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43,217,436	The Boat Race 1990	999,522,046	null	[ "1990 in English sport", "1990 in rowing", "1990 sports events in London", "March 1990 sports events in the United Kingdom", "The Boat Race" ]	The 136th Boat Race took place on 31 March 1990. Held annually, the Boat Race is a side-by-side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames. Oxford won by 2+1⁄4 lengths. The race featured the heaviest oarsman ever to have rowed in the event in Oxford's Chris Heathcote, and the lightest Cambridge crew for nearly 30 years. In the reserve race, Cambridge's Goldie won as Oxford's Isis was disqualified. Cambridge won the Women's Boat Race. ## Background The Boat Race is a side-by-side rowing competition between the University of Oxford (sometimes referred to as the "Dark Blues") and the University of Cambridge (sometimes referred to as the "Light Blues"). First held in 1829, the race takes place on the 4.2-mile (6.8 km) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London. The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide. Oxford went into the race as reigning champions, having won the 1989 race by 2+1⁄2 lengths, with Cambridge leading overall with 69 victories to Oxford's 65 (excluding the "dead heat" of 1877). The first Women's Boat Race took place in 1927, but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s. Until 2014, the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races, but as of the 2015 race, it is held on the River Thames, on the same day as the men's main and reserve races. The reserve race, contested between Oxford's Isis boat and Cambridge's Goldie boat has been held since 1965. It usually takes place on the Tideway, prior to the main Boat Race. The race was umpired by former Cambridge Blue Mike Sweeney, his fourth appearance in the role. He had advised the coxes that he would not be afraid to disqualify either crew should he need to: "If I warn them, it's irrelevant what their opinion is. If they respond, fine. If not, they're in trouble." The race was sponsored by Beefeater Gin who, prior to the race, had signed a three-year contract to continue their involvement in the race, worth £250,000. The BBC also extended their deal with a new five-year contract to broadcast the race in the United Kingdom. ## Crews The Oxford crew weighed an average of 14 st 12 lb (94.1 kg) per rower, 2 stone 1.5 lb (13.3 kg) more than Cambridge whose crew was the lightest since 1963. The race featured the heaviest oarsman ever to have rowed in the event, with Oxford's Chris Heathcote weighing 17 st 5 lb (114.5 kg). Oxford's crew were also older and more experienced, with three world championship bronze medal winners in Jonathan Searle, Matthew Pinsent and Rupert Obholzer. Three of Oxford's crew had won two Boat Races each, while Cambridge featured two former Blues who had won none. Cambridge's cox Lisa Ross-Magenty had won with both the women's lightweight race in 1987 and Goldie in 1988, her counterpart Martin Watts was educated at Westminster School and "spent hours on the Tideway". ## Races Cambridge were underdogs for the race, having lost all but one of the previous fourteen Boat Races. Cambridge president Paddy Mant won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station. A minute into the race, Cambridge held a third-of-a-length advantage, but as the crews approached the Fulham bend, Oxford drew alongside. Intelligent coxing from Oxford's Watts gained Oxford a lead of a length after three minutes. With clear water at Harrods Furniture Depository, Watts attempted to steer in front of Cambridge but was warned off by umpire Sweeney. Oxford passed below Hammersmith Bridge holding a four-second advantage and made a push, taking the lead out to six seconds by Chiswick Steps. Settling for a lower rating, Oxford were eight seconds clear by Barnes Railway Bridge, and despite a late surge by Cambridge, Oxford passed the finishing post seven seconds and 2+1⁄4 lengths ahead. The crews recorded the fourth- and fifth-fastest times in Boat Race history. In the reserve race, Cambridge's Goldie won as Oxford's Isis were disqualified. After Isis had taken a three-quarter-length lead, a clash of blades resulted in irreparable damage to the Cambridge boat and a red flag from the umpire John Garrett. Cambridge won the 45th Women's Boat Race by 3+1⁄4 lengths in a time of 7 minutes and 17 seconds, their third victory in four years. ## Reaction Lord Jenkins presented the Beefeater Trophy to winning president Searle. Cambridge coach Mark Lees said of his crew "It was the best they could do." and of Adam Wright, his stroke, who "relentlessly drove Cambridge", he commented: "It was one of the most courageous things I have ever seen". Lees' counterpart, Steve Royle, acknowledged "Cambridge raced very well."
17,376,187	Washington State Route 213	1,159,974,584	Highway in Washington	[ "State highways in Washington (state)", "State highways in the United States shorter than one mile", "Transportation in Okanogan County, Washington" ]	State Route 213 (SR 213) is the shortest state highway in the U.S. state of Washington. The 0.35-mile-long (0.56 km) unsigned highway serves Malott, a community in Okanogan County. Extending from U.S. Route 97 (US 97) over the Okanogan River via a bridge to First Avenue in Malott, the roadway is semi-complete, as state law designates that the road should extend to SR 20 southwest of Okanogan. First appearing in a map in 1954, SR 213 originated as a branch of Primary State Highway 16 (PSH 16) in 1959 and later SR 20 Spur in 1964. SR 20 Spur became SR 213 in 1973 because another SR 20 Spur was recently established in Anacortes. ## Route description SR 213 originates at an intersection with US 97 south of Malott. Traveling northwest and turning northeast, the unsigned roadway crosses the Cascade and Columbia River Railroad and the Okanogan River near the confluence of the Okanogan River and Loup Loup Creek. After crossing the Okanogan River, the highway enters Malott and terminates at First Avenue, although state law dictates that eventually the road will be extended to SR 20 southwest of Okanogan. An estimated daily average of 740 motorists utilized SR 213 in 2008. ## History SR 213 originated as a minor road that connected US 97 to the area south of the Okanogan River and Malott; the road first appeared on a map in 1954. In 1959, the Washington State Legislature passed a law that created a branch of PSH 16 that extended from PSH 16 near Okanogan to US 97 in Malott to take effect on July 1, 1961. By 1963, US 97 was realigned south of the Okanogan River and the PSH 16 branch was extended across the river. During a highway renumbering in 1964, PSH 16 became SR 20 and the branch of PSH 16 became SR 20 Spur. In 1973, SR 20 Spur became SR 213, while another SR 20 Spur was established in Anacortes. Beginning in 2008, the Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT) has been maintaining a short, 0.35-mile-long (0.56 km) segment of the proposed SR 213 as the a state route. The highway between Malott and SR 20 will be eventually built as state law dictates it. ## Major intersections
8,026,973	Istro-Romanians	1,172,881,710	Ethnic group primarily living in Istria, Croatia	[ "Eastern Romance people", "Ethnic groups in Croatia", "Istro-Romanians", "Romance peoples" ]	The Istro-Romanians (Istro Romanian: rumeri or rumâri) are a Romance ethnic group native to or associated with the Istrian Peninsula. Historically, they inhabited vast parts of it, as well as the western side of the island of Krk until 1875. However, due to several factors such as the industrialization and modernization of Istria during the socialist regime of Yugoslavia, many Istro-Romanians emigrated to other places, be them Croatian cities such as Pula and Rijeka or places such as New York City, Trieste and Western Australia. The Istro-Romanians dwindled severely in number, being reduced to eight settlements on the Croatian side of Istria in which they do not represent the majority. It is known that the Istro-Romanians are actually not indigenous to Istria, since the differences between the Istro-Romanian language and the now extinct geographically close Dalmatian are notable. In addition, they count several similarities with the Transylvanian Romanians and Timok Vlachs, suggesting that the Istro-Romanians originate from the current areas west of Romania or Serbia. Although it is not known exactly how and when, the Istro-Romanians settled in Istria, where they would remain for centuries until they began to assimilate. Even now, with several associations and projects that aim to preserve their culture and with the support of both Croatian and Romanian governments, the Istro-Romanians are not officially recognized as a national minority. Although it has become widely popular and is now used almost exclusively, the term "Istro-Romanian" is a somewhat controversial scientific invention, which is not used by them to identify themselves. The Istro-Romanians prefer to use names derived from their native villages, which are Jesenovik, Kostrčani, Letaj, Nova Vas, Šušnjevica, Zankovci, the Brdo area and the isolated Žejane. Others also use "Vlach", but to refer to the entire Istro-Romanian population, the names rumâri and rumeri are often employed. Their language is highly similar to Romanian, both being part of the Balkan Romance languages family alongside Aromanian and Megleno-Romanian, all descending from Proto-Romanian. However, Romania regards these ethnic groups as part of a "broad definition" of what a Romanian is, which is debatable and does not have a widely accepted view. The Istro-Romanian culture has costumes, dances and songs with many similarities to those of Romania. Literature in Istro-Romanian is small, with the first book published in 1905. Historically, they were peasants and shepherds, with many of them being poor and without having received education until the 20th century. Today, the Istro-Romanian language has little use in education, media and religion, with Croatian imposing itself in these and other domains. They are so few that they have been described as "the smallest ethnolinguistic group in Europe". It is thought that if their situation does not change, the Istro-Romanians will disappear in the following decades. ## Names ### Endonym The term "Istro-Romanian" is commonly used among researchers and linguists to identify this Balkan Romance people from the Istrian Peninsula. However, it is a relatively recent creation from the middle of the 19th century based on geographic rather than scientific criteria. This denomination was used for the first time by the Romanian writer and historian Gheorghe Asachi (as istroromâni), and then by the Slovene philologist Franz Miklosich, (as istrischen Rumunen and istro-rumunisch), from which the name of the Istro-Romanian language and its speakers would be generalized. Nowadays, it is almost exclusively employed, and highlights the similarity of this language with the Romanian one. However, the Istro-Romanians do not identify with this name, and the use of "Istro-Romanian" outside the context of linguistics can be controversial until a certain point. Some people use the more recent name "Vlashki and Zheyanski language". To refer to themselves as a whole, the Istro-Romanians may use rumâri, derived from the Latin romanus. The similar rumeri is also used since the 17th century, but this endonym (internal name, used by the ethnic group in question) does not appear in documents until its reuse by the Istro-Romanian writer and professor Andrei Glavina and the Romanian historian Constantin Diculescu and then by the Romanian journalist and professor Alexandru Leca Morariu in the 20th century. Due to the influence of Romanian researchers, Istro-Romanians also use the Croatian word rumunji, especially in contact with foreigners. Given the weakness of Istro-Romanian national sentiment, some elder people call themselves Romanians or Romanian-speaking Croats or even Italians (except in Žejane) to differentiate themselves from the surrounding Croats. Many Istro-Romanians prefer to use a demonym derived from the name of their native village. For example, those from Šušnjevica use șușnevți and șușnevski or šušnjevski for their language, those from Nova Vas use novosani and novosanski or novošånski for their language, those from Kostrčani use costărčånți and those from the Brdo area use brijånski for their language. Generally, the Istro-Romanians from the villages south of the Učka mountain range also use the name vlåš (singular vlåh) and vlaška or vlaški for their language, taken from the South Slavic word "Vlach". On the other hand, in the northern village of Žejane, the only other one in which Istro-Romanian is spoken, jeianți or žejånci is used for the people and jeianski, žejanski or po jeianski cuvinta for the language. Croats also call them jeianci or vlaski, but the inhabitants of Žejane do not identify as Vlachs. ### Exonym The Istro-Romanians have been called in many ways by the peoples that lived alongside them or in their surroundings. One of the earliest exonyms (external names) used for Istro-Romanians is Ćići, given by the Croats. It appears in Latin documents in the form of chichii, in Italian ones first in the form of chichi and later as cici or cicci, and in German ones as tschizen, tschitzen, zitschen, tschitschen, ziegen and zische. The term can originate from a word that Istro-Romanians used to refer to each other, čiča, "uncle", from the Croatian and Serbian languages. It has also been suggested that it could come from the Italian word cicaleccio, derived from the verb cicalare. This means "insistent and confused (indistinct) talking", since Slavs could not understand them. However, today this ethnonym (name given to an ethnic group, be it internal or external) is imprecise, because it also refers to the Croats and Slovenes of the region of Ćićarija. Another name used by the Croats was ćiribiri, considered by some authors to be "ridiculous". The more modern variant ćiribirci is believed to come from the Istro-Romanian words cire ("hold") and bire ("on" or "tight"). Since it is usually said as a joke, it may be offensive for some native speakers. Those of the island of Krk were often called by the local Croats as "Poljicans" (derived from the village of Poljica), commonly used negatively. Another name is "Vlach" (from Greek βλάχοι, in Latin documents vlachi, in Croatian and Serbian vlahi, later vlasi), used for the Istro-Romanians (including those in Krk) since the Middle Ages, but it has different meanings depending on the persons that used or use it and depending on the epoch. The Byzantines used it for all the Romance-speaking peoples in the Balkans, but in Croatian and Serbian documents it designated shepherds of any ethnicity from the territories inhabited by South Slavs. Today, in Greek, the term also denotes the Aromanians and the Megleno-Romanians, and in Serbian and Bulgarian, the Timok Vlachs. The term "Morlach" (in Greek μαυρόβλαχοι, in Latin moroulahi, in Croatian morlaci, in Italian morlacchi) was originally used for all the Western Vlachs, from which the Istro-Romanians may originate, but it also designated shepherds of other ethnicities, and is no longer used at present. More names have been used in the academic community for the Istro-Romanians. The erudite scientist Antonio Covaz called them rimgliani or vlahi d'Istria, rimljani being the term used by Croatians and Serbs for Roman citizens. ## History ### Origins and arrival The first mention of a Romance-speaking population in Istria during the Middle Ages dates back to 940 when the Byzantine emperor Constantine VII reported in his De Administrando Imperio that there were Romance peoples in the peninsula which called themselves Romans although they did not come from Rome. Theories about the Istro-Romanians descending from a Roman indigenous population in Istria were initially supported by Italian and some Romanian researchers. However, this point of view is now refuted due to the similarities of the Istro-Romanians with the Romanians from the west of Romania and the Timok Valley and the differences with the geographically close Dalmatian language (now extinct). Two other dominant theories are distinguished. According to the theory of the Romanian philologist and linguist Ovid Densusianu, the Istro-Romanians originate from the southwest of Transylvania and Banat, and would have emigrated from there between the years 1000 and 1400. He bases this theory on language traits, for example, the simple intervocalic rhotacism (sound change that converts one consonant into a "R-like" sound) of [n] ([n]\> [r]) in the words of Latin origin, as in the Țara Moților dialect in Romania. In addition, there are Istro-Romanian popular stories about their arrival in Istria during the Middle Ages. According to local legends, there were seven caravans that came from Transylvania and settled in Istria, six south of the Učka and one north of it. This theory is also embraced by other scholars like Vasile Frățilă. Other authors say that the Istro-Romanians migrated much earlier, in the second half of the first millennium, before the start of the Hungarian influence on Romanian, since the Istro-Romanian language does not have these influences. Another theory, that of the Romanian linguist and philologist Sextil Pușcariu, claims a south Danubian origin for the Istro-Romanians, specifically in current Serbia, but with contact with the Romanians at the west of Romania. He places their separation from the other Balkan Romance peoples in the 13th century. With distinctions as to the exact location, Pușcariu's theory is also adopted by several scholars. There is also an intermediate theory belonging to Elena Scărlătoiu suggesting that the "great mass of Istro-Romanians" came from several nuclei in the center, west and northwest of Transylvania, as well as from the south of the Danube, namely, the area between the Timok Valley and Prizren. However, none of these hypotheses is universally accepted by the scientific community and therefore the question about the provenience of this people remains uncertain. Regardless of the place of origin, the Istro-Romanians are usually considered to be the last Balkan Romance people to break away from the others and migrate to the west, mainly becoming shepherds. Giuseppe Vassilich and Sextil Pușcariu consider that the old Istro-Romanians are attested in Byzantine documents under the name μαυρόβλαχοι, literally "black Vlach". Μαυρόβλαχοι has been romanized as moroulahi, morovlachi, moroblachi, morolachi, morlachi or murlachi in Italian, morlacchi, and in Croatian and Serbian, morlaci. Eventually, the use of "Vlach" in the different languages would also refer to Slavified Romanian shepherds, as well as shepherds in general, no matter of the ethnicity. The Istro-Romanians probably already arrived in Dalmatia as early as the 11th century considering that the names "Danulus" and "Negulus" found in documents of 1018 and 1070 respectively are most likely Romanian. ### Late Middle Ages and further During the following centuries, people of possible Istro-Romanian ethnicity in and around Istria will continue to be mentioned. In 1181, an abbess of the Patriarchate of Aquileia named Ermelinda reported the appearance of a person named Radul (considered a Romanian name by some) to whom lands have been attributed in what is now the Italian province of Friuli-Venezia Giulia. In the 14th century, Vlach shepherds are attested near the cities of Split, Trogir, Šibenik and Zadar, as well as in the islands of Rab, Pag and Krk. But the first clear and definitive attestation of the Istro-Romanian presence in Istria dates back from 1321, when a country of Vlachs was mentioned in the region where they now live. In a document of 1329 referring to Buzet in Istria, the name of one Vlach appears; Pasculus Chichio, a name derived from the exonym "Ćići" used by Croatians for Istro-Romanians. It is known that during this century the Istro-Romanians used caravans to sell their dairy products and transport other goods. In the Ragusan trade, caseus vlachescus or vlachiscus (brença, cheese, as it appears in a document from 1357) was of such importance that it was also used as a payment method, and its price was set by the authorities. They also traded with salt on the Adriatic coast. In the 15th century, there were epidemics of devastating plague in Istria, and the Senate of the Republic of Venice, ruler of the peninsula, favored the settlement of Morlachs, as well South Slavs who escaped from the Ottoman Empire. Due to this, in 1449, Vlachs are mentioned in the Istrian town of Buje. The word cici first appeared as a proper ethnonym in a document of 1463. Based on names and other historical objects, it has been calculated that during this century, the Istro-Romanians formed about 15% of the Istrian population. In addition, the governor of the island of Krk since 1451, Ivan VII Frankopan, was in need of manpower. Therefore, during the second half of the 15th century, he started to settle the less populated or uninhabited parts, such as the western zone of the island, that is, in and around the areas of Dubašnica and Poljica and in the land between the castles of Dobrinj and Omišalj. Most of the settlers were Vlachs and Morlachs, who came from the south of the Velebit mountain range and around the Dinara mountain. The Croatian linguist and onomastics expert Petar Skok affirms that this people was composed of Romanian shepherds, as they preserved Romanian numbering until the 20th century. They crossed the Velebit Channel, in Italian, Canale della Morlacca ("Channel of the Morlach"), and settled in western Krk. Today, there are some toponyms such as Fȁreča (from Romanian ferece, fern), Fintȉra (from Romanian fîntînă, fountain) and Sekara (from Romanian secară, ryn) left in Krk. It is also known that the current Croatian dialect of Krk has a few Istro-Romanian loans, like špilišôr or špirišôr (from Romanian spin, "spine", + the suffix șor), a common name for the plant Sonchus whose leaves have small spines. It is thought that some of these Vlachs and Morlachs continued their way to Istria, where they settled, but like the other theories, this cannot be confirmed. By the year 1523, the Istro-Romanians were already referred to as cicerani or ciceliani by the Italian and Austrian chancelleries. Carsia, the former name of the region in which Žejane is located, was changed to Cicceria (now Ćićarija). In this century, they are spread almost everywhere inside the peninsula, especially in the areas of Žejane, Male Mune and Vele Mune, north of the Učka, as well as in Šušnjevica and other villages at the south of the mountain range, populating more than thirty settlements of varying sizes between 1510 and 1599. In a 1641 work about Istria, the scholar and bishop of Cittanova (now Novigrad) Giacomo Filippo Tomasini mentions the name morlaci, claiming that "they have their own language, which is in many words similar to Latin". During the 16th century, some Croatian writers saw the Istrian Vlachs as part of the same ethnic group as the Romanians from Trajanic Dacia, and considered Dacia as the "Morovlasca Zemlja" ("Morlach Country"). Also, the Italian monk Ireneo della Croce, in a work of Trieste of 1698, mentions people who, instead of using a Slavic language, speak a language composed of many Latin words that is similar to the Wallachian one. Later, he says that the chichi call themselves in their own language as rumeri. This word reflects the phonetic changes produced in the evolution from Latin to the Balkan Romance languages in general ([o] not accentuated \> [u], [a] accentuated followed by [n] + vowel \> [ɨ], represented in Italian as [e]) and one specific to Istro-Romanian: [n] simple intervocalic \> [r]. He also gave thirteen single nouns (like copra, goat, or lapte, milk), eight nouns with determiners and two sentences from their language with the Italian translation. This is the first attestation of the language apart from toponyms and person names, which had previously appeared in writings. It is assumed that during this time, the Istro-Romanians already extended to Trieste. The Istro-Romanians could be around 10,000 by these times. ### Assimilation and Austro-Hungarian rule During the 17th and 18th centuries, the Istro-Romanian population would begin to fall under the assimilation of the local population, only preserving its identity and language in the most densely populated settlements such as Žejane and the villages south of the Učka. The only thing left of the smallest settlements in the Croatian and Slovenian region of Ćićarija and the rest of Istria is the toponomy of the places, which proves that at some point, the Istro-Romanians were more widespread. Examples are Bolovani, Catun, Carbune, Floričići, Murari and Vlahi. Unlike the other Romance peoples such as the Romanians or the Aromanians, the Istro-Romanians did not suffer a national renaissance, probably due to the small size of their population and the influence of assimilation factors. It would not be until the time of the Revolutions of 1848 when Romanians from the two principalities (Wallachia and Moldavia) "discovered" this population in Istria. This would start a period of interest among Romanians to study and contact the Istro-Romanians. During this period, the amount of their population is estimated at 6,000. Towards the end of the 19th century, Istria was part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, of the Austrian Littoral crown land, and was inhabited by several ethnic groups, mainly Croats and Italians. The Istro-Romanians were not recognized as a national minority unlike other peoples. Actually, researchers of the time point the discrimination they suffer. The German linguist Gustav Weigand mentions that their schoolarization is very poor. Both Croats and Italians seek to assimilate them, and as a result, in the Istro-Romanian villages there are no schools in the Croatian or Italian languages, and even less in Istro-Romanian. Weigand's statement is partly contradicted by the fact that the Italians supported this demand, but they were less numerous than the Croats. Various authors mention that church services were given in Latin and Croatian, with priests striving to hinder the cultural development of the parishioners. It is estimated that between 1850 and 1859, there were 2,955 Istro-Romanians. Meanwhile, the Istro-Romanians of Krk had been suffering severe assimilation since long before and many of them abandoned their language. They disappeared completely in 1875 when Mate Bajčić Gašpović from Bajčići (near Poljica), the last person with knowledge of Istro-Romanian on the island, died. During this period, the Romanian media provoked activity in the area. In the newspaper Giovine pensiero of 27 October 1887, there was a request signed by many Istro-Romanians to establish a school teaching in the Romanian language. This was discussed in the autumn of 1888 in the Diet of Istria. The Croatian representative impugned the existence of the Istro-Romanians and tried to prove that they were Slavs. Although the subsequent proposals had the support of several Italian deputies, the Croatian majority rejected all of them. In 1905, a school teaching in Croatian was established, with little popularity among students despite the efforts of the priest of Šušnjevica. The Romanian ethnographer and folklorist Teodor Burada found in 1896 that poverty was high among Istro-Romanians during this time: pastoralism had fallen, zootechnics were neglected and agriculture was poorly productive. They started to cultivate vineyards, but they were destroyed by the grape phylloxera bug. A way to increase their income through the work in the soil was the cultivation of culinary sage, especially in Šušnjevica. The population of Istro-Romanians between 1880 and 1884 was composed by around 2,600 people. ### Italian annexation and interwar period At the beginning of the 20th century, the Istro-Romanian from Šušnjevica Andrei Glavina returned to Istria from Romania (where he studied at the Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iași) to awaken the identity of his people. This person is known for writing the first work entirely in Istro-Romanian in collaboration with Diculescu, Calindaru lu rumeri din Istrie (Calendar of the Romanians of Istria), published in 1905. During the first years of the century, he promoted campaigns in newspapers and tried to contact with deputies of Austria-Hungary, without success due to the Croatian pressure. Nevertheless, after the First World War, Istria was annexed to the Kingdom of Italy. Glavina made the same request again, which was accepted immediately. Glavina became leader of the school of Frascati-Susgnevizza (Šušnjevica), which was named Împăratul Traian (in Romanian, "Emperor Trajan") and became very popular, reaching 443 students at its peak. The textbooks were in Romanian and Italian, but the classes were taught in the local language. He also became mayor of the municipality of Valdarsa (an Italian name for Šušnjevica), a municipality created to unify all the Istro-Romanian villages south of the Učka, with 2,301 inhabitants during its establishment. He improved the economic conditions of the villages and worked on their infrastructure. Glavina died in 1925 from tuberculosis, which led to the closure of the school and its replacement by an Italian one. Due to his efforts for the preservation of the language and culture of the Istro-Romanians, Glavina is known as the "Apostle of the Istro-Romanians". Four years before his death, an Italian official census registered 1,644 ethnic Istro-Romanians in Istria. The municipality of Valdarsa continued to exist until 1947, Glavina being succeeded as mayor by Francesco Bellulovich, also from Šušnjevica. The interest and research on the part of Italian and Romanian academics continued. It is remarkable the work of Sextil Pușcariu, who published three volumes of his studies on the Istro-Romanians in 1906, 1926 and 1929, respectively. Morariu published in 1928 the second book in Istro-Romanian, Lu frati noștri: libru lu rumeri din Istrie (To our brothers: book of the Romanians of Istria). In 1932, Italy completed the recovery of the Arsa River (now Raša River) basin, a project that dates back to 1771, previously proposed by the Republic of Venice and the Austrian Empire. This improved the quality of life of the locals, but also caused certain immigrationist phenomena. There even was a project led by the Romanian academic Sever Pop [ro] in which he would take two Istro-Romanian children (one from Šušnjevica and one from Žejane) to Romania to educate them there (as happened with Glavina), with the aim of opening new Romanian schools in both villages. In 1934, a road was established connecting the municipality with Fiume (now Rijeka), and another one with Pisino (now Pazin) in 1941, thus reducing the isolation of the villages. The majority of the population was peasant, although there were also some sailors on the river. The last mayor of Valdarsa was Guglielmo Barchiesi. ### Second World War and postwar period It is known that during Second World War, the Istro-Romanians did not support the Italian expansion over Croatia and Slovenia. Žejane was later occupied by German-Italian forces on 5 May 1944, burning a large number of houses and farms. There, a concentration camp was established. In the Istro-Romanian villages, houses and especially churches were destroyed during the last phase of the Second World War by the Nazis as a reprisal for the actions of the Partisans. However, Italy's defeat resulted in most of Istria being passed to the new socialist Yugoslavia. Between 1945 and 1956, the Istrian-Dalmatian exodus occurred in which around 250,000 Italians were expelled from Istria, Dalmatia and Fiume. In the Istrian inland, Italians suffered mass killings (known as foibe massacres), property confiscations and hard forced labour. This greatly reduced the Romance-speaking population of Istria. After the establishment of the socialist regimes in Romania and Yugoslavia, the efforts, projects and support for the preservation of the Istro-Romanian culture were branded as fascist and were canceled. Immediately after the end of the war, the villages and Istria in general began to depopulate quickly. This may be due to the political and social changes that came when it united with other Croatian-speaking lands and the Yugoslav socialist regime, as well as the industrialization, modernization and urbanization of the place. The young villagers started to prefer industrial and service jobs, leaving the agricultural lifestyle of the villages. In addition, interethnic marriage became more common both for those who abandoned their hometowns and those who decided to stay. Regular and universal education and media in Croatian commenced to spread, and the Istro-Romanian language lost value. Barely 8 years after the Second World War, the villages had already lost more than a quarter of their population. Some Istro-Romanians also began to leave Istria completely and emigrate to other countries such as Australia, the United States, Canada, France and Italy (especially Trieste), a sizeable amount estimated to be composed by 500 people since 1945. Although weaker, interest in the Istro-Romanians continued after the war, now with Croats (like the linguist August Kovačec) studying them as well. Not much else is known about the life of the Istro-Romanians during this time since they only appeared in mainly linguistic articles, with practically no news about them. In 1961, there were approximately 1,140 Istro-Romanians (understanding by people with Istro-Romanian ancestry or able to speak their language) in Istria, and 1,250 in 1974. ### Present In 1991, Croatia declared independence, inheriting most of Istria from Yugoslavia. In this year, there were 810 people self-declared as Istro-Romanians and 22 as Morlachs in Istria. After the fall of socialism, the press of Romania and other countries would begin to give more importance to the Istro-Romanian community. The Croatian authorities also started to show more interest in them, with the Croatian state itself promising to do everything possible to preserve this ethnic group. The Istro-Romanian culture would begin to suffer a "revival", with a great number of associations and projects being created. On 19 April 1994, the Cultural Association of the Istro-Romanians "Andrei Glavina" was created in Trieste with the purpose of saving and preserving the Istro-Romanians, with Emil Petru Rațiu as president. Another association, Soboru lu Istrorumeri (In Istro-Romanian, "Union of the Istro-Romanians"), appeared in 1995. The first newspaper in Istro-Romanian, Scrisoare către fråț rumer (in Istro-Romanian, "Letter to the Romanian brothers"), came out in 1996 and contains fiction (original or translated from Romanian), notes on their history and ethnicity and news about the Aromanians and their life, among others. In 1997, the Congress of the Federal Union of European Nationalities adopted a resolution appealing Croatia to officially recognize the Istro-Romanians and the use of their language in education, media and religion. The Istro-Romanian diaspora, notably that of Canada and the United States, has also been putting its efforts to help the community in Istria. For example, the reparation and renovation of the clock tower of the hamlet of Brdo, as well as the construction of a museum about the Istro-Romanian culture in Žejane, were carried out with its funds. There are also several websites presenting the culture and history of the Istro-Romanians, notably Marisa Ciceran's (part of the diaspora), created in 1999. On 27 September 2007, the Ministry of Culture of Croatia gave to the Istro-Romanian language the status of "non-material cultural wealth" and registered it in the Register of Cultural Goods of Croatia. In 2008, the Moldovan politician Vlad Cubreacov initiated a draft resolution presented in Strasbourg called "Istro-Romanians must be saved", in which he urges Croatia and Romania to give more financial and institutional support. On 8 November 2016, the Šušnjevica school was reopened. The inauguration was attended by Constantin Mihail Grigorie, then ambassador of Romania in Croatia, and the previous one, Cosmin Dinescu. Regional authorities of the Istria County also stayed there. This project cost 451,600 kunas (around 61,100 euros), of which Romania gave 100,000 kunas (around 13,550 euros). The school teaches in Istro-Romanian and has a museum, "The Paths of the Vlachs". It was estimated that in 2016, there were only 120 speakers of Istro-Romanian in their villages, 450 speakers elsewhere in Croatia and another 500 in the rest of the world. Therefore, the diaspora is larger than the native Istrian community. Currently, there is a website dedicated to the digital archiving of photos, maps, books, articles, songs and audio and video recordings regarding the Istro-Romanians and their life. It also includes a Croatian–Istro-Romanian dictionary. The website is called "Preservation of the Vlaški and Žejanski Language", and is led by the Croatian linguist and professor Zvjezdana Vrzić. Romania officially supports the rights of the so-called "Romanians abroad", that is, all those who "assume a Romanian cultural identity, people of Romanian origin and persons that belong to the Romanian linguistic and cultural vein, Romanians who live outside Romania, regardless how they are called". This legislation includes not only the Istro-Romanians, but also the Aromanians, Megleno-Romanians, Moldovans, Vlachs and many others; all seen as ethnic Romanians by the Romanian state. Based on this, in 2021, the Balkan Romanianness Day was approved as a holiday in the country for the allegedly ethnic Romanian peoples living south of the Danube. This includes the Aromanians, the Megleno-Romanians and the Istro-Romanians. It celebrates the establishment of the Ullah millet in the Ottoman Empire in 1905 every 10 May. Today, the Istro-Romanians are not officially recognized as a national minority in Croatia and are not protected under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. They are more exposed than ever to assimilation and are declining in number rapidly, with risks of disappearing completely in the following decades. The communities south of the Učka and Žejane have historically had very few contacts until the intervention of Romanian researchers, as they spoke Croatian at local fairs. Because of this, the feeling of ethnic and linguistic unity between both communities is weak. Currently, very few Istro-Romanians identify themselves as Romanian, and never with much enthusiasm. A large part of them affiliate with the region in which they live, that is, Istria. This not only happens in the Istro-Romanians; approximately 25,000 people in Istria declare to be Istrian before any other nationality, with this being known as Istrianism. Those Istro-Romanians who preferred to declare a national affiliation chose Croatian and a few Italian. Many Istro-Romanians think that the Croatian Government is not doing enough for the survival of their language and culture. They express a strong ethnic pride and their desire to pass their language to other generations, although those in the villages south of the Učka are more pessimistic about their future. There, the language shift to Croatian is more advanced than in Žejane, but the inhabitants are more protectionist regarding their culture. In Žejane, some Istro-Romanians still speak in Istro-Romanian with their grandchildren, and express less awareness about their extinction. Nowadays, the biggest goal of the Istro-Romanians is the full recognition by Croatia as an ethnic minority and a wider use of their language in education, newspapers, TV broadcasting and radio, all of this with the support of the Croatian Government. ## Geographical distribution The territory where the Istro-Romanians live was once covered with forests, pastures and lakes, ideal for livestock or charcoal production. Their extent was vast, being scattered throughout almost all of Istria and the western part of Krk and leaving a large number of toponyms. They even formed up to 15% of the Istrian population at one point. However, the forests would begin to disappear and the lakes were drained. The soil stopped allowing productive agriculture, increasing poverty in the zone. They began to lose their traditional occupations as shepherds and began to be exposed to assimilation, ending with the Istro-Romanian presence of Krk in 1875. Those in Ćićarija were also assimilated, just maintaining their culture on the Croatian side, in Žejane. Many Istro-Romanians emigrated to the big cities. All this caused a decrease in the number of Istro-Romanians, which have been reduced to only eight settlements today. Now, there are two identifiable groups of Istro-Romanians. The first is that of Žejane, an isolated village near the border with Slovenia. The second is in the villages south of the Učka. These are Šušnjevica, Nova Vas and Jesenovik, where the Istro-Romanians are more numerous, and Letaj, Kostrčani, Zankovci, the Brdo area (Brdo was a separate frazione during the interwar period that included Kostrčani, Zankovci and several hamlets) and the hamlets Miheli, Dražine, Draga and Jelavici (all part of the Brdo area) in smaller proportion. Of all of them, the one with the largest number of Istro-Romanian speakers is Nova Vas. Each of the Istro-Romanian villages has a name in its own language different from the official Croatian one. Thus, Žejane, Šušnjevica, Nova Vas, Jesenovik, Letaj, Kostrčani, Zankovci and Brdo become Jeiăn, Sușńévițę, Nóselo or Nósolo, Sucódru, Letåi, Costârčan, Zankovci and Bârdo (Brig for the hamlet). Other regions such as Ćićarija or Istria are called Cicearia and Istria, respectively. According to the memory of some, Istro-Romanian was also spoken in Gradinje and Grobnik and the hamlets Dolišćina, Trkovci and Perasi until recently. All of these villages at the south of the Učka constituted the Italian municipality of Valdarsa. Detailed information of an unspecified date reports that, of the 134 inhabitants of Žejane, 53 (39%) can speak Istro-Romanian. In the southern villages, the Istro-Romanians make up a bit more than a quarter of the population, with approximately 75 (27%) speakers out of 276 in 2016. Therefore, there are about 120 Istro-Romanians living in their villages. Both communities, although now connected with roads, live in different Croatian administrative regions; the southern villages are located in the Istria County and Žejane, despite being geographically in Istria, is part of Primorje-Gorski Kotar County. However, the number of ethnic Istro-Romanians or people with Istro-Romanian ancestry in Istria could be as high as 1,500, even if they no longer speak the language and practice only some (or none) of their traditions. After the end of the Second World War, many Istro-Romanians abandoned their native villages. In fact, the population of the villages today are less than a fifth of what they were in 1945. Many of them moved to nearby cities and towns, such as Kršan, Labin, Matulji, Opatija, Pazin, Pula and Rijeka. It is estimated that a total of 450 Istro-Romanians live in Croatia outside their settlements. Others decided to emigrate to other parts of the world, especially to New York City and Western Australia. The Istro-Romanian community living outside Croatia is made up of around 500 people. It is estimated that the total of Istro-Romanians of Žejane who now live abroad is 195, four times larger than the population residing in Žejane. Although the exact number of the diaspora of the Istro-Romanians from the south of the Učka is unknown, it is probably higher than that of Žejane since the emigration there was more potent and the population itself of the villages together was bigger than that of Žejane. ## Culture ### Folklore #### Dances and songs Istro-Romanian art is characterized by the domination of dances and songs. Istro-Romanian holidays tend to be somewhat austere, but accompanied by traditional musical instruments and dances. In one of these dances, called Columbaro, the peasants of the villages spend hours holding each other's hands in a closed circle, giving steps without order and with jumps without cadence. Dancers often form an arch with their hands through which a human chain passes underneath. According to Morariu, this dance is similar to those of Bukovina (a part of which is in Romania). One of the favorite dances of the Istro-Romanians is the Kolo, initially with a circular shape and then developing in skkocigori, that is, with high jumps. The dancers hold their hands and form a circle, slowly spinning all together under the music. Another dance is literally called "under the feet", in which a man and a woman or two of each dance together while hugging. Researchers who have studied Istro-Romanian dances have highlighted their primitivism. Romanian researchers have showed great interest in the Istro-Romanian traditional music, publishing them in several magazines and works. That is why some of them have classified them into the following categories: songs, elegant songs, satires and diverse creations. Traian Cantemir, a Romanian researcher, published in 1935 Motivele dispariției poeziei populare la istroromâni ("Reasons for the disappearance of popular poetry of the Istro-Romanians") in the magazine Făt-Frumos, expressing concern regarding the future of their poetry. Most of the time, the verses of the poems were accompanied by a song, becoming popular songs for travels. Some foreign non-native travelers reported that their songs were like "ancient poems" and that "a long exclamation or rather, a barbaric and prolonged cry precedes any verse". The Istro-Romanian traveler could casually find a partner with whom he had a musical dialogue, keeping both entertained and with whom they practiced improvisation. Another author who investigated in depth the Istro-Romanian songs was the Romanian writer Petru Iroaie, identifying their similarities with those of Maramureș and Bukovina and the main motifs of them. Italian and especially Croatian influence diminished the knowledge of these songs, being mostly maintained by the elderly during the beginning of the 20th century. In addition, songs with some Croatian influences gradually began to circulate in the villages. Today, some young Istro-Romanians have some distrust or even fear of giving voice to those songs. In the Istro-Romanian language, as in other ones, the song is related to social realities, whereby the main subjects dealt with work in the field, love, warfare and interethnic relations. Today, the Istro-Romanians cannot remember certain words of their language, and therefore some old lyrics and verses can no longer be read. This has led Cantemir to define them as "fossils". However, some Istro-Romanian songs have managed to prevail until today. Among them are Knd am tire ("When [I asked] you"), Mes-am oča ši kola ("I went around"), Oj ljepure nu žuka ("Do not dance, rabbit") and Fina feta ("A nice girl"). The famous folk group Žejanski Zvončari (Žejane's Bell Ringers), founded by Mauro Doričić in 1997, advocates the preservation of the old carnivalesque Istro-Romanian traditions. It is made up of the zvončari (bell ringers), an exclusively male carnival dance group, and the "Kntaduri" (singers), an a cappella singing group. The association has also published new songs mainly in the Istro-Romanian dialect of Žejane, such as Tu ver fi ama ("You will be mine"), Pustu an Žejan ("Carnival in Žejane") and even an anthem, Žejanska, in both Croatian and Istro-Romanian. On the day of the carnival, the zvončari ring their bells from morning to evening, going from house to house and receiving food like bacon or eggs. At night, sandwiches made with the food received from the houses are distributed. On the day of the carnival there are also crabulele, boys and girls between 10 and 20 years old with harmonics and masks, who go from house to house dancing and telling jokes. One of the children has a basket for the gifts and the rest sticks to defend against strangers if necessary. #### Costumes The inhabitants of Žejane wore unique hats that "scared" the nearby populations. These were put so that the back of the hat covered the face, so that they could steal to those who had money, for reasons that researchers have described as "well grounded". Another hat worn in Žejane was the comaracu, with several colored ropes. The lower rope was made of velvet and the rest of silk. In the elderly, these ropes were dark, and in the youth, colorful and bright (dominating blue, yellow, red and green). The hats of the latter were decorated with peacock feathers and flower bouquets. These hats were similar to the ones worn between the Mureș and Târnava rivers in Transylvania. The costumes of men had a tight shirt with long, low and narrow suspenders, as well as opinci (traditional shoes, similar to those of the Romanians). On the shirt, they wore a waistcoat called crujat. In winter, they wore a cape called halea, and on the neck they had a scarf called fașă. During the 18th century, women wore a headscarf with their hair braided. In the 19th century they used a tulpan. The white shirt reached to the knees and was covered by a colorful dress called barhan. They also had opinci. According to Burada, their legs were covered by socks called bicivele and with garters called podvezi. Today's Istro-Romanians have difficulty describing the traditional costumes of their ancestors and few know the names of each clothes. These traditional costumes are still preserved in Žejane, but only during the carnival or artistic events. However, the number of owners is very low, most of them being parents or grandparents, who pass them to the youth as a special symbol of the Istro-Romanian identity. Today's women's costumes are made up of a fațo (red scarf), an opleici (white shirt with an embroidery at the base of the neck), a pocirneka (black dress with a red ribbon and sleeveless) and a firtuhu (an apron put on the dress). Under the dress there is a white and tight skirt, to give a special look to the costume. At the waist, the dress is connected with the coanița (the widest "belt") and the tisuta (the thinnest "belt"), both with different colors. The legs, covered with the bicivi, wear black postole as footwear. Now, men wear a shirt or a black jacket. The pants, which can be white or black, are called braghesi. On the head they wear a black hat, and on the feet, postole, like women. The costume of the zvončari consists of a typical sailor shirt with two fațole (white batistes). On the back is a sheepskin garment to which three large bells are attached. A kumaroak is carried on the head, in which hundreds of colorful strips that extend to the person's back are connected. Above the strips, there are two roses that symbolize the sun. The pants and footwear are not really different from those of the traditional costume. ### Language Istro-Romanians speak the Istro-Romanian language (sometimes abbreviated as IR), part of the Balkan Romance languages spoken exclusively natively in Istria, Croatia. They have been described as the smallest ethnolinguistic group in Europe. Their language is classified by the UNESCO as a "seriously endangered language" because of the small number of fluent speakers the language has, education in Istro-Romanian is limited and the language is not usually used in many domains and the majority of younger speakers are adults, among others. Vrzić's revitalization project fulfills some of these points, however. According to several mostly Romanian researchers, the Istro-Romanian language is one of the four traditional and historical dialects of Romanian, alongside Aromanian, Megleno-Romanian and Daco-Romanian (linguistic name for the Romanian from Romania and its surroundings), all with a common ancestor, Proto-Romanian. However, Istro-Romanian can also be considered a language separated from Romanian by others, so there is no widely accepted view. Anyway, it is considered the daughter language (descendant) of Daco-Romanian, both being closer to each other than Aromanian and Megleno-Romanian are. Nevertheless, Istro-Romanian is strongly influenced by Croatian, with it affecting its morphology and with many linguistic loans, including function words. This has led some authors to describe it as a "mixed language". The Istro-Romanian consists of two main variants, a northern one (in Žejane) and a southern one (in the villages south of the Učka). For example, for the oblique case, the variety of Žejane ("Zejanski") preserves synthetic marking, while the southern variety ("Vlaski") uses only prepositional marking, but neither of them marks the accusative case (e.g. "I can see Lara" would be "poč vedę Lara", literally "can see Lara"). Another difference is that in Zejanski, generally masculine nouns of Slavic origin mark the vocative case with "-e", while those of Latin origin with "-(u)le". In Vlaski, some nouns are marked with "-e" and some "-u". But although Istro-Romanian has two main dialects, each village has its own speech, differing slightly among the southern villages. The dialect of Krk, called by Croatian researchers as krčkorumunjski ("Krko-Romanian"), has been little studied and knowledge of it is minimal. The only texts known are Hail Mary and The Lord's Prayer. Even so, it is known that "Krko-Romanian" was an Istro-Romanian dialect as it had its characteristic rhotacism, as can be seen in Fintȉra and špirišôr. There has never been a consensus on what writing system should be used for the Istro-Romanian alphabet, so Croatian and Romanian researchers have been recording and transcribing texts using different systems, with Croatian, Romanian or mixed orthographic elements. Vrzić has proposed the idea of unifying the writing system, which has been implemented on her website and is based on Croatian spelling. These changes may vary, for example, the word "when", to kând (Croatian-based), cănd (Romanian-based) and când (mixed). However, Istro-Romanian is not the only language spoken by the Istro-Romanians. In fact, they represent a diglossic community (that is, they use more than one language), with no monolingual speakers of Istro-Romanian remaining. They usually also use the Chakavian dialect of Croatian and the elderly who attended to Italian schools, Italian or Istro-Venetian (the Istrian dialect of Venetian). Generally, the youth have no knowledge or understanding of the language, and prefer to use Croatian. Those Istro-Romanians who left the villages and migrated to the cities often use Croatian as the family language. The diaspora does not usually have knowledge of the language, result of intermarriages. Therefore, it is estimated that currently around the world, the Istro-Romanian speakers are only 1,000. The following is an example of a text written in Istro-Romanian: ### Houses and lifestyle The Istro-Romanian houses are adapted to the simplicity of typical mountain homes. These are built in stone, with double walls, one or two floors and are covered with reed mace or burnt clay. Inside this "carp", there is a large chimney with a column above where "a vault that receives the smoke and takes it to the oven" is placed. Near the chimney is the paleta or lopărița, a long metal "shovel" or "pole" with which the wood is moved or removed. In the center of the vault above the chimney there is usually a large chain called catena where the cadera (a cauldron) is attached. In it, water is boiled for cooking and polenta (mămăliga). According to Burada, plates and cutlery were hung around the chimney. The "carp" that covers the house, bigger than the Romanian ones in Transylvania, serves as a refuge for people and also for animals such as chickens, pigs and sometimes, goats. To the left of the carp there is a room without chimney, with the door with the other room always open in winter to warm it. In this room there are several objects that are used only at special moments of the life of the owners. There is a misă (table), scanie (chairs) and a scriniu (closet), and on the boards over the ceiling, several portions of food such as cheese, bacon and pork legs, where "they smoke very well, as if they were in the vault of the chimney". The sheets are of great importance among Istro-Romanian women. These can be in square stone supports or in wooden beds. In these beds there can be sacks of straw or maize on which there were pillows at their ends, some of them stuffed with straw and maize as well and others with goose feathers or horsehair. With the exception of the shirts and headscarfs that cover women's heads, every textile products used at home are usually made of wool and worked at home. Those Istro-Romanians with social status or numerous families may have another room. Their houses have retained much of the architectural features of the past, and therefore have not changed much over time. ### Literature and proverbs Literature written in the Istro-Romanian language is scarce and quite recent. The first book written in this language, Calindaru lu rumeri din Istrie, was barely published in 1905. Its two authors were Glavina, an Istro-Romanian who always advocated the education of his people, and Diculescu. In this book, they gather words, proverbs and stories of the Istro-Romanians. Glavina would publish more works later, such as I romeni dell'Istria (The Romanians of Istria) and L'educazione nazionale (The national education) in the early 1920s. However, these texts, although about the Istro-Romanians, are in the Italian language. After his death, his wife Fiorella Zagabria published Promemoria e lettere, a posthumous work in which Glavina's last texts are collected. The "Istro-Romanian hymn", showed below, is located there. The second book in Istro-Romanian, Lu frati noștri: libru lu rumeri din Istrie, was published in 1928. Its author was a Romanian, Alexandru Leca Morariu, who made a trip to Istria in 1927 and another one in 1928 to study the Istro-Romanians. The first Istro-Romanian newspaper, Scrisoare către fråț rumer, has been publishing cult literature, such as the poems of the brothers from Nova Vas Gabriela and Gabriel Vretenar of 1997. In 2011, the Istro-Romanian Antonio Dianich publishes Vocabolario istroromeno‐italiano. La varietà istroromena di Briani (Băršcina), a dictionary for Italian and the Istro-Romanian dialect of Brdo. In 2016, the picture book Šćorica de lisica ši de lupu (The Story of The Fox and The Wolf) was published by a group of enthusiasts and researchers led by Vrzić. The Istro-Romanians had many proverbs in the past. Today, they know less than before. Some of the best known proverbs are nu ie cårne far de ose ("there is no meat without bones"), lu Domnu și lu Drîcu nu se pote sluji o votę ("you cannot serve God and the Devil at the same time"), mora bure måcire și bovån ("the good mill can [even] grind rocks"), din cala lu omu bet și Domnu se dåie la o bande ("even God avoids the drunk") and cåsta lume făcuta ie cu scåle: uri mergu ăn sus, ål'ți ăn jos ("the world is made of stairs: some go up, others down"). ### Occupations Traditionally and historically, the Istro-Romanians were shepherds, an occupation that would disappear with the centuries. They carried their sheep dressed in wool suits, a hat and opinci with knots around the feet. They also had a walking stick carved with things of daily life that were sung to pass the time faster. The sheep were taken to pastures in which they would remain a month, time in which a small shepherd hut of wood was built. Inside it were sheepherding tools such as a cauldron for caș (a type of cheese), a kind of container of dry soil where food was eaten and spoons, the kikara (a cup), where fresh caș was placed during a day, and the bucket with which the sheep were milked, among others. The process of making caș of the Istro-Romanians is the same as in Romania. Since the end of the 19th century, the economy and wealth of the Istro-Romanians has weakened severely. Their wine crops dried up, and agriculture is no longer as productive as before. They tried to replace the dried grapevines with American ones, which became increasingly difficult for them. Droughts are another problem. The situation in livestock is no different. They never practiced animal breeding much. According to a work published in 1992 by Romanian researchers Richard Sârbu and Vasile Frățilă, "the horses can't stand. In Šušnjevica there are only three horses. Among the birds there are only chickens. Sheepherding is weak. I have barely been able to find cheese for sale in Žejane. There are few sheep, and no goats". A characteristic of the inhabitants of Žejane was the production of charcoal, taking place in the mountains and then selling them in mostly Rijeka or Opatija. To produce it, once the wood (always beech) was collected, the Istro-Romanians stayed in a haystack called gljevaricsa, two to three meters high and six to seven meters wide. Then, the wood was placed in the middle surrounded by straw and dry wood so that the fire could extend when it was lighted. Once produced, the charcoal was taken to the cities in order to market them. Specially practiced by men was cultivation in Šušnjevica of culinary sage, "undertaking a great business". Burada is, however, the only one to present this occupation. Many of them worked in other places outside the villages. Women, on the other hand, were generally housewives, although they could also be furlani, a kind of itinerant weavers. Other Istro-Romanians became miners or sailors. From the 20th century onwards, the Istro-Romanians' needs and occupations change due to the modernization of the society in which they live. Some chose to go to the cities and others stayed. Currently, the Istro-Romanians in Žejane are mainly engaged in agriculture and wood exploitation; very few continue with sheepherding. A good part of the men are workers in nearby cities. In the southern villages, agriculture is the largest source of income. There are still people cultivating grapevines in Brdo. Material conditions are relatively better in Žejane than in the southern villages, and therefore it has a better quality of life. The production of charcoal is no longer very active, and is generally practiced for tourists. ### Religion The Istro-Romanians are Christians, being the only Balkan Romance people belonging to the Catholic Church. Historically, the church has been the largest point of exposure for the Istro-Romanians to Croatian assimilation. Currently, it does not support the Istro-Romanian cause, with all services being given in Croatian. This has been the case since the second half of the 19th century. In fact, it is recorded that Croatian priests attracted mayors and other persons through corruption to act as they liked, disfavoring the Istro-Romanians. Prior to this, the Austrian Empire allowed the ordination of priests among the Istro-Romanians (such as Micetici, born in Brdo), with sermons and confessions being given in Istro-Romanian (the rest of liturgical services used Latin at the time). Nowadays, it has been proposed that the Catholic Church in Romania could delegate three or four Romanian-speaking priests to the villages. Examples of religious terms in Istro-Romanian are besęreca ("church"), catolica ("Catholic"), Domnedzeu ("God"), Isus ("Jesus") and svântă ("holy"), all of which are similar to the Romanian terms. ## Notable figures The following is a list of notable Istro-Romanians or people of Istro-Romanian descent. In parentheses is the village of origin of each person or of their Istro-Romanian roots, if known. - Alberto Cvecich (Nova Vas), priest. - Antonio Dianich (father from Šušnjevica, mother from Kostrčani), professor of Italian and Latin, author of an Italian–Istro-Romanian dictionary (from the dialect of Brdo). - Severino Dianich (father from Šušnjevica, mother from Kostrčani), priest and theologian. - Andrei Glavina (Šušnjevica), politician, professor and one of the writers of the first book in Istro-Romanian. - Giancarlo Pepeu, pharmacologist and professor. Potentially of distant Istro-Romanian descent. In the Pepeu family, it has been passed down that the family's name is of Istro-Romanian origin. - Zvjezdana Vrzić (Zankovci), linguist and professor. Only partially Istro-Romanian. ### Alleged - Matthias Flacius Illyricus, Lutheran reformer and theologian. According to Emil Petru Rațiu, president of the Andrei Glavina Cultural Association of the Istro-Romanians, Flacius could have had Istro-Romanian roots or been one himself. He based this on the fact that Labin (Flacius' hometown) had in the early 16th century (when Flacius was born) a notorious Istro-Romanian presence. Petru also claimed that the house in which Flacius was raised was on a place called the "Plain of the Vlachs" and that the surname of his father, Andrea Vlacich, could come from the word "Vlach", which would have subsequently been Latinized as "Flacius". - Nikola Tesla, inventor, engineer and futurist. It is claimed that he had Morlach Istro-Romanian origins, that he spoke the language, that his real name was "Nicolae Teslea" and that the initial name of his family was "Drăghici". However, they are not based on stated facts and an Istro-Romanian origin for Tesla seems very unlikely. ## See also - Aromanians - Megleno-Romanians - Romanians - Vlach - Croatia–Romania relations - Istrian Italians - Vlachs in the history of Croatia
67,971,263	Green Guerillas	1,145,448,404	Guerilla gardening group from the 1970s	[ "1973 establishments in New York City", "Community gardening in New York City", "Environmental justice in New York City", "Environmental organizations based in New York City", "Organizations based in New York City", "Organizations established in 1973", "Urban farmers" ]	The Green Guerillas are a community group of horticulturalists, gardeners, botanists, and planners who work to turn abandoned or empty spaces in New York City into gardens. Formed in the 1970s, the group threw "seed grenades" into derelict lots and developed community gardens, often without going through official channels. It became especially popular after the concerted redevelopment of a dangerous, trash-filled space at the corner of Houston Street and Bowery in Manhattan. The resulting press coverage and word of mouth led the group to broaden its activities from active gardening to education, training, and support for a number of community groups working on their own gardens. The Green Guerillas have been credited with beginning the community garden movement and popularizing the idea of guerilla gardening. ## Early activities Amid a financial crisis in the 1970s, several areas of New York City, like the Lower East Side of Manhattan, were particularly affected by disinvestment and saw an associated increase in abandoned buildings, some of which attracted crime. Many were demolished, and the number of vacant lots increased. Many remained abandoned for extended periods of time, either attracting garbage and vandalism or becoming fenced off and unavailable for use by communities. Local resident Liz Christy co-founded a group called the Green Guerillas in the early 1970s, intent on transforming derelict lots into gardens. Group members met on a regular basis to identify spaces, strategize, and discuss horticulture. Responding to the tendency of many lots to be fenced off, the group became known for their use of what they called "seed grenades" (or "green-aides"), a mix of seeds, fertilizer, water, and a substrate stuffed into a receptacle like a glass Christmas tree ornament, balloon, or condom. Guerillas would lob the grenades over fences, with the hope that, after shattering, the seeds would take root, introducing plants and flowers to an ugly lot. According to Malve von Hassell, the seed bombs had an important symbolic meaning relevant to the group name's inspiration by militant radicals. The grenades were thrown into abandoned spaces "to start a literal grassroots revolution", blurring the lines between plant, tool, and weapon. ## Bowery Houston Community Farm and Garden Christy worked for an architect-planner who considered turning a vacant lot at the corner of Houston Street and Bowery into a farm, restoring the purpose it served in colonial times, in celebration of the United States bicentennial. She expressed in an interview that she found the lot depressing, recalling that "[i]n the past few years I've seen three different men carried out of there dead, from alcohol or exposure or whatever. And children played in there with all that glass and filth." Though her employer died before work started, Christy went forward with the plan in 1973. She advertised a garden meeting, posting signs around the neighborhood in multiple languages, and recruited volunteers to both work on the space and to raise funds for equipment, supplies, fencing, and insurance. After the city denied the group permission to work on the project, they proceeded outside of official channels. Members of the community removed the accumulated trash, hauled in soil, and developed the space into lots for vegetable gardens. After working through the spring, they opened the first handful of plots for planting in May 1974. As work continued and interest grew, volunteers tried to convert as much of the space as possible into gardening plots. That year, they secured a \$1 per month lease from the Office of Housing Preservation and Development under the name "Bowery Houston Community Farm and Garden". A 1974 New York Daily News article about the garden said that "they have not only brightened up the corner with flowers and greenery, but have also provided many low-income families in the area with their own fresh produce all summer". Christy was especially happy with the interest children showed in the garden. That garden, the first and oldest recognized community garden in New York City, grew to be over an acre and remains active as of 2021, and was renamed the Liz Christy Garden after her death in 1985. The Green Guerillas went on to turn other derelict lots into gardens, working on 16 spaces in 1974 and 84 in 1975. A New York Times article about the group in 1976 reported that they received \$356 in donations in their first three years, with \$3,500 in expenses, paid out of volunteers' pockets. ## Growth and community organizing In response to growing interest from other communities, the Green Guerillas began developing informational materials for communities who wanted to do the same. They ran workshops, offered to survey sites, made recommendations, and sometimes secured donated plants and trees. The organizational and support functions of the group grew considerably over the years, running workshops on pruning trees, cultivating wildflower meadows, rooftop gardening, and construction of a pond. In addition to teaching communities about plants, the Green Guerillas taught how to design a garden, how to develop operational procedures, and how to interact with the city. They treated gardeners as neighborhood leaders and required every project to involve a local community for the long-term viability of the gardens, rather than a small number of individuals. Though communities did not always secure the necessary permissions and paperwork, the city benefitted from the Green Guerillas and other community gardening projects as no-cost revitalization. In 1978, the city created an agency, Operation Green Thumb, dedicated to promoting and assisting with community-managed gardens and other projects utilizing open space. Among its activities is helping to secure leases for vacant land. That program, which was moved into the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation in 1995, is still active as of 2021. In 1983, Green Guerillas logged 13,400 volunteer hours and had a budget of more than \$40,000, which largely went to its two paid staff members, an executive director and her assistant. They ran a contest for window boxes, promoting the installation of window-hanging gardens and offering education on their construction, installation, and cultivation. In 1984, the Green Guerillas distributed a newsletter, worked with more than a hundred community groups, helped them to strategize and organize, provided information about plants and garden design, and donated tens of thousands of dollars in plants, according to the Christian Science Monitor. In 1986, the year after Christy's death, the organization had 250 volunteers with an annual budget of around \$82,000, which it received from donations, as well as from foundations, corporations, and state government. In addition to community gardens, the group assists senior centers, homeless shelters, schools, and other organizations. For example, they worked with homeless men at the Charles H. Gay Shelter on Wards Island to develop an accessible garden. One of their major activities remained the collection and reuse of plants, securing donations of plants as well as bulbs, seeds, soil, pots, and tolls from farms, gardens, and other nonprofits and businesses in the region. The group would hold giveaway events from the Bowery–Houston Garden, notifying community gardens in the area that resources will be available for pick-up. As of 1991, 450 of the approximately 700 community gardens in the city were affiliated with the Green Guerillas. Helping communities work with city agencies to secure leases and otherwise ensure the persistence of the gardens has long been an important part of the Green Guerillas' activities. A 1991 Newsday article described the organization's evolution since its early days: "Once, Green Guerillas worked against the system, outsiders fighting layers of bureaucracy to green up some of the starkest of cityscapes. Now they work the system". The leases the city typically used for the gardens allowed them to be removed at any time, with thirty days' notice, and ninety gardens were destroyed in the city between 1984 and 1999. Most of those were under the Rudy Giuliani administration. As mayor, he prioritized the privatization and development of public land. In January 1999 alone, 114 sites where gardens existed were put forward for auction. In response, the Guerillas produced materials focusing on the financial cost of such a sale, which would mean loss of a variety of community services, as well as the detrimental impact on quality of life in affected neighborhoods. Along with three members of the New York City Council and multiple community boards, the Guerillas filed a lawsuit against the Giuliani administration for failing to undergo required state reviews under the Uniform Land Use Review Procedure and State Environmental Quality Review Act. The suit persisted into the Bloomberg administration and was rejected by the State Supreme Court in 2002. In the interim, entertainer Bette Midler purchased some of the lots and another lawsuit was filed by State Attorney General Eliot Spitzer, arguing the intended auction was not legal under New York's environmental laws. That case, which ended in September 2002, resulted in the preservation of about 500 gardens and plans to turn other lots into housing. ## Legacy While urban farming was not a new phenomenon, the grassroots reclamation of abandoned, derelict lots for gardens proved a popular concept. The Green Guerillas have been credited with beginning the community garden movement and popularizing the idea of guerilla gardening, which became an international practice. In an article for Nature and Culture, Colette Palamar used the Green Guerillas as a case study at the intersection of ecological restoration and environmental justice, showing that "it is possible for communities to see and understand their own needs, as well as develop the expertise necessary for at least some kinds of ecological restoration projects".
43,085,497	Variable and Full of Perturbation	1,126,895,566	null	[ "2014 Canadian television episodes", "Canadian LGBT-related television episodes", "Orphan Black episodes", "Transgender-related television episodes" ]	"Variable and Full of Perturbation" is the eighth episode of the second season, and the eighteenth episode overall, of the Canadian science fiction television series Orphan Black. It first aired in Canada on Space and the United States on BBC America on 7 June 2014. The episode was written by Karen Walton and directed by the series' co-creator John Fawcett. The series focuses on a number of identical human clones, all of whom are played by Tatiana Maslany: Sarah Manning, Alison Hendrix, Cosima Niehaus and Rachel Duncan. This episode introduces a new clone, Tony Sawicki (Maslany), a transgender man whose search for another clone leads him to Sarah's foster brother Felix Dawkins (Jordan Gavaris). Meanwhile, the founder of the cloning program, Professor Ethan Duncan (Andrew Gillies), meets with his adoptive daughter Rachel and attempts to find a cure for Cosima's illness, while Alison and her husband Donnie (Kristian Bruun) attempt to hide a dead body. The show's co-creators, Fawcett and Graeme Manson, along with Maslany and her hair and makeup artists, developed the character of Tony over a period of six months after deciding that the inclusion of a transgender character would fit well with the show's themes of identity, gender and sexuality. Overall, the episode received mixed reviews: critics praised Maslany's performance but found Tony's character underdeveloped and gimmicky and found the plot disorganised. ## Plot The episode opens with Tony Sawicki rushing his friend Sammy, who has just been shot, to an empty warehouse. Before dying, Sammy implores Tony to find Beth Childs and pass on a message to her. Not knowing that Beth is dead, Tony's call to Beth's phone is answered by her former partner, suspended detective Art Bell, who brings Tony to Felix. Realising that Tony is a transgender clone of his foster sister Sarah Manning, Felix ascertains that Tony is unaware of his origins, but refuses to impart any information until Sarah arrives. After Sarah arrives at Felix's apartment and explains to Tony that they are clones, he is unflustered. He passes on Sammy's message for Beth, although neither Sarah or Felix understand what it means. Felix gives Tony his, Sarah and Art's phone numbers and shares a kiss with Tony before he leaves again. Alison Hendrix returns home from rehab to find her husband Donnie drunk and chastises him. When she catches him trying to leave the house in the middle of the night, she persuades him not to give up on their marriage. In an effort to open up to him, she confesses that she played a role in the death of their neighbour Aynsley, and is shocked when Donnie responds by confessing that he accidentally shot and killed Dr. Aldous Leekie, the director of the Dyad Institute, the night before. When Alison asks what he did with Leekie's body, Donnie leads her to their garage where Leekie's corpse is wrapped in the trunk of their car. Rachel Duncan, who works for the Dyad Institute, promotes Delphine Cormier to the role formerly held by Leekie, who had been ordered dead when Rachel let him escape the previous night, with the official cover story that he died of a heart attack on a private jet. Rachel sets Delphine the task of convincing Professor Ethan Duncan—a founding scientist of the clone program and Rachel's adoptive father—to come into Dyad to help find a cure for the illness that has befallen Cosima Niehaus, another clone. When Ethan arrives, Rachel questions him about why she cannot reproduce, and he reveals that all of the clones were intended to be infertile by design. In response, she breaks down in anger and trashes her office. Also working at the Dyad Institute, Cosima refuses to work with her girlfriend and monitor Delphine after Delphine's recent betrayal. They later reunite and get high in their laboratory together, after which they profess their love for each other. Before Ethan arrives at Dyad to meet Cosima, she confesses to her lab assistant Scott that the clone subject they are researching is in fact herself. Shortly after meeting Ethan, Cosima begins to cough and vomit blood before falling to the ground and seizing. ## Production The episode introduced Tony Sawicki, a trans man and another clone played by Maslany. The character was first imagined by Manson and Fawcett during the development of the show's first season; they thought that introducing a transgender clone character would be "very tied to the themes of our show about identity" and would fit well with the previous season's themes of gender and sexuality. When they approached Maslany with the idea at the end of the first season, she told them that she had already thought about playing a transgender character herself. It took the show's creators longer than with any other character to develop and refine Tony's personality and wardrobe, the entire process taking six months. In preparation for the part, Maslany researched and met with transgender people and grew out her underarm hair for six weeks, although she eventually had to shave her underarms to attend an awards ceremony before the episode was filmed. The new character was kept secret from most of the crew until scripts for the episode were distributed, and the show's hair and makeup department trialled different looks for Tony on Maslany's days off and weekends so that other members of the crew would not see her in Tony's costume. Tony's final look was created by Stephen Lynch, Sandy Sokolowski and Debra Hanson, in the show's makeup, hair and wardrobe departments, respectively. Manson, Fawcett and Maslany sought advice from GLAAD on how to best go about introducing a transgender character. In response to the perception that Tony's introduction had created "a minefield of sexual politics", Fawcett said that that had not been the writers' intention; rather, their aim was to "just throw this character in there and treat them like a normal human being like we would anyone else on the show". Unlike most other episodes, the scenes which featured multiple clones were filmed using traditional locked-off cameras rather than the time-consuming Technodolly camera set-up. The episode featured the longest continuous shot filmed in Orphan Black, where a scene between Felix, Tony and Sarah was filmed in one take. It took almost three days to film the 15-second sequence of Scott drilling into Kira's tooth, involving three rented cameras and a prop tooth that was painted red inside and filled with white dust to achieve the desired effect when drilled into. The scene in which Cosima and Delphine use a vaporiser to get high was mostly improvised by Maslany and Brochu; instead of inhaling actual helium, the pitch of their voices was altered in post-production. A stunt double was used for the second-to-last scene, wherein Cosima falls to the ground after vomiting blood. The episode features Cosima and her lab assistant Scott playing the board game Runewars. Fawcett, who describes himself as "a massive board game fan", contacted the game's creators at Fantasy Flight Games for permission to use Runewars in the show and employed one of his friends as a consultant for the episode. As a consultant, his friend set up the board for the scene, taught the involved actors how to play the game, checked for accuracy of the gameplay and dialogue about the game, and had a non-speaking cameo appearance in the scene as one of the board game players. Manson chose to incorporate H. G. Wells' science fiction novel The Island of Doctor Moreau, which Ethan Duncan reads to Kira, into the episode since he felt that the novel's themes "run so deep in our show". The book cover featured in the episode was designed by the show's art department. The episode's title, "Variable and Full of Perturbation", is taken from a quote from Francis Bacon's philosophical work Novum Organum: "the spirit of man (according as it is meted out to different individuals) is in fact a thing variable and full of perturbation, and governed as it were by chance." ## Reception The episode was aired in the United States on 7 June 2014 on BBC America. It was watched by 576,000 viewers and was the 14th most-watched program of the night. It ranked ninth for the night in the key demographic of viewers aged 18–49, with a Nielsen rating of 0.27. "Variable and Full of Perturbation" received mixed reviews from critics. Mark Rozeman, writing for Paste, gave the episode a rating of 6.9 out of 10 and, despite enjoying several storylines, described the introduction of Tony as "perhaps the biggest misstep in the show's brief history". He felt that the kiss between Tony and Felix was an example of "taboo-pushing gimmickry" and summarised the episode as "strange experimental tangent". Slant Magazine critic Matt Brennan found the episode "jumbled and strange" but felt that the introduction of Tony was a "delightful twist". He said that Cosima's storyline taking place at the Dyad Institute felt "dry and utilitarian, as though the writers realized they better get their shit together in time to wrap things up". The A.V. Club's Caroline Framke gave the episode a C− grade and criticised the "chaotic script", "aggressively flashy direction" and the failed attempts to integrate the "wildly different" subplots. She admired the attempt to "shin[e] a light on a population that's often invisible in the media landscape" by introducing a transgender character, but thought that Tony's character was underdeveloped and "more like a prop than a character". Similarly, Adam W. Kepler of The New York Times felt that Tony was a cliché of trans men—"absolutely nothing [viewers] haven't seen before"—whose characterisation was overly simplistic. Although Chris Jancelewicz of The Huffington Post found Tony's character dull, he wrote in response to Maslany's portrayal of him: "Gift-wrap that Golden Globe, Hollywood Foreign Press. There are no other Best TV Actress contenders this year." He praised the "touching" scenes shared by Cosima with Delphine and Scott and the "entertaining and twisted" bonding between Alison and Donnie. IGN's Eric Goldman felt that introducing Tony was a "big leap" for the show but that it paid off, largely due to Maslany's performance, and enjoyed the storylines featuring Alison, Cosima and Rachel. Vlada Gelman wrote for TVLine that Maslany's performance as Tony in "Variable and Full of Perturbation" was proof that "there [isn't] anything Tatiana Maslany can't do". Conversely, Rob Hunter of Film School Rejects felt that her portrayal of Tony provided "proof that Maslany is human after all and capable of failure".
