United Kingdom iTunes Store as an extended play titled iTunes Live from London''. On August 1, 2009, Cyrus performed the song at the 2009 Hannity Freedom Concert, a concert supporting the Freedom Alliance Scholarship Fund.
438,077	Bond Street	1,144,860,042	Street in the West End of London	[ "Mayfair", "Shopping streets in London", "Streets in the City of Westminster" ]	Bond Street in the West End of London links Piccadilly in the south to Oxford Street in the north. Since the 18th century the street has housed many prestigious and upmarket fashion retailers. The southern section is Old Bond Street and the longer northern section New Bond Street—a distinction not generally made in everyday usage. The street was built on fields surrounding Clarendon House on Piccadilly, which were developed by Sir Thomas Bond. It was built up in the 1720s, and by the end of the 18th century was a popular place for the upper-class residents of Mayfair to socialise. Prestigious or expensive shops were established along the street, but it declined as a centre of social activity in the 19th century, although it held its reputation as a fashionable place for retail, and is home to the auction houses Sotheby's and Bonhams (formerly Phillips) and the department store Fenwick and jeweller Tiffany's. It is one of the most expensive and sought after strips of real estate in Europe. ## Geography Bond Street is the only street that links Oxford Street and Piccadilly. Old Bond Street is at the southern end between Piccadilly and Burlington Gardens. The northern section, New Bond Street, extends to Oxford Street. The entire street is around 0.5 miles (0.8 km) long. Many shop frontages are less than 20 feet (6 m) wide. The nearest tube stations are Green Park on Piccadilly, and Bond Street station on Oxford Street. Bond Street station does not directly connect to either New or Old Bond Street. No buses use the street, although the C2 service crosses New Bond Street. Part of New Bond Street is numbered B406 but the remainder and all of Old Bond Street is unclassified. New Bond Street is pedestrianised between Grafton Street and Clifford Street to prevent through traffic and to stop the road being used as a rat run. ## History There is evidence of Roman settlement around what is now Bond Street. In 1894, a culvert made from brick and stone was discovered in the area. The street was named after Sir Thomas Bond, the head of a syndicate of developers who purchased a Piccadilly mansion called Clarendon House from Christopher Monck, 2nd Duke of Albemarle in 1686, and proceeded to demolish the house and develop the area. At that time, the house backed onto open fields, known as Albemarle Ground, and the development of estates in Mayfair had just begun. New Bond Street was laid out during the second phase of construction 14 years after Bond's syndicate began developing the area. Most of the building along the street occurred in the 1720s, on what was the Conduit Mead Estate. John Rocque's map of London, published in 1746, shows properties along the entire length of Bond Street, including the fully constructed side streets. The two parts of the street have always had separate names, and a plan by the council to merge the two into a singular "Bond Street" in the 1920s was rejected by locals. During the 18th century, the street began to be popular with the bourgeoisie living around Mayfair. Shop owners let out their upper storeys for residential purposes, attracting lodgers such as Jonathan Swift, George Selwyn, William Pitt the Elder and Laurence Sterne. In 1784, Georgiana Cavendish, Duchess of Devonshire, an active socialite, demanded that people boycott Covent Garden as its residents had voted against Whig member of parliament Charles James Fox. This had caused him to lose his seat in Parliament, leading to the dissolution of the Fox–North Coalition. She insisted people should look for nearer shopping streets, and encouraged people to go to Bond Street. Consequently, the street became a retail area for people living in Mayfair. By the end of the century, an upper-class social group known as the Bond Street Loungers had appeared, wearing expensive wigs and parading up and down the street in a pretentious manner. Lord Nelson stayed at temporary lodgings in New Bond Street between 1797 and 1798, as did his mistress Emma, Lady Hamilton between 1811 and 1813. Thomas Pitt, 2nd Baron Camelford lived in Bond Street and was unhappy about the presence of the Bond Street Loungers. Already notorious for a violent and abusive temper, on 7 October 1801 he refused invitations to join in celebrations of peace between Britain and France (which led to the Treaty of Amiens), resulting in an altercation with several Loungers at his doorstep. Camelford retreated upstairs and fired upon the crowd with a pistol. During the 19th century, Bond Street became less known for its social atmosphere but increased its reputation as a street for luxury shopping. The auctioneer Phillips was established in 1796 at No. 101 Bond Street, specialising in stringed instruments and sheet music. The jewellers Asprey originally opened in 1830 at Nos. 165–169 New Bond Street. Opposite Asprey was the luxury luggage and trunk maker Finnigans, originally established in Manchester in 1830. The house of Finnigans opened their New Bond Street shop in 1879. The Jewish practice of Kabbalah has been associated with the street after former East End trader Sarah Levenson opened a shop on No. 50 New Bond Street in 1856 which immediately became profitable, albeit through exaggerated and questionable product claims. Levenson was twice taken to court and prosecuted for fraud; each prosecution resulted in a five-year prison sentence. She died midway through the second. Nevertheless, the practice regained popularity and a Kabbalah Centre remains on the street. The Royal Arcade links Old Bond Street with Albemarle Street. It was originally proposed in 1864 as a longer link between Old Bond Street and Regent Street, but this plan was rejected because of the scale of proposed demolition and reduced access to existing properties. It was subsequently redesigned in its current layout, opening in 1879 and replacing the Clarendon Hotel, which had been demolished in 1870. The Grosvenor Gallery opened on New Bond Street in 1877 by Sir Coutts Lindsay. It cost over £100,000 to build and included a restaurant and library downstairs, and two exhibition rooms upstairs. A negative review by John Ruskin of exhibits by James McNeill Whistler led to Whistler suing Ruskin for libel, winning a farthing in compensation. This case was satirised in Gilbert and Sullivan's Patience, with the line, "greenery-yallery, Grosvenor Gallery". The street has maintained its reputation for luxury shopping into the 21st century, and has on occasion been regarded as the best retail location in Europe. In 2011, Bloomberg News reported that New Bond Street was the most expensive retail street in Europe after the Champs-Élysées in Paris. As a consequence, though, the street has many times suffered from armed robbery, as robbers are attracted by the high value of the goods. The Graff Diamonds robbery in Bond Street in 2009 resulted in an estimated loss of £40 million. ## Properties According to Westminster City Council, Bond Street has the highest density of haute couture stores anywhere in the world, attracting "the rich, the famous, and the simply curious". The entire length of Bond Street has been part of the Mayfair Conservation Area controlled by Westminster City Council since 1969. Building alterations and constructions are tightly controlled to ensure the street's appearance and upkeep are unaltered. Many buildings are listed. The council regulates the style and materials used on shop front advertising. At one time, Bond Street was best known for top-end art dealers and antique shops that were clustered around the London office of Sotheby's auction house, which has been at Nos. 34–35 Bond Street since 1917, and the Fine Art Society, founded in 1876. The sculpture over the entrance to Sotheby's is from Ancient Egypt and is believed to date from around 1600 BC. It is the oldest outdoor sculpture in London. Some