5,058,628	Dick Cheney	1,173,662,044	Vice President of the United States from 2001 to 2009 (born 1941)	[ "1941 births", "2000 United States vice-presidential candidates", "2004 United States vice-presidential candidates", "20th-century American businesspeople", "20th-century American male writers", "20th-century American non-fiction writers", "20th-century American politicians", "20th-century Methodists", "21st-century American male writers", "21st-century American non-fiction writers", "21st-century Methodists", "21st-century vice presidents of the United States", "Acting presidents of the United States", "American Enterprise Institute", "American United Methodists", "American chief executives of energy companies", "American hunters", "American male non-fiction writers", "American memoirists", "American people of English descent", "American people of French descent", "American people of Welsh descent", "American political writers", "Cheney family", "Dick Cheney", "Ford administration personnel", "George H. W. Bush administration cabinet members", "George W. Bush administration cabinet members", "Grand Cordons of the Order of the Rising Sun", "Halliburton people", "Heart transplant recipients", "Living people", "People associated with the September 11 attacks", "People from Jackson, Wyoming", "Politicians from Casper, Wyoming", "Politicians from Lincoln, Nebraska", "Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients", "Republican Party (United States) vice presidential nominees", "Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Wyoming", "Republican Party vice presidents of the United States", "Texas Republicans", "United States Secretaries of Defense", "United States congressional aides", "University of Wyoming alumni", "Vice presidents of the United States", "White House Chiefs of Staff", "White House Deputy Chiefs of Staff", "Writers from Lincoln, Nebraska", "Writers from Wyoming" ]	Richard Bruce Cheney (/ˈtʃeɪni/ CHAY-nee; born January 30, 1941) is an American politician and businessman who served as the 46th vice president of the United States from 2001 to 2009 under President George W. Bush. He is currently the oldest living former U.S. vice president, following the death of Walter Mondale in 2021. Born in Lincoln, Nebraska, Cheney grew up there and in Casper, Wyoming. He attended Yale University before earning a bachelor of arts and master of arts in political science from the University of Wyoming. He began his political career as an intern for Congressman William A. Steiger, eventually working his way into the White House during the Nixon and Ford administrations. He served as White House chief of staff from 1975 to 1977. In 1978, he was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives, and represented Wyoming's at-large congressional district from 1979 to 1989, briefly serving as House minority whip in 1989. He was selected as Secretary of Defense during the presidency of George H. W. Bush, and held the position for most of Bush's term from 1989 to 1993. During his time there, he oversaw 1991's Operation Desert Storm, among other actions. Out of office during the Clinton administration, he was the chairman and CEO of Halliburton from 1995 to 2000. In July 2000, Cheney was chosen by presumptive Republican presidential nominee George W. Bush as his running mate in the 2000 presidential election. They defeated their Democratic opponents, incumbent Vice President Al Gore and Senator Joe Lieberman. In 2004, Cheney was reelected to his second term as vice president with Bush as president, defeating their Democratic opponents Senators John Kerry and John Edwards. During Cheney's tenure as vice president, he played a leading behind-the-scenes role in the George W. Bush administration's response to the September 11 attacks and coordination of the Global War on Terrorism. He was an early proponent of invading Iraq, alleging that the Saddam Hussein regime possessed a weapons of mass destruction program and had an operational relationship with Al-Qaeda; however, neither allegation was ever substantiated. He also pressured the intelligence community to provide intelligence consistent with the administration's rationales for invading Iraq. Cheney was often criticized for the Bush Administration's policies regarding the campaign against terrorism, for his support of wiretapping by the National Security Agency (NSA) and for his endorsement of "enhanced interrogation techniques" which several critics have labeled as torture. He publicly disagreed with President Bush's position against same-sex marriage in 2004, but also said it is "appropriately a matter for the states to decide". Cheney, often cited as the most powerful vice president in American history, ended his tenure as an unpopular figure in American politics with an approval rating of 13 percent. His peak approval rating in the wake of the September 11 attacks was 68 percent. ## Early life and education Cheney was born in Lincoln, Nebraska, the son of Marjorie Lorraine (née Dickey) and Richard Herbert Cheney. He is of predominantly English, as well as Welsh, Irish, and French Huguenot ancestry. His father was a soil conservation agent for the U.S. Department of Agriculture and his mother was a softball star in the 1930s; Cheney was one of three children. He attended Calvert Elementary School before his family moved to Casper, Wyoming, where he attended Natrona County High School. He attended Yale University, but by his own account had problems adjusting to the college, and dropped out. Among the influential teachers from his days in New Haven was Professor H. Bradford Westerfield, whom Cheney repeatedly credited with having helped to shape his approach to foreign policy. He later attended the University of Wyoming, where he earned both a bachelor of arts and a master of arts in political science. He subsequently started, but did not finish, doctoral studies at the University of Wisconsin–Madison. In November 1962, at the age of 21, Cheney was convicted of driving while intoxicated (DWI). He was arrested for DWI again the following year. Cheney said that the arrests made him "think about where I was and where I was headed. I was headed down a bad road if I continued on that course." In 1964, he married Lynne Vincent, his high school sweetheart, whom he had met at age 14. When Cheney became eligible for the draft, during the Vietnam War, he applied for and received five draft deferments. In 1989, The Washington Post writer George C. Wilson interviewed Cheney as the next Secretary of Defense; when asked about his deferments, Cheney reportedly said, "I had other priorities in the '60s than military service." Cheney testified during his confirmation hearings in 1989 that he received deferments to finish a college career that lasted six years rather than four, owing to sub-par academic performance and the need to work to pay for his education. Upon graduation, Cheney was eligible for the draft, but at the time, the Selective Service System was not inducting married men. On October 26, 1965, the draft was expanded to include married men without children; Cheney's first daughter, Elizabeth, was born 9 months and two days later. Cheney's fifth and final deferment granted him "3-A" status, a "hardship" deferment available to men with dependents. In January 1967, Cheney turned 26 and was no longer eligible for the draft. In 1966 Cheney dropped out of the doctoral program at the University of Wisconsin to work as staff aide for Gov. Warren Knowles. In 1968 Cheney was awarded an American Political Science Association congressional fellowship and moved to Washington. ## Early career Cheney's political career began in 1969, as an intern for Congressman William A. Steiger during the Richard Nixon Administration. He then joined the staff of Donald Rumsfeld, who was then Director of the Office of Economic Opportunity from 1969 to 1970. He held several positions in the years that followed: White House Staff Assistant in 1971, Assistant Director of the Cost of Living Council from 1971 to 1973, and Deputy Assistant to the president from 1974 to 1975. As deputy assistant, Cheney suggested several options in a memo to Rumsfeld, including use of the US Justice Department, that the Ford administration could use to limit damage from an article, published by The New York Times, in which investigative reporter Seymour Hersh reported that Navy submarines had tapped into Soviet undersea communications as part of a highly classified program, Operation Ivy Bells. ## White House Chief of Staff Cheney was Assistant to the President and White House Deputy Chief of Staff under Gerald Ford from December 1974 to November 1975. When Rumsfeld was named Secretary of Defense, Cheney became White House Chief of Staff, succeeding Rumsfeld. He later was campaign manager for Ford's 1976 presidential campaign. ## U.S. House of Representatives (1979–1989) ### Elections In 1978, Cheney was elected to represent Wyoming in the U.S. House of Representatives and succeeded retiring Democratic Congressman Teno Roncalio, having defeated his Democratic opponent, Bill Bagley. Cheney was re-elected five times, serving until 1989. ### Tenure #### Leadership In 1987, he was elected Chairman of the House Republican Conference. The following year, he was elected House Minority Whip. He served for two and a half months before he was appointed Secretary of Defense instead of former U.S. Senator John G. Tower, whose nomination had been rejected by the U.S. Senate in March 1989. #### Votes He voted against the creation of the U.S. Department of Education, citing his concern over budget deficits and expansion of the federal government, and claiming that the Department was an encroachment on states' rights. He voted against funding Head Start, but reversed his position in 2000. Cheney initially voted in 1978 against establishing a national holiday in honor of Martin Luther King Jr., but supported creation of Martin Luther King Jr. Day five years later, in 1983. Cheney supported Bob Michel's (R-IL) bid to become Republican Minority Leader. In April 1980, Cheney endorsed Governor Ronald Reagan for president, becoming one of Reagan's earliest supporters. In 1986, after President Ronald Reagan vetoed a bill to impose economic sanctions on South Africa for its policy of apartheid, Cheney was one of 83 Representatives to vote against overriding Reagan's veto. In later years, he articulated his opposition to unilateral sanctions against many different countries, stating "they almost never work" and that in that case they might have ended up hurting the people instead. In 1986, Cheney, along with 145 Republicans and 31 Democrats, voted against a non-binding Congressional resolution calling on the South African government to release Nelson Mandela from prison, after the Democrats defeated proposed amendments that would have required Mandela to renounce violence sponsored by the African National Congress (ANC) and requiring it to oust the communist faction from its leadership; the resolution was defeated. Appearing on CNN, Cheney addressed criticism for this, saying he opposed the resolution because the ANC "at the time was viewed as a terrorist organization and had a number of interests that were fundamentally inimical to the United States." ### Committee assignments Originally declining, U.S. Congressman Barber Conable persuaded Cheney to join the moderate Republican Wednesday Group in order to move up the leadership ranks. He was elected Chairman of the Republican Policy Committee from 1981 to 1987. Cheney was the Ranking Member of the Select Committee to investigate the Iran-Contra Affair. He promoted Wyoming's petroleum and coal businesses as well. ## Secretary of Defense (1989–1993) President George H. W. Bush nominated Cheney for the office of Secretary of Defense immediately after the U.S. Senate failed to confirm John Tower for that position. The senate confirmed Cheney by a vote of 92 to 0 and he served in that office from March 1989 to January 1993. He directed the United States invasion of Panama and Operation Desert Storm in the Middle East. In 1991, he was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by Bush. Later that year, he received the U.S. Senator John Heinz Award for Greatest Public Service by an Elected or Appointed Official, an award given out annually by Jefferson Awards. Cheney has said his time at the Pentagon was the most rewarding period of his public service career, calling it "the one that stands out." In 2014, Cheney recounted that when he met with President George H. W. Bush to accept the offer, he passed a painting in the private residence entitled The Peacemakers, which depicted President Lincoln, General Grant, and William Tecumseh Sherman. "My great-grandfather had served under William Tecumseh Sherman throughout the war," Cheney said, "and it occurred to me as I was in the room as I walked in to talk to the President about becoming Secretary of Defense, I wondered what he would have thought that his great-grandson would someday be in the White House with the President talking about taking over the reins of the U.S. military." ### Early tenure Cheney worked closely with Pete Williams, Assistant Secretary of Defense for Public Affairs, and Paul Wolfowitz, Under Secretary of Defense for Policy, from the beginning of his tenure. He focused primarily on external matters, and left most of the internal DoD management to Deputy Secretary of Defense Donald Atwood. ### Budgetary practices Cheney's most immediate issue as Secretary of Defense was the Department of Defense budget. Cheney deemed it appropriate to cut the budget and downsize the military, following the Reagan Administration's peacetime defense buildup at the height of the Cold War. As part of the fiscal year 1990 budget, Cheney assessed the requests from each of the branches of the armed services for such expensive programs as the Avenger II Naval attack aircraft, the B-2 stealth bomber, the V-22 Osprey tilt-wing helicopter, the Aegis destroyer and the MX missile, totaling approximately \$4.5 billion in light of changed world politics. Cheney opposed the V-22 program, which Congress had already appropriated funds for, and initially refused to issue contracts for it before relenting. When the 1990 Budget came before Congress in the summer of 1989, it settled on a figure between the Administration's request and the House Armed Services Committee's recommendation. In subsequent years under Cheney, the proposed and adopted budgets followed patterns similar to that of 1990. Early in 1991, he unveiled a plan to reduce military strength by the mid-1990s to 1.6 million, compared with 2.2 million when he entered office. Cheney's 1993 defense budget was reduced from 1992, omitting programs that Congress had directed the Department of Defense to buy weapons that it did not want, and omitting unrequested reserve forces. Over his four years as Secretary of Defense, Cheney downsized the military and his budgets showed negative real growth, despite pressures to acquire weapon systems advocated by Congress. The Department of Defense's total obligational authority in current dollars declined from \$291 billion to \$270 billion. Total military personnel strength decreased by 19 percent, from about 2.2 million in 1989 to about 1.8 million in 1993. Notwithstanding the overall reduction in military spending, Cheney directed the development of a Pentagon plan to ensure U.S. military dominance in the post-Cold War era. ### Political climate and agenda Cheney publicly expressed concern that nations such as Iraq, Iran, and North Korea, could acquire nuclear components after the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. The end of the Cold War, the fall of the Soviet Union, and the disintegration of the Warsaw Pact obliged the first Bush Administration to reevaluate the North Atlantic Treaty Organization's (NATO's) purpose and makeup. Cheney believed that NATO should remain the foundation of European security relationships and that it would remain important to the United States in the long term; he urged the alliance to lend more assistance to the new democracies in Eastern Europe. Cheney's views on NATO reflected his skepticism about prospects for peaceful social development in the former Eastern Bloc countries, where he saw a high potential for political uncertainty and instability. He felt that the Bush Administration was too optimistic in supporting General Secretary of the CPSU Mikhail Gorbachev and his successor, Russian President Boris Yeltsin. Cheney worked to maintain strong ties between the United States and its European allies. Cheney persuaded the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia to allow bases for U.S. ground troops and war planes in the nation. This was an important element of the success of the Gulf War, as well as a lightning-rod for Islamists, such as Osama bin Laden, who opposed having non-Muslim armies near their holy sites. ### International situations Using economic sanctions and political pressure, the United States mounted a campaign to drive Panamanian ruler General Manuel Antonio Noriega from power after he fell from favor. In May 1989, after Guillermo Endara had been duly elected President of Panama, Noriega nullified the election outcome, drawing intensified pressure. In October, Noriega suppressed a military coup, but in December, after soldiers of the Panamanian army killed a U.S. serviceman, the United States invasion of Panama began under Cheney's direction. The stated reason for the invasion was to seize Noriega to face drug charges in the United States, protect U.S. lives and property, and restore Panamanian civil liberties. Although the mission was controversial, U.S. forces achieved control of Panama and Endara assumed the presidency; Noriega was convicted and imprisoned on racketeering and drug trafficking charges in April 1992. In 1991, the Somali Civil War drew the world's attention. In August 1992, the United States began to provide humanitarian assistance, primarily food, through a military airlift. At President Bush's direction, Cheney dispatched the first of 26,000 U.S. troops to Somalia as part of the Unified Task Force (UNITAF), designed to provide security and food relief. Cheney's successors as Secretary of Defense, Les Aspin and William J. Perry, had to contend with both the Bosnian and Somali issues. #### Iraqi invasion of Kuwait On August 1, 1990, Iraqi President Saddam Hussein sent the invading Iraqi forces into neighboring Kuwait, a small petroleum-rich state long claimed by Iraq as part of its territory. This invasion sparked the initiation of the Persian Gulf War and it brought worldwide condemnation. An estimated 140,000 Iraqi troops quickly took control of Kuwait City and moved on to the Saudi Arabia/Kuwait border. The United States had already begun to develop contingency plans for the defense of Saudi Arabia by the U.S. Central Command, headed by General Norman Schwarzkopf, because of its important petroleum reserves. ##### U.S. and world reaction Cheney and Schwarzkopf oversaw planning for what would become a full-scale U.S. military operation. According to General Colin Powell, Cheney "had become a glutton for information, with an appetite we could barely satisfy. He spent hours in the National Military Command Center peppering my staff with questions." Shortly after the Iraqi invasion, Cheney made the first of several visits to Saudi Arabia where King Fahd requested U.S. military assistance. The United Nations took action as well, passing a series of resolutions condemning Iraq's invasion of Kuwait; the UN Security Council authorized "all means necessary" to eject Iraq from Kuwait, and demanded that the country withdraw its forces by January 15, 1991. By then, the United States had a force of about 500,000 stationed in Saudi Arabia and the Persian Gulf. Other nations, including Britain, Canada, France, Italy, Syria, and Egypt, contributed troops, and other allies, most notably Germany and Japan, agreed to provide financial support for the coalition effort, named Operation Desert Shield. On January 12, 1991, Congress authorized Bush to use military force to enforce Iraq's compliance with UN resolutions on Kuwait. ##### Military action The first phase of Operation Desert Storm, which began on January 17, 1991, was an air offensive to secure air superiority and attack Iraqi forces, targeting key Iraqi command and control centers, including the cities of Baghdad and Basra. Cheney turned most other Department of Defense matters over to Deputy Secretary Atwood and briefed Congress during the air and ground phases of the war. He flew with Powell to the region to review and finalize the ground war plans. After an air offensive of more than five weeks, Coalition forces launched the ground war on February 24. Within 100 hours, Iraqi forces had been routed from Kuwait and Schwarzkopf reported that the basic objective – expelling Iraqi forces from Kuwait – had been met on February 27. After consultation with Cheney and other members of his national security team, Bush declared a suspension of hostilities. On working with this national security team, Cheney has said, "there have been five Republican presidents since Eisenhower. I worked for four of them and worked closely with a fifth – the Reagan years when I was part of the House leadership. The best national security team I ever saw was that one. The least friction, the most cooperation, the highest degree of trust among the principals, especially." ##### Aftermath A total of 147 U.S. military personnel died in combat, and another 236 died as a result of accidents or other causes. Iraq agreed to a formal truce on March 3, and a permanent cease-fire on April 6. There was subsequent debate about whether Coalition forces should have driven as far as Baghdad to oust Saddam Hussein from power. Bush agreed that the decision to end the ground war when they did was correct, but the debate persisted as Hussein remained in power and rebuilt his military forces. Arguably the most significant debate concerned whether U.S. and Coalition forces had left Iraq too soon. In an April 15, 1994, interview with C-SPAN, Cheney was asked if the U.S.-led Coalition forces should have moved into Baghdad. Cheney replied that occupying and attempting to take over the country would have been a "bad idea" and would have led to a "quagmire", explaining that: > [If] we'd gone to Baghdad we would have been all alone. There wouldn't have been anybody else with us. There would have been a U.S. occupation of Iraq. None of the Arab forces that were willing to fight with us in Kuwait were willing to invade Iraq. Once you got to Iraq and took it over, took down Saddam Hussein's government, then what are you going to put in its place? That's a very volatile part of the world, and if you take down the central government of Iraq, you could very easily end up seeing pieces of Iraq fly off: part of it, the Syrians would like to have to the west, part of it – eastern Iraq – the Iranians would like to claim, they fought over it for eight years. In the north you've got the Kurds, and if the Kurds spin loose and join with the Kurds in Turkey, then you threaten the territorial integrity of Turkey. It's a quagmire if you go that far and try to take over Iraq. The other thing was casualties. Everyone was impressed with the fact we were able to do our job with as few casualties as we had. But for the 146 Americans killed in action, and for their families – it wasn't a cheap war. And the question for the president, in terms of whether or not we went on to Baghdad, took additional casualties in an effort to get Saddam Hussein, was how many additional dead Americans is Saddam worth? Our judgment was, not very many, and I think we got it right. Cheney regarded the Gulf War as an example of the kind of regional problem the United States was likely to continue to face in the future. > We're always going to have to be involved [in the Middle East]. Maybe it's part of our national character, you know we like to have these problems nice and neatly wrapped up, put a ribbon around it. You deploy a force, you win the war and the problem goes away. But it doesn't work that way in the Middle East. It never has, and isn't likely to in my lifetime. ## Private sector career Between 1987 and 1989, during his last term in Congress, Cheney served on the board of the Council on Foreign Relations foreign policy organization. With the inauguration of the new Democratic administration under President Bill Clinton in January 1993, Cheney joined the American Enterprise Institute. He also served a second term as a Council on Foreign Relations director from 1993 to 1995. From October 1, 1995 to July 25, 2000, he served as chairman of the board and chief executive officer of Halliburton, a Fortune 500 company. Cheney resigned as CEO on the same day he was announced as George Bush's vice presidential pick in the 2000 election. Cheney's record as CEO was subject to some dispute among Wall Street analysts. A 1998 merger between Halliburton and Dresser Industries attracted the criticism of some Dresser executives for Halliburton's lack of accounting transparency. Halliburton shareholders pursued a class-action lawsuit alleging that the corporation artificially inflated its stock price during this period, though Cheney was not named as an individual defendant in the suit. In June 2011, the United States Supreme Court reversed a lower court ruling and allowed the case to continue in litigation. Cheney was named in a December 2010 corruption complaint filed by the Nigerian government against Halliburton, which the company settled for \$250 million. During Cheney's term, Halliburton changed its accounting practices regarding revenue realization of disputed costs on major construction projects. Cheney resigned as CEO of Halliburton on July 25, 2000. As vice president, he argued that this step, along with establishing a trust and other actions, removed any conflict of interest. Cheney's net worth, estimated to be between \$19 million and \$86 million, is largely derived from his post at Halliburton. His 2006 gross joint income with his wife was nearly \$8.82 million. He was also a member of the board of advisors of the Jewish Institute for National Security Affairs (JINSA) before becoming vice president. ## 2000 presidential election In early 2000, while serving as the CEO of Halliburton, Cheney headed then-Governor of Texas George W. Bush's vice-presidential search committee. On July 25, after reviewing Cheney's findings, Bush surprised some pundits by asking Cheney himself to join the Republican ticket. Halliburton reportedly reached agreement on July 20 to allow Cheney to retire, with a package estimated at \$20 million. A few months before the election Cheney put his home in Dallas up for sale and changed his drivers' license and voter registration back to Wyoming. This change was necessary to allow Texas' presidential electors to vote for both Bush and Cheney without contravening the Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which forbids electors from voting for "an inhabitant of the same state with themselves" for both president and vice president. Cheney campaigned against Al Gore's running mate, Joseph Lieberman, in the 2000 presidential election. While the election was undecided, the Bush-Cheney team was not eligible for public funding to plan a transition to a new administration, prompting Cheney to open a privately funded transition office in Washington. This office worked to identify candidates for all important positions in the cabinet. According to Craig Unger, Cheney advocated Donald Rumsfeld for the post of Secretary of Defense to counter the influence of Colin Powell at the State Department, and tried unsuccessfully to have Paul Wolfowitz named to replace George Tenet as director of the Central Intelligence Agency. ## Vice presidency (2001–2009) ### First term (2001–2005) Following the September 11, 2001, attacks, Cheney remained physically apart from Bush for security reasons. For a period, Cheney stayed at a variety of undisclosed locations, out of public view. Cheney later revealed in his memoir In My Time that these "undisclosed locations" included his official vice presidential residence, his home in Wyoming, and Camp David. He also utilized a heavy security detail, employing a motorcade of 12 to 18 government vehicles for his daily commute from the vice presidential residence at the U.S. Naval Observatory to the White House. On the morning of June 29, 2002, Cheney served as acting president from 7:09 a.m. to 9:24 a.m., under the terms of the 25th Amendment to the Constitution, while Bush underwent a colonoscopy. #### Iraq War Following 9/11, Cheney was instrumental in providing a primary justification for a renewed war against Iraq. Cheney helped shape Bush's approach to the "War on Terror", making numerous public statements alleging Iraq possessed weapons of mass destruction, and making several personal visits to CIA headquarters, where he questioned mid-level agency analysts on their conclusions. Cheney continued to allege links between Saddam Hussein and al-Qaeda, even though President Bush received a classified President's Daily Brief on September 21, 2001, indicating the U.S. intelligence community had no evidence linking Saddam Hussein to the September 11 attacks and that "there was scant credible evidence that Iraq had any significant collaborative ties with Al Qaeda." Furthermore, in 2004, the 9/11 Commission concluded that there was no "collaborative relationship" between Iraq and al-Qaeda. By 2014, Cheney continued to misleadingly claim that Saddam "had a 10-year relationship with al Qaeda." Following the US invasion of Iraq, Cheney remained steadfast in his support of the war, stating that it would be an "enormous success story", and made many visits to the country. He often criticized war critics, calling them "opportunists" who were peddling "cynical and pernicious falsehoods" to gain political advantage while US soldiers died in Iraq. In response, Senator John Kerry asserted, "It is hard to name a government official with less credibility on Iraq [than Cheney]." In a March 24, 2008, extended interview conducted in Ankara, Turkey, with ABC News correspondent Martha Raddatz on the fifth anniversary of the original U.S. military assault on Iraq, Cheney responded to a question about public opinion polls showing that Americans had lost confidence in the war by simply replying "So?" This remark prompted widespread criticism, including from former Oklahoma Republican Congressman Mickey Edwards, a long-time personal friend of Cheney. ### Second term (2005–2009) Bush and Cheney were re-elected in the 2004 presidential election, running against John Kerry and his running mate, John Edwards. During the election, the pregnancy of his daughter Mary and her sexual orientation as a lesbian became a source of public attention for Cheney in light of the same-sex marriage debate. Cheney has since stated that he is in favor of gay marriages personally, but that each individual U.S. state should decide whether to permit it or not.Cheney's former chief legal counsel, David Addington, became his chief of staff and remained in that office until Cheney's departure from office. John P. Hannah served as Cheney's national security adviser. Until his indictment and resignation in 2005, I. Lewis "Scooter" Libby, Jr. served in both roles. On the morning of July 21, 2007, Cheney once again served as acting president, from 7:16 am to 9:21 am. Bush transferred the power of the presidency prior to undergoing a medical procedure, requiring sedation, and later resumed his powers and duties that same day. After his term began in 2001, Cheney was occasionally asked if he was interested in the Republican nomination for the 2008 elections. However, he always maintained that he wished to retire upon the expiration of his term and he did not run in the 2008 presidential primaries. The Republicans nominated Arizona Senator John McCain. #### Disclosure of documents Cheney was a prominent member of the National Energy Policy Development Group (NEPDG), commonly known as the Energy Task Force, composed of energy industry representatives, including several Enron executives. After the Enron scandal, the Bush administration was accused of improper political and business ties. In July 2003, the Supreme Court ruled that the US Department of Commerce must disclose NEPDG documents, containing references to companies that had made agreements with the previous Iraqi government to extract Iraq's petroleum. Beginning in 2003, Cheney's staff opted not to file required reports with the National Archives and Records Administration office charged with assuring that the executive branch protects classified information, nor did it allow inspection of its record keeping. Cheney refused to release the documents, citing his executive privilege to deny congressional information requests. Media outlets such as Time magazine and CBS News questioned whether Cheney had created a "fourth branch of government" that was not subject to any laws. A group of historians and open-government advocates filed a lawsuit in the US District Court for the District of Columbia, asking the court to declare that Cheney's vice-presidential records are covered by the Presidential Records Act of 1978 and cannot be destroyed, taken or withheld from the public without proper review. #### CIA leak scandal On October 18, 2005, The Washington Post reported that the vice president's office was central to the investigation of the Valerie Plame CIA leak scandal, for Cheney's former chief of staff, Lewis "Scooter" Libby, was one of the figures under investigation. Libby resigned his positions as Cheney's chief of staff and assistant on national security affairs later in the month after he was indicted. In February 2006, The National Journal reported that Libby had stated before a grand jury that his superiors, including Cheney, had authorized him to disclose classified information to the press regarding intelligence on Iraq's weapons. That September, Richard Armitage, former Deputy Secretary of State, publicly announced that he was the source of the revelation of Plame's status. Armitage said he was not a part of a conspiracy to reveal Plame's identity and did not know whether one existed. On March 6, 2007, Libby was convicted on four felony counts for obstruction of justice, perjury, and making false statements to federal investigators. In his closing arguments, independent prosecutor Patrick Fitzgerald said that there was "a cloud over the vice president", an apparent reference to Cheney's interview with FBI agents investigating the case, which was made public in 2009. Cheney lobbied President George W. Bush vigorously and unsuccessfully to grant Libby a full presidential pardon up to the day of Barack Obama's inauguration, likening Libby to a "soldier on the battlefield". Libby was subsequently pardoned by President Donald Trump in April 2018. #### Assassination attempt On February 27, 2007, at about 10 am, a suicide bomber killed 23 people and wounded 20 more outside Bagram Airfield in Afghanistan during a visit by Cheney. The Taliban claimed responsibility for the attack and declared that Cheney was its intended target. They also claimed that Osama bin Laden supervised the operation. The bomb went off outside the front gate while Cheney was inside the base and half a mile away. He reported hearing the blast, saying "I heard a loud boom... The Secret Service came in and told me there had been an attack on the main gate." The purpose of Cheney's visit to the region had been to press Pakistan for a united front against the Taliban. #### Policy formulation Cheney has been characterized as the most powerful and influential Vice President in history. Both supporters and critics of Cheney regard him as a shrewd and knowledgeable politician who knows the functions and intricacies of the federal government. A sign of Cheney's active policy-making role was then-House Speaker Dennis Hastert's provision of an office near the House floor for Cheney in addition to his office in the West Wing, his ceremonial office in the Old Executive Office Building, and his Senate offices (one in the Dirksen Senate Office Building and another off the floor of the Senate). Cheney has actively promoted an expansion of the powers of the presidency, saying that the Bush administration's challenges to the laws which Congress passed after Vietnam and Watergate to contain and oversee the executive branch – the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act, the Presidential Records Act, the Freedom of Information Act and the War Powers Resolution – are, in Cheney's words, "a restoration, if you will, of the power and authority of the president". In June 2007, The Washington Post summarized Cheney's vice presidency in a Pulitzer Prize-winning four-part series, based in part on interviews with former administration officials. The articles characterized Cheney not as a "shadow" president, but as someone who usually has the last words of counsel to the president on policies, which in many cases would reshape the powers of the presidency. When former Vice President Dan Quayle suggested to Cheney that the office was largely ceremonial, Cheney reportedly replied, "I have a different understanding with the president." The articles described Cheney as having a secretive approach to the tools of government, indicated by the use of his own security classification and three man-sized safes in his offices. The articles described Cheney's influence on decisions pertaining to detention of suspected terrorists and the legal limits that apply to their questioning, especially what constitutes torture. U.S. Army Colonel Lawrence Wilkerson, who served as Colin Powell's chief of staff when he was both Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff at the same time Cheney was Secretary of Defense, and then later when Powell was Secretary of State, stated in an in-depth interview that Cheney and Donald Rumsfeld established an alternative program to interrogate post-9/11 detainees because of their mutual distrust of CIA. The Washington Post articles, principally written by Barton Gellman, further characterized Cheney as having the strongest influence within the administration in shaping budget and tax policy in a manner that assures "conservative orthodoxy." They also highlighted Cheney's behind-the-scenes influence on the Bush administration's environmental policy to ease pollution controls for power plants, facilitate the disposal of nuclear waste, open access to federal timber resources, and avoid federal constraints on greenhouse gas emissions, among other issues. The articles characterized his approach to policy formulation as favoring business over the environment. In June 2008, Cheney allegedly attempted to block efforts by Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice to strike a controversial US compromise deal with North Korea over the communist state's nuclear program. In July 2008, a former Environmental Protection Agency official stated publicly that Cheney's office had pushed significantly for large-scale deletions from a Centers for Disease Control and Prevention report on the health effects of global warming "fearing the presentation by a leading health official might make it harder to avoid regulating greenhouse gases." In October, when the report appeared with six pages cut from the testimony, the White House stated that the changes were made due to concerns regarding the accuracy of the science. However, according to the former senior adviser on climate change to Environmental Protection Agency Administrator Stephen Johnson, Cheney's office was directly responsible for nearly half of the original testimony being deleted. In his role as President of the U.S. Senate, Cheney broke with the Bush Administration Department of Justice, and signed an amicus brief to the United States Supreme Court in the case of Heller v. District of Columbia that successfully challenged gun laws in the nation's capital on Second Amendment grounds. On February 14, 2010, in an appearance on ABC's This Week, Cheney reiterated his support of waterboarding and for the torture of captured terrorist suspects, saying, "I was and remain a strong proponent of our enhanced interrogation program." ## Post–vice presidency (2009–present) The Washington Post reported in 2008 that Cheney purchased a home in McLean, Virginia, part of the Washington suburbs, which he was to tear down for a replacement structure. He also maintains homes in Wyoming and on Maryland's Eastern Shore. ### Political activity In July 2012, Cheney used his Wyoming home to host a private fund-raiser for Republican presidential candidate Mitt Romney, which netted over \$4 million in contributions from attendees for Romney's campaign. Cheney is the subject of the documentary film The World According to Dick Cheney, which premiered March 15, 2013, on the Showtime television channel. Cheney was also reported to be the subject of an HBO television mini-series based on Barton Gellman's 2008 book Angler and the 2006 documentary The Dark Side, produced by the Public Broadcasting Service. Cheney maintained a visible public profile after leaving office, being especially critical of Obama administration policies on national security. In May 2009, Cheney spoke of his support for same-sex marriage, becoming one of the most prominent Republican politicians to do so. Speaking to the National Press Club, Cheney stated: "People ought to be free to enter into any kind of union they wish, any kind of arrangement they wish. I do believe, historically, the way marriage has been regulated is at a state level. It's always been a state issue, and I think that's the way it ought to be handled today." In 2012, Cheney reportedly encouraged several Maryland state legislators to vote to legalize same-sex marriage in that state. Although, by custom, a former vice president unofficially receives six months of protection from the United States Secret Service, President Obama reportedly extended the protection period for Cheney. On July 11, 2009, CIA Director Leon Panetta told the Senate and House intelligence committees that the CIA withheld information about a secret counter-terrorism program from Congress for eight years on direct orders from Cheney. Intelligence and Congressional officials have said the unidentified program did not involve the CIA interrogation program and did not involve domestic intelligence activities. They have said the program was started by the counter-terrorism center at the CIA shortly after the attacks of September 11, 2001, but never became fully operational, involving planning and some training that took place off and on from 2001 until 2009. The Wall Street Journal reported, citing former intelligence officials familiar with the matter, that the program was an attempt to carry out a 2001 presidential authorization to capture or kill al Qaeda operatives. Cheney has said that the Tea Party Movement is a "positive influence on the Republican Party" and that "I think it's much better to have that kind of turmoil and change in the Republican Party than it would be to have it outside." In May 2016, Cheney endorsed Donald Trump as the Republican nominee in the 2016 presidential election. That November, his daughter Liz won election to the House of Representatives (to his former congressional seat). When she was sworn into office in January 2017, Cheney said he believed she would do well in the position and that he would only offer advice if requested. That March, Cheney said that Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections could be considered "an act of war". ### Views on President Obama On December 29, 2009, four days after the attempted bombing of an international passenger flight from the Netherlands to United States, Cheney criticized President Barack Obama: "[We] are at war and when President Obama pretends we aren't, it makes us less safe. ... Why doesn't he want to admit we're at war? It doesn't fit with the view of the world he brought with him to the Oval Office. It doesn't fit with what seems to be the goal of his presidency – social transformation – the restructuring of American society." In response, White House Communications Director Dan Pfeiffer wrote on the official White House blog the following day, "[I]t is telling that Vice President Cheney and others seem to be more focused on criticizing the Administration than condemning the attackers. Unfortunately too many are engaged in the typical Washington game of pointing fingers and making political hay, instead of working together to find solutions to make our country safer." During a February 14, 2010, appearance on ABC's This Week, Cheney reiterated his criticism of the Obama administration's policies for handling suspected terrorists, criticizing the "mindset" of treating "terror attacks against the United States as criminal acts as opposed to acts of war". In a May 2, 2011, interview with ABC News, Cheney praised the Obama administration for the covert military operation in Pakistan that resulted in the death of Osama bin Laden. In 2014, during an interview with Sean Hannity, he called Obama a "weak President" after Obama announced his plans to pull forces out of Afghanistan. ### Memoir In August 2011, Cheney published his memoir, In My Time: A Personal and Political Memoir, written with Liz Cheney. The book outlines Cheney's recollections of 9/11, the War on Terrorism, the 2001 War in Afghanistan, the run-up to the 2003 Iraq War, so-called "enhanced interrogation techniques" and other events. According to Barton Gellman, the author of Angler: The Cheney Vice Presidency, Cheney's book differs from publicly available records on details surrounding the NSA surveillance program. ### Exceptional: Why the World Needs a Powerful America In 2015, Cheney published another book, Exceptional: Why the World Needs a Powerful America, again co-authored with his daughter Liz. The book traces the history of U.S. foreign policy and military successes and failures from Franklin Roosevelt's administration through the Obama administration. The authors tell the story of what they describe as the unique role the United States has played as a defender of freedom throughout the world since World War II. Drawing upon the notion of American exceptionalism, the co-authors criticize Barack Obama's and former Secretary of State Hillary Clinton's foreign policies, and offer what they see as the solutions needed to restore American greatness and power on the world stage in defense of freedom. ### Views on Donald Trump Cheney has criticized modern Republican leadership. In May 2016, Cheney said he would support Donald Trump in the 2016 presidential election. In May 2018, Cheney supported President Trump's decision to withdraw from the Iran Nuclear Deal. He criticized the Trump administration during a forum at the American Enterprise Institute alongside Vice President Mike Pence in March 2019. Questioning his successor on Trump's commitment to NATO and tendency to announce policy decisions on Twitter before consulting senior staff members, Cheney went on to opine, "It seems, at times, as though your administration’s approach has more in common with Obama’s foreign policy than traditional Republican foreign policy." On the one year anniversary of the January 6, 2021, Capitol attack, Cheney joined his daughter Liz Cheney at the Capitol and participated in the remembrance events. He later appeared in a 2022 primary campaign ad for Liz in which he called Trump a "coward" and "threat to our republic" due to his attempts to overturn the 2020 United States presidential election. That year, Liz ran for her Wyoming congressional seat against Trump-backed primary challenger Harriet Hageman, who ultimately won. ## Public perception and legacy Cheney's early public opinion polls were more favorable than unfavorable, reaching his peak approval rating in the wake of the September 11 attacks at 68 percent. However, polling numbers for both him and the president gradually declined in their second terms, with Cheney reaching his lowest point shortly before leaving office at 13 percent. Cheney's Gallup poll figures are mostly consistent with those from other polls: - April 2001 – 63% approval, 21% disapproval - January 2002 – 68% approval, 18% disapproval - January 2004 – 56% approval, 36% disapproval - January 2005 – 50% approval, 40% disapproval - January 2006 – 41% approval, 46% disapproval - July 2007 – 30% approval, 60% disapproval - March 2009 – 30% approval, 63% disapproval In April 2007, Cheney was awarded an honorary doctorate of public service by Brigham Young University, where he delivered the commencement address. His selection as commencement speaker was controversial. The college board of trustees issued a statement explaining that the invitation should be viewed "as one extended to someone holding the high office of vice president of the United States rather than to a partisan political figure". BYU permitted a protest to occur so long as it did not "make personal attacks against Cheney, attack (the) BYU administration, the church or the First Presidency". Cheney has been cited as the most powerful vice president in American history. He has been compared to Darth Vader, a characterization originated by his critics, but which was later adopted humorously by Cheney himself as well as by members of his family and staff. As a result of Cheney having admitted that he "signed off" on the so-called "enhanced interrogation techniques" program, some public officials, as well as several media outlets and advocacy groups, have called for his prosecution under various anti-torture and war crimes statutes. In Jon Meacham's book Destiny and Power: The American Odyssey of George Herbert Walker Bush, published in November 2015, the 41st president, although also laudatory of Cheney, is in part critical of the former vice president, whom Bush describes as "having his own empire" and "very hard-line." The federal building in Casper, Wyoming is named the Dick Cheney Federal Building. ## In popular culture - In Eminem's 2002 single "Without Me", where the lines "I know that you got a job, Ms. Cheney / But your husband's heart problem's complicating" refer to his health problems. - In The Day After Tomorrow, the character Raymond Becker (played by Kenneth Welsh) is intended to be a criticism of Dick Cheney. - In W. (2008), a biographical comedy-drama film directed by Oliver Stone, he is portrayed by Richard Dreyfuss. - In War Dogs (2016), where the line "God bless Dick Cheney's America" refers to his support of American military presence in Iraq. - In Who Is America? (2018), a political satire series, Sacha Baron Cohen pranked Cheney into signing a makeshift waterboard kit. - In Vice (2018), a biographical comedy-drama film written and directed by Adam McKay, Cheney is portrayed by Christian Bale, for which the latter won a Golden Globe and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor. - In Mrs. America (2020), a historical drama television miniseries produced by FX, Cheney is portrayed by Andrew Hodwitz. - Bob Rivers did a parody cover called "Cheney's Got a Gun" - In an episode entitled "Dick Cheney" during the first-season run of the dramedy Patriot aired on Amazon Prime, protagonist John Lakeman shoots his rival with a shotgun while the two were conducting a duck hunt, referencing events surrounding the Dick Cheney hunting accident. ## Personal life Cheney is a member of the United Methodist Church and was the first Methodist vice president to serve under a Methodist president. Cheney's brother, Bob, is a former civil servant at the Bureau of Land Management. His wife, Lynne, was chair of the National Endowment for the Humanities from 1986 to 1996. She is now a public speaker, author, and a senior fellow at the American Enterprise Institute. The couple have two daughters, Elizabeth ("Liz") and Mary Cheney, and seven grandchildren. Liz, a former congresswoman from Wyoming, is married to Philip J. Perry, a former General Counsel of the Department of Homeland Security. Mary, a former employee of the Colorado Rockies baseball team and the Coors Brewing Company, was a campaign aide to the Bush re-election campaign; she lives in Great Falls, Virginia, with her wife Heather Poe. Cheney has publicly supported gay marriage since leaving the vice presidency. As of 2015, Cheney had a pet Golden Retriever named Nelson. ### Health problems Cheney's long histories of cardiovascular disease and periodic need for urgent health care raised questions of whether he was medically fit to serve in public office. Having smoked approximately 3 packs of cigarettes per day for nearly 20 years, Cheney had his first of five heart attacks on June 18, 1978, at age 37. Subsequent heart attacks in 1984, 1988, on November 22, 2000, and on February 22, 2010, resulted in moderate contractile dysfunction of his left ventricle. He underwent four-vessel coronary artery bypass grafting in 1988, coronary artery stenting in November 2000, urgent coronary balloon angioplasty in March 2001, and the implantation of a cardioverter-defibrillator in June 2001. On September 24, 2005, Cheney underwent a six-hour endo-vascular procedure to repair popliteal artery aneurysms bilaterally, a catheter treatment technique used in the artery behind each knee. The condition was discovered at a regular physical in July, and was not life-threatening. Cheney was hospitalized for tests after experiencing shortness of breath five months later. In late April 2006, an ultrasound revealed that the clot was smaller. On March 5, 2007, Cheney was treated for deep-vein thrombosis in his left leg at George Washington University Hospital after experiencing pain in his left calf. Doctors prescribed blood-thinning medication and allowed him to return to work. CBS News reported that during the morning of November 26, 2007, Cheney was diagnosed with atrial fibrillation and underwent treatment that afternoon. On July 12, 2008, Cheney underwent a cardiological exam; doctors reported that his heartbeat was normal for a 67-year-old man with a history of heart problems. As part of his annual checkup, he was administered an electrocardiogram and radiological imaging of the stents placed in the arteries behind his knees in 2005. Doctors said that Cheney had not experienced any recurrence of atrial fibrillation and that his special pacemaker had neither detected nor treated any arrhythmia. On October 15, 2008, Cheney returned to the hospital briefly to treat a minor irregularity. On January 19, 2009, Cheney strained his back "while moving boxes into his new house". As a consequence, he was in a wheelchair for two days, including his attendance at the 2009 United States presidential inauguration. On February 22, 2010, Cheney was admitted to George Washington University Hospital after experiencing chest pains. A spokesperson later said Cheney had experienced a mild heart attack after doctors had run tests. On June 25, 2010, Cheney was admitted to George Washington University Hospital after reporting discomfort. In early-July 2010, Cheney was outfitted with a left-ventricular assist device (LVAD) at Inova Fairfax Heart and Vascular Institute to compensate for worsening congestive heart failure. The device pumped blood continuously through his body. He was released from Inova on August 9, 2010, and had to decide whether to seek a full heart transplant. This pump was centrifugal and as a result he remained alive without a pulse for nearly fifteen months. On March 24, 2012, Cheney underwent a seven-hour heart transplant procedure at Inova Fairfax Hospital in Woodburn, Virginia. He had been on a waiting list for more than 20 months before receiving the heart from an anonymous donor. Cheney's principal cardiologist, Jonathan Reiner, advised his patient that "it would not be unreasonable for an otherwise healthy 71-year-old man to expect to live another 10 years" with a transplant, saying in a family-authorized interview that he considered Cheney to be otherwise healthy. ### Hunting incident On February 11, 2006, Cheney accidentally shot Harry Whittington, a then-78-year-old Texas attorney, while participating in a quail hunt at Armstrong ranch in Kenedy County, Texas. Secret Service agents and medical aides, who were traveling with Cheney, came to Whittington's assistance and treated his birdshot wounds to his right cheek, neck, and chest. An ambulance standing by for the Vice President took Whittington to nearby Kingsville before he was flown by helicopter to Corpus Christi Memorial Hospital. On February 14, 2006, Whittington had a non-fatal heart attack and atrial fibrillation due to at least one lead-shot pellet lodged in or near his heart. Because of the small size of the birdshot pellets, doctors decided to leave up to 30 pieces of the pellets lodged in his body rather than try to remove them. The Secret Service stated that they notified the sheriff about one hour after the shooting. Kenedy County Sheriff Ramone Salinas III stated that he first heard of the shooting at about 5:30 pm. The next day, ranch owner Katharine Armstrong informed the Corpus Christi Caller-Times of the shooting. Cheney had a televised interview with MSNBC News about the shooting on February 15. Both Cheney and Whittington have called the incident an accident. Early reports indicated that Cheney and Whittington were friends and that the injuries were minor. Whittington has since told The Washington Post that he and Cheney were not close friends but acquaintances. When asked if Cheney had apologized, Whittington declined to answer. The sheriff's office released a report on the shooting on February 16, 2006, and witness statements on February 22, indicating that the shooting occurred on a clear sunny day, and Whittington was shot from 30 or 40 yards (40 m) away while searching for a downed bird. Armstrong, the ranch owner, claimed that all in the hunting party were wearing blaze-orange safety gear and none had been drinking. However, Cheney has acknowledged that he had one beer four or five hours prior to the shooting. Although Kenedy County Sheriff's Office documents support the official story by Cheney and his party, re-creations of the incident produced by George Gongora and John Metz of the Corpus Christi Caller-Times indicated that the actual shooting distance was closer than the 30 yards claimed. The incident hurt Cheney's popularity standing in the polls. According to polls on February 27, 2006, two weeks after the accident, Dick Cheney's approval rating had dropped 5 percentage points to 18%. The incident became the subject of a number of jokes and satire. ## Works - "A Comparative Analysis of Senate–House Voting on Economic and Welfare Policy, 1953–1964," American Political Science Review, Vol. 64, Issue 1 (March 1970), pp. 138–152. Co-authored with Aage R. Clausen. - Exceptional: Why the World Needs a Powerful America with Liz Cheney. New York: Simon & Schuster. 2015. .
9,111,197	Hull Castle	1,112,028,869	Former artillery fort in Kingston upon Hull in England	[ "16th-century forts in England", "Buildings and structures in Kingston upon Hull", "Castles in the East Riding of Yorkshire", "Military history of Kingston upon Hull" ]	Hull Castle was an artillery fort in Kingston upon Hull in England. Together with two supporting blockhouses, it defended the eastern side of the River Hull, and was constructed by King Henry VIII to protect against attack from France as part of his Device programme in 1542. The castle had two large, curved bastions and a rectangular keep at its centre; the blockhouses to the north and south had three curved bastions supporting guns, and a curtain wall and moat linked the blockhouses and castle. The construction project used material from recently dissolved monasteries, and cost £21,056. The town took over responsibility for these defences in 1553, leading to a long running dispute with the Crown as to whether the civic authorities were fulfilling their responsibilities to maintain them. During the 16th and 17th centuries, the defences were used to imprison Catholic recusants, who were often held in harsh conditions. The castle and blockhouses saw service during the sieges of the English Civil War in the 1640s, and remained in used during the interregnum. After the restoration of Charles II, the buildings were neglected until the King redeveloped the eastern defences of Hull in 1681, creating a larger fortification called the Citadel. The castle and the South Blockhouse formed part of the new design, although the North Blockhouse was allowed to fall into ruins and finally demolished in 1801. The former buildings remained in use, with various modifications, until the Citadel was demolished in 1864 to allow the construction of new docks. The foundations survived and have been the subject of archaeological investigations. ## History ### 16th century #### Background Hull Castle was built as a consequence of international tensions between England, France and the Holy Roman Empire in the final years of the reign of King Henry VIII. Traditionally the Crown had left coastal defences to local lords and communities, only taking a modest role in building and maintaining fortifications, and while France and the Empire remained in conflict, maritime raids were common but an actual invasion of England seemed unlikely. Modest defences based around simple blockhouses and towers existed in the south-west and along the Sussex coast, with a few more impressive works in the north of England, but in general the fortifications were limited in scale. In 1533, Henry broke with Pope Paul III over the annulment of his long-standing marriage to Catherine of Aragon. Catherine was the aunt of Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor, who took the annulment as a personal insult. This resulted in France and the Empire declaring an alliance against Henry in 1538, and the Pope encouraging the two countries to attack England. An invasion of England appeared certain. In response, Henry issued an order, called a "device", in 1539, giving instructions for the "defence of the realm in time of invasion" and the construction of forts along the English coastline. The immediate threat passed, but resurfaced in 1544, with France threatening an invasion across the English Channel, backed by her allies in Scotland. Henry therefore issued another device to further improve the country's defences. #### Construction Hull Castle was constructed to defend the east side of the town of Kingston upon Hull against a possible French attack; it was also intended to ensure the loyalty of the population, who had taken part in a revolt against the King in 1536. Henry had visited Hull in late 1541 and had observed that, although the town had strong walls to the north and west, it lacked adequate defences in the event of an attack from the east, while the harbour was only protected by a "little round brick tower". Henry issued orders for the existing town defences to be repaired and renovated but, before the work could commence, he changed his mind and issued fresh instructions in early 1542. John Rogers, a military engineer previously stationed in Guînes, was brought back to England to construct a major system of defences on the east bank of the River Humber, comprising a central castle linked to two large blockhouses. The design of the new defences was probably carried out by Rogers and resembled his earlier work near Calais, although the King probably also made some decisions on the project personally. Sir Richard Long and Michael Stanhope were instructed to oversee the construction of the defences, with Thomas Aldred acting as the project's paymaster and William Reynolds in the role of master mason. Initial estimates suggested that 530 workers would be needed, including masons, carpenters and plumbers, but more may have been required in practice. Some of the building materials were taken from monastic institutions, which had recently dissolved by Henry; stone and lead was taken from the nearby Meaux Abbey, further stone from the friaries in Hull and probably also from St Mary's Church in Hull, which had recently collapsed. At least some of the bricks needed were made in a series of ten kilns beside the site itself. The land needed for the buildings had been seized during the dissolution of the monasteries. By December 1543, £21,056 had been spent on the project. The castle was rectangular, with brick and stone foundations and a brick superstructure. It had two large, curved bastions containing chambers on the west and east ends, and a three-storey rectangular keep in the middle, 66 by 50 feet (20 by 15 m) across, set within an inner courtyard. The outer wall was 19 feet (5.8 m) thick and contained a gallery and ports for hand-guns, and supported two tiers of artillery. A moat ran around the outside of the castle. The two-storey tall blockhouses were also built from brick and stone, and each had a square central tower and entrance at the rear, and three curved bastions to the front and sides. Their walls were 16 feet (4.9 m) thick, sloped so as to deflect incoming fire, and supported two tiers of guns; the interiors were partitioned, to reduce the risk of explosions damaging the entire fortification. The use of bastions adopted some features from the Italian-style of defences then popular on the continent, but their design was imperfect and failed to provide flanking cover or interlink with the neighbouring defences. A crenellated curtain wall, approximately 900 metres (3,000 ft) long and 12 feet (3.7 m) high, linked the blockhouses and castle, with a wet moat on the eastward side. #### Operation After the construction, Sir Richard Long and Michael Stanhope were placed in command of the castle and blockhouses; the initial garrison may have been substantial, costing around £1,000 a year, but this was mostly demobilised at the end of 1542. Nonetheless, the castle and blockhouses still proved expensive to maintain. As a result, in 1553, an agreement was reached with the corporation of Hull, under which the town would take over responsibility for their maintenance, in exchange for an annual grant of £50 from various local manors. The town provided a bond of £2,000 as a commitment that it would keep its commitments. The mayor of Hull also took over the role of the Governor of Hull, with "keepers" were appointed by the town to run each of the buildings; the pasture land behind the fortifications was rented out to bring in income. Arguments soon broke out between the Crown and the corporation over the deal. The Crown argued that the corporation was not adequately maintaining the castle and blockhouses. The Earl of Sussex complained in 1569 that they were in need of repair, and a 1576 survey stated that their gun platforms were in poor condition and that the ditches had become clogged with earth, while coastal erosion had undermined the South Blockhouse. Queen Elizabeth I provided 300 trees to help the repair work and a new jetty was built to protect the southern end of the defences from the sea. The Crown gave 60 trees to the town to help with further repairs in 1581. Fears of a Spanish invasion resulted in fresh repairs being carried out, and the threat of the Armada in 1588 resulted in proposals to build additional earthworks around the blockhouses, but nothing appear to have actually been carried out. The dispute over maintenance between the Crown and the town finally came to court in 1588; the corporation argued that green timber had been used in the original construction work and claimed that they had spent £2,893 between 1552 and 1587 on the defences: the Crown's case failed. A new bridge, North Bridge, was built over the River Hull in the 1540s, protected by artillery in the North Blockhouse. From 1577 onwards, the castle and blockhouses began to be used to contain Catholic recusants, with as many as 16 prisoners being known to have been detained at any one time. The ground-floor of the South Blockhouse was often used for this purpose; the conditions were particularly poor, with contemporary accounts noting that the quarters "have been overflowed with water at high tide, so that they walked, the earth was so raw and moist that their shoes would cleave to the ground". Another Spanish invasion scare in 1597 led to the castle and blockhouses being put on alert, and the recusants were temporarily removed for security reasons. ### 17th century The arguments over the maintenance of the castle and blockhouses continued in early 1600s. The town of Hull argued that since the revenues of £50 granted in 1553 were insufficient to maintain these defences, they should be allowed to use royal customs duties to assist in the work, particularly in protecting the east bank of the river from erosion. As a result, another court case was brought by the Crown in 1601. A commission was established to examine the defences and concluded that the position of the castle meant that it was militarily useless, and as a consequence it had not been garrisoned or maintained for many years, resulting in it falling into total disrepair. The commission's report led to the town carrying repairs to the earthwork defences over the coming year. The Crown dropped its law case, but a third case was brought in 1634, only to see the Crown pull out of the proceedings once again. By now, the corporation argued it had spent £11,367 on the defences. Around 1627, Robert Morton, the mayor of Hull, had an additional rectangular earthwork battery of four guns constructed around the south blockhouse to defend the estuary against a potential Spanish and French invasion threat. The South End Fort was built on the other side of the river from the South Blockhouse at the same time, provided supporting crossfire. In 1634, a survey showed the North Blockhouse to be mounting 24 pieces of artillery, the castle 29, and the South Blockhouse 24 guns. Catholic recusants continued to be detained in the castle and blockhouses, where they were ill-treated by the keepers, typically men with strong Puritan sympathies. At the outbreak of the English Civil War in 1642, Hull sided with Parliament against King Charles I. Hull was besieged by the Royalists in July 1642, and the South Blockhouse may have been used to drive off a Royalist naval vessel approaching the estuary. In 1643, the mayor, Thomas Raikes, and the Parliamentarians in Hull concluded that the governor, Sir John Hotham, was planning to seize the castle and the wider town for the King. In a pre-emptive strike in June, Captain Moyer landed 100 troops from the Parliamentary warship the Hercules and took the castle and blockhouses, while Raikes seized the town itself. Hotham was later executed. A further siege followed in 1643, during which the area to the east of the castle and blockhouses was deliberately flooded by the defenders to provide additional protection. In September, the south bastion of the North Blockhouse was accidentally blown up by one of the defenders, killing five men. The artillery exchanges during the sieges and the activities of the garrisons had caused considerable damage, and at the end of the conflict the military Governor of Hull ordered repairs. The North Blockhouse needed work costing £1,500, Hull Castle, £300, and the South Blockhouse, £220. During the interregnum, the fortifications were maintained, despite complaints from the town at the costs, and were used to hold both prisoners of war and political prisoners. Henry Slingsby, for example, was held at the castle before his trial in London. When Charles II was restored to the throne in 1660, the interregnum army was demobilised; a guard-force remained in Hull to protect the arsenal there, being officially referred to as the "Hull Blockhouse" garrison. All three sites were garrisoned: surveys reported that the South Blockhouse was in a good condition and held 21 guns, the castle was in a poor condition and held only 8 light guns, and the North Blockhouse was in a "ruinous" condition and held 10 guns. An order was taken to strip the most ruined parts of the North Blockhouse of its timber, bricks and lead to help improve the remainder, supplemented by additional supplies of timber and bricks donated by the Crown, but the material was misappropriated and used, in part, for construction work on the houses of the Governor and his deputy. The defences were neglected for several decades, despite calls for improvements and when the military engineer Sir Martin Beckman visited the sites in 1681, he concluded that they were "very much out of repair": the North Blockhouse was "altogether dismantled", the South Blockhouse needed extensive repairs and the moat had been left to entirely silt up. Recusants continued to be detained in the castle, which was regarded by the national authorities as a particularly suitable prison for this class of prisoner. The Crown decided to construct a new, triangular fortification called the Hull Citadel on the eastern side of the river, incorporating the castle and the South Blockhouse. Beckman was responsible for the design and the work took place between 1681 and 1690 at a cost of over £100,000. The South Blockhouse was repaired and strengthened with a water bastion, and formed the south-west corner of the Citadel; the castle was integrated into the north corner and protected by a new bastion. The intervening curtain wall was partially demolished to make way for the new works, while the last remains of the moat were filled in with clay. By 1699, the castle itself no longer held any guns, although the South Bastion was equipped with three demi-culverins and four sakers, all which were inoperable due to poor maintenance and the effect of the sea. The new fortifications were protected by a combination of soldiers from the regular Army, from Independent Companies under the control of the governor, and the "Castle Guard" of local soldiers. ### 18th–21st centuries The castle and the South Blockhouse continued in use within the Citadel during the 18th and early 19th centuries. In 1746, the South Blockhouse was redesigned with new embrasures, but the fortifications were largely neglected. During the Napoleonic Wars, the Citadel was extensively repaired; the South Blockhouse was extensively altered to allow it to hold naval ordnance stores and the castle became an armoury, each wing able to hold 20,000 stands of infantry weapons and 3,000 cavalry arms. The North Blockhouse and the remnants of the curtain wall beyond the Citadel were in ruins by 1766; the blockhouse was let to private contractors, and then demolished altogether between 1801 and 1802. By the 19th century, extensive docks had grown up around the Citadel and in 1802 the surrounding land was granted to the Hull Dock Company. The Citadel remained in military use until 1848, by when developments in military technology had made the fortification obsolete. In 1858 there were proposals to turn the site into a public park, but instead the Citadel, including Hull Castle and the South Blockhouse, was demolished in 1864 to make way for an expansion of the docks. From 1969 onwards there have been a range of archaeological investigations around the area. The foundations of the Citadel, which had been too substantial to dismantle in the 19th century, were uncovered during urban regeneration works in 1987, and archaeological digs have occurred on both the castle and the South Blockhouse sites. The foundations of these two buildings, along with the southern end of the Citadel remains, are protected under UK law as an Ancient Monument. During excavations in 1997, an iron portpiece was discovered on the site of the South Blockhouse. The weapon, now known as "Henry's Gun", is one of only four such guns in the world to have survived from the period and is displayed at the Hull Museums. It was either made by Henry VIII's gun-maker or acquired from the Low Countries. By 1681 it would have been obsolete and was disposed of in 1681 during the construction of the Citadel.