dealers and antique shops remain, but others are fashion boutiques or branches of global designer brands. The street still has a reputation as a fashionable place for shopping, including the flagship stores of Ralph Lauren and Cartier. Fenwick have had a department store on Bond Street since 1891. The Phillips building at No. 101 is still used for auctions; the company was bought in 2001 by Bonhams, who spent £30 million expanding and refurbishing the premises. In 2015, Valentino announced plans to build a new flagship store on Old Bond Street. The street features Allies, a statue of Winston Churchill and Franklin D. Roosevelt, who are portrayed sitting in conversation on a park bench, sculpted by Lawrence Holofcener. The statue, popular with tourists, was erected by the Bond Street Association to commemorate 50 years since the end of World War II, and was unveiled in May 1995 by Princess Margaret. In 2013, maquettes of the sculpture (which are replicas, as Holofcener did not make any as part of the original artwork or design) were sold at Bonhams. Henry Moore has four sculptures engraved into the building work of no.153 (a Loro Piana branch), which he subsequently attempted to buy back when he felt no one noticed them. The construction of Crossrail, part of which runs between Bond Street and Tottenham Court Road stations, involved demolition of property in nearby Hanover Square, some of which backs onto New Bond Street. This affected Nos. 64–72, which required refurbishment. ## Cultural references Bond Street has been mentioned in several works of literature, including Jane Austen's novel Sense and Sensibility and Virginia Woolf's 1925 novel Mrs Dalloway. The plot of the 1948 film Bond Street is based on items purchased from shops in the street. In Susanna Clarke's novel Jonathan Strange & Mr. Norrell, Bond Street is described as having "the most fashionable shops in all the kingdom". Bond Street is also a square on the British Monopoly board and is the most expensive of the green-coloured set that also includes Regent and Oxford Streets. The three streets are grouped together because of their shared retail history.
44,348,869	Sopiko Guramishvili	1,170,671,620	Georgian chess player (born 1991)	[ "1991 births", "Chess International Masters", "Chess players from Georgia (country)", "Chess woman grandmasters", "Dutch chess players", "Dutch female chess players", "Dutch people of Georgian descent", "Emigrants from Georgia (country) to the Netherlands", "Female chess players from Georgia (country)", "Ilia State University alumni", "Living people", "Sportspeople from Tbilisi", "World Youth Chess Champions" ]	Sopiko Guramishvili (Georgian: სოფიკო გურამიშვილი; born 1 January 1991) is a Georgian and Dutch chess player, author, and commentator who holds the titles of International Master (IM) and Woman Grandmaster (WGM). Having represented Georgia for the bulk of her playing career, she has been an under-16 girls' World Youth Champion and an under-18 girls' Georgian national champion. She has a peak FIDE rating of 2441 and has been ranked as high as No. 42 in the world among women. Guramishvili began playing chess at age five. She regularly qualified for and participated in the World Youth Chess Championships from age ten onwards. She won a silver medal in the under-12 girls' division in 2003 and a gold medal in the under-16 girls' division in 2006. Guramishvili first qualified for the Georgian Women's Chess Championship at age 17. Her best finish was in 2009, when she came in joint second place and earned a WGM norm. Guramishvili was awarded the WGM title in 2009 at age 18 and the IM title in 2012 at age 21. She earned her last IM norm at the 2011 Nakhchivan Open, during which she defeated Sergey Fedorchuk, a Ukrainian Grandmaster (GM) rated 2662. Guramishvili has routinely performed well at the European Individual Women's Chess Championship, earning a double IM norm in 2010 and twice qualifying for the Women's World Chess Championship 64-player knockout tournament because of her 2013 and 2015 results. At the 2017 Women's World Championship, she eliminated higher-seeded Sarasadat Khademalsharieh and reached the round of 16. Guramishvili had her two best tournament performance ratings in 2016, with a career-best of 2509 at the Tata Steel Tienkamp. Beyond competing at chess, Guramishvili has developed online courses and other instructional videos, in particular for chess24. With fellow IM Anna Rudolf, she has co-hosted an instructional series on chess24 where Rudolf and Guramishvili are known respectively as Miss Strategy and Miss Tactics. She was also one of the official commentators for the 2014 World Chess Championship match. Guramishvili is married to Anish Giri, a Dutch Grandmaster who has been ranked as high as No. 3 in the world. ## Early life and background Sopiko Guramishvili was born on 1 January 1991 in Tbilisi, the capital of the Georgian SSR and the modern-day capital of Georgia. She was first introduced to chess inadvertently at age five while her grandmother was teaching her how to play draughts. After she was more intrigued by the chess pieces that weren't being used, her mother taught her the game. Guramishvili first qualified for the World Youth Chess Championships in 2001 in Oropesa del Mar at age ten. She finished in equal ninth out of 70 competitors in the under-10 girls' division with a score of a score of 7 points in 11 games (7/11), three points behind the winner Tan Zhongyi. ## Chess career ### 2002–06: Under-16 World Champion Guramishvili first earned a FIDE rating through the International Chess Federation (FIDE) in October 2002, starting at 2142 at age eleven. By the middle of 2003, she had earned the Woman FIDE Master (WFM) title. That year, she finished on the podium in the under-12 girls' division at both the European Youth and World Youth Chess Championships. At the former in Budva, Montenegro, she earned a bronze medal with a score of 7/9, tied with Elena Tairova and behind only Anastasia Bodnaruk, having lost to both of them. She fared better at the latter tournament in Kallithea in Greece, earning a silver medal. With a score of 81⁄2/11, she finished ahead of Tan only on the tiebreak criteria and was runner-up to Ding Yixin, having won her games against Tan, Tairova, and Bodnaruk, but losing to Ding. Guramishvili moved up to the under-14 girls' division the following year, but had less success. Over the next two years, her best result in this division came at the 2004 World Championships, where she finished in equal fourth place. After more than three years with a steady rating just below 2150, Guramishvili reached a new peak rating of 2180 in April 2006 with a strong performance at the qualification tournament for the Georgian Women's Chess Championship. She scored 51⁄2/9, a point behind joint first place finishers Sopiko Khukhashvili and Tamar Tsereteli. Although she narrowly did not qualify because of the tiebreak criteria, she gained 31 rating points. Guramishvili finished the year with a redeeming performance at the World Youth Chess Championships, which were hosted by her home country in Batumi. Despite an opening round loss to a much lower-rated player, she recovered to dominate the rest of the under-16 girls' event with wins in nine of her last ten games. She finished with 91⁄2/11, winning the division easily by 11⁄2 points. She also reached a rating of 2200 for the first time. This win was part of a stretch where Georgia won the gold medal in the under-16 girls' division seven out of ten times from 1999 through 2008. ### 2007–09: Woman Grandmaster title Guramishvili consolidated her 2006 World Championship gold medal with another strong year in 2007, gaining about another 100 rating points and earning her first norm for the Woman Grandmaster (WGM) title. Early in the year, she fared well at both the Georgian under-18 boys' championship and the qualification tournament for the open Georgian Chess Championship, helping her climb to a rating of 2267. A few months later, she also performed well at the Georgian under-20 boys' championship. Guramishvili's first WGM norm came in early September at the Open Internacional D'Escacs de