225,275	Evanescence	1,173,216,990	American rock band	[ "Alternative rock groups from Arkansas", "American alternative metal musical groups", "American gothic metal musical groups", "American gothic rock groups", "American hard rock musical groups", "American nu metal musical groups", "Epic Records artists", "Evanescence", "Female-fronted musical groups", "Grammy Award winners", "Heavy metal musical groups from Arkansas", "Kerrang! Awards winners", "Musical groups established in 1995", "Musical groups from Little Rock, Arkansas", "Musical quintets", "Wind-up Records artists", "World Music Awards winners" ]	Evanescence is an American rock band founded in 1995 in Little Rock, Arkansas by singer and musician Amy Lee and guitarist Ben Moody. After recording independent EPs as a duo in the late 90s, and a demo CD, Evanescence released their debut studio album, Fallen, on Wind-up Records in 2003. Propelled by the success of hit singles like "Bring Me to Life" and "My Immortal", Fallen sold more than four million copies in the US by January 2004, garnering the band two Grammy Awards out of six nominations. The band released their first live album and concert DVD, Anywhere but Home, in 2004, which sold over one million copies worldwide. Evanescence released their second studio album, The Open Door, in 2006, co-composed by Lee and guitarist Terry Balsamo. It received a Grammy nomination and has sold more than six million copies worldwide. They reconvened in June 2009 to work on music for their next album, with touring guitarist Troy McLawhorn, bassist Tim McCord and drummer Will Hunt becoming full-time members. The band's third studio album, Evanescence, was released in 2011. It debuted at the top of the Billboard 200 as well as the Billboard Rock Albums, Digital Albums, Alternative Albums, and Hard Rock Albums charts. Following the end of the album's tour cycle, the band entered a hiatus. In 2014, Lee and Evanescence left their record label and became independent artists. The band emerged from hiatus in 2015 and resumed touring, while new music was not yet created as Lee was also focusing on a solo project. In late 2016, Lee stated that Evanescence was working on a fourth album, Synthesis (2017), composed of orchestral and electronica arrangements of the band's previous material with two new songs. The album's release was followed by the Synthesis Live concert tour, during which the band performed with live orchestras for the first time. In 2021, Evanescence released their fifth studio album, The Bitter Truth. Generally classified as a gothic alternative metal and hard rock band, Evanescence have a diverse sound containing various musical styles including classical music, alternative music, heavy metal, industrial music, and electronic music, driven by Lee's contrasting musical pursuits and introspective songwriting. Evanescence's lineup changed several times over the years, with Lee as the sole constant member since its inception. The band comprises Lee, guitarist Tim McCord since 2006, guitarist Troy McLawhorn and drummer Will Hunt since 2007, and bassist Emma Anzai since 2022. Among other accolades, Evanescence has received two Grammy Awards, three Loudwire Music Awards, a Kerrang! Award, a Revolver Golden Gods Music Award, a Brit Award nomination, three American Music Award nominations, and five MTV Video Music Award nominations. Evanescence have sold a total of 31.9 million albums, making the band one of the best selling hard rock and metal artists of all time. ## History ### 1994–2000: Formation and early years Singer and pianist Amy Lee and guitarist Ben Moody met in 1994 in Little Rock, Arkansas at age 13 and 14, when the two were at a Christian youth camp where Lee played piano during sport activities and Moody played acoustic guitar and she thought they could play music together. Lee thinks what drew them together at the time was that they "didn't fit in that well" and were "out of [their] element in this silly camp environment". Within a month of meeting, Lee brought Moody a cassette tape of her playing guitar and singing a song she wrote. They became musical collaborators, playing and working on music at Lee's home, and were soon performing acoustic sets at book stores and coffee houses in the Little Rock area. Lee said their music at the time "sounded different because we didn't have the means to make it sound like we wanted". Strings, choirs, and "dramatic, cinematic" sounds were musical desires they couldn't materialize as they were "just two kids in a basement". Lee had a 16-track recorder and she and Moody would use it and Pro Tools, "fake strings and choirs" on her keyboard, and layer sounds and beats for their early material, which they mixed and produced. "We were basically just putting it down to remember what we wanted", Lee said. Lee had the musical vision for Evanescence. What made her want to start a band was "the idea of combinations that were unlikely". Danny Elfman's film scores were a significant influence for her when she began creating Evanescence's music. Lee aimed to combine her various musical tastes, "bringing something from the cinematic and classical symphonic world and marrying it to metal, hard rock and alternative music." Perceiving "similarities between the drama of classical music and the heavier stuff I was listening to" inspired her to "bring those things together for myself", and she infused in Evanescence her love of contrasting sounds. "There was all this music that was inspiring me. And Evanescence was the product of these two extremes combining". After experimenting with band names, such as Childish Intentions and Stricken, Lee and Moody decided on Evanescence, which means disappearance or fading away. They wanted a name that was "out of nowhere", and when they came across the word they found it "beautiful" and "elusive". Lee and Moody recorded two EPs: Evanescence EP (1998), of which about 100 copies were made and distributed at their early live performances; and Sound Asleep EP (1999), also known as the Whisper EP. Their early demos got them airplay on the local modern rock station in Little Rock, which helped them develop a local fanbase, allowing them to play a couple of bigger production shows a year and hire other musicians to perform other instruments live. Although they played with guest musicians, Evanescence remained a duo. "It was more because that's what we did and how we worked rather than not wanting any other input", Lee recalled; "The idea of a full band playing these songs was something that only came along later." She added that since Evanescence's start, the two had brought in different people to record or play live, but their vision was never shared by others "so it always ended reverting back to the two of us". Moody said that at the time Lee and him were focused on writing music over playing live shows, and they did not want to have a band join their writing process; "we just wanted it to be the two of us and so we'd play once or twice a year." In 2000, they self-released a demo CD called Origin (2000), which they distributed at local shows, and packaged to shop it to record labels. Origin and their earlier EPs contain demo versions of some of the songs that would later appear on their debut album. Moody expressed dissatisfaction with their pre-Fallen material, stating in an interview, "What we had in our head was Fallen, although it was a long time ago and we didn't have the technology, so a lot of our early recordings were just shit." In a February 2003 radio interview, Lee and Moody encouraged fans to download their demos from the Internet, rather than purchase them from online sources such as eBay where it had been selling for US\$400. ### 2001–2004: Fallen and Anywhere but Home Evanescence were having their demos mastered at Ardent Studios in Memphis, where a producer heard their music and played their demos to his friend at Wind-up Records, head of A&R Diana Meltzer. Meltzer said what made her want to sign them was Lee's voice, lyrics and their gothic sound. When she heard "My Immortal" she said she "knew it was a hit". Evanescence was signed by Wind-up in 2001. The label flew them to New York, and told them that they loved their different sound and thought they had potential, but "we don't really totally know what to do with you", Lee recalled. They were then told, "if you were this good while distracted by school and all this other stuff, how good will you be if we put you in an environment where you have nothing to do but write and be influenced by your surroundings, like in Los Angeles." They were relocated to Los Angeles, given an apartment and rehearsal space and enrolled in a gym, according to Meltzer, and Lee, who was very introverted, received help from an acting teacher to overcome her stage fright. Meltzer told HitQuarters in 2003 that, while she loved Lee's voice, their gothic sound, and Lee and Moody had already exhibited "huge talent" with their prior demo material, they were still young and she felt they could benefit from more time to work on their debut album so they "could deliver a breakthrough sound". Lee said that at the time of signing, they didn't realize the label would move them out to Los Angeles for two years, thinking it would be about six months. The length of time in Los Angeles "really frustrated" them. The label was apprehensive about the marketability of a female-led band, and advised them to just keep writing songs. It ended up being a fruitful writing experience in Los Angeles, Lee said, as they wrote half of the album there and were able to make use of other equipment to get sounds they wanted. After almost two years of Evanescence working on the album, Dave Fortman was brought in to produce it. Then, label executives refused to release the album unless Lee and Moody agreed to hire a full-time male co-vocalist. When they did not agree, the label said they were withdrawing their funding and releasing them from their contract. The band left Los Angeles and drove back to Little Rock. A few weeks later, the label relented, informing them that they would release their album if they agreed to have a male rapper on its lead single, "Bring Me to Life", in order to give something familiar to listeners. Lee was not happy about this, but reluctantly agreed to the compromise and wrote the part for the male vocal. Lee originally wanted the lead single to be "Going Under" as she was concerned that the public would hear "Bring Me to Life" with its male vocal and decide that was the sound of the band. She was relieved that people were still receptive to Evanescence when "Going Under" was released as their second single. Lee prefers "Bring Me To Life" without the label-forced rap, and expressed dissatisfaction that it "stamps a time period" on the song; however, she made peace with it because they were able to "survive past it" and "people were able to, for the most part, understand who we are without us getting stuck in that place." "Bring Me to Life", featuring guest vocals from Paul McCoy of 12 Stones, and "My Immortal" were originally featured on the soundtrack of the 2003 action film Daredevil, released in February 2003. Evanescence's debut album Fallen was released on March 4, 2003. Most of Lee's writing on Fallen was inspired by an abusive relationship she was in. Lee and Moody said they did not consider their music to be "goth", with Moody adding that he thinks the "goth" label came because the songs sound sad and people think that "sad equals dark equals Goth. It's real easy for them to throw us in that box". Moody also disliked the nu metal label, stating: "I think the only nu-metal thing about us is the fact that on one song we have rap and singing". Lee also disagreed with the nu metal tag, attributing it to the rap rock of "Bring Me to Life". After the album's completion, the touring lineup was hired: guitarist John LeCompt, drummer Rocky Gray, and bassist Will Boyd, the first two old friends of Moody. Evanescence's music was initially promoted by their label in the Christian market. Lee and Moody publicly made it clear in an April 2003 interview that they were not a Christian band and did not want to be associated with Christian rock. Moody's comments against being in the Christian market immediately prompted the label's chairman Alan Meltzer to send a letter to Christian radio and retail outlets explaining that despite the "spiritual underpinning that ignited interest and excitement in the Christian religious community", Evanescence were "a secular band, and as such view their music as entertainment" and the label then "strongly feels that they no longer belong in Christian retail outlets". Wind-up formally requested the recall of Fallen from Christian retailers and radio stations. After receiving the letter, many Christian radio stations pulled Fallen songs from their playlists. Rolling Stone stated in April 2003 that while Wind-up had no official Christian affiliation, they had been marketing their bands "to both the Christian and mainstream music market". Wind-Up "began courting the Christian music market more than a year ago, making its first foray with 12 Stones' self-titled 2002 debut. Hooking up with powerhouse Christian music distributor Provident ... Wind-Up attempted to tap into a segment that generated sales of more than 50 million albums in 2002". The CEO of Provident, Terry Hemmings, said that the decision to recall Evanescence's album likely would not hurt Wind-up's image in the Christian market, and that he was puzzled by the band's about-face, saying: "They clearly understood the album would be sold in these channels." Meltzer claimed their decision to promote Evanescence in the Christian market was made with the band's consent. Lee said that she had always opposed the promotion in the Christian market and the "Christian band" identification from the beginning, while Moody had supported it. Moody had misrepresented Evanescence in the past, talking about his religious beliefs as Evanescence's. The label wanted to use the Christian market promotion as a marketing tool for the band, which she had opposed, stating that "it was an important fight to me because it felt false. That wasn't really what our music was. And I felt like they were selling somebody something that wasn't true." She noted that Evanescence "has never been a Christian band" and lyrically never had a religious affiliation. On April 7, 2003, Wind-Up released "Bring Me to Life" as the album's lead single. Wind-up president Ed Vetri revealed that when the label had introduced the song to radio, radio programmers rejected it, saying, "A chick and a piano? Are you kidding? On rock radio?" Some program directors would hear the female voice and piano at the start of the song and turn it off without listening to the rest of the song. A female voice on rock radio was a rarity, and the song was considered for airplay only after there was a male vocal on it. After the song was released on the Daredevil soundtrack, a grassroots fanbase grew and listeners began requesting air play for it, compelling radio stations to reconsider the band. The song became a global hit for Evanescence and reached number five on the US Billboard Hot 100 on June 6, 2003. It topped the UK singles chart, where it peaked for four weeks from June–July 2003. On the worldwide success of the song, Lee said: > "Since we released [the song] on Daredevil it went all over the world, whether they wanted it to or not, so we had fans in countries we had never been to because they had the soundtrack and they heard it on the radio. So, it started blowing up all over the world and then we had a reason to tour all over the world. And that's how the whole international thing happened this early." Evanescence performed on radio shows and on the festival circuit for weeks in early 2003. They embarked on their first headlining tour from April to May in the US. In June 2003, they had to cancel shows in Germany due to Moody reportedly falling ill. That month, Evanescence accepted an offer from the video game company Nintendo to perform on the Nintendo Fusion Tour, which they headlined beginning on August 4, 2003. The album's second single "Going Under" was released on August 18, 2003. It peaked at number five on the US Modern Rock Tracks, 24 on the Active Rock chart, and number eight on the UK singles chart. Lee recalled the rapid success after the album was released, with concerts going from club shows to arenas in two months. In an August 2003 interview, Moody said that Evanescence is "just Amy and I, and I want to keep it that way", adding that their process together is what works. In another interview with Rock Sound, he said that he would like tour drummer Rocky Gray to play on the next album but did not need the other tour players, LeCompt and Boyd. On October 22, 2003, Moody left the band during the European tour for Fallen, reportedly because of creative differences. Moody had called their management and informed them he was quitting. Lee got a call from their manager asking her to "beg [Moody] to stay", to which she said "that's exactly what he wants me to do" and expressed that if Moody was going to leave, the band "would appreciate it if he'd wait until the end of the tour. But if he can't, then go ahead and go." With his impromptu exit in the middle of tour, Lee improvised and had them play as a foursome to not cancel a show. In an interview, Lee said, "we'd gotten to a point that if something didn't change, we wouldn't have been able to make a second record." She said that by that point Moody "hated the band, he hated being on tour and his negativity made everyone around him miserable. He was trying to pull the whole ship down with him" and she would not let that happen. His exit was a relief because of tensions created within the band, which was at a "breaking point". "It was a really uncomfortable situation for everybody ... completely unstable and unhappy", she explained. "It was a scary time before he left because I knew something was going to happen and I didn't know what and I was afraid everything we worked for had the potential of going down the toilet." In Lee's termination letter to their manager, she stated that Moody was physically and verbally abusive to her. With Moody gone, "we felt like a weight had been lifted", she said. Touring guitarist John LeCompt said in a 2006 interview that Lee "gained authority as soon as Ben Moody walked out the door. They had an equal partnership, but he was the man, he had to strangle the band, all the life out of it". Lee said that she and Moody had not been friends since their teenage years, and they had pretended to be friends after Fallen's release when they were really only business partners. In 2004, Lee confirmed that there were complications for months following Moody's departure "with the legalities of everything - whether we would be legally allowed to continue under the same name". "A lot of things were held up internally that I wasn't allowed to talk about, and I was worried, because it was very important to me to be able to stand up and say, 'No. One person leaving in the middle of a tour and trying to hurt us isn't going to make us lose the entire band.'" In a 2006 interview, she stated that when Moody was in the band, "a lot of decisions had been made over my head, or around me, or for me, that I wouldn't have made for myself". Lee said that she and Moody had never sat down and wrote together, and instead would combine their respective parts in songs. From the start, Lee would only write music by herself, considering it a vulnerable process and feeling disrespected by Moody and unsafe around him. The creation of Fallen largely consisted of her and Moody writing music separately and then adding to each other's work, due to tension and significant creative differences between them. Lee's creative disagreements with Moody included his strict approach to songwriting and focus on commerciality; he would "always be corralling" her ideas, and wanting to push them in a more commercial, pop direction. She said his influences were "a lot different" from hers. "It was always a push and pull between us, for me", she explained. "It's cool because Fallen really is a lot of compromise. It definitely leaned toward what he wanted a lot of the time." Creative restrictions included instrumentation decisions such as her wanting to play organ on the record and Moody not wanting that. During the making of the album, "there was so much back-and-forth and so much turmoil between us and the label and each other. I always had to fight to get my music made and I remember focussing more than anything on the work and on the fights and on, 'I'm gonna make this right'", she recalled. "I'm very proud of the way that it went, but it wasn't easy." "A lot of the reason it's been so much fun writing [post-Moody] is that we're not thinking about that. It's like, 'What do we like? What's fun?'", and there is "no pressure of wanting to rule the world". Moody said in a 2003 interview that he focused on making the album "as accessible as possible, to as many people as possible". In 2005, he conceded that he and Lee had different approaches for the music, stating, "[Amy] is much more creative than I am ... I am a bit more commercial minded ... she is more educated musically, and she wanted to explore that. ... it was like my way or the highway. We just couldn't meet in the middle, so I was like, "The hell with it." He also said that he struggled with substance abuse during his time in Evanescence. In August 2010, he released a statement on his history with Lee and Evanescence, where he said that he was a different person at the time, his friendship with Lee had deteriorated, and they had conflicting opinions, personalities, and desires with the band. Moody apologized to Lee for comments he made to her in anger. He said he realized the band would end if he stayed and believes he made the right choice. He added, "Evanescence has progressed a great distance from the original sound, and made it clear that they intended to expand much further. Amy is very artistic and never has had a problem thinking outside of the box and defying expectations." Lee called former Cold guitarist Terry Balsamo, with whom Evanescence had toured, to replace Moody on the Fallen tour. Balsamo soon joined Evanescence as the permanent lead guitarist. She and Balsamo "clicked" and "connected on a lot of musical interests". The band played several shows with Korn in Europe, with Evanescence originally set to headline however Lee wanted Korn to headline instead. Fallen's third single "My Immortal" was released on December 8, 2003, and peaked at number seven on the US Hot 100 and the UK singles chart. At the 46th Grammy Awards in February 2004, "Bring Me to Life" won the Grammy Award for Best Hard Rock Performance and the band won Best New Artist from five nominations. On May 31, 2004, Fallen's fourth and final single "Everybody's Fool" was released, and peaked at number 36 on the US Modern Rock Tracks chart, and number 24 on the UK singles chart. In November, Lee said she had been working on music for the 2005 film The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, and had originally written the Mozart-inspired song "Lacrymosa" as well as "Together Again" for the film. According to Lee, "Lacrymosa" was rejected because of its interpolation and "Together Again" because of its dark sound. The producers of Narnia then said this was news to them and that no Evanescence music had been planned for the soundtrack of the film. During the Fallen tour, Lee wrote a song titled "The Last Song I'm Wasting on You", recording it in a bathroom on an analog recording device. It became a B-side on the single "Lithium" from Evanescence's second album. When asked if the track was about former bandmate Moody, Lee said, "If I answer that, then I'm not hiding anything anymore. But I just sort of answered it, didn't I?". She later deemed it "one of those personal, hard moments, when beauty is born out of pain". On November 24, 2004, Evanescence released their first live album and concert DVD titled Anywhere but Home, which includes a concert in Paris, behind-the-scenes footage of the band, three new songs, the band's cover of Korn's "Thoughtless", and Fallen's four music videos. The album sold more than a million copies worldwide. Fallen spent 43 weeks in the top 10 of the Billboard 200, peaking at number three. It was listed for 104 weeks on the Billboard 200, and it was one of eight albums in the history of the chart to spend at least a year in the top 50. Fallen was also number six on CBS's list of "Top Bestselling Albums of the Last 10 Years". It was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) in April 2003 and 4x platinum in January 2004. It has sold more than 17 million worldwide, including 10 million in the US, since its release. In 2023, Lee recalled the journey of early success, stating that "there was a lot to be excited about, but there was a lot of hard stuff going on in the background. Not just drama about what we were doing, but also my brother was sick, and it was a scary time to be out on my own. And I did, in a lot of ways at that time, feel alone." She found the extensive exposure and objectification at that age difficult to handle, and did not feel supported by those around her. With everything happening, Lee was "just sure it was always right about to fall apart." She described facing a lot of obstacles, including attempts at control and manipulation behind the scenes, as well as being considered just the singer/frontwoman among the men, and learning to say no to things. Lee deemed the "fight for credibility" to be one of the biggest challenges she faced early on with the Fallen era, explaining: > It was the mentality of labels to tell, especially newer artists, that they need to have writers. I fought for way too long after the success of Fallen to say I can write my own music. ... And the reason that they wanted [men] to do it was because that's where the money was. That's where the power was. Everybody else wanted to be able to say they did that when I did that. It took a long time to get respect for being a creator and not just the frontwoman". ### 2004–2007: The Open Door Lee musically collaborated with Balsamo for Evanescence's second album, The Open Door (2006). They began writing together in March 2004, after finishing the tour for Fallen. The album progressed slowly for several reasons, including Lee's desire to maximize the creative process and not rush production, Balsamo's stroke, and turbulence with their former manager. The writing experience for The Open Door was "the best process" Lee ever had because she had "free rein" and could "do whatever I wanted without being judged". She called this period a "beautiful time of independence". "I was still learning who I was and still growing, and wanted the space to be able to try stuff." She was inspired to make "homemade sounds" and incorporate other elements into the music. In 2006, Lee said that when she listened back to Fallen, she "hear[d] all the vulnerability and the fear and all the childish things in me that are just human." While Lee was drowning in the misery of her experiences in Fallen, she said The Open Door is largely about her acknowledging her issues and deliberating "what do I have to do to work this out." "There were things for me to get over", she explained. "I could just have shut up and stayed stuck in a lot of negative situations and not done anything, and on the outside it would have looked like everything was fine for me". In the record, she is "purging the trials", but overall it comes from a less hopeless place and with a more reflective outlook. She also used her experience as a lone female and "hard adjustment" with the fame the Fallen era brought as inspiration for the album. On July 13, 2006, Lee announced that bassist Will Boyd had left the band after the album was completed for "not wanting to do another big tour" and wanting "to be close to his family". In an interview with MTV, Lee announced that Tim McCord, former Revolution Smile guitarist, would switch instruments and play bass for the band. The Open Door's lead single "Call Me When You're Sober" hit modern rock and alternative rock radio on August 7, 2006. The 13-track album was released in the US and Canada on October 3, 2006; the United Kingdom on October 2, 2006; and Australia on September 30, 2006. The album sold 447,000 copies in the US in its first week of sales and earned their first No. 1 ranking on the Billboard 200 album chart. The music video for "Call Me When You're Sober" was shot in Los Angeles and is based on the fairy tale Little Red Riding Hood. The Open Door became available for pre-order on the iTunes Store on August 15, 2006; the music video for "Call Me When You're Sober" was also made available. The tour for The Open Door began on October 5, 2006 in Toronto, and included locations in Canada, the U.S., and Europe during that year. This first tour continued on January 5, 2007, and included stops in Canada (alongside band Stone Sour), Japan, and Australia (alongside band Shihad), and then returned to the U.S. for a second tour in the spring (alongside bands Chevelle and Finger Eleven). As part of their tour, Evanescence performed on April 15, 2007, on the Argentinian festival Quilmes Rock 07 along with Aerosmith, Velvet Revolver, and other local bands. On May 4, 2007, guitarist John LeCompt announced that he had been fired from Evanescence, and also stated that drummer Rocky Gray had decided to quit. Former Evanescence player David Hodges commented on LeCompt and Gray's attitude, stating: "The only thing I would have done differently than Amy in the last two years is distance myself sooner from [them]." Lee stated that LeCompt and Gray had joined as tour players after Fallen was made, and were treated as full members with their picture on album images. When it came to making the second album, she and Balsamo tried writing with them but they were ultimately not compatible. Lee said LeCompt and Gray disliked the music, were vocal about not caring about the band and that they stayed around for the money, they had been working on their other projects, but chose to stay as live players for Evanescence while planning to leave at another time. She added that she "knowingly let this negative energy grow within my band for a very long time because I was afraid of the appearance of falling apart when in reality trying to hold on to these guys is what was holding us back." In 2010, LeCompt said of his time in the band, "[Evanescence] was so big and important to my career and my life so I look back on it with fondness. We left the band but that doesn't say anything about my time in that band." On May 17, 2007, former Dark New Day members, drummer Will Hunt and guitarist Troy McLawhorn were announced to have joined Evanescence on tour, replacing Gray and LeCompt. Lee and Balsamo said that the addition of Hunt and McLawhorn was good for the band, as they're easy to get along with, have similar tastes, are passionate players, have good energy on stage, and enjoy being in the band. The band finished their European tour with a sell-out concert at the Amphi in Ra'anana, Israel, on June 26, 2007. After the European tour, they co-headlined Korn's Family Values Tour 2007 in the US, and followed it with a headlining tour in the US. After the end of the album's tour, Lee took a break to recollect herself and live life away from the industry. By October 2011, The Open Door had sold six million copies worldwide. ### 2009–2014: Evanescence and hiatus About 18 months after Lee stepped away from the industry, she began writing music again, and went into the studio with producer Steve Lillywhite. In a news posting to the Evanescence website during June 2009, Lee wrote that the band was in the process of writing new material for a new album proposed for release in 2010. The band played a "secret show" at the Manhattan Center Grand Ballroom in New York City on November 4, 2009, with label mates Civil Twilight. Tickets for the show sold out in five minutes. This show acted as a warm-up for their headline appearance at the Maquinária Festival in São Paulo, Brazil, which took place on November 8. In January 2010, Evanescence released "Together Again" as a digital download, a song created for The Open Door but later cut. The song was released to aid the United Nations Foundation in Haiti earthquake recovery efforts. It later received an official release as a digital download on February 23, 2010. Evanescence entered the studio on February 22, 2010, to begin recording for the new album, with Will "Science" Hunt assisting in programming. David Campbell, who previously worked on The Open Door, was brought back to handle string arrangements, and the album was initially being produced by Lillywhite. Lee later said that "Steve wasn't the right fit" and was replaced by producer Nick Raskulinecz. It was later revealed that the record label had scrapped the material recorded with Lillywhite. At the time the band began recording, the album was intended for an August or September 2010 release. However, on June 21, 2010, Lee announced on EvThreads.com that Evanescence had temporarily left the studio to work further on the album and "get our heads into the right creative space". Lee also indicated that record label Wind-up Records was going through "uncertain times", which would further delay the release of the album. The band reentered the studio in early April 2011 with Raskulinecz, who had produced music for Alice in Chains, Deftones, and Foo Fighters, to continue work on the third album. It was reported that the album would be released in late 2011. On June 12, 2011, Lee announced through her Twitter account that guitarist Troy McLawhorn, who worked with Seether for a time and left, was officially back with Evanescence, and the release date for their new album would be October 4, 2011. Later, on July 11, 2011, it was reported by MTV News that the release date for the album had been pushed back to October 11, and that the first single from the album will be "What You Want". The band recorded the album at Blackbird Studio, Nashville. During an interview with Kerrang!, Lee revealed that the new album's title will be Evanescence. Lee said that the decision for the title of the album was her love towards Evanescence, as well as the record being composed more collaboratively than past albums, with all members contributing. The record is "about the band", Lee explained. Its lyrical themes include Lee "falling back in love" with Evanescence, her being inspired by nature and the ocean, brokenness, the quest for freedom, and falling in love. Different from The Open Door, which was "all about me and my personal experiences", Evanescence also includes Lee's musings on events that occurred to others in her life. "But really, whatever makes me feel the most, that's what's on the record, because that's what I need to get off my chest." Evanescence debuted at the top of the Billboard 200 with sales of 127,000 in the US, becoming the band's second number one album on the chart after The Open Door. The Evanescence Tour began on August 17, 2011, with a show at War Memorial Auditorium in Nashville. The band then performed at Rock on the Range in Winnipeg on August 20, 2011, and at Rock in Rio on October 2 alongside Guns N' Roses and System of a Down as well as Brazilian artists Pitty and Detonautas Roque Clube. After a series of events in North America, Evanescence traveled to Europe in November to play a sold-out tour in the UK, Germany and France, with support from The Pretty Reckless and Australian band ME. Evanescence performed at the Nobel Peace Prize Concert on December 11, 2011, where they played "Lost in Paradise" and "Bring Me to Life", before again touring in North America. In February 2012 they toured Japan with Dazzle Vision, and in the same month performed in other southeast Asian countries. March 2012 saw the band tour Australia and New Zealand with Blaqk Audio. Between April and July 2012, Evanescence toured in Europe and North America, with additional stops in Africa and the Middle East. Evanescence took part in the Carnival of Madness Tour alongside Halestorm, Cavo, New Medicine, and Chevelle. The tour began on July 31, 2012, in Springfield, Illinois, and ran through September 2, 2012, ending in Buffalo. The Evanescence Tour resumed in October 2012 with stops in South America, Costa Rica, and Panama. The tour wrapped with a series of shows in England, ending on November 9, 2012, in London's Wembley Arena. Lee stated the band planned to take an extended break after the tour, saying, "At the end of any really long tour you need to get your head in order. I think at the end of the run we'll go on a break for a while and figure things out." In October 2013, Wind-up Records sold their back catalog of artists, including Evanescence and their master recordings, to Bicycle Music Company. The combined company Concord Bicycle Music will market the catalog. On January 3, 2014, it was announced that Lee had filed a lawsuit against Wind-up Records, seeking \$1.5 million in unpaid royalties owed to the band. The lawsuit was settled and Lee said she had to sign a non-disclosure agreement that she could not say anything negative, "so that's the only way in any sense that I'm still bound". In March 2014, Lee announced via her Twitter account that she and Evanescence had been released from their record label contract and were independent artists. ### 2015–2018: Return and Synthesis On April 27, 2015, it was announced that the band would perform at Japan's Ozzfest on November 21, 2015, as the second headline act. On August 7, 2015, Lee announced that long-time guitarist Terry Balsamo had departed the band. His position was filled by German guitarist Jen Majura, who was recommended by Testament's Alex Skolnick. In an October 2015 interview, Lee stated that she was focusing on solo projects so there were no current plans for new Evanescence music yet, but the band would continue to tour through 2016. "It feels really good to have a lot of different things going on at once in the sense that I feel like I'm not just flexing one muscle", she said. The band made their return to the stage in November 2015, playing three US shows and performing at Ozzfest in Tokyo, Japan, marking their first live performances since their hiatus. In February 2016, Lee said the band was working on the six-LP vinyl box set titled The Ultimate Collection, which includes all three studio albums, the previously unreleased 2000 demo CD Origin, the rarities compilation album Lost Whispers, a studio version of the tour intro "Lost Whispers", a studio recording of the song "Even In Death", alongside a 52-page casebound book with art, handwritten lyrics, photos and rarities. The box set was released in February 2017, and the compilation album Lost Whispers was made available for streaming and downloading on Spotify, iTunes, and Anghami. It contains the re-recorded "Even in Death", previously released B-sides, the four deluxe edition bonus tracks to Evanescence, and the new song "Lost Whispers". In the fall of 2016, the band toured select cities in the United States, choosing alternative rock band Veridia as their opener. During this tour, the band played a new song titled "Take Cover", an outtake from the scrapped 2010 sessions for their self-titled album. In an October 2016 interview with Loudwire, Lee confirmed that "there is Evanescence in the future", adding that she wants to take things step by step. She said in another interview that the band was not making a new album yet but working on a project that was "not exactly the most traditional thing", something that would take fans on a "different path that we wanna try". In February 2017, it was confirmed that the band was working in the studio. On March 20, 2017, Lee spoke to AOL Build about her solo single, "Speak to Me"; during the interview, she spoke of "a new album" in the works by Evanescence, saying "We're working on something. [...] It's not just a straightforward 'next Evanescence album'," implying a stylistic change. In a March 23 interview with Metal Hammer, Lee stated that "It's something unique, something complex, something a little bit beyond that – and it's definitely new territory for all of us." The album was intended for release later in 2017. In a Facebook post, Lee revealed that the new album is titled Synthesis. It is an orchestral and electronica piece, with selected songs from the band's previous albums rebuilt into classical arrangements reminiscent of a soundtrack, Lee said. Synthesis contains two new original songs: "Hi-Lo" featuring violinist Lindsey Stirling, and "Imperfection". The first recording session for Synthesis took place on May 23, 2017, and a remake of "Bring Me To Life" was released as a single on August 18. On August 15, the band announced that recording Synthesis was in its final stages. Evanescence toured with a full orchestra in late 2017 in support of the album, and tickets were sold starting on August 18. The band later toured across the US, Australia and Europe. Each ticket purchased came with a digital copy of Synthesis after its release. On September 14, 2017, the single "Imperfection" was officially released. In March 2018, Evanescence announced that Lindsey Stirling would be joining the second North American leg as part of Evanescence's Synthesis Tour. While their focus would remain on touring, Lee stated during a July 2018 interview on WRIF that the band would begin working on their next studio album. ### 2019–present: The Bitter Truth On February 4, 2019, the band released dates and locations for a spring/summer 2019 US concert tour. In May 2019, former guitarist Terry Balsamo performed with the band again at a live show for the song "Sweet Sacrifice". On May 11, 2019, Lee was quoted by Blabbermouth on plans for Evanescence to release a new studio album in 2020. In a November 21, 2019, Reddit AMA, Lee said of the album, "It's dark and heavy. Its also got moments of weird and sparse. Little bit of everything. Definitely some Open Door vibes but not the same." On September 17, 2019, Evanescence and symphonic metal band Within Temptation announced a seven-city joint European tour titled Worlds Collide originally scheduled for April 2020. However, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the tour was postponed for September 2020. It was then pushed back a second time to take place in September 2021. The tour had to be rescheduled a third time, with March 2022 set as the start date. The last postponement was announced in February 2022, with the tour scheduled for November and December 2022. On September 5, 2019, Xbox released a launch trailer for the video game Gears 5 that included a version of Lee's cover of Fleetwood Mac's "The Chain". Initially a solo project by Lee, she then got approval to cover the song with the band and a full version of the song was released by Evanescence on November 22, 2019, which features backing vocals by the other members of the band. The cover hit number one on the Billboard Rock Digital Song Sales chart. A music video for the song was released on January 9, 2020. The cover song would not be included on the band's upcoming fifth album. At the end of January 2020, the band entered the studio with Nick Raskulinecz, who produced their 2011 self-titled album, to work on three "heavy" songs. They would originally record only two songs with him, but ended up recording four. They planned to work piecemeal with the recording process, finishing a few songs with a producer and then working on a few other songs with another producer, but this plan was set aside because of the COVID-19 pandemic. On April 17, 2020, the band announced the title of their new album, The Bitter Truth, along with the artwork. The album's first single, "Wasted on You", was released on April 24 along with a music video. The music video was directed by P. R. Brown and included shots of the band members, at home due to the pandemic. The second single, "The Game Is Over", was released on July 1. "Use My Voice", the album's third single, was released on August 14. It features backing vocals from Lzzy Hale, Lindsey Stirling, Taylor Momsen, Deena Jakoub, and Sharon den Adel, and was used in a HeadCount campaign to encourage Americans to vote in the United States presidential election. On December 4, 2020, it was announced that the album would be released on March 26, 2021, and contain 12 tracks, including Evanescence outtake "Take Cover". Along with the album's pre-order, the fourth single, "Yeah Right", was released as an instant grab. On March 5, 2021, the band released the fifth single, "Better Without You". The song touches upon Lee's struggle in the music industry. A Kerrang! cover story stated that Lee considers The Bitter Truth their fourth album, not 2017's Synthesis, though it is the fifth album overall. Evanescence and Halestorm's US tour was announced in May 2021 for the fall. The tour began on November 5, 2021, with the last city stop set for December 18, 2021. More dates were added in September 2021. In December 2021, the last five shows were rescheduled due to COVID-19 cases within the band's touring camp, with the tour completed in January 2022. Evanescence was voted by Revolver readers one of the top five live bands of 2021, with Revolver stating that The Bitter Truth "wasn't just a return for Evanescence — it was a rebirth." In February 2022, "Bring Me to Life"'s music video surpassed 1 billion views on YouTube. In May 2022, the band announced that it parted ways with guitarist Jen Majura, and longtime bassist Tim McCord would switch to guitar while Emma Anzai of Sick Puppies would join as their new bassist. On July 15, 2022, Evanescence headlined the Rock Fest festival. Evanescence and Korn co-headlined an 18-dates US summer tour from August 16 to September 16, 2022. The band also played Rocklahoma festival in early September, and the Aftershock Festival in Sacramento, California the following month. After four rescheduled attempts since 2019, Evanescence's co-headlining Worlds Collide European tour with Within Temptation began on November 9, 2022, running until December 8, 2022. According to Loudwire in August 2022, Evanescence have sold a total of 31.9 million albums, making the band one of the best selling hard rock and metal artists of all time. Evanescence joined Muse on their North American tour from February to April 2023. In May, the band performed at the inaugural Sick New World festival in Las Vegas, and Welcome to Rockville festival in Florida. The following month, they traveled to Europe to play the German festivals Rock am Ring and Rock im Park, Download Festival's 20th anniversary in England, where they played to what was deemed the biggest crowd ever for the second stage, and a solo show in Poland and France. They're then performing Japan's Summer Sonic Festival on August 19–20, and touring Australia from August 24 to September 2. The band returns to the US to play Blue Ridge Rock Festival on September 7, and a show in Atlantic City, New Jersey on September 8. From October 7 to October 28, they will embark on a Latin American tour across Mexico, Argentina, Brazil, and Chile. ## Artistry ### Musical style Evanescence blends various musical styles in their music, primarily rock, classical music, alternative music, heavy metal, industrial music, and electronic music. Music journalists vary in terming Evanescence a rock or metal band, and many identify gothic elements in their music. The band is generally classified as alternative metal, gothic rock, gothic metal, and hard rock. Other genres used to describe the band's sound over the years include industrial rock, symphonic metal, nu metal, and symphonic rock. Evanescence have also incorporated other styles in their music, including several forms of electronic music, progressive rock, R&B, soul, trip hop, and Eastern music. Metal Injection deemed them "gothic-tinged alternative metal mainstays", and AllMusic described their music as "alt-metal that layers orchestral and electronic touches atop brooding goth rock". Regarding the early classification of Evanescence as nu-metal, Loudwire said that this occurred due to their debut album being released at a time "when nu-metal was essentially at its peak" and they "were one of the only bands fronted by a woman that was headlining massive rock and metal festivals with Korn and the like, so putting them in the same category was likely appropriate", while their music also had "nu-metal elements in addition to gothic metal". The Washington Post said in 2006 that Lee working with any group of musicians in the band "is going to sound like Evanescence -- dark, stormy, anguished, seeking both release and transcendence." Kerrang! characterized the band's sound as a "melodic crush of haunting, baroque harmonies and heavy guitars". Evanescence "has long had dual personalities, mixing alt-metal and symphonic rock on its three studio albums", while their fourth, Synthesis, focuses on "orchestral grandeur" with electronic percussion, The Wall Street Journal stated. The St. Louis Post-Dispatch said the band "has long been known to mix beauty and bombast", with Synthesis and its live orchestra-backed show turning Lee's "wrenching, introspective songs into neo-operatic anthems". Variety depicted the band's sound after Synthesis as "evolving from its nu-metal/post-grunge origins to, naturally, a synthesis of rock, classical and EDM". AllMusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine wrote of Evanescence's musical evolution: "Over the years and through multiple lineup shifts, the band persevered under Lee's helm, eventually shifting from the radio-friendly anthems of their early days into a shimmering, classically inspired symphonic alternative outfit in the 2010s". ### Influences Lee's musical influences throughout childhood and her teenage years included classical music, Danny Elfman's film scores, alternative music, grunge, hard rock, industrial music, death metal, groove metal, and electronica artists like Bjork and Portishead. Her earliest memory of wanting to fuse various and contrasting musical styles, was when she was training in classical piano and realized that a section of a composition from Baroque composer Bach resembled heavy metal. Lee considers the Lacrimosa movement of Mozart's Requiem her favorite piece of music, and wove it into The Open Door song "Lacrymosa". With Evanescence, Lee aimed to combine her various musical tastes, "bringing something from the cinematic and classical symphonic world and marrying it to metal, hard rock and alternative music". "There was all this music that was inspiring me. And Evanescence was the product of these two extremes combining". Lee said in 2010 that alongside rock and metal, the band has "always had programming and inspirations from Bjork, Depeche Mode and Massive Attack and that kind of thing". Evanescence cite Soundgarden, Björk, Mozart, Danny Elfman, Korn, Tori Amos, Nirvana, Pantera, Portishead, Massive Attack, Nine Inch Nails, Smashing Pumpkins, Garbage, Depeche Mode, and A Perfect Circle as influences. ### Impact Various publications have noted Evanescence's musical and gendered impact in rock. The band's symphonic gothic rock style was not present in the mainstream music industry, and their success among "testosterone-driven and male-dominated" rock radio was a rarity. Evanescence was an "anomaly" breaking into the mainstream, and played a "large part in mainstream-rock radio opening its mind to playing a female voice on the airwaves", Consequence wrote. Rolling Stone said Evanescence "brought theatrics and a much-needed femininity to the hard-rock boys' club of the early 2000s". Lee "broke down the doors of the alternative metal boys club", AllMusic stated, and was a "disrupter" of the early 2000s mainstream music scene. The Daily Telegraph noted that "the people who doubted that pianos or female vocals belonged in rock music were quickly proven wrong" with Evanescence albums' success and Lee's "singular voice in a scene dominated by macho aggression". Evanescence had a "big" impact "on the next generation of bands", Kerrang! wrote, and Lee "has helped light the path for many dauntless young women in music", The Los Angeles Times stated. Kerrang! named Evanescence "one of heavy music's most important, influential and relevant bands", and remarked that there is "a timelessness about their sound that's barely dated over the last two decades" and their "emotional potency has only been enhanced". ## Band members Current members - Amy Lee – lead vocals, piano, keyboards, harp (1995–present) - Tim McCord – guitar (2022–present); bass (2006–2022) - Will Hunt – drums (2007–present) - Troy McLawhorn – guitar (2007–present) - Emma Anzai – bass, backing vocals (2022–present; touring musician) Former members - Ben Moody – guitar, drums (1995–2003) - David Hodges – keyboards, backing vocals (1999–2002) - Will Boyd – bass (2005–2006; touring musician 2003–2005) - Rocky Gray – drums (2005–2007; touring musician 2003–2005) - John LeCompt – guitar (2005–2007; touring musician 2003–2005) - Terry Balsamo – guitar (2003–2015) - Jen Majura – guitar, backing vocals, theremin (2017–2022; touring musician 2015–2017) Timeline ## Discography - Fallen (2003) - The Open Door (2006) - Evanescence (2011) - Synthesis (2017) - The Bitter Truth (2021) ## Awards and nominations Evanescence's accolades include two Grammy Awards out of seven nominations, three Loudwire Music Awards, a Kerrang! Award, a Revolver Golden Gods Awards, a Brit Award nomination, three American Music Award nominations, and five MTV Video Music Award nominations.
16,902,811	1292–1294 papal election	1,172,805,424	1290s papal election	[ "1292", "1292 in Europe", "1293", "1293 in Europe", "1294", "1294 in Europe", "13th-century Catholicism", "13th-century elections", "Papal elections" ]	The 1292–94 papal election (from 5 April 1292 to 5 July 1294), was the last papal election which did not take the form of a papal conclave (in which the electors are locked in seclusion cum clave—Latin for "with a key"—and not permitted to leave until a new Bishop of Rome has been elected). After the death of Pope Nicholas IV on 4 April 1292, the eleven surviving cardinals (a twelfth died during the sede vacante) deliberated for more than two years before electing the third of six non-cardinals to be elected pope during the Late Middle Ages: Pietro da Morrone, who took the name Pope Celestine V. Contemporary sources suggest that Morrone was hesitant to accept his election when word of the cardinals' decision reached his mountain-top hermitage. His ascetic life left him largely unprepared for the day-to-day responsibilities of the papacy, and he quickly fell under the influence of the Neapolitan monarchy of Charles of Anjou, to the dissatisfaction of even the pro-Angevin cardinals within the College. Celestine V resigned on 13 December 1294. ## Cardinal electors Twelve cardinal electors began the election, but one—Jean Cholet—died before it was completed. ## Deliberation The eleven electors were relatively evenly divided between the factions of Colonna and Orsini, two powerful Roman families, led by Giacomo Colonna and Matteo Orsini, respectively. The three Orsini cardinals were pro-French and pro-Angevin, while the two Colonna cardinals supported competing Aragonese claims in Sicily. James II of Aragon had bankrolled the Colonna faction with gold, but it is unknown whether simony actually transpired. After ten days of balloting in Rome, without any candidate approaching the requisite two-thirds, the cardinals adjourned until June and changed the location of the election from Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore to Santa Maria sopra Minerva. After a summer epidemic in the city, and the death of Cholet in August, they dispersed until late September. The non-Roman cardinals went to Rieti (except Caetani, who went to his native Anagni) while the Roman cardinals remained in the city. As balloting continued into the next summer, the disorder in Rome increased dramatically (even by the standards of a sede vacante, during which, based on the biblical example of Barabbas, all prisoners were released). The deaths of newly elected Roman Senators Agapitus Colonna and Ursus Orsini around Easter 1293 further exacerbated the anarchy within the city, which had been marked by the destruction of palaces, the slaying of pilgrims, and the sacking of churches. After the summer of 1293, the cardinals dispersed and agreed to reconvene in Perugia on October 18. The College continued to deliberate fruitlessly in Perugia, where they were addressed by Charles II of Naples in March 1294. By the summer of 1294, cardinals had begun to disperse, leaving only six in Perugia for their final meeting, where a letter was read aloud from a hermit, Pietro de Morrone, stating that God had revealed to him that the cardinals would be punished for any further delay. Latino Malabranca Orsini, the senior cardinal, suddenly nominated Morrone—who would have been well known by the cardinals as a saintly figure—and the other cardinals rapidly agreed and recalled the departed electors to consent. Consensus was achieved by 5 July 1294, when Morrone was elected. As with the selection of Gregory X by the papal election, 1268–1271, the choice of an outsider, non-cardinal, in this case an "octogenarian hermit," was seen as the only way to break the stalemate between the deadlocked cardinals. That election also could have resulted in the selection of a hermit, had Saint Philip Benizi not fled to avoid his election after he urged the cardinals to speed up their deliberations. ## Coronation Pietro Colonna and three bishops brought the news of Morrone's election to his mountain-top hermitage. Contemporary sources are emphatic in noting Morrone's reluctance to accept his election; for example, Petrarch recounts his attempt to flee. Instead of coming to Perugia (the site of the election), Celestine insisted that the cardinals join him in L'Aquila (in Neapolitan territory) for his coronation, rather than crossing into the bordering Papal States. Imitating the entry of Christ into Jerusalem, Celestine rode a donkey, led by the bridle by Charles II of Naples and his son Charles Martel of Anjou to the L'Aquila basilica, which was the nearest cathedral to his hermitage. Latino Orsini died on August 10 in Perugia, but many of the other cardinals had second thoughts because of the perceived degree of Angevin control of the new pope. Because only three cardinals were present at the ceremony on August 29, it was repeated a few days later when more arrived, making Celestine the only pope to be crowned twice. The Angevin-Neapolitan influence of Celestine was evident in his first consistory, during which he created twelve cardinals, including seven Frenchmen and three (or five) Neapolitans. This was the first time in history where a single consistory had swung the College of Cardinals so decidedly in one nationalist partisan direction. The cardinals who were not French or Angevin were members of Celestine's former order. Celestine also moved to the Castel Nuovo in Naples, where he continued to live much like a hermit until he resigned, as advocated by many Roman cardinals, including Benedetto Gaetani (who, a former lawyer, suggested that Celestine first publish a decree establishing the permissibility of papal abdication). Gaetani, elected Pope Boniface VIII following Celestine's abdication, proceeded to have Celestine imprisoned while the legality of his abdication remained a prominent subject, and Celestine died a prisoner in 1296. ## Legacy Before abdicating, Celestine re-enacted Ubi Periculum, the Apostolic Constitution of Pope Gregory X, which has governed all subsequent papal elections under the laws of the conclave. Two subsequent papal elections may be considered possible exceptions, although they adhered to the laws of the conclave to a great degree: the Council of Constance, which elected Pope Martin V to end the Western Schism, and the papal conclave, 1799-1800, for which Pope Pius VI suspended Ubi Periculum due to the interference of Napoléon Bonaparte. ## See also - Papal election, 1268–1271, during which the procedures of the conclave largely developed (the first two of the seven intervening papal elections were conclaves)
35,512,602	Maldives at the 2012 Summer Olympics	1,171,426,985	null	[ "2012 in Maldivian sport", "Maldives at the Summer Olympics by year", "Nations at the 2012 Summer Olympics" ]	The Asian island nation of the Maldives competed at the 2012 Summer Olympics in London from 27 July to 12 August 2012. This was the nation's seventh consecutive appearance at the Olympics, the delegation consisted of two athletes each in track and field (Azneem Ahmed and Afa Ismail) and swimming (Ahmed Husam and Aminath Shajan). For the first time since their debut at the Summer Olympics, the Maldives entered one badminton player into the Olympics. Mohamed Ajfan Rasheed, the inaugural Maldivian badminton player to compete at the Olympics, was the nation's flag bearer at the opening ceremony with Azneem Ahmed carrying the Maldivian flag in the closing ceremony. All the athletes qualified for the games through wild cards from International Association of Athletic Federations FINA and Badminton World Federation. The Maldives however, has yet to win its first ever Olympic medal. ## Background The Maldives is an archipelagic country located in Southern Asia, situated in the Indian Ocean. Formerly a protectorate of the United Kingdom, it gained independence in 1965. The Maldives Olympic Committee was formed in 1985, and was recognized by the International Olympic Committee the same year. The Maldives have participated in every Summer Olympics since its debut in the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul. The highest number of Maldivians participating at any single Summer Games was seven at the 1988 Games and the 1992 Games in Barcelona, Spain. No Maldivian has ever won a medal at the Olympics. The 2012 Summer Olympics were held from 27 July to 12 August 2012. For the 2012 Summer Olympics, the Maldives sent a delegation of five athletes. The Maldivian team at the 2012 Games featured two track and field athletes, a badminton player and two swimmers. The track and field delegation included sprinters Azneem Ahmed and Afa Ismail participating in the men's and women's 100 meters respectively. Mohamed Ajfan Rasheed, participating in the men's singles was the first badminton player that the Maldives had sent to the Olympics. Two swimmers, Ahmed Husam and Aminath Shajan participated in the men's 100 metre freestyle and women's 50 metre freestyle respectively. Ajfaan was chosen to be the flagbearers for the Maldives during the parade of nations of the opening ceremony with Azneem being the flagbearer for the closing ceremony. ## Athletics Azneem Ahmed was the sole male athletic competitor and the oldest athlete to compete for the Maldives at the London Games at the age of 23. He had not taken part in any previous Olympic Games. Azneem qualified for the Games via a wildcard because his fastest time of 10.6 seconds was 0.36 seconds slower than the "B" qualifying standard for the men's 100 metres. He competed in the men's 100 metres race on 4 August in the third heat of the preliminaries. Azneem achieved a Maldivian national record finishing third out of eight athletes with a time of 10.79 seconds and advanced to the quarter-finals. Azneem was placed in heat six along with seven other athletes. He posted a time of 10.84 seconds, finishing eighth. He finished 52nd out of 54 athletes overall and did not qualify for the later rounds. Competing at her first Summer Olympics, Afa Ismail qualified for the London Games as a wildcard, as her best time for the 100 metres event, 12.98 seconds, set in the 2011 Asian Athletics Championships in Kobe, was 1.6 seconds slower than the "B" qualifying standard. She competed in the preliminary round on 3 August and was drawn in the first heat. Afa finished fifth with a time of 12.52 seconds, attaining a personal best but failing to qualify for round 1. Overall she finished 61st out of 78 competitors, and did not advance into the first round because her fastest time was 0.28 seconds slower than the slowest athlete who progressed. Track events ## Badminton For the first time since its debut in the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul, the Maldives entered a badminton player into the Olympic tournament. Taking part in his first Olympic Games, Mohamed Ajfan Rasheed carried the Maldivian flag at the opening ceremony. He accepted the invitation from the Tripartite Commission and the Badminton World Federation to compete in the men's singles. The Tripartite Commission is made in collaboration of the individual countries' committees, the International Olympic Committee, as well as the Badminton World Federation. Ajfan was drawn in Group K of the men's singles tournament. On 28 July, he played against world fifteenth-ranked Marc Zwiebler of Germany in the group stage, whom he lost against in the first round 9–21 and was defeated by his opponent 6–21 in the second round. Ajfan's next game was against Ukraine's Dmytro Zavadsky two days later whom he lost against in two sets, scoring eight points while his opponent reached 21 points in the first set. He was also defeated in his second set match with a 13-point deficit to Zavadsky and, therefore, he was eliminated from the competition. ## Swimming Competing in the men's 100 metre freestyle at the age of 16, Ahmed Husam was the youngest male athlete to compete on behalf of the Maldives at the London Games. He qualified for the games by using a universality place from the sport's governing body FINA because his fastest time of 59.98 seconds was 3.44 seconds slower than the "B" (FINA/Olympic Invitation Times) qualifying standard for his event. Husam was drawn in the first heat on 31 July, finishing second out of four swimmers, with a time of 57.53 seconds. Overall he finished 53rd out of 56 swimmers, and was unable to advance to the semi-finals after being 8.54 seconds slower than the slowest competitor who progressed to the later stages. Maldivian swimmer Aminath Shajan made her Olympic debut at the London Games in the women's 50 metre freestyle. Like Husam she qualified for the Games after FINA awarded her a universality place because her fastest time of 33.43 seconds was not within the "A" or "B" qualifying standard times for the women's 50 metre freestyle. Shajan took part in the event's third heat on 3 August, finishing seventh out of eight swimmers, with a time of 32.23 seconds. She finished 64th out of 73 swimmers, and did not qualify for the semi-finals because her time was 7.1 seconds slower than the slowest competitor who progressed to the later stages. ## See also - List of Maldivian records in athletics - Maldives at the Olympics
194,570	Garamond	1,170,147,617	Typeface family	[ "Adobe typefaces", "Digital typefaces", "International Typeface Corporation typefaces", "Latin-script typefaces", "Letterpress typefaces", "Monotype typefaces", "Old style serif typefaces", "Photocomposition typefaces", "Public domain typefaces", "Typefaces and fonts introduced in the 16th century", "Typefaces with infant variants", "Typefaces with optical sizes", "Typefaces with text figures" ]	Garamond is a group of many serif typefaces, named for sixteenth-century Parisian engraver Claude Garamond, generally spelled as Garamont in his lifetime. Garamond-style typefaces are popular and particularly often used for book printing and body text. Garamond's types followed the model of an influential typeface cut for Venetian printer Aldus Manutius by his punchcutter Francesco Griffo in 1495, and are in what is now called the old-style of serif letter design, letters with a relatively organic structure resembling handwriting with a pen, but with a slightly more structured, upright design. Following an eclipse in popularity in the eighteenth and nineteenth century, many modern revival faces in the Garamond style have been developed. It is common to pair these with italics based on those created by his contemporary Robert Granjon, who was well known for his proficiency in this genre. However, although Garamond himself remains considered a major figure in French printing of the sixteenth century, historical research has increasingly placed him in context as one artisan punchcutter among many active at a time of rapid production of new typefaces in sixteenth-century France, and research has only slowly developed into which fonts were cut by him and which by contemporaries; Robert Bringhurst commented that "it was a widespread custom for many years to attribute almost any good sixteenth-century French font" to Garamond. As a result, while "Garamond" is a common term in the printing industry, the terms "French Renaissance antiqua" and "Garalde" have been used in academic writing to refer generally to fonts on the Aldus-French Renaissance model by Garamond and others. In particular, many 'Garamond' revivals of the early twentieth century are actually based on the work of a later punchcutter, Jean Jannon, whose noticeably different work was for some years misattributed to Garamond. The most common digital font named Garamond is Monotype Garamond. Developed in the early 1920s and bundled with Microsoft Office, it is a revival of Jannon's work. ## Characteristics Some distinctive characteristics in Garamond's letterforms are an 'e' with a small eye and the bowl of the 'a' which has a sharp turn at top left. Other general features are limited but clear stroke contrast and capital letters on the model of Roman square capitals. The 'M' is slightly splayed with outward-facing serifs at the top (sometimes only on the left) and the leg of the 'R' extends outwards from the letter. The x-height (height of lower-case letters) is low, especially at larger sizes, making the capitals large relative to the lower case, while the top serifs on the ascenders of letters like 'd' have a downward slope and ride above the cap height. The axis of letters like the ‘o’ is diagonal and the bottom right of the italic 'h' bends inwards. Garamond types have quite expansive ascenders and descenders; printers at the time did not use leading. Besides general characteristics, writers on type have generally praised the even quality of Garamond's type: John A. Lane describes his work as "elegant and executed with consummate skill...to a higher standard than commercial interest demanded"; H. D. L. Vervliet wrote that in his later Gros-Canon and Parangonne types (meaning sizes of around 40pt and 18pt respectively) he had achieved "a culmination of Renaissance design. The elegant line and subdued emphasis show the classic search for silent and transparent form". Modern Garamond revivals also often add a matching bold and 'lining' numbers at the height of capital letters, neither of which were used during the Renaissance; Arabic numerals in Garamond's time were engraved as what are now called text figures, styled with variable height like lower-case letters. ## History ### Garamond’s life and his roman type Garamond worked as an engraver of punches, the masters used to stamp matrices, the moulds used to cast metal type. Garamond cut types in the 'roman', or upright style, in italic, and Greek. In the period of Garamond's early life roman type had been displacing the blackletter or Gothic type which was used in some (although not all) early French printing. Though his name was generally written as 'Garamont' in his lifetime, the spelling 'Garamond' became the most commonly used form after his death. H. D. L. Vervliet, the leading contemporary expert on French Renaissance printing, uses Garamont consistently. The roman designs of Garamond which are his most imitated were based on a font cut around 1495 for the Venetian printer Aldus Manutius by engraver Francesco Griffo. This was first used in the book De Aetna, a short work by poet and cleric Pietro Bembo which was Manutius' first printing in the Latin alphabet. Historian Beatrice Warde has assessed De Aetna as something of a pilot project, a small book printed to a higher standard than Manutius' norm. Among other details, this font popularised the idea that in printing the cross-stroke of the 'e' should be level instead of slanting upwards to the right like handwriting, something imitated in almost all type designs since. French typefounders of the 16th century assiduously examined Manutius's work (and, it is thought, De Aetna in particular) as a source of inspiration: Garamond's roman, italic and greek typefaces were all influenced by types used by Manutius. An event which was to particularly define the course of the rest of Garamond's career came starting on 6 September 1530, when the printer Robert Estienne began to introduce a set of three roman types adapting the single roman type used in De Aetna to a range of sizes. These typefaces, with their "light colour and precise cut" were extremely influential and other Parisian printers immediately introduced copies. The largest size "Gros-canon" (42.5pt) particularly became a "phenomenon" in Paris: never before had a roman type been cut in so large a size. The designs copied Manutius's type even to the extent of copying the 'M' shown in De Aetna which, whether intentionally or due to a casting defect, had no serif pointing out of the letter at top right. This form was to appear in many fonts of the period, including Garamond's earlier ones, although by the end of his career he had switched to mostly using an M on the Roman capital model with a serif at top right. The period from 1520 to around 1560, encompassing Garamond's career, was an extremely busy period for typeface creation. Many fonts were cut, some such as Robert Estienne's for a single printer's exclusive use, others sold or traded between them (increasingly over time). The many active engravers included Garamond himself, Granjon, Guillaume Le Bé, particularly respected for his Hebrew fonts, Pierre Haultin, Antoine Augereau (who may have been Garamond's master), Estienne's stepfather Simon de Colines and others. This period saw the creation of a pool of high-quality punches and matrices, many of which would remain used for the next two centuries. Little is known about Garamond's life or work before 1540, although he wrote in a preface of having cut punches for type since childhood. He worked for a variety of employers on commission, creating punches and selling matrices to publishers and the government. Garamond's typefaces were popular abroad, and replaced Griffo's original roman type at the Aldine Press in Venice. He also worked as a publisher and bookseller. By 1549, a document from theologian Jean de Gagny specified that the goldsmith Charles Chiffin, who had cut an italic for his private printing press, should receive payment at the rate of "the best punchcutter in this city after master Claude Garamont", clearly showing that he was considered the pre-eminent punchcutter in Paris at this time. Vervliet concludes that Garamond created thirty-four typefaces for which an attribution can be confidently made (17 roman, 7 italic, 8 Greek, 2 Hebrew) and another three for which the attribution is problematic (one each of roman, Greek and Hebrew). If Garamond distributed specimens of his typefaces, as later punchcutters and typefounders did, none is known to survive, although one unsigned specimen in the Plantin-Moretus Museum collection, presenting a synopsis of his late Parangon type, may have been made around the time of his death or soon after. While some records such as Christophe Plantin's exist of what exact types were cut by Garamond himself, many details of his career remain uncertain: early estimates placed Garamond's date of birth around 1480, but modern opinion proposes much later estimates. A document called the Le Bé Memorandum (based on the memories of Guillaume Le Bé, but collated by one of his sons around 1643) suggests that Garamond finished his apprenticeship around 1510. This is considered unlikely by modern historians since his mother was still alive when he died in 1561 and little is known of him before around 1540. One particular question about Garamond's early career is whether he cut the typefaces used by Estienne from 1530. Because of Garamond's known connection with Estienne in his later career, it has been assumed that he cut them, but this was not mentioned in contemporary sources: Vervliet suggests that these 'Estienne typefaces' were not cut by Garamond and that his career began somewhat later. Vervliet suggests that the creator of this set of typefaces, sometimes called the 'Estienne Master', may have been a 'Master Constantin', recorded in the Le Bé Memorandum as a master type engraver of the period before Garamond but about whom nothing is otherwise known and to whom no obvious other body of work can be ascribed. If so, his disappearance from history (perhaps due to an early death, since all his presumed work appeared in just four years from 1530 to 1533) and the execution of Augereau on a charge of heresy in 1534 may have allowed Garamond's reputation to develop in the following decade. Regardless of these questions about his early career, Garamond's late career is well-recorded, with most of his later roman types (in Lane's view, his best work) preserved in complete sets of matrices at the Museum Plantin-Moretus, which has allowed example sets of characters to be cast, with further documentation and attributions from later inventories and specimen sheets. Of the Garamond types preserved, all include small capitals apart from the gros-canon, and the parangonne uniquely includes terminal swash forms for a e m n r t (two forms) and z. #### Italics Garamond cut more roman types than italics, which at the time were conceived separately to roman types rather than designed alongside them as complementary matches. Italics had again been introduced by Manutius in 1500; the first was cut by Griffo. This first italic used upright capitals, copying a popular style of calligraphy. The modern italic style of sloped capitals first appeared in 1527 and only slowly became popular. Accordingly, many of Garamond's italics were quite small and had upright capitals. Some of his italics did have sloped capitals, although Vervliet did not feel he integrated them effectively into the typeface design, "sloped capitals were (and stayed) a weakness in his designs." Garamond's italics were apparently not as used as widely as Granjon's and Haultin's, which spread widely across Europe. For example, on the 1592 Berner specimen, most of the romans were by Garamond but at least all but one, and probably all, of the italics are Granjon's. Similarly in the 1643 Imprimerie royale specimen, most of the italics are Granjon's. (Some books published by Garamond in 1545 use a very common italic of the period, not cut by him.) #### Greek Garamond cut type for the Greek alphabet from the beginning of his recorded career: on 2 November 1540 he contracted to cut a series of Greek faces for the French government, to be used in printing by Robert Estienne. The resulting typeface, known as the Grecs du roi, are very different from his Latin designs: again influenced by Greek typefaces used by Manutius (they were cut in three sizes, the same ones Manutius used), they were based on the elegant handwriting of Cretan scribe Angelo Vergecio, who used many ligatures and traditional contractions in his writing, and include a extraordinarily large number of alternate characters to faithfully replicate it. Arthur Tilley called the books printed from them "among the most finished specimens of typography that exist". The Grecs du roi punches and matrices remain the property of the French government. They were extremely influential and directly copied by many engravers for other printers, becoming the basis of Greek typeface design for the next two centuries. Although the Grecs du roi style was popular in Greek printing for the next two centuries, it is problematic for modern setting of body text, due to changing tastes in Greek printing: they are slanted, but modern Greek printing often uses upright type, and because Garamond's types were designed assuming that ligatures would be manually selected and inserted wherever needed; later metal types on the same model used fewer ligatures. Digital 'Garamond' releases such as Adobe's with Roman and Greek character sets often re-interpret the Greek, for instance with upright characters. A commercial digitisation from Anagrafi Fonts, KS GrequeX, uses the OpenType format to include over 1100 abbreviations and ligatures, more than Garamond cut. According to Lane the most influential Grecs du roi copies were those of Granjon and Haultin, but others may have been cut by Jean Arnould and Nicolas de Villiers, amongst others. Another was made by Arthur Nicholls in London. #### After Garamond's death Garamond died in 1561 and his punches and matrices were sold off by his widow. Purchasers included the Le Bé type foundry in Paris run by the family of Guillaume Le Bé and Christophe Plantin, who was in Paris at the time; the Frankfurt foundry often referred to by historians as Egenolff-Berner also came to acquire materials of Garamond's. Le Bé's son is known to have written to Plantin's successor Moretus offering to trade matrices so they could both have complementary type in a range of sizes. Konrad Berner showcased various types of Garamond's and other French engravers in a 1592 specimen, which named the types' engravers and would later be a source for historians. Plantin's collection of original Garamond punches and matrices survives at the Plantin-Moretus Museum in Antwerp, together with many other typefaces collected by Plantin from other typefounders of the period. The collection has been used extensively for research, for example by historians Harry Carter and Vervliet. Plantin also commissioned punchcutter Robert Granjon to create alternate characters for three Garamond fonts with shortened ascenders and descenders to allow tighter linespacing. Garamond's name was used outside France as a name for 10pt type, often in Dutch as 'Garmond'. ### Robert Granjon Many modern revival fonts based on French renaissance printing are influenced by the work of Robert Granjon (c. 1513-90), particularly in italic. An engraver with a long and wide-ranging career, Granjon's work seems to have ranged much more widely than Garamond's focus on roman and Greek type, cutting type in italic, civilité (a cursive blackletter), and for the Vatican type in exotic alphabets including Arabic, Armenian and Hebrew. His career also took in stops in the Netherlands, Switzerland, Germany and finally for the last twelve years of his life Rome, where he ended his career in the service of the Vatican. Vervliet comments that Granjon "laid the foundation for our image of the way an Italic should look." Although he was not quite the first designer to use the idea of italics having capitals sloped to complement the roman, he "solved successfully the problem of a balanced inclination of the capitals, a feature much ahead of the designs with a more irregular slope of his Viennese and Mainz predecessors...and even compared to...Garamont. A proper optical harmony of the angle of slope is characteristic for all Granjon’s Italics; it allowed the compositor to use whole lines of capitals without causing too much giddiness." Granjon also cut many swash capitals, which Vervliet describes as "deliciously daring" and have often been copied, for instance in Robert Slimbach's revivals for Adobe (discussed below). ### Other French engravers of the sixteenth century Besides Garamond, Granjon and the "Estienne master", other engravers were active in the French renaissance style. Pierre Haultin particularly created many types which were very popular and distributed very widely around Europe: as a Protestant, he spent much of his career outside Paris working in Geneva, Lyons and La Rochelle and his nephew Jérôme established a career importing and casting his types in London, where his types were extremely common. In Carter's view Haultin "has been greatly underrated". Another engraver whose types were very popular in London was François Guyot, who moved from Paris to Antwerp and then London. ### Jean Jannon In 1621, sixty years after Garamond's death, the French printer Jean Jannon released a specimen of typefaces in the Garamond/Granjon style. Jannon wrote in his specimen that: > Seeing that for some time many persons have had to do with the art [of printing] who have greatly lowered it ... the desire came upon me to try if I might imitate, after some fashion, some one among those who honourably busied themselves with the art, [men whose deaths] I hear regretted every day [Jannon mentions some eminent printers of the previous century] ... and inasmuch as I could not accomplish this design for lack of types which I needed ... [some typefounders] would not, and others could not furnish me with what I lacked [so] I resolved, about six years ago, to turn my hand in good earnest to the making of punches, matrices and moulds for all sorts of characters, for the accommodation both of the public and of myself. Jannon was a Protestant in mostly Catholic France. After apparently working with the Estienne family in Paris he set up an independent career as printer in Sedan in what is now north-eastern France, becoming printer for the Protestant Academy. By his report he took up punchcutting seriously in his thirties, although according to Williamson he would have cut decorative material and engravings at least before this. Sedan the time enjoyed an unstable independence as a principality at a time when the French government had conceded through the Edict of Nantes to allowing a complicated system of restricted liberties for Protestants. The French Royal Printing Office (Imprimerie Royale) appears to have bought matrices from him in 1641 in three large sizes, roman and italic at roughly 18, 24 and 36 point sizes. (The contract is actually made for one 'Nicholas Jannon', which historians have concluded to be a mistake.) Despite the purchase, it is not clear that the office ever much used Jannon's type: historian James Mosley has reported being unable to find books printed by the Imprimerie that use more than two sizes of italic. His type would later be misattributed to Garamond. Despite this, it is known that authorities in 1644 raided an office in Caen where he had been commissioned to do printing. Warde initially assumed that this was the source of the Jannon materials in the Imprimerie Nationale before the government's purchase order came to light. Jannon's types and their descendants are recognizable by the scooped-out triangular serifs on the top left of such characters as 'm', 'n' and 'r', which curve to a steeper slant in Jannon's design compared to Garamond's. The italics are also very different from Garamond's own or Granjon's, being much more ornate and with considerable variation in angle of the capitals. Opinions of Jannon's engraving quality have varied; Warde found them "so technically brilliant as to be decadent" and "of slight value as a book face" (the surviving Jannon sizes were intended as display faces, cut at 18pt or larger) and Vervliet described them as "famous not so much for the quality of the design but as for the long-term confusion it created", although many reproductions of his work were successful in printing in the twentieth century. Jannon cut far more types than those surviving in the Imprimerie collection: before the misattribution to Garamond, he was particularly respected for his engraving of an extremely small size of type, known for his workplace as sédanoise, which was popular. By the nineteenth century, Jannon's matrices had come to be known as the Caractères de l'Université (Characters of the University). It has sometimes been claimed that this term was an official name designated for the Jannon type by Cardinal Richelieu, while Warde in 1926 more plausibly suggested it might be a garbled recollection of Jannon's work with the Sedan Academy, which operated much like a university despite not using the name. Carter in the 1970s followed this conclusion. Mosley, however, concludes that no report of the term (or much use of Jannon's matrices at all) exists before the nineteenth century, and it may originate from a generic term of the eighteenth century simply meaning older or more conservative typeface designs, perhaps those preferred in academic publishing. ### The fate of Garamond's work The old-style typefaces of Garamond and his contemporaries continued to be regularly used and kept in the stock of European typefounders until the end of the eighteenth century and appear in the major French type foundry specimen books of the eighteenth century, of Delacolonge, Lamesle, and Gando. In Delacolonge's book, many fonts were shown "mutilated" or as "bastard" fonts: with replacement characters, specifically cut-down descenders to allow tighter linespacing. According to James Mosley French renaissance romans remained popular for slightly longer than italics, due to a taste for new italics, wider and with flat incoming serifs, introduced by the Romain du roi type and popularised by Simon-Pierre Fournier (see below): "it is common enough, in the second half of the eighteenth century, to find books set in a Garamond roman or a near copy mated with one of Fournier's italics". A trademark associated with the Garalde style in modern times is the four-terminal 'W', although sixteenth-century French typefaces generally do not include the character as it is not normal in French. Many French renaissance typefaces used abroad had the character added later, along with the 'J' and 'U': these were often very visibly added by lesser craftsmen, producing an obvious mismatch. Granjon added a 'W' and 'w', both with three upper terminals, to Garamond's Breviare roman in 1565 for Plantin. The foundry of Guillaume Le Bé I which held many of Garamond's punches and matrices passed to Guillaume Le Bé II, and came to be managed by Jean-Claude Fournier, whose son Jean-Pierre in 1730 purchased it. (His younger brother, Simon-Pierre Fournier, rapidly left the family business and became a major exponent of modern ideas in printing, including standardised point sizes and crisp types influenced by contemporary calligraphy.) In 1756, Jean-Pierre Fournier wrote of his collection of vintage equipment that "I am the owner of the foundry of Garamond, the Le Bé family and Granjon. I shall be happy to display my punches and matrices to all those who are lovers of true beauty ... these are the types that made the reputations of the Estiennes, Plantin and the Elzevirs," and referred to an inventory that he said was in his possession that had been drawn up after Garamond's death in 1561. (The comment was made in a journal during a public dispute with a printer of more modern tastes who preferred to remain anonymous and may have been his younger brother.) The 1561 inventory does not survive, although some later inventories do; by this point Fournier's foundry may have become rather inactive. Old-style serif typefaces by Garamond and his contemporaries finally fell out of use altogether with the arrival of what is now called the Didone, or modern-face, style of printing in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, promoted by the Didot family in France and others. This favoured a much more geometric, constructed style of letter which could show off the increasingly refined paper and printing technologies of the period. Lane suggests Fournier's type foundry may have finally disposed of its materials around 1805; in contrast, the collections of the Plantin-Moretus Museum survive almost intact. Mosley comments: > The upheavals of the Revolution coincided with the major shift in the style of printing types that is associated with the family of Didot, and the stock of old materials abruptly lost its value, except as scrap. Punches rust, and the copper of matrices is recyclable. All traces of the early types that had been in the hands of the trade typefounders like Le Bé, Sanlecque and Lamesle in Paris vanished completely. No relics of them were saved anywhere, except in commercial centres that had become relative backwaters, like Antwerp, where the Plantin-Moretus printing office piously preserved the collection of its founder ... the term caractères de l'Université became attached by default to the set of apparently early matrices that had survived, its provenance forgotten, in the mixed stock of materials of the national printing-office. Garamond's reputation remained respected, even by members of the Didot family whose type designs came to dominate French printing. ### Revival era A revival of interest in 'old-style' serif typefaces took place in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. This saw a revival of the Imprimerie royale typefaces (the office was now called the Imprimerie nationale following the end of the French monarchy), which, unlike Garamond's own work, had survived in Paris. The attribution came to be considered certain by the Imprimerie's director Arthur Christian, who commissioned the cutting of additional sizes in a matching style. Early revivals were often based directly on the Imprimerie nationale types, one of the first by Peignot and then by American Type Founders (ATF). These revivals could be made using pantograph machine engraving systems, which gave a cleaner result than historic typefaces whose master punches had been hand-carved, and allowed rapid development of a family in a large range of sizes. In addition, the new hot metal typesetting technology of the period created increasing availability and demand for new fonts. Among hot metal typesetting companies, Monotype's branches in Britain and the United States brought out separate versions, and the American branch of Linotype licensed that of ATF. A number of historians began in the early twentieth century to question if the Imprimerie nationale Latin-alphabet type was really the work of Garamond, as the Grecs du Roi undoubtedly were. Doubt was raised by French historian Jean Paillard, but he died during the First World War soon after publishing his conclusions in 1914 and his work remained little-read. ATF's historian Henry Lewis Bullen secretly doubted that the 'Garamond' his company was reviving was really Garamond's work, noting that he had never seen it in a sixteenth-century book. He discussed his concerns with ATF junior librarian Beatrice Warde, who would later move to Europe and become a prominent writer on printing advising the British branch of Monotype. In a 1926 paper published on the British typography journal The Fleuron, Beatrice Warde revealed her discovery that the Imprimerie nationale type had been created by Jean Jannon, something she had discovered by examining printing credited to him in London and Paris and through reading the work of Paillard, and perhaps with advice from French bibliographer Marius Audin. (Warde's article was originally published pseudonymously as the work of 'Paul Beaujon', a persona Warde later said she imagined to have a "long grey beard, four grandchildren, a great interest in antique furniture and a rather vague address in Montparesse." Typifying her sense of humour, she reported her conclusions to Morison, a convert to Catholicism, with a telegram beginning "JANNON SPECIMEN SIMPLY GORGEOUS SHOWS ALL SIZES HIS TYPES WERE APPROPRIATED BY RAPACIOUS PAPIST GOVERNMENT ..." She also noted in later life that some of her readers were surprised to see an article supposedly by a Frenchman quoting The Hunting of the Snark.) By the time Warde's article was published some revivals had been released that were more authentic revivals of Garamond's work, based on period books and printing specimens. The German company Stempel brought out a crisp revival of the original Garamond typefaces in the 1920s, inspired by a rediscovered specimen from the Egenolff-Berner foundry in Frankfurt, as did Linotype in Britain. ## Timeline ### The Renaissance - 1470 – first book printed in France, by a Swiss/German team at the Sorbonne, Paris. Early books printed in France generally use type of a blackletter design or roman type with blackletter characteristics. - 1496 – Aldus Manutius publishes De Aetna, a short text of poetry that serves as his first printing in the Latin alphabet. Its roman type sets a standard that would later be imitated by French printers. ### Late Renaissance - 1510 – Garamond may have been born around this time. - 1530 – Robert Estienne begins to publish in a new and more elegant style of 'roman' type, influenced by De Aetna with its asymmetrical 'M'. - 1540 – Garamond first clearly enters the historical record, being advanced money to cut the Grecs du Roi type. - 1561 – Death of Garamond. - 1563 – Christophe Plantin buys matrices and other equipment in Paris at auction, some from Garamond's widow, for his partnership in Antwerp. Other equipment is bought by other Parisian and German printers; a specimen sheet identifying his types is issued by a Frankfurt foundry in 1592. - 1560–70s – The work of Garamond and his contemporaries becomes very influential in the Low Countries and western Germany. A decline sets into the production of new typefaces, probably mostly due to simple saturation of the market with typefaces of acceptable quality, and possibly also due to economic and religious factors causing the emigration of printers and typefounders to other countries. ### Early modern period - 1580 – birth of Jannon - 1621 – Jannon issues a specimen of his type. - 1640 – Jannon leaves Sedan for Paris. - 1641 – foundation of the Imprimerie Royale, which buys matrices from Jannon - 1644 – Jannon's printing office in Caen is raided by authorities concerned that he may have been publishing banned material. Jannon is not imprisoned, but returns to Sedan. - 1658 – death of Jannon ### Eighteenth century - 1756 – Parisian printer Jean-Pierre Fournier quotes from the 1561 inventory of Garamond's work and writes about his possession of Garamond's equipment. However, his extensive collections are dispersed after his death in 1783 and ultimately 'traditional' old-style type falls out of use in France around the end of the century. ### Early revival era - Late nineteenth century – revival in interest in 'old-style' typefaces such as the Caslon type (1730s, England) and that of Jenson (1470s, Venice). - 1912 – revival of the Imprimerie Royale (now Imprimerie nationale, following the revolution) type by the Peignot foundry. A revival by Ollière of "Garamond" type based on photographing sixteenth-century books follows - 1914 – Jean Paillard writes and Ollière publishes an essay showcasing Ollière's Garamond revival arguing that the Imprimerie nationale type was not created by Garamond but his work attracts little attention. He is killed serving in the First World War a few months later. - 1920 – a copy of the 1592 Berner specimen of typefaces is published in facsimile. - 1923 – ATF issue a specimen of their Garamond revival, in development for several years prior. ATF's historian Henry Bullen privately tells Beatrice Warde, then a junior librarian, that he suspects that Garamond had nothing to do with the type, since he had never seen it in a contemporary book, but has no better candidate for its creator. Warde subsequently moves to Europe, becoming a freelance writer on printing and adviser to Monotype in London. - 1925 – Based on the Egelhoff-Berner specimen, Stempel Garamond is released in Germany: later also released by Linotype, it is the first Garamond revival actually based on his work. - 1923 – Monotype Garamond is published based on the Imprimerie nationale type. - 1926 – Warde discovers and reveals that the Imprimerie nationale type was created by Jannon, and that all revivals based on it are not directly based on Garamond's work. ## Contemporary versions ### Based on Garamond's design #### Stempel Garamond A 1920s adaptation created by the Stempel Type Foundry and released for hot metal typesetting by Linotype, that has remained popular. Its lower case 'a' has a sharp and somewhat angular look with a crisp hook at the top left, in contrast to a teardrop design that is common in many other serif typefaces. Stempel Garamond has relatively short descenders, allowing it to be particularly tightly linespaced. An unusual feature is the digit 0, which has reversed contrast, with the thickest points of the number on the top and bottom of the digit to make it more distinguishable from an 'o'. The Klingspor Museum credits it to Stempel's head of typeface development Dr. Rudolf Wolf. Garamond No. 1 and Garamond No. 2 are both based on Stempel Garamond, with various differences. Another typeface known as Original Garamond is a clone of Stempel Garamond. ##### URW++ Garamond No. 8 Garamond No. 8 is a freeware version of Stempel Garamond contributed by URW++ to the Ghostscript project; it was included in GhostScript since Stempel Garamond is included as a system font in some implementations of the PostScript standard. It is distributed under the AFP license, which allows it to be copied freely but not sold. It is understood that its license does not place any restriction on whether the typeface is used in commercial settings (as long as the typeface is not distributed in situations where a fee is involved), nor whether printed contents created with it are sold. Garamond No. 8 hence does not have a fully open-source license, but its license does not restrict usage for personal purposes or commercial printing. Featuring a bold weight, small capitals, optional text figures and automatic ligature insertion, it is particularly popular in the TeX community and is also included on some Linux distributions. Originally released as a PostScript Type 1, it has been converted into the TrueType format, usable by most current software. Garamond No. 8 is often packaged as "urw-garamond" in the open source communities, but is actually different from another typeface that is simply known as URW Garamond. #### Granjon Granjon was a 1920s revival designed by George W. Jones for the British branch of Linotype, using a 1582 history textbook as a model and also influenced by Caslon. It was the favourite Garalde of many in the twentieth century, including Warde and Walter Tracy. Jones also created for Linotype Estienne, a delicate revival based on Robert Estienne's fonts of the 1530s discussed above, with very long ascenders and descenders. It was less popular and as of 2017 it has not been officially digitised by Linotype. Williamson suggested that in body text it failed to adapt the style of a large letter effectively down to body text size, giving a design with an extremely small x-height. #### Sabon Sabon is a Garamond revival designed by Jan Tschichold in 1964, jointly released by Linotype, Monotype and Stempel in 1967. It is named after Jacques Sabon, a Frankfurt-based printer, who introduced the typefaces of Garamond and his contemporaries to German printing. An unusual feature of many releases of Sabon is that the italic, based on Granjon's work, is wider than most normal italics, at the same width as the roman style. This suited Linotype's hot metal typesetting system. Later Sabon versions, such as Jean François Porchez's Sabon Next, have not always maintained this principle. Tschichold stated that Sabon was designed based on the Egenolff-Berner specimen, although there are different accounts on whether it was drawn using the Saint Augusin (around 13pt) or the Parangon (around 18.5pt) models. Porchez and Christopher Burke later researched into Sabon during the development of Sabon Next. They suggested that aspects of Sabon's design may have been copied from a type by Guillaume Le Bé, a large-size specimen of which he had Tschichold reproduced in a textbook. Sabon Next was based on the version of Sabon that was developed for the Stempel metal handsetting system, along with designs of other Garamond types. #### Berthold Garamond A 1972 revival for phototypesetting issued by H. Berthold and designed by Günter Gerhard Lange. URW Garamond (which is different from URW Garamond No. 8 mentioned above, despite the latter is often packaged as "urw-garamond" in open source software) is a clone of Berthold Garamond. #### Adobe Garamond Released in 1989, Adobe Garamond is designed by Robert Slimbach for Adobe Systems following a research visit to the Plantin-Moretus Museum, based on a Roman type by Garamond and an italic type by Robert Granjon. The font family has 3 weights (Regular, Semibold, and Bold), each with its respective italic, totalling 6 styles. Its quite even, mature design attracted attention on release for its authenticity, in contrast to the much more aggressive ITC Garamond popular at the time. It is one of the most popular versions of Garamond in books and fine printing. Slimbach decided not to base the design directly on Garamond types in the 9–15pt sizes normally used for book text, but on a larger type called parangonne or vraye parangonne, which he felt was Garamond's "most attractive work". It was reviewed by Hugh Williamson for the Printing Historical Society as "well-suited to photocomposition and to offset printing". It also received two detailed reviews in the same issue of Printing History, both a favourable one by Jery Kelly and a more critical one by book designer Mark Argetsinger. Argetsinger felt that while the parangonne type was "a very beautiful design", the choice to base a text type on it produced a type of "relative pallidness" when printed by lithography. He recommended that Adobe add more optical sizes. #### Garamond Premier During the production of Adobe Garamond, its designer Robert Slimbach started planning for a second interpretation of Garamond after visiting the Plantin-Moretus Museum in 1988. He concluded that a digital revival of Garamond's work would not be definitive unless it offered optical sizes, with different fonts designed for different sizes of text. Unable to create such a large range of styles practically with the technology and business requirements of the 1980s, he completed the project in 2005. Adobe states that Garamond Premier was developed based on multiple specimens at the Plantin-Moretus Museum. Garamond Premier has 4 optical sizes (Regular, Caption, Subhead, and Display) and at least 4 weights (Regular, Medium, Semibold, and Bold, with an additional Light weight for Display), each with its respective italic, totalling 34 styles in the OpenType font format. Garamond Premier and its predecessor Adobe Garamond have the same x-heights, but they have many subtle differences in their designs. At the same weights and x-heights (hence font sizes), Garamond Premier is slightly darker and has tighter spacing than Adobe Garamond. Some other notable differences include (but are not limited to) the designs of the lowercase "t", lowercase "r", and uppercase "Q". It features glyph coverage for Central European, Cyrillic and Greek characters including polytonics. Professor Gerry Leonidas, an expert in Greek-language printing, described it in 2005 as "bar none, the most accomplished typeface you can get for complex Greek texts". Adobe executive Thomas Phinney characterized Garamond Premier as a "more directly authentic revival" than their earlier Garamond, which he described as "a more restrained and modernized interpretation". #### EB Garamond The EB Garamond («Egenolff-Berner-Garamond»), released by Georg Duffner in 2011 under the Open Font License, is a free software implementation of Garamond. Duffner based the design on the 1592 Berner specimen, with italic and Greek characters based on Robert Granjon's work, as well as the addition of Cyrillic characters and OpenType features such as swash italic capitals and schoolbook alternates. As of 2014, it was intended to include multiple optical sizes, including fonts based on the 8 and 12 point sizes. It has been described as "one of the best open source fonts" by prominent typeface designer Erik Spiekermann. As Georg Duffner was unable to complete the bold weights for personal reasons, the project was continued by Octavio Pardo. ### Based on Jannon's design #### ATF Garamond/Garamond No. 3 American Type Founders created a revival of the Imprimerie Nationale fonts from around 1917, which was designed in-house by its design department led by Morris Fuller Benton under the influence of its historian and advisor Henry Lewis Bullen. It received a sumptuous showing, marketed especially towards advertisers, in ATF's 1923 specimen book. Also involved in the design's development was book and advertising designer T.M. Cleland, who created a set of matching borders and ornaments and according to Warde and Garnett also advised on the design and designed the swash characters. While ATF's handset foundry type release was initially popular, the design became particularly known to later users under the name of "Garamond No. 3”, as a hot metal adaptation that was licensed to Linotype's American branch and sold from around 1936. More practical to use than ATF's handset foundry type, the number distinguished it from two versions of Stempel Garamond which Linotype also sold. It was the preferred Garalde font of prominent designer Massimo Vignelli. Several digitisations have been made of both ATF's Garamond and the Linotype adaptation, most notably a 2015 digitisation by van Bronkhorst with optical sizes and the original swash characters. A loose adaptation with sans-serif companion by Christian Schwartz is the corporate font of Deutsche Bahn. ##### Gallery Images from American Type Founders' 1923 specimen book. #### Monotype Garamond Monotype's 1922–1923 design, based on Jannon's work in the Imprimerie Nationale, is bundled with Microsoft Office. Its italic, faithful to Jannon's, is extremely calligraphic, with a variable angle of slant and flourishes on several lower-case letters. Its commercial release is more extensive than the basic Microsoft release, including additional features such as swash capitals and small capitals, although like many pre-digital fonts these are only included in the regular weight. Popular in the metal type era, its digitisation has been criticised for having too light a colour on the page for body text if printed with many common printing systems, a problem with several Monotype digitisations of the period. Monotype's 1933 guide to identifying their typefaces noted the asymmetrical T, the sharp triangular serif at top left of m, n, p and r, and a q unlike the p, with a point at top right rather than a full serif. Monotype's artistic advisor Stanley Morison wrote in his memoir that the italic was based on Granjon's work, but as Carter's commentary on it notes, this seems generally to be a mistake. The swash capitals, however, at least, probably are based on the work of Granjon. A 1959 publicity design promoting it was created by a young Rodney Peppé. #### Garamont A revival by Frederic Goudy for the American branch of Monotype, the name chosen to differ from other revivals. An elegant sample created by Bruce Rogers was shown in a spring 1923 issue of Monotype's magazine. It, like Monotype Garamond, features a large range of swash characters, based on Imprimerie Nationale specimen sheets. Mosley has described it as "a lively type, underappreciated I think." LTC's digitisation deliberately maintained its eccentricity and irregularity true to period printing, avoiding perfect verticals. In 1923, Morison at the British branch of Monotype thought it somewhat florid in comparison to the version of his branch which he considered a personal project, noting in a 1923 letter to American printer Daniel Berkeley Updike that "I entertain very decided opinions about this latest of Mr. Goudy's achievements ... a comparison leaves me with a preference for our version." #### Simoncini Garamond A 1950s version following Jannon by the Simoncini company of Italy, owned by Francesco Simoncini, which sold matrices for Linotype machines. It is particularly popular in Italian printing. #### Jannon František Štorm's 2010 revival with optical sizes is one of the few modern revivals of Jannon's work. Štorm also created a matching sans-serif companion design, Jannon Sans. ### Related fonts As one of the most popular typefaces in history, a number of designs have been created that are influenced by Garamond's design but follow different design paths. #### ITC Garamond ITC Garamond was created by Tony Stan in 1975, and follows ITC's house style of unusually high x-height. It was initially intended to serve as a display version but has been used for text, in which its tight spacing and high x-height gives it a somewhat hectoring appearance. As a result, it has proven somewhat controversial among designers; it is generally considered poorly proportioned for body text. It remains the corporate font of the California State University system in printed text. As seen below, it was also modified into Apple Garamond which served as Apple's corporate font from 1984 until replacement starting in 2002 with Myriad. Publishers using it included O'Reilly Media and French publisher Actes Sud. #### Cormorant An open-source adaptation of Garamond intended for display sizes, designed by Christian Thalmann and co-released with Google Fonts. It features a delicate style suitable for printing at larger sizes, and considerable contrast in stroke weight in its larger sizes. Thalmann added several unusual alternate designs such as an upright italic and unicase styles, as well as exaggerated, highly slanting accents. #### Sans-serif designs Several sans-serif typefaces have been published that are based on the proportions of Garamond-style fonts, both as standalone designs or as part of a font superfamily with matching serif and sans-serif fonts. One example is Claude Sans, a humanist sans-serif based on the letterforms of Jannon's type, created by Alan Meeks and published by Letraset and later ITC. ## In popular culture - In Umberto Eco's novel Foucault's Pendulum, the protagonists work for a pair of related publishing companies, Garamond and Manuzio, both owned by a Mister Garamond. - Garamond is the name of a character in the Wii game Super Paper Mario. He appears in the world of Flopside (the mirror-image of Flipside, where the game begins). He is a prolific and highly successful author, unlike his Flipside counterpart, Helvetica. - For many years the masthead of British newspaper The Guardian used "The" in italic 'Garamond' and "Guardian" in bold Helvetica. - A condensed variant of ITC Garamond was adopted by Apple in 1984 upon the release of the Macintosh, known as Apple Garamond. This was a proprietary font not publicly available, less condensed than the publicly released ITC Garamond Condensed. - One of the initial goals of the literary journal Timothy McSweeney's Quarterly Concern was to use only a single font: Garamond 3. The editor of the journal, Dave Eggers, has stated that it is his favourite font, "because it looked good in so many permutations—italics, small caps, all caps, tracked out, justified or not." - In Robin Sloan's fantasy novel Mr. Penumbra's 24-Hour Bookstore several character names derive from historical figures associated with the Garamond typeface. - In Neil Gaiman's fantasy novel Stardust (Being A Romance Within The Realms of Faerie), one of the realms of Faerie is called Garamond. It is ruled by the Squire of Garamond, whose "only heir was transformed into a Gruntling Pig-wiggin." The realm occurs in the idiom "something is so loud it can be heard from Garamond to Stormhold" and includes an unnamed island in a lake that is the only known origin of a magical herb called Limbus Grass, which compels those who eat it to answer any question truthfully. ### Printer ink claim It has been claimed that Garamond uses much less ink than Times New Roman at a similar point size, so changing to Garamond could be a cost-saver for large organizations that print large numbers of documents, especially if using inkjet printers. Garamond, along with Times New Roman and Century Gothic, has been identified by the GSA as a "toner-efficient" font. This claim has been criticised as a misinterpretation of how typefaces are actually measured and what printing methods are desirable. Monotype Garamond, the version bundled with Microsoft Office, has a generally smaller design at the same nominal point size compared to Times New Roman and quite spindly strokes, giving it a more elegant but less readable appearance. In order to increase the legibility of Garamond, a common approach in typography is to increase text size such that the height of its lower-case characters (i.e., the absolute x-height of the font) matches that of Times New Roman, which counterbalances cost savings. Thomas Phinney, an expert on digital fonts, noted that the effect of simply swapping Garamond in would be compromised legibility: "any of those changes, swapping to a font that sets smaller at the same nominal point size, or actually reducing the point size, or picking a thinner typeface, will reduce the legibility of the text. That seems like a bad idea, as the percentage of Americans with poor eyesight is skyrocketing." Professional type designer Jackson Cavanaugh commented "If we're actually interested in reducing waste, just printing less – using less paper – is obviously more efficient." ## Gallery