Sants in Barcelona. She scored 61⁄2/10 for a performance rating of 2400. This result also helped her reach a rating of 2300, the threshold for the WGM title, for the first time. At the end of year in Antalya in Turkey, Guramishvili attempted to defend her under-16 girls' world championship, but finished a 1⁄2 point behind the four leaders. The tournament was won by her compatriot Keti Tsatsalashvili. One of Guramishvili's biggest achievements in 2008 was qualifying for the Georgian Women's Chess Championship for the first time, finishing in equal second with a score of 61⁄2/9 in the qualification tournament. In the main championship, a 14-player round robin, she finished in the middle of the field with 51⁄2/12, a result consistent with her rating. She qualified for the Women's Championship again in 2009. With only 12 players in the field, she had a much better result, finishing in equal second with four other players who scored 61⁄2/11, a 1⁄2 point behind the winner Maia Lomineishvili. Moreover, she earned her second WGM norm. Guramishvili earned her third and final WGM norm at her next tournament, the European Individual Women's Chess Championship, and was awarded the title in June at 18 years old. That May, she won the Georgian under-18 girls' championship and also finished in equal first in the Georgian under-20 girls' championship, narrowly coming in second place to Miranda Mikadze on the tiebreak criteria. At another tournament, she had a win against Gevorg Harutjunyan, an Armenian Grandmaster (GM) rated 2504, at a tournament in Tbilisi. At the end of the year, Guramishvili was in contention to win the under-18 girls' division at the World Youth Chess Championships, but lost to the eventual winner Olga Girya in the penultimate round and ultimately finished in sixth place. ### 2010–13: International Master title Although Guramishvili maintained a rating in the low 2300s through the middle of 2011, she continued to progress by attaining all three of her norms for the International Master (IM) title over this span. She earned her first two IM norms as a double norm at the 2010 European Individual Women's Chess Championship. She improved on her 2009 result of 6/11 with a score of 61⁄2/11, corresponding to a performance rating of 2467. In August, Guramishvili participated in the under-20 World Junior Chess Championships in Chotowa in Poland, finishing in eighth place, 21⁄2 points behind the winner Anna Muzychuk. A month later, she also participated in the women's event at the 2010 World University Chess Championship in Zurich and had a much better result, winning the bronze medal, having finished in joint second with Ljilja Drljević and a 1⁄2 point behind the winner Batkhuyagiin Möngöntuul. Guramishvili's best results from late 2010 through the first half of 2011 were at the 2010 Torneo Internacional Femenino Gran Hotel Bali in Spain and the 2011 Nakhchivan Open in Azerbaijan. She won the former tournament, a ten-player women's round robin, ahead of higher-rated players Alina l'Ami and her compatriot Ana Matnadze. At the latter tournament, she earned her third and final IM norm. Although she only scored 4/9, she still had a performance rating of 2451 as she had faced opponents with a much higher average rating of 2492. During the tournament, she defeated Sergey Fedorchuk, a Ukrainian GM rated 2662. With all three IM norms, she only needed to reach a rating of 2400 to qualify for the title. Over the next twelve months, Guramishvili gained about another 100 rating points, a stretch that began in May 2011 after the Nakhchivan Open. In particular, she finished a 1⁄2 point behind the winner at the Paleochora International Chess Tournament in Greece, gaining 31 rating points. She then won two tournaments, namely the qualification tournament for the Georgian Women's Chess Championship in December, followed by the women's round robin event at the Reggio Emilia tournament in January. The open event at the latter tournament was won by her future husband Anish Giri. With another score of 61⁄2/11 at the European Individual Women's Chess Championship in March, Guramishvili passed the 2400 rating threshold to earn the IM title at age 21. She ended 2012 by winning the Torneo Internacional Femenino Gran Hotel Bali for a second time. Guramishvili continued to steadily increase her rating through most of 2013, reaching her career-best rating of 2441 that November. She also reached a career-best women's ranking of No. 42 in the world a month earlier. One of the few tournaments where she had a sub-par performance and did not gain rating points was at the Georgian Women's Chess Championship, where her score of 61⁄2/11 only put her in joint fourth place. Her better performances during the year included a career-best score of 7/11 at the European Individual Women's Chess Championship and a joint first-place finish at the Torneo Cerrado Internacional Femenino Ciudad De Linares, where she was runner-up on the tiebreak criteria. At the end of the year, Guramishvili dropped below a rating of 2400 after a poor performance at the Chennai Open in India, where she had a negative score against opponents with a lower average rating. ### 2014–present: World Championship competitor Since 2014, Guramishvili has largely maintained a steady rating just below 2400 while generally playing fewer tournaments. Her biggest tournament during this span was the Women's World Chess Championship, which was played as a 64-player knockout event at the time. She qualified for the world championship tournament twice, in 2015 as the 46th seed and in 2017 as the 45th seed. She had qualified through her performances at the European Individual Women's Chess Championship in 2013 and 2015 respectively, at which she scored 7/11 and 61⁄2/11. In 2015, she was eliminated in the first round by her compatriot Lela Javakhishvili by losing one of the two games in the second set of tiebreaks, played in a 10+10 rapid format. They had each won one of the two classical games, and both of the 25+10 rapid games in the first set of tiebreaks ended in draws. In 2017, Guramishvili had a much better result, winning two rounds and advancing to the round of 16. All three of her matches were decided on tiebreaks. In the first round, she upset 20th-seed Sarasadat Khademalsharieh, an IM rated 2445. After they each won a classical game, Guramishvili won both of the games in the first set of rapid tiebreaks to advance. In the next round, she faced a lower-rated opponent, 52nd-seed Nataliya Buksa, who had also advanced via an upset. Nonetheless, the match was decided through 5+3 blitz tiebreaks. They each won a classical game and a 10+10 rapid game, having drawn both 25+10 rapid games in-between. In the blitz tiebreak, Guramishvili won the second game to advance. She was eliminated in the following round by 4th-seed Dronavalli Harika, a GM rated 2539. After they had drawn both classical games and both 25+10 rapid games, Dronavalli won the first of the two 10+10 rapid games to advance. In-between competing at the two Women's World Championships, Guramishvili had the two best tournaments of her career by performance rating in 2016. She was one of the participants in the Tata Steel Tienkamp, a ten-player round robin played alongside the Tata Steel Masters in Wijk aan Zee in the Netherlands. Anna Rudolf, her regular broadcast partner, was one of the other participants. Guramishvili finished in joint second with 6/9, a 1⁄2 point behind the winner Vladimir Dobrov, a GM rated 2518. Her only loss in the event was to Dobrov. Overall, her opponents had an average rating of 2384, similar to her own rating of 2374, and her performance rating was 2509. Later in the year, Guramishvili also scored 6/9 at the London Chess Classic. With her opponents having an average rating of 2348, that score corresponded to a performance rating of 2473. Guramishvili had the opportunity to participate in the more prestigious Tata Steel Challengers in 2017, an event where the winner is invited to compete in the Tata Steel Masters the following year. She did not have a good result, however, finishing in last place. Against opponents with an average rating of 2610, she did not win any