6,132,874	Greece in the Eurovision Song Contest 2004	1,155,740,552	null	[ "2004 in Greek television", "Countries in the Eurovision Song Contest 2004", "Greece in the Eurovision Song Contest", "Sakis Rouvas" ]	Greece competed in the Eurovision Song Contest 2004, held at the Abdi İpekçi Arena in Istanbul, Turkey. The Greek broadcaster Hellenic Broadcasting Corporation (ERT) internally selected Sakis Rouvas with the song "Shake It", written by Nikos Terzis and Nektarios Tyrakis, to represent the nation. Prior to Rouvas' selection, the broadcaster had organised a public selection process entitled Eurostar, consisting of live semi-final heats, leading to a three-participant national final to select their entrant. While the event did take place and Apostolos Psichramis was selected as the Greek entrant, the song selection portion did not materialize after the Rouvas announcement and Psichramis instead joined Rouvas as a backing vocalist. To promote the entry, a music video for the song was released and Rouvas made appearances at events in Greece, Finland, Lithuania, Malta, France, Spain, and the United Kingdom. Greece was drawn to appear 10th in the semi-final, which was held on 12 May. There, the nation placed third with 238 points and qualified for the final, held three days later. At the final, Greece placed third with 252 points, tying its best contest placement to this point. ## Background The Hellenic Broadcasting Corporation (ERT) is the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) member for Greece and is responsible for selection of the nation's entry. Prior to the 2003 contest, Greece had participated in the Eurovision Song Contest twenty-three times since its first entry in 1974. To this point, its best result was third place which was achieved in with the song "Die for You". Greece's least successful result was in when it placed 20th with the song "Mia krifi evaisthisia" by Thalassa, receiving only twelve points in total, all from Cyprus. ## Before Eurovision ### Eurostar In early October 2003, ERT began airing trailers encouraging participation by new artists for a talent show entitled Eurostar, which was intended to be used to select the Greek entry for the Eurovision Song Contest 2004. At a press conference held on 22 October, ERT managing director Johnny Kalimeris explained that the decision to arrange the event centered around increased interest in Eurovision in Greece combined with the desire to discover new talented solo artists. Eurostar was produced by ERT in cooperation with Fremantle and sponsors Minos EMI and Vodafone. As announced, the show would travel throughout Greece, holding auditions for interested artists who would sing a song of their choosing in front of a jury. The jury would then select finalists who would partake in live semi-final style rounds, referred to as "heats", leading up to a three-participant final round. By the end of the auditions round, 36 contestants were selected by a three-member jury consisting of Dafni Bokota (singer and television presenter), Artemis Gounaki (vocal teacher) and Andreas Roditis (composer and television presenter) to participate in the show, which concluded with the final on 12 March 2004. Despite rumours that the final would be canceled in favor of instead internally selecting a high profile artist, specifically Sakis Rouvas, ERT ensured that the event would proceed as planned. Rouvas had previously stated in interviews on both MAD TV and Star Channel that he would love the chance to represent Greece, further fueling the rumours. In the final, the remaining three contestants competed and the winner, Apostolos Psichramis, was selected by a combination of televoting (40%) and jury voting (60%). Psichramis was then scheduled to perform three songs, all written by Nikos Terzis, during a song selection show to be held on 17 March, with the result determined solely by public televoting. Terzis had previously written two of Greece's prior Eurovision entries, including "Pia prosefhi" for Elina Konstantopoulou in 1995 and "Die for You" for Antique in 2001, the latter of which was Greece's highest placing to this point. ### Internal selection On 13 March 2004, Bokota confirmed the rumours that Sakis Rouvas would instead represent Greece in the Eurovision Song Contest 2004, adding that Kalimeris and Rouvas would be meeting to discuss a duet with Eurostar winner Psichramis. However, the duet never materialised as Bokota stated that with the late finish of Eurostar, Terzis was unable to compose a song that would be a good fit for Psichramis. Nevertheless, it was later revealed that Psichramis as well as the second and third place finalists of Eurostar would serve as backing vocalists for Rouvas. Rouvas' song for the contest was revealed during a special program on NET on 20 March 2004. Presented by Bokota, the show saw Rouvas joined by two dancers and the three Eurostar finalists performing "Shake It", written by Terzis and lyricist Nektarios Tyrakis. The event also featured a performance by Greece's 2003 entrant Mando singing her entry "Never Let You Go" as well as Psichramis performing "All Right", his upcoming solo release. ### Promotion To promote the entry, Rouvas took part in the annual Arion Music Awards in Greece in late March, where he was joined by Greek representatives from previous Eurovision Song Contests. He performed "Shake It" during the event, where he also received the award for Best Male Pop Singer. To further promote the entry, a music video for "Shake It" was filmed on the Greek island of Santorini in April 2004. It was first presented to the public during a farewell event hosted by sponsor Vodafone in Athens on 3 May before the singer left for the contest in Istanbul. The video was later posted online for viewing by 9 May. Rouvas also embarked on a promotional tour, visiting many countries that were to participate in the contest. On 14 April, he visited Helsinki, Finland where he was interviewed on the Finnish-Swedish television channel FST's talk show Bettina S.. This was followed by several radio interviews on stations including Radio Vega and Radio Sputnik. The visit concluded with a performance of "Shake It" at the Hercules nightclub. Additional countries on his tour included Lithuania, Malta, France, Spain, and the United Kingdom. ## At Eurovision The Eurovision Song Contest 2004 took place at Abdi İpekçi Arena in Istanbul, Turkey, and consisted of a semi-final on 12 May and the final on 15 May 2004. For the first time, a semi-final round was introduced to accommodate the influx of nations that wanted to compete in the contest. As Greece had not finished in the top 11 at the 2003 Contest the previous year, its song had to compete in the semi-final. According to the Eurovision rules, all participating countries, except the host nation and the "Big Four", consisting of , , and the , were required to qualify from the semi-final to compete for the final, although the top 10 countries from the semi-final progress to the final. Greece was set to compete in the semi-final of the Eurovision Song Contest 2004 at position 10, following and preceding . Bokota provided commentary for the broadcast within Greece, a task she had performed for ERT since the 1999 contest. ### Performances The stage presence for "Shake It" was choreographed by Fokas Evangelinos, and included Rouvas with two female dancers and the three Eurostar finalists as backing vocalists. "Shake It" was performed 10th following Monaco's Maryon with "Notre planète" and preceding Ukraine's Ruslana with "Wild Dances". At the close of voting, it had received 238 points, placing third in the 22-strong field and qualifying for the final. At the final, held three days later, the nation appeared 16th following Macedonia's Toše Proeski with "Life" and preceding Iceland's Jónsi with "Heaven". At the close of voting, it had received 252 points, placing third in a field of 24. This matched Greece's best placing to this point, which it has received in 2001. ### Voting Below is a breakdown of points awarded to Greece in the semi-final and final of the Eurovision Song Contest 2004, as well as by the nation on both occasions. Voting during the two shows involved each country awarding a set of points from 1–8, 10 and 12 based on results from their respective public televote. In the semi-final, Greece placed third with a total of 238 points, including the top 12 from seven nations: Albania, Cyprus, Israel, Malta, Romania, Turkey and United Kingdom. In the final, the nation's 252 points included five sets of 12 points from Albania, Cyprus, Malta, Romania and the United Kingdom. For both the semi-final and final, Greece awarded its 12 points to Cyprus. #### Points awarded to Greece #### Points awarded by Greece
29,018,342	Currency war	1,158,284,122	Competition between nations to gain competitive advantage by manipulating monetary supply	[ "History of international trade", "International macroeconomics", "Metallism", "Monetary hegemony", "Trade wars" ]	Currency war, also known as competitive devaluations, is a condition in international affairs where countries seek to gain a trade advantage over other countries by causing the exchange rate of their currency to fall in relation to other currencies. As the exchange rate of a country's currency falls, exports become more competitive in other countries, and imports into the country become more and more expensive. Both effects benefit the domestic industry, and thus employment, which receives a boost in demand from both domestic and foreign markets. However, the price increases for import goods (as well as in the cost of foreign travel) are unpopular as they harm citizens' purchasing power; and when all countries adopt a similar strategy, it can lead to a general decline in international trade, harming all countries. Historically, competitive devaluations have been rare as countries have generally preferred to maintain a high value for their currency. Countries have generally allowed market forces to work, or have participated in systems of managed exchanges rates. An exception occurred when a currency war broke out in the 1930s when countries abandoned the gold standard during the Great Depression and used currency devaluations in an attempt to stimulate their economies. Since this effectively pushes unemployment overseas, trading partners quickly retaliated with their own devaluations. The period is considered to have been an adverse situation for all concerned, as unpredictable changes in exchange rates reduced overall international trade. According to Guido Mantega, former Brazilian Minister for Finance, a global currency war broke out in 2010. This view was echoed by numerous other government officials and financial journalists from around the world. Other senior policy makers and journalists suggested the phrase "currency war" overstated the extent of hostility. With a few exceptions, such as Mantega, even commentators who agreed there had been a currency war in 2010 generally concluded that it had fizzled out by mid-2011. States engaging in possible competitive devaluation since 2010 have used a mix of policy tools, including direct government intervention, the imposition of capital controls, and, indirectly, quantitative easing. While many countries experienced undesirable upward pressure on their exchange rates and took part in the ongoing arguments, the most notable dimension of the 2010–11 episode was the rhetorical conflict between the United States and China over the valuation of the yuan. In January 2013, measures announced by Japan which were expected to devalue its currency sparked concern of a possible second 21st century currency war breaking out, this time with the principal source of tension being not China versus the US, but Japan versus the Eurozone. By late February, concerns of a new outbreak of currency war had been mostly allayed, after the G7 and G20 issued statements committing to avoid competitive devaluation. After the European Central Bank launched a fresh programme of quantitative easing in January 2015, there was once again an intensification of discussion about currency war. ## Background In the absence of intervention in the foreign exchange market by national government authorities, the exchange rate of a country's currency is determined, in general, by market forces of supply and demand at a point in time. Government authorities may intervene in the market from time to time to achieve specific policy objectives, such as maintaining its balance of trade or to give its exporters a competitive advantage in international trade. ### Reasons for intentional devaluation Devaluation, with its adverse consequences, has historically rarely been a preferred strategy. According to economist Richard N. Cooper, writing in 1971, a substantial devaluation is one of the most "traumatic" policies a government can adopt – it almost always resulted in cries of outrage and calls for the government to be replaced. Devaluation can lead to a reduction in citizens' standard of living as their purchasing power is reduced both when they buy imports and when they travel abroad. It also can add to inflationary pressure. Devaluation can make interest payments on international debt more expensive if those debts are denominated in a foreign currency, and it can discourage foreign investors. At least until the 21st century, a strong currency was commonly seen as a mark of prestige, while devaluation was associated with weak governments. However, when a country is suffering from high unemployment or wishes to pursue a policy of export-led growth, a lower exchange rate can be seen as advantageous. From the early 1980s the International Monetary Fund (IMF) has proposed devaluation as a potential solution for developing nations that are consistently spending more on imports than they earn on exports. A lower value for the home currency will raise the price for imports while making exports cheaper. This tends to encourage more domestic production, which raises employment and gross domestic product (GDP). Such a positive impact is not guaranteed however, due for example to effects from the Marshall–Lerner condition. Devaluation can be seen as an attractive solution to unemployment when other options, like increased public spending, are ruled out due to high public debt, or when a country has a balance of payments deficit which a devaluation would help correct. A reason for preferring devaluation common among emerging economies is that maintaining a relatively low exchange rate helps them build up foreign exchange reserves, which can protect against future financial crises. ### Mechanism for devaluation A state wishing to devalue, or at least check the appreciation of its currency, must work within the constraints of the prevailing International monetary system. During the 1930s, countries had relatively more direct control over their exchange rates through the actions of their central banks. Following the collapse of the Bretton Woods system in the early 1970s, markets substantially increased in influence, with market forces largely setting the exchange rates for an increasing number of countries. However, a state's central bank can still intervene in the markets to effect a devaluation – if it sells its own currency to buy other currencies then this will cause the value of its own currency to fall – a practice common with states that have a managed exchange rate regime. Less directly, quantitative easing (common in 2009 and 2010), tends to lead to a fall in the value of the currency even if the central bank does not directly buy any foreign assets. A third method is for authorities simply to talk down the value of their currency by hinting at future action to discourage speculators from betting on a future rise, though sometimes this has little discernible effect. Finally, a central bank can effect a devaluation by lowering its base rate of interest; however this sometimes has limited effect, and, since the end of World War II, most central banks have set their base rate according to the needs of their domestic economy. If a country's authorities wish to devalue or prevent appreciation against market forces exerting upwards pressure on the currency, and retain control of interest rates, as is usually the case, they will need capital controls in place—due to conditions that arise from the impossible trinity trilemma. ### Quantitative easing Quantitative easing (QE) is the practice in which a central bank tries to mitigate a potential or actual recession by increasing the money supply for its domestic economy. This can be done by printing money and injecting it into the domestic economy via open market operations. There may be a promise to destroy any newly created money once the economy improves in order to avoid inflation. Quantitative easing was widely used as a response to the financial crises that began in 2007, especially by the United States and the United Kingdom, and, to a lesser extent, the Eurozone. The Bank of Japan was the first central bank to claim to have used such a policy. Although the U.S. administration has denied that devaluing their currency was part of their objectives for implementing quantitative easing, the practice can act to devalue a country's currency in two indirect ways. Firstly, it can encourage speculators to bet that the currency will decline in value. Secondly, the large increase in the domestic money supply will lower domestic interest rates, often they will become much lower than interest rates in countries not practising quantitative easing. This creates the conditions for a carry trade, where market participants can engage in a form of arbitrage, borrowing in the currency of the country practising quantitative easing, and lending in a country with a relatively high rate of interest. Because they are effectively selling the currency being used for quantitative easing on the international markets, this can increase the supply of the currency and hence push down its value. By October 2010 expectations in the markets were high that the United States, UK, and Japan would soon embark on a second round of QE, with the prospects for the Eurozone to join them less certain. In early November 2010 the United States launched QE2, the second round of quantitative easing, which had been expected. The Federal Reserve made an additional \$600 billion available for the purchase of financial assets. This prompted widespread criticism from China, Germany, and Brazil that the United States was using QE2 to try to devalue its currency without consideration to the effect the resulting capital inflows might have on emerging economies. Some leading figures from the critical countries, such as Zhou Xiaochuan, governor of the People's Bank of China, have said the QE2 is understandable given the challenges facing the United States. Wang Jun, the Chinese Vice Finance Minister suggested QE2 could "help the revival of the global economy tremendously". President Barack Obama has defended QE2, saying it would help the U.S. economy to grow, which would be "good for the world as a whole". Japan also launched a second round of quantitative easing though to a lesser extent than the United States; Britain and the Eurozone did not launch an additional QE in 2010. ### International conditions required for currency war For a widespread currency war to occur a large proportion of significant economies must wish to devalue their currencies at once. This has so far only happened during a global economic downturn. An individual currency devaluation has to involve a corresponding rise in value for at least one other currency. The corresponding rise will generally be spread across all other currencies and so unless the devaluing country has a huge economy and is substantially devaluing, the offsetting rise for any individual currency will tend to be small or even negligible. In normal times other countries are often content to accept a small rise in the value of their own currency or at worst be indifferent to it. However, if much of the world is suffering from a recession, from low growth or are pursuing strategies which depend on a favourable balance of payments, then nations can begin competing with each other to devalue. In such conditions, once a small number of countries begin intervening this can trigger corresponding interventions from others as they strive to prevent further deterioration in their export competitiveness. ## Historical overview ### Up to 1930 For millennia, going back to at least the Classical period, governments have often devalued their currency by reducing its intrinsic value. Methods have included reducing the percentage of gold in coins, or substituting less precious metals for gold. However, until the 19th century, the proportion of the world's trade that occurred between nations was very low, so exchanges rates were not generally a matter of great concern. Rather than being seen as a means to help exporters, the debasement of currency was motivated by a desire to increase the domestic money supply and the ruling authorities' wealth through seigniorage, especially when they needed to finance wars or pay debts. A notable example is the substantial devaluations which occurred during the Napoleonic wars. When nations wished to compete economically they typically practiced mercantilism – this still involved attempts to boost exports while limiting imports, but rarely by means of devaluation. A favoured method was to protect home industries using current account controls such as tariffs. From the late 18th century, and especially in Britain, which, for much of the 19th century, was the world's largest economy, mercantilism became increasingly discredited by the rival theory of free trade, which held that the best way to encourage prosperity would be to allow trade to occur free of government imposed controls. The intrinsic value of money became formalised with a gold standard being widely adopted from about 1870–1914, so while the global economy was now becoming sufficiently integrated for competitive devaluation to occur there was little opportunity. Following the end of World War I, many countries other than the US experienced recession and few immediately returned to the gold standard, so several of the conditions for a currency war were in place. However, currency war did not occur as the U.K. was trying to raise the value of its currency back to its pre-war levels, effectively cooperating with the countries that wished to devalue against the market. By the mid-1920's many former members of the gold standard had rejoined, and while the standard did not work as successfully as it had pre war, there was no widespread competitive devaluation. ### Currency war in the Great Depression During the Great Depression of the 1930s, most countries abandoned the gold standard. With widespread high unemployment, devaluations became common, a policy that has frequently been described as "beggar thy neighbour", in which countries purportedly compete to export unemployment. However, because the effects of a devaluation would soon be offset by a corresponding devaluation and in many cases retaliatory tariffs or other barriers by trading partners, few nations would gain an enduring advantage. The exact starting date of the 1930s currency war is open to debate. The three principal parties were Britain, France, and the United States. For most of the 1920s the three generally had coinciding interests; both the US and France supported Britain's efforts to raise Sterling's value against market forces. Collaboration was aided by strong personal friendships among the nations' central bankers, especially between Britain's Montagu Norman and America's Benjamin Strong until the latter's early death in 1928. Soon after the Wall Street Crash of 1929, France lost faith in Sterling as a source of value and begun selling it heavily on the markets. From Britain's perspective both France and the US were no longer playing by the rules of the gold standard. Instead of allowing gold inflows to increase their money supplies (which would have expanded those economies but reduced their trade surpluses) France and the US began sterilising the inflows, building up hoards of gold. These factors contributed to the Sterling crises of 1931; in September of that year Britain substantially devalued and took the pound off the gold standard. For several years after this global trade was disrupted by competitive devaluation and by retaliatory tariffs. The currency war of the 1930s is generally considered to have ended with the Tripartite monetary agreement of 1936. ### Bretton Woods era From the end of World War II until about 1971, the Bretton Woods system of semi-fixed exchange rates meant that competitive devaluation was not an option, which was one of the design objectives of the systems' architects. Additionally, global growth was generally very high in this period, so there was little incentive for currency war even if it had been possible. ### 1973 to 2000 While some of the conditions to allow a currency war were in place at various points throughout this period, countries generally had contrasting priorities and at no point were there enough states simultaneously wanting to devalue for a currency war to break out. On several occasions countries were desperately attempting not to cause a devaluation but to prevent one. So states were striving not against other countries but against market forces that were exerting undesirable downwards pressure on their currencies. Examples include The United Kingdom during Black Wednesday and various tiger economies during the Asian crises of 1997. During the mid-1980s the United States did desire to devalue significantly, but were able to secure the cooperation of other major economies with the Plaza Accord. As free market influences approached their zenith during the 1990s, advanced economies and increasingly transition and even emerging economies moved to the view that it was best to leave the running of their economies to the markets and not to intervene even to correct a substantial current account deficit. ### 2000 to 2008 During the 1997 Asian crisis several Asian economies ran critically low on foreign reserves, leaving them forced to accept harsh terms from the IMF, and often to accept low prices for the forced sale of their assets. This shattered faith in free market thinking among emerging economies, and from about 2000 they generally began intervening to keep the value of their currencies low. This enhanced their ability to pursue export led growth strategies while at the same time building up foreign reserves so they would be better protected against further crises. No currency war resulted because on the whole advanced economies accepted this strategy—in the short term it had some benefits for their citizens, who could buy cheap imports and thus enjoy a higher material standard of living. The current account deficit of the US grew substantially, but until about 2007, the consensus view among free market economists and policy makers like Alan Greenspan, then Chairman of the Federal Reserve, and Paul O'Neill, US Treasury secretary, was that the deficit was not a major reason for worry. This is not say there was no popular concern; by 2005 for example a chorus of US executives along with trade union and mid-ranking government officials had been speaking out about what they perceived to be unfair trade practices by China. Economists such as Michael P. Dooley, Peter M. Garber, and David Folkerts-Landau described the new economic relationship between emerging economies and the US as Bretton Woods II. ### Competitive devaluation after 2009 By 2009 some of the conditions required for a currency war had returned, with a severe economic downturn seeing global trade in that year decline by about 12%. There was a widespread concern among advanced economies about the size of their deficits; they increasingly joined emerging economies in viewing export led growth as their ideal strategy. In March 2009, even before international co-operation reached its peak with the 2009 G-20 London Summit, economist Ted Truman became one of the first to warn of the dangers of competitive devaluation. He also coined the phrase competitive non-appreciation. On 27 September 2010, Brazilian Finance Minister Guido Mantega announced that the world is "in the midst of an international currency war." Numerous financial journalists agreed with Mantega's view, such as the Financial Times''' Alan Beattie and The Telegraph's Ambrose Evans-Pritchard. Journalists linked Mantega's announcement to recent interventions by various countries seeking to devalue their exchange rate including China, Japan, Colombia, Israel and Switzerland. Other analysts such as Goldman Sach's Jim O'Neill asserted that fears of a currency war were exaggerated. In September, senior policy makers such as Dominique Strauss-Kahn, then managing director of the IMF, and Tim Geithner, US Secretary of the Treasury, were reported as saying the chances of a genuine currency war breaking out were low; however by early October, Strauss-Kahn was warning that the risk of a currency war was real. He also suggested the IMF could help resolve the trade imbalances which could be the underlying casus belli for conflicts over currency valuations. Mr Strauss-Kahn said that using currencies as weapons "is not a solution [and] it can even lead to a very bad situation. There's no domestic solution to a global problem." Considerable attention had been focused on the US, due to its quantitative easing programmes, and on China. For much of 2009 and 2010, China was under pressure from the US to allow the yuan to appreciate. Between June and October 2010, China allowed a 2% appreciation, but there were concerns from Western observers that China only relaxed its intervention when under heavy pressure. The fixed peg was not abandoned until just before the June G20 meeting, after which the yuan appreciated by about 1%, only to devalue slowly again, until further US pressure in September when it again appreciated relatively steeply, just prior to the September US Congressional hearings to discuss measures to force a revaluation. Reuters suggested that both China and the United States were "winning" the currency war, holding down their currencies while pushing up the value of the Euro, the Yen, and the currencies of many emerging economies. Martin Wolf, an economics leader writer with the Financial Times, suggested there may be advantages in western economies taking a more confrontational approach against China, which in recent years had been by far the biggest practitioner of competitive devaluation. Although he advised that rather than using protectionist measures which may spark a trade war, a better tactic would be to use targeted capital controls against China to prevent them buying foreign assets in order to further devalue the yuan, as previously suggested by Daniel Gros, Director of the Centre for European Policy Studies. A contrasting view was published on 19 October, with a paper from Chinese economist Huang Yiping arguing that the US did not win the last "currency war" with Japan, and has even less of a chance against China; but should focus instead on broader "structural adjustments" at the November 2010 G-20 Seoul summit. Discussion over currency war and imbalances dominated the 2010 G-20 Seoul summit, but little progress was made in resolving the issue. In the first half of 2011 analysts and the financial press widely reported that the currency war had ended or at least entered a lull, though speaking in July 2011 Guido Mantega told the Financial Times that the conflict was still ongoing. As investor confidence in the global economic outlook fell in early August, Bloomberg suggested the currency war had entered a new phase. This followed renewed talk of a possible third round of quantitative easing by the US and interventions over the first three days of August by Switzerland and Japan to push down the value of their currencies. In September, as part of her opening speech for the 66th United Nations Debate, and also in an article for the Financial Times, Brazilian president Dilma Rousseff called for the currency war to be ended by increased use of floating currencies and greater cooperation and solidarity among major economies, with exchange rate policies set for the good of all rather than having individual nations striving to gain an advantage for themselves. In March 2012, Rousseff said Brazil was still experiencing undesirable upwards pressure on its currency, with its Finance Minister Guido Mantega saying his country will no longer "play the fool" and allow others to get away with competitive devaluation, announcing new measures aimed at limiting further appreciation for the Real. By June however, the Real had fallen substantially from its peak against the Dollar, and Mantega had been able to begin relaxing his anti-appreciation measures. ### Currency war in 2013 In mid January 2013, Japan's central bank signalled the intention to launch an open ended bond buying programme which would likely devalue the yen. This resulted in short lived but intense period of alarm about the risk of a possible fresh round of currency war. Numerous senior central bankers and finance ministers issued public warnings, the first being Alexei Ulyukayev, the first deputy chairman at Russia's central bank. He was later joined by many others including Park Jae-wan, the finance minister for South Korea, and by Jens Weidmann, president of the Bundesbank. Weidmann held the view that interventions during the 2009–11 period were not intense enough to count as competitive devaluation, but that a genuine currency war is now a real possibility. Japan's economy minister Akira Amari has said that the Bank of Japan's bond buying programme is intended to combat deflation, and not to weaken the yen. In early February, ECB president Mario Draghi agreed that expansionary monetary policy like QE have not been undertaken to deliberately cause devaluation. Draghi's statement did however hint that the ECB may take action if the Euro continues to appreciate, and this saw the value of the European currency fall considerably. A mid February statement from the G7 affirmed the advanced economies commitment to avoid currency war. It was initially read by the markets as an endorsement of Japan's actions, though later clarification suggested the US would like Japan to tone down some of its language, specifically by not linking policies like QE to an expressed desire to devalue the Yen. Most commentators have asserted that if a new round of competitive devaluation occurs it would be harmful for the global economy. However some analysts have stated that Japan's planned actions could be in the long term interests of the rest of the world; just as he did for the 2010–11 incident, economist Barry Eichengreen has suggested that even if many other countries start intervening against their currencies it could boost growth worldwide, as the effects would be similar to semi-coordinated global monetary expansion. Other analysts have expressed skepticism about the risk of a war breaking out, with Marc Chandler, chief currency strategist at Brown Brothers Harriman, advising that: "A real currency war remains a remote possibility." On 15 February, a statement issued from the G20 meeting of finance ministers and central bank governors in Moscow affirmed that Japan would not face high level international criticism for its planned monetary policy. In a remark endorsed by US Fed chairman Ben Bernanke, the IMF's managing director Christine Lagarde said that recent concerns about a possible currency war had been "overblown". Paul Krugman has echoed Eichengreen's view that central bank's unconventional monetary policy is best understood as a shared concern to boost growth, not as currency war. Goldman Sachs strategist Kamakshya Trivedi has suggested that rising stock markets imply that market players generally agree that central bank's actions are best understood as monetary easing and not as competitive devaluation. Other analysts have however continued to assert that ongoing tensions over currency valuation remain, with currency war and even trade war still a significant risk. Central bank officials ranging from New Zealand and Switzerland to China have made fresh statements about possible further interventions against their currencies. Analyses has been published by currency strategists at RBS, scoring countries on their potential to undertake intervention, measuring their relative intention to weaken their currency and their capacity to do so. Ratings are based on the openness of a country's economy, export growth and real effective exchange rate (REER) valuation, as well as the scope a country has to weaken its currency without damaging its economy. As of January 2013, Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia, Chile and Sweden are the most willing and able to intervene, while the UK and New Zealand are among the least. From March 2013, concerns over further currency war diminished, though in November several journalists and analysts warned of a possible fresh outbreak. The likely principal source of tension appeared to shift once again, this time not being the U.S. versus China or the Eurozone versus Japan, but the U.S. versus Germany. In late October U.S. treasury officials had criticized Germany for running an excessively large current account surplus, thus acting as a drag on the global economy. ### Currency war in 2015 A €60bn per month quantitative easing programme was launched in January 2015 by the European Central Bank. While lowering the value of the Euro was not part of the programme's official objectives, there was much speculation that the new Q.E. represents an escalation of currency war, especially from analysts working in the FX markets. David Woo for example, a managing director at Bank of America Merrill Lynch, stated there was a "growing consensus" among market participants that states are indeed engaging in a stealthy currency war. A Financial Times editorial however claimed that rhetoric about currency war was once again misguided. In August 2015, China devalued the yuan by just under 3%, partially due to a weakening export figures of −8.3% in the previous month. The drop in export is caused by the loss of competitiveness against other major export countries including Japan and Germany, where the currency had been drastically devalued during the previous quantitative easing operations. It sparked a new round of devaluation among Asian currencies, including the Vietnam dong and the Kazakhstan tenge. ## Comparison between 1932 and 21st-century currency wars Both the 1930s and the outbreak of competitive devaluation that began in 2009 occurred during global economic downturns. An important difference with the 2010s is that international traders are much better able to hedge their exposures to exchange rate volatility because of more sophisticated financial markets. A second difference is that the later period's devaluations were invariably caused by nations expanding their money supplies by creating money to buy foreign currency, in the case of direct interventions, or by creating money to inject into their domestic economies, with quantitative easing. If all nations try to devalue at once, the net effect on exchange rates could cancel out, leaving them largely unchanged, but the expansionary effect of the interventions would remain. There has been no collaborative intent, but some economists such as Berkeley's Barry Eichengreen and Goldman Sachs's Dominic Wilson have suggested the net effect will be similar to semi-coordinated monetary expansion, which will help the global economy. James Zhan of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), however, warned in October 2010 that the fluctuations in exchange rates were already causing corporations to scale back their international investments. Comparing the situation in 2010 with the currency war of the 1930s, Ambrose Evans-Pritchard of The Daily Telegraph suggested a new currency war may be beneficial for countries suffering from trade deficits. He noted that in the 1930s, it was countries with a big surplus that were severely impacted once competitive devaluation began. He also suggested that overly-confrontational tactics may backfire on the US by damaging the status of the dollar as a global reserve currency. Ben Bernanke, chairman of the US Federal Reserve, also drew a comparison with competitive devaluation in the interwar period, referring to the sterilisation of gold inflows by France and America, which helped them sustain large trade surpluses but also caused deflationary pressure on their trading partners, contributing to the Great Depression. Bernanke stated that the example of the 1930s implies that the "pursuit of export-led growth cannot ultimately succeed if the implications of that strategy for global growth and stability are not taken into account." In February 2013, Gavyn Davies for The Financial Times emphasized that a key difference between the 1930s and the 21st-century outbreaks is that the former had some retaliations between countries being carried out not by devaluations but by increases in import tariffs, which tend to be much more disruptive to international trade. ## Other uses The term "currency war" is sometimes used with meanings that are not related to competitive devaluation. In the 2007 book, Currency Wars by Chinese economist Song Hongbing, the term is sometimes used in a somewhat contrary sense, to refer to an alleged practice where unscrupulous bankers lend to emerging market countries and then speculate against the emerging state's currency by trying to force it down in value against the wishes of that states' government. In another book of the same name, John Cooley uses the term to refer to the efforts of a state's monetary authorities to protect its currency from forgers, whether they are simple criminals or agents of foreign governments trying to devalue a currency and cause excess inflation against the home government's wishes. Jim Rickards, in his 2011 book "Currency Wars: The Making of the Next Global Crisis," argues that the consequences of the Fed's attempts to prop up economic growth could be devastating for American national security. Although Rickard's book is largely concerned with currency war as competitive devaluation, it uses a broader definition of the term, classing policies that cause inflation as currency war. Such policies can be seen as metaphorical warfare against those who have monetary assets in favor of those who do not, but unless the effects of rising inflation on international trade are offset by a devaluation, inflationary policies tend to make a country's exports less'' competitive against foreign countries. In their review of the book, Publishers Weekly said: "Rickards's first book is an outgrowth of his contributions and a later two-day war game simulation held at the Applied Physics Laboratory's Warfare Analysis Laboratory. He argues that a financial attack against the U.S. could destroy confidence in the dollar. In Rickards's view, the Fed's policy of quantitative easing by lessening confidence in the dollar, may lead to chaos in global financial markets." Kirkus Reviews said: "In Rickards' view, the world is currently going through a third currency war ("CWIII") based on competitive devaluations. CWII occurred in the 1960s and '70s and culminated in Nixon's decision to take the dollar off the gold standard. CWI followed World War I and included the 1923 German hyperinflation and Roosevelt's devaluation of the dollar against gold in 1933. Rickards demonstrates that competitive devaluations are a race to the bottom, and thus instruments of a sort of warfare. CWIII, he writes, is characterized by the Federal Reserve's policy of quantitative easing, which he ascribes to what he calls "extensive theoretical work" on depreciation, negative interest rates and stimulation achieved at the expense of other countries. He offers a view of how the continued depreciation and devaluation of the dollar will ultimately lead to a collapse, which he asserts will come about through a widespread abandonment of a worthless inflated instrument. Rickards also provides possible scenarios for the future, including collaboration among a variety of currencies, emergence of a world central bank and a forceful U.S. return to a gold standard through an emergency powers–based legal regime. The author emphasizes that these questions are matters of policy and choice, which can be different." Historically, the term has been used to refer to the competition between Japan and China for their currencies to be used as the preferred tender in parts of Asia in the years leading up to Second Sino-Japanese War. ## See also - Trade war - World-systems theory ## Notes and citations
41,864,791	The Last of Us: American Dreams	1,146,331,656	Comic book series	[ "2013 comics debuts", "2013 comics endings", "Comics based on video games", "Dark Horse Comics titles", "Horror comics", "Post-apocalyptic comics", "The Last of Us", "Works based on Sony Interactive Entertainment video games", "Zombies in comics" ]	The Last of Us: American Dreams is a four-issue comic book series based on the video game The Last of Us. It was written by The Last of Us creative director Neil Druckmann and cartoonist Faith Erin Hicks, with illustrations by Hicks and coloring by Rachelle Rosenberg. The series was published by Dark Horse Comics between April and July 2013, and a collected edition was published in October 2013. Like the game, the comic is set in a post-apocalyptic United States, overrun by zombie-like creatures infected by a mutated strain of the Cordyceps fungus. The comics serve as a prequel to the game, chronicling the journey of the young Ellie and her meeting with another young survivor, Riley Abel. Druckmann chose Ellie as the focus of the comic due to the uniqueness of her birth and upbringing in the post-apocalyptic world. Hicks joined the project after discovering Ellie's role in the game, considering her an unusual character to include in a survival horror game. The comic's art style is different than the game art—a choice from Hicks to give the comic a unique feel and identity. The series received generally positive reviews. Critics particularly praised Druckmann's writing and character development, as well as the simplicity of Hicks' illustrations. The series was also a commercial success, with some issues requiring reprinting due to high demand. ## Publication history Dark Horse Comics approached creative director Neil Druckmann, who was working on The Last of Us, to produce a tie-in comic book series for the game. Druckmann was initially wary of the idea, but eventually agreed when he realized Dark Horse "didn't want to do something tangential" with the opportunity of expanding their characters and universe beyond the game. Work on the comic began during the game's development, which allowed the stories of the two projects to integrate, and influence each other. Druckmann requested webcomic artist Faith Erin Hicks as a collaborator on the project, after reading her comic Friends with Boys (2012) and appreciating "how personal it felt". He also felt that Hicks could capture the "gritty" feel of the game. Hicks then sent some concept art to Dark Horse as a pitch for the job; they accepted, and she became officially involved with the project. Hicks was drawn to the project after reading about the character of Ellie in the game's script; she considered Ellie an unusual character to include in a survival horror game, calling her a "tough teenage girl who wasn't sexualized, and who seemed very much the equal of her male counterpart". Hicks was given access to various gameplay sequences and the game's script during development, to allow her to better understand the story. She was also given videos of the actors performing on set, which was helpful when illustrating the characters. "I get a look at these characters and I see them interacting as human beings, not just as concept art," said Hicks. Ellie's backstory was originally intended to fit as a gameplay sequence within The Last of Us, but this was ultimately scrapped. When Dark Horse approached Naughty Dog with the idea of a comic book, Druckmann had the opportunity to tell the story. Druckmann found that Ellie was the ideal main character for the comic due to her birth and upbringing; while characters like Joel mostly lived in the world before the outbreak, Ellie is unaware of life prior to the outbreak. This created an interesting idea for Druckmann, who became intrigued with discovering the effects of everyday actions in a post-apocalyptic world. Hicks enjoyed writing American Dreams, particularly due to the humor featured in the comic. Druckmann allowed Hicks to design the character of Riley, including her physical appearance, characteristics, and most of her dialogue. "It felt like a good way to split it, where [Hicks] would own Riley and I would own Ellie," said Druckmann. When creating the comic's art style, Hicks avoided replicating the game art, instead opting to "draw it in [her] own style and to the best of [her] ability". She felt that the art style is slightly "cartoony", which is partially due to Ellie's young age. "If [the comic] was hyper-realistic and super-rendered, I think it would undermine the story we're trying to tell", said Hicks. When designing the character Angel Knives for the comic's second issue, Hicks was inspired by the style of the characters from the Mortal Kombat series. The first issue of the comic was published on April 3, 2013, and a reprint became available on May 29; the second issue was also published on May 29, followed by the third issue on June 26, and the fourth issue on July 31. All four issues were republished in a collected edition as a single package on October 30, 2013. The comics were republished with new cover art by David Blatt in the Firefly Edition of The Last of Us Part I on September 2, 2022. ## Plot At the Boston quarantine zone, Ellie becomes caught in a fight with a group of boys who attempt to steal her belongings. Riley Abel steps in to break up the fight, beating one of the boys and making the others flee. Ellie becomes angered by this, claiming that she can take care of herself. Riley then advises Ellie to flee, but the latter is caught and assigned to cleaning duty. While she is completing the chore, she realizes that Riley stole her Walkman, and later demands that she return it, which Riley reluctantly does. At night, Ellie catches Riley attempting to sneak out of the school, and demands to accompany her. Riley reluctantly agrees, and the two make their way to the mall, where they meet Riley's friend Winston. As Winston teaches Ellie how to ride a horse, Riley steals his radio, and discovers that an attack by the Fireflies—a rebel group opposing the quarantine zone authorities—has occurred nearby. Ellie and Riley make their way to the attack, and find that the Fireflies are wounded and outnumbered. To help, Ellie and Riley throw smoke grenades at the military, allowing the Fireflies to retreat safely. They are spotted by the military, and escape into a nearby alley, where they narrowly avoid being bitten by an Infected—zombie-like creatures infected by a mutated strain of the Cordyceps fungus. The girls are soon captured by Fireflies, who restrain them; Marlene, the leader of the Fireflies, recognizes Ellie, and demands that she remain safe. When Riley claims she would like to join their group, Marlene refuses, and the two argue, resulting in Marlene threatening to shoot Riley. Ellie intervenes, demanding at gunpoint that Marlene explain how she knows information about Ellie. When Ellie finally lowers the gun, Marlene informs her that she knew Ellie's mother, and had promised her that she would take care of Ellie. Ellie hands the gun to Marlene, who says that she would tell her more about her mother in the future, before telling the girls to leave. When Ellie and Riley reenter the quarantine zone, Riley says that there is no escape. Ellie suggests running away, but Riley informs her that this will just result in death. The two then walk back into the school. ## Reception The Last of Us: American Dreams received generally positive reviews. Praise was particularly directed at the story and artwork of the comic, which were said to complement each other. The comic was also a commercial success; the first issue sold out, and the resulting high demand led to Dark Horse reissuing the installment. The comic's story received positive reactions. Lonnie Nadler of Bloody Disgusting felt unsure about the story in the first two issues due to their dedication to character development, but praised the final issue for delivering "authentic drama and raw intensity" which was missing from previous issues. IGN's Jesse Schedeen felt that the story served to enhance the world and characters, and later praised the comic's availability to readers who had not played the game. Conversely, Nathan Butler of Invisible Gamer felt that the introduction and development of the first two issues could have been shortened, and that the final issue attempted to include too much content, ultimately calling the comic a "sub-par attempt at a video game tie-in series". Reviewers also praised the comic's artwork. Alasdair Stuart of SciFiNow wrote that the art was "so expressive and relaxed", naming Hicks "one of the best artists of her generation". Jen Bosier of Forbes felt that the art style worked well within the context of the story, and IGN's Schedeen felt that the comic heavily relied on the artwork, and that its art style gave it a unique "style and identity". Nadler of Bloody Disgusting called it "quite simplistic, but very clean", and "visually expressive when it matters", comparing it to Scott Pilgrim. Nadler also praised the choice of color, stating that it contained "the right palette of dark and murkey hues", as well as the cover artwork, calling it "consistently stunning". Jennifer Cheng of Comic Book Resources also wrote that the colors fit with the setting of the comic. Peter Jubinsky of Geeks of Doom particularly praised Hicks' depiction of the Infected as "in pain and desperate", calling this "especially harrowing".
417,671	Operation Black Buck	1,173,842,846	Series of British long-range bombing raids during the Falklands War	[ "Aerial bombing operations and battles", "Aerial operations and battles of the Falklands War", "Ascension Island", "Avro Vulcan", "History of the Royal Air Force", "Military operations of the Falklands War" ]	Operations Black Buck 1 to Black Buck 7 were seven extremely long-range ground attack missions conducted during the 1982 Falklands War by Royal Air Force (RAF) Vulcan bombers of the RAF Waddington Wing, comprising aircraft from Nos. 44, 50 and 101 Squadrons, against Argentine positions in the Falkland Islands. Five of the missions completed attacks. The objective of the missions was to attack Port Stanley Airport and its associated defences. The raids, at almost 6,600 nautical miles (7,600 mi; 12,200 km) and 16 hours for the round trip, were the longest-ranged bombing raids in history at that time. The Operation Black Buck raids were staged from RAF Ascension Island, close to the Equator. The Vulcan was designed for medium-range missions in Europe and lacked the range to fly to the Falklands without refuelling several times. The RAF's tanker planes were mostly converted Handley Page Victor bombers with similar range, so they too had to be refuelled in the air. A total of eleven tankers were required for two Vulcans (one primary and one reserve), a daunting logistical effort as all aircraft had to use the same runway. The Vulcans carried either twenty-one 1,000-pound (450 kg) bombs internally or two or four Shrike anti-radar missiles externally. Of the five Black Buck raids flown to completion, three were against Stanley Airfield's runway and operational facilities, while the other two were anti-radar missions using Shrike missiles against a Westinghouse AN/TPS-43 long-range 3D radar in the Port Stanley area. Shrikes hit two of the less valuable and rapidly replaced secondary fire control radars, causing some casualties among the Argentine crews. One Vulcan was almost lost when a breakdown of its refueling system forced it to land in Brazil. The raids did minimal damage to the runway and damage to radars was quickly repaired. A single crater was produced on the runway, rendering it impossible for the airfield to be used by fast jets. Argentine ground crew repaired the runway within twenty-four hours, to a level of quality suitable for C-130 Hercules transports. The British were aware that the runway remained in use. It has been suggested that the Black Buck raids were undertaken by the RAF because the British armed forces had been cut in the late 1970s and the RAF may have desired a greater role in the conflict to prevent further cuts. ## Background During the early 1980s, British defence planning was focused on the Cold War confrontation with the Soviet Union. Nonetheless, at six-monthly intervals the Defence chiefs reviewed other possible areas of conflict around the globe, including the Falkland Islands. The consensus was that they were indefensible. The nearest airfield usable for operations was on Ascension Island, a British territory in the South Atlantic not far from the equator with a single 10,000-foot (3,000 m) runway at Wideawake airfield that lay 3,700 nautical miles (4,300 mi; 6,900 km) from the UK and 6,300 nautical miles (7,200 mi; 11,700 km) from the Falklands. Without aircraft able to cover the long distance, the Royal Air Force (RAF) could not envisage carrying out operations in the South Atlantic. Activities in the South Atlantic would be carried out by the Royal Navy and the British Army, with the RAF's role restricted to the Hawker Siddeley Nimrod maritime patrol aircraft and logistic support of the base at Ascension by Vickers VC10 and Lockheed C-130 Hercules transport aircraft. Argentine codes had been broken, and in March 1982 intelligence warnings about possible Argentine activity in the South Atlantic accumulated. The RAF began examining whether it was possible to carry out long-range operations with Avro Vulcan bombers using aerial refuelling. In 1961, a Vulcan had flown non-stop from the UK to RAAF Base Richmond near Sydney in Australia, a much greater distance, but that was with pre-positioned aerial tankers along the route, which would not be possible flying from Ascension. All consideration at this point was about how it could be done; no targets were identified in the Falklands or Argentina. After Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands on 2 April 1982, the British Government resolved to recapture them. ### Victor tankers Long-range operations were entirely dependent upon the RAF's fleet of Handley Page Victor K2 tankers. Originally 34 Victors had been built as bombers; 24 had subsequently been converted to tankers. One had been lost in an accident at Marham on 28 September 1976, leaving the RAF with a force of just 23. These were the only tankers in British service in April 1982; nine VC10s were in the process of being converted to tankers, but conversion of the first was not completed until 22 June. Of these, twelve were assigned to No. 55 Squadron and eleven to No. 57 Squadron. The tanker crews were well-trained for their wartime role, as their peacetime role involved refuelling fighters scrambled in response to incursions into British airspace, usually by bombers from the Soviet Union at a rate of five per week. However, long-range flights over the unfamiliar South Atlantic Ocean necessitated upgrades to the Victors' navigational equipment, notably the installation of the Delco Carousel inertial navigation system and the Omega navigation system. The tankers were themselves capable of being refuelled in flight, which meant that it was possible to set up relays of aircraft. The first five Victors deployed to Ascension on 18 April. They were followed by four more the following day. Another six more deployed by the end of the month, bringing the Victor tanker force to fourteen, since one had returned to Marham on 26 April. Each was refuelled by another Victor before leaving UK airspace. While the Victors deployed to Ascension, their normal refuelling mission in the air was undertaken by United States Air Force Boeing KC-135 Stratotankers. The station commander at Marham, Group Captain J. S. B. Price, became the senior RAF officer at Ascension. Wing Commander D. W. Maurice-Jones assumed command of the Victor detachment at Ascension until 22 April, when he was relieved by Wing Commander A. W. Bowman, the commander of No. 57 Squadron. Initial long-range operations by the RAF involved the use of Victor aircraft for reconnaissance of the region surrounding South Georgia Island in support of Operation Paraquet, the recapture of South Georgia. At 0400Z on 20 April, a Victor piloted by Squadron Leader J. G. Elliott, took off from Ascension, accompanied by four supporting tankers to supply fuel for the outbound journey. Another flight of four tankers supplied fuel for the return journey. Two more reconnaissance missions to the South Georgia area were carried out on 22–23 April and on 24–25 April. These missions demonstrated the capability of the Victor tanker fleet, flying out of Ascension, to support operations in the South Atlantic. ### Vulcan bombers The Vulcan was the last of the British V bombers in operational use for bombing, but by March 1982 there were only three squadrons remaining, Nos. 44, 50 and 101 Squadrons RAF. All three were scheduled to be disbanded by 1 July 1982. They were based at RAF Waddington in the UK and assigned to North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) for nuclear operations; neither aerial refuelling nor conventional bombing had been practised for several years. A request from Rear Admiral Sandy Woodward, the commander of the British aircraft carrier group heading south, on 11 April for recommendations for targets to attack in the Falkland Islands led to reconsideration of the possibility of attacks using Vulcans. Options for attacks on airfields and ports on the Argentine mainland were discarded as politically provocative and unlikely to produce worthwhile results. The Chief of the Air Staff, Air Chief Marshal Sir Michael Beetham argued that the Vulcan threat would cause the Argentinians to retain fighters in the north of Argentina. Thinking coalesced on a raid on Port Stanley Airport. Whether it would be worth the effort was debated. Beetham initially proposed an attack in which a single Vulcan would drop seven 1,000-pound (450 kg) bombs. This light bomb load would keep the refuelling requirements down to a minimum. However, tests conducted at the Garvie Island bombing range indicated that seven bombs would not be enough, but a full load of twenty-one would have a 90 per cent probability of putting one crater in the runway, with a 75 per cent chance of two craters. An attack was also expected to do damage to the dispersal areas and aircraft parked nearby. To minimise the danger from anti-aircraft guns and surface-to-air missiles, the raids would be carried out at night, preferably in bad weather. Damage to the surrounding area, possibly including parked aircraft, would make the raid worthwhile. While the Chiefs of Staff Committee were convinced that the operation was feasible and stood a good chance of success, the civilians at the Ministry of Defence were not so certain, and there were political implications to using the base at Ascension for offensive purposes, as Wideawake was technically a USAF base. The United States Department of State was consulted, and affirmed that it had no objection. Authority to proceed with the operation, codenamed Black Buck, was given by the War Cabinet on 27 April. The most controversial part of the plan was the involvement of Sea Harriers from Woodward's task force. One of the reasons for the use of the Vulcans was to conserve Sea Harrier resources for the air defence of the naval forces, but the plan required them to conduct a daylight photo reconnaissance sortie over the airfield for the purpose of damage assessment. If they had to be risked, then there were political advantages in using them to carry out the attack on the airport instead. Rear Admiral Derek Reffell proposed that Harriers be used to suppress the airfield radars prior to the Vulcan attack in addition to conducting the post-attack photo reconnaissance. On 29 April, Woodward was informed that the Black Buck raid would occur at 0700Z, and that he was to arrange for the photo reconnaissance to take place as soon as possible afterwards. Woodward signalled that if the photo reconnaissance was essential to Black Buck, then his recommendation was that Black Buck should be cancelled. The following day he was informed that Black Buck had been approved, and that the photo reconnaissance was required not just for damage assessment, but to refute Argentine allegations of indiscriminate bombing. Vulcans were selected based upon their engines; only those with the more powerful Bristol Olympus 301 engines were considered suitable. Six aircraft were selected: two each from Nos. 44, 50 and 101 Squadrons. In the event, one was not used. Five crews were chosen, one each from Nos. 44 and 101 Squadrons, two from No. 50 Squadron, and one from the recently disbanded No. 9 Squadron. An air-to-air instructor from the operational conversion unit responsible for training personnel to operate Victor tankers was added to each Vulcan crew during operational missions; this officer was responsible for supervising the refuelling contacts. One of the most challenging tasks was reinstating the aerial refuelling system, which had been blocked off. This involved replacing the 4-inch (100 mm) non-return valves. Twenty replacements were located on a shelf at RAF Stafford. The five aircraft were fitted with the Carousel inertial navigation system. AN/ALQ-101 electronic countermeasure pods from Blackburn Buccaneer aircraft at RAF Honington were fitted to the wings of the Vulcans on improvised pylons, using the attachment points originally intended for the Skybolt missile. The undersides of the aircraft were painted Dark Sea Grey. While the Vulcans were capable of carrying conventional munitions, this had not been done for a long time. To carry twenty-one bombs, the Vulcan required three sets of bomb carriers, each of which held seven bombs. Their release was controlled by a panel at the navigator's station, known as a 90-way, that monitored the electrical connections to each bomb, and was said to provide 90 different sequences for releasing the 1,000-pound bombs. None of the Vulcans at Waddington were fitted with the bomb racks or the 90-way. A search of the supply dumps at Waddington and RAF Scampton located the 90-way panels, which were fitted and tested, but finding enough septuple bomb carriers proved harder, and at least nine were required. Someone remembered that some had been sold to a scrapyard in Newark-on-Trent, and they were retrieved from there. Locating sufficient bombs also proved difficult, and only 167 could be located. Some had cast bomb cases rather than machined ones, which was problematic as they tended to shatter, and this mission required bombs that would penetrate into the ground. Training of crews in conventional bombing and in-flight refuelling was carried out from 14 to 17 April, when Military Air Traffic Controllers from the Military Area Service (M.A.S.) suite at London Terminal Control Centre in West Drayton, Middlesex, took the Vulcan bombers and Victor tankers 250 miles off Land's End in the Atlantic Ocean, where the vast majority of their aerial refuelling training was completed, always at night. The first two Vulcans, commanded by Squadron Leader John Reeve, and Flight Lieutenant Martin Withers, left Waddington at 0900Z on 29 April and arrived at Wideawake at 1800Z after a non-stop nine-hour flight during which they were twice refuelled by Victor tankers. Two other Vulcans subsequently deployed to Wideawake: one commanded by Squadron Leader Alastair Montgomery arrived on 14 May, and another, commanded by Squadron Leader Neil McDougall, on 27 May. It carried out trials with the Martel anti-radar missile before being equipped with the Shrike missile. ## Missions ### Summary ### Black Buck One The first surprise attack on the islands, on 30 April – 1 May, was the first significant offensive action made by British forces against the Argentine forces in the Falklands. It was aimed at the main runway at Port Stanley Airport. Carrying twenty-one 1,000-pound bombs, the bomber was to fly across the line of the runway at about 35 degrees. The bomb release system was timed to drop bombs sequentially from 10,000 feet (3,000 m), so that at least one bomb would hit the runway. The Vulcan's fuel tanks could contain 9,200 imperial gallons (42,000 L) weighing 74,000 pounds (34,000 kg) in fourteen pressurised bag tanks, five in each wing and four in the fuselage. Based upon estimates of the Vulcan's fuel need, eleven Victor tankers, including two reserve aircraft, were assigned to refuel the single Vulcan before and after its attack on the Falklands. Two Vulcans were assigned to the mission: one, commanded by Reeve, was the lead with another, captained by Withers, as the reserve, which would return to Ascension once Reeve had successfully completed its first aerial refuelling. The plan called for 15 Victor sorties and 18 aerial refuellings. At the time it was the longest bombing mission ever attempted. (B-2 Spirit bombers would surpass that record during the 2001 Operation Enduring Freedom.) The eleven Victors and two Vulcans began taking off from Wideawake at 2350Z at one-minute intervals, with Reeve's Vulcan the eleventh to lift off and Withers's the last. With a full load of bombs and fuel, a sixth crew member and a fresh coat of paint, the Vulcans were well over their rated maximum takeoff weight of 204,000 pounds (93,000 kg). On the warm Ascension Island, the Bristol Olympus 301 engines had to be run at 103 per cent of their rated power in order to get the Vulcans airborne. Shortly after takeoff, Reeve suffered a failure. A rubber seal on the captain's "direct vision" side window had perished. Unable to close or seal the window and pressurise the crew cabin, he was forced to return to Ascension. The Vulcan lacked the ability to dump fuel, and it was far too heavy even for an emergency landing, so the crew were forced to remain airborne in a cold and noisy cabin until sufficient fuel had been consumed. Withers took over as the primary Vulcan. Twenty minutes later, one of the Victor tankers returned to Ascension with a faulty refuelling hose system, and its place was taken by the reserve. In the 34 minutes between the first and second refuellings, Withers's Vulcan burned through 9,200 pounds (4,200 kg) of fuel, at the rate of 16,250 pounds (7,370 kg) per hour. All this time its weight never dropped below the theoretical maximum. At the end of the second refuelling, two more tankers peeled off and returned, reducing the force to just three: Withers's Vulcan, a Victor flown by Squadron Leader Bob Tuxford, and a Victor flown by Flight Lieutenant Steve Biglands. As a result of the fuel demand and problems in flight with refuelling, two of the Victors had to fly further south than planned, reducing their own reserves. At the final refuelling bracket, the sortie flew into a violent thunderstorm, during which Biglands's refuelling probe failed. Tuxford was supposed to return after this refuelling with 64,000 pounds (29,000 kg) of fuel while Biglands flew on with the Vulcan, but Tuxford now took Biglands's place. A quick calculation showed that he did not have enough fuel to make it back to Ascension. It fell to Tuxford to conduct the final refuelling. Withers received 7,000 pounds (3,200 kg) less than he expected. This meant that he would be making the return fuelling rendezvous with 7,000 pounds (3,200 kg) in his tanks instead of 14,000 pounds (6,400 kg). Now alone, Withers flew on to the Falklands. He made his approach at low level, dropping to 300 feet (91 m) before climbing to 1,000 feet (300 m) for the bomb run 40 miles (64 km) from the target. To verify their position and minimise the risk of civilian casualties, the H2S radar was successfully locked on to the 2,313-foot (705 m) peak of Mount Usborne, 33 miles (53 km) west of Stanley, before the automated bombing control system was engaged. Withers made the final approach at 10,000 feet (3,000 m), with an airspeed of 330 knots (610 km/h). The Vulcan's electronic countermeasures defeated the radar systems controlling the defending Skyguard anti-aircraft cannons. The twenty-one bombs were dropped. Once all were away, Withers put the Vulcan into a 60-degree bank to the left, subjecting the crew to 2 g (20 m/s<sup>2</sup>), twice the force of gravity. Sea Harriers of 801 Naval Air Squadron (NAS) were held at readiness on board the aircraft carrier HMS Invincible to protect the Vulcan, but were not required as no Argentine aircraft were in the area at the time of the attack. The Sea Harriers went into action shortly after the Vulcan raid. Two of the aircraft flew over Port Stanley airport to photograph the damage caused by the Vulcan. Withers climbed away from the airfield and headed nearly due north to a planned rendezvous with a Victor some way off the Brazilian coast near Rio de Janeiro. As they passed the British Task Force, the crew signalled the code word "superfuse" indicating a successful attack at 0746Z. Their journey continued within range of the South American coast to the rendezvous with a Victor flown by Squadron Leader Barry Neal. After contacting control with an update, the tanker was sent further south. To help bring the two planes together, one of Ascension's two Nimrod maritime reconnaissance aircraft flew from Wideawake to the area. Without an in-flight refuelling system, it was unable to remain for long. Tuxford, who had continued to maintain radio silence lest he compromise the mission, picked up the "superfuse" signal and radioed Ascension for help. A Victor flown by his squadron commander, Wing Commander Colin Seymour, flew out to meet him, and refuelled Tuxford's Victor, enabling him to return to Ascension 14 hours and 5 minutes after he had left. Meanwhile, with the help of the Nimrod, Withers made the rendezvous with Neal, and all three aircraft returned to Ascension safely. Withers touched down at 1452Z. Northwood Headquarters received the "superfuse" message by 0830Z and the Ministry of Defence shortly thereafter. Beetham was informed by his deputy, Air Vice Marshal Kenneth Hayr, an hour later. The news of the bombing raid was reported on the BBC World Service before either the Vulcan or the last tanker arrived back at Ascension. The bombardment is believed to have killed three Argentinian personnel at the airport and injured several more. One bomb exploded on the runway and caused a large crater which proved difficult to repair, and the other bombs caused minor damage to aircraft and equipment. The shortened runway remained in action. Later that morning, twelve 800 Naval Air Squadron Sea Harriers were dispatched from the aircraft carrier HMS Hermes to attack targets on East Falkland. Nine of the aircraft struck Port Stanley Airport and dropped 27 bombs on the airfield and its defences. The bombs set a stockpile of fuel on fire and may have slightly damaged the runway. One of the Sea Harriers was struck by a 20 mm anti-aircraft round, which damaged its fin and tailplane; the aircraft managed to return to Hermes and was quickly repaired. The Argentine air defence headquarters incorrectly assessed British losses as three aircraft destroyed. The other three 800 NAS Sea Harriers attacked the airfield at Goose Green with cluster bombs shortly after the raid on Port Stanley, resulting in the destruction of a Pucará and severe damage to another two. The pilot of the destroyed aircraft and five maintenance personnel were killed. Neither of the two damaged aircraft flew again. The three British aircraft did not encounter any opposition and safely returned to Hermes. After the aircraft were refuelled, 800 NAS began launching Sea Harriers on combat air patrol sorties. 801 NAS maintained a four-aircraft combat air patrol to the east of Port Stanley throughout the operation. On 8 October 1982, Withers was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross for his part in the action, and his crew—Flying Officer P. I. Taylor (co-pilot), Flight Lieutenant R. D. Wright (radar plotter), Flight Lieutenant G. C. Graham (navigator), Flight Lieutenant H. Prior (air electronics officer) and Flight Lieutenant R. J. Russell (air-to-air refuelling instructor)—were Mentioned in Dispatches. Tuxford was awarded the Air Force Cross, while his crew—Squadron Leader E. F. Wallis, Flight Lieutenant M. E. Beer, Flight Lieutenant J. N. Keable and Flight Lieutenant G. D. Rees—received the Queen's Commendation for Valuable Service in the Air. ### Black Buck Two During the night of 3–4 May, a Vulcan flown by Squadron Leader John Reeve and his crew of No. 50 Squadron, flew a near-identical mission to the first. This time, a Vulcan piloted by Squadron Leader Alastair Montgomery, acted as flying reserve aircraft, but was not required. As with Black Buck One, the approach to Port Stanley over the final 200 nautical miles (370 km; 230 mi) was made at low altitude, with a final "pop-up" to a higher altitude, 16,000 feet (4,900 m), for the bomb run in order to avoid the now fully alert Argentine anti-aircraft defences, particularly the Argentine Roland surface-to-air missiles. As a result, all the bombs missed the runway. This was not known for several days, as the weather conditions precluded photo-reconnaissance missions. According to Argentine sources, which also confirm impacts near the western end of the airstrip, two Argentine soldiers were wounded. The cratering at the western end of the runway prevented Argentine engineers from extending it sufficiently to make it capable of accommodating high-performance combat aircraft. The runway remained in use by Hercules and light transport aircraft, allowing the Argentinians to fly in critical supplies and evacuate wounded personnel. ### Black Buck Three Following Black Buck Two there was a break in Vulcan operations as the tankers were needed to support submarine-hunting missions conducted by Nimrods; each Nimrod sortie to protect the naval task force required 18 supporting tanker sorties. The two Vulcans returned to Waddington on 7 May, but one redeployed to Wideawake on 15 May to be the primary aircraft for Black Buck Three. Another, that had arrived from Waddington on 14 May, was the reserve aircraft for the mission. Scheduled for 16 May, Black Buck Three was cancelled before takeoff due to strong headwinds. The two Vulcans returned to Waddington on 20 and 23 May. ### Black Buck Four The Black Buck Four mission was due to be the first using American-supplied Shrike anti-radar missiles, which were mounted on the Vulcans using improvised underwing pylons. These weapons had not previously been used by Vulcans, but arrangements for fitting them to the aircraft and the trials program were completed in just ten days. Vulcans equipped with Shrike allowed the Vulcan to carry an additional 16,000 pounds (7,300 kg) of fuel in bomb bay tanks, which extended their range and reduced the number of refuelling contacts needed on the flight to the Falklands to four. The primary aircraft was a Vulcan flown by Squadron Leader Neil McDougall and his crew from No. 50 Squadron that arrived at Wideawake on 27 May, with Montgomery flying the reserve aircraft. The mission was scheduled for 28 May, but was also cancelled, but only some five hours after they had taken off. One of the supporting Victor refuelling aircraft suffered a failure of the hose-and-drogue refuelling unit, and the flight had to be recalled. ### Black Buck Five Black Buck Five was flown by McDougall with Montgomery reprising his role flying the reserve aircraft. This was the first completed anti-radar mission equipped with Shrike missiles. The main target was a Westinghouse AN/TPS-43 long-range 3D radar that the Argentine Air Force deployed during April to guard the airspace surrounding the Falkland Islands. The warning that this radar gave enabled the Argentine defenders to conceal mobile Exocet missile launchers. It also gave Argentine Hercules transports the warning they needed to continue using the runway at Stanley. An attack on the radar with Shrike missiles could only succeed if the targeted radar continued transmitting until struck, so a Sea Harrier raid was staged to coincide with the attack to force the defenders to turn on the radar. At 0845Z two Shrikes were launched at it. The first missile impacted 10 to 15 yards (9.1 to 13.7 m) from the target, causing minor blast damage, but not disabling the radar. The second missile missed by a greater margin. ### Black Buck Six Black Buck Six was flown on 3 June by McDougall, whose Vulcan was now armed with four Shrike missiles instead of just two. Montgomery again flew the reserve aircraft. McDougall loitered over the target for 40 minutes in a vain effort to engage the AN/TPS-43, which was not switched on. Finally, the crew fired two of the four Shrikes, which destroyed a Skyguard fire-control radar of the Argentine Army's 601 Anti-Aircraft Battalion, killing four radar operators. On its return flight McDougall was forced to divert to Rio de Janeiro after his in-flight refuelling probe broke. One of the missiles he was carrying was ditched into the ocean to reduce drag, but the other remained stuck on the pylon and could not be released. Sensitive documents containing classified information were jettisoned into the sea via the crew hatch, and a "Mayday" signal was sent. Two Northrop F-5E Tiger II fighters from 2° Esquadrão do 1° Grupo de Aviação de Caça of the Brazilian Air Force were scrambled from Santa Cruz Airfield and intercepted the Vulcan. The aircraft was cleared to land at Galeão Airport by Brazilian authorities with less than 2,000 pounds (910 kg) of fuel remaining, not enough to complete a circuit of the airport. This was a potentially embarrassing international incident, as it revealed that the United States had supplied the British with Shrike missiles. British diplomats negotiated for the release of the Vulcan and its crew, who were interned at Galeão Air Force Base. A deal was struck on 4 June under which they would be released in exchange for spare parts for Westland Lynx helicopters. Brazil came under pressure from Argentina, and the United States agreed to intervene to preserve the secrets of the Shrike missile. The crew and aircraft were permitted to fly to Ascension on 10 June. A new refuelling probe was fitted there, and the aircraft flew back to Waddington on 13 June. The remaining Shrike missile remained in Brazil. ### Black Buck Seven The final Black Buck mission was flown on 12 June by Withers, and with the same crew as for Black Buck One except that Flight Lieutenant Peter Standing acted as Air-to-Air Refuelling Instructor instead of Russell. Montgomery once again flew the reserve aircraft. This time the mission targeted Argentine troop positions and facilities around the airport instead of the runway. The bombs were fused in error to explode on impact; the end of the war was in sight and the intention had been for them to air burst to destroy aircraft and stores without damaging the runway, which would soon be needed for RAF Phantom FGR.2 operations after the Falkland Islands were recaptured. In the event, all 21 bombs missed the intended targets. The Argentine ground forces surrendered two days later. ## Effect The military effectiveness of Black Buck remains controversial, with some independent sources describing it as "minimal". The runway continued to be used by Argentine C-130 Hercules transport aircraft until the end of the war, although after 1 May only 70 tonnes (69 long tons) of supplies and 340 troops were delivered, and early flights were suspended after 4 May, as Black Buck missions occurred in the early morning hours. Woodward has stated that he "fully expected" Hercules flights to continue after Black Buck One, but that he "did not care too much about that" at the time since, unlike fast jets, they were not a direct threat to the naval forces. The British were aware that Hercules flights continued to use the airfield and attempted to interdict these flights, leading to the downing of a Hercules on 1 June. In view of the airport's lack of impact on the ultimate outcome of the campaign, the British targeting of Stanley airport was questionable. Planning for the raid called for a bomb run in a 35° cut across the runway, with the aim of placing at least one bomb on the runway and possibly two. The main purpose in doing so was to prevent the use of the runway by fast jets; in this respect the raid was successful as the repair to the runway was botched and subsequently there were several near accidents. The fact that the British forces could penetrate Argentine air defences and attack the airfield had the desired effect in relation to preventing fast jet usage of the Port Stanley airstrip as the Argentine military command could not risk stationing its fast jets and the infrastructure necessary to operate them on the islands if they could be destroyed on the ground, irrespective of the operational status of the runway. Admiral Woodward considered it vital to keep fast jets from using Port Stanley, to reduce the threat of air attack on the British aircraft carriers. Starting on 1 May, the Royal Navy attacked Port Stanley with aerial bombing by Sea Harriers and naval bombardment, in order to hamper Argentinian repair efforts. The Argentinians left the runway covered with piles of earth during the day, leading to claims this caused British intelligence to surmise that repairs were still in progress and misleading the British as to the condition of the airfield and the success of their raids. Commander Nigel (Sharkey) Ward, the commander of 801 NAS, who flew a Sea Harrier to protect Black Buck One from fighter attack, was highly critical of Operation Black Buck. He calculated that for the quantity of fuel expended by Black Buck One to drop 21 bombs, which he estimated at 1,800,000 litres (400,000 imp gal) at a cost of £3.3 million, the Sea Harriers of the carrier force could have carried out 785 sorties that would have delivered 2,357 bombs. Ward dismissed as RAF propaganda the claim that the raids led to fear of attacks on the mainland: > Propaganda was, of course, used later to try to justify these missions: "The Mirage IIIs were redrawn from Southern Argentina to Buenos Aires to add to the defences there following the Vulcan raids on the islands." Apparently, the logic behind this statement was that if the Vulcan could hit Port Stanley, the [sic] Buenos Aires was well within range as well and was vulnerable to similar attacks. I never went along with that baloney. A lone Vulcan or two running into attack Buenos Aires without fighter support would have been shot to hell in quick time. There is no evidence that Mirage IIIs were withdrawn from southern Argentina to protect Buenos Aires. On 29 April, Argentine radars at Puerto San Julián detected a suspected British air strike and aircraft from there were moved to Comodoro Rivadavia, but they still remained in southern Argentina. The British intended to convince the Argentinian forces that an amphibious assault on Port Stanley was imminent, and Admiral Woodward saw Black Buck One as an important contribution to this effort, alongside naval attacks and deception efforts. The author of Vulcan 607, Rowland White, claimed that Vice Admiral Juan Lombardo was led to believe that Black Buck One was the prelude to a full-scale landing by the British. As a consequence, he ordered Rear Admiral Gualter Allara [es], the commander of the Argentine Sea Fleet, to immediately attack the British fleet. This attack took the form of a pincer movement, with the light cruiser ARA General Belgrano to the south and aircraft carrier ARA Veinticinco de Mayo to the north. On 2 May, General Belgrano was sunk by the submarine HMS Conqueror. Thereafter the Argentine Navy withdrew to territorial waters and played no further part in the conflict. A United States Marine Corps study concluded that: > The most critical judgement of the use of the Vulcan centres on the argument that their use was "...largely to prove [the air force] had some role to play and not to help the battle in the least." This illustrates the practice of armed services to actively seek a "piece of the action" when a conflict arises, even if their capabilities or mission are not compatible with the circumstances of the conflict. Using Black Buck as an example shows the effects of this practice can be trivial and the results not worth the effort involved.
772,743	Zombiepowder.	1,161,995,695	Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Tite Kubo	[ "1999 manga", "Adventure anime and manga", "Fantasy anime and manga", "Shueisha manga", "Shōnen manga", "Viz Media manga", "Western (genre) anime and manga" ]	Zombiepowder. (stylized in all caps) is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Tite Kubo. The manga ran in Shueisha's shōnen manga magazine Weekly Shōnen Jump for 27 chapters from August 1999 to February 2000 before being canceled. The series was collected into four tankōbon volumes, released the following year. Zombiepowder. is distributed in North America by Viz Media, who licensed it in 2005. Although critical reception in the United States was largely mediocre, the series achieved moderate commercial success in the western market due to the prominence Kubo had achieved by that point for his second manga series, Bleach. Zombiepowder. follows a teenaged boy named Elwood Shepherd, who joins with mysterious criminals Gamma Akutabi and C.T. Smith in their search for the Rings of the Dead. These rings are a group of legendary artifacts with the power to resurrect the dead and grant immortality to anyone who collects 12 of them. The series has a Weird West setting which mixes a background of sparsely populated frontier settlements and gunslinger aesthetics with modern conveniences, occult magic, supernatural martial arts, and mad science. The trio travel from town to town in this world, fighting other criminals for possession of the Rings of the Dead. The protagonists obtain three of the rings in the course of the story, but due to the series' cancellation, the eventual success or failure of their quest is unknown. The series was a commercial failure in Japan but has been successful in the United States. Critical consensus is that Zombiepowder. was a technically proficient manga, but one which lacked the originality necessary to bear intrinsic appeal to most readers, which accounted for its cancellation. Additionally, the series was heavily focused on battles even by the standards of action manga, though whether this was a positive or negative trait is a matter of contention. Due to these factors, combined with its abrupt and unsatisfactory ending, critics hold that Zombiepowder. is significant primarily as a chapter in the career of its author, and would otherwise be a footnote which found an audience only among fans of violent action. ## Setting and plot Zombiepowder. is set within a western-themed environment with inconsistent levels of technology, similar to that found in Yasuhiro Nightow's manga series, Trigun. The most prominent characters in the series are Powder Hunters, individuals who seek the titular Zombie Powder, a life-giving substance that can imbue an individual with limitless life force, capable of granting immortality and even raising people back from the dead. Zombie Powder can only be obtained from the Rings of the Dead, dangerous magical artifacts that (individually) devour the vitality of anyone they touch, rendering them comatose; this stolen life energy is converted into the Zombie Powder, which can only be extracted if twelve Rings of the Dead are brought together. The story begins with young pickpocket, John Elwood Shepherd befriending Powder Hunter, Gamma Akutabi after a botched attempt to rob him. It also turns out Gamma is a highly wanted fugitive in possession of a Ring of the Dead; because of this, when another member of the local gang Elwood is working sees them together, he assumes that Elwood's harboring him in hopes of turning him over for his bounty. The gang attacks Elwood's home, and Gamma comes to the rescue, but not before Elwood's sister, Sheryl, is killed by the gang's leader. Following the gang's assault, Elwood decides to accompany Gamma in his powder hunting in hopes of resurrecting Sheryl. After leaving Elwood's hometown, the pair meet up with Gamma's long-time partner C.T. Smith, another Powder Hunter who's also wanted. Smith has infiltrated the ranks of Ash Daughter, a gang which has found a Ring of the Dead. The three challenge the gang's leader, Ranewater Calder, and Gamma slays him using his mastery of the fictional sword art karin zanjutsu, which involves the user channeling their own bloodlust and manifesting it as pyrokinesis. Elwood, Gamma, and Smith thereby gain a second Ring of the Dead, concluding the first arc and volume of the series. The remaining three volumes concern themselves with the battle for a third ring, which has been embedded for years in the body of a comatose young man named Emilio Lufas Getto. Gamma and company learn of Emilio's existence from his sister, Wolfina, a tabloid photojournalist and vigilante who does not believe in the Rings of the Dead. The group of hunters offer to restore Emilio to consciousness in exchange for the ring he contains. Before they can do so, however, Emilio is kidnapped by Balmunk the Mystic, a powder hunting magician who leads a circus-themed gang. Wolfina teams up with Elwood, Gamma, and Smith to retrieve Emilio, and they succeed in doing so after a number of battles with Balmunk's henchmen. The conflict culminates in a fight between Gamma and a giant golem summoned by Balmunk, which Gamma defeats with the help of a berserk state. Balmunk is beaten but not killed, and departs whilst swearing revenge upon Gamma. After rescuing Emilio, Gamma arranges to have the Ring of the Dead removed from his body by an old friend, mad scientist Nazna Gemini. The characters are brought to Gemini's lab by Angelle Cooney, a young girl with the power of teleportation. Once there, Gemini agrees to operate to remove the ring from Emilio in exchange for a year of experimentation rights on Wolfina. Due to the series' early cancellation, Zombiepowder. is ended without a solid conclusion, the final chapter showing Gamma and Smith leaving Elwood and Wolfina behind as they depart the Gemini Laboratory, whose staff have just begun the operation to save Emilio. It is left ambiguous whether Elwood chooses to follow Gamma and Smith, stay with Wolfina and Emilio, or become a Powder Hunter in his own right. ## Characters Gamma Akutabi (芥火完真, Akutabi Ganma) Gamma, the team leader and main combatant of Zombiepowder.'s cast, is a 22-year-old Powder Hunter who desires the Zombie Powder for the sake of immortality, and has already obtained one Ring of the Dead at his introduction in the first chapter. Due to numerous past violent crimes, Gamma is one of the most wanted criminals in the Zombiepowder. universe, with a bounty to match. This high bounty was one of the first things determined about Gamma's character by Tite Kubo, dating back to a pre-draft rendition of the character who was a sort of samurai. Gamma's personal history is never expounded upon, but it is implied by Balmunk that he was once a mercenary, but reformed and became a Powder Hunter following the death of a woman. Throughout the series, Gamma bests his enemies using his superhuman strength and speed, a steel-plated right arm which allows him to catch bullets, and a large sword-chainsaw hybrid. Other abilities Gamma possesses are mastery of Karinzanjutsu (火輪斬術, lit., Fire-Ring Cutting Technique), a fictional ancient martial art which grants him a controllable aura called the "Black Flame of Death", and a berserk state Balmunk refers to as Gamma's "Black Monster." Neither of these elements is fully explained in the course of the story. Theron Martin of Anime News Network considered Gamma to be a typical "bad-ass anti-hero", good at creating mayhem and not much else. IGN's review of the series treated him similarly, saying his role of "protagonist who wields a lot of power and hides a dark secret" was done effectively but not remarkably, and was typical of shōnen action manga. Alexander Gorban of the Russian Animemaniacs Magazine believed Gamma's typical nature as a hero with an inner demon was offset by the character's "devilish charm" and portrayed willingness to fight to the last breath to not lose his humanity. He noted that aspects of this personality were reused for Bleach protagonist Ichigo Kurosaki, who would also bear some similarities in physical appearance to Gamma. Gorban felt, however, that these same strengths of character made Gamma dominate the cast, and that Zombiepowder. would have been improved if he had simply been its sole protagonist. John Elwood Shepherd (ジョン・エルウッド・シェパード, Jon Eruuddo Shepādo) John Elwood Shepherd, referred to more commonly as Elwood, is a 13-year-old pickpocket who joins up with Powder Hunters Gamma and Smith in an effort to resurrect his dead sister, Sheryl Ann Shepherd. He is introduced in the first chapter of the series. His character is named after Gotee Records co-founder Joey Elwood, a real-life music producer whose name Kubo thought fit Elwood's character design perfectly. Elwood has great talent with throwing knives, and is ingenious in combat, but struggles to overcome his sidekick status and measure up to the abilities of his superhuman partners. Smith and Gamma both see Elwood as a younger version of Gamma, which fills Gamma with hope and pride, but also the fear that Elwood may turn to evil. This concern prompts Smith and Gamma to leave Elwood behind at Gemini Laboratory at the end of the manga, so that he can find his own way without Gamma's influence. Whether Elwood decides to follow the pair or not is left ambiguous. Reviewers of Zombiepowder. found Elwood's character mostly unremarkable, due to his similarity to numerous other tag-along/protégé characters found in manga. Ed Chavez, reviewer for MangaCast said he grew "fond of" his character while he read, but that he suffered from sidelining by Gamma, while Den of Geek thought his motivation for seeking the zombie powder was an effective twist on the usual plot device of avenging a dead relative. C.T. Smith (C. T. スミス, C.T. Sumisu) C.T. Smith is introduced in the third chapter of Zombiepowder. as an apparent antagonist, a hired assassin working for the Ash Daughters gang. This is, however, a disguise, and Smith is actually Gamma's long-standing partner in powder hunting. Smith is the least developed member of the main cast, with little known backstory or motivation. It is implied that he is, like Gamma, an infamously dangerous criminal. Smith possesses superhuman speed and dexterity, is above-average at everything, and fights using handguns and an armored briefcase. He has no other known abilities but, according to the duo, Gamma and Smith are incapable of killing each other. Tite Kubo's character commentary for Smith in volume one states that Smith's appearance was based on a London banker, and notes that the "C.T." in his name was eventually meant to hold some plot significance. Compared to his two fellow protagonists, C.T. Smith was considered more novel. Anime News Network said he was one of the few fresh points of the series and had the most distinctive design among the cast, though even his role as an unassuming businessman who's actually an expert gunman felt as if it must be borrowed from somewhere else. MangaCast's reviewer, on the other hand, found his role mostly extraneous, due to being overshadowed by Gamma. Animemaniacs Magazine Online noted that Smith's physical appearance was later echoed by Bleach's central antagonist, Sōsuke Aizen. Wolfgangina Lalla Getto (ウルフギャンギーナ・ララ・ジェット, Urufugyangīna Rara Jetto) Wolfgangina Getto, nicknamed "Wolfina", is an 18-year-old paparazzi journalist who specializes in criminal exposé stories. Her brother, Emilio, hosts a Ring of the Dead that he found 8 years before the main storyline. The ring has been consuming his life force ever since, forcing him into a coma. Wolfina is introduced in the ninth chapter of the series, and joins up with the main characters soon after in order to protect her brother from Balmunk. She fights using a modified camera tripod she calls the "Tripod of Justice". At the end of the series, she agrees to work for Zanza Gemini for a year as an experimental subject in order to pay for the operation of removing the Ring of the Dead from Emilio. She is thus left behind by Gamma and Smith as they continue their powder hunting. Critical reaction to Wolfina's character was limited, with reviewers contrasting her large-breasted character design to the otherwise lanky, shōjo manga-esque designs used in the series and praising her novel weapon choice. Baragne Binoix Bartoreuil Balmunk (バラーニュ・ビノワ・バルトルイユ・バルムンク, Barānyu Binowa Barutoruiyu Barumunku) Baragne Balmunk (referred to by his stage name "Balmunk the Mystic") is a sorcerer, Powder Hunter and serial killer nearly as wanted as Gamma. He gathers the Rings of the Dead solely for the excitement seeking them brings. Balmunk is introduced in the eleventh chapter, and takes the role of primary antagonist for the remainder of the series. Balmunk leads a gang made up of criminals with superpowers and weaponry based on traditional circus acts and freak show performances, such as fire swallowing and the box-impalement trick. His magical powers include summoning abilities which allow him to create weapons, call upon henchmen and beasts (such as tigers) and, with his most powerful technique, is able to create a giant golem named "Amantine" from one of his own limbs. Balmunk kidnaps Emilio in order to obtain the Ring of the Dead within him, but is defeated by Gamma. Balmunk holds a personal grudge towards Gamma, and knows about Gamma's berserker personality. The history behind their rivalry is never revealed, though he states that Gamma nearly killed him once before. Balmunk and his circus troupe were received positively by reviewers, which considered the group a colorful and creepy opposing threat. A scene at the end of volume 2 in which Balmunk offers to return Emilio's body to Wolfina unharmed, but without his head, was cited by MangaCast as an eerie and effective character builder. Anime News Network said his character was a unique application of the circus villains trope that, while not original, is a rarity in Eastern comics, and rarely done so "outlandishly" even in the West. Alexander Gorban considered Balmunk the best-written character in the series, and his arc a "grand circus" of memorable scenes and battles thanks to his personal charisma and the author's resourcefulness in selecting powers for Balmunk and his troupe. ## Production and release According to Tite Kubo, Zombiepowder. originated as an idea for a samurai manga which would have been titled "Samurai Drive." This initial conception of the story had very little in common with the end product, as it did not feature western elements or the titular zombie powder. It did star a version of Gamma, however, who still bore an over-sized sword and bounty, and featured scifi technologies. With respect to the premise of Zombiepowder., the author stated that the theme was fighting, and a world where the hope for resurrection lay not in god, but obtaining a mysterious substance. Tite Kubo did not comment on his influences for the series, but critic Theron Martin believed its tone, setting, and style drew heavily on the cyberpunk manga Battle Angel Alita, the dark fantasy manga Berserk, and fellow sci-fi/western manga Trigun, and A.E. Sparrow of IGN noted the obligatory genre influence of martial arts anime Dragon Ball Z. The series also borrows terminology from the music industry, referring to each chapter as a track, the bonus omake content in each volume as B-Sides, and naming primary character Elwood after a record label founder. Zombiepowder. began serialization in Shueisha's Weekly Shōnen Jump on August 2, 1999, and ran a brief 27 chapters before being canceled on February 28, 2000. According to the author's commentary in the cover leaf of the third volume, Tite Kubo was in a state of severe emotional trauma when he wrote it, and only began to be happy with the quality of the series as it neared its ending. Speaking retrospectively 12 years later, Kubo stated that he was not yet used to the scheduling pressures of weekly serialization when he wrote Zombiepowder., and that at the time he paid too much attention to his editor's comments rather than trusting his own ideas. Other than Tite Kubo, Zombiepowder. had five credited staff, though their exact roles in its production were never specified. The series was collected into four volumes, published in 2000 in Japan. Zombiepowder. was licensed for English distribution by Viz Media in 2005, following the success of Tite Kubo's second manga series, Bleach. The first English volume was released in the United States in September 2006, and the last was released in June 2007. A French-language edition began publication through Tonkam in 2013. The Viz Media releases preserve the Japanese reading order and overlay the visual sound effects with equivalent English text. The English lettering was criticized for being overly large, which Anime News Network thought made the characters appear to be shouting at inappropriate moments. There are several additional differences between the Japanese and English volume releases of Zombiepowder.. The cover of the second manga volume, which featured an illustration of C.T. Smith holding a gun to his own head, was replaced in the English edition with new art of Gamma in sunglasses. The English editions of volumes 2–4 also each contain a one-shot story from early in Kubo's career, which were not present in the Japanese collections: Ultra Unholy Hearted Machine, Rune Master Urara, and Bad Shield United, respectively. These extra stories were included for two apparent reasons: to further appeal to Zombiepowder.'s primary English-speaking audience of Bleach fans interested in the development of Tite Kubo's style, and to expand the length of the later volumes, which would otherwise have been shorter than Viz's normal releases, to standard pagecounts. ## Chapters ## Reception Zombiepowder. sold modestly in Japan, but has been commercially successful in the United States. The second volume placed in the top 100 graphic novels for Christmas 2006. Theron Martin of Anime News Network believed the series could have achieved some success in the United States without the Bleach connection due to the American market's larger appetite for series which focus on violent action, but that the series was heavily buoyed by Bleach's international popularity, and primarily imported for an audience of "Kubo completists [sic]." Critical reception of Zombiepowder. as a whole mostly deemed it mediocre and average. Two reviews from Anime News Network ranked it as a C, it received a C+ review from MangaCast, a Den of Geek review gave it 3/5 stars, and an IGN review concluded it was "no better or worse that [sic] many other shōnen titles" with "not much to separate it from the massive stock of shōnen series that are similar to it." Jason Thompson included it in a list of "mediocre" shōnen action titles whose clichéd nature and "ripped-off" character designs left them interesting only to readers unacquainted with the tropes of the genre. The universal criticism in these reviews is that the series as a whole lacks originality, with most mentioning that it reads very much like the author's first effort it is, and would therefore appeal mostly to fans of the author. While he echoed most individual criticisms of the English-language reviewers, a divergent conclusion was reached by Russian critic Alexander Gorban of Animemaniacs Magazine Online, who believes that Zombiepowder.'s fundamentals were all strong, and that the failure of the series in Japan was instead due to Tite Kubo's overreach in publishing a series in the highly-competitive Weekly Shōnen Jump at such a young age. Had the freshman author been serialized in a less prominent magazine, asserts Gorban, Zombiepowder. would have been allowed longer to establish itself and could have developed into a series at least as good as Bleach. Reception for individual elements of Zombiepowder. was more mixed. The series premise of seeking magical items was criticized as cliche by ANN and IGN, but deemed sufficient for the needs of the story by AMO, and the parasitic nature of the rings and zombie powder themselves were complimented by MangaCast and IGN for lending suspense to the plot. The setting was criticized by ANN and Gorban alike for not having much effort put into it, being too similar to Trigun, and seeming to be chosen just for the sake of coolness, while IGN liked the mixture of the old west, arcane, and technological. The quality of individual characters in the series was again considered a mixed bag, both in artistic design and characterization, but with a consensus across reviews that the characters were not developed much beyond their respective tropes. Of all the elements of the series, Zombiepowder.'s action sequences received the most feedback. The battle scenes were criticized for their unsophisticated art by Anime News Network, with rough drawings and few backgrounds, though in its second review ANN noted a guiding philosophy to the background omission: elements of the scene which were not props in the fight faded out whenever action began. ANN also said that the action was entertainingly violent, kinetic, well-paced, easy to follow, and interspersed well with comedic moments. They ultimately concluded the action was handled better than average, but with the disclaimer that the action was "the entire sum and substance" of the series. IGN opened their review with a Tite Kubo quote from the first volume's flap: "The theme is fighting. Sitting there and just reading it without thinking is fine. But if you ever feel like it please try to use your mind as you read," and said that if this advice was taken Zombiepowder. could be a "great shōnen tale", but that without it the story was only enjoyable by dissection and comparison to other series. Gorban's view was again the most positive, stating that the essential trait of a memorable fight scene is to pit two charismatic figures with contrasting personalities and combat styles against each other, and that the series grasped this notion admirably. Finally, Den of Geek found Zombiepowder.'s "wall-to-wall" action sequences colorful and fun, but complained that the sheer mass of them overwhelmed the rest of the story.
26,366,360	The Indian Princess (play)	1,168,880,190	Play written by James Nelson Barker	[ "1808 plays", "Cultural depictions of Pocahontas", "Fiction set in the 1620s", "Plays based on actual events", "Plays based on real people", "Plays set in Virginia", "Plays set in the 17th century", "Race-related controversies in theatre" ]	The Indian Princess; or, La Belle Sauvage, is a musical play with a libretto by James Nelson Barker and music by John Bray, based on the Pocahontas story as originally recorded in John Smith's The Generall Historie of Virginia (1621). The piece is structured in the style of a Ballad-opera, with songs and choruses, and also has music underlying dialogue, like a melodrama. Pocahontas persuades her father, King Powhatan, to free Smith and becomes attracted to John Rolfe, breaking off her arranged marriage with a neighboring tribal prince, an action that leads to war. Her tribe wins the war, but her father loses trust in the white settlers; Pocahontas warns the settlers who reconcile with Powhatan. Several comic romances end happily, and Smith predicts a great future for the new country. The play deals with relations between Native Americans and the first European settlers in America. Scholars have debated whether the piece is progressive in its depiction of the natives and have commented that the work reflects an emerging American dramatic and musical sensibility. It served to popularize and romanticize the Pocahontas story as an important American myth. The comedy was first performed in 1808 at The Chestnut Street Theatre in Philadelphia. It has been cited as the first play about American Indians by an American playwright known to be produced on a professional stage, and possibly the first play produced in America to be then performed in England, although the validity of both statements has been questioned. Its portrayal of Native Americans has been criticized as racially insensitive, but the piece is credited with inspiring a whole new genre of plays about Pocahontas specifically and Native Americans in general, that was prevalent throughout the 19th and early 20th Century. The play was subsequently produced throughout the country. ## Background Barker was motivated to create a truly "American" style of drama to counteract what he saw as "mental colonialism" and the American tendency to feel culturally inferior to Europe. For this reason, he looked to native subject matter for the play, as opposed to other American dramatists like John Howard Payne who neglected American subject matter and locations. Although in his preface, Barker cites his primary source of inspiration as John Smith's The Generall Historie of Virginia (1624), he was likely more influenced by a series of popular books by John Davis, including, Travels of Four Years and a Half in the United States of America (1803), Captain Smith and Princess Pocahontas (1805), and The First Settlers of Virginia (1806) which featured a more sexualized and romanticized characterization of Pocahontas. Much of the known background about the piece comes from a letter Barker wrote to William Dunlop, dated June 10, 1832. In it, he indicates that he had been working on The Indian Princess for a number of years before it was first produced in 1808. In fact in 1805, he wrote a Masque entitled "America" (which has not survived) that he intended to serve as a conclusion to the play, in which characters called "America," "Science," and "Liberty" sing and engage in political debate. Barker originally intended the piece as a play without music, but John Bray, an actor/translator/composer employed by The New Theatre in Philadelphia, convinced him to add a musical score. ## Character list The published dramatis personæ divides the character list into "Europeans" (the settlers) and "Virginians" (the natives), listing the men first, by rank, followed by the women and the supernumeraries. ### Europeans - Delawar, an English Lord - Captain Smith - Lieutenant Rolfe - Percy, a member of Smith's party - Walter, an English settler - Larry, an Irish settler - Robin, an English settler - Talman, an English settler - Geraldine, Percy's lover - Kate, Larry's wife - Alice, Walter's wife - Soldiers and Adventurers ### Virginians - Powhatan, king - Nantaquas, his son - Miami, a prince - Grimosco, a priest - Pocahontas, the princess - Nima, her attendant - Warriors and Indian Girls ## Plot synopsis ### Act I At the Powhatan River, Smith, Rolfe, Percy, Walter, Larry, Robin, and Alice disembark from a barge as the chorus of soldiers and adventurers sing about the joy of reaching the shore. Larry, Walter, Alice (Walter's wife), and Robin reminisce about love, and Robin admits to Larry his lustful feelings about Alice. Meanwhile, Nima is preparing a bridal gown for Pocahontas in the royal village of Werocomoco, but Pocahontas expresses displeasure about the arrangement her father made for her to marry Miami, a rival Indian prince. Smith is then attacked by a party of Indians, including Nantaquas, Pocahontas's brother. Due to his fighting prowess, Nantaquas thinks he is a god, but Smith explains he is only a trained warrior from across the sea. The Indians capture Smith to bring him to their chief. Back at the Powhatan River, Robin attempts to seduce Alice, but is foiled by Walter and Larry. When Walter tells the group about Smith's capture, they depart to go after him. Before they leave, Rolfe tries to convince Percy to move on after his lover, Geraldine, apparently was unfaithful. ### Act II When King Powhatan is presented with the captured Smith, he decides, at the urging of the tribe's priest Grimosco, to execute him. Pocahontas, having been moved by Smith's nobility, says she will not allow Smith to be killed unless she herself dies with him. This persuades Powhatan to free Smith. Soon, Percy and Rolfe encounter Smith and his Indian allies on the way back to the settlement, and Rolfe is immediately struck by Pocahontas, whose manner suggests the attraction is mutual. They speak of love, but Rolfe must soon depart with Smith. Pocahontas confesses her love for Rolfe to Miami, who receives the news with anger, jealousy and rage. Pocahontas convinces her father to dissolve her arranged engagement with Miami, which will mean war between their two tribes. ### Act III Jamestown has now been built and Walter tells his wife Alice about Powhatan's victory over Miami. They then discuss a banquet hosted by Powhatan that Smith, Rolfe and Percy will attend. Meanwhile, Pocahontas and Nima witness Grimosco and Miami plotting to kill the European settlers. When Grimosco coerces Powhatan into believing he should kill all the White men, by casting doubt about their intentions, creating fear about how they will act in the future, and invoking religious imagery, Pocahontas runs to warn the settlers about the danger. Back in Jamestown, a comic bit ensues in which Larry's wife Kate has arrived disguised as a male page, and teases him before revealing herself. She says she has come with Percy's lover, Geraldine, also disguised as a page, who has come to convince Percy he was wrong about her infidelity. Pocahontas arrives and convinces the settlers to go to Powhatan's palace to rescue their colleagues from Grimosco's plot. They arrive just in time to prevent the disaster. Grimosco is taken away, and Miami stabs himself in shame. Everyone else has a happy ending: Pocahontas is with Rolfe, Walter is with Alice, Larry is with Kate, Percy is with Geraldine, and even Robin is with Nima. Smith forgives Powhatan, and gives the play's final speech, predicting a great future for the new country that will form in this land. ## Score The surviving published version of the musical score appears in the format of a simplified keyboard transcription using a two-staff system (treble and bass). It includes only occasional notations about the instruments used in the original full orchestral score, which has not survived. Therefore, musical elements from the original production such as inner harmonic parts, countermelodies, and accompaniment figurations are no longer known. Based on records of payments made to musicians at The Chestnut Street Theatre at the time of the premiere, it was likely that the production employed approximately 25 pieces, which may have consisted of pairs of woodwinds (flutes, oboes, clarinets, and bassoons) and brasses (horns and trumpets) as well as some timpani and strings. Typically, however, the entire orchestra was used only for the overture and selected large chorus numbers, while solo numbers were accompanied by strings and one or two pairs of woodwinds. The brasses and timpani may have been used to invoke a sense of the military in numbers like Walter's "Captain Smith." ## Performances The play first premiered at The Chestnut Street Theatre in Philadelphia on April 6, 1808. In Barker's letter to Dunlop, he writes the performance was done as a benefit for Mr. Bray (who also played the role of Walter). However, other sources suggest it was a benefit for a Mrs. Woodham. In any case, it is clear that the performance was interrupted by an offstage commotion which may have cut the performance short. Mr. Webster, a tenor who played the role of Larry, was an object of public scorn at the time because of his effeminate manner and dress, and audience members rioted in outrage at his participation, causing Barker himself to order the curtain to be dropped. The play was subsequently performed again in Philadelphia on February 1, 1809, although it was advertised for January 25. There is some discrepancy about the date of the New York premiere, which took place at The Park Theatre, either on June 14, 1808, or on January 14, 1809, as a benefit for English actress Mrs. Lipman. It was performed again in New York as a benefit for Dunlop on June 23, 1809, There was a performance benefiting Bray and an actor named Mr. Cone advertised for August 25, 1808, at The Alexandria Theatre in Virginia. There was also a gala premiere on an unspecified date in Baltimore. Barker wrote in his letter to Dunlop that the play was subsequently and frequently performed in all the theatres across the country. It was the standard practice in all these productions for the Native American roles to be played by white actors wearing dark makeup. The Indian Princess has been cited as the first well-documented case of a play that was originally performed in America being subsequently staged in England. Although records indicate there was a play called Pocahontas; or the Indian Princess, credited as being adapted by T.A. Cooper, that played The Theatre Royal at Drury Lane in London on December 15, 1820, and subsequently on December 16 and December 19, the piece differed drastically from Barker's original and featured a completely different cast of characters. Barker himself wrote that the production was done without his permission or even his knowledge, and based on a critical response he read of the London performance, he deduced that there was very little in the play that was his own. Other evidence suggests that the script used in England was not only a completely different play, but that it was likely not even originated by an American. This assertion is based primarily on three factors: the kinder and meeker portrayal of the Natives, which reduces the grandeur of the play's American heroes, the more vague listing of the setting as "North America" rather than specifically "Virginia," and the lack of implications about America's great destiny that was evident in Barker's version. The distinction between the London and American versions is also supported by a review of the London production, in which the reviewer cites a lack of comic characters (Barker's version included several), and the presence of a character named "Opechancaough," who is nowhere to be found in Barker's play. ## Style and structure Structurally, the play resembles a typical English Ballad-opera. The plot of the play can be seen as a blending of a comedy of racial and cultural stereotypes with a love story and an historical drama. Barker borrows heavily from Shakespearean comedy, as can be seen most blatantly in the gender disguises employed by the characters of Kate and Geraldine. The use of verse writing for higher class characters and prose for those of lesser status also borrows from the Shakespearean tradition. It is of note that Pocahontas switches from prose to verse after falling in love with Rolfe. The Indian Princess is also one of the first American plays to call itself a "melo-drame" (or melodrama) which literally is French for "play with music." Like the French and German melodramas typical of the period, the score contained open-ended snippets of background mood music that can be repeated as much as necessary to heighten the sentimentality of the drama, although some have argued that it bears no other resemblance to the typical French melodrama of the period. Still others have said that the categorization of the piece as a melodrama is accurate, considering the play's portrayal of the genre's typical persecuted heroine (Pocahontas), villainous antagonists (Miami and Grimosco), virtuous hero (Smith), and comic relief (Robin and others). The play can also be seen as a predecessor to the exaggerated emotionalism of later American drama, and as an early example of how background music would be used in more modern American drama and films. ## Analysis and criticism The Indian Princess is one example of an attempt by an artist of the early 19th Century to define an American national identity. Pocahontas, representing the spirit of America, literally shields Smith from injury and serves as foster mother, protecting colonists from famine and attack, achieving mythic status as a heroic mother, and preserving, nurturing and legitimizing America as a country. The play allows for an acknowledgement of the troubling aspects of the nation's history of conquest, violence, and greed, by couching the negative implications in a romantic plot. In other words, the romantic conquest helps to soften the harshness and brutality of the colonial conquest. The success of the play reflects a larger cultural desire to express its sense of self through the Pocahontas myth. Barker also had commercial interests, and was motivated by a drive for artistic and financial success. In this vein, the play was an attempt to please the anglophile public, but create something truly American in setting and theme. The portrayals of the Indians in the play, from a perspective of racial sensitivity, have been met with mixed reviews by modern critics. Some write positively about the portrayals, saying that, other than Grimosco and Miami, the natives are noble, though primitive, and have a more "American" value system than the savages traditionally portrayed in British media of the period. Others, however, see the characters portrayed stereotypically as lusty, childlike, weak and corruptible beings, with the exceptions of Pocahontas and Nantaquas, who are portrayed positively only because they accept English values. Still others take a middle ground, noting the range of representations. In any case, the play can be seen as a justification of White assimilation of the natives, especially when examining Pocahontas's choice to be with Rolfe as a microcosm of their societies. Critics have pointed out several inherent flaws in the script, including the early placement of the play's climax (Smith at the chopping block) at the beginning of Act II, loose construction, song lyrics that trivialize characters, and a main character in Pocahontas that is somewhat stilted and overly poetic. In contrast, however others have argued that Pocahontas's love scene in Act III is where the truest poetry of the piece emerges. There has been less critique of Bray's musical work, but Victor Fell Yellin tried to recreate what he felt was the score's melodic expressiveness and sonorous grandeur in his 1978 recording of it. In the liner notes, he points out that the music does not critically compare with the great musical masters of its time, but its success is derived from its charm. While it lacks modulation, it contains well-turned melodic and rhythmic phrases, and syncopations that add to its American style. The Indian Princess certainly began a long American tradition of romanticizing and sexualizing Pocahontas, who was only a child in Smith's original accounts. Therefore, it deserves recognition for inaugurating a genre, but it can be criticized for diminishing the potential richness of the subject matter. ## Historical significance Barker's The Indian Princess has been cited as the first American play featuring Native American characters to ever be staged, although Barker's play is predated by at least two offerings by Europeans featuring Native Americans, including Tammany in 1794 by British playwright Ann Kemble Hatton, and German writer Johann Wilhelm Rose's Pocahontas: Schauspiel mit Gesang, in fünf Akten (A Play with Songs, in five Acts) in 1784. At least one American play was also written before Barker's: Ponteach, published by Robert Rogers in 1766, though the piece was apparently never produced. However, more recently uncovered evidence shows a record of an anonymous melodrama entitled Captain Smith and the Princess Pocahontas produced at The Chestnut Street Theatre in 1806, calling into question whether Barker's play was really the first of its kind (though no further information is known about the earlier piece). Barker's play has also been cited as the earliest surviving dramatized account of Smith and Pocahontas, although this idea is debunked by the availability of the aforementioned Johann Wilhelm Rose work. In any case, The Indian Princess is credited as being primarily responsible for elevating the Pocahontas story to one of the nation's most celebrated myths, and is thought to mark the beginning of the popular American genre of Indian Drama. The piece is also of note as one of very few of its time to have the entire musical score published and available today, as opposed to only individual popular songs. Barker's play directly or indirectly inspired many other stage adaptations of the Pocahontas story, including: - Pocahontas, or the Settlers of Virginia by George Washington Parke Custis (1830) - Pocahontas by Robert Dale Owen (1837) - The Forest Princess by Charlotte B. Conner (1848) - Po-ca-hon-tas, or The Gentle Savage by John Brougham (1855) - Pocahontas by Welland Hendrick (1886) - Pocahontas by Edwin O. Ropp (1906) - Royalty in Old Virginia by Effie Koogle (1908) - Pokey; Or, The Beautiful Legend on the Amorous Indian by Phillip Moeller (1918) - Pocahontas and the Elders by Virgil Geddes (1933) - The Founders by Paul Green (1957) Additionally, there were approximately 40 plays with Indian themes recorded from 1825 to 1860 that likely were directly influenced by The Indian Princess. Edward Henry Corbould's engraving (c. 1850), "Smith Rescued by Pocahontas" was possibly also directly inspired by The Indian Princess. Disney's animated Pocahontas (1995) is one of the more recent of several films also in the same tradition as Barker's play. ## See also - Pocahontas (1995 film) - Po-ca-hon-tas, or The Gentle Savage
4,150,508	The Video Collection 93:99	1,167,921,463	null	[ "1999 video albums", "Madonna compilation albums", "Madonna video albums", "Maverick Records video albums", "Music video compilation albums", "Reprise Records video albums", "Warner Music Vision video albums", "Warner Records video albums" ]	The Video Collection 93:99 is the third music video compilation by American singer-songwriter Madonna. Released by Warner Music Vision, Warner Reprise Video and Warner Bros. Records on November 9, 1999, it contained music videos for singles released between 1993 and 1999. Originally, the collection was titled The Video Collection 92–99, and had included the 1992 video "Erotica", but it was omitted due to its sexually explicit content; instead the 1998 song "The Power of Good-Bye" was added. The videos in the collection were selected personally by Madonna, who felt the 14 videos to be her best work. After its release, the collection was critically appreciated, with one group of reviewers noting the artistic capabilities of Madonna while the others noting her ability to re-invent her image from one video to another. It reached a peak of eight on Billboard's Top Music Video sales chart. In 2008, was certified platinum in the United States by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for shipment of 100,000 copies across United States. A box set titled The Ultimate Collection was released in 2000, which contained The Video Collection 93:99 and The Immaculate Collection compilations. ## Background On September 2, 1999, Warner Bros. Records announced the release of the video album, then titled as The Video Collection 92–99. Released in VHS and DVD, the collection featured 14 videos, including "Drowned World/Substitute for Love", which was not released in the United States as a single, hence was not commercially available prior to the release of Video Collection. The videos in the collection was selected personally by Madonna, who felt the 14 videos to be her best work. The collection had included the 1992 song "Erotica", but it was later omitted due to the sexual content present in the music video; instead the song "The Power of Good-Bye" was added and the collection was renamed as The Video Collection 93:99. The video release was supposed to be in mid-October, but was pushed to November 2, 1999. The DVD release was to also include an accompanying compact disc with the audio to the videos as a double-disc greatest hits album, but was cancelled and the release only included a DVD. The original plan was to have the release coincide with a 1999 concert tour, which Madonna had mentioned in an interview with Larry King that same year. This was also cancelled and postponed until 2001, Madonna instead releasing an audio greatest hits collection GHV2 and embarked on the Drowned World Tour that same year. ## Critical reception Heather Phares from AllMusic gave it five out of five stars and said: "Madonna's Video Collection: 1993–1999 adds to her status as one of the best represented artists on DVD. [...] Though it doesn't offer much in the way of DVD-specific features, the artistry of directors like Mark Romanek, Stephane Sedaoui, David Fincher, Jean-Baptiste Mondino, as well as Madonna herself, is on full display with videos like 'Take a Bow', 'Bedtime Story', 'Human Nature', 'Frozen', and 'Ray of Light'. All in all, it's a worthwhile collection of memorable videos from one of pop's trendsetters." Francis Dass from New Straits Times commented: "Madonna, the pop icon of the 20th century, remains at the forefront of self-promotion and marketing with the release of her music video compilation on VCD format. The collection shows that she is still able to maintain her relevance to the nasty world of music and she is still the queen of re-invention." Jay Webb from The Dallas Morning News felt that the videos on the collection showed "Madonna's true artistic self" but added that such artistic phase was incompletely catalogued in the collection. Jeremy Kinser from The Advocate gave the collection a positive review, complimenting "the showcase of such classic and artistic videos". He listed "Ray of Light", "Bad Girl" and "Take a Bow" as the high-points of the collection, while the inclusion of "Fever" and "Human Nature" was criticized. Jose Promis from AllMovie felt that "[t]he decision to include virtual non-hits such as 'Love Don't Live Here Anymore' over smashes such as 'You'll See' or 'I'll Remember' is bewildering, making this collection a decidedly mixed bag." ## Commercial performance The collection debuted at 3 on Billboard's Top Music Videos. It also debuted at number 36 on Top Video Sales chart on December 4, 1999, and the second week it moved 23 places to 13. The next week it reached a peak of eight on the chart, remaining at the position for three additional weeks. Video Collection reached the peak of eight again on the Billboard issue dated February 5, 2000. It was present on the Music Video chart for a total of 32 weeks. On November 13, 2008, the DVD was certified platinum in the United States by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for shipment of 100,000 copies. It was also certified platinum in Argentina by the Argentine Chamber of Phonograms and Videograms Producers (CAPIF) for shipment of 8,000 copies, as well as gold in Brazil by the Associação Brasileira dos Produtores de Discos (ABPD) for shipment of 25,000 copies. After seventeen weeks of staying at the top of the Danish Top 10 DVD chart, Video Collection made a re-entry on the chart at the number three, in August 2001. In Denmark, the video collection sold 135 copies as of 2000. ## The Ultimate Collection On September 18, 2000, a box set titled The Ultimate Collection was released, which contained The Video Collection 93:99 and The Immaculate Collection. R.S. Murthy from New Straits Times said that "this boxed set offers Madonna fans and the Madonna initiates a very good collection of her videos, and helps them understand the wonder that Madonna is." Jeremy Jennings from the St. Paul Pioneer Press listed the box set as one of the most promising collection in his list of "Best Fall CDs" for 2000. Robin Givhan from The Washington Post called the collection "A veritable homage to the many faces of Madonna, from her current ghetto cowboy incarnation to her old boy-toy persona, the collection featured duded-up music videos and many pictures—a reminder of Madonna as the queen of re-invention." ## Track listing and formats - The collection was released on VHS, LaserDisc, VCD (Asia only) and DVD. A special limited edition karaoke VCD was also released with the same track list. This VCD showed the lyrics of the song on the video, and the user was able to mute the right audio channel, which contained the full vocal version of the song, or the left audio channel, which contained the instrumental version of the song. ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications
441,274	Westland Sea King	1,173,076,567	Military helicopter, 1969-present	[ "1960s British anti-submarine aircraft", "1960s British helicopters", "Aircraft first flown in 1969", "Amphibious helicopters", "Anti-submarine helicopters", "Search and rescue helicopters", "Twin-turbine helicopters", "Westland aircraft" ]	The Westland WS-61 Sea King is a British licence-built version of the American Sikorsky S-61 helicopter of the same name, built by Westland Helicopters. The aircraft differs considerably from the American version, with Rolls-Royce Gnome engines (derived from the US General Electric T58), British-made anti-submarine warfare systems and a fully computerised flight control system. The Sea King was primarily designed for performing anti-submarine warfare (ASW) missions. A Sea King variant known as the Commando was developed by Westland to serve as a troop transport. In British service, the Westland Sea King provided a wide range of services in both the Royal Navy and the Royal Air Force. As well as wartime roles in the Falklands War, the Gulf War, the Bosnian War, the Iraq War and the Afghanistan War, the Sea King is perhaps most well known in its capacity as a Royal Navy Search and Rescue (red and grey livery) and RAF Search and Rescue Force (yellow livery) helicopter. The Sea King was also adapted to meet the Royal Navy's requirement for a ship-based airborne early warning platform. On 26 September 2018, the last remaining Sea King variant in Royal Navy service was retired. Most operators have replaced, or are planning to replace, the Sea King with more modern helicopters, such as the NHIndustries NH90 and the AgustaWestland AW101. HeliOperations continue to operate three Mk 5 Sea Kings, based at RNAS Portland, training German Navy pilots. ## Design and development ### Origins Westland Helicopters, which had a long-standing licence agreement with Sikorsky Aircraft to allow it to build Sikorsky's helicopters, extended the agreement to cover the Sikorsky SH-3 Sea King soon after the Sea King's first flight in 1969. Westland proceeded to independently develop the Sea King, integrating a significant proportion of components from British suppliers; key changes include the use of a pair of Rolls-Royce Gnome turboshaft engines and the implementation of an automatic flight control system. On this matter, authors Jim Thorn and Gerald Frawley stated that: "Despite appearances, Westland's Sea King [is a] very different aircraft from Sikorsky's". Many of the differences between the Westland-built Sea King and the original helicopter were as a result of differing operational doctrine. While the U.S. Navy Sea Kings were intended to be under tactical control of the carrier from which they operated, the Royal Navy intended its helicopters to be much more autonomous, capable of operating alone, or co-ordinating with other aircraft or surface vessels. This resulted in a different crew arrangement, with operations being controlled by an observer rather than the pilot, as well as fitting a search radar. The Royal Navy selected the Sea King to meet a requirement for an anti-submarine warfare (ASW) helicopter to replace the Westland Wessex, placing an order with Westland for 60 SH-3D Sea Kings in June 1966. The prototype and three pre-production aircraft were built by Sikorsky at Stratford, Connecticut and shipped to the United Kingdom to act as trials and pattern aircraft. The first of the SH-3Ds was initially fitted with General Electric T58s and, after being shipped from the United States, was flown in October 1966 from the dockside at Avonmouth to Yeovil airfield. The other three were delivered from the docks, by road to Yeovil, for completion with British systems and Rolls-Royce Gnome engines. The first Westland-built helicopter, designated Sea King HAS1, flew on 7 May 1969 at Yeovil. The first two helicopters were used for trials and evaluation by Westland and the Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment; subsequent production Sea Kings were delivered to the Royal Navy's 700 Naval Air Squadron from August 1969 onwards. By 1979, the Royal Navy had ordered 56 HAS1s and 21 HAS2s to meet the anti-submarine requirements, these were also configured for the secondary anti-ship role. The Westland Sea King was updated and adapted for numerous roles, subsequent variants include the HAS2, HAS5 and HAS6. Changes from initial production aircraft included an expansion of the cabin and upgraded engines. ### Commando and further developments One of the most extensively modified variants was the Westland Commando, operated by the Royal Navy as the HC4. The Commando had capacity for up to 28 fully equipped troops and had originally been developed to meet an Egyptian Air Force requirement. Due to the deletion of the amphibious capability, not required in the Egyptian desert, the most noticeable change from the Sea King was the deletion of the side floats, the main undercarriage being carried on stub sponsons. An improved variant of the Egyptian Commando, with changes including the fitting of folding blades common to the ASW variants, was designated as the Sea King HC4 by the Royal Navy and all the aircraft were new build. First flying on 26 September 1979, due to its operational range of up to 600 nautical miles without refuelling, the HC4 'Commando' became an important asset for amphibious warfare and troop transport duties, in particular. Several Royal Naval Air Squadrons have operated the Commando variant, such as 845 Naval Air Squadron, 846 Naval Air Squadron and 848 Naval Air Squadron. In British service, the Sea King HC4 was deployed on operations in the Falklands, the Balkans, both Gulf Wars, Sierra Leone, Lebanon and Afghanistan. Towards the end of the Sea King's operational life, several HAS6s were repurposed by the removal of the ASW equipment, as troop transports. In 2010, the last of the UK's converted ASW Sea Kings to troop transports were retired. In the 1970s, Westland's experience with the Sea King led the company to conduct the British Experimental Rotor Program (BERP), in coordination with the Royal Aircraft Establishment, which applied innovations in composite materials and new design principles to the helicopter rotor. Initial trials carried out with active Sea Kings found several advantages to the BERP rotor, including a longer fatigue life and improved aerodynamic characteristics. Subsequent Westland helicopters, such as the record-breaking Lynx and the AgustaWestland AW101 Merlin, took advantage of BERP rotors for greater performance. Westland equipped later-built Sea Kings with the new composite rotors as well. Westland has produced a total of 330 Sea Kings; export customers include the Indian Naval Air Arm, the German Navy, the Royal Australian Navy, and the Royal Norwegian Air Force. The last of the Royal Navy's Sea Kings in the ASW role was retired in 2003, being replaced by the AgustaWestland Merlin HM1. The Sea King Airborne Surveillance and Control (ASaC) variant is expected to be replaced around the introduction of the two Queen Elizabeth-class aircraft carriers. The UK has also planned to retire the HC4 and search and rescue variants in March 2016. ### Search and rescue A dedicated search and rescue (SAR) version, the HAR3, was developed for the RAF Search and Rescue Force. The type entered service in 1978 to replace the Westland Whirlwind HAR.10. A 16th helicopter was ordered shortly after, and following the Falklands War of 1982, three more examples were purchased to enable operation of a SAR flight in the islands, initially from Navy Point on the north side of Stanley harbour, and later from RAF Mount Pleasant. In 1992, six further helicopters were ordered to replace the last remaining Westland Wessex helicopters in the SAR role, entering service in 1996. The six Sea King HAR3As featured updated systems, including a digital navigation system and more modern avionics. Westland also manufactured SAR versions of the Sea King for the Royal Norwegian Air Force, the German Navy and the Belgian Air Force. On SAR variants, the cabin was enlarged by a stretch of the fuselage behind the door; another key feature, used for additional flotation in the unusual event of a water landing, inflatable buoyancy bags were housed inside the aircraft's sponsons. Upgrades and changes made to SAR Sea Kings include the addition of radar warning receivers, a cargo hook for the underslung carriage of goods, and the redesigning of the cockpit for compatibility with night vision goggles. As of 2006, up to 12 HAR3/3As were dispersed across the UK, a further two HAR3s were attached to the Falkland Islands, providing 24-hour rescue coverage. Some Royal Navy HAS5 ASW variants were adapted for the SAR role and served with 771 Naval Air Squadron, Culdrose and HMS Gannet SAR Flight at Prestwick Airport in Scotland. , they are expected to remain in service until 2016, being replaced with civilian operated SAR rotorcraft. Both Prince Andrew, Duke of York and Prince William, Duke of Cambridge have flown SAR Sea Kings in front-line roles. ### Airborne early warning The Royal Navy's airborne early warning (AEW) capability had been lost when the Fairey Gannet aeroplane was withdrawn after the last of the RN's fleet carriers was decommissioned in 1978. During the Falklands War, a number of warships were lost and casualties suffered due to the lack of an AEW platform. The proposed fleet cover by the RAF Shackleton AEW.2 was too unresponsive and at too great a distance to be practical. Consequently, two Sea King HAS2s were modified in 1982 with the addition of the Thorn-EMI ARI 5980/3 Searchwater LAST radar attached to the fuselage on a swivel arm and protected by an inflatable dome. This allowed the radar to be lowered below the fuselage during flight and for it to be raised for landing. These prototypes, designated HAS2(AEW), were both flying within 11 weeks and deployed with 824 "D" Flight on HMS Illustrious, serving in the Falklands after the cessation of hostilities. A further eight HAS2s were modified to a production standard, known as the AEW2. Two remained "fitted for but not with". These entered operational service in 1985, being deployed by 849 Naval Air Squadron. Three Sea King HAS5/6s were later converted as part of the ASaC Mk7 programme, bringing the Mk7 fleet to 13; still 3 below the requirement. The upgrade programme resulted in the Sea King AEW fleet being upgraded with a new mission system, Comms, NavAids, JTIDS, Active Noise Reduction and Videographic recording. The Mission System Upgrade (MSU) component (Radar and partial JTIDS integration) was based around the improved Searchwater 2000AEW radar, with an all-new Man-Machine Interface. This MSU component was later termed "Project Cerberus" by Thales, after successful integration was conducted by Westland and GEC-Marconi. This variant was initially referred to as the Sea King AEW7, but renamed ASaC7 just before In Service Date. (Airborne Surveillance and Control Mk.7). The main role of the Sea King ASaC7 is detection of low-flying attack aircraft; it also provides interception/attack control and over-the-horizon targeting for surface-launched weapon systems. In comparison to older versions, the new radar enables the ASaC7 to simultaneously track up to 400 targets, instead of an earlier limit of 250 targets. The effectiveness of the AEW7 was greatly increased via the addition of a Link 16 data link, allowing gathered radar information to be analysed and rapidly put to use by multiple allied platforms in range. The ASaC7s would remain in service until are replaced under the "Crowsnest" programme; intended as a podded capability onboard Merlins. Previous proposed replacement programmes, Future Organic Airborne Early Warning (FOAEW) and MASC (Maritime Airborne Surveillance and Control) were initiated and then cancelled, due largely to the erroneous assumption that the entire ASaC Mk7 system could simply be lifted and plugged into another aircraft type. However, as a result of the time gap between the planned out of service date of the Sea King in 2016, and the introduction of "Crowsnest" seven Sea King ASaC.7 helicopters remained in service with the RN through to the second half of 2018. ## Operational history ### United Kingdom #### Falklands Conflict A number of Sea Kings were deployed during the Falklands Conflict. They were transported to the combat zone and operated from the decks of various ships of the Royal Navy, such as the landing platform dock HMS Fearless. In the theatre, they performed a wide range of missions, from anti-submarine patrols and reconnaissance flights to replenishment operations and the insertion of special forces. Support provided by the Sea Kings in the form of transport for men and supplies has been viewed as vital to the success of the British operation. Sea Kings also protected the fleet by acting as decoys against incoming Exocet missiles, with some missions being flown by Prince Andrew, Duke of York. Anti-Submarine Sea Kings of 820 Naval Air Squadron were embarked in HMS Invincible. With 11 HAS.5s, the squadron operated anti-submarine and search and rescue sorties with one helicopter always airborne on surface search duties. On 14 June, an 820 NAS Sea King HAS.5 was used to transport Major General Jeremy Moore to Port Stanley to accept the surrender of Argentine troops on the island. The squadron flew 1,650 sorties during the war. A Flight of 824 Naval Air Squadron embarked two Sea King HAS.2As aboard RFA Olmeda and were used to move supplies to other ships on the way south and later anti-submarine patrols. C Flight had three Sea King HAS.2As on board RFA Fort Grange which were used for replenishment duties, supplying over 2,000 tons of stores. 825 Naval Air Squadron was formed for the war with 10 Sea King HAS.2s modified as utility variants to support ground forces. The anti-submarine equipment was removed and the helicopters fitted with troop seats. Two aircraft embarked in Queen Elizabeth 2 and were later used for moving troops from QE2 to other ships, the remainder embarked in Atlantic Causeway and were used for troop movements around the islands. Embarked in HMS Hermes was 826 Naval Air Squadron with nine HAS.5s, which carried out continuous anti-submarine sorties. From the departure of Hermes from Ascension in April until the Argentine surrender, the squadron operated at least three helicopters airborne continuously for fleet protection. On 23 April 1982, a Sea King HC4 was ditched while performing a risky transfer of supplies to a ship at night, operating from the flagship HMS Hermes. On 12 May, a Sea King operating from Hermes crashed into the sea due to an altimeter problem; all crew were rescued. On 19 May 1982 a Sea King, in the process of transporting SAS troops to HMS Intrepid from Hermes, crashed into the sea while attempting to land on Intrepid. Twenty-two men were killed and nine survived. Bird feathers were found in the debris, suggesting a bird strike, although investigations of the cause of the accident proved to be inconclusive. The SAS lost 18 men in the crash, their highest number of casualties on one day since the Second World War. The Royal Signals lost one man and the RAF one man. #### Gulf War During the 1991 Gulf War Sea Kings from several nations, including Canada, Britain, and the U.S., were present in the coalition forces against Saddam Hussein's Iraq regime. Due to the threat of potential use of any Iraqi weapons of mass destruction, it was standard practice for Sea King crews to wear fully enclosed NBC (nuclear, biological, chemical) protective suits. Britain's Sea Kings primarily engaged in inter-ship transport duties, including ferrying troops between the fleet and land. Six Sea King Mk4 helicopters from 845 Naval Air Squadron and six of 848 Squadron, which had been reformed to meet this operational demand, worked in support of the ground advance. There was thorough radar coverage by U.S. airborne early warning and control (AWACS) aircraft; British AEW Sea Kings were not deployed. Following the end of hostilities, the available Sea Kings remained on deployment in the region to conduct transport missions to relocate people displaced by the conflict to refugee camps and repatriate citizens to their home countries. #### Balkans The Sea King participated in the UN and NATO intervention in Bosnia and Herzegovina. 845 Naval Air Squadron and their Sea Kings had been dispatched to the region in late 1992 in response to escalating tensions in the region. They performed various logistical and transport missions, such as the repositioning of Royal Artillery L118 Light Guns in the region and in the evacuation of casualties. In one incident on 24 March 1993, during an attempt to establish an air evacuation route to a UN-declared safe zone, a flight of French Aérospatiale Pumas and Sea King HC4 helicopters were shelled while taking off from an improvised landing zone. Two further Sea Kings arrived to evacuate several UN casualties, managing to fly the wounded to the Bosnian city of Tuzla, where they came under further enemy fire while unloading. During NATO's intervention in Kosovo, Sea Kings of 814 Naval Air Squadron, operating from numerous Royal Navy vessels in the Adriatic, including the aircraft carrier HMS Invincible, maintained a patrol of the Balkans' coast. The Sea Kings were also heavily used in the transport role during the preparations for a ground invasion of Kosovo. #### 2000s In 2000, Sea King HC.4s of 846 NAS participated in Operation Palliser in Sierra Leone. During the 2003 invasion of Iraq, multiple Sea King ASaC7 from 849 NAS were operated from HMS Ark Royal. On 22 March 2003, two AEW Sea Kings from 849 NAS operating from Ark Royal collided over the Persian Gulf, resulting in the death of seven personnel. A report into the collision called for Sea Kings to be outfitted with night vision goggles, as well as better onboard safety equipment, and recommended changes to procedure regarding the use of radar at night. However, it later transpired that the Board of Inquiry had not been told that the three main contributory factors it reported coincided with the three main areas of degradation between the Mk2 and Mk7. (NVG, Anti-Collision lighting and Interoperability with ships). These had been identified and two contracts let to mitigate the risks had been cancelled by an administrative official. Moreover, in 1994 the RN had rejected the recommendation of the programme manager to retain NVG. In July 2006, Sea King HC.4 helicopters based at RNAS Yeovilton were temporarily deployed to Cyprus to assist in Operation Highbrow, the evacuation of British citizens from Lebanon. In October 2011, following several years of service in Afghanistan as troop transports for the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) forces stationed there, the Sea King HC.4s returned to the UK; their replacement is the AgustaWestland AW101 Merlin. Between April 2009 and July 2011, the Royal Navy's Sea Kings stationed at Camp Bastion conducted over 1000 operational missions. ### Australia In 1974, Australia purchased 12 Westland Sea King Mk 50s as the Royal Australian Navy's new ASW helicopter; the Sea Kings replaced the aircraft carrier 's complement of Westland Wessex HAS31 in the following year. Early operations were troubled by a series of accidents. Between October 1975 to May 1979, four aircraft were lost in accidents, the primary causes were the loss of oil from the main gearbox. The Australian Sea Kings had similar avionics to that of the Sea King HAS.1, with the same ARI 5995 search radar in a dorsal radome, but had American Bendix AN/AQS-13A dipping sonar instead of the Plessey sonar of the Royal Navy Sea Kings. They also had more powerful engines giving improved high temperature hover performance. Australia's Sea Kings were flown by 817 Squadron RAN from HMAS Melbourne until the carrier was retired from service, without replacement. As the Sea King was too large to operate from the Adelaide-class frigates, 817 Squadron was then forced to operate from land bases, in both ASW and utility roles, with the Sea King relinquishing the anti-submarine mission in 1990. During the 2003 Iraq War, Sea Kings were heavily used in logistical roles, such as the first delivery of humanitarian aid to the Iraqi capital, Baghdad. In the aftermath of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, Australian Sea Kings played a major role in disaster relief efforts in Indonesia's Aceh province, delivering medical teams and supplies from Royal Australian Navy ships. Prior to retirement, the last major missions were flown during the 2010–11 Queensland floods, in which Sea Kings provided SAR coverage of the region and delivered aid relief to citizens in the flooded areas. The replacement of the Fleet Air Arm's Sea King fleet commenced faster than initially planned following the loss of a Sea King during a humanitarian aid mission in Indonesia in April 2005, resulting in nine deaths. Investigators uncovered serious faults in the condition of the Sea King's mechanical flight control system, resulting from maintenance deficiencies. In May 2007, the six remaining Sea Kings were grounded for two months following the discovery of a number of missing parts. On 1 September 2011, the Australian Minister for Defence Materiel, Jason Clare, announced that the Sea Kings would be withdrawn from service in December 2011; having flown in excess of 60,000 hours in operations in Australia and overseas in that time. The farewell flight was conducted on 15 December 2011, three Sea Kings flew over Sydney Harbour and across to Canberra, passing Lake Burley Griffin and the Australian War Memorial before landing at Nowra. On 16 December 2011, the Chief of Navy presided over the ceremonial decommissioning of 817 Squadron RAN at NAS Nowra. Five of the withdrawn helicopters have been made available for sale. The replacement for the Sea King was the MRH 90. ### India Following the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, Pakistan invested heavily in modern submarines and long-range torpedoes. In response, India opted to procure six Westland Sea Kings from Britain in 1969, for ASW duties, designated as Mk42. The purchase also included the provision of air-droppable homing torpedoes for use against submarines. The delivery of the aircraft began a few months before the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971. Due to training shortfalls on the new helicopters, Sea King operations were considerably restricted during the 1971 war; by November 1971, increased aircrew experience had enabled offensive anti-submarine operations to be conducted. The Majestic-class aircraft carrier was also refitted in 1972–1974 to enable extensive Sea King operations, becoming the carrier's primary anti-submarine aircraft. During the early 1960s, India and Britain agreed upon the domestic production of the Leander-class frigate. The initial helicopter deployed aboard India's Leanders, known as the Nilgiri class, was the Aérospatiale Alouette III, however, this offered much less capability in the anti-submarine role compared with the Sea King and the need for design changes was realised to allow the Sea King to be deployed upon the flight deck of the Nilgiri class, a practice pioneered by the Royal Canadian Navy using their Sikorsky CH-124 Sea Kings on similar-sized frigates. It proved unfeasible to operate the Sea King from the unmodified Nilgiri class, with the last two ships of the class being fitted with an enlarged flight deck and hangar. This required removal of the ship's Limbo anti-submarine mortar. Beyond the original 1971 procurement, India chose to acquire a further six Mk42s in 1974, and three more in 1980; these three had been specifically modified to operate from the flight deck of the last two Nilgiris and designated as Mk42A. As a follow-on to the Nilgiris, India commenced development of a new frigate, based on the Leander/Nilgiri, but larger. The resultant Godavari class, also known as Project 16, could operate two Sea Kings simultaneously. In 1982, India signed a contract to purchase several Mk42B Sea Kings, an upgraded variant to perform dual-purpose: anti-shipping and anti-submarine missions, following a competition for the order against the Aérospatiale Super Puma. These helicopters would operate from the Godavari-class frigates as well as replace the existing Sea Kings. A team of Indian engineers was sent to Britain to help develop the Mk42B's avionics, especially the onboard software. Changes from the older Sea Kings included a brand new avionics suite, the use of composite materials throughout the fuselage and in the rotor blades, as well as the integration of the Sea Eagle missile, which had been procured from Britain in 1983. Between 1988 and 1992, a total of 20 Mk42B Sea Kings were delivered to the Indian Navy. Six Sea Kings in troop-carrying capacity, designated Mk42C, were also procured in 1987. Although the Indian Navy considered the AEW Sea King, expected to be designated as Mk42D, it was judged to be too expensive, consequently, in 2003, the Russian Kamov Ka-31 was procured instead. The indigenous HAL Dhruv was the intended replacement for the Sea King in the ASW role, however, in 2000, it was deemed unsuited, as the Indian Navy were dissatisfied with the design's folding blade mechanism and by the Dhruv's maintenance record. In May 1998, the United States enacted sanctions upon India as a part of the international response to a series of nuclear weapons tests by India. , these sanctions effectively grounded India's Sea Kings because India could not purchase any US-supplied spare parts for the fleet. Westland also complied with the sanctions by refusing to maintain any US-made components. A limited number of Sea Kings were kept operational by cannibalising other aircraft and the manufacture of some components by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL). In December 2000, President Bill Clinton permitted a relaxation of the sanctions. In the late 2000s, HAL and AgustaWestland signed an agreement to jointly maintain and perform upgrades to India's fleet of Sea Kings. ### Norway The Norwegian Ministry of Justice owns 12 Mk43B Sea Kings which are operated by the Royal Norwegian Air Forces's 330 Squadron. The aircraft are used for SAR and air ambulance missions and are under the command of the Joint Rescue Coordination Centre of Southern Norway and Northern Norway. Introduced in May 1973, they were originally stationed at Bodø Main Air Station, Ørland Main Air Station, Sola Air Station and Station Group Banak. In 1997, the squadron conducted 237 SAR and 747 air ambulance missions. From 1995 to 1998, one helicopter was stationed at Ålesund Airport, Vigra, and since 1999, one has been stationed at Rygge Air Station. Florø Airport became a station for one helicopter from 2009. The helicopters are to be replaced by AgustaWestland AW101 under the Norwegian All-Weather Search and Rescue Helicopter (NAWSARH) programme gradually from September 2020. The candidates for the NAWSARH contract of 10–12 helicopters was the AgustaWestland AW101, NHIndustries NH90, Eurocopter EC225 and Sikorsky S-92. July 2013, AgustaWestland AW101 and Eurocopter (EC225) was short-listed to conduct further discussions for the NAWSARH programme for up to 16 helicopters. ### Germany The German Navy placed an order for 22 Sea King Mk.41s on 20 June 1969 as a replacement for the Grumman Albatross flying boat in the Search and Rescue Role. This was the first export sale for the Westland Sea King, and was the first dedicated Search and Rescue Sea King variant, with an enlarged cabin and more fuel. The German Sea Kings had similar radar and navigation equipment to the HAS.1, but was not fitted with sonar. The 22 Sea Kings were delivered between April 1973 and September 1974, equipping Marinefliegergeschwader 5 (MFG 5) (Naval Air Wing 5). An additional Sea King was delivered in April 1975 to replace one destroyed in a gale. The surviving Sea Kings were upgraded between 1986 and 1988, adding the capability to carry Sea Skua anti-ship missiles, which required the addition of a Ferranti Seaspray radar in a nose radome. The 21 remaining Sea Kings are tasked to a variety of roles including SAR, transport, disaster relief, tactical land–sea transport, evacuation, surveillance, reconnaissance and naval support. The main base is Nordholz, although units are always stationed at Heligoland Airfield and Warnemünde, and sometimes at Borkum Airfield. The helicopters are scheduled to be replaced by the NH-90. ### Others Egypt is a prolific operator of the Sea King, using many different variants for a wide variety of purposes. In addition to operating ASW Sea Kings for coastal patrols, Egypt procured a land-based transport adapted from the basic Sea King, marketed by Westland as the Commando, including a VIP subvariant. An electronic warfare version was also deployed by the Egyptian Air Force, featuring sophisticated onboard jamming systems. As of 2011, 23 Sea Kings/Commandos remain in service with Egypt. The Qatar Emiri Air Force also operates Westland's Commando variant, as a standard utility transport for ground forces, a single one was also equipped specially to perform VIP transport duties. A few Qatari Sea Kings serve in an anti-shipping capacity and have been outfitted to carry, and deploy if required, two Exocet anti-ship missiles. Pakistan's Navy took delivery of six Mk.45 Sea Kings, a variant based on the Royal Navy's Sea King HAS.1 from 1975. It served in an combined anti-submarine and anti-ship role, carrying the Exocet missile as an alternative to the normal anti-submarine weapon load of four Mark 44 or Mark 46 torpedoes. One of Pakistan's Sea Kings was lost in an accident in February 1986, and was replaced by an ex-Royal Navy HAS.5, redesignated Mk.45C, in January 1989. The Belgian Air Force ordered five Sea King Mk.48s to perform Search and Rescue missions in 1974, which entered service in 1976. They were upgraded with new rotor blades in 1987–1988, and with revised avionics, including new radar and provision of a FLIR turret under the nose from 1995. In 2007 Belgium ordered eight NH90 helicopters, of which four were navalised NFH helicopters intended to replace the Sea Kings in the SAR role. Delays in delivery of Belgium's NH90s, together with an increased demand for the NH90s to operate from the Belgian Navy's frigates, resulted in the retirement date for the Sea Kings being pushed back to 2018. Three Sea Kings remained operational in 2017. Belgian Sea Kings had been carried out over 3300 SAR sorties by the end of 2016, with over 1750 lives saved. Belgium retired its last Sea King on 21 March 2019, with a farewell flypas over the Belgian coast. Their SAR role was taken on by four NHIndustries NH90 NATO Frigate Helicopters (NFHs) flying out of Koksijde Air Base near the coast of Flanders. RS05 was donated to "Het Vlaams Luchtvaartopleidingscentrum" (VLOC) and performed it's ferry flight on 26/03/2019. Two of the three Belgian Sea Kings were bought by Historic Helicopters of Chard Equestrian, Somerset, which already owned five Westland helicopters that saw service with the Royal Navy or the RAF. Both Sea Kings left Koksijde Air Base on 20/10/2021 as OO-SEE (RS02) & OO-KNG (RS04) to the UK. In November 2022, in response to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine the United Kingdom announced they were donating three former Royal Navy Sea Kings to Ukraine. In January 2023, the first Sea King was videoed being used by the Ukrainian Naval Aviation. In April 2023, the BBC did an interview with one of the co-pilot of an UK donated Sea King to Ukraine. These helicopter served in the Falklands War so it is at least some 40 years old. The co-pilot has said that the Sea King is used for rescuing pilots who have ejected, delivering soldiers and conducting reconnaissance among other tasks. One engineer also told the BBC: "They are old...but they have gone through modernisation, and we need them very much. I believe this is just the start of our work together." The BBC also reports that a third Sea King is being prepared to be sent to Ukraine in the "coming weeks". The third Sea King HU.5 was delivered to Ukraine in May 2023. ## Variants Sea King HAS.1 The first anti-submarine version for the Royal Navy, with Gnome H.1400 engines, a five-bladed tail rotor, a Plessey Type 195 dipping sonar and MEL ARI 5995 search radar in a dorsal radome. The Westland Sea King HAS.1 first flew on 7 May 1969. 56 built, many of which were converted to HAS.2. Sea King HAS.2 Upgraded anti-submarine version for the Royal Navy, based on Australian Mk 50. More powerful Gnome H.1400-1 engines, six bladed tail rotor and upgraded avionics (including new Type 2069 dipping sonar), and improved navigation and communications equipment; 21 new build aircraft plus conversions from HAS.1s. Some were later converted for AEW (Airborne Early Warning) duties. Sea King AEW.2 Conversion of Sea King HAS.1 or HAS.2s into AEW aircraft after lack of AEW cover was revealed during the Falklands War. Fitted with Thorn EMI Searchwater radar in inflatable radome, with sonar removed. Normally flown with three person (pilot and two observers) crew compared with four-person crew for ASW Sea Kings. Nine converted. Sea King HAR.3 Search and rescue version for the Royal Air Force. Fitted with relocated rear cabin bulkhead giving greater cabin length, extra fuel and additional observation windows; 19 built. Sea King HAR.3A Improved search and rescue version of the Sea King HAR.3 for the Royal Air Force. Fitted with upgraded avionics; six built. Sea King HC.4 / Westland Commando Commando assault and utility transport version for the Royal Navy, with simplified undercarriage, and lengthened cabin. Capable of transporting 28 fully equipped troops; 42 built. Sea King HC.4X One aircraft first flown on 10 April 1989 for the Empire Test Pilots' School. Sea King Mk.4X Two helicopters based on the HC.4 for trials/test beds at the Royal Aircraft Establishment at Farnborough. Fitted with various nose and/or dorsal sensor installations. Sea King HAS.5 Upgraded anti-submarine warfare version for the Royal Navy, with longer range MEL Super Searcher radar in enlarged dorsal radome, new AQS902 acoustic processing system with provision to use sonobuoys. Entered service in June 1981; 30 new build aircraft plus about 55 converted from earlier versions. Some later converted into the HAR.5 for Search and Rescue. Sea King HAR.5 Conversion of HAS.5 to search and rescue role for the Royal Navy, with ASW equipment removed but retaining Sea Searcher radar. Sea King AEW.5 Four Sea King HAS.5s were converted into AEW helicopters for the Royal Navy. Sea King HU.5 Surplus HAS.5 ASW helicopters converted into utility role for the Royal Navy. Sea King HAS.6 Upgraded anti-submarine warfare version for the Royal Navy. fitted with improved avionics, with new sonar processor, improved tactical displays and better communications equipment; five new build aircraft plus conversions. Sea King HAS.6(CR) Five surplus HAS.6 ASW helicopters converted into the utility role for the Royal Navy. The last of the Royal Navy's HAS.6(CR) helicopters was retired from service with 846 NAS on 31 March 2010. Sea King ASaC7 Upgraded AEW2/5 for the Royal Navy with Searchwater 2000AEW replacing original Searchwater radar. Sea King Mk.41 Search and rescue version of the Sea King HAS.1 for the German Navy, with longer cabin; 23 built, delivered between 1973 and 1975. A total of 20 were upgraded from 1986 onwards with additional Ferranti Seaspray radar in nose and capability to carry four Sea Skua Anti-ship missiles. Sea King Mk.42 Anti-submarine warfare version of the Sea King HAS.1 for the Indian Navy; 12 built. Sea King Mk.42A Anti-submarine warfare version of the Sea King HAS.2 for the Indian Navy, fitted with haul-down system for operating from small ships; three built. Sea King Mk.42B Multi-purpose version for the Indian Navy, equipped for anti-submarine warfare, with dipping sonar and advanced avionics, and anti-shipping operations, with two Sea Eagle missiles; 21 built (one crashing before delivery). Sea King Mk.42C Search and rescue/utility transport version for the Indian Navy with nose mounted Bendix search radar; six built. Sea King Mk.43 Search and rescue version of the Sea King HAS.1 for the Royal Norwegian Air Force, with lengthened cabin; 10 built. Sea King Mk.43A Uprated version of the Sea King Mk.43 for the Royal Norwegian Air Force, with airframe of Mk.2 but engines of Mk.1; single example built. Sea King Mk.43B Upgraded version of the Sea King Mk.43 for the Royal Norwegian Air Force. Upgraded avionics, including MEL Sea Searcher radar in large dorsal radome, weather radar in nose and FLIR turret under nose. Three new-build plus upgrade of remaining Mk.43 and Mk.43A helicopters. Sea King Mk.45 Anti-submarine and anti-ship warfare version of the Sea King HAS.1 for the Pakistan Navy. Provision for carrying Exocet anti-ship missile; six built. Sea King Mk.45A One ex-Royal Navy Sea King HAS.5 helicopter was sold to Pakistan as an attrition replacement. Sea King Mk.47 Anti-submarine version of the Sea King HAS.2 for the Egyptian Navy; six built. Sea King Mk.48 Search and rescue version for the Belgian Air Force. Airframe similar to HAS.2 but with extended cabin; five built, delivered 1976. Retired in 2018. Sea King Mk.50 Multi-role version for the Royal Australian Navy, equivalent to (but preceding) HAS.2; 10 built. Sea King Mk.50A Two improved Sea Kings were sold to the Royal Australian Navy as part of a follow-on order in 1981. Sea King Mk.50B Upgraded multi-role version for the Royal Australian Navy. Commando Mk.1 Minimum change assault and utility transport version for the Egyptian Air Force, with lengthened cabin but retaining sponsons with floatation gear; five built. Commando Mk.2 Improved assault and utility transport version for the Egyptian Air Force, fitted with more powerful engines, non-folding rotors and omitting undercarriage sponsons and floatation gear; 17 built. Commando Mk.2A Assault and utility transport version for the Qatar Emiri Air Force, almost identical to Egyptian Mk.2; three built. Commando Mk.2B VIP transport version of Commando Mk.2 for the Egyptian Air Force; two built. Commando Mk.2C VIP transport version of Commando Mk.2A for the Qatar Emiri Air Force; one built. Commando Mk.2E Electronic warfare version for the Egyptian Air Force, fitted with integrated ESM and jamming system, with radomes on side of fuselage; four built. Commando Mk.3 Anti-ship warfare version for the Qatar Emiri Air Force, fitted with dorsal radome and capable of carrying two Exocet missiles. Eight built. ## Operators ### Current operators `Egypt` - 545 Air Wing: 11 Squadron (Mersa Matruh, wfu) --\> AW149 - 546 Air Wing: 12 Squadron (Almaza) - Egyptian Air Force ' Germany - German Naval Aviation Command `India` - Indian Naval Air Arm `Norway` - Royal Norwegian Air Force ' Pakistan - Pakistan Naval Air Arm ' Ukraine - Ukrainian Naval Aviation ' United Kingdom - HeliOperations – Private operator providing training for German Naval Aviation Command ### Former operators ' Australia - Fleet Air Arm - in service from 1976 to 2011 `Belgium` - Belgian Air Component - in service from 1976 to 2019 ' Qatar - Qatar Emiri Air Force - in service from 1975 to 2022 ' Sierra Leone - Republic of Sierra Leone Armed Forces - in service from 2006 to 2015 `United Kingdom'''` - Royal Air Force - in service from 1978 to 2015 - Fleet Air Arm - in service from 1969 to 2018 - Qinetiq Group - Used from 2010 to 2016 ## Aircraft on display Australia - N16-118 – Sea King Mk 50 on static display at the Fleet Air Arm Museum near Nowra. Belgium - RS01 – Sea King Mk 48 on static display at the Royal Museum of the Armed Forces and Military History in Brussels. - RS03 – preserved at Koksijde - RS05 – Preserved at Ostend Air College, used as an instructional airframe. - RS02 & RS04 – preserved in flying condition by the Historic Helicopter Group, Somerset India - IN504 – Sea King Mk 42 on static display at the HAL Aerospace Museum in Bangalore, Karnataka. - IN505 – Sea King Mk 42 on static display at the Naval Aviation Museum in Dabolim, Goa. United Kingdom - XV677 – Sea King HAS.6 on static display at the South Yorkshire Aircraft Museum in Doncaster, South Yorkshire. - XV712 – Sea King HAS.6 on static display at the Imperial War Museum Duxford in Duxford, Cambridgeshire. - XZ574 – Sea King HAS.5 on static display at the Fleet Air Arm Museum in Yeovilton, Somerset. The aircraft was delivered to the Royal Navy in 1976 and was operated from HMS Invincible during Operation Corporate. During the rescue of the crew from ditched Sea King HC.4 ZA311'' on 23 April 1982, the helicopter was flown by HRH Prince Andrew. - XZ585 – Sea King HAR.3 on static display at the RAF Museum in London. - XZ592 – Sea King HAR.3 is on static display at Morayvia in Kinloss, Moray. - XZ593 – Sea King HAR.3 in storage at the Falkland Islands Museum and National Trust in Stanley, Falkland Islands. The aircraft was donated to the people of the Islands in 2016 after being retired. It will eventually go on display in a new museum annex. - XZ597 – Sea King HAR.3, restored to flying condition by the Historic Helicopter Group, Somerset - ZA298 – Sea King HC.4 on static display at the Fleet Air Arm Museum in Yeovilton, Somerset. Nicknamed the "King of the Junglies" it is notorious for having survived multiple times heavy combat damage without any fatalities. First in the Falkland War where it was hit by gunfire from an Argentinian A-4 Skyhawk, then during the Bosnian War where it was showered by small-arms fire and finally during the war in Afghanistan where it suffered a direct hit by an anti-tank RPG. - ZD477 – Sea King HC.4 on static display at East Midlands Aeropark. - ZF122 – Sea King HC.4 – Historic Helicopter Group - ZG822 Sea King HC.4 Commando on static display at South Wales Aviation Museum (SWAM), former RAF St Athan, near Cardiff ## Specifications (Sea King HAS.5) ## See also
58,115,193	Big Cat, Little Cat	1,155,449,117	2017 picture book by Elisha Cooper	[ "2017 children's books", "American picture books", "Caldecott Honor-winning works", "Children's books about cats", "Children's books about death" ]	Big Cat, Little Cat (stylized as BIG CAT, little cat) is a 2017 children's picture book written by Elisha Cooper. It was published by Roaring Brook Press, a subsidiary of Macmillan Books. In the story, a large, white cat welcomes a new black cat into a family. The white cat then dies, and the cycle begins anew when the family adopts a new kitten. Cooper was inspired to write the story after his family experienced a similar situation. Critics praised his illustrations, for their ability to help further the story's messages and themes. These monochromatic illustrations were different than the style Cooper normally employed when illustrating a book. The book was well-reviewed, and received a 2018 Caldecott Honor. ## Plot An older white cat is a family's sole companion until it is joined by a younger black cat. The white cat welcomes the black cat. Over the course of the story, the two cats age, until the white cat dies. The white cat is mourned by the family and the black cat, until one day a new white kitten joins the family. ## Background and publication Cooper was inspired to write the book based on experiences in his life. He had grown up on a farm, and had thus been familiar with animals "cycling through". As an adult, Cooper and his family adopted two cats. A couple of years after the adoption, one of them died, and Cooper observed that his daughter was less familiar with death as a child than he had been. Cooper wrote and illustrated the book simultaneously, saying "I love how words and images play off each other. Like good teammates, who make each other better." He typically illustrates with watercolor pictures, though felt that the subject matter of Big Cat, Little Cat was better-suited to monochrome images. In developing the book, he drew inspiration from Kevin Henkes Caldecott-winning story Kitten's First Full Moon. Big Cat, Little Cat and Kitten's First Full Moon share both subject matter and visual styles. Big Cat, Little Cat was published on March 14, 2017 by Roaring Brook Press, part of the Macmillan Children's Publishing Group. ## Writing and illustrations The book's illustrations could be considered simple yet with a rhythm. The black-and-white illustrations were a change in style for Cooper and were compared in Publishers Weekly to those of a Japanese brush painter. Cooper used thick, bold lines to, in the words of Martha Parravano, writing for The Horn Book Magazine, "produce figures full of kinetic energy and personality". The largely monochromatic drawings were accompanied by a few pages with colored backgrounds, mostly yellow, with one grey. These backgrounds, it was suggested in Kirkus Reviews, reflect the emotional state of the cats. The text was minimal. The opening lines were specifically quoted in several reviews: "There was a cat // who lived alone. / Until the day // a new cat came." The cats were the focus of the story without losing their feline qualities; "absolutely cat... it stays respectful and non-anthropomorphic", according to Deborah Stevenson, writing in The Bulletin of the Center for Children's Books. The cats' companionship was a key theme of the book, with the friends teaching and learning from one another. The human family in the story, by contrast, is only shown in silhouette. According to critics, Cooper nonetheless manages to effectively convey the feelings of all of the characters. For instance, it is clear how sad both the black cat and the family are after the white cat dies. The themes of loss and the cycle of life are shown through the circular nature of the story. The book has, according to Kirkus Reviews, a "heart-healing message". ## Reception and awards The book received critical praise. Lolly Gepson, writing for Booklist in a starred review, explained that "Cooper certainly loves and understands cat behavior, as exemplified in his various poses of cats at rest and in action. The book also received starred reviews in The Bulletin of the Center for Children's Books, Kirkus Reviews, The Horn Book Magazine, Publishers Weekly, and the School Library Journal, where librarian Paige Mellinger described it as "a gentle, loving look at the life cycle of pets". The illustrations were recognized with a 2018 Caldecott Honor, with the award committee citing how the book's "[s]imple and joyful domestic routines underscore the deeply entwined lives of two feline companions and the impact of loss on one". The book's writing was "Highly Commended" in 2018 for the Charlotte Zolotow Award of the Cooperative Children's Book Center (CCBC) at the University of Wisconsin–Madison School of Education. According to the CCBC, "Although the premise isn't original, the execution of this picture book is superb."