of her games, drawing three times in thirteen rounds. Guramishvili began representing the Netherlands in 2019, but has thus far not played many games since the switch. ## Playing style Guramishvili primarily plays 1.d4 (the Queen's Pawn Game) with the white pieces. She also prefers 1.Nf3 (the Zukertort Opening) or 1.c4 (the English Opening) compared to 1.e4 (the King's Pawn Game). With the black pieces, she often defends against 1.e4 with the Sicilian defence (1.e4 c5), which she commonly continues with the Najdorf variation (1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 d6 3.d4 cxd4 4.Nxd4 Nf6 5. Nc3 a6). ## Personal life Guramishvili graduated from Ilia State University in Georgia in 2013, where she studied English and Spanish. Guramishvili married fellow chess player Anish Giri in July 2015. Giri is a Russian-born Dutch Grandmaster of Nepalese descent who has frequently been ranked in the top 10 in the world since 2014, peaking at No. 3. They met at the Reggio Emilia tournament that took place around New Year's Day in 2012, where Guramishvili won the women's event and Giri won the open event. They live in The Hague in the Netherlands, and have two sons who were born in October 2016 and June 2021. Guramishvili switched federations from Georgia to the Netherlands in 2019. Guramishvili has been a regular online instructor for chess24. Together with fellow International Master Anna Rudolf, she has been making videos for the Miss Strategy and Miss Tactics series since 2014, in which Rudolf plays the role of Miss Strategy and Guramishvili plays the role of Miss Tactics. The series combines strategical and tactical approaches to chess. Guramishvili has also authored a chess24 series on how to play with the black pieces in the Sicilian Najdorf variation, and has two Chessable courses on how to play with the black pieces in the Queen's Gambit Accepted. In addition to instructional videos, Guramishvili has also commentated on chess tournaments for both chess24 and Chess.com. In particular, she and Peter Svidler were the official English language commentators for the 2014 World Chess Championship match between Magnus Carlsen and Viswanathan Anand.
68,409,610	Nothing New (song)	1,173,415,596	2021 song by Taylor Swift featuring Phoebe Bridgers	[ "2021 songs", "American folk songs", "Female vocal duets", "Phoebe Bridgers songs", "Song recordings produced by Aaron Dessner", "Song recordings produced by Taylor Swift", "Songs written by Taylor Swift", "Taylor Swift songs" ]	"Nothing New" is a song by American singer-songwriter Taylor Swift featuring American singer-songwriter Phoebe Bridgers. Swift wrote the song in March 2012 and produced it with Aaron Dessner for her second re-recorded studio album, Red (Taylor's Version), which was released in 2021 through Republic Records. The track is a guitar-led folk and alternative rock tune about anxieties over romance and growing up. Critics interpreted "Nothing New" as Swift's message about the music industry's treatment of female musicians. They lauded the song's production, songwriting, and the vocal chemistry between Swift and Bridgers. After Red (Taylor's Version) was released, the track peaked at number 43 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and the top 40 on singles charts in Australia, Canada, and Ireland. "Nothing New" was included on the set list of Swift's the Eras Tour at concerts opened by Bridgers, who performed the song with her. ## Background and release Taylor Swift's fourth studio album Red was released in 2012 by Big Machine Records. It combines country and pop with many genres, prompting media debate over Swift's status as a country artist. The album was a critical success, ranking at number 99 on Rolling Stone's 2020 revision of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time. By June 2021, it had sold over 4.4 million copies in the United States. Swift signed with Republic Records after her contract with Big Machine expired in 2018; the contract granted her rights to the master recordings of her music. In 2019, Big Machine, as well as the master recordings of Swift's first six studio albums, were acquired by businessman Scooter Braun. Swift began re-recording her Big Machine albums in November 2020, as a means to own her master recordings. The first re-recorded album, Fearless (Taylor's Version), the re-recording of Swift's 2008 album, was released on April 9, 2021. Swift released her second re-recorded album Red (Taylor's Version), the re-recording of the 2012 album, on November 12, 2021. In addition to the original Red tracks, Red (Taylor's Version) features nine unreleased "from the Vault" tracks—including "Nothing New". Swift wrote "Nothing New" on an Appalachian dulcimer in March 2012 when she was 22 years old. She later approached Phoebe Bridgers to feature vocals on the track for Red (Taylor's Version). In March 2023, Swift embarked on the Eras Tour, in which she performs various songs across her discography and features different opening acts at each concert, including Bridgers. At concerts opened by Bridgers, "Nothing New" was added on the tour's set list, where both Swift and Bridgers performed the track. ## Music and lyrics > I've been thinking a lot about getting older and relevancy and how all my heroes have ended up alone. "Nothing New" was produced by Swift and Aaron Dessner, the latter who recorded the instruments at his Long Pond Studio in New York. Swift's vocals were recorded by Christopher Rowe at Kitty Committee Studio in Belfast, and Bridgers's were recorded by Will Maclellan at Sound City Studios in Van Nuys. The song is a melancholic guitar-led alternative rock and folk ballad, featuring understated cello and violin. Written by Swift, the track is about anxiety over romance and growing up. In the chorus, Swift sings, "How can a person know everything at 18 but nothing at 22?" reflecting on her growing up, and "Will you still want me when I'm nothing new?" In the views of Olivia Horn from Pitchfork, "Nothing New" is not only about romantic anxieties, but also about "the music business' famously fickle relationship to young women". Laura Snapes from The Guardian agreed with this idea, citing the lyric "People love an ingenue" as Swift's internalized pressure to stay in the public eye. In a journal entry dated March 2, 2012, Swift wrote that the song is about "being scared of aging and things changing and losing what you have". ## Reception "Nothing New" was lauded by music critics. Horn, Snapes, and Bobby Olivier of Spin deemed the track one of the album's highlights; they noted the thoughtful lyrics and Swift's double entendre message about the music industry. In The New York Times, Lindsay Zoladz praised Bridgers's guest appearance and the songwriting, and considered it one of the best "from the Vault" tracks. Angie Martoccio of Rolling Stone lauded the song's production: "Swift's adult voice combines with Bridgers' honey-soaked, hushed vocals, melding together in an autumn rush that brushes against your cheek." The A.V. Club editor Saloni Gajjar picked "Nothing New" as the "most magnetic" among the unreleased tracks and highlighted its double-meaning message. Jason Lipshutz of Billboard complimented Bridgers's appearance and the lyrics. In Variety, Chris Willman gave the track a five-out-of-five rating; he praised Bridgers's vocals and Swift's thoughtful songwriting. The New Yorker's Carrie Battan compared "Nothing New" to the "folksy poeticism" of Swift's 2020 albums Folklore and Evermore. In the Los Angeles Times, Mikael Wood deemed the song the best "from the Vault" track, and highlighted its double entendre lyrics and nostalgic sentiments during the age of internet culture. After Red (Taylor's Version) was released, "Nothing New" debuted at number 43 on the US Billboard Hot 100 dated November 27, 2021. It peaked at number 11 on the Hot Country Songs chart. The track reached the top 40 on singles charts of Australia (31), Canada (22), and Ireland (25). On the Global 200 chart compiled by Billboard, "Nothing New" peaked at number 33. ## Credits and personnel Credits adapted from Red (Taylor's Version) album liner notes - Taylor Swift – lead vocals, songwriter, producer - Phoebe Bridgers – lead vocals - Aaron Dessner – producer, recording engineer, acoustic guitar, bass guitar, guitar, keyboard, piano, synthesizers - Tony Berg – vocal producer - Bella Blasko – recording engineer - Bryce Dessner – orchestrator - Clarice Jensen – cello, cello recording - Jonathan Low – recording engineer, mixer - Christopher Rowe – vocal recording - Will Maclellan – vocal recording - Kyle Resnick – violin recording - Yuki Numata Resnick – violin ## Charts