15,487,193	SMS Karlsruhe (1916)	1,167,611,278	Light cruiser of the German Imperial Navy	[ "1916 ships", "Königsberg-class cruisers (1915)", "Maritime incidents in 1919", "Ships built in Wilhelmshaven", "World War I cruisers of Germany", "World War I warships scuttled at Scapa Flow" ]	SMS Karlsruhe was a light cruiser of the Königsberg class, built for the Kaiserliche Marine (Imperial Navy) during World War I. She was named after the earlier Karlsruhe, which had sunk in November 1914, from an accidental explosion. The new cruiser was laid down in 1914 at the Kaiserliche Werft shipyard in Kiel, launched in January 1916, and commissioned into the High Seas Fleet in November 1916. Armed with eight 15 cm SK L/45 guns, the ship had a top speed of 27.5 kn (50.9 km/h; 31.6 mph). She saw relatively limited service during the war, due to her commissioning late in the conflict. She was present during a brief engagement with British light forces in August 1917, though she did not actively participate in the battle. She joined the large task force assigned to Operation Albion in October 1917, but did not see significant action during that operation either. She was assigned to what was to have been the final sortie of the High Seas Fleet in the closing days of the war, but a large-scale mutiny in significant parts of the fleet forced the cancellation of the plan. Karlsruhe was interned in Scapa Flow after the end of the war, and scuttled there on 21 June 1919. Unlike most of the other ships sunk there, her wreck was never raised. ## Design Karlsruhe was 151.4 meters (496 ft 9 in) long overall and had a beam of 14.2 m (46 ft 7 in) and a draft of 5.96 m (19 ft 7 in) forward. She displaced 5,440 t (5,350 long tons) normally and up to 7,125 t (7,012 long tons) at full load. Her propulsion system consisted of two sets of steam turbines powered by ten coal-fired and two oil-fired Marine-type water-tube boilers. These provided a top speed of 27.5 knots (50.9 km/h; 31.6 mph) and a range of 4,850 nautical miles (8,980 km; 5,580 mi) at 12 knots (22 km/h; 14 mph). The ship had a crew of 17 officers and 458 enlisted men. The ship was armed with a main battery of eight 15 cm (5.9 in) SK L/45 guns in single pedestal mounts. Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle, four were located amidships, two on either side, and two were arranged in a superfiring pair aft. They were supplied with 1,040 rounds of ammunition, for 130 shells per gun. Karlsruhe also carried two 8.8 cm (3.5 in) SK L/45 anti-aircraft guns mounted on the centerline astern of the funnels. She was also equipped with a pair of 50 cm (19.7 in) torpedo tubes with eight torpedoes in deck-mounted swivel launchers amidships. She also carried 200 mines. The ship was protected by a waterline armored belt that was 60 mm (2.4 in) thick amidships. The conning tower had 100 mm (3.9 in) thick sides, and the deck was covered with 60 mm thick armor plate. ## Service history Karlsruhe was ordered under the contract name "Ersatz Niobe" and was laid down at the Kaiserliche Werft shipyard in Kiel in 1915. She was launched on 31 January 1916 without ceremony due to the war, after which fitting-out work commenced. She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 15 November 1916. She was not allocated to a fleet unit until 22 February 1917, when she was assigned to II Scouting Group. She thereafter served with the other cruisers of the unit in conducting defensive patrols in the German Bight to guard against British incursions. She also supported minelaying and minesweeping operations, the first of which took place on 5 March. Karlsruhe escorted a group of minesweepers into the German Bight to clear a British minefield. Another operation took place on 6 April; Karlsruhe, the light cruiser Graudenz, and the 2nd Torpedo-boat Half-Flotilla sortied to the Amrun Bank to rescue the submarine U-22, which had been damaged and needed assistance returning to port. On 16 August 1917, Karlsruhe participated in a mine-sweeping operation in the North Sea. The minesweepers were clearing Route Yellow, one of the channels in the minefields used by U-boats to leave and return to port. Karlsruhe was joined by the cruiser SMS Frankfurt and three torpedo boats. At 12:55, lookouts on one of the minesweepers spotted a British squadron of three light cruisers and sixteen destroyers approaching. The minesweepers fled south under cover of smoke screens, after which the British broke off the attack. Karlsruhe and the rest of the escort failed to come to their aid, however, and the commander of the operation was subsequently relieved of command. ### Operation Albion In early September 1917, following the German conquest of the Russian port of Riga, the German navy decided to eliminate the Russian naval forces that still held the Gulf of Riga. Karlsruhe took part in training exercises that month with the rest of II Scouting Group in preparation for the attack. The Admiralstab (Navy High Command) planned Operation Albion to seize the Baltic island of Ösel, and specifically the Russian gun batteries on the Sworbe Peninsula. On 18 September, the order was issued for a joint operation with the army to capture Ösel and Moon Islands; the primary naval component comprised the flagship, the battlecruiser Moltke, along with the III and IV Battle Squadrons of the High Seas Fleet. The invasion force amounted to approximately 24,600 officers and enlisted men. Karlsruhe and the rest of II Scouting Group provided the cruiser screen for the task force. On 24 September, Karlsruhe departed Kiel, bound for Libau, where she arrived the following day. On 26 September, she helped carry infantry units to Putziger Wiek, where the men were loaded onto the capital ships of the invasion fleet. Karlsruhe thereafter returned to Libau on 2 October, where she embarked two officers and seventy-eight enlisted men from the Saxon Radfahr-Bataillonen (Bicycle Battalion). The ship then left Libau on 11 October as the leader of the 2nd Transport Group. The operation began on the morning of 12 October, when Moltke and the III Squadron ships engaged Russian positions in Tagga Bay while the IV Squadron shelled Russian gun batteries on the Sworbe Peninsula on Ösel. The men aboard Karlsruhe went ashore in Tagga Bay that morning; she left the area in company with ten transport ships on 17 October and escorted them back to Libau. Over the course of the next two days, Karlsruhe and the rest of II Scouting Group covered minesweepers operating off the island of Dagö, but due to an insufficient number of minesweepers and bad weather, the operation was postponed. By 20 October, the islands were under German control and the Russian naval forces had either been destroyed or forced to withdraw. The Admiralstab then ordered the naval component to return to the North Sea. Karlsruhe returned to Kiel before proceeding to the North Sea on 27 October, where she resumed coastal defense duties. From 16 November to 6 December, she underwent periodic maintenance. ### Later career In early April 1918, Karlsruhe supported the laying of a defensive minefield in the North Sea that was laid in preparation for a major fleet operation later that month. She then took part in the abortive fleet operation on 23–24 April to attack British convoys to Norway. I Scouting Group and II Scouting Group, along with the Second Torpedo-Boat Flotilla were to attack a heavily guarded British convoy to Norway, with the rest of the High Seas Fleet steaming in support. During the operation, Karlsruhe and Graudenz were the leading vessels in the German formation. While steaming off the Utsira Lighthouse in southern Norway, Moltke had a serious accident with her machinery, which led Scheer to break off the operation and return to port by 25 April. From 10 to 13 May, Karlsruhe and the rest of II Scouting Group escorted the minelayer Senta while the latter vessel laid a defensive minefield to block British submarines form operating in the German Bight. Later that month, she escorted the new dreadnought battleship Baden. II Scouting Group thereafter conducted additional training in the Baltic from 11 to 12 July. Karlsruhe's commander served as the commander of the group while the group commander, Kapitän zur See (KzS—Captain at Sea) Magnus von Levetzow, was away for the meetings that led to the formation of the Seekriegsleitung (SKL—Maritime Warfare Command). Levetzow returned on 5 August, Karlsruhe having gone into the shipyard for maintenance on 1 August. Karlsruhe took part in evacuation efforts on the coast of Flanders on 14 August in the aftermath of the Battle of Amiens. She loaded seventy mines, with the intention of laying a minefield in company with the cruisers Brummer and Nürnberg, but the operation was cancelled when it became clear that Nürnberg had to be drydocked for repairs. Karlsruhe took part in training operations in the Baltic from 16 to 23 October, after which she resumed guard duties in the German Bight. Later that month, Karlsruhe and the rest of the II Scouting Group were to lead a final attack on the British navy. Karlsruhe, Nürnberg, and Graudenz were to bombard targets in Flanders while Pillau, Cöln, Dresden, and Königsberg were to attack merchant shipping in the Thames estuary, to draw out the British Grand Fleet. Admirals Reinhard Scheer and Franz von Hipper intended to inflict as much damage as possible on the British navy, to secure a better bargaining position for Germany, whatever the cost to the fleet. On the morning of 29 October 1918, the order was given to sail from Wilhelmshaven the following day. Starting on the night of 29 October, sailors on Thüringen and then on several other battleships mutinied. The unrest ultimately forced Hipper and Scheer to cancel the operation. ### Internment and scuttling Following the capitulation of Germany in November 1918, most of the High Seas Fleet's ships, under the command of Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter, were interned in the British naval base in Scapa Flow. Karlsruhe was among the ships interned, and the II Scouting Group commander, KzS Victor Harder, came aboard Karlsruhe for the voyage to internment since his normal flagship, Königsberg, was not included on the list of ships to be interned. The fleet remained in captivity during the negotiations that ultimately produced the Versailles Treaty. Von Reuter believed that the British intended to seize the German ships on 21 June 1919, which was the deadline for Germany to have signed the peace treaty. Unaware that the deadline had been extended to the 23rd, Reuter ordered the ships to be sunk at the next opportunity. On the morning of 21 June, the British fleet left Scapa Flow to conduct training maneuvers, and at 11:20 Reuter transmitted the order to his ships; Karlsruhe sank at 15:50, one of the last ships of the fleet to sink. She was never raised for scrapping, as she had sunk in a greater depth than many of the other ships. The rights to her wreck were sold in 1962, and some non-ferrous metals were removed from the wreck. In 2017, marine archaeologists from the Orkney Research Center for Archaeology conducted extensive surveys of Karlsruhe and nine other wrecks in the area, including six other German and three British warships. The archaeologists mapped the wrecks with sonar and examined them with remotely operated underwater vehicles as part of an effort to determine how the wrecks are deteriorating. The wreck at some point came into the ownership of the firm Scapa Flow Salvage, which sold the rights to the vessel to Tommy Clark, a diving contractor, in 1981. Clark listed the wreck for sale on eBay with a "buy-it-now" price of £60,000, with the auction lasting until 28 June 2019. The wreck of Karlsruhe ultimately sold for £8,500 to a private buyer, while the three dreadnoughts Clark had also placed for sale were purchased by a company from the Middle East for £25,500 apiece. Her wreck lies at 25 m (82 ft) and remains a popular site for recreational scuba divers.
159,836	Chinese Indonesians	1,173,390,160	Ethnic group	[ "Chinese Indonesian culture", "Chinese diaspora by country", "Chinese diaspora in Indonesia", "Ethnic groups in Indonesia", "Immigration to Indonesia", "Indonesian people of Chinese descent" ]	Chinese Indonesians (Indonesian: Orang Tionghoa Indonesia), colloquially Chindos or simply Tionghoa are Indonesians whose ancestors arrived from China at some stage in the last eight centuries. Chinese Indonesians are the fourth largest community of Overseas Chinese in the world after Thailand, Malaysia, and the United States. Chinese people and their Indonesian descendants have lived in the Indonesian archipelago since at least the 13th century. Many came initially as sojourners (temporary residents), intending to return home in their old age.[^1] Some, however, stayed in the region as economic migrants. Their population grew rapidly during the colonial period when workers were contracted from their home provinces in Southern China. Discrimination against Chinese Indonesians has occurred since the start of Dutch colonialism in the region, although government policies implemented since 1998 have attempted to redress this. Resentment of ethnic Chinese economic aptitude grew in the 1950s as Native Indonesian merchants felt they could not remain competitive. In some cases, government action propagated the stereotype that ethnic Chinese-owned conglomerates were corrupt. Although the 1997 Asian financial crisis severely disrupted their business activities, reform of government policy and legislation removed most if not all political and social restrictions on Chinese Indonesians. The development of local Chinese society and culture is based upon three pillars: clan associations, ethnic media and Chinese-language schools. These flourished during the period of Chinese nationalism in the final years of China's Qing dynasty and through the Second Sino-Japanese War; however, differences in the objective of nationalist sentiments brought about a split in the population. One group supported political reforms in China, while others worked towards improved status in local politics. The New Order government (1967–1998) dismantled the pillars of ethnic Chinese identity in favor of assimilation policies as a solution to the so-called "Chinese Problem". The Chinese Indonesian population of Java accounts for nearly half of the group's national population. They are generally more urbanized than Indonesia's indigenous population but significant rural and agricultural communities still exist throughout the country. Declining fertility rates have resulted in an upward shift in the population pyramid, as the median age increases. Emigration has contributed to a shrinking population and communities have emerged in more industrialized nations in the second half of the 20th century. Some have participated in repatriation programs to the People's Republic of China, while others emigrated to neighbouring Singapore and Western countries to escape anti-Chinese sentiment. Among the overseas residents, their identities are noticeably more Indonesian than Chinese. ## Classification The term "Chinese Indonesian" has never been clearly defined, especially for the period before 1900. There was no Indonesian identity or nationality before the 20th century. The ethno-political category Han Chinese was also poorly defined before the rise of modern Chinese nationalism in the late 19th century. At its broadest, the term "Chinese Indonesian" is used to refer to anyone from, or having an ancestor from, the present-day territory of China. This usage is problematic because it conflates Han Chinese with other ethnic groups under Chinese rule. For instance, Admiral Zheng He (1371–1433), who led several Chinese maritime expeditions into Southeast Asia, was a Muslim from Yunnan and was not of Chinese ancestry, yet he is generally characterized as "Chinese". This broad use is also problematic because it prioritizes a line of descent from China over all other lines and may conflict with an individual's own self-identity. Many people who identify as Chinese Indonesian are of mixed Chinese and Indonesian descent. Indonesia's president Abdurrahman Wahid (1940-2009) is widely believed to have some Chinese ancestry, but he did not regard himself as Chinese. Some narrower uses of the term focus on culture, defining as "Chinese Indonesian" those who choose to prioritize their Chinese ancestry, especially those who have Chinese names or follow aspects of Chinese religion or culture. Within this cultural definition, a distinction has commonly been made between peranakan and totok Chinese. Peranakan were generally said to have mixed Chinese and local ancestry and to have developed a hybrid culture that included elements from both Chinese and local cultures. Totoks were generally said to be first-generation migrants and to have retained a strong Chinese identity. Other definitions focus on the succession of legal classifications that have separated "Chinese" from other inhabitants of the archipelago. Both the Dutch East India Company and the Dutch colonial government (from 1815) applied complex systems of ethnic classification to their subjects, based on religion, culture and place of origin. Chinese Indonesians were sometimes classified as "Natives", sometimes as "Chinese", sometimes as "Foreign Orientals", a category that included Arabs, Indians and Siamese. After independence, the community was divided between those who accepted Indonesian citizenship and those who did not. Under the New Order of President Suharto, citizens of Chinese descent were formally classified as "Indonesian citizens of foreign descent" (Warga Negara Indonesia keturunan asing). In public discourse they were distinguished from native Indonesians as "non-native" (non-pribumi or non-pri). ## History ### Early interactions The first recorded movement of people from China into Maritime Southeast Asia was the arrival of Mongol forces under Kublai Khan that culminated in the invasion of Java in 1293. Their intervention hastened the decline of the classical kingdoms such as Singhasari and precipitated the rise of the Majapahit empire. Chinese Muslim traders from the eastern coast of China arrived at the coastal towns of Indonesia and Malaysia in the early 15th century. They were led by the mariner Zheng He, who commanded several expeditions to Southeast Asia between 1405 and 1430. In the book Yingya Shenglan, his translator Ma Huan documented the activities of the Chinese Muslims in the archipelago and the legacy left by Zheng He and his men. These traders settled along the northern coast of Java, but there is no documentation of their settlements beyond the 16th century. The Chinese Muslims were likely to have been absorbed into the majority Muslim population. Between 1450 and 1520, the Ming dynasty's interest in southeastern Asia reached a low point and trade, both legal and illegal, rarely reached the archipelago. The Portuguese made no mention of any resident Chinese minority population when they arrived in Indonesia in the early 16th century. Trade from the north was re-established when China legalized private trade in 1567 through licensing 50 junks a year. Several years later silver began flowing into the region, from Japan, Mexico, and Europe, and trade flourished once again. Distinct Chinese colonies emerged in hundreds of ports throughout southeastern Asia, including the pepper port of Banten. Some Chinese traders avoided Portuguese Malacca after it fell to the Portuguese in the 1511 Capture of Malacca. Many Chinese, however, cooperated with the Portuguese for the sake of trade. Some Chinese in Java assisted in Muslim attempts to reconquer the city using ships. The Javanese–Chinese participation in retaking Malacca was recorded in "The Malay Annals of Semarang and Cerbon". Han Chinese in Indonesia forbid parallel cousin marriage which Han culture bans. Hui Muslims marry parallel cousins. ### Chinese in the archipelago under Dutch East India Company rule (1600–1799) By the time the Dutch arrived in the early 17th century, major Chinese settlements existed along the north coast of Java. Most were traders and merchants, but they also practiced agriculture in inland areas. The Dutch contracted many of these immigrants as skilled artisans in the construction of Batavia (Jakarta) on the northwestern coast of Java. A recently created harbor was selected as the new headquarters of the Dutch East India Company (Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie, VOC) in 1609 by Jan Pieterszoon Coen. It grew into a major hub for trade with China and India. Batavia became home to the largest Chinese community in the archipelago and remains so in the 21st century. Coen and other early governors-general promoted the entry of Chinese immigrants to new settlements "for the benefit of those places and for the purpose of gathering spices like cloves, nutmeg, and mace". The port's Chinese population of 300–400 in 1619 had grown to at least 10,000 by 1740. The VOC ruled migrant ethnic groups in Batavia using 'officers' drawn from each community, usually with the title kapitan or majoor. These officers had a high degree of authority over their community and undertook negotiations between the community and VOC authorities. Dutch colonial rule saw the beginning of anti-Chinese policies, including killings and ghettoization. Most of those who settled in the archipelago had already severed their ties with the mainland and welcomed favorable treatment and protection under the Dutch. Some became "revenue farmers", middlemen within the corporate structure of the VOC, tasked with collecting export–import duties and managing the harvest of natural resources; although this was highly profitable, it earned the enmity of the pribumi population. Others worked as opium farmers. Following the 1740 Batavia massacre and ensuing war, in which the Chinese rebelled against the Dutch, the Dutch attempted to place a quota on the number of Chinese who could enter the Indies. Amoy was designated as the only immigration port to the archipelago, and ships were limited to a specified number of crew and passengers depending on size. This quota was adjusted at times to meet demand for overseas workers, such as in July 1802 when sugar mills near Batavia were in need of workers. Han Chinese Peranakan rebels and Javanese Muslims both fought against the Dutch in the Java war in 1741 while Madurese Muslims allied with the Dutch. The Javanese Susuhunan Pakubuwana II joined the Chinese against the Dutch while the Dutch relieved the Madurese prince of his allegiance to the Susuhunan. Han Siong Kong founded the Han family of Lasem at this time. Chinese who married local Javanese women and converted to Islam created a distinct Chinese Muslim Peranakan community in Java. Chinese rarely had to convert to Islam to marry Javanese abangan women but a significant amount of their offspring did, and Batavian Muslims absorbed the Chinese Muslim community which was descended from converts. Adoption of Islam back then was a marker of peranakan status which it no longer means. The Semaran Adipati and the Jayaningrat families were of Chinese origin. Dayak women were married by the first Chinese men to settle in Borneo and this was recorded in the Hailu by Xie Qinggao (1765-1822) who was a merchant. After growing their initial population through this they began marrying each other's daughters. ### Chinese in the archipelago under Dutch colonial rule to 1900 When the VOC was nationalized on 31 December 1799, many freedoms the Chinese experienced under the corporation were eliminated by the Dutch government. Among them was the Chinese monopoly on the salt trade which had been granted by the VOC administration. An 1816 regulation introduced a requirement for the indigenous population and Chinese traveling within the territory to obtain a travel permit. Those who did not carry a permit faced arrest by security officers. The governor-general also introduced a resolution in 1825 which forbade "foreign Asians in Java such as Malays, Buginese and Chinese" from living within the same neighborhood as the native population. Following the costly Java War (1825–1830) the Dutch introduced a new agrarian and cultivation system that required farmers to "yield up a portion of their fields and cultivate crops suitable for the European market". Compulsory cultivation restored the economy of the colony, but ended the system of revenue farms established under the VOC. The Chinese were perceived as temporary residents and encountered difficulties in obtaining land rights. Europeans were prioritized in the choice of plantation areas, while colonial officials believed the remaining plots must be protected and preserved for the indigenous population. Short-term and renewable leases of varying lengths were later introduced as a temporary measure, but many Chinese remained on these lands upon expiration of their contracts and became squatters. At the beginning of the 20th century, the colonial government began to implement the "Ethical Policy" to protect the indigenous population, casting the Chinese as the "foremost enemy of the natives". Under the new policy, the administration increased restrictions on Chinese economic activities, which they believed exploited the native population. Powerful Chinese families were described as the 'Cabang Atas' ("upper branch") of colonial society, forming influential bureaucratic and business dynasties, such as the Kwee family of Ciledug and the Tan family of Cirebon. In western Borneo, the Chinese established their first major mining settlement in 1760. Ousting Dutch settlers and the local Malay princes, they joined into a new republic known as Lanfang. By 1819, they came into conflict with the new Dutch government and were seen as "incompatible" with its objectives, yet indispensable for the development of the region. The Bangka–Belitung Islands also became examples of major settlements in rural areas. In 1851, 28 Chinese were recorded on the islands and, by 1915, the population had risen to nearly 40,000 and fishing and tobacco industries had developed. Coolies brought into the region after the end of the 19th century were mostly hired from the Straits Settlements owing to recruiting obstacles that existed in China. Lowland Chinese in 1904 sold Beaumont and Winchester rifles in Sumatra to Bataks who were attacking and fighting the Dutch. ### Divided nationalism (1900–1949) The Chinese revolutionary figure Sun Yat-sen visited southeast Asia in 1900, and, later that year, the socio-religious organization Tiong Hoa Hwe Koan (中華會館), also known as the Chinese Association, was founded. Their goal was to urge ethnic Chinese in the Indies to support the revolutionary movement in China. In its effort to build Chinese-speaking schools the association argued that the teaching of the English and Chinese languages should be prioritized over Dutch, to provide themselves with the means of taking, in the words of Phoa Keng Hek, "a two or three-day voyage (Java–Singapore) into a wider world where they can move freely" and overcome restrictions of their activities. Several years later, the Dutch authorities abandoned its segregation policies, abolished travel permits for the ethnic Chinese, and allowed them to freely move throughout the colony. The 1911 Xinhai Revolution and the 1912 founding of the Republic of China coincided with a growing Chinese–nationalist movement within the Indies. Although there was no recognizable nationalist movement among the indigenous population until 1908, Dutch authorities feared that nationalist sentiments would spread with the growth of ethnically mixed associations, known as kongsi. In 1911, some Javanese members of the Kong Sing association in Surakarta broke away and clashed with the ethnic Chinese. This incident led to the creation of Sarekat Islam, the first organized popular nationalist movement in the Indies. Indigenous groups saw the Chinese nationalist sentiment as "haughty", leading to mutual antagonism. The anti-Chinese sentiment spread throughout Java in 1918 and led to violent attacks orchestrated by members of Sarekat Islam on the ethnic Chinese in Kudus. Following this incident, the left-wing Chinese nationalist daily Sin Po called on both sides to work together to improve living conditions because it considered most ethnic Chinese, like most of the indigenous population, to be poor. Sin Po first went into print in 1910 and began gaining momentum as the leading advocate of Chinese political nationalism in 1917. The ethnic Chinese who followed its stream of thought refused any involvement with local institutions and would only participate in politics relating to mainland China. A second stream was later formed by wealthy ethnic Chinese who received an education at Dutch-run schools. This Dutch-oriented group wished for increased participation in local politics, Dutch education for the ethnic Chinese, and the furthering of ethnic Chinese economic standing within the colonial economy. Championed by the Volksraad's Chinese representatives, such as Hok Hoei Kan, Loa Sek Hie and Phoa Liong Gie, this movement gained momentum and reached its peak with the Chung Hwa Congress of 1927 and the 1928 formation of the Chung Hwa Hui party, which elected Kan as its president. The editor-in-chief of the Madjallah Panorama news magazine criticized Sin Po for misguiding the ethnic Chinese by pressuring them into a Chinese-nationalist stance. In 1932, pro-Indonesian counterparts founded the Partai Tionghoa Indonesia to support absorption of the ethnic Chinese into the Javanese population and support the call for self-government of Indonesia. Members of this group were primarily peranakan. This division resurfaced at the end of the period of Japanese occupation (1942–1945). Under the occupation ethnic Chinese communities were attacked by Japanese forces, in part owing to suspicions that they contained sympathizers of the Kuomintang as a consequence of the Second Sino-Japanese War. When the Dutch returned, following the end of World War II, the chaos caused by advancing forces and retreating revolutionaries also saw radical Muslim groups attack ethnic Chinese communities. Although revolutionary leaders were sympathetic toward the ethnic Chinese, they were unable to stop the sporadic violence. Those who were affected fled from the rural areas to Dutch-controlled cities, a move many Indonesians saw as proof of pro-Dutch sentiments. There was evidence, however, that Chinese Indonesians were represented and participated in independence efforts. Four members of the Investigating Committee for Preparatory Work for Independence (BPUPK) were Chinese: Liem Koen Hian, Oey Tiang Tjoei, Oey Tjong Hauw and Tan Eng Hoa. Yap Tjwan Bing was the sole Chinese member of the Preparatory Committee for Indonesian Independence (PPKI). Ong Eng Die became a government minister in the Indonesian Republic. Other examples include Kwee Thiam Hiong member of Jong Sumatranen Bond [id], Abubakar Tjan Kok Tjiang and Thung Tjing Ek (Jakub Thung) exploits in Kaimana and Serui respectively, BPRT (Barisan Pemberontak Rakjat Tionghoa) which was founded in Surakarta on 4 January 1946, LTI (Lasjkar Tionghoa Indonesia) in Pemalang, and in Kudus Chinese descents became members of Muria Territorial Command called Matjan Poetih troops, a platoon size force under Mayor Kusmanto. ### Loyalty in question (1950–1966) The Netherlands relinquished its territorial claims in the archipelago (with the exception of West Papua) following the 1949 Round Table Conference. In the same year that the Kuomintang retreated to Taiwan, allowing the Chinese Communist Party to take control of mainland China. Most Chinese Indonesians considered a communist China less attractive than a newly independent Indonesia, but in the archipelago their loyalties were questioned. Ethnic Chinese born in the Dutch East Indies whose parents were domiciled under Dutch administration were regarded as citizens of the new state according to the principle of jus soli, or "right of the soil". However, Chinese law considered a person as a Chinese citizen according to the principle of jus sanguinis, or right of blood. This meant that all Indonesian citizens of Chinese descent were also claimed as citizens by the People's Republic of China. After several attempts by both governments to resolve this issue, Indonesia and China signed a Dual Nationality Treaty on the sidelines of the 1955 Asian–African Conference in Bandung. One of its provisions permitted Indonesians to renounce Chinese citizenship if they wished to hold Indonesian citizenship only. As many as 390,000 ethnic Chinese, two-thirds of those with rightful claims to Indonesian citizenship renounced their Chinese status when the treaty came into effect in 1962. On the other hand, an estimated 60,000 ethnic Chinese students left for the People's Republic of China in the 1950s and early 1960s. The first wave of students were almost entirely educated in Chinese-language schools, but were not able to find opportunities for tertiary education in Indonesia. Seeking quality scientific professions, they entered China with high hopes for their future and that of the mainland. Subsequent migrations occurred in 1960 as part of a repatriation program and in 1965–1966 following a series of anti-communist violence that also drew anger toward the ethnic Chinese. As many as 80 percent of the original students who entered the mainland eventually became refugees in Hong Kong. During China's Cultural Revolution (1966–1976), Red Guards questioned the loyalty of the returned overseas Chinese because of their foreign connections. They were attacked as "imperialists", "capitalists", "spies", "half-breeds", and "foreign devils".As most had grown up in an urban environment they were sent to the countryside, told to "rebel against their own class background", and eventually lost contact with their families. In 1959, following the introduction of soft-authoritarian rule through Guided Democracy, the Indonesian government and military began placing restrictions on alien residence and trade. These regulations culminated in the enactment of Presidential Regulation 10 in November 1959, banning retail services by non-indigenous persons in rural areas. Ethnic Chinese, Arab, and Dutch businessmen were specifically targeted during its enforcement to provide a more favorable market for indigenous businesses. This move was met with protests from the Chinese government and some circles of Indonesian society. Javanese writer Pramoedya Ananta Toer later criticized the policies in his 1961 book Hoakiau di Indonesia. An integrationist movement, led by the Chinese-Indonesian organisation Baperki (Badan Permusjawaratan Kewarganegaraan Indonesia), began to gather interest in 1963, including that of President Sukarno. However, a series of attacks on ethnic Chinese communities in West Java in May proved it to be short-lived, despite the government's condemnation of the violence. When Baperki was branded a communist organization in 1965 the ethnic Chinese were implicated by association; this was exacerbated in the public mind by the People's Republic of China's communism. As many as 500,000 people, the majority of them Javanese Abangan Muslims and Balinese Indonesians but including a minority of several thousand ethnic Chinese, were killed in the anti-communist purge which followed the failed coup d'état, suspected as being communist-led, on 30 September 1965. ### Managing the "Chinese Problem" (1967–1998) When the New Order government of General Suharto came into power in 1966–1967, it introduced a political system based only on the Pancasila (five principles) ideology. To prevent the ideological battles that occurred during Sukarno's presidency from resurfacing, Suharto's "Pancasila democracy" sought a depoliticized system in which discussions of forming a cohesive ethnic Chinese identity were no longer allowed. A government committee was formed in 1967 to examine various aspects of the "Chinese Problem" (Masalah Cina) and agreed that forced emigration of whole communities was not a solution: "The challenge was to take advantage of their economic aptitude whilst eliminating their perceived economic dominance." The semi-governmental Institute for the Promotion of National Unity (Lembaga Pembina Kesatuan Bangsa, LPKB) was formed to advise the government on facilitating assimilation of Chinese Indonesians. This process was done through highlighting the differences between the ethnic Chinese and the indigenous pribumi, rather than seeking similarities. Expressions of Chinese culture through language, religion, and traditional festivals were banned and the ethnic Chinese were pressured to adopt Indonesian-sounding names. During the 1970s and 1980s, Suharto and his government brought in Chinese Indonesian businesses to participate in the economic development programs of the New Order while keeping them highly vulnerable to strengthen the central authority and restrict political freedoms. Patron–client relationships, mainly through the exchange of money for security, became an accepted norm among the ethnic Chinese as they maintained a social contract through which they could claim a sense of belonging in the country. A minority of the economic elite of Indonesian society, both those who were and were not ethnic Chinese, secured relationships with Suharto's family members and members of the military for protection, while small business owners relied on local law enforcement officials. Stereotypes of the wealthy minority became accepted as generalized facts but failed to acknowledge that said businessmen were few in number compared to the small traders and shop owners. In a 1989 interview conducted by scholar Adam Schwarz for his book A Nation in Waiting: Indonesia's Search for Stability, an interviewee stated that, "to most Indonesians, the word 'Chinese' is synonymous with corruption". The economic role of the ethnic Chinese was contradictory because it did not translate to acceptance of their status in the greater society. They were politically weak and often faced social harassment. Anti-Chinese sentiment gathered intensity through the 1990s. President Suharto gathered the most powerful businessmen—mostly Chinese Indonesians—in a nationally televised 1990 meeting at his private ranch, calling on them to contribute 25 percent of their shares to cooperatives. Commentators described the spectacle as "good theatre", as it only served to reinforce resentment and suspicion of the ethnic Chinese among the indigenous population. Major riots broke out in Situbondo (October 1996), Tasikmalaya (December 1996), and Rengasdengklok (January 1997). When Suharto entered his seventh term as president, following an uncontested election on 10 March 1998, Indonesian students began a series of major demonstrations in protest of the New Order regime which continued for weeks and culminated in the shootings of four students by security forces at Trisakti University in May. The incident sparked major violence in several cities during 12–15 May. Property and businesses owned by Chinese Indonesians were targeted by mobs, and over 100 women were sexually assaulted; this aspect of the riots, though generally accepted as true, has been denied by several Indonesian groups. In the absence of security forces, large groups of men, women, and children looted and burned the numerous shopping malls in major cities. In Jakarta and Surakarta over 1,000 people—both Chinese and non-Chinese—died inside shopping malls. Tens of thousands of ethnic Chinese fled the country following these events, and bankers estimated that US\$20 billion of capital had left the country in 1997–1999 to overseas destinations such as Singapore, Hong Kong, and the United States. In the late 1990s and early 2000s during the fall of Suharto there was mass ethnic violence with Catholic Dayaks and Malays in west Borneo killing the state sponsored Madurese settlers. The Malays and Madurese were both Muslims but the Malays declared the Madurese as apostates to justify the killings. The local Chinese in western Borneo supported the Dayaks and Malays in their anti-Madurese killings. One Dayak during the riot expressed his hatred of the Madurese while he had a Chinese married to his sister which he liked. ### Social policy reforms (1999–present) Suharto resigned on 21 May 1998, one week after he returned from a Group of 15 meeting in Cairo, which took place during the riots. The reform government formed by his successor Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie began a campaign to rebuild the confidence of Chinese Indonesians who had fled the country, particularly businessmen. Along with one of his envoys James Riady, son of financial magnate Mochtar Riady, Habibie appealed to Chinese Indonesians seeking refuge throughout East Asia, Australia, and North America to return and promised security from various government ministries as well as other political figures, such as Abdurrahman Wahid and Amien Rais. Despite Habibie's efforts he was met with skepticism because of remarks he made, as vice president and as president, which suggested that the message was insincere. One special envoy described Chinese Indonesians as the key to restoring "badly needed" capital and economic activity, prioritizing businessmen as the target of their pleas. Others, including economist Kwik Kian Gie, saw the government's efforts as perpetuating the myth of Chinese economic domination rather than affirming the ethnic Chinese identity. Symbolic reforms to Chinese Indonesian rights under Habibie's administration were made through two presidential instructions. The first abolished the use of the terms "pribumi" and "non-pribumi" in official government documents and business. The second abolished the ban on the study of Mandarin Chinese and reaffirmed a 1996 instruction that abolished the use of the SBKRI to identify citizens of Chinese descent. Habibie established a task force to investigate the May 1998 violence, although his government later dismissed its findings. As an additional legal gesture Indonesia ratified the 1965 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination on 25 May 1999. In 2000 the newly elected President Wahid abolished the ban on public displays of Chinese culture and allowed Chinese traditions to be practised freely, without the need of a permit. Two years later President Megawati Sukarnoputri declared that the Chinese New Year (Imlek) would be marked as a national holiday from 2003. In addition to Habibie's directive on the term "pribumi", the legislature passed a new citizenship law in 2006 defining the word asli ("indigenous") in the Constitution as a natural born person, allowing Chinese Indonesians to be eligible to run for president. The law further stipulates that children of foreigners born in Indonesia are eligible to apply for Indonesian citizenship. The post-Suharto era saw the end of discriminatory policy against Chinese Indonesians. Since then, numbers of Chinese Indonesians began to take part in the nation's politics, government and administrative sector. The Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono presidency (2004–2014) saw the first female Chinese Indonesian minister Mari Elka Pangestu as Minister of Trade (2004-2011) and Minister of Tourism and Creative Economy (2011-2014). Another notable Chinese Indonesian in Indonesian politics is Basuki Tjahaja Purnama, former Regent of East Belitung (2005–2006) and first governor of Jakarta (2014–2017) of Chinese descent. However, discrimination and prejudice against Chinese Indonesians continues in the 21st century. On 15 March 2016, Indonesian Army General Suryo Prabowo commented that the incumbent governor of Jakarta, Basuki Tjahaja Purnama, should "know his place lest the Indonesian Chinese face the consequences of his action". This controversial comment was considered to hearken back to previous violence against the Indonesian Chinese. On 9 May 2017, Basuki Tjahaja Purnama was sentenced to two years in prison after being found guilty of committing a criminal act of blasphemy, a move that was widely criticized by many as an attack on free speech. ## Origins Chinese immigrants to the Indonesian archipelago almost entirely originated from various ethnic groups especially the Tanka people of what are now the Fujian and Guangdong provinces in southern China, areas known for their regional diversity. Nearly all Chinese Indonesians are either patrilineal descendants of these early immigrants or new immigrants born in mainland China. The first group of Chinese people to settle in large numbers to escape the coastal ban were the most affected Tanka boat people, other came in much smaller numbers, Teochews from Chaozhou, the Hakkas from Chengxiang county (now renamed Meixian), Huizhou (pronounced Fuizhew in Hakka) and rural county of Dabu (pronounced Thaipo in Hakka), the Cantonese from Guangdong and various different ethnic dialect groups who left the trading city ports of southern Fujian including the ethnic Tanka, Hakkas, etc. Descendants of Hokkien Tanka are the dominant group in eastern Indonesia, Central and East Java and the western coast of Sumatra. Teochews, southern neighbors of the Hokkien, are found throughout the eastern coast of Sumatra, in the Riau Archipelago, and in western Borneo. They were preferred as plantation laborers in Sumatra but have become traders in regions where the Hokkien are not well represented. From 1628 to 1740, there were more 100,000 Hakkas from Huizhou living in Batavia and Java island. The Hakka, unlike the Hokkien and the Teochew, originate from the mountainous inland regions of Guangdong and do not have a maritime culture. Owing to the unproductive terrain of their home region, the Hakka emigrated out of economic necessity in several waves from 1850 to 1930 and were the poorest of the Chinese immigrant groups. Although they initially populated the mining centers of western Borneo and Bangka Island, Hakkas became attracted to the rapid growth of Batavia and West Java in the late 19th century. The Cantonese people, like the Hakka, were well known throughout Southeast Asia as mineworkers. Their migration in the 19th century was largely directed toward the tin mines of Bangka, off the east coast of Sumatra. Notable traditionally as skilled artisans, the Cantonese benefited from close contact with Europeans in Guangdong and Hong Kong by learning about machinery and industrial success. They migrated to Java about the same time as the Hakka but for different reasons. In Indonesia's cities, they became artisans, machine workers, and owners of small businesses such as restaurants and hotel-keeping services. The Cantonese are evenly dispersed throughout the archipelago and number far less than the Hokkien or the Hakka. Consequently, their roles are of secondary importance in the Chinese communities. ## Demographics Indonesia's 2000 census reported 2,411,503 citizens (1.20 percent of the total population) as ethnic Chinese. An additional 93,717 (0.05 percent) ethnic Chinese living in Indonesia were reported as foreign citizens, mostly those of the People's Republic of China and Republic of China, who may not be able to pay the cost of becoming an Indonesian citizen. Because the census employed the method of self-identification, those who refused to identify themselves as ethnic Chinese, or had assumed the identity of other ethnic groups, either because of assimilation or mixed-parentage, or fear of persecution, were recorded as non-Chinese. It is also likely that there are around 2.8 millions Chinese living in Indonesia according to several external estimates. Past estimates on the exact number of Chinese Indonesians relied on the 1930 Dutch East Indies census, which collected direct information on ethnicity. This census reported 1.23 million self-identified ethnic Chinese living in the colony, representing 2.03 percent of the total population, and was perceived to be an accurate account of the group's population. Ethnic information would not be collected again until the 2000 census and so was deduced from other census data, such as language spoken and religious affiliation, during the intermediate years. In an early survey of the Chinese Indonesian minority, anthropologist G. William Skinner estimated that between 2.3 million (2.4 percent) and 2.6 million (2.7 percent) lived in Indonesia in 1961. Former foreign minister Adam Malik provided a figure of 5 million in a report published in the Harian Indonesia daily in 1973. Many media and academic sources subsequently estimated between 4 and 5 percent of the total population as ethnic Chinese regardless of the year. Estimates during the 2000s have placed the figure between 6 and 7 million, and the Overseas Compatriot Affairs Commission of the Republic of China estimated a population as high as 7.67 million in 2006. According to 2010 population census, 22.3 percent of Chinese Indonesians lived in the capital city of Jakarta, located on the island of Java. When the island's other provinces—Banten, West Java, Central Java, Yogyakarta, and East Java—are included, this population accounted for around half (51.8 percent) of all Chinese Indonesians. This data does not count the number of ethnic Chinese that have foreign citizenship. 8.15 percent of West Kalimantan's population is ethnic Chinese, followed by Bangka–Belitung Islands (8.14 percent), Riau Islands (7.66 percent), Jakarta (6.58 percent), North Sumatra (5,75 percent), Riau (1.84 percent). In each of the remaining provinces, Chinese Indonesians account for 1 percent or less of the provincial population. Most Chinese Indonesians in North Sumatra lived in the provincial capital of Medan; they are one of major ethnic groups in the city with the Bataks and Javanese people, but in the province, they constituted only a small percentage because of the relatively large population of the province, the sizeable Chinese population also has presence in Binjai, Tanjungbalai and Pematangsiantar city. Bangka–Belitung, West Kalimantan, and Riau are grouped around the hub of ethnic Chinese economic activity in Singapore and, with the exception of Bangka–Belitung, these settlements existed long before Singapore's founding in 1819. The ethnic Chinese population in Indonesia grew by an average of 4.3 percent annually between 1920 and 1930. It then slowed owing to the effects of the Great Depression and many areas experienced a net emigration. Falling growth rates were also attributed to a significant decrease in the number of Chinese immigrants admitted into Indonesia since the 1950s. The population is relatively old according to the 2000 census, having the lowest percentage of population under 14 years old nationwide and the second-highest percentage of population over 65. Their population pyramid had a narrow base with a rapid increase until the 15–19 age group, indicating a rapid decline in total fertility rates. This was evidenced by a decline in the absolute number of births since 1980. In Jakarta and West Java the population peak occurred in the 20–24 age group, indicating that the decline in fertility rates began as early as 1975. The upper portion of the pyramid exhibited a smooth decline with increasing population age. It is estimated that 60.7 percent of the Chinese Indonesian population in 2000 constitutes the generation that experienced political and social pressures under the New Order government. With an average life expectancy of 75 years, those who spent their formative years prior to this regime will completely disappear by 2032. According to the last 2010 population census, the self-identified Chinese Indonesian population is 2,832,510. There is a growth of 17.5% from 2000 census, although some of them are because the census bureau improved its counting methodology between 2000 and 2010. During the 2000 census, it only published data for the eight largest ethnic groups in each province. Because Chinese Indonesians in some provinces did not have a large enough population, they were left off the list. This error was only corrected in 2008 when Aris Ananta, Evi Nuridya Arifin, and Bakhtiar from the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies in Singapore published a report that accounted for all Chinese Indonesian populations using raw data from BPS. ### Emigrant communities Emigration by Chinese Indonesians became significant after Indonesian independence in 1945. Large numbers of Chinese Indonesians repatriated to China, Taiwan and Hong Kong throughout the following years, while others moved to more industrialized regions around the world. Although these migrants have Chinese ancestry, they were often not identified as such; this trend has continued into the modern day. There have been several independent estimates made of the Chinese Indonesian population living in other countries. James Jupp's The Australian People encyclopedia estimated that half of over 30,000 Indonesians living in Australia in the late 1990s are ethnic Chinese, and they have since merged with other Chinese communities. In New Zealand, many migrants reside in the suburbs of Auckland after some 1,500 sought asylum from the 1998 upheaval, of which two-thirds were granted residency. Australian scholar Charles Coppel believes Chinese Indonesian migrants also constitute a large majority of returned overseas Chinese living in Hong Kong. Though it is impossible to accurately count this number, news sources have provided estimates ranging from 100,000 to 150,000, while the estimate of 150,000 was published in the Hong Kong Standard on 21 December 1984. . Of the 57,000 Indonesians living in the United States in 2000, one-third were estimated to be ethnic Chinese. Locally knowledgeable migrants in Southern California estimate that 60 percent of Indonesian Americans living in the area are of Chinese descent. In Canada, only a minority of the emigrant Chinese Indonesian community speak Chinese. Although families are interested in rediscovering their ethnic traditions, their Canadian-born children are often reluctant to learn either Chinese mother tongue. ## Society > It may be stated as a general rule that if a given area of Indonesia was settled by Chinese in appreciable numbers prior to this [20th] century, Chinese society there is in some degree dichotomous today. In one sector of the society, adults as well as children are Indonesia-born, the orientation toward China is attenuated, and the influence of the individual culture is apparent. In the other sector of the society, the population consists of twentieth-century immigrants and their immediate descendants, who are less acculturated and more strongly oriented toward China. The significance and pervasiveness of the social line between the two sectors varies from one part of Indonesia to another. Scholars who study Chinese Indonesians often distinguish members of the group according to their racial and sociocultural background: the "totok" and the "peranakan". The two terms were initially used to racially distinguish the pure-blooded Chinese from those with mixed ancestry. A secondary meaning to the terms later arose that meant the "totok" were born in China and anyone born in Indonesia was considered "peranakan". Segmentation within "totok" communities occurs through division in speech groups, a pattern that has become less apparent since the turn of the 20th century. Among the indigenized "peranakan" segmentation occurs through social class, which is graded according to education and family standing rather than wealth. ### Gender and kinship Kinship structure in the "totok" community follows the patrilineal, patrilocal, and patriarchal traditions of Chinese society, a practice which has lost emphasis in "peranakan" familial relationships. Instead, kinship patterns in indigenized families have incorporated elements of matrilocal, matrilineal, and matrifocal traditions found in Javanese society. Within this community, both sons and daughters can inherit the family fortune, including ancestral tablets and ashes. Political, social, and economic authority in "peranakan" families is more evenly distributed between the two genders than in "totok" families. Kin terms do not distinguish between maternal and paternal relatives and polygyny is strongly frowned upon. Western influence in "peranakan" society is evidenced by the high proportion of childless couples. Those who did have children also had fewer of them than "totok" couples. Despite their break from traditional kinship patterns, "peranakan" families are closer to some traditional Chinese values than the "totok". Because the indigenized population have lost much of the connection to their ancestral homes in the coastal provinces of China, they are less affected by the 20th-century modernization patterns that transformed the region. The "peranakan" have a stricter attitude toward divorce, though the separation rates among families in both segments are generally lower than other ethnic groups. Arranged marriages are more common in "peranakan" families, whose relationships tend to be more nepotistic. Secularization among the "totok" meant that their counterparts carry out ancestral rituals to a higher degree, and "peranakan" youth tend to be more religious. Through education provided by high-quality Catholic and Protestant schools, these youth are much more likely to convert to Christianity. In the 21st century, the conceptual differences of "totok" and "peranakan" Chinese are slowly becoming outdated as some families show a mixture of characteristics from both cultures. Interracial marriage and cultural assimilation often prevent the formation a precise definition of Chinese Indonesians in line with any simple racial criterion. Use of a Chinese surname, in some form or circumstance, is generally a sign of cultural self-identification as ethnic Chinese or alignment with a Chinese social system. ### Identity Ethnic Chinese in the 1930 Dutch East Indies census were categorized as foreign orientals, which led to separate registration. Citizenship was conferred upon the ethnic Chinese through a 1946 citizenship act after Indonesia became independent, and it was further reaffirmed in 1949 and 1958. However, they often encountered obstacles regarding the legality of their citizenship. Chinese Indonesians were required to produce an Indonesian Citizenship Certificate (Surat Bukti Kewarganegaraan Republik Indonesia, SBKRI) when conducting business with government officials. Without the SBKRI, they were not able to make passports and identity cards (Kartu Tanda Penduduk, KTP); register birth, death, and marriage certificates; or register a business license. The requirement for its use was abolished in 1996 through a presidential instruction which was reaffirmed in 1999, but media sources reported that local authorities were still demanding the SBKRI from Chinese Indonesians after the instructions went into effect. Other terms used for identifying sectors of the community include peranakan and totok. The former, traditionally used to describe those born locally, is derived from the root Indonesian word anak ("child") and thus means "child of the land". The latter is derived from Javanese, meaning "new" or "pure", and is used to describe the foreign born and new immigrants. A significant number of Chinese Indonesians also live in the People's Republic of China and Hong Kong; they are considered part of the population of "returned overseas Chinese" (歸國華僑). To identify the varying sectors of Chinese Indonesian society, Tan contends they must be differentiated according to nationality into those who are citizens of the host country and those who are resident aliens, then further broken down according to their cultural orientation and social identification. In her doctoral dissertation, Aimee Dawis notes that such definitions, based on cultural affinity and not nation of origin, have gained currency since the early 1990s, although the old definition is occasionally used. Sociologist Mely G. Tan asserts that scholars studying ethnic Chinese emigrants often refer to the group as a "monolithic entity": the overseas Chinese. Such treatment also persists in Indonesia; a majority of the population referred to them as orang Cina or orang Tionghoa (both meaning "Chinese people", 中華人), or hoakiau (華僑). They were previously described in ethnographic literature as the Indonesian Chinese, but there has been a shift in terminology as the old description emphasizes the group's Chinese origins, while the more recent one, its Indonesian integration. Aimee Dawis, citing prominent scholar Leo Suryadinata, believes the shift is "necessary to debunk the stereotype that they are an exclusive group" and also "promotes a sense of nationalism" among them. ### Economic aptitude Members of the "totok" community are more inclined to be entrepreneurs and adhere to the practice of guanxi, which is based on the idea that one's existence is influenced by the connection to others, implying the importance of business connections. In the first decade following Indonesian independence their business standing strengthened after being limited to small businesses in the colonial period. By the 1950s virtually all retail stores in Indonesia were owned by ethnic Chinese entrepreneurs, whose businesses ranged from selling groceries to construction material. Discontentment soon grew among indigenous merchants who felt unable to compete with ethnic Chinese businesses. Under pressure from indigenous merchants, the government enacted the Benteng program and Presidential Regulation 10 of 1959, which imposed restrictions on ethnic Chinese importers and rural retailers. Ethnic Chinese businesses persisted, owing to their integration into larger networks throughout Southeast Asia, and their dominance continued despite continuous state and private efforts to encourage the growth of indigenous capital. Indonesian Chinese businesses are part of the larger bamboo network, a network of overseas Chinese businesses operating in the markets of Southeast Asia that share common family and cultural ties. Government policies shifted dramatically after 1965, becoming more favorable to economic expansion. In an effort to rehabilitate the economy, the government turned to those who possessed the capability to invest and expand corporate activity. Ethnic Chinese capitalists, called the cukong, were supported by the military, which emerged as the dominant political force after 1965. Indigenous businessmen once again demanded greater investment support from the government in the 1970s, but legislative efforts failed to reduce ethnic Chinese dominance. In a 1995 study published by the East Asia Analytical Unit of Australia's Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, approximately 73 percent of the market capitalization value of publicly listed companies (excluding foreign and state-owned companies) were owned by Chinese Indonesians. Additionally, they owned 68 percent of the top 300 conglomerates and nine of the top ten private sector groups at the end of 1993. This figure propagated the general belief that ethnic Chinese—then estimated at 3 percent of the population—controlled 70 percent of the economy. Although the accuracy of this figure was disputed, it was evident that a wealth disparity existed along ethnic boundaries. The image of an economically powerful ethnic Chinese community was further fostered by the government through its inability to dissociate itself from the patronage networks. The Hokchia group dominated the ethnic Chinese business scene during the Suharto government, although other groups emerged after 1998. The top five conglomerates in Indonesia prior to the 1997 Asian financial crisis—the Salim Group, Astra International, the Sinar Mas Group, Gudang Garam, Sampoerna and the Lippo Group—were all owned by ethnic Chinese, with annual sales totaling Rp112 trillion (US\$47 billion). When the crisis finally hit the country, the rupiah's plunge severely disrupted corporate operations. Numerous conglomerates lost a majority of their assets and collapsed. Over the next several years, other conglomerates struggled to repay international and domestic debts. Reforms introduced following 1998 were meant to steer the economy away from oligarchic arrangements established under the New Order; however, plans for reform proved too optimistic. When President B. J. Habibie announced in a 19 July 1998 interview with The Washington Post that Indonesia was not dependent on ethnic Chinese businessmen, the rupiah's value plunged 5 percent. This unexpected reaction prompted immediate changes in policies, and Habibie soon began enticing conglomerates for their support in the reform plans. Most were initially fearful of democratization, but the process of social demarginalization meant that the ethnic Chinese were regarded as equal members of society for the first time in the nation's history. Increased regional autonomy allowed surviving conglomerates to explore new opportunities in the outer provinces, and economic reforms created a freer market. ### Political activity Between the 18th and early 20th centuries, ethnic Chinese communities were dominated by the "peranakan" presence. This period was followed by the growth of "totok" society. As part of a resinicization effort by the indigenized ethnic Chinese community, a new pan-Chinese movement emerged with the goal of a unified Chinese political identity. The movement later split in the 1920s when "peranakan" elites resisted the leadership of the "totok" in the nationalist movement, and the two groups developed their own objectives. When it became apparent that unification was being achieved on "totok" terms, "peranakan" leaders chose to align their community with the Dutch, who had abandoned the segregation policies in 1908. The two communities once again found common ground in opposition to the invading Japanese when the occupying forces treated all Chinese groups with contempt. The issue of nationality, following independence, politicized the ethnic Chinese and led to the formation of Baperki in 1954, as the first and largest Chinese Indonesian mass organization. Baperki and its majority "peranakan" membership led the opposition against a draft law that would have restricted the number of ethnic Chinese who could gain Indonesian citizenship. This movement was met by the Islamic Masyumi Party in 1956 when it called for the implementation of affirmative action for indigenous businesses. During the 1955 legislative election, Baperki received 178,887 votes and gained a seat on the People's Representative Council (DPR). Later that year, two Baperki candidates were also elected to the Constitutional Assembly. Ethnic-based political parties were banned under the government of President Suharto, leaving only the three indigenous-dominated parties of Golkar, the United Development Party (PPP), and the Indonesian Democratic Party (PDI). The depoliticizing of Indonesian society confined ethnic Chinese activities to the economic sector. Chinese Indonesian critics of the regime were mostly "peranakan" and projected themselves as Indonesians, leaving the ethnic Chinese with no visible leaders. On the eve of the 1999 legislative election, after Suharto's resignation, the news magazine Tempo conducted a survey of likely Chinese Indonesian voters on their political party of choice for the election. Although respondents were able to choose more than one party, 70 percent favored the Indonesian Democratic Party – Struggle (PDI–P), whose image of a nationalist party was considered favorable toward the ethnic Chinese. The party also benefited from the presence of economist Kwik Kian Gie, who was well respected by both ethnic Chinese and non-ethnic-Chinese voters. New ethnic political parties such as the Chinese Indonesian Reform Party (Partai Reformasi Tionghoa Indonesia, PARTI) and the Indonesian Bhinneka Tunggal Ika Party (Partai Bhinneka Tunggal Ika Indonesia, PBI) failed to garner much support in the 1999 election. Despite this result, the number of Chinese Indonesian candidates standing in national election increased from fewer than 50 in 1999 to almost 150 in 2004. Of the 58 candidates of Chinese descent who ran for office as representatives from Jakarta in the 2009 legislative election, two won seats. ## Culture ### Language Four major Chinese-speech groups are represented in Indonesia: Hokkien (Southern Min; Min Nan), Mandarin, Hakka, and Cantonese. In addition to these, the Teochew people speak their own dialect that has some degree of mutual intelligibility with Hokkien. Distinctions between the two, however, are accentuated outside of their regions of origin. There were an estimated 2.2 million native speakers of various Chinese varieties in Indonesia in 1982: 1,300,000 speakers of Southern Min varieties (including Hokkien and Teochew); 640,000 Hakka speakers; 460,000 Mandarin speakers; 180,000 Cantonese speakers; and 20,000 speakers of the Eastern Min varieties (including Fuzhou dialect). Additionally, an estimated 20,000 spoke different dialects of the Indonesian language. Many of the Chinese living in capital city Jakarta and other towns located in Java are not fluent in Chinese languages, due to New Order's banning of Chinese languages, but those who are living in non-Java cities especially in Sumatra and Kalimantan can speak Chinese and its dialects fluently. The Chinese along the North-Eastern coast of Sumatra, especially in North Sumatra, Riau, Riau Islands and Jambi are predominantly Hokkien (Min Nan) speakers, and there are also two different variants of Hokkien being used, such as Medan Hokkien, which is based on the Zhangzhou dialect, and Riau Hokkien, which is based on the Quanzhou dialect. There are also Hokkien speakers in Java (Semarang, Surakarta etc.), Sulawesi and Kalimantan (Borneo). Meanwhile, the Hakkas are the majority in Aceh, Bangka-Belitung and north region in West Kalimantan like Singkawang, Pemangkat and Mempawah, several Hakka communities also live in parts of Java especially in Tangerang and Jakarta. The Cantonese peoples mainly living in big cities like Jakarta, Medan, Batam, Surabaya, Pontianak and Manado. The Teochew people are the majority within Chinese community in West Kalimantan, especially in Central to Southern areas such as Ketapang, Kendawangan, and Pontianak, as well as in the Riau Islands, which include Batam and Karimun. There are sizable communities of Hokchia or Foochownese speakers in East Java, especially in Surabaya. The Hainanese people can also found in Pematangsiantar in North Sumatra. Many Indonesians, including the ethnic Chinese, believe in the existence of a dialect of the Malay language, Chinese Malay, known locally as Melayu Tionghoa or Melayu Cina. The growth of "peranakan" literature in the second half of the 19th century gave rise to such a variant, popularized through silat (martial arts) stories translated from Chinese or written in Malay and Indonesian. However, scholars argue it is different from the mixture of spoken Javanese and Malay that is perceived to be "spoken exclusively by ethnic Chinese". > [E]xcept for a few loan words from Chinese, nothing about 'Chinese Malay' is uniquely Chinese. The language was simply low, bazaar Malay, the common tongue of Java's streets and markets, especially of its cities, spoken by all ethnic groups in the urban and multi-ethnic environment. Because Chinese were a dominant element in the cities and markets, the language was associated with them, but government officials, Eurasians, migrant traders, or people from different language areas, all resorted to this form of Malay to communicate. According to Ellen Rafferty, in Java, the peranakan generally started to speak "Low Malay" [Bazaar Malay] and some Javanese at home before 1800, while used the "Low Malay" for extra-local communication. The peranakan showed the usage of some Javanese in written communication since 1800. The spoken Javanese was later identified as ngoko variant. After 1880, the written Javanese was replaced by written "Low Malay". Since 1945, the peranakan use Indonesianised-Javanese in home, supplanted by ngoko Javanese in local speech and Indonesian in extra-local communication and writing. Academic literature discussing Chinese Malay commonly note that ethnic Chinese do not speak the same dialect of Malay throughout the archipelago. Furthermore, although the Dutch colonial government first introduced the Malay orthography in 1901, Chinese newspapers did not follow this standard until after independence. Because of these factors, the ethnic Chinese play a "significant role" in the development of the modern Indonesian language as the largest group during the colonial period to communicate in a variety of Malay dialects. By 2018 the numbers of Chinese Indonesians studying Standard Mandarin increased. ### Literature Chinese cultural influences can be seen in local Chinese Malay literature, which dates back to the late 19th century. One of the earliest and most comprehensive works on this subject, Claudine Salmon's 1981 book Literature in Malay by the Chinese of Indonesia: A Provisional Annotated Bibliography, lists over 3,000 works. Samples of this literature were also published in a six-volume collection titled Kesastraan Melayu Tionghoa dan Kebangsaan Indonesia ("Chinese Malay Literature and the Indonesian Nation"). Kho Ping Hoo or Asmaraman Sukowati Kho Ping Hoo is a beloved Indonesian author of Chinese ethnicity. He is well known in Indonesia for his martial art fiction set in the background of China or Java. During his 30 years career, at least 120 stories has been published (according to Leo Suryadinata). However, Forum magazine claimed at least Kho Ping Hoo had 400 stories with the background of China and 50 stories with the background of Java. ### Media All Chinese-language publications were prohibited under the assimilation policy of the Suharto period, with the exception of the government-controlled daily newspaper Harian Indonesia. The lifting of the Chinese-language ban after 1998 prompted the older generation of Chinese Indonesians to promote its use to the younger generation; according to Malaysian-Chinese researcher of the Chinese diaspora, Chang-Yau Hoon, they believed they would "be influenced by the virtues of Chinese culture and Confucian values". One debate took place in the media in 2003, discussing the Chinese "mu yu" (母語, "mother tongue") and the Indonesian "guo yu" (國語, "national language"). Nostalgia was a common theme in the Chinese-language press in the period immediately following Suharto's government. The rise of China's political and economic standing at the turn of the 21st century became an impetus for their attempt to attract younger readers who seek to rediscover their cultural roots. During the first three decades of the 20th century, ethnic Chinese owned most, if not all, movie theaters in cities throughout the Dutch East Indies. Films from China were being imported by the 1920s, and a film industry began to emerge in 1928 with the arrival of the three Wong brothers from Shanghai—their films would dominate the market through the 1930s. These earliest films almost exclusively focused on the ethnic Chinese community, although a few examined inter-ethnic relations as a main theme. The later ban on the public use of Chinese language meant that imported films and television programs were required to be dubbed in English with subtitles in Indonesian. When martial arts serials began appearing on national television in 1988, they were dubbed in Indonesian. One exception was the showing of films from Hong Kong in Chinese—limited to ethnic Chinese districts and their surroundings—because of an agreement between importers and the film censor board. ### Religion There is little scholarly work devoted to the religious life of Chinese Indonesians. The 1977 French book Les Chinois de Jakarta: Temples et Vie Collective ("The Chinese of Jakarta: Temples and Collective Life") is the only major study to assess ethnic Chinese religious life in Indonesia. The Ministry of Religious Affairs grants official status to six religions: Islam, Protestantism, Catholicism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Confucianism. A 2006 civil registration law does not allow Indonesians to identify themselves as a member of any other religion on their identity cards. According to an analysis of the 2000 census data, about half of Chinese Indonesians were Buddhists, and about one third Protestant or Catholic. A report by The New York Times, however, puts the percentage of Christians much higher, at over 70 percent. With the exception of Chinese-Filipinos, Chinese Indonesians tend to be more Christian than other Chinese ethnic groups of Southeast Asia due to a complex of historical reasons. Throughout the 20th century Chinese religion and culture was forbidden and heavily persecuted in Indonesia, forcing many Chinese to convert to Christianity. The first wave of conversions occurred in the 1950s and 1960s, and the number of ethnic Chinese Christians during this period quadrupled. The second wave followed after the government withdrew Confucianism's status as a recognized religion in the 1970s. Suharto endorsed a systematic campaign of eradication of Confucianism. As the result, many Chinese in Jakarta and other parts in Java island are mostly Christian, meanwhile in non-Java cities like Medan, Pontianak and other parts in Sumatra and Borneo island are mainly adherents to Buddhism, and some of them still practising Taoism, Confucianism and other Traditional Chinese belief. In a country where nearly 86 percent of the population are Muslims, the ethnic Chinese Muslims form a very small minority of the ethnic Chinese population, mainly due to intermarriages between Chinese men and local Muslim women. The 2010 census reckoned that 4.7% of Chinese Indonesians were followers of Islam. Associations such as the Organization of Chinese Muslims of Indonesia (Persatuan Islam Tionghoa Indonesia, PITI) had been in existence in the late 19th century. PITI was re-established in 1963 as a modern organization, but occasionally experienced periods of inactivity. The Supreme Council for the Confucian Religion in Indonesia (Majelis Tinggi Agama Khonghucu Indonesia, MATAKIN) estimated that 95 percent of Confucians are ethnic Chinese; most of the remaining 5 percent are ethnic Javanese, who are mainly Chinese-Javanese marriages converts. Although the government has restored Confucianism's status as a recognized religion, many local authorities do not abide by it and have refused to allow ethnic Chinese from listing it as a religion on their identity cards. Local officials remained largely unaware that the civil registration law legally allowed citizens to leave the religion section on their identity cards blank. ### Architecture Various forms of Chinese architecture exist throughout Indonesia with marked differences between urban and rural areas and among the different islands. Architectural developments by the Chinese in Southeast Asia differ from those in mainland China. By blending local and European (Dutch) design patterns, numerous variations of fusion styles emerged. Chinese architecture in Indonesia has manifested in three forms: religious temples, study halls, and houses. Cities during the colonial period were divided into three racial districts: European, oriental (Arabs, Chinese, and other Asians), and indigenous. There usually were no physical boundaries among the zones, except for rivers, walls, or roads in some cases. Such legal boundaries promoted high growths in urban density within each zone, especially in the Chinese quarters, often leading to poor environmental conditions. Early settlers did not adhere to traditional architectural practices when constructing houses, but instead adapted to living conditions in Indonesia. Although the earliest houses are no longer standing, they were likely built from wood or bamboo with thatched roofs, resembling indigenous houses found throughout Sumatra, Borneo, and Java. More permanent constructions replaced these settlements in the 19th century. Segregation policies under the Dutch forbade the use of European architectural styles by non-European ethnic groups. The ethnic Chinese and other foreign and indigenous groups lived according to their own cultures. Chinese houses along the north coast of Java were renovated to include Chinese ornamentation. As racial segregation eased at the turn of the 20th century, the ethnic Chinese who had lost their identity embraced European culture and began removing ethnic ornaments from their buildings. The policies implemented by the New Order government which prohibited the public display of Chinese culture have also accelerated the transition toward local and Western architecture. ### Cuisine Chinese culinary culture is particularly evident in Indonesian cuisine through the Hokkien, Hakka, and Cantonese loanwords used for various dishes. Words beginning with bak (肉) signify the presence of meat, e.g. bakpao ("meat bun"); words ending with cai (菜) signify vegetables, e.g. pecai ("Chinese white cabbage") and capcai. The words mi (麵) signify noodle as in mie goreng. Most of these loanwords for food dishes and their ingredients are Hokkien in origin, and are used throughout the Indonesian language and vernacular speech of large cities. Because they have become an integral part of the local language, many Indonesians and ethnic Chinese do not recognize their Hokkien origins. Some popular Indonesian dishes such as nasi goreng, pempek, lumpia, and bakpia can trace their origin to Chinese influence. Some food and ingredients are part of the daily diet of both the indigenous and ethnic Chinese populations as side dishes to accompany rice, the staple food of most of the country. Among ethnic Chinese families, both peranakan and totok, pork is generally preferred as meat; this is in contrast with traditional Indonesian cuisine, which in majority-Muslim areas avoids the meat. The consumption of pork has, however, decreased in recent years owing to a recognition of its contribution to health hazards such as high cholesterol levels and heart disease. In a 1997 restaurant listing published by the English-language daily The Jakarta Post, which largely caters to expatriates and middle class Indonesians, at least 80 locations within the city can be considered Chinese out of the 10-page list. Additionally, major hotels generally operate one or two Chinese restaurants, and many more can be found in large shopping centers. Upscale Chinese restaurants in Jakarta, where the urban character of the ethnic Chinese is well established, can be found serving delicacies such as shark fin soup and bird's nest soup. Food considered to have healing properties, including ingredients in traditional Chinese medicine, are in high demand. ### Education Citizens of Taiwan (officially known as the Republic of China) residing in Indonesia are served by two international schools: Jakarta Taipei School (印尼雅加達臺灣學校), which was the first Chinese-language school in Indonesia since the Indonesian government ended its ban on the Chinese language, and the Surabaya Taipei International School (印尼泗水臺灣學校). ## Popular culture ### Geography Warung Buncit is name of an area in South Jakarta (also known as Jalan AH Nasution) that took its origin from Chinese Indonesian profile name Bun Tjit. Zaenuddin HM wrote in his book "212 Asal-Usul Djakarta Tempo Doeloe" that the name was inspired by a local shop (Warung in Indonesian language) ran by a Chinese Indonesia name Bun Tjit (styled Buncit). The shop was so famous among the local that the locals began to call the area Warung Buncit (Buncit's Shop). The area had been known as Warung Buncit ever since. ## See also - Chen Fu Zhen Ren - Chinese folk religion in Southeast Asia - Supreme Council for the Confucian Religion in Indonesia - Kong Koan & Tiong Hoa Hwee Koan - Benteng Chinese - Chinese in the Bangka Belitung Islands - Ashin Jinarakkhita - List of Chinese Indonesians - Chinese Indonesian surname - Kongsi republic - List of kongsi - Lanfang Republic - Thai Chinese - Cambodian Chinese - Burmese Chinese - Laotian Chinese - Vietnamese Chinese - Malaysian Chinese - Singaporean Chinese - Bruneian Chinese - Filipino Chinese - Discrimination against Chinese Indonesians - Legislation on Chinese Indonesians - 1740 Batavia massacre - 1918 Kudus riot - May 1998 riots of Indonesia - The Chinese in Indonesia'', a book by Pramoedya Ananta Toer - Indonesian Americans - Indonesian Australians - People's Republic of China – Indonesia relations - Indonesia–Taiwan relations - Peranakans [^1]:
67,797,692	George Fan	1,171,150,615	American video game designer	[ "1978 births", "American video game designers", "Blizzard Entertainment people", "Creative directors", "Indie game developers", "Living people", "University of California, Berkeley alumni" ]	<table class="infobox biography vcard"> <div class="plainlist"> - Insaniquarium - Plants vs. Zombies - Octogeddon' - Hardhat Wombat </div> </td> </tr> </table> George Fan''' (born 1978) is an American video game designer who currently works as the creative director of All Yes Good. He designed Insaniquarium (2001), Plants vs. Zombies (2009; which started the video game franchise of the same name), Octogeddon (2018), and Hardhat Wombat (2023). Before going into game design, Fan graduated from the University of California, Berkeley, in 2000 with a degree in computer science. After graduating, he worked under Arcade Planet to develop games for their website, Prizegames.com. He eventually formed Flying Bear Entertainment and created Insaniquarium, which became a finalist for the 2002 Independent Games Festival. He then joined Blizzard Entertainment and worked there while simultaneously developing Insaniquarium further for PopCap Games, releasing the "Deluxe" edition in 2004. Fan left Blizzard and started developing Plants vs. Zombies. He became a full-time employee for PopCap, who supplied Fan with a team. Upon release in 2009, it became the best-selling game developed by PopCap. EA bought PopCap Games in 2011 and Fan was laid off after he insisted EA to not make "Plants vs. Zombies 2" pay-to-win in 2012. Fan started developing Octogeddon and submitted it to the 2012 Ludum Dare contest. Fan formed a developing company named All Yes Good with Rich Werner and Kurt Pfeffer and developed Octogeddon further before releasing it in 2018. Fan then developed Hardhat Wombat, due to be released sometime in 2023. ## Early life and education George Fan was born in 1978. Fan grew up with his brother and lived with their father. Fan attended the University of California, Berkeley and graduated with a degree in computer science in 2000. ## Career ### 2000–2001: Early career Fan first worked as creator of Java video games for the online gaming portal, Prizegames.com, created by the company Arcade Planet. Fan describes the website as "an online version of Chuck E. Cheese". The first video game he designed was the puzzle game, Wrath of the Gopher, released in 2001. Fan said to Chris Carter, editor-in-chief of Destructoid, that before creating Wrath of the Gopher, he was unsure of whether or not he could be a game designer. ### 2001–2012: PopCap Games While researching Java games, Fan discovered PopCap Games and took a liking to their game library. In 2001, Fan and Tysen Henderson founded Flying Bear Entertainment in California to work on a virtual pets video game project named FishTank. Fan wanted to create a game "that's easy to get into, yet unfolds into something much deeper." Flying Bear Entertainment published it on August 31, 2001, as a free Java-based online game called Insaniquarium. Fan entered the game into the 2002 Independent Games Festival, to which it became a finalist for. At the finalist booth at Game Developers Conference 2002 (GDC 2002), PopCap Games offered Fan help in making Insaniquarium a downloadable game. Insaniquarium won in the category of "Innovation in Game Design". At the time, Fan was looking for a job at Blizzard Entertainment. Blizzard allowed Fan to work on Insaniquarium on his breaks from working with them. Because he was a freelance video game designer at the time, Fan was forced to do a majority of the programming and designing of Insaniquarium, along with composing some of the music. With PopCap Games as the publisher, Insaniquarium was released on 2004 for the PC, titled Insaniquarium: Deluxe and was met with critical and financial success. The game sold 20 million copies on the PC by April 2006, and was released for mobile phones by Glu Mobile in the United States on April 13, 2006, and in Europe on June 29, 2006. The game was also released for Palm OS smartphones, Windows Mobile phones, and personal digital assistants on August 6, 2008. Fan worked for Blizzard for two and a half years. He was tasked with programming AI and designing enemies for Diablo III during this time. It was not long after Insaniquarium was released that Fan realized that he was more of a designer than a programmer. Fan tried to become a designer at Blizzard, though found it hard to persuade other employees to his ideas, leading him to conclude that he preferred to work in smaller teams. Fan left Blizzard to become an independent game designer for a year. Fan eventually became inspired by his project Insaniquarium and Warcraft III mods to create a new game. Fan thought about creating a defense-oriented version of Insaniquarium for the Nintendo DS utilizing its dual-screen. However, after playing Warcraft III tower defense mods, he wondered if plants could make good defensive structures. Fan wanted to bring new concepts to the tower defense genre and found enemies ignoring the defensive structures unintuitive, which led to the use of lanes. The enemies, though initially planned to be aliens from Insaniquarium, became zombies to make the game distinctive from other plant games. The working title was Weedlings. After the enemies were changed from aliens to zombies, the game was renamed Plants vs. Zombies. Initially, Fan worked on Plants vs. Zombies independently. He became a full-time employee for PopCap Games after they convinced him that joining them would help him make the best game. PopCap set Fan up with a team consisting of Tod Semple, Rich Werner, and Laura Shigihara, who each filled the role of programmer, artist, and composer respectively; Fan would also voice the game's tutorial character, named "Crazy Dave" after David Rohrl, himself. Plants vs. Zombies took three and a half years to make. Aside from Insaniquarium and Warcraft III, Plants vs. Zombies was influenced by the arcade game Tapper, the card game Magic: the Gathering, and the film Swiss Family Robinson. A critical aspect of developing was designing the game to be balanced between casual and hardcore gaming. Plants vs. Zombies was released on May 5, 2009, for the PC and Mac OS X. The game garnered positive reception from critics, being assigned an aggregate score of 87/100 by Metacritic. It quickly became the best-selling video game developed by PopCap Games. James Gwertzman, the vice president of the Asia/Pacific division of PopCap, revealed in a presentation at GDC China 2010 that the game had sold 1.5 million copies internationally. Plants vs. Zombies has been ported to various platforms, including the iOS, Xbox 360, and Nintendo DS. There were various other projects designed by Fan for PopCap that were either canceled or unannounced. One of them was a role-playing video game called Yeti Train, which was rumored to become a new franchise after a trademark for the title was filed by PopCap in 2009, though in March 2011, David Roberts, CEO of PopCap, declined there being any plans to release new franchises. Another game in production was Full Contact Bingo. On July 12, 2011, PopCap and its assets were bought by Electronic Arts (EA) for \$750 million. EA envisioned Plants vs. Zombies as a major franchise, with the sequel using a freemium model, which resulted in Fan losing interest in Plants vs. Zombies. According to Jason Schreier of Kotaku, when EA directed PopCap towards making free-to-play games with transactions, "Fan no longer fit in." In August 21, 2012, 50 employees either left or were laid off from PopCap's Seattle studio, with studios in Dublin; Shanghai; and San Mateo, California where Fan worked at the time closing. Fan was fired during this time after months of discussion from PopCap's management team. A circulating rumor that Fan was fired because of his opposition to EA's freemium model was based on a statement by Edmund McMillen, the creator of The Binding of Isaac and Super Meat Boy. George Fan refused to comment publicly on the truth of this story. ### 2012–present: Post-PopCap Games After leaving PopCap Games due to his lay-off on August 21, 2012, Fan created the arcade-style action video game Octogeddon for the 2012 Ludum Dare Game Jam, a type of Hackathon where developers have to create a game in a short amount of time within a specific theme. For Ludum Dare, it was 48 hours. The 2012 theme was "evolution"; Fan designed Octogeddon to fit that theme by having the octopus gain weaponized limbs over time. The game was met with positive reception in the jam, inspiring Fan to work on the game more. He formed the indie video game company, All Yes Good, along with Werner the artist for Plants vs. Zombies and Kert Pfeffer the programmer of the Xbox 360 port of Plants vs. Zombies. All Yes Good developed Octogeddon for the next four years. Fan served as the designer, Werner served as the artist, and Pfeffer served as the programmer for Octogeddon. Jimmy Hinson provided the soundtrack. Octogeddon was released on February 8, 2018, for the video game digital distribution service, Steam. The game was met with positive reception, having a score of 82/100 on Metacritic. It was ported to the Nintendo Switch on May 16, 2019. Fan is currently listed as the creative director of All Yes Good. ## Personal life Fan lives in California; he went to University of California, Berkeley, for his college education, was based in San Francisco during the development of Plants vs. Zombies, worked in the San Mateo, California studio of PopCap Games by the time he was fired on August 21, 2012, and All Yes Good is currently based in Redwood Shores, California. His girlfriend is Shigihara, the composer for Plants vs. Zombies. Fan's hobbies include playing Magic: The Gathering and Lego building. He designed the card Genesis Hydra for the Magic: The Gathering'' core set Magic 2015. ## Works