1,077,330	E. T. Whittaker	1,173,287,510	British mathematician and historian of science	[ "1873 births", "1956 deaths", "Academics of Trinity College Dublin", "Academics of the University of Edinburgh", "Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge", "Applied mathematicians", "British physicists", "British textbook writers", "Converts to Roman Catholicism", "De Morgan Medallists", "Directors of Dunsink Observatory", "E. T. Whittaker", "English Roman Catholics", "English historians", "Fellows of the Royal Society", "Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh", "Historians of physics", "Irish astronomers", "Knights Bachelor", "Mathematical physicists", "Mathematics education in the United Kingdom", "Members of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences", "Numerical analysts", "People educated at Manchester Grammar School", "People from Southport", "Presidents of the London Mathematical Society", "Presidents of the Royal Society of Edinburgh", "Recipients of the Copley Medal", "Second Wranglers", "Theoretical physicists", "Writers about religion and science" ]	Sir Edmund Taylor Whittaker (24 October 1873 – 24 March 1956) was a British mathematician, physicist, and historian of science. Whittaker was a leading mathematical scholar of the early 20th-century who contributed widely to applied mathematics and was renowned for his research in mathematical physics and numerical analysis, including the theory of special functions, along with his contributions to astronomy, celestial mechanics, the history of physics, and digital signal processing. Among the most influential publications in Whittaker's bibliography, he authored several popular reference works in mathematics, physics, and the history of science, including A Course of Modern Analysis (better known as Whittaker and Watson), Analytical Dynamics of Particles and Rigid Bodies, and A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity. Whittaker is also remembered for his role in the relativity priority dispute, as he credited Henri Poincaré and Hendrik Lorentz with developing special relativity in the second volume of his History, a dispute which has lasted several decades, though scientific consensus has remained with Einstein. Whittaker served as the Royal Astronomer of Ireland early in his career, a position he held from 1906 through 1912, before moving on to the chair of mathematics at the University of Edinburgh for the next three decades and, towards the end of his career, received the Copley Medal and was knighted. The School of Mathematics of the University of Edinburgh holds The Whittaker Colloquium, a yearly lecture, in his honour and the Edinburgh Mathematical Society promotes an outstanding young Scottish mathematician once every four years with the Sir Edmund Whittaker Memorial Prize, also given in his honour. ## Life ### Early life and education Edmund Taylor Whittaker was born in Southport, in Lancashire, the son of Selina Septima (née Taylor) and John Whittaker. He was described as an "extremely delicate child", necessitating his mother to home school him until he was 11 years old, when he was sent off to Manchester Grammar School. Ernest Barker, a classmate of Whittaker's at the Grammar School with whom he shared the office of prefect, later recalled his personality: "He had a gay, lively, bubbling spirit: he was ready for every prank: he survives in my memory as a natural actor; and I think he could also, on occasion, produce a merry poem." While at the school, Whittaker studied on the "classical side", devoting three-fifths of his time to Latin and Greek. Whittaker struggled with the poetry and drama which was required by the upper school, and expressed gratitude for being allowed to leave these studies behind and specialise in mathematics. In December 1891 Whittaker received an entrance scholarship to Trinity College, Cambridge. After completing his education at the Manchester Grammar School he went on to study mathematics and physics there from 1892 to 1895. He entered Trinity College as a minor scholar in October 1892 to study mathematics. Whittaker was the pupil of Andrew Russell Forsyth and George Howard Darwin while at Trinity College and received tutoring throughout his first two years. With an interest more in applied than pure mathematics, Whittaker won the Sheepshanks Astronomical Exhibition in 1894 as an undergraduate. He graduated as Second Wrangler in the Cambridge Tripos examination in 1895. The Senior Wrangler that year was Thomas John I'Anson Bromwich and Whittaker tied John Hilton Grace for second, all three along with three other participants, including Bertram Hopkinson, went on to be elected Fellows of the Royal Society. He also received the Tyson Medal for Mathematics and Astronomy in 1896. ### Career Whittaker was a fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge from 1896 to 1906 when took on the role of Royal Astronomer of Ireland. He held this post in Dublin until 1912, when he was appointed chair of mathematics at the University of Edinburgh, a role he went on to hold for just over a third of a century. Throughout his career, he wrote papers on automorphic functions and special functions in pure mathematics as well as on electromagnetism, general relativity, numerical analysis and astronomy in applied mathematics and physics, and was also interested in topics in biography, history, philosophy and theology. He also made several important innovations in Edinburgh that had a large impact on mathematical education and societies there. #### Trinity College, Cambridge In 1896, Whittaker was elected as a Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and remained at Cambridge as a teacher until 1906. In 1897, Whittaker was awarded the Smith Prize for his work on the paper "On the connexion of algebraic functions with automorphic functions", published in 1888. In 1902, Whittaker found a general solution to Laplace's equation, which received popular news coverage as a "remarkable discovery", though the mathematician Horace Lamb noted that it did not offer any new features. He also wrote several celebrated books in his early career, publishing A Course of Modern Analysis in 1902 and following it up with A Treatise on the Analytical Dynamics of Particles and Rigid Bodies just two years later in 1904. In September of that year, Whittaker was forced to sell six silver forks at an auction to pay back taxes which he had previously refused to pay due to the Education Act 1902 requiring citizens to pay taxes to fund local Christian schools, such as the Roman Catholic Church and the Church of England. Prior to being compelled by a magistrate to repay the tax burden, Whittaker was one of several activists who engaged in passive resistance by refusing to pay the taxes. In 1905, Whittaker was elected as a fellow of the Royal Society in recognition of his achievements. #### Trinity College Dublin In 1906, Whittaker was appointed Andrews Professor of Astronomy at Trinity College Dublin, which came with the title Royal Astronomer of Ireland. He succeeded Charles Jasper Joly at the post and was appointed upon recommendation from the astronomer Robert Stawell Ball. Ball's recommendation, which was published in a collection of his letters in 1915, stated that Whittaker was the only person he knew who could "properly succeed Joly" and that the role would "suit him in every way". He then describes Whittaker as "modest" and "charming" and as "a man who has infinite capacity for making things go". Ball said Whittaker was a world leading expert in theoretical astronomy and that, in relation to Whittaker's discovery of a general solution to Laplace's equation, notes that he "has already made one discovery which the greatest mathematician of the last two centuries would be proud to have placed to his credit". The Royal Astronomers acted as directors for the Dunsink Observatory, which used outdated astronomy equipment; it was understood that the primary responsibility of the role was to teach mathematical physics at Trinity College. During this time, the relative leisure of his post allowed him to complete the reading required to write his third major book A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity, from the age of Descartes to the close of the nineteenth century. Also during this time, he wrote the book The Theory of Optical Instruments, published six astronomy papers, and published collected astronomical observations. #### University of Edinburgh Whittaker became Professor of Mathematics at the University of Edinburgh in January 1912, where he remained for the rest of his career. The role was left vacant by the death of his predecessor, George Chrystal in 1911. He was elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1912, after being nominated by Cargill Gilston Knott, Ralph Allan Sampson, James Gordon MacGregor and Sir William Turner. He served as Secretary to the Society from 1916 to 1922, the Vice President from 1925 to 1928 and 1937 to 1939, and was President of the Society from 1939 to 1944, through the war years. Whittaker began holding "research lectures" in mathematics at the university, typically given twice a week. He was said to be a great lecturer by one of his previous attendees, who stated that his "clear diction, his felicity of language and his enthusiasm could not fail to evoke a response" and that he was very good with illustrations. Freeman Dyson commented on Whittaker's lecture style by saying that students were "warmed, not only by the physical presence of a big crowd packed together, but by the mental vigour and enthusiasm of the old man". Whittaker's efforts helped transform the Edinburgh Mathematical Society from a teachers society to an academic research society and was a major driving force in introducing computational mathematics education to the UK and America. Shortly after coming to Edinburgh, Whittaker established the Edinburgh Mathematical Laboratory, one of the UK's first mathematical laboratories. The laboratory was the first attempt of a systematic treatment of numerical analysis in Great Britain and friends of Whittaker have said he believes it his most notable contribution to the education of mathematics. Subjects taught at the laboratory included interpolation, the method of least squares, systems of linear equations, determinants, roots of transcendental equations, practical Fourier analysis, definite integrals, and numerical solution of differential equations. The laboratory program was so successful, it resulted in many requests for an extra summer course to allow others to attend who previously were unable, ultimately leading to the establishment of a colloquium through the Edinburgh Mathematical Society. In 1913, Whittaker established the Edinburgh Mathematical Society Colloquium and the first was held over five days in August of that year. The textbook The calculus of observations was compiled from courses given at the Laboratory over a ten-year period; the book was well received and ultimately went through four editions. ### Fellowships and academic positions Outside of the Royal Astronomer of Ireland and his roles in the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Whittaker held several notable academic posts, including president of the Mathematical Association from 1920 through 1921, president of the Mathematical and Physical Section (Section A) of the British Science Association in 1927, and was president of the London Mathematical Society from 1828 through 1829. Whittaker also held the Gunning Victoria Jubilee Prize Lectureship for "his service to mathematics" with the Royal Society of Edinburgh from 1924 through 1928. He was elected either Honorary Fellow or Foreign Member in a number of academic organisations, including the Accademia dei Lincei in 1922, the Societa Reale di Napoli in 1936, the American Philosophical Society in 1944, the Académie royale de Belgique in 1946, the Faculty of Actuaries in 1918, the Benares Mathematical Society in 1920, the Indian Mathematical Society in 1924, and the Mathematical Association in 1935. In 1956, he was elected as a corresponding member of the Geometry section of the French Academy of Sciences a few days before his death. Whittaker was also awarded honorary doctorates from several universities, including two LLDs from the University of St Andrews in 1926 and the University of California in 1934, an ScD from the Trinity College Dublin in 1906, and two D.Sc.s from the National University of Ireland in 1939 and University of Manchester in 1944. ### Later life Whittaker published many works on philosophy and theism in the last years of his career and during his retirement in addition to his work on the second edition of A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity. He released two books on Christianity and published several books and papers on the philosophy of Arthur Eddington. #### Christianity Whittaker was a Christian and became a convert to the Roman Catholic Church in 1930. In relation to that, Pope Pius XI awarded him with the Pro Ecclesia et Pontifice in 1935 and appointed him to the Pontifical Academy of Sciences in 1936. He was a member of the academy from 1936 onward and served as Honorary President of the Newman Society from 1943 to 1945. Whittaker published two book-length works on the topic of Christianity, including The beginning and end of the world and Space and spirit. The first of which was the result of the 1942 Riddell Memorial Lectures at Durham while the second is based on his 1946 Donnellan Lecture at Trinity College Dublin. It has been remarked by physics historian Helge Kragh, that in these books, Whittaker was "the only physical scientist of the first rank" who defended the strong entropic creation argument, which holds that as entropy always increases, the Universe must have started at a point of minimum entropy, which they argue implies the existence of a god. Whittaker published several articles which draw connections between science, philosophy and theism between 1947 and 1952 in the BBC magazine The Listener, one of which Religion and the nature of the universe was republished in American Vogue, making him "a rare, if not unique, example of a man whose published work not only crossed disciplinary boundaries, but was published everywhere from Nature to Vogue." #### Retirement Whittaker retired from his position as chair of the mathematics department at the University of Edinburgh in September 1946, a role he held for over 33 years. He was awarded emeritus professor status at the university which he retained until his death. In retirement, Whittaker worked tirelessly the second edition of his A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity, releasing The Classical Theories just a few years later. He also continued publishing works in philosophy and theism. James Robert McConnell noted that Whittaker's research in the connection between physics and philosophy spanned nearly forty publications written over his last 15 years. During the three years prior to the publication of second volume of his History, Whittaker had already determined that he was going to give priority for the discovery of special relativity to Henri Poincaré and Hendrik Lorentz in the new book. Max Born, a friend of Whittaker's, wrote a letter to Einstein in September 1953 explaining that he had done all he could over the previous three years to convince Whittaker to change his mind about Einstein's role, but Whittaker was resolved in the idea and, according to Born, he "cherished" and "loved to talk" about it. Born told Einstein that Whittaker insists that all the important features were developed by Poincaré while Lorentz "quite plainly had the physical interpretation", which annoyed Born as Whittaker was a "great authority in the English speaking countries" and he was worried that Whittaker's