37,406,830	The Whale (The Office)	1,130,167,448	null	[ "2012 American television episodes", "The Office (American season 9) episodes" ]	"The Whale" is the seventh episode of the ninth season of the American comedy television series The Office and the 183rd episode overall. The episode originally aired on NBC on November 15, 2012. The episode guest stars Jack Coleman as Robert Lipton and marks the return of actress Melora Hardin as Jan Levinson. The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton, Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company. In this episode, Dwight Schrute (Rainn Wilson) is tasked with selling paper to a woman—who is later revealed to be Jan (Hardin)—from the Scranton White Pages, so Pam Halpert (Jenna Fischer) and the women of the office teach him how to interact with women. Angela Lipton (Angela Kinsey) confides in Oscar Martinez (Oscar Nunez) that her husband, Robert (Jack Coleman)—who is secretly having a relationship with Oscar—is cheating on her. Oscar helps her spy on her husband at his yoga class. Meanwhile, Toby Flenderson (Paul Lieberstein) convinces several of the men in the office to grow mustaches for "Movember". "The Whale" received mixed reviews from television critics, with many commenting on Hardin's appearance. The episode was also viewed by 4.16 million viewers and received a 2.1/6 percent rating among adults between the ages of 18 and 49, ranking fourth in its timeslot. The episode, however, ultimately ranked as the highest-rated NBC series of the night. ## Synopsis Andy Bernard (Ed Helms) Skypes into the office from his boat. He is severely sunburned, loses his supply of fresh water in the ocean, and is going mad from lack of human contact after only two days on the boat. The Skype call ends after he accidentally drops his device into the ocean. Dwight Schrute (Rainn Wilson) is tasked with winning the Scranton White Pages account. However, the CEO is a woman, and Dwight has trouble selling to women. Pam Halpert (Jenna Fischer) and the women of the office teach him how to interact with women. The lesson, which is supported by Nellie Bertram (Catherine Tate), Erin Hannon (Ellie Kemper), Meredith Palmer (Kate Flannery), and Phyllis Vance (Phyllis Smith), goes nowhere, with Dwight unable to grasp the concept of simple niceties, and they give up. Pam goes with Dwight to the White Pages, only to find out that the buyer is Jan Levinson (Melora Hardin). Jan was expecting to meet with CEO David Wallace, and reprimands her assistant for the confusion. Pam quickly realizes that the meeting was just a ruse to take revenge on David for firing her five years prior. However, Dwight remains determined to make the sale, so he has Pam stall while he gets Clark (Clark Duke), intuiting that Jan has an attraction to underage boys due to her rumored affair with her 17-year-old former assistant Hunter. After he introduces Clark to her, Jan says she will think about it, and tells everyone to leave her office except Clark. As Pam and Dwight leave, Dwight offers a sympathetic comment to Jan's emotionally abused female assistant. Pam is pleased, seeing that some of the lessons they gave Dwight on women sunk in after all. Angela Lipton (Angela Kinsey) confides in Oscar Martinez (Oscar Nunez) that she suspects her husband, Robert (Jack Coleman)—who is secretly having a relationship with Oscar—of cheating on her. Oscar thinks that Robert may be seeing another man besides him and convinces Angela that they should spy on Robert at his yoga class. They hide outside of the class and watch as Robert spends time with a younger woman who later turns out to have a boyfriend. Oscar then notices Robert spending most of the yoga practice with a young man, which he finds suspicious. After the class, Robert phones Oscar, and his phone goes off. Oscar panics and silences the phone, and Angela immediately realizes why. Jim Halpert (John Krasinski) is on a business call with the investors and members of the business venture he is up for. Many distractions from the background make the call difficult. At the end of the day, Jim apologizes, but then hears the person on the phone saying this is not working out. Toby Flenderson (Paul Lieberstein) convinces several of the men in the office to grow mustaches for "Movember". He says he is doing this to support the cure for prostate cancer but is actually using it for a chance to socialize more with the office, to no avail. Pete Miller (Jake Lacy) later shows Erin his mustache, but she finds it repulsive. He shaves it off after that. ## Production "The Whale" was written by executive story editor Carrie Kemper, who is the younger sister of cast member Ellie Kemper, making it her third writing credit for the series. It was directed by Rodman Flender, his first directing credit for the series. The episode sees the return of Melora Hardin as Jan Levinson, a former character in the series who left after the early part of the fifth season. Hardin, did however, make two short appearances on the show during the seventh season episodes "Sex Ed" and "Threat Level Midnight". Ed Helms only appears in the episode's cold open; he was written out of several episodes of the season in order to film The Hangover Part III. The official website of The Office included several cut scenes from "The Whale" within a week of the episode's release. In the first 105-second clip, Toby admits to the camera his amusement that the men at Dunder Mifflin are partaking in Movember with him. In the second 76-second clip, the women of Dunder Mifflin inform Dwight that his knowledge about women is severely lacking and that he has a long way to go. In the third and final 85-second clip, Dwight and Pam, while in the car, prepare for their "biggest sales call ever". ## Cultural references The title of the episode—"The Whale"—is a reference to the popular 1851 novel Moby-Dick by Herman Melville and its main antagonist, the great white whale. The white pages, which is the sale that Dwight is attempting to make, are a listing of telephone subscribers in a geographical area or subscribers to services provided by the organization that publishes the directory. Toby organizes a Movember celebration, which is an annual, month-long event involving the growing of moustaches during the month of November to raise awareness of prostate cancer and other male cancer and associated charities. ## Broadcast and reception ### Ratings "The Whale" was scheduled to air on NBC on November 8, 2012, but the previous episode was delayed a week when it was replaced with a rerun of The Voice, pushing "The Whale" to air a week later, on November 15, 2012. In its original broadcast, "The Whale" was viewed by an estimated 4.16 million viewers and received a 2.1/6 percent share rating among adults between the ages of 18 and 49. This means that it was seen by 2.1 percent of all 18- to 49-year-olds, and 6 percent of all 18- to 49-year-olds watching television at the time of the broadcast. This marked a decrease in the ratings from the previous episode, "The Boat", which had received a 2.4 rating/6 percent. The episode ranked fourth in its timeslot, being beaten by the Fox series Glee which received a 2.2/6 percent rating, an entry of the CBS drama Person of Interest which received a 2.9/7 percent rating, and an episode of the ABC series Grey's Anatomy which received a 3.1/8 percent rating. Despite this, The Office was highest-rated NBC television program of the night. ### Reviews Mark Trammell of TV Equals was very pleased with the episode and wrote that "Rainn Wilson [was] clearly in his element". Damon Houx of Screencrush felt that the entry was rushed, which resulted in "most characters [getting] 2- to 3-minute storylines, or—in most cases—a joke or line or two." He called it "one of the better episodes of this last season", but noted that "the show's going to end with more of a whimper than a bang". Cindy White of IGN awarded the episode a 7.5 out of 10, denoting a "good" episode. White complimented Dwight and Pam's situation, as well Angela and Oscar's development. However, she noted that it "wasn't hard to imagine Michael in [Dwight's] situation". Furthermore, she compared the episode to the third-season episode "Women's Appreciation". Erik Adams of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a "C" and was critical of the episode's focus on "the series' endgame", noting that the episode heavily set up both Jim and Dwight's departure. Dan Forcella of TV Fanatic awarded the episode three-and-a-half stars out of five. While enjoying the story's main plots—specifically citing Angela and Oscar's "sneak around", and Dwight's endeavor—he was critical of Jim's subplot, writing that "I couldn't care less about the issues he was facing with teleconferencing." Melora Hardin's return garnered critical attention. Forcella wrote that "Jan was definitely a welcome appearance". Furthermore, he praised her "all-around meanness" and the "hilarity of her singing". Houx wrote that "the return of Jan Levinson and the final solution to get her business was pretty good." Adams, on the other hand, was critical of the return of Hardin, noting that "there's little reason to justify Melora Hardin's presence in 'The Whale'" other than "an obligation [for] The Office's final-season victory lap." White noted that it "was nice to see Melora Hardin in the role one last time", but wrote that "it's a shame that the show is sticking with the crazy version of the character rather than mellowing her out a bit". Melora Hardin's performance was later submitted by the producers of The Office for an "Outstanding Guest Actor in Comedy Series" Emmy consideration.
5,932,813	Georgia State Route 40	1,142,148,691	Highway in Georgia	[ "State highways in Georgia (U.S. state)", "Transportation in Camden County, Georgia", "Transportation in Charlton County, Georgia" ]	State Route 40 (SR 40) is a 30.46-mile-long (49.02 km) state highway in the southeast part of the U.S. state of Georgia. The highway travels from US 1/US 23/US 301/SR 4/SR 15 in Folkston east to Church Street in St. Marys. SR 40 is the primary east–west highway of eastern Charlton County and southern Camden County. The highway connects Folkston and St. Marys with Kingsland, where the highway meets Interstate 95 (I-95) and US 17/SR 25. SR 40 also serves as the majority of the route from I-95 to Naval Submarine Base Kings Bay and Cumberland Island National Seashore. SR 40 has a pair of auxiliary routes: a connector route in Folkston and a spur route in St. Marys that provides access to the submarine base and Crooked River State Park. SR 40 was assigned to the Folkston–St. Marys highway in the early 1920s. The highway was first improved in the mid-1920s and paved in the mid-1930s from Kingsland to St. Marys. SR 40 was paved from Folkston east to the Charlton–Camden county line in the late 1930s and from the county line to Kingsland in the early 1940s. The highway was extensively relocated between Folkston and Kingsland in the mid-1960s. SR 40 was expanded to four lanes, much of it divided highway, east of Kingsland in the 1980s. The Georgia Department of Transportation (GDOT) has long-term plans to expand the state highway to a four-lane divided highway from Folkston to Kingsland. The first portion of this project was completed east of Folkston in the mid-2000s. ## Route description SR 40 has a pair of similarly named official designations west of Kingsland. The Georgia General Assembly designated part of the Okefenokee Parkway from Folkston to I-95, which was then under construction, in 1968. SR 40 from Folkston to Kingsland became one of ten stretches of highway designated part of the Okefenokee Trail by the state legislature in 2006. The highway is a part of the National Highway System for its entire length. ### Folkston to Kingsland SR 40 begins at the intersection of Main Street and Second Street in the city of Folkston. Second Street carries US 1/US 23/US 301/SR 4/SR 15. Main Street continues west as an unnumbered street through the center of town. Two blocks west of SR 40's terminus, Main Street intersects CSX's Nahunta Subdivision, a very busy dual track rail line that attracts railfans to the Folkston Railfan Platform one block south of Main Street. One block west of the rail line, Main Street meets SR 23/SR 121 (Okefenokee Parkway). SR 40 heads east for one block to Main Street's eastern end at Third Street, an intersection that is adjacent to the Charlton County Courthouse. The state highway turns south onto Third Street for one block, then turns east onto Kingsland Road. SR 40 meets the eastern end of SR 40 Connector (Cross Street) and leaves Folkston as a two-lane road. The road expands to a four-lane divided highway for about 2 miles (3.2 km) before reverting to two lanes shortly before crossing the Charlton–Camden county line. SR 40 intersects SR 110, which heads northeast to Woodbine, at the hamlet of Colerain. Between Folkston and Kingsland, the highway crosses several streams that feed into the parallel St. Marys River. SR 40 enters Kingsland on King Avenue, which has a grade crossing of the First Coast Railroad and intersects US 17/SR 25 (Lee Street). Here, the state highway expands to a four-lane undivided street. SR 40 expands again to a six-lane divided highway and begins to closely parallel the St. Marys Railroad through a commercial area just west of its partial cloverleaf interchange with I-95. ### Kingsland to St. Marys Near the east end of the commercial area on either side of I-95, SR 40 becomes a five-lane road with center turn lane. SR 40 gains a median again at its intersection with Kings Bay Road, one of several highways that lead to Naval Submarine Base Kings Bay. Another main highway to the naval base is St. Marys Road, which the highway meets at a partial cloverleaf interchange on the boundary between the cities of Kingsland and St. Marys. SR 40 intersects a branch of the railroad that heads into the naval base and crosses Dark Entry Creek before meeting the southern end of SR 40 Spur (Charlie Smith Sr. Highway), which heads north along the western edge of the naval base on its way to Crooked River State Park. SR 40 continues through St. Marys along Osborne Road, which is a five-lane road with center turn lane until after it passes to the south of St. Marys Airport. SR 40 reduces to four lanes and then two as it curves south onto Osborne Street in the center of St. Marys. The highway intersects the St. Marys Railroad near its eastern terminus before reaching its eastern terminus at the intersection of Osborne Street and Church Street. Osborne Street continues south past the historic home Orange Hall and into the St. Marys Historic District, at the southern end of which is the passenger ferry to Cumberland Island and its national seashore. ## History SR 40 was assigned to the highway from Folkston to St. Marys via Kingsland by 1920. However, the route from Folkston to what became US 17/SR 25 in Kingsland was not marked on maps between 1921 and January 1932. The highway that was to become SR 40 followed most of its present alignment from Folkston to the Charlton–Camden county line in 1919 but had a significantly different route in western Camden County, following what are now Colerain Road, Forestry Road, Marr Cemetery Road, Oakhill Church Road, Willies Loop, Old Folkston Road, Arizona Avenue, and several sections of abandoned highway. East of Kingsland, the highway followed most of its present alignment but crossed the parallel railroad several times. By 1926, the Kingsland–St. Marys highway was a sand or dirt road. When the Folkston–Kingsland stretch of SR 40 reappeared on maps in February 1932, the highway was recorded as an unimproved but maintained road. SR 40 was under construction along its present alignment from US 17 in Kingsland to the south end of Osborne Street in St. Marys by October 1934; the highway was completed as a paved road by January 1936. The highway from Folkston to the Charlton–Camden county line was under construction by October 1936. The construction was extended east from the county line to the highway's original SR 110 junction in July 1937. When construction concluded in October 1937, there was a paved highway from Folkston to the county line and a graded but otherwise unimproved highway from there to SR 110. SR 40 between Colerain and the western edge of Kingsland was under construction by July 1939 and paving was completed in January 1941. The gap in Kingsland was placed under construction by April 1941 but was not completed until the beginning of 1943. The first major rerouting of SR 40 occurred between 1963 and 1966 when the highway was moved to its present alignment between the Charlton–Camden county line and Kingsland. By 1982, the highway had been expanded to a divided highway around its interchange with I-95 and to a four-lane undivided highway from there to St. Marys. The divided highway section was extended west toward downtown Kingsland in 1984. SR 40's interchange with St. Marys Road was built and the highway was expanded to a divided highway from Kings Bay Road to SR 40 Spur by 1986. The entire length of the highway was designated a Governor's Road Improvement Program (GRIP) corridor in 1989. GDOT plans to expand the entire highway west of I-95 to a four-lane divided highway. The first new section of the highway to be expanded to a four-lane divided highway was the 2-mile (3.2 km) stretch west of the Charlton–Camden county line, which was completed in 2004. ## Major intersections ## Special routes ### SR 40 Connector State Route 40 Connector (SR 40 Connector) is a 1.33-mile (2.14 km) connector route of SR 40 in Folkston. The route follows Cross Street from US 1/US 23/US 301/SR 4/SR 15/SR 23/SR 121 (Okefenokee Drive) on the north side of town southeast to SR 40 east of Folkston. SR 40 Connector heads east from the U.S. highways as a two-lane road that passes Charlton County High School. The highway continues southeast through a residential area and intersects SR 252 (Burnt Fort Road), which heads southwest toward its western terminus in downtown Folkston and northeast toward White Oak in northern Camden County. SR 40 Connector enters a forested area for the remainder of its course to SR 40 (Kingsland Road). SR 40 CONN was designated along Cross Street in 2005. ### SR 40 Spur State Route 40 Spur (SR 40 Spur) is a 6.58-mile (10.59 km) spur route of SR 40 in St. Marys. The route is officially named Charlie Smith Sr. Highway based on a 1994 Georgia Transportation Board resolution honoring a local politician from Camden County; the highway is also known as Crooked River Road. SR 40 Spur begins at an intersection with SR 40 (Osborne Road) northwest of downtown St. Marys and heads north as a five-lane road with center turn lane through a mixed commercial and residential area. North of its oblique intersection with Colerain Road and Douglas Drive, the spur route expands to a controlled-access divided highway and serves as the western boundary of Naval Submarine Base Kings Bay. Access to the base is provided at intersections with USS Benjamin Franklin Drive opposite St. Marys Road and USS Henry L. Stimson Drive opposite Kings Bay Road. North of the latter junction, SR 40 Spur reduces to two lanes and has a grade crossing with the branch of the St. Marys Railroad that enters the naval base. Further north, the highway has a pair of intersections with USS Andrew Jackson Drive and USS Proteus Boulevard, which serve the northern part of the military reservation. SR 40 Spur leaves the edge of the base as it enters Crooked River State Park. The highway reaches its northern terminus at the park gate a short distance south of the Crooked River. SR 40 Spur was designated by the beginning of 1941 and was under construction later that year. The paved road was completed in 1942. SR 40 Spur was expanded to four lanes from SR 40 to Kings Bay Road around 1986. ## See also
28,866,471	Hugo Award	1,171,471,777	Annual awards for science fiction or fantasy	[ "1953 establishments in the United States", "Awards established in 1953", "Fantasy awards", "Hugo Awards", "Science fiction awards" ]	The Hugo Award is an annual literary award for the best science fiction or fantasy works and achievements of the previous year, given at the World Science Fiction Convention and chosen by its members. The Hugo is widely considered the premier award in science fiction. The award is administered by the World Science Fiction Society. It is named after Hugo Gernsback, the founder of the pioneering science fiction magazine Amazing Stories. Hugos were first given in 1953, at the 11th World Science Fiction Convention, and have been awarded every year since 1955. The awards were originally given in seven categories. These categories have changed over the years, and the award is currently conferred in seventeen categories of written and dramatic works. The winners receive a trophy consisting of a stylized rocket ship on a base; the design of the trophy changes each year, though the rocket itself has been standardized since 1984. The Hugo Awards are considered "the premier award in the science fiction genre", and winners are often noted on book covers. The 2022 awards were presented at the 80th Worldcon, "Chicon 8", in Chicago on September 4, 2022. The 2023 awards will be presented at the 81st Worldcon, "Chengdu Worldcon", in Chengdu, China on October 21, 2023. ## Award The World Science Fiction Society (WSFS) gives out the Hugo Awards each year for the best science fiction or fantasy works and achievements of the previous year. The Hugos are widely considered the premier award in science fiction. The award is named after Hugo Gernsback, who founded the pioneering science fiction magazine Amazing Stories and who is considered one of the "fathers" of the science fiction genre. Works are eligible for an award if they were published in the prior calendar year, or translated into English in the prior calendar year. There are no written rules as to which works qualify as science fiction or fantasy, and the decision of eligibility in that regard is left up to the voters, rather than to the organizing committee. Hugo Award nominees and winners are chosen by supporting or attending members of the annual World Science Fiction Convention, or Worldcon, and the presentation evening constitutes its central event. The selection process is defined in the WSFS constitution as instant-runoff voting with six nominees per category, except in the case of a tie. The awards are split over more than a dozen categories, and include both written and dramatic works. For each category of Hugo, the voter may rank "No Award" as one of their choices. Voters are instructed that they should do so if they feel that none of the nominees are worthy of the award, or if they feel the category should be abolished entirely. A vote for "No Award" other than as one's first choice signifies that the voter believes the nominees ranked higher than "No Award" are worthy of a Hugo in that category, while those ranked lower are not. The six works on the ballot for each category are the most-nominated by members that year, with no limit on the number of stories that can be nominated. With the exception of 1956, the first years of the awards did not include any recognition of runner-up novels, but since 1959 all of the candidates have been recorded. Initial nominations are made by members in January through March, while voting on the ballot of six nominations is performed roughly in April through July, subject to change depending on when that year's Worldcon is held. Prior to 2017, the final ballot was five works in each category. Worldcons are generally held near the start of September, and take place in a different city around the world each year. The idea of giving out awards at Worldcons was proposed by Harold Lynch for the 1953 convention. The idea was based on the Academy Awards, with the name "Hugo" being given by Robert A. Madle. The award trophy was created by Jack McKnight and Ben Jason in 1953, based on the design of hood ornaments of 1950s cars. It consisted of a finned rocket ship on a wooden base. Each subsequent trophy, with the exception of the 1958 trophy (a plaque), has been similar to the original design. The rocket trophy was formally redesigned in 1984, and since then only the base of the trophy has changed each year. There is no monetary or other remuneration associated with the Hugo, other than the trophy. ### Retro-Hugos Retrospective Hugo Awards, or Retro-Hugos, were added as a concept to the Hugo Awards in 1996. They are awards given for years in which no Hugos were originally awarded. Prior to 2017, they could be awarded for works in a year 50, 75, or 100 years prior, after 1939, where there was a Worldcon but where no Hugos were awarded. Retro-Hugos are given by a Worldcon in the categories that are currently in use, and are optional; some Worldcons have chosen not to award them despite a year being eligible. Even for years in which Retro-Hugos are given, not all categories receive enough nominations to receive a ballot. In 2017, the eligible years were specified to be 1939–1952 and 1954, which expanded the possible years to include those post-1939 in which no Worldcon was held at all. Of the fifteen years eligible, awards have been given for eight. ## History ### 1950s The first Hugo Awards were presented at the 11th Worldcon in Philadelphia in 1953, which awarded Hugos in seven categories. The awards presented that year were initially conceived as a one-off event, though the organizers hoped that subsequent conventions would also present them. At the time, Worldcons were completely run by their respective committees as independent events and had no oversight between years. Thus there was no mandate for any future conventions to repeat the awards, and no set rules for how to do so. The 1954 Worldcon chose not to, but the awards were reinstated at the 1955 Worldcon, and thereafter became traditional. The award was called the Annual Science Fiction Achievement Award, with "Hugo Award" being an unofficial, but better known name. The nickname was accepted as an official alternative name in 1958, and since the 1992 awards the nickname has been adopted as the official name of the award. For the first few years, Hugo Awards had no published rules, and were given for works published in the "preceding year" leading up to the convention, which was not defined but generally covered the period between conventions rather than calendar years. In 1959, though there were still no formal guidelines governing the awards, several rules were instated which thereafter became traditional. These included having a ballot for nominating works earlier in the year and separate from the voting ballot; defining eligibility to include works published in the previous calendar year, rather than the ambiguous "preceding year"; and allowing voters to select "No Award" as an option if no nominated works were felt to be deserving of the award. "No Award" won that year in two categories: Dramatic Presentation and Best New Author. The eligibility change additionally sparked a separate rule, prohibiting the nomination of works which had been nominated for the 1958 awards, as the two time periods overlapped. ### 1960s In 1961, after the formation of the WSFS to oversee each Worldcon committee, formal rules were set down in the WSFS constitution mandating the presenting of the awards as one of the responsibilities of each Worldcon organizing committee. The rules restricted voting to members of the convention at which the awards would be given, while still allowing anyone to nominate works; nominations were restricted to members of the convention or the previous year's convention in 1963. The guidelines also specified the categories that would be awarded, which could only be changed by the World Science Fiction Society board. These categories were for Best Novel, Short Fiction (short stories, broadly defined), Dramatic Presentation, Professional Magazine, Professional Artist, and Best Fanzine. 1963 was also the second year in which "No Award" won a category, again for Dramatic Presentation. In 1964 the guidelines were changed to allow individual conventions to create additional categories, which was codified as up to two categories for that year. These additional awards were officially designated as Hugo Awards, but were not required to be repeated by future conventions. This was later adjusted to only allow one additional category; while these special Hugo Awards have been given out in several categories, only a few were ever awarded for more than one year. In 1967 categories for Novelette, Fan Writer, and Fan Artist were added, and a category for Best Novella was added the following year; these new categories had the effect of providing a definition for what word count qualified a work for what category, which was previously left up to voters. Novelettes had also been awarded prior to the codification of the rules. The fan awards were initially conceived as separate from the Hugo Awards, with the award for Best Fanzine losing its status, but were instead absorbed into the regular Hugo Awards by the convention committee. ### 1970s While traditionally five works had been selected for nomination in each category out of the proposed nominees, in 1971 this was set down as a formal rule, barring ties. In 1973, the WSFS removed the category for Best Professional Magazine, and a Best Professional Editor award was instated as its replacement, in order to recognize "the increasing importance of original anthologies". After that year the guidelines were changed again to remove the mandated awards and instead allow up to ten categories which would be chosen by each convention, though they were expected to be similar to those presented in the year before. Despite this change no new awards were added or previous awards removed before the guidelines were changed back to listing specific categories in 1977. 1971 and 1977 both saw "No Award" win the Dramatic Presentation category for the third and fourth time; "No Award" did not win any categories afterwards until 2015. ### 1980s and 1990s In 1980 the category for Best Non-Fiction Book (later renamed Best Related Work) was added, followed by a category for Best Semiprozine (semi-professional magazine) in 1984. In 1983, members of the Church of Scientology were encouraged by people such as Charles Platt to nominate as a bloc Battlefield Earth, written by the organization's founder L. Ron Hubbard, for the Best Novel award; it did not make the final ballot. Another campaign followed in 1987 to nominate Hubbard's Black Genesis; it made the final ballot but finished behind "No Award". 1989 saw a work — The Guardsman by Todd Hamilton and P. J. Beese — withdrawn by its authors from the final ballot after a fan bought numerous memberships under false names, all sent in on the same day, in order to get the work onto the ballot. In 1990, the Best Original Art Work award was given as a special Hugo Award, and was listed again in 1991, though not actually awarded, and established afterward as an official Hugo Award. It was then removed from this status in 1996, and has not been awarded since. The Retro Hugos were created in the mid-1990s, and were first awarded in 1996. ### Since 2000 Another special Hugo Award, for Best Web Site, was given twice in 2002 and 2005, but never instated as a permanent category. In 2003, the Dramatic Presentation award was split into two categories, Long Form and Short Form. This was repeated with the Best Professional Editor category in 2007. 2009 saw the addition of the Best Graphic Story category, and in 2012 an award for Best Fancast was added. In 2015, two groups of science fiction writers, the "Sad Puppies" led by Brad R. Torgersen and Larry Correia, and the "Rabid Puppies" led by Vox Day, each put forward a similar slate of suggested nominations which came to dominate the ballot. The Sad Puppies campaign had run for two years prior on a smaller scale, with limited success. The leaders of the campaigns characterized them as a reaction to "niche, academic, overtly [leftist]" nominees and the Hugo becoming "an affirmative action award" that preferred female and non-white authors and characters. In response, five nominees declined their nomination before and, for the first time, two after the ballot was published. Multiple-Hugo-winner Connie Willis declined to present the awards. The slates were characterized by The Guardian as a "right wing", "orchestrated backlash" and by The A.V. Club as a "group of white guys", and were linked with the Gamergate controversy. Multiple Hugo winner Samuel R. Delany characterized the campaigns as a response to "socio-economic" changes such as minority authors gaining prominence and thus "economic heft". In all but the Best Dramatic Presentation, Long Form category, "No Award" placed above all nominees that were on either slate, and it won all five categories that only contained slate nominees. The two campaigns were repeated in 2016 with some changes, and the "Rabid Puppy" slate again dominated the ballot in several categories, with all five nominees in Best Related Work, Best Graphic Story, Best Professional Artist, and Best Fancast. In response to the campaigns, a set of new rules, called "E Pluribus Hugo", were passed in 2015 and ratified in 2016 to modify the nominations process. Intended to ensure that organized minority groups cannot dominate every finalist position in a category, the new rules define a voting system in which nominees are eliminated one by one, with each vote for an eliminated work then spread out over the uneliminated works they nominated, until only the final shortlist remains. These rules were ratified in 2016 to be used for the first time in 2017. A rule mandating that the final nominees must appear on at least five percent of ballots was also eliminated, to ensure that all categories could reach a full set of nominees even when the initial pool of works was very large. Each nominator is limited to five works in each category, but the final ballot was changed to six in each; additionally, no more than two works by a given author or group, or in the same dramatic series, can be in one category on the final ballot. In 2018 the newest permanent category, Best Series, was begun; it was run the year prior as a special Hugo Award prior to being ratified at the business meeting. Another special Hugo Award, for Best Art Book, was run in 2019 but not repeated or made a permanent category. The 2021 Hugo Awards featured a special Hugo award for video games. The Hugo Study Committee is evaluating a proposal for a "Best Game or Interactive Experience" category, which they or others may propose to the 2022 convention. ## Categories Worldcon committees may also give out special awards during the Hugo ceremony, which are not voted on. Unlike the additional Hugo categories which Worldcons may present, these awards are not officially Hugo Awards and do not use the same trophy, though they once did. Two additional awards, the Astounding Award for Best New Writer and the Lodestar Award for Best Young Adult Book, are presented at the Hugo Award ceremony and voted on by the same process, but are not formally Hugo Awards. ## Recognition The Hugo Award is highly regarded by observers. The Los Angeles Times has termed it "among the highest honors bestowed in science fiction and fantasy writing", a claim echoed by Wired, who said that it was "the premier award in the science fiction genre". Justine Larbalestier, in The Battle of the Sexes in Science Fiction (2002), referred to the awards as "the best known and most prestigious of the science fiction awards", and Jo Walton, writing in An Informal History of the Hugos, said it was "undoubtedly science fiction's premier award". The Guardian similarly acknowledged it as "a fine showcase for speculative fiction" as well as "one of the most venerable, democratic and international" science fiction awards "in existence". James Gunn, in The New Encyclopedia of Science Fiction (1988), echoed The Guardian's statement of the award's democratic nature, saying that "because of its broad electorate" the Hugos were the awards most representative of "reader popularity". Camille Bacon-Smith, in Science Fiction Culture (2000), said that at the time fewer than 1000 people voted on the final ballot; she held, however, that this is a representative sample of the readership at large, given the number of winning novels that remain in print for decades or become notable outside of the science fiction genre, such as The Demolished Man or The Left Hand of Darkness. The 2014 awards saw over 1900 nomination submissions and over 3500 voters on the final ballot, while the 1964 awards received 274 votes. The 2019 awards saw 1800 nominating ballots and 3097 votes, which was described as less than in 2014–2017 but more than any year before then. Brian Aldiss, in his book Trillion Year Spree: The History of Science Fiction, claimed that the Hugo Award was a barometer of reader popularity, rather than artistic merit; he contrasted it with the panel-selected Nebula Award, which provided "more literary judgment", though he did note that the winners of the two awards often overlapped. Along with the Hugo Award, the Nebula Award is also considered one of the premier awards in science fiction, with Laura Miller of Salon.com terming it "science fiction's most prestigious award". The official logo of the Hugo Awards is often placed on the winning books' cover as a promotional tool. Gahan Wilson, in First World Fantasy Awards (1977), claimed that noting that a book had won the Hugo Award on the cover "demonstrably" increased sales for that novel, though Orson Scott Card said in his 1990 book How to Write Science Fiction & Fantasy that the award had a larger effect on foreign sales than in the United States. Spider Robinson, in 1992, claimed that publishers were very interested in authors that won a Hugo Award, more so than for other awards such as the Nebula Award. Literary agent Richard Curtis said in his 1996 Mastering the Business of Writing that having the term Hugo Award on the cover, even as a nominee, was a "powerful inducement" to science fiction fans to buy a novel, while Jo Walton claimed in 2011 that the Hugo is the only science fiction award "that actually affects sales of a book". There have been several anthologies of Hugo-winning short fiction. The series The Hugo Winners, edited by Isaac Asimov, was started in 1962 as a collection of short story winners up to the previous year, and concluded with the 1982 Hugos in Volume 5. The New Hugo Winners, edited originally by Asimov, later by Connie Willis and finally by Gregory Benford, has four volumes collecting stories from the 1983 to the 1994 Hugos. The most recent anthology is The Hugo Award Showcase (2010), edited by Mary Robinette Kowal. It contains most of the short stories, novelettes, and novellas that were nominated for the 2009 award. ## See also - List of science fiction awards - List of joint winners of the Hugo and Nebula awards - Nebula Award - BSFA Award - Locus Award
52,743,828	All the Way (Timeflies song)	1,141,597,255	null	[ "2014 singles", "2014 songs", "Island Records singles", "Timeflies songs" ]	"All the Way" is a song recorded by American band Timeflies for their second studio album, After Hours (2014). It was released as the record's fourth single on January 20, 2014 as a digital download. A CD single and remix EP would later be released 8 days later through Island Records. The track was written and produced by Rob Resnick and Cal Shapiro, with SoFly and Nius also contributing to the production. An upbeat pop song with synths, "All the Way" encourages its listeners to succeed and always do their best. "All the Way" was praised by music critics for being catchy. Commercially, the song charted in both Sweden and the United States. It also spent 23 non-consecutive weeks on the Hot Dance/Electronic Songs. A lyric video with skateboarders was released on February 4, 2014 before the premiere of the music video two weeks later. ## Background and composition While writing music for After Hours, Rob Resnick and Cal Shapiro focused on writing dance, and pop music songs with influence from R&B music. "All the Way" served as the fourth single from After Hours, following "Swoon", "I Choose U" and "Ride", which were all released in 2013. The song was first released on January 20, 2014 as a paid digital download in the United States. Eight days later, an extended play (EP) featuring four remixes created by Chuckie and Laidback Luke was distributed by Island Records. A CD single with the same tracks as the EP plus the original version of "All the Way" was also released. "All the Way" is an upbeat pop song, that has a duration of two minutes and 59 seconds. The track was written and produced by Rob Resnick and Cal Shapiro, with SoFly and Nius also contributing to the production. Prior to working with SoFly and Nius, Timeflies claimed that it was the first time they had worked with collaborators. In terms of the music itself, the song predominantly features a "sugary sweet pop production" with "soaring synths". With empowering lyrics, it encourages individuals to take pride in whatever task they are faced. ## Reception "All the Way" was described by MTV News's Jenna Hally Rubenstein as one of "the catchiest pop jam[s]" that she has ever heard, comparing it to the works of Capital Cities, Zedd, and Cash Cash. Equally positive was Kristin Harris from Seventeen, who called it awesome and warned that listeners of the song may leave it "on repeat for about 5 hours" because it is catchy. Stephanie Ironson, an editor for Elite Daily, wrote an article about Timeflies appearing at the "Billboard Hot 100 Fest" in August 2016 and referred to "All the Way" as her favorite song by the group. Agreeing, AndPop's Kalyna Taras found that "after only a couple listens", any individual will be "singing along" and "tapping [their] feet". A writer for The Quinnipiac Chronicle described the success of "All the Way", stating that because it is "constantly on pop radio stations, [they are] solidifying [their] place in the music industry". In the United States, "All the Way" spent one week at number nine on Billboard's Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart. The song's digital sales allowed it to enter the Pop Digital Songs and Heatseeker Songs component charts, where it peaked at numbers 23 and 20, respectively. In that same country, "All the Way" found success on the Hot Dance/Electronic Songs, where it remained for 23 non-consecutive weeks and peaked at number 11. On the Dance Club Songs chart, it spent 9 weeks charting before peaking at number 28 on May 3, 2014. It also ranked on Sweden's Sverigetopplistan chart, where it peaked at number 42 over the course of a four weeks. ## Promotion During a January 2014 interview with Seventeen, Timeflies hinted that a music video for "All the Way" would be filmed in the near future. Instead, a lyric video featuring professional skateboarders was released on February 4, 2014 instead. The music video premiered on February 18 through Timeflies' official Vevo account. It includes several extras doing various activities like snowboarding, surfing, and riding dune buggies; other scenes are shown with artists doing graffiti. It is interspersed with clips of Timeflies performing the song. During an interview with Hollywood Life immediately after the video's filming, they claimed that the skateboarder in the visual had broken his helmet while performing stunts. At the first annual Billboard Hot 100 Fest in August 2016, Timeflies performed several songs from their catalog during the set list. During their time on stage, they opened with "All the Way" before yelling at their fans: "Are y'all ready to party with us?". ## Track listings and formats Digital download 1. "All the Way" – 2:59 Remixes EP 1. "All the Way (Chuckie Club)" – 3:48 2. "All the Way (Chuckie Radio Edit)" – 3:18 3. "All the Way (Laidback Luke Bounce Club)" – 5:39 4. "All the Way (Laidback Luke Bounce Radio Edit)" – 3:29 CD single 1. "All the Way (Chuckie Club)" – 3:48 2. "All the Way (Chuckie Radio Edit)" – 3:18 3. "All the Way (Laidback Luke Bounce Club)" – 5:39 4. "All the Way (Laidback Luke Bounce Radio Edit)" – 3:29 5. "All the Way" – 2:59 ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications
11,871,692	Interstate 40 in Arizona	1,161,995,830	Interstate Highway in Arizona	[ "Interstate 40", "Interstate Highways in Arizona", "Transportation in Apache County, Arizona", "Transportation in Coconino County, Arizona", "Transportation in Mohave County, Arizona", "Transportation in Navajo County, Arizona", "Transportation in Yavapai County, Arizona" ]	Interstate 40 (I-40) is an east–west Interstate Highway that has a 359.11-mile (577.93 km) section in the US state of Arizona, connecting sections in California and New Mexico. The Interstate is also referred to as the Purple Heart Trail to honor those wounded in combat who have received the Purple Heart. It enters Arizona from the west at a crossing of the Colorado River southwest of Kingman. It travels eastward across the northern portion of the state, connecting the cities of Kingman, Ash Fork, Williams, Flagstaff, Winslow, and Holbrook. I-40 continues into New Mexico, heading to Albuquerque. The highway has major junctions with U.S. Route 93 (US 93)—the main highway connecting Phoenix and Las Vegas, Nevada—in Kingman and again approximately 22 miles (35 km) to the east and I-17—the freeway linking Phoenix to northern Arizona—in Flagstaff. For the majority of its routing through Arizona, I-40 follows the historic alignment of US 66. The lone exception is a stretch between Kingman and Ash Fork where US 66 took a more northerly, less direct route that is now State Route 66 (SR 66). Construction of I-40 was ongoing in the 1960s and 1970s and reached completion in 1984. With the completion of I-40 in 1984, the entire routing of US 66 had been bypassed by Interstate Highways which led to its decertification a year later in 1985. ## Route description ### California to Flagstaff I-40 enters Arizona from California at a bridge that crosses the Colorado River at Topock in Mohave County. It heads east from Topock and begins to curve toward the north at Franconia, completing the curve at Yucca. The Interstate continues to head north until it reaches Kingman. In this city, I-40 has a junction with US 93 at exit 48. US 93 heads toward the northwest from this interchange to Hoover Dam and Las Vegas. US 93 south begins to run concurrently with I-40 east as they both swing eastward through Kingman. The two later separate at exit 71 as US 93 heads toward the south toward Phoenix while I-40 continues east toward Flagstaff. Along the way, I-40 passes through the town of Seligman, then, at Ash Fork, it meets SR 89, the former U.S. Route that heads south to Prescott. Next, it passes through Williams, where it has an interchange with SR 64 (exit 165), which heads north toward Grand Canyon National Park. I-40 continues to the east to Flagstaff, where it has a major junction with I-17 at exit 195. I-17 heads south from this interchange to Phoenix. ### Flagstaff to New Mexico East of Flagstaff, I-40 heads toward the east-southeast direction as it goes through the town of Winslow. It continues toward this direction until it reaches Holbrook, where it curves toward the northeast. Along this stretch, it passes through Petrified Forest National Park and continues to the northeast, passing through Chambers, and enters the Navajo Nation. The highway still continues to the northeast to the New Mexico border southwest of Gallup, New Mexico, as it continues on toward Albuquerque. ## History With the exception of a stretch between Kingman and Flagstaff, I-40 directly replaced the famed US 66 across northern Arizona. Where possible, US 66 was upgraded to Interstate standards to become I-40 directly. Exceptions to this were through the central business districts of the cities and towns that US 66 passed through, and I-40 had to be built as a bypass outside the cities. On October 26, 1984, after the last section of I-40 was completed in Williams, US 66 was removed from the state highway system of Arizona. The portions through cities that did not overlap I-40 would become business loops of I-40. ### Before the U.S. Routes The routing of a road near the current corridor of I-40 in Arizona was first surveyed and built between 1857 and 1859. Lt. Edward Beale and his soldiers built the road along the 35th parallel that would come to be known as the Beale Wagon Road from Fort Smith, Arkansas, to the Colorado River to serve as a military wagon road. The road was a popular route for immigrants during the 1860s and 1870s until the transcontinental railroad was built across northern Arizona in the 1880s. In the early 1900s, the road became part of the National Old Trails Road, a transcontinental route from Baltimore, Maryland, to California, and the National Park to Park Highway, an auto trail linking the national parks of the west. ### U.S. Route 66 In the 1920s, as a nationwide system of highways called the United States Numbered Highways was being developed, the route through was given the designation of US 60. This designation was controversial since designations that are multiples of 10 are assigned to transcontinental east–west routes and this route was a diagonal route from Chicago, Illinois, to Los Angeles, California. As a compromise to states east of Chicago that felt US 60 should go through their state, a different route was given the number 60, while the route from Chicago to Los Angeles was given the number 66. By 1927, the routing of US 66 through Arizona had been laid out, but none of it had been paved yet. By 1935, nearly the entire route had been paved, with the lone exceptions being a short stretch northeast of Valentine and a stretch between Peach Springs and Seligman. By 1938, the entire route in Arizona had been paved. In 1953, US 66 was realigned between the California border and Kingman to an alignment to the southeast to avoid the mountain curves and grades of the original alignment. By 1961, several sections of the highway had been expanded to a four-lane divided highway in anticipation of the coming Interstate Highway. Four-lane sections included a section near Ash Fork, another section east of Winslow, and a section east of Holbrook near the Petrified Forest National Monument. ### Planning In Flagstaff, several different alternatives were considered as a potential routing of the new Interstate through the area. The alternatives consisted of a routing north of downtown, south of downtown, through downtown along the Santa Fe Railroad right-of-way near the alignment of US 66, and a more elaborate alternative of a routing above downtown on a long overpass. In January 1959, the Flagstaff Chamber of Commerce recommended to the Bureau of Public Roads that the route south of downtown be used which was approved by the Flagstaff City Council and the Board of Supervisors for Coconino County. This recommendation was accepted and would become the planned routing of I-40 in Flagstaff. Business owners along US 66 were opposed to this routing as it would draw motorists away from main through route of the time, US 66. As a result, they created the No By-Pass Committee and sent a proposal to the Chamber of Commerce's Roads and Highways Committee to conduct a study of the feasibility of a route for I-40 through downtown along the Santa Fe railroad right-of-way. The Committee sent an inquiry to the railroad concerning the proposal. The railroad rejected the proposed rerouting of their main rail lines, citing that it would result in worse grades than what currently exists, and, in order to reduce those grades, considerable lengthening of the rail line would be required. With a routing through town now out of the question, the business owners along US 66 drafted a city ordinance, known as Initiative 200, that was filed with the city of Flagstaff in November 1959 to appear on the general election ballot in March 1960. The ordinance would, in effect, ban all new commercial businesses on I-40, all routes leading from I-40 to US 66, and the area between I-40 and US 66. In a record voter turnout, voters overwhelmingly voted against the ordinance by a vote of 2,280 to 556. In 1965, the routing of I-40 west of Kingman was being reconsidered from the planned route through Needles, California, to a route to the north passing through Searchlight in southern Nevada and connecting with I-15 further north of its present connection with I-15. The rationale for the proposal was that it would be an overall shorter route and would cost much less to construct. The proposal was met with stiff opposition, including all four US senators from California and Arizona sending the Secretary of Commerce letters requesting that the routing through Needles be retained. This proposal was eventually abandoned in 1966, and the routing through Needles was kept. ### Construction The construction of the 360-mile (580 km) route of I-40 across Arizona took nearly 25 years to complete with the last segment being completed in 1984, much longer than the ambitious goal of finishing by 1972. By the end of 1960, 15 miles (24 km) had been completed with an additional 23 miles (37 km) being worked on. In 1964, construction was still on schedule with 58 miles (93 km) complete and an additional 71 miles (114 km) under construction. Funding was becoming an issue at this time as the state lacked the available funds to stay on pace with a 1972 completion goal. By 1967, Arizona had completed almost half of the highway with 155.3 miles (249.9 km) complete and another 82.4 miles (132.6 km) under construction. In 1968, the bypass around Flagstaff was complete with three interchanges, two at each end of where US 66 split off from I-40 to enter the city and one at the I-17 interchange. An additional interchange at Butler Avenue was completed a year later. One of the big improvements of I-40 over US 66 was the construction of the segment between Kingman and Ash Fork. The 94-mile (151 km) section is a more direct route between the two cities and travels as far as 20 miles (32 km) south of the US 66 alignment, bypassing Hackberry and Peach Springs and creating ghost-towns. Construction of the \$69.1 million (equivalent to \$ in ) segment was also to be a much safer route as the US 66 alignment had one of the highest fatality rates of any section of highway in Arizona. This section of the Interstate was complete in 1978. Construction of the \$7.7 million (equivalent to \$ in ) bypass around Winslow began in 1977. I-40 was completed in Arizona in 1984, with the completion of a six-mile (9.7 km) section in Williams. This was also the last section of US 66 to be bypassed by the Interstate, which led to it being decertified by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) the following year. ## Exit list ## See also
44,757,469	M13 Multiple Gun Motor Carriage	1,168,931,449	null	[ "Half-tracks of the United States", "Military vehicles introduced from 1940 to 1944", "Self-propelled anti-aircraft weapons of the United States", "World War II armored fighting vehicles of the United States", "World War II half-tracks", "World War II self-propelled anti-aircraft weapons" ]	The M13 Multiple Gun Motor Carriage (MGMC), otherwise known as the M13 half-track, was a self-propelled anti-aircraft gun used by the U.S. Army during World War II that was armed with two .50 caliber M2HB heavy-barrel Browning machine guns. Developed in response to a requirement for a mobile anti-aircraft (AA) vehicle, the vehicle was produced by the White Motor Company between July 1942 and May 1943. The only time it was ever used in combat was when the Americans landed at Anzio in January 1944. It was replaced by the more heavily armed M16 Multiple Gun Motor Carriage in April 1944. The M13 evolved from a series of several unsuccessful prototypes that were trialed from 1940 to 1942. Of these, the T1E4 was selected and given the official name of the M13 MGMC, before being placed into production. Half of the M13s produced were converted into M16s on the production lines. ## Specifications The M13 half-track was 21 feet 4 inches (6.50 m) long, 7 feet 1 inch (2.16 m) wide, and 7 feet 8 inches (2.34 m) high with a wheelbase of 135.5 inches (3.44 m). It had bogie suspension for the wheels and vertical volute springs for the tracks. It had a 60 US gal (50 imp gal; 230 L) fuel capacity and a range of 175 miles (282 km). The vehicle was powered by a six-cylinder White 160AX, 128 horsepower (95 kW), 386 cubic inches (6,325 cc) gasoline engine, with a compression ratio of 6.3:1. It had a power-to-weight ratio of 15.8 horsepower per short ton (17.7 hp/LT; 17.4 hp/t) and weighed nine short tons (8.0 long tons; 8.2 t). The armor across most of the vehicle was 0.25 inches (6.35 mm) thick with a 0.5 inches (12.7 mm) thick windscreen visor. The vehicle was armed with two 0.5 inch M2 Browning heavy machine guns placed on an M33 Maxson mount. The two machine guns were fired remotely and powered by a small electrical motor near the back of the turret. The guns were aimed with a Mark 9 reflector sight. Each vehicle had a crew of five (commander, driver, gunner, and two ammunition loaders). ## Development ### Early experiments In October 1940, development began to produce a vehicle in response to a long-standing requirement for an anti-aircraft vehicle to protect the U.S. Army's mechanized troop convoys from aerial attack. The first vehicle produced in the development of a half track with an anti-aircraft armament was the T1, which had two M2 machine guns on a Bendix machine gun mount—as used on jeeps—on a 4×4 truck. The T1E1 had a power-operated Bendix mount, and the T1E2 a Maxson mount. The T1E3 had an electro-dynamic Glenn L. Martin Company aircraft-type turret. Evaluation of these test vehicles led to the T1E2 design being preferred. The T1E2 became the M16 half-track by replacing the M33 with the M45 mount and the M2 half-track chassis with the M3 half-track chassis. ### T1E4 and M13 The next stage of development was to use the T1E2 configuration on the longer chassis of the M3 half-track, since it could store more ammunition. This vehicle, originally designated as the T1E4, was accepted into production as the M13 Multiple Gun Motor Carriage on 27 July 1942. A total of 1,103 examples of this variant were produced from 27 July 1942 to 15 May 1943. Half of them (583) were converted into M16s by the White Motor Company before reaching the army. Deliveries began in late 1943. ## Service history The M13 served at the landing at Anzio with the VI Corps of the Fifth United States Army in January 1944. It was used as an anti-aircraft weapon during the initial landing and then later as a ground support weapon to repel heavy German panzer attacks on the beachhead. It was replaced three months later by the M16 Multiple Gun Motor Carriage in April 1944. Only 139 examples were deployed overseas by the U.S. Army. Ten were transferred to the United Kingdom under Lend-Lease. ## Prototypes - T1 – This variant used two M2 Browning heavy machine guns on a Bendix mount on a 4×4 truck. This model, like most of the others, was a prototype. It was tested in June–July 1941 at the Aberdeen Proving Grounds, but was rejected because of the "excessive dispersion of ammunition". - T1E1 – Another prototype that used the Bendix mount on a M2 half-track car. It was cancelled in April 1942. - T1E2 – This variant was essentially the same as the T1E1 except the Bendix mount was replaced with the M33 Maxson mount. After the M33 was replaced with the M45 Quadmount it was accepted as the M16 half-track. - T1E3 – A T1E1 with a Martin turret designed for use on bombers. ## Derivatives - T1E4/M13 – The Martin turret was replaced by the M33 and was based on the M3 half-track. It was accepted as the M13 half-track in July 1942. A total of 139 examples of this variant saw action at Anzio as a ground support weapon used to repel heavy German attacks. It was replaced by the M16 in April 1944. - M14 half-track – This variant had the same armament as the M13 but used the slightly different M5 half-track chassis built by International Harvester for the Lend-Lease Program. The M14 was mostly supplied to Britain, where they were converted back to regular half-tracks. A total of 1602 were produced by International Harvester. ## See also - List of U.S. military vehicles by model number - List of U.S. military vehicles by supply catalog designation
7,567,200	Barbara Gittings	1,158,600,515	Librarian, LGBT rights activist	[ "1932 births", "2007 deaths", "20th-century American LGBT people", "20th-century American journalists", "20th-century American women writers", "21st-century American LGBT people", "21st-century American women writers", "Activists from Philadelphia", "American LGBT journalists", "American LGBT rights activists", "American Library Association people", "American lesbian writers", "American librarianship and human rights", "American magazine editors", "Daughters of Bilitis members", "Deaths from breast cancer", "Deaths from cancer in Pennsylvania", "Former Roman Catholics", "Journalists from Pennsylvania", "LGBT people from Pennsylvania", "Northwestern University School of Communication alumni", "Political activists from Pennsylvania", "Women magazine editors" ]	Barbara Gittings (July 31, 1932 – February 18, 2007) was a prominent American activist for LGBT equality. She organized the New York chapter of the Daughters of Bilitis (DOB) from 1958 to 1963, edited the national DOB magazine The Ladder from 1963 to 1966, and worked closely with Frank Kameny in the 1960s on the first picket lines that brought attention to the ban on employment of gay people by the largest employer in the US at that time: the United States government. Her early experiences with trying to learn more about lesbianism fueled her lifetime work with libraries. In the 1970s, Gittings was most involved in the American Library Association, especially its gay caucus, the first such in a professional organization, in order to promote positive literature about homosexuality in libraries. She was a part of the movement to get the American Psychiatric Association to drop homosexuality as a mental illness in 1972. Her self-described life mission was to tear away the "shroud of invisibility" related to homosexuality, which had theretofore been associated with crime and mental illness. She was awarded a lifetime membership in the American Library Association, and the ALA named an annual award for the best gay or lesbian novel the Barbara Gittings Award. The Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation (GLAAD) also named an activist award for her. At her memorial service, Matt Foreman, the executive director of the National Gay and Lesbian Task Force said, "What do we owe Barbara? Everything." ## Early life and education Barbara Gittings was born to Elizabeth (née Brooks) Gittings and John Sterett Gittings in Vienna, Austria, where her father was serving as a U.S. diplomat. Barbara and her siblings attended Catholic schools in Montreal. She was so immersed in Catholicism at one point in her childhood that she considered becoming a nun. Her family returned to the United States at the outbreak of World War II and settled in Wilmington, Delaware. Although aware of her attraction to other girls, Gittings said she first heard the word "homosexual" when she was rejected for membership in the National Honor Society in high school. Despite being an excellent student, a teacher who had reservations about her character took her aside and told her that the rejection was based on what the teacher believed were "homosexual inclinations". While majoring in drama at Northwestern University, Gittings developed a close but non-sexual friendship with another female student, prompting rumors that the two were lesbians, which led Gittings to examine her own sexual orientation. In her attempts to understand it, she had her suspicions confirmed by a psychiatrist who offered to cure her. Not having enough money to make regular visits, she was unable to get the money from her father, who reasoned there were no problems a psychiatrist could solve that a priest could not. A close friend suggested they see less of each other so as not to further encourage the rumors about them. Having no one to talk to about the issues that were consuming her, she decided to read as much as she could on the topic. She found very little, and much of what she found described homosexuals as "deviants", "perverts", and "abnormal" in medical books and texts on abnormal psychology, or odd generalizations that stated homosexuals were unable to whistle, or that their favorite color was green. She found all the information focused on homosexual men. She recalled in a 2001 interview, "I thought, this is not about me. There is nothing here about love or happiness. There has to be something better". Her research took up so much of her time at Northwestern that she ended up failing out of the school. Gittings found a purpose during this time, saying, "My mission was not to get a general education but to find out about myself and what my life would be like. So I stopped going to classes and started going to the library. There were no organizations to turn to in those days only libraries were safe, although the information contained was dismal." ### After college At age 17, she returned from Northwestern "in disgrace" after failing out of school and unable to tell her family why. But she was compelled to continue her search for information. She found some in the novels available at the time: Nightwood, The Well of Loneliness, and Extraordinary Women. Soon thereafter, her father discovered The Well of Loneliness in a pile of other things in her bedroom. He was so appalled at what he found that he instructed her to burn the book, but did so in a letter as he was unable to speak to her about it face to face. Still eager to learn more about homosexuality, Gittings took a night course in abnormal psychology where she met a woman, with whom she had a brief affair, her first. At age 18, she left home to be on her own and moved to Philadelphia. Gittings began to hitchhike on weekends to New York City, dressed as a man, to visit gay bars since she knew of none in Philadelphia, and knew of no other places to go to get "plugged into the gay community." In a 1975 interview, she recalled, "I wore drag because I thought that was a way to show I was gay. It's changed now, but in the early 50s there were basically two types of women in the gay bars: the so-called butch ones in short hair and plain masculine attire and the so-called femme ones in dresses and high heels and makeup. I knew high heels and makeup weren't my personal style, so I thought...I must be the other kind!" However, Gittings found very little in common with the women she met in the bars, and after witnessing a gay male acquaintance get beaten up after leaving a bar, began to focus her energies on collecting books. ## Activism in the 1950s and 1960s ### Daughters of Bilitis In 1956, Gittings traveled to California on the advice of Donald Webster Cory, to visit the office of the new ONE, Inc., an early homophile organization that dedicated itself to providing support to homosexuals in the US. While in California, she met Phyllis Lyon and Del Martin, who had co-founded the Daughters of Bilitis (DOB) in San Francisco. "She was a cute, curly-haired young woman wearing a shift and sandals. I remember she had this satchel, a backpack — I'd never seen anything like it. Or her", Lyon remembered. At her first meeting of the Daughters of Bilitis in someone's living room, Gittings brought up the obscurity of the name, which she thought was impractical, difficult to pronounce and spell, and referenced a fictional bisexual character, not even homosexual. "Even then I was pretty assertive...What were they doing with a name like that? It wasn't very nice of me, but they seemed to take it with reasonably good spirits." In 1958, Martin and Lyon asked Gittings to start a chapter in New York City, which she did when less than a dozen women responded to her notice in the Mattachine Society newsletter asking for "all women in the New York area who are interested in forming a chapter of the DOB" on September 20, 1958. Gittings served as the chapter's first president for three years, from 1958 until 1961, the year she met Kay Tobin. In 1982, Gittings remembered, "I joined the movement in 1958, when the subject of homosexuality was still shrouded in complete silence. There were no radio talk shows or TV documentaries. In all the United States, there were maybe a half dozen groups, two hundred people active in all." The Daughters of Bilitis served as a social alternative to bars for lesbians, but took great care to deny that they were "arranging for 'immoral contacts'." While president of the DOB in New York, attending members numbered between ten and forty per meeting. They met twice a month and often invited doctors, psychiatrists, ministers and attorneys to address their meetings, even if the message was clearly disparaging to lesbians. Gittings recalled, "At first we were so grateful just to have people — anybody — pay attention to us that we listened to and accepted everything they said, no matter how bad it was...anything that helped to break the silence, no matter how silly or foolish it may look to us today, was important." Gittings admitted that early meetings and writings in the Daughters of Bilitis urged their members not to upset mainstream heterosexual society; that integration and acceptance would be won if heterosexuals could see that gays and lesbians were not dramatically different from themselves. She worked in clerical positions during this time, spending ten years as a mimeograph operator for an architectural firm. The New York chapter of the DOB distributed a newsletter to about 150 people, and Gittings worked on it while being required to stay overtime at her job. In 1959, after using company envelopes to mail the newsletter out and covering the firm's name with a sticker, someone wrote to the firm to notify them that a newsletter addressing lesbianism was being distributed. Gittings was sure that she would be fired, but her boss, a woman, stated cryptically that she was familiar with the topic, having served in the armed forces. She was not fired but cautioned to be more careful instead. ### The Ladder From 1963 to 1966, she edited the organization's magazine, The Ladder, following both Lyon and Martin as editors. Although the Daughters of Bilitis did take a political stand in the 1959 San Francisco mayoral race, Martin and Lyon preferred The Ladder to remain apolitical. Gittings was impressed with how her influence as editor impacted the magazine and the opinions of its readers. "I discovered the power of the press, the power to put in what you want in order to influence readers," she said. At the 1963 convention of the newly formed East Coast Homophile Organizations, the audience heard a speaker named Dr. Albert Ellis tell them that "the exclusive homosexual" was a psychopath. Articles and essays in The Ladder sometimes carried these viewpoints, since it was difficult to get psychiatrists and doctors to address homosexuality in any form. Gittings said, "People like Ellis talked about homosexuality being a sickness. And they talked about a cure ... We'd sit there and listen and politely applaud and then go for the social hour afterward." However, after Dr. Ellis spoke, so did gay activist Frank Kameny, making an impression upon Gittings with his point that it is useless to try to find cures and causes for homosexuality since there is no valid evidence that it is an illness. Said Gittings, "My thinking didn't change until Frank Kameny came along and he said plainly and firmly and unequivocally that homosexuality is no kind of sickness or disease or disorder or malfunction, it is fully on par with heterosexuality ... Suddenly I found that I was looking at things that had happened in the past in a very different light and I was taking a position that was increasingly diverging from DOB's positions." Gittings began to implement changes in The Ladder that included adding "A Lesbian Review" underneath the title on the cover and replacing the line drawings on the cover with photographs of actual lesbians, often taken by her partner, Kay Lahusen. Gittings distributed The Ladder in six bookstores in New York and Philadelphia, and one Greenwich Village store displayed the magazine prominently, selling 100 copies a month. The focus of the magazine shifted as well to tackling more controversial issues to spark debate, printing such articles titled "I Hate Women" remarking on women who are politically apathetic, and "To Act or to Teach?" that was a back-and-forth debate on whether it was more effective to educate the public or take political action. ### Protests Gittings participated in many of the earliest LGBT actions in the United States. In 1965, Gittings marched in the first gay picket lines at the White House, the US State Department, and at Independence Hall in Philadelphia to protest the federal government's policy on discrimination of homosexuals, holding a sign that read "Sexual preference is irrelevant to federal employment." The men who agreed to picket had to wear suits and ties, and the women who participated were to wear dresses, heels, and pantyhose so as to look employable by the federal government. Reactions from passersby were varied. A tourist witnessing the demonstration remarked, "I still don't believe it. Somebody's kidding." A stunned high school student pointed out, "They all look so normal." Gittings recalled, "I remember a man said to his kids, 'Hold your noses — it's dirty here.' And there was a woman dragging a string of kids who said, very angrily, 'You should all be married and have children like me.'" Leaflets were distributed to passersby that described their reasons for picketing, surprising some recipients who were unaware gays and lesbians could be fired so easily, and disgusting others. Gittings remembered, "It was risky and we were scared. Picketing was not a popular tactic at the time. And our cause seemed outlandish even to most gay people." The evening prior to the group's picketing the State Department, Secretary of State Dean Rusk announced the pickets at a press conference. Gittings connected the high-profile visibility with a "breakthrough into mainstream publicity." From 1965 to 1969, she and Frank Kameny led the Annual Reminder, picketing at Independence Hall in Philadelphia on July 4, until the Stonewall Riots in June 1969. After the riots, the annual Gay Pride Parade commemorating the riots took its place. Differences in Gittings' political stance and the leadership of the DOB began to show, and came to a culmination in 1966 when she was ousted as the editor of The Ladder for, as one source claims, creating the issue that reported on the DOB convention late, but according to another source because she removed "For Adults Only" on the cover of the magazine without consulting the DOB. In November 1967, Gittings and Kameny worked together as co-counsel in hearings held by the Department of Defense to discredit an expert witness named Dr. Charles Socarides, who testified that homosexuals could be converted to heterosexuality, and to call in question the policy held by the Department of Defense that homosexual employees could be fired for being named as homosexuals. "Publicity was the objective", Gittings recalled many years later. Kameny and Gittings dressed conservatively, but wore buttons that said "Gay is Good" and "Pray for Sodomy." "We held press conferences for the benefit of sharp-eyed reporters. When we first went into a hearing room, we made certain to shake hands with all ... participants so (they) could not avoid reading our buttons. Although neither was an attorney, at the end of their cross-examination, the Department of Defense removed Socarides from their lists of expert witnesses. Gittings made hundreds of appearances as a speaker in the late 1960s. She carried on her mission to convince heterosexuals and homosexuals alike that homosexuality is not an illness, stating in a letter in 1967: > I keep trying to convince people in the movement that the charge of sickness is perhaps our greatest problem ... we can't really progress in other directions until the unsubstantiated assumption of sickness...is demolished! It's almost always there, however slyly or covertly or even unconsciously, however 'sympathetic' the person: the attitude that homosexuality is somehow undesirable, some sort of twist or malfunction or failure or maladaptation or other kind of psychic sickness. And in our society sick people, by any definition of sick, just DO not get equal treatment. Equal treatment — no more, no less — is what we want! And compassion — which many homosexuals gladly swallow because they think it represents an improvement in attitudes toward them — is not equal treatment. ## Activism in the 1970s and later ### American Library Association In the 1970s, Gittings continued her search for resources in libraries that addressed homosexuality in a positive, supportive way. In discussing her pursuit of the improvement of materials for gays and lesbians in libraries, she said, "For years I would haunt libraries and secondhand book shops trying to find stories to read about my people, and then I became active in other arenas of the gay rights movement, but I always kept an eye on the emerging literature...It began to talk about homosexuals who were healthy and happy and wholesome and who had good lives...That rang the bells for me—libraries, gay books!" Gittings found a home in the gay group that formed in 1970 in the American Library Association, the first gay caucus in a professional association, and became its coordinator in 1971. She pushed the American Library Association for more visibility for gays and lesbians in the profession. She staffed a kissing booth at the national convention of the ALA in Dallas in 1971, underneath the banner "Hug a Homosexual," with a "women only" side and a "men only" side. When no one took advantage of it, she and Patience and Sarah author Alma Routsong (pen name: Isabel Miller) kissed in front of rolling television cameras. In describing its success, despite most of the reaction being negative, Gittings said, "We needed to get an audience. So we decided, let's show gay love live. We were offering free—mind you, free—same-sex kisses and hugs. Let me tell you, the aisles were mobbed, but no one came into the booth to get a free hug. So we hugged and kissed each other. It was shown twice on the evening news, once again in the morning. It put us on the map." ### American Psychiatric Association In 1972, Gittings and Kameny organized a discussion with the American Psychiatric Association entitled "Psychiatry: Friend or Foe to Homosexuals: A Dialogue", where a panel of psychiatrists were to discuss homosexuality. When Gittings' partner Kay Tobin Lahusen noticed that all the psychiatrists were heterosexual, she protested. Gittings remembered, "My partner, Kay, said, 'This isn't right—here you have two psychiatrists pitted against two gays, and what you really need is someone who is both.' The panel moderator, Dr. Kent Robinson, agreed to add a gay psychiatrist if we could find one. In 1972 who would come forward? ... Kay and I wrote letters and made phone calls around the country." A gay psychiatrist in Philadelphia finally agreed to appear on the panel in heavy disguise, and with a voice distorting microphone, calling himself "Dr. H. Anonymous". He was John E. Fryer, and he discussed how he was forced to be closeted while practicing psychiatry. Gittings read aloud letters from psychiatrists she had solicited who declined to appear for fear of professional ostracism. She described the event as "transformative". In 1973, homosexuality was removed from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual as a mental disorder, and Gittings celebrated by being photographed with the Philadelphia newspaper headlines, "Twenty Million Homosexuals Gain Instant Cure." Gittings spent 16 years working with libraries and campaigning to get positive gay and lesbian-themed materials into libraries and to eliminate censorship and job discrimination. She wrote Gays in Library Land: The Gay and Lesbian Task Force of the American Library Association: The First Sixteen Years., a brief history of the group. She helped start what was then called the National Gay Task Force, later to be named the National Gay and Lesbian Task Force (NGLTF) in 1973. Gittings served on the board of the NGLTF throughout the 1980s. She inspired nurses to form the Gay Nurses Alliance in 1973. She held exhibits at APA conventions in 1972, 1976, and 1978, her last one being "Gay Love: Good Medicine" that portrayed gays as happy and healthy. ### Other Gittings made an appearance on The Phil Donahue Show in 1970 and on PBS' David Susskind Show in 1971, along with six other lesbians, including Lilli Vincenz and Barbara Love. They were among the first open lesbians to appear on television in the US, and debated long-held stereotypes about gays with Susskind. This segment is remembered for Gittings saying, "Homosexuals today are taking it for granted that their homosexuality is not at all something dreadful – it's good, it's right, it's natural, it's moral, and this is the way they are going to be!". A week after this appearance on the David Susskind Show, a middle-aged couple approached Gittings in the supermarket to claim, "You made me realize that you gay people love each other just the way Arnold and I do." In 1991 Gittings remembered her decisions to be as open as she was throughout her life when she said, "Every time I had to make a decision to put myself forward or to stay back, to use my real name or not, to go on television or decline, to get out on some of the earliest picket lines or remain behind. I usually took the public position because there weren't many of us yet that could afford the risk." ## Legacy Gittings appeared in the documentary films Gay Pioneers, Before Stonewall, After Stonewall, Out of the Past, and Pride Divide. In 1999, Gittings was honored for her contributions to the LGBT cause at the seventh annual PrideFest America, in Philadelphia. The organization described Gittings as "the Rosa Parks of the gay and lesbian civil rights movement". In 2001, the Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation honored Gittings by bestowing on her the first Barbara Gittings Award, highlighting dedication to activism. Also in 2001, the Free Library of Philadelphia announced its Barbara Gittings Collection of books dedicated to gay and lesbian issues. There are more than 2000 items in the collection, the second largest gay and lesbian collection of books in the US outside that of the San Francisco Public Library. As recognition for Gittings' contributions to the promotion of gay and lesbian literature, in 2002 the Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, and Transgender Round Table of the ALA renamed one of their three book awards the Stonewall Book Award-Barbara Gittings Literature Award. In 2003, the American Library Association rewarded her with its highest tribute, lifetime honorary membership. The Philadelphia "Progress" series of murals by Ann Northrup, located at 1315 Spruce Street, Center City, Philadelphia, features an image of Barbara Gittings in the "Pride and Progress" mural. In the painting you can see a man pasting up a poster that shows part of the Annual Reminder picket from 1966. In 2006 Gittings and Frank Kameny received the first John E. Fryer, MD Award from the American Psychiatric Association. The award goes to people who have made a significant impact on the mental health of gays and lesbians. In October 2006, the Smithsonian Institution acquired a sign she carried in her picketing in 1965, donated by Frank Kameny. In 2007, readers of The Advocate included Gittings on a list of their 40 favorite gay and lesbian heroes. Gittings and her partner Kay Tobin Lahusen donated copies of some materials and photographs covering their activism to the Cornell University Rare and Manuscript Collections. In 2007, Lahusen donated all of their original papers and photographs to the New York City Public Library (NYPL), whose head, Paul LeClerc, said, "The collection donated by Barbara Gittings and Kay Tobin Lahusen is a remarkable first-hand chronicle detailing the battles of gays and lesbians to overcome the prejudice and restrictions that were prevalent prior to the activism and protest movements that started in the 1960s." The University of Massachusetts Amherst main library received a donation of over 1,000 of Gittings' and Lahusen's books in 2007; it is the Gittings-Lahusen Gay Book Collection, Call no.: RB 005. On October 1, 2012, the city of Philadelphia named a section of Locust Street "Barbara Gittings Way" in Gittings' memory. Also in 2012, she was inducted into the Legacy Walk, an outdoor public display which celebrates LGBT history and people. In June 2019 Gittings was one of the inaugural fifty American "pioneers, trailblazers, and heroes" inducted on the National LGBTQ Wall of Honor within the Stonewall National Monument (SNM) in New York City's Stonewall Inn. The SNM is the first U.S. national monument dedicated to LGBTQ rights and history, and the wall's unveiling was timed to take place during the 50th anniversary of the Stonewall riots. Season 1, episode 9 and Season 2, episode 8 of the podcast "Making Gay History" are about her and Lahusen. ## Personal life Gittings was an avid music lover, most interested in Baroque and Renaissance music. She sang in choral groups for most of her life, spending over 50 years in the Philadelphia Chamber Chorus. She was also a hiking and canoeing enthusiast. She and her lifelong partner, Kay Tobin (also known as Kay Tobin Lahusen; born 1930) met in 1961 at a picnic in Rhode Island. Gittings described how they began: "We hit it off, we started courting. I flew to Boston [to see her] and got off the plane with a big bunch of flowers in my hand. I couldn't resist. I did not care what the world thought. I dropped the flowers, grabbed her and kissed her. That was not being done in 1961." Gittings and Lahusen were together for 46 years. In 1997, Gittings and Lahusen pushed the American Association of Retired Persons (AARP) to grant couple's membership to them, for a reduced price on health insurance. One of her last acts as an activist was to come out in the newsletter published by the assisted living facility they reside in. In 1999, Gittings summed up her inspiration for her activism: "As a teenager, I had to struggle alone to learn about myself and what it meant to be gay. Now for 48 years I've had the satisfaction of working with other gay people all across the country to get the bigots off our backs, to oil the closet door hinges, to change prejudiced hearts and minds, and to show that gay love is good for us and for the rest of the world too. It's hard work — but it's vital, and it's gratifying, and it's often fun!" ### Death On February 18, 2007, Gittings died in Kennett Square, Pennsylvania after a long battle with breast cancer. She was survived by her life partner, Kay Tobin Lahusen, and her sister, Eleanor Gittings Taylor. Gittings was interred in the historic Congressional Cemetery in Washington, D.C.
23,691,208	The Same Old Story	1,136,619,995	null	[ "2008 American television episodes", "Fringe (season 1) episodes", "Television episodes written by Alex Kurtzman and Roberto Orci", "Television episodes written by J. J. Abrams" ]	"The Same Old Story" is the second episode of the first season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe. The episode was written by executive producer Jeff Pinkner and co-creators J. J. Abrams, Alex Kurtzman, and Roberto Orci. When developing the series, they sought to find a medium between serialized drama and the crime procedural. "The Same Old Story" was the first regular episode of Fringe, and journalists viewed it as an example of what they could expect from the series. It was directed by Paul A. Edwards. After a newborn baby rapidly ages into an 80-year-old man, Fringe division agent Olivia Dunham (Anna Torv) and consultants Peter (Joshua Jackson) and Walter Bishop (John Noble) investigate. They tie the case to the murders of young women, who have all had their pituitary glands removed. It is revealed that Dr. Claus Penrose (Mark Blum), an expert in progeria, is working to help his son Christopher (Derek Cecil) stay alive, as he suffers from rapid aging syndrome. "The Same Old Story" first aired in the United States on September 16, 2008 on Fox. An estimated 13.272 million viewers watched the episode, a 45 percent increase from the series premiere. The episode received mixed reviews from television critics – reviewers thought it was an improvement from the previous episode but faulted it for containing plot contrivances. ## Plot A prostitute is abandoned by an unknown man at a hospital, dangerously in labor. She dies as the doctors perform a caesarean section, but the child ages rapidly in minutes, soon dead having aged to the likes of a 90-year-old man. Olivia Dunham (Anna Torv), Peter Bishop (Joshua Jackson), and Walter Bishop (John Noble), new members of the Fringe division, are called to investigate by division head Phillip Broyles (Lance Reddick), believing the case to be part of "The Pattern", a string of mysterious incidents. The woman is identified as having recently left a local motel, and Olivia finds evidence that points to a past serial murder case she and her former partner John Scott were not able to solve. Olivia explains to Peter that their murderer would paralyze his victims, young women, then make an incision along their face to extract a piece of brain material, killing the victim in the process. Walter takes both corpses back to his lab and determines that the woman had only been pregnant minutes before giving birth, her child having a preternatural form of accelerated aging disease. Walter is reminded of having previously done work in this field, and remembers where he stashed his car that contains the related files. Once they are retrieved, Olivia makes a connection to the pituitary gland which controls growth in humans, and informs Charlie Francis (Kirk Acevedo) to monitor recent cases where the victims' pituitary gland has been removed. Olivia and Peter turn to an expert in progeria, Dr. Penrose (Mark Blum), to try to learn more about rapid aging, but Dr. Penrose cannot help them further, though Peter suspects he is hiding something. Unseen by the Fringe division, Dr. Penrose visits an abandoned warehouse and meets the murderer, Christopher (Derek Cecil), his son, who suffers from rapid aging syndrome. Penrose warns Christopher to be careful and that they only need one more woman to complete the process. By this time, Charlie has found a recent murder victim killed in the same fashion as Olivia's serial murderer. At Walter's lab, they identify the pituitary gland has been removed. They rationalize the murderer must extract hormones from the glands to slow down his own aging process. Walter hypothesizes they can discover the location of the crime by looking at the images left in the woman's optical nerves induced by the paralyzing sedative. Borrowing an electronic pulse camera from Massive Dynamic, they discover the image of a suspension bridge near Stoughton and identify the likely location from which it was viewed—the same warehouse that Dr. Penrose visited. The FBI converge on the building, and Olivia and Peter find Penrose about to cut into another victim. Olivia chases off after Christopher, who eventually succumbs to his rapid aging and dies, while Peter, after nicking Penrose with a bullet, confers with Walter to apply a makeshift defibrillator to bring the victim back to life. As they wrap up the case, Olivia, Peter, and Walter complete forms to finalize their position in the Fringe division. When Peter is out of earshot, Walter learns from Olivia that the FBI medical files on Peter's childhood are void of any details. ## Production Co-creators J. J. Abrams, Alex Kurtzman and Roberto Orci, and executive producer Jeff Pinkner wrote the episode. Paul A. Edwards served as the director, his first such credit for the series. In developing Fringe, the co-creators did not want to make the series too serialized, as this was a complaint often directed at Abrams' television series Alias. They wanted to find a balance between standalone stories and serialized content, and studied procedural dramas such as Law and Order and CSI: Crime Scene Investigation for inspiration. Kurztman explained, "While we make sure that our episodes are self-contained – have a beginning, a middle, and an end – the character stories can be serialized. They don't have to resolve themselves over the course of one show." "The Same Old Story" was Fringe's first regular episode, and some journalists viewed it as an example of how the series would be structured. The episode was based on actual recent research and involved much collaboration among the series' different departments. For the scene in which they remove the victim's eyeball, the special effects crew created a mold based on actress Elizabeth Stanley's head. Using plaster to make a prosthetic, they "drilled out the eyeball and sculpt[ed] it open and [went] through a series of molds." Stanley stated that "it's really cool to see the head because it really does look just like me, even though it's very gruesome because the eyeball's popping out." The prop department rigged a weapon which they called a "photon gun"; according to prop master Peter Gelfman, this gun was based on real devices employed in airport security that look through people's clothing for concealed weapons. VFX Supervisor Christopher Scollard explained that for the eye's last vision, they used "a lot of actual photographic reference on the set and on the location," which they then used to "take that imagery and composite it into the various computer monitors and displays in the lab." "The Same Old Story" featured guest appearances by actors Derek Cecil as Christopher Penrose and Mark Blum as his father, Dr. Claus Penrose. Other guest actors included Betty Gilpin as Loraine "Amber" Daisy Alcott, Bernie McInerney as old Christopher Penrose, Carmen Goodine as Amy, Ty Jones as a doctor, and Karin Agstam as John Scott's sister. ## Reception ### Ratings "The Same Old Story" was watched by 13.272 million viewers in the United States, a 45 percent increase of four million from the pilot. Fox claimed that this ratings improvement was the best for any new network drama series in over five years. Its high-rated lead-in, House, helped boost Fringe's ratings for the night, as 93 percent of House's total audience and 95 percent of 18- to 49-year-olds stayed to watch Fringe. Fringe was also the highest rated program for male 18- to 54-year-olds that evening. ### Reviews "The Same Old Story" received mixed reviews from television critics. TV Squad writer Jane Boursaw thought the episode seemed "all over the place", and wasn't sure what to think. She stated the two most interesting parts of the episode were when Walter removed the girl's eye in order to identity her killer, and the cliffhanger at the very end, when Walter states "If you've read my file, then you know the truth about Peter's medical history". Travis Fickett of IGN thought it was better than the pilot; though it was "laden with lots of clunky exposition and clichéd dialogue," Fickett understood that it was needed to acquaint new viewers to the show. Fickett concluded his review by saying Fringe has the potential to be a "great show", and he also praised the production level as "top notch", and Torv's performance as "very good" as she "brings a unique presence to the show". The A.V. Club critic Noel Murray gave the episode a C+, while Television Without Pity graded it with a B. Josh Jackson of Paste Magazine disliked the "deus ex machina" aspects that "neatly solved the puzzles of the first two episodes", and also criticized perceived "plot contrivances" like how the serial murderer immediately began aging once interrupted from killing his last victim. Despite these flaws, Jackson said he would tune in next week because he would "rather have a show err on the side of unbelievable than unremarkable, and I'm interested to see if Abrams has any more tricks up his sleeve". Erin Fox of TV Guide also liked "The Same Old Story" better than the pilot because she thought that it "had really cool special effects, awesome Walter-isms, and actual chemistry forming between Olivia and Peter", and "we also got to delve more into the connections between Walter, Nina Sharp, Massive Dynamic and the government and the experiments they conducted before Walter was institutionalized". A UGO Networks columnist was concerned that the expensive pilot would be hard to translate into weekly episodes, but "after sitting down to watch Fringe's second episode, "The Same Old Story", my concerns have vanished. Fringe's second episode represents all that is holy about genre programming without sacrificing any of Fringe's eleven-herbs and spices. In fact, the subtle framework of what makes Fringe not X-Files is even better defined in the first weekly-episode. I'd struggled to find the word to describe it, and the winner is 'condensed'. "The Same Old Story" has all of the sense of mystery, discovery, and humor that the pilot had just in a smaller, more combustible space." Another UGO writer, Alex Zalben, later compared "The Same Old Story" to the similarly-plotted The X-Files episode "Død Kalm". Zalben concluded that "Fringe wins this one, just for having a slightly less stupid explanation."
31,830,163	Marceline the Vampire Queen	1,170,338,044	Fictional character from Adventure Time	[ "Adventure Time characters", "Animated characters introduced in 2010", "Animation controversies in television", "Female characters in animated series", "Fictional bassists", "Fictional bisexual women", "Fictional characters with accelerated healing", "Fictional characters with slowed ageing", "Fictional female musicians", "Fictional half-demons", "Fictional queens", "Fictional rock musicians", "Fictional shapeshifters", "Fictional singers", "Fictional vampire hunters", "Fictional vampires", "LGBT characters in animated television series", "LGBT characters in comics", "LGBT-related controversies in animation", "LGBT-related controversies in television", "Television characters introduced in 2010", "Vampires in animated television" ]	Marceline the Vampire Queen is a fictional character in the American animated Cartoon Network television series Adventure Time, created by Pendleton Ward. She is voiced by Olivia Olson in most appearances, by Ava Acres as a child, and by Cloris Leachman as an older woman. Marceline is a fun-loving 1,000-year-old vampire queen, as well as a musician who plays an electric bass that she made from her family's heirloom battle-ax. Ward created the artistic design for Marceline, with small changes and additions added by Phil Rynda, the former lead character and prop designer for Adventure Time. Marceline makes her debut in the first-season episode "Evicted!" in which she forces Finn and Jake from their home. However, as the series progresses, Marceline becomes a close friend to the two. Several backstory episodes have established that she was born to an unnamed human mother (voiced by Rebecca Sugar) and the demon Hunson Abadeer (voiced by Olivia's real-life father, Martin Olson). Furthermore, when she was a child, the cataclysmic Mushroom War occurred, and soon after, she developed a father-daughter-like bond with Simon Petrikov (voiced by Tom Kenny), who would one day turn into the Ice King. Marceline has been critically acclaimed and is popular with the Adventure Time fandom. The character was also the focus of the seventh season miniseries Stakes (2015). Early in the show's history, Ward himself stated that Marceline was his favorite character because he did not know everything about her history and backstory, which he felt added a mysterious element to her character. Marceline's relationship with Princess Bubblegum created controversy when the episodes "What Was Missing" and "Sky Witch" implied that they had been in a relationship—a relationship that was confirmed in the series finale "Come Along with Me." The relationship was also the subject of the second episode of Adventure Time: Distant Lands, "Obsidian," which was nominated for a GLAAD Media Award for Outstanding Kids and Family Programming. ## Creation and design Marceline is one of the major characters in Adventure Time. Although she did not appear in the series pilot, the groundwork for her design and character was present in the series pitch book, penned by series creator Pendleton Ward. Ward purposely set out to make Marceline's character complex, as he explained that "with the female characters it's easy to either write them as clichés or write them as the extreme opposite of those clichés ... I just try to make them have faults and strengths just like Finn and Jake have." Initially, in the series bible, Marceline is described as being "friendly rivals" with Bubblegum. Marceline's name is based on the name of a childhood friend of Ward's, Marie, whose middle name is Marceline. Ward described Marie as someone who likes the horror movie Psycho and wears dark clothing. The design for Marceline was created by Ward, with small changes and additions added by Phil Rynda, former lead character and prop designer for Adventure Time. Visually, Marceline has long, black hair. She rarely walks on the ground, generally preferring to float when she travels, moves, and sleeps. Marceline, unlike many of the other characters, wears varying outfits in most of her appearances. Ward said her clothing changes from episode to episode because "girls own more than one outfit". Olivia Olson, the voice actress who plays Marceline, was impressed by her character's fashion design stating, "she has really cool style ... I love what they come up with [in] every episode." Olson explained that when she goes in to record the voices for each episode, she is "totally surprised" by the costuming for Marceline. While she says her lines, she is able to view the animatics for the episode and sometimes has to stop to admire the unique designs. Marceline's physical size and shape slightly changes depending on who is drawing her. Rynda later called this "one of the coolest parts" about the character's animation due to the fact that "every artist leaves a little bit of their own taste and sensibilities in what they draw." Marceline is voiced by Olivia Olson. When production on Adventure Time began, Ward contacted his friend Martin Olson, who was a writer on the animated Disney series Phineas and Ferb, and asked if he knew who played the character Vanessa Doofenshmirtz on Phineas and Ferb, as he wanted "her as a voice" on his show; reportedly, Ward was unaware that the actress was actually Martin Olson's daughter. During the casting audition, Olivia Olson first read for Princess Bubblegum, but was later asked to read for the role of Marceline. Upon seeing character designs, Olson was "definitely impressed by the character". Because Ward knew that he wanted Olivia on his show, Martin Olson later joked that her audition was simply a "sham" to please network executives. In order to get into character, Olson often dresses in a manner similar to Marceline when she records her lines; she explained, "I always find ... that on the days that I go in to record Marceline, I'll dress like her, in a weird way ... I'll throw on some rock n' roll boots, maybe some red lipstick, and just go in there." In flashback sequences, younger Marceline is voiced by Ava Acres. In the fifth season episodes "Finn the Human" / "Jake the Dog", an older, alternate universe version of the character is voiced by Cloris Leachman. Martin Olson also provides the voice for Marceline's demonic father Hunson Abadeer. Olivia Olson later noted that the opportunity to voice act with her father was "pretty cool". Olson also is the character's singing voice. Composers Casey James Basichis and Tim Kiefer produce the bass music that the character performs in the series. The songs themselves were written by storyboard artists, or other people affiliated with production, and the demos for many of these songs were later uploaded onto the internet by those affiliated with the show. In March 2021, it was revealed that Sugar was encouraged by the show's creative team to put her "own life experiences into the character of Marceline." ## Appearances Roughly a thousand years prior to the events of the series, Marceline was born to a demon lord, Hunson Abadeer (voiced by Martin Olson), and a human woman (voiced by Rebecca Sugar). Abadeer is the ruler of the Nightosphere—a Hellish dimension sustained by "chaotic evil"—and subsists on the souls of sentient beings. Following the Mushroom War (a mysterious war that ravaged the earth one thousand years prior to events of the series) and the death of her mother, Marceline was left abandoned on Earth and was found by Simon Petrikov—the name of the Ice King before he was overcome by the evil power of his crown. The two developed a caring relationship, although the crown took a toll on Simon's mental health, forcing him to leave Marceline alone. During this period in her life, she was reunited with her father, only to be disgusted by his cold and heartless ways. Although she attempted to tolerate his evil and selfish antics, she eventually severed all ties with Abadeer after she discovered him eating fries that she had made for herself. In the following years, Marceline roamed the land of Ooo and began killing vampires, who had taken over much of the land. Marceline soon discovered that, upon killing a vampire, she was able to acquire their unique abilities thanks to her demonic power to absorb souls. However, when she tried to fight the Vampire King, she was bitten and turned into a vampire herself. At some point, she began a romantic relationship with a magician named Ash. The two would move into the Tree Fort, but their relationship would come to an end when Ash sold Hambo to a witch. Presumably, around this time, Marceline befriended Princess Bubblegum, the leader of the Candy Kingdom; the two would often avoid official royal meetings and explore the Candy Kingdom's rock candy mining complex. Eventually, due largely to the mounting stress of running her kingdom, Bubblegum pushed Marceline away, leading to a rift between the two that lasted for a while. In the series' present, Marceline eventually comes into contact with Finn and Jake in the first season episode "Evicted!", when she forces them from their home. In the episode "Henchman", Marceline tricks Finn into becoming her accomplice. In the episode, Finn discovers that Marceline is fond of mischief and pranks. Soon thereafter, the two develop a friendship. In the second season premiere "It Came From the Nightosphere", Abadeer is accidentally summoned to Ooo by Finn. While Abadeer ravages the land, Finn discovers that there is animosity between Marceline and her father. Finn manages to distract Abadeer by playing a recording of Marceline's "Fry Song", which leads to a brief moment of reconciliation between the two before Finn sends him back to the Nightosphere. In the third season episode "Memory of a Memory", Ash attempts to rekindle his former relationship with Marceline via trickery. Disguised as Marceline's "spirit animal", he tricks Finn and Jake into believing that Marceline has fallen asleep due to a sleep spell that has been self-inflicted. Following Ash's advice, the two enter into Marceline's mind to retrieve the "memory core" in an attempt to wake her up. Along the way, they encounter various memories of her as a child following the Mushroom War. However, the duo soon learn that it was an elaborate trick by Ash; Finn and Jake actually removed Marceline's memory of their break-up. In the end, Finn is able to convince Marceline, and she promptly attacks her chauvinistic ex-boyfriend. In "What Was Missing", past animosity between Marceline and Princess Bubblegum is explored when Finn, Jake, Princess Bubblegum, BMO, and Marceline form a band to defeat the Door Lord and recover what was stolen from them. In the fourth season episodes, "Return to the Nightosphere" / "Daddy's Little Monster", Marceline's dad returns and gives her an amulet that causes her to become the demonic overlord of the Nightosphere. After an ordeal, Finn saves Marceline from the amulet. Marceline admits that all she wants is for her father to understand her. When Finn wishes for an alternate reality in which the Lich never existed during the events of the fifth-season premiere "Finn the Human", a universe is created in which the Mushroom War was prevented and Marceline never became a vampire. She appears in the episode as a frail and aged half-demon, who was killed when a "mutagenic bomb" that was frozen in ice by Simon Petrikov detonates. Jake manages to undo this reality with his wish and sets everything back to the way it was. In "Sky Witch", Marceline enlists the help of Princess Bubblegum, and the two are able to track down Maja, the titular Sky Witch. It is revealed that Ash sold Hambo to Maja. Only when Bubblegum trades her beloved rock shirt is Hambo able to be reunited with Marceline. After the events of "Sky Witch", Bubblegum and Marceline are on much friendlier ground, and their friendship is reaffirmed in the episodes "Varmints" and "Broke His Crown", from the seventh and eighth seasons, respectively. In "Betty", Marceline sacrifices Hambo so that Ice King—who lost his powers and became Simon Petrikov again—can open a portal into time so that Simon can reconcile with his estranged fiancée Betty. Although the two are reunited in "Betty", due to the rush of events, Marceline and Simon are unable to fully catch up before Simon reverts to the Ice King. With that being said, in the eighth-season episode "Broke His Crown", the two manage to more fully reunite, and as such, manage to affirm how much they care for one another. The miniseries Stakes, which aired during the show's seventh season, documents the reemergence of five of Marceline's most powerful vampiric foes: the Fool (voiced by Ron Funches), the Empress Eyes (voiced by Rebecca Romijn), the Hierophant (voiced by Paul Williams), the Moon (voiced by Beau Billingslea), and the Vampire King himself (voiced by Billy Brown). The quintet remerge after Bubblegum tries to extract Marceline's vampiric essence in an attempt to make Marceline mortal once again. The reappearance of these vampires forces Marceline, Bubblegum, Finn, Jake, and Peppermint Butler (voiced by Steve Little) to stake them one-by-one; in the ensuing action, Marceline is once again turned into a vampire, but comes to terms with her immortal fate. Later, in the ninth-season miniseries Elements, Marceline is temporarily transformed by elemental magic into "Marshmaline the Campfire Queen"—a sentient marshmallow creature. In her candy form, Marceline is gregarious and playful, but a bit naive about the nature of the new world around her; for instance, when an enraged Flame Princess attacks her, Marceline mistakes the assault for "wrasslin'". At the end of the miniseries, Marceline is returned to her usual self. (Marceline details her recollection of these events via highly allegorical language to BMO in the ninth-season episode "Ketchup".) In the tenth-season episode "Marcy & Hunson", Marceline's father returns to Ooo and attends one of her concerts. While he initially embarrasses his daughter and eventually causes a ghost fight to break out, by the end of the episode, Marceline is touched that her father was willing to support her. In the Adventure Time series finale, Marceline fights for Princess Bubblegum during the Great Gum War. When the chaos deity GOLB is accidentally brought into Ooo, she refuses to abandon her friend. After one of GOLB's monstrosities nearly kills the princess, Marceline rushes to her side, and after a tender moment, the two affirm that they care for one another and then kiss. Marceline and Bubblegum are shown sitting together on a couch under a blanket during the episode's epilogue, and they both touch heads. Marceline is the focus of the episode "Obsidian" in the spin-off series Distant Lands. Marceline and Bubblegum travel to defeat a dragon that threatens the lives of the Glass Kingdom, where Marceline is revered as a saint for having defeated the dragon centuries before. The episode depicts Marceline and Bubblegum living together as a couple and explores their previous relationship troubles as well as Marceline's childhood trauma. ### Other The gender-swapped version of Marceline—named Marshall Lee—appeared in the third-season episode "Fionna and Cake". This version of the character only had a small cameo and no lines. It was later revealed that another Fionna and Cake episode was in the works for season five, and that the plot would largely revolve around Marshall Lee. The episode—titled "Bad Little Boy"—aired on February 18, 2013. In the episode, the princesses that are captured by the Ice King are tired of his poorly written Fionna and Cake fan fiction stories, so Marceline stops by the Ice Kingdom to show him how to do it properly; she tells a tale involving her gender-swapped character, Marshall Lee. The character was voiced by comedian and musician Donald Glover. Additionally, Marshall Lee makes a cameo appearance in the third Fionna and Cake episode entitled "The Prince Who Wanted Everything", and has a speaking role in the fourth entitled "Five Short Tables". A six issue spin-off comic miniseries titled Marceline and the Scream Queens, written by Meredith Gran of Octopus Pie, debuted in July 2012. The series featured Marceline and Princess Bubblegum forming a band and touring around Ooo. The series are published by Boom! Studios under its kid-oriented imprint KaBoom, which also publishes the rest of the Adventure Time series. Other contributors to the series include Faith Erin Hicks, and Liz Prince. KaBoom has also published Seeing Red by Kate Leth, and Marceline Gone Adrift by Gran. Marceline is also featured in the iOS game Adventure Time: Rock Bandits. In the context of the game, the Ice King kidnaps Marceline's fans at a concert so that they will be his fans instead. Finn and Jake must then free the captured citizens. Marceline appears as a playable character in the toys-to-life video game Lego Dimensions, distributed via a "fun pack" containing a Marceline Lego minifigure and a constructable "Lunatic Amp" accessory. ## Characteristics ### Personality and traits Marceline is a half-demon and half-human vampire. She assumed the title "Vampire Queen" after having killed the previous Vampire King prior to the start of the show. Although she is over 1,000 years old, she takes on the physical appearance of an 18- to 21-year-old. Having spent centuries traversing the Land of Ooo, she has evolved into a "fearless daredevil", and her fondness for mischief has turned her into something of a trickster. Consequently, in her first role, Marceline functions as the antagonist of the story, forcing Finn and Jake from their home. However, she eventually becomes their close friend once Finn recognizes that she is "a radical dame who likes to play games". Unlike traditional Western vampires, Marceline subsists not off blood, but rather the color red. Items she drinks the red from are rendered grey afterward, including, on one occasion, Princess Bubblegum. Since she is only sated by the color itself, blood is appealing simply due to its hue (although Ward noted on his Formspring that she "drinks blood sometimes"). When Marceline is deprived of red, she enters a "feral" state, and will instinctively try to kill others and drink their blood. Like traditional Western vampires, she is vulnerable to sunlight and is capable of turning into a bat of varying size. Marceline also possesses several powers, such as levitation, invisibility, self-healing, and shapeshifting; she gained each of these powers after absorbing the essence of several powerful vampires, as documented in Stakes. From her demonic father, she also inherited the power to absorb people's souls. Marceline is also a survivor of the Mushroom War. Hints of her past are sprinkled through the series; in "Memory of a Memory" a trip into Marceline's mind shows her as a child wandering around the outskirts of a destroyed city, and "I Remember You" features her meeting Simon Petrikov in a ruined city. She was very emotionally attached to her teddy bear Hambo, which was given to her by Simon Petrikov, as revealed in the episode "I Remember You". In "Memory of a Memory", after Ash sold the teddy bear to a witch, Marceline was furious and broke up with him. In the episode "Sky Witch", Marceline enlists Princess Bubblegum's help, and they retrieve the bear, but in "Betty", she sacrifices the bear to allow Simon the chance to communicate with his fiancée. Although she is very independent, her detachment often makes her feel alone, as seen in "Marceline's Closet"; while Jake and Finn are hiding in her closet, she expresses most of her feeling via her diary. Throughout the series, Marceline is seen playing music; in several official sources, she is described as "a wild rocker girl". Several times throughout the series, she jams with Finn and Jake, and various others depending on the circumstances. She is usually shown playing her ax bass, which was formerly her family's heirloom battle-ax. According to Ward, she is ambidextrous, which explains her ability to play bass with both hands. She often finds it easier to express her feelings through music, as seen with songs like the "Fry Song," about her father, and "I'm Just Your Problem," about her relationship with Princess Bubblegum. ### Relationships Marceline has a close relationship with Finn and Jake. Marceline and Finn have many things in common with one another; in the episodes "Evicted" and "Henchman," it is stated that the reason Marceline befriended Finn is that he enjoys being himself. Although she has kissed Finn platonically on the cheek twice, Ward has noted that there is no romantic subtext between the two. On the other hand, Marceline and Jake share a more complex relationship. In her initial appearances, she derived pleasure from scaring Jake, who was terrified "of her vampire bite". In turn, Jake felt that she was evil and had managed to take over Finn's mind. Due to this, Jake attempted to kill her several times, to no avail. However, after the events of "Henchman," Jake seems to have forgotten his fear of her; in "Memory of a Memory," he even refers to her as a "friend" in one of her memories. At the start of the series, Marceline shares a tense relationship with Princess Bubblegum. However, as the show has gone on, their relationship has been fleshed out and changed. Marceline was the first person to address Bubblegum by her first name—Bonnibel—which occurred in the episode "Go with Me". Their connections are explored further in the season three episode "What Was Missing". In the episode, Marceline's song "I'm Just Your Problem" and the dialogue between her and Bubblegum implied that they may have had some sort of relationship in the past, although the exact details surrounding the nature of the relationship were not explained. This later caused an internet controversy over Marceline's sexual orientation. However, after the events of "What Was Missing", Marceline and Bubblegum's relationship seems to have gotten better, as the two spend quality time together in "Sky Witch", "Varmints", Stakes, and "Broke His Crown" and are seen having a strong bond. In the series finale, "Come Along with Me", Marceline and Bubblegum express their romantic feelings for one another and kiss, and the episode's epilogue shows the two seemingly as a happy couple. In the episode "Obsidian" of the spin-off series Distant Lands, set some years later (Finn is shown as an adult man in the episode), Marceline and Bubblegum are depicted as living together in Marceline's cave and are in an explicitly romantic relationship with each other. The episode also confirms that they had previously been in a relationship and a break-up is shown through flashbacks. Marceline and her father, Hunson Abadeer, have trouble accepting one another. Initially, Marceline believes her father does not care for her and expresses her feelings through the before-mentioned "Fry Song." Although they admit to loving each other, Abadeer constantly pressures Marceline to follow in the family business and take over ruling the Nightosphere, a prospective job Marceline does not want. In "Everything Stays", it introduces a group of villainous vampire through a series of flashbacks, showing Marceline’s growth from child survivor to vampire slayer in a post-apocalyptic wasteland, providing glimpses of her doomed relationships with her mother and her best friend Simon along the way. Marceline and the Ice King also have a complicated relationship. In the episode "I Remember You," it is revealed that the Ice King—then the human man named Simon Petrikov—discovered her crying in the ruins of a city destroyed by the Mushroom Wars. It was Simon who gave little Marceline Hambo and attempted to watch over her. This kind gesture made the Ice King a long-time close friend and father figure to Marceline. However, as the crown's power increased, Simon began to forget more and more about his relationship with Marceline until he had all but forgotten their friendship. Former storyboard artist and showrunner for the series Adam Muto explained that Marceline and the Ice King's history was not part of the series' initial plan but something that "evolved from [the show's] original course and it will likely continue to evolve in the future." ## Reception Marceline has attracted positive critical attention. Oliver Sava of The A.V. Club praised her as one "of this show's most tragic characters." He later wrote that her addition "was a major turning point for the series, introducing a hip, adventure-loving female to the cast who can hold her own against Finn and Jake and also has a strong connection to Ooo's past." Furthermore, he noted that "she's been at the center of some of the show's most emotional episodes," and "beyond her dramatic value, Marceline tends to just make every episode better" because "her writers clearly enjoy writing scenes for her." Susana Polo of The Mary Sue referred to the character as "one of the radder characters" in the series. Cam Shea of IGN named Marceline's introduction in "Evicted!" as the fourth best moment in the series' first season. He wrote that "sure, in this episode, she evicts Finn and Jake from their home ... but hey, this is the first time we meet her, and she's awesome." io9 writer Charlies Jane Anders wrote that Marceline's—as well as the Ice King's—appearance in "I Remember You" was "one of the most intense things I've seen in ages." She praised Marceline's development from a "pretty one-note villain" to a type of person that "we sort of knew". CartoonNetwork.co.uk named her "Character of the Week" on January 24, 2012. The Guardian called Marceline the best character in Adventure Time in a DVD review of the series, noting in particular that "she's ... responsible for some of the show's best songs." Charlie Jane Anders of Gizmodo has described Marceline as "one of the most fascinsting characters". Lauren Rearick of Teen Vogue argued that Marceline is important in a discussion of on-screen representation, as she is from "a non-traditional family [whose] emotions ... sometimes mirrored depression". This, Rearick argues, gave the series "the opportunity to explore complex topics under the guise of a children's show." Petrana Radulovic of Polygon said that Adventure Time could’ve easily reduced its central female characters to outdated tropes, but instead, creator Pendleton Ward and his team broke the mold with Princess Bubblegum and Marceline. He further said that the two women have a "clear, distinct personalities unrelated to their own femininity, but they also share a meaningful and surprisingly complex relationship", and "the two were originally supposed to have a simple friendly rivalry, but writers on the show pushed for that to evolve into a yearning, centuries-spanning romance." The production crew of Adventure Time are also pleased with the character. In 2010, near the start of the series, Ward stated that Marceline was his favorite character because he did not "know everything about her character yet", which he found to be "mysterious [and] cool". Rynda claimed that Marceline was probably his favorite character in the series because "she's just really fun to draw." Marceline is also particularly popular with the Adventure Time fan base, and after the release of "Evicted!" her popularity grew enormously. Ward later noted that he felt "good about that. It's nice". Marceline is also popular with cosplayers, or performance artists who wear costumes and fashion accessories to represent characters from the Adventure Time universe. The character's popularity has been recognized by the company that owns Adventure Time. In fact, the official press release for the Adventure Time: Marceline and the Scream Queens companion comic book referred to the character as a "fan-favorite". Marceline's popularity has transcended into other mediums of popular culture. For instance, American singer Willow Smith dedicated two tracks of her debut album Ardipithecus (2015) to the character, which were eponymously named after her. ### Relationship controversy The episode "What Was Missing" became controversial due to implications that Marceline and Princess Bubblegum had been in a past relationship. The controversy largely began after an accompanying "Mathematical" recap—a studio-endorsed behind the scenes video series implied that there were lesbian relations between Princess Bubblegum and Marceline and that the writing staff actively seeks input from fans. This incident was addressed by the show's producer, Fred Seibert, who said that "in trying to get the show's audience involved we got wrapped up by both fan conjecture and spicy fanart and went a little too far." Soon after, the video recap and the entire channel was pulled off of YouTube, although "What Was Missing" still airs during reruns. Seibert's decision to remove the video also proved controversial; Bitch magazine later wrote an article about how the episode "handled female desire—female queer desire at that—in a subtle but complex way", and that the removal of the recap and the studio's perceived treatment of the controversy was detrimental towards the acceptance of queer romance in children's television. Ward later addressed the issue and gave a more neutral view; he said that, because there were "so many extreme positions taken on it all over the Internet", he did not "really want to comment on it [because] it was a big hullaballoo." Following "What Was Missing", the pairing of Bubblegum and Marceline became popular with many fans of the show, and was labelled "Bubbline". In August 2014, Olson told a crowd of fans gathered at a Barnes & Noble book signing from The Adventure Time Encyclopedia, that, according to Ward, Marceline and Princess Bubblegum had dated in the past, but that because the series airs in some areas where homosexual relationships are illegal, the relationship is not clearly depicted in the show. In series finale, "Come Along with Me", the two kiss, making their romantic relationship canon. Muto told TVLine that the relationship between Bubblegum and Marceline as well as their kissing was "an ongoing conversation... It certainly wasn't in the show's original pitch. It was a relationship that evolved over time." Storyboard artist Hanna K. Nyström was responsible for adding in the kiss. According to Muto, this scene was not originally in the script; it merely noted that Bubblegum and Marceline "have a moment". When Nyström was working on the sequence, Muto gave her creative control as to how she wanted that "moment" to unfold. Muto noted, "When Hanna boarded that, there was a little note in the margin that said 'Come on!' with a big exclamation point. That was the only note. I can't argue with that."
6,420,260	Road to Rupert	1,170,416,391	null	[ "2007 American television episodes", "Family Guy (season 5) episodes", "Road to... (Family Guy)" ]	"Road to Rupert" is the ninth episode of the fifth season of Family Guy. It originally aired on Fox in the United States on January 28, 2007. It is the third episode in the Road to... series of episodes in Family Guy. The episode follows Stewie after Brian accidentally sells Stewie's beloved teddy bear, Rupert, during a yard sale. In an attempt to retrieve him, Stewie and Brian discover that the family Rupert was sold to are former neighbours who had since moved on to Aspen, Colorado. As a result, Stewie and Brian travel across the United States in order to get Rupert back. Meanwhile, Peter has his driving license revoked for careless driving and is forced to be driven around by Meg, which annoys him. The episode was written by Patrick Meighan and directed by Dan Povenmire. It received divided reviews, with the negative reviews going to the "personal driver" plot and the positive going to the "Rupert" plot. According to Nielsen ratings, it was viewed in 8.8 million homes in its original airing. The episode feature guest performances by Max Burkholder, Phil LaMarr, Rob Lowe, Ted McGinley, Stephen Stanton, Connor Trinneer, Audrey Wasilewski, George Wendt and Dave Wittenberg. SpongeBob SquarePants voice actors Tom Kenny and Bill Fagerbakke lent their voices to the episode as SpongeBob and Patrick respectively from archive music of the "Campfire Song Song" from the episode “The Camping Episode”, but remain uncredited. "Road to Rupert" was the third and final Road to... episode directed by Dan Povenmire, as he had left to create Phineas and Ferb (2007-2015) with Jeff "Swampy" Marsh. ## Plot The Griffins have a yard sale to sell off household items that they no longer need, but Brian accidentally sells Stewie's teddy bear, Rupert, causing Stewie to think Rupert has been kidnapped. Brian takes Stewie to the toy store to try to find a replacement, but ends up admitting he accidentally sold it, much to Stewie's anger. He attempts to retrieve Rupert by tracking DNA samples against the federal database from the money Brian was paid for Rupert. They discover the man who bought Rupert lives in Quahog, but upon arrival, they discover the house is deserted. They then see a moving truck leaving the house and follow it, with Mayor West driving. West stops at the Connecticut state line, driving them no further. West states his reasoning for this, saying "If I enter Connecticut, I'm entering every state that Connecticut's ever been with", and wishes the pair good luck. After a box falls out of the moving truck, they discover the buyer, Stanford Cordray (Rob Lowe), now resides in Aspen, Colorado. At this point, Stewie and Brian are on their own. The two then make a stop at the Gettysburg National Cemetery after hitchhiking, where Stewie says "you're welcome" to a black tourist, implying that the black man should be thanking white people for ending slavery. To get over the mountains, the pair rent a helicopter after Stewie performs a dance for the man in the office (with help from Gene Kelly) in lieu of cash or card payments, but when Brian crashes the helicopter into the mountain, the two end up next to the entrance to Aspen. Refusing to give Rupert back to Stewie, Stanford and his family organize a skiing race down the mountain, so if Stewie is the first down, he and Brian are allowed to take Rupert away with them and if Stanford wins, he can keep Brian. Stewie cheats by installing rockets in his skis, but then crashes into a tree and loses the race. Not wanting to lose either Brian or Rupert, Stewie has his personal butler Crohn throw a cup of hot tea on Stanford's son Timmy's face, forcing him to drop the bear. The two grab Rupert and make a run for it, and carjack a passing driver at gunpoint in the city and drive the 2112 miles back to Quahog. Meanwhile, Peter purchased his own Evel Knievel gloves at his own yard sale. He decides to use the family car to jump over a row of cars, but is unsuccessful and results in his drivers license being revoked by Joe. Lois arranges for Meg to become Peter's personal driver, and he makes numerous attempts to annoy Meg. One night, while driving home from the Drunken Clam with his friends, Peter lights Meg's hat on fire, which Quagmire then puts out by dumping a can of beer on her head, causing Meg to be extremely angry. When another car rear ends her and she is insulted by the driver, Meg takes out her repressed rage with Peter on the driver by beating him up; Peter is impressed, and the two bond in the car. In the end, Joe stops by Peter's house to reinstate his license. Meg worries that Peter will begin treating her badly again, but Peter says that while he will only do so in front of the family to keep up appearances, and that they will now be "secret best friends". ## Production This episode was written by Patrick Meighan, in his first episode of the season, and, like all Road to.. episodes from 2000–2007, directed by Dan Povenmire, in his second episode of the season. Lois mocking Stewie Griffin: The Untold Story (2005) (or, as it is called in the scene, Stymie Gruffin: The Untold Story), citing the movie as a "middle finger to the fans" by only being three episodes slapped together under the guise of a movie (followed by Brian calling in two bodyguards in suits to take Lois away) was edited on TV for time reasons. A deleted scene showed one of Peter's crimes being a hate crime, where during his stunt he hit a car with a Jewish driver. The televised scene changed the Jewish driver to a female virgin driver and the crime being a rape (her airbag having busted her hymen when it deployed) and not a hate crime. The scene of Stewie getting high on NyQuil to cope with losing Rupert and mistaking a throw pillow for a cat was cut from TV airings for time reasons. David Goodman noted that he feels the production crew may not have succeeded on this episode as everything falls into place easily, such as the box falling out of the moving truck. Every frame when Stewie is dancing in a montage of Anchors Aweigh took a large amount of work to produce. The montage of Stewie and Brian visiting several U.S. states (all of which are states where there's nothing but cornfields) was a DVD exclusive scene, removed from television for timing purposes. This scene was partially based on series creator Seth MacFarlane traveling the United States after the September 11, 2001 attacks and realizing there is much corn throughout the U.S. A deleted scene directly after the helicopter crash had shown Stewie saying "come here, puss" for a second time, but this was replaced with another. Stewie and Brian carjacking somebody was added to the episode in a later rewrite and censored on television. In addition to the regular cast, voice actor Max Burkholder, voice actor Phil LaMarr, actor Rob Lowe, actor Ted McGinley, voice actor Stephen Stanton, actor Connor Trinneer, voice actress Audrey Wasilewski, actor George Wendt (who voiced Norm Peterson in the episode) and voice actor Dave Wittenberg (who voiced Woody Boyd in the episode, originally played by Woody Harrelson) guest starred in the episode. Recurring guest voice actors Chris Sheridan, writer Danny Smith, writer Alec Sulkin and writer John Viener made minor appearances. ## Cultural references When speaking with Brian at the yard sale, Lois comments that Stewie Griffin: The Untold Story is not a real movie, rather just three individual episodes together, but altering the title to Stymie Gruffin: The Untold Story when discussing it with Brian. The music performed at Stewie's vision of Rupert's funeral was the hymn Amazing Grace (played on the bagpipes by Brian), while the funeral itself is a reference to Spock's funeral in Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan. The My Black Son opening theme parodied a number of 1970s and 1980s television programs, these being Diff'rent Strokes, Family Ties, Punky Brewster, Laverne and Shirley, Perfect Strangers, Three's Company, Who's the Boss? and Bosom Buddies. It also co-starred Emmanuel Lewis. After Peter crashes his car during his first car-jumping stunt, he refers to Matthew Broderick's car accident in Northern Ireland in 1987, in which two people died. When Lois opens the refrigerator to find Peter inside, she tells him to get out. Peter says "There is no Peter, only Zuul", a reference to the 1984 film Ghostbusters. While entering the dollar bill Brian sold the bear Rupert for into the FBI database, it can be seen as being reported that antagonist watches Cold Case, Without a Trace, and Yu-Gi-Oh!. Peter watches an episode of SpongeBob SquarePants in the car which features "The C.A.M.P.F.I.R.E.S.O.N.G. Song" performed in the actual episode. It had been written by Dan Povenmire for the original SpongeBob episode, but it was allowed in the episode as Nickelodeon gave Family Guy permission to reproduce the music. Hitchhiking to Colorado, Stewie and Brian catch a ride with Smokey and the Bandit co-stars and former couple Sally Field and Burt Reynolds. The entire scene of Stewie singing and dancing in order to secure rental of the helicopter is a reference to the 1945 musical film Anchors Aweigh. The reflection of the original character (Jerry Mouse from Tom and Jerry) can be slightly seen on the floor. When Stewie and Brian crash the helicopter down the mountain and Brian visualizes Stewie as the devil, this is a reference to such a scene in Planes, Trains and Automobiles. The crash itself is caused by a sector whiteout. The Herman's Hermits song "I'm into Something Good" is heard during a sequence of Peter's time with Meg. During this same sequence, they go to a drive in and Peter sticks his head through the roof of the car. Meg then places Pebbles & Bamm-Bamm on his head in reference to the opening credits of The Flintstones. ## Reception In a slight improvement over the previous week, the episode was viewed in 8.8 million homes in its original airing, according to Nielsen ratings. The episode also acquired a 3.1 rating in the 18–49 demographic, slightly edging out both The Simpsons and American Dad!. The episode received mixed comments from TV Squad, with Brett Love commenting that "the suspended license plot was a little thin, but that's forgivable given that this was the b-story for the episode, and there are only 22 minutes to work with." Love comments positively on the Stewie and Brian relationship in the episode, commenting that, "the Stewie and Brian story is what made the episode for me. It was very well done, right down to the goofy little details." IGN commented that, "...for Family Guy to have a great episode, it takes a good story and humorous "manatee" gags. "Road to Rupert" was able to deliver on both these fronts, with the majority of the episode's attention focused on Stewie and Brian's road story, meshed with many laugh out loud gags."
28,435,213	French ironclad Victorieuse	1,054,594,210	French Navy's La Galissonnière-class ironclad	[ "1875 ships", "Corvettes of France", "La Galissonnière-class ironclads", "Ships built in France" ]	Victorieuse (Victorious) was the second ship of the La Galissonnière class of wooden-hulled, armored corvettes built for the French Navy during the 1870s. Her construction was delayed for years and the navy took advantage of the extended construction time to upgrade her armament in comparison to the lead ship, La Galissonnière. Unlike her sisters, Victorieuse did not see any combat although she participated in the pacification of the Marquesas Islands in 1880. She was condemned in 1900. ## Design and description The La Galissonnière-class ironclads were designed as faster, more heavily armed versions of the Alma-class ironclads by Henri Dupuy de Lôme. They used the same central battery layout as their predecessors, although the battery was lengthened 4 meters (13 ft 1 in) to provide enough room to work the larger 240-millimeter (9.4 in) guns. Victorieuse and her sister ship Triomphante were modified by Sabattier who reduced the number of screws from two to one to improve their sailing qualities, added an 194-millimeter (7.6 in) bow chaser under the forecastle and increased the caliber and number of the secondary armament. Victorieuse was 76.85 meters (252 ft 2 in) between perpendiculars and had a beam of 14.88 meters (48 ft 10 in). She had a mean draft of 6.3 meters (20 ft 8 in) and displaced 4,150 metric tons (4,080 long tons). Her crew numbered between 352 and 382 officers and men. ### Propulsion Victorieuse had a single vertical compound steam engine driving a single propeller. Her engine was powered by four oval boilers. During sea trials her engine produced 2,214 indicated horsepower (1,651 kW) and the ship reached 12.75 knots (23.61 km/h; 14.67 mph). She only carried 330 metric tons (320 long tons) of coal which allowed her to steam for 2,740 nautical miles (5,070 km; 3,150 mi) at a speed of 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph). Victorieuse was also ship-rigged with three masts and had a sail area of 1,730 square meters (18,600 sq ft). ### Armament Victorieuse mounted four of her six 240-millmeter Modèle 1870 guns in the central battery on the battery deck. The other two 240-millimeter guns were mounted in barbettes on the upper deck, sponsoned out over the sides of the ship, just forward of the funnel. A 194-millimeter chase gun was fitted under the forecastle. Victorieuse's secondary armament of six 138-millimeter (5.4 in) guns was also mounted on the upper deck. The armor-piercing shell of the 19-caliber 240-millmeter gun weighed 317.5 pounds (144.0 kg) while the gun itself weighed 15.41 long tons (15.66 t). It had a muzzle velocity of 1,624 ft/s (495 m/s) and was credited with the ability to penetrate a nominal 14.4 inches (366 mm) of wrought iron armour at the muzzle. The 20-caliber 194-millimeter gun fired an armor-piercing, 165.3-pound (75.0 kg) shell while the gun itself weighed 7.83 long tons (7.96 t). The gun fired its shell at a muzzle velocity of 1,739 ft/s (530 m/s) and was credited with the ability to penetrate a nominal 12.5 inches (320 mm) of wrought iron armour at the muzzle. The 138-millimeter gun was 21 calibers long and weighed 2.63 long tons (2.67 t). It fired a 61.7-pound (28.0 kg) explosive shell that had a muzzle velocity of 1,529 ft/s (466 m/s). The guns could fire both solid shot and explosive shells. The ship also mounted four 37-millimeter (1.5 in) Hotchkiss 5-barrel revolving guns. They fired a shell weighing about 500 g (1.1 lb) at a muzzle velocity of about 610 m/s (2,000 ft/s) to a range of about 3,200 meters (3,500 yd). They had a rate of fire of about 30 rounds per minute. Victorieuse also received several towed Harvey torpedoes. ### Armor The La Galissonnière-class ships had a complete 150-millimeter (5.9 in) wrought iron waterline belt, approximately 2.4 meters (7.9 ft) high laid over 650 millimeters (26 in) of wood. The sides of the battery itself were armored with 120 millimeters (4.7 in) of wrought iron backed by 520 millimeters (20 in) of wood and the ends of the battery were closed by bulkheads of the same thickness. The barbette armor was 120 millimeters (4.7 in) thick. The unarmored portions of their sides were protected by thin iron plates. ## Service Victorieuse was laid down at Toulon on 5 August 1869 and launched on 18 November 1875. While the exact reason for such prolonged construction time is not known, the budget for the French Navy was cut after the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71 and the French dockyards had not been reformed with working practices more suitable for the industrial age. The ship was commissioned for her sea trials on 12 November 1876 and she was placed in reserve in Toulon after they were completed. She was recommissioned as the flagship of the Pacific Squadron on 17 August 1878 under the command of Rear Admiral Abel-Nicolas Bergasse du Petit-Thouars. The ship participated in the pacification of the Marquesas Islands in 1880, which had been conquered by the admiral's uncle (and adoptive father) Abel Aubert du Petit-Thouars forty years before. Victorieuse returned to Toulon on 23 May 1881. The ship was recommissioned as the flagship of the China Squadron on 1 December 1881 under the command of Rear Admiral Meyer. She was relieved by her sister La Galissonnière in April 1884. She became flagship of the Levant Squadron after she arrived in France, but was in bad shape and soon placed in reserve at Cherbourg. Victorieuse became the flagship of Rear Admiral Barrera, second-in-command of the Northern Squadron on 10 February 1892. The ship was on summer maneuvers off the Iberian coast in July 1893. Two years later she became the flagship of Rear Admiral Ménard. She was initially condemned in May 1897, but this was reversed so she could convoy torpedo boats to Bizerte. That plan was later cancelled and Victorieuse was paid off in 1899, becoming guardship of the outer harbor at Brest until finally condemned the following year.
31,237,682	Martin Miller (actor)	1,109,658,934	Czech actor	[ "1899 births", "1969 deaths", "Austro-Hungarian Jews", "Czech people of Jewish descent", "Czechoslovak expatriates in England", "Czechoslovak male film actors", "Czechoslovak male stage actors", "Jewish Czech actors", "People from Kroměříž" ]	Martin Miller, born Johann Rudolph Müller (2 September 1899 – 26 August 1969) was a Czech-Austrian character actor who played many small roles in British films and television series from the early 1940s until his death. He was best known for playing eccentric doctors, scientists and professors, although he played a wide range of small, obscure roles—including photographers, waiters, a pet store dealer, rabbis, a Dutch sailor and a Swiss tailor. On stage he was noted in particular for his parodies of Adolf Hitler and roles as Dr. Einstein in Arsenic and Old Lace and Mr. Paravicini in The Mousetrap. Miller appeared in several notable films, including Squadron Leader X (1943), English Without Tears (1944), The Third Man (1949), The Gamma People (1956), Peeping Tom (1960), 55 Days at Peking (1963), The V.I.P.s (1963), The Pink Panther (1963), and The Yellow Rolls-Royce (1964). His most substantial roles include George II of Great Britain in Bonnie Prince Charlie (1948) and Kublai Khan in the Doctor Who serial Marco Polo. In the 1960s, he appeared in several ITC Entertainment cult television programmes, including Ghost Squad, Danger Man, The Saint, The Avengers and The Prisoner. ## Early life and background Miller was born Rudolph Müller in the Moravian town of Kroměříž—then known as Kremsier in Austria-Hungary—on 2 September 1899. Little is known about his earlier life, but he started working as an actor in Vienna in 1921, and spent his early years as an actor mainly in theatre and cabaret in Austria and Czechoslovakia. He was a member of the Jewish League of Culture in Berlin in 1938–39. He fled Austria and arrived in London in March 1939 to pursue a career in the British theatre and film industry. He married Hannah Norbert, later Hannah Norbert-Miller, in 1946. ## Stage career In 1939, Miller was a co-founder of the Viennese Theatre Club of Paddington, a "celebrated émigré cabaret and theatre", also known as Das Laterndl. The theatrical group of talented Austrian exiles, which included the likes of Lona Cross, Fritz Schrecker and Marianne Walla became known for their sketches and plays which represented a "satirical commentary on Vienna under Nazi rule". Miller achieved fame for his parodies of Adolf Hitler, and he was asked to portray Hitler in the BBC German Service's propaganda campaign. He continued to be employed by the BBC after the war as a German-language author, actor, presenter and producer for the rest of his life. He also did much work arranging plays for the German and Austrian diaspora; for instance he arranged the production of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's Iphigenia in Tauris in German at Wyndham's Theatre in October 1949 in coordination with the British Goethe Festival Society. On stage Miller was noted in particular for his roles as Dr. Einstein in Arsenic and Old Lace between 1942 and 1946 and Mr. Paravicini in Agatha Christie's The Mousetrap at the Ambassadors Theatre from 1952, a role in which he was described as an "elderly foreigner" with a "painted face which he makes half devil, half jack-in-the-box". He worked mainly in London and New York City, and played Paravinci for over 1000 performances. In 1951, Miller appeared alongside Lily Hann, Alan Tilvern, Gabriel Woolf and Alfie Bass in a production of Emanuel Litvinoff's Magnolia Street Story at the Embassy Theatre. At the end of 1959 he appeared in the successful musical Make Me an Offer at the Theatre Workshop in Stratford and the New Theatre on the West End, taking "his place as the least scrupulous and the most amusing of the dealers with a somewhat lighter but entirely acceptable rendering". ## Film and television career ### 1940s Miller made his British film debut in 1940 with an uncredited role opposite George Formby in the comedy Let George Do It!. In 1943, Miller was cast as Mr. Krohn in Lance Comfort's World War II spy drama Squadron Leader X alongside Beatrice Varley and Ann Dvorak, his first major film role. Soon afterwards, he played Doctor Novotny in Harold S. Bucquet's spy film The Adventures of Tartu, the first of many roles as a doctor. Comfort hired him again the following year to appear alongside James Mason, Lucie Mannheim and Raymond Lovell in Hotel Reserve, a spy film set in a hotel in southern France just before World War II. He then had a small role as Schmidt in Harold French's romantic comedy English Without Tears (1944) alongside Michael Wilding, Margaret Rutherford and Penelope Dudley-Ward. Miller played a morgue keeper in Vernon Sewell's 1945 thriller Latin Quarter. The following year he had a role as Professor Hansen alongside Robert Newton in Lawrence Huntington's Night Boat to Dublin, and portrayed a postman in Maclean Rogers's romantic drama Woman to Woman, based on the play by Michael Morton. In 1947, he starred as a professor in Vernon Sewell's comedy The Ghosts of Berkeley Square. The film, an adaptation of the novel No Nightingales by Caryl Brahms and S. J. Simon, was inspired by the reputation of the property at 50 Berkeley Square as "the most haunted house in London", and co-starred Robert Morley and Felix Aylmer. That year, Miller also portrayed Dr. Hans Tautz in Anthony Kimmins' drama Mine Own Executioner opposite Burgess Meredith, Dulcie Gray and Michael Shepley. Mine Own Executioner was entered into the 1947 Cannes Film Festival. In 1948, Miller portrayed a police inspector in Terence Young's One Night with You, which also featured a young Christopher Lee in a minor role. After an uncredited role as an Italian waiter at the Savoy Hotel in The Blind Goddess (1948), he had a substantial role as George II of Great Britain in Anthony Kimmins's biopic Bonnie Prince Charlie about the Jacobite risings alongside David Niven, who portrayed Charles II. In 1949, he appeared as Tony the café proprietor in Lawrence Huntington's Man on the Run; a customer in Jack Warner's The Huggetts Abroad; Leon Stolz in Arthur Crabtree's Don't Ever Leave Me alongside Petula Clark and Jimmy Hanley; and had uncredited roles as black marketeer Herr Schindler in I Was a Male War Bride and as a headwaiter in the classic film noir The Third Man opposite Orson Welles and Joseph Cotten. ### 1950s In 1951, Miller played a pawnbroker in the television movie The Angel Who Pawned Her Harp, and had an uncredited role as a photographer in Joseph M. Newman's I'll Get You for This. After a role as a Dutch seaman in Paul L. Stein's Counterblast alongside Robert Beatty, Mervyn Johns and Nova Pilbeam he played the character Carlo Penezii in the "Gigolo and Gigolette" segment of the anthology film Encore—which was entered into the 1952 Cannes Film Festival. In 1952, he appeared as a rabbi in the television series Portrait by Rembrandt and as a photographer in Where's Charley?. In 1953, Miller had a minor role in Emeric Pressburger's Twice Upon a Time, a film which concerns a pair of twin sisters who are separated, when their parents divorce. Between 1953 and 1954, he appeared in two episodes of Douglas Fairbanks Jr., Presents. In 1954, Miller portrayed Dr. Brukmann in Front Page Story, and Professor Hyman Pfumbaum in You Know What Sailors Are, The following year he had a role as Iggy Pulitzer in George More O'Ferrall's The Woman for Joe opposite Diane Cilento and George Baker; and portrayed a Swiss tailor in John Paddy Carstairs's comedy Man of the Moment alongside Norman Wisdom. He also had an uncredited role as a band leader in An Alligator Named Daisy. In 1956—a busy year for Miller—he portrayed a hotel keeper in the Sailor of Fortune episode It Started in Paris and as Chella in the Festival of Fear episode of The Adventures of Aggie. He had an uncredited role in Jay Lewis's comedy The Baby and the Battleship, and played Professor Topolski in Child in the House and Lochner in John Gilling's science fiction picture The Gamma People alongside Paul Douglas, Eva Bartok and Leslie Phillips. In 1957, he starred in Hugo Fregonese's World War II film Seven Thunders about two British escaped prisoners-of-war, opposite Stephen Boyd, James Robertson