view would influence others. #### Death Whittaker died at his home, 48 George Square, Edinburgh, on 24 March 1956. He was buried at Mount Vernon Cemetery in Edinburgh, with "mathematical precision at a depth of 6 ft. 6 inches", according to the cemetery register. His entry in the Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society was written by George Frederick James Temple in November 1956. He received published obituaries from Alexander Aitken, Herbert Dingle, Gerald James Whitrow, and William Hunter McCrea, among others. His house was owned by the University of Edinburgh and was demolished in the 1960s to expand the campus and now holds the William Robertson Building. ### Personal life In 1901, while at Cambridge, he married Mary Ferguson Macnaghten Boyd, the daughter of a Presbyterian minister and granddaughter of Thomas Jamieson Boyd. They had five children, two daughters and three sons including the mathematician John Macnaghten Whittaker (1905–1984). His elder daughter, Beatrice, married Edward Taylor Copson, who would later become Professor of Mathematics at the University of St Andrews. George Frederick James Temple noted that Whittaker's home in Edinburgh was "a great centre of social and intellectual activity where liberal hospitality was dispensed to students of all ages", and went on to note that Whittaker had a happy home life and was well loved by his family. Whittaker kept a piano in his home which he did not know how to play, but enjoyed listening to friends play when they would come to visit. Whittaker was also known to take a personal interest in his students and would invite them to social gatherings at his house. He also continued to keep track of his Honours students over the years. His home was also the location of many unofficial interviews that would have a large impact on a student's future career. After his death, William Hunter McCrea described Whittaker as having a "quick wit" with an "ever-present sense of humour" and being "the most unselfish of men with a delicate sense of what would give help or pleasure to others". He notes that Whittaker had a "vast number of friends" and that he "never missed an opportunity to do or say something on behalf of any one of them". ## Legacy In addition to his textbooks and other works, several of which remain in print, Whittaker is remembered for his research in automorphic functions, numerical analysis, harmonic analysis, and general relativity. He has several theorems and functions named in his honour. In June 1958, two years after his death, an entire issue of the Proceedings of the Edinburgh Mathematical Society was dedicated to his life and works. The volume included an article by Robert Alexander Rankin on Whittaker's work on automorphic functions, an article on Whittaker's work on numerical analysis by Alexander Aitken, his work on Harmonic functions was covered in an article by Temple, John Lighton Synge wrote about his contributions to the theory of relativity, and James Robert McConnell wrote about Whittaker's philosophy. Among others, Whittaker coined the terms cardinal function and Mathieu function. The School of Mathematics of the University of Edinburgh holds the annual Whittaker Colloquium in his honour. Funded by a donation from his family in 1958, the Edinburgh Mathematical Society promotes an outstanding young Scottish mathematician once every four years with the Sir Edmund Whittaker Memorial Prize, also given in his honour. ### Namesakes and notable research Whittaker is the eponym of the Whittaker function or Whittaker integral, in the theory of confluent hypergeometric functions. This makes him also the eponym of the Whittaker model in the local theory of automorphic representations. He published also on algebraic functions, though they were typically limited to special cases. Whittaker had a lifelong interest in automorphic functions and he published three papers on the topic throughout his career. Among other contributions, he found the general expression for the Bessel functions as integrals involving Legendre functions. Whittaker also made contributions to the theory of partial differential equations, harmonic functions and other special functions of mathematical physics, including finding a general solution to Laplace's equation that became a standard part of potential theory. Whittaker developed a general solution of the Laplace equation in three dimensions and the solution of the wave equation. ### Notable works Whittaker wrote three scientific treatises which were highly influential, A Course of Modern Analysis, Analytical Dynamics of Particles and Rigid Bodies, and The Calculus of Observations. In 1956, Gerald James Whitrow stated that two of them not only were required reading for British mathematicians, but were regarded as fundamental components of their personal libraries. Despite the success of these books and his other researchers and their influence in mathematics and physics, the second edition of Whittaker's A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity has been called his "magnum opus". In reference to the title's popularity, William Hunter McCrea predicted that future readers would have a hard time acknowledging it was the result of just "a few years at both ends of a career of the highest distinction in other pursuits." Whittaker also wrote The theory of optical instruments during his time as Royal Astronomer of Ireland as well as several books on philosophy and theism. Whittaker's bibliography in the Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society includes 11 books and monographs, 56 mathematics and physics articles, 35 philosophy and history articles, and 21 biographical articles, excluding popular and semi-popular articles published in magazines such as Scientific American. In the bibliography compiled by McCrea in 1957, there are 13 books and monographs and the same journal articles, also excluding popular articles. Among other topics, Whittaker wrote a total of ten papers on electromagnetism and general relativity. #### Whittaker & Watson Whittaker was the original author of the classic textbook A Course of Modern Analysis, first published in 1902. There were three more editions of the book all in collaboration with George Neville Watson, resulting in the famous colloquial name Whittaker & Watson. The work is subtitled an introduction to the general theory of infinite processes and of analytic functions; with an account of the principal transcendental functions and is a classic textbook in mathematical analysis, remaining in print continuously since its release over a hundred years ago. It covered topics previously unavailable in English, such as complex analysis, mathematical analysis, and the Special functions used in mathematical physics. George Frederick James Temple noted that it was unmatched in these aspects "for many years". The book was an edited set of lecture notes from the Cambridge Tripos courses Whittaker taught and contained results from mathematicians such as Augustin-Louis Cauchy and Karl Weierstrass which were relatively unknown to English speaking countries. A. C. Aitken noted the books have been widely influential in the study of special functions and their associated differential equations as well as in the study of functions of complex variables. #### Analytical Dynamics of Particles and Rigid Bodies Whittaker's second major work, A Treatise on the Analytical Dynamics of Particles and Rigid Bodies was first published in 1904, and quickly became a classic textbook in mathematical physics and analytical dynamics, a branch of classical mechanics. It has remained in print for most of its lifetime, over more than a hundred years, and has been said to have "remarkable longevity". The book represented the forefront of development at the time of publication, where many reviewers noted it contained material otherwise non-existent in the English language. The book was a landmark textbook, providing the first systematic treatment in English for the theory of Hamiltonian dynamics, which played a fundamental role in the development of quantum mechanics. A. C. Aitken called the book "epoch making in a very precise sense", noting that just before the development of the theory of relativity, the book provided a detailed summary of classical dynamics and the progress that had been made in Lagrangian mechanics and Hamiltonian mechanics, including work from Henri Poincaré and Tullio Levi-Civita. The book has received many recommendations, including from Victor Lenzen in 1952, nearly 50 years after its initial publication, who said the book was still the "best exposition of the subject on the highest possible level". It was noted in a 2014 article covering the book's development, published in the Archive for History of Exact Sciences, that the book was used for more than just a historical book, where it was pointed out that of the 114 books and papers that cited the book between 2000 and 2012, "only three are of a historical nature". In that same period, the book was said to be "highly recommended to advanced readers" in the 2006 engineering textbook Principles of Engineering Mechanics. #### A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity In 1910, Whittaker wrote A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity, which gave a detailed account of the aether theories from René Descartes to Hendrik Lorentz and Albert Einstein, including the contributions of Hermann Minkowski. The book was well received and established Whittaker as a respected historian of science. A second, revised and extended edition was later released. The first volume, subtitled the classical theories, was published in 1951 and served as a revised and updated edition of the first book. The second volume, published in 1953, extended this work covering the years 1900–1926. Notwithstanding a notorious controversy on Whittaker's views on the history of special relativity, covered in volume two of the second edition, the books are considered authoritative references on the history of classical electromagnetism and are considered classic books in the history of physics. Due to the book's role in the relativity priority dispute, however, the second volume is cited far less than the first volume and first edition, except in connection with the controversy. ### Relativity priority dispute Whittaker is also remembered for his role in the relativity priority dispute, a historic controversy over credit for the development of special relativity. In a chapter named "The Relativity Theory of Poincaré and Lorentz" in the second volume of the second edition of A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity, Whittaker credited Henri Poincaré and Hendrik Lorentz for developing the theory; he attributed to Einstein's special relativity paper relatively little importance, saying it "set forth the relativity theory of Poincaré and Lorentz with some amplifications, and which attracted much attention". Max Born, a friend of Whittaker's, wrote to Einstein expressing his concern about the book's publication and wrote a rebuttal in his 1956 book. The controversy was also mentioned in one of Whittaker's obituaries by Gerald James Whitrow, who said that he had written Whittaker a letter explaining how the latter's views "did not do justice to the originality of Einstein's philosophy", but remarked that he understood why Whittaker felt the need to correct the popular misconception that Einstein's contribution was unique. Max Born's rebuttal, published in his 1956 book, also argues that while the contributions of Lorentz and Poincaré should not be overlooked, it was the postulates and philosophy of Einstein's theory that "distinguishes Einstein’s work from his predecessors and gives us the right to speak of Einstein’s theory of relativity, in spite of Whittaker’s different opinion". Though the dispute has lasted decades, most scholars have rejected Whittaker's arguments and scientific consensus has continued to hold that special relativity was Einstein's development. ## Philosophy Whittaker's views on philosophy was analysed by James Robert McConnell for the Whittaker Memorial Volume of the Proceedings of the Edinburgh Mathematical Society. McConnell noted that Whittaker's research into the connections between physics and philosophy were spread across approximately forty publications. Whittaker's worldview was classified as neo-Cartesianism in the volume, a philosophy described as being "founded on the principle that the search for a universal science should be modelled on the procedure of physicomathematicians." McConnell notes several of Whittaker's original contributions to René Descartes' philosophical system, but goes on to sum up the work by saying that while he admired Whittaker's attempt at the problem, he was not satisfied with the many transitions between mathematics, aesthetics, ethics. He stated that "If the transitions from mathematics to moral values are not firmly established, Whittaker's attempt does not succeed in remedying the defects of Descartes' solution." Whittaker published work in several other areas of philosophy, including research on Eddington's principle, a conjecture by Arthur Eddington that all quantitative propositions in physics can be derived from qualitative assertions. In addition to publishing Eddington's Fundamental Theory, Whittaker wrote two other books pertaining to Eddington's philosophy. Whittaker also wrote at length about the impacts of then-recent discoveries in astronomy on religion and theology, determinism and free will, and natural theology. In the conclusion of his article, McConnell sums up Whittaker's philosophic works as appearing as though it came from "that of the scholarly Christian layman". On metaphysics, he goes on to note that there are few scholars who are competent in both physics and metaphysics and states that future work could benefit and draw inspiration from Whittaker's research in the area. ## Awards and honours In 1931, Whittaker received the Sylvester Medal from the Royal Society for "his original contributions to both pure and applied mathematics". He then received the De Morgan Medal from the London Mathematical Society in 1935, an award given once every three years for outstanding contributions to mathematics. He received several honours in his 70s, including being knighted in 1945 by King George VI, and in 1954, receiving the Royal Society's Copley Medal, its highest award, "for his distinguished contributions to both pure and applied mathematics and to theoretical physics". In the opening remarks of the 1954 address of President Edgar Adrian to the Royal Society, Adrian announces Whittaker as that years Copley medallist saying he is probably the most well-known British mathematician at the time, due to "his numerous, varied and important contributions" as well as the offices he had held. Noting contributions to nearly all fields of applied mathematics and then-recent contributions to pure mathematics, relativity, electromagnetism, and quantum mechanics, Adrian goes on to say that the "astonishing quantity and quality of his work is probably unparalleled in modern mathematics and it is most appropriate that the Royal Society should confer on Whittaker its most distinguished award." Whittaker also gave several distinguished lectures, some of which formed the base of books he would later write. He held the Rouse Ball lectureship at Trinity College, Cambridge in 1926, the Bruce-Preller lectureship of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1931, and the Selby lectureship at the University of Cardiff in 1933. He also held the Hitchcock professorship at the University of California in 1934, the Riddell lectureship at the University at Durham (Newcastle) in 1942, the Guthrie lectureship of the Royal Physical Society of Edinburgh in 1943, and the Donnellan lectureship at the Trinity College Dublin in 1946. He gave the Tarner Lecture at Trinity College, Cambridge in 1947 and held the Larmor lectureship of the Royal Irish Academy and the Herbert Spencer lectureship at the University of Oxford, both in 1948. ## See also - List of fellows of the Royal Society elected in 1905 - List of Cambridge mathematicians - List of mathematicians born in the 19th century - List of theoretical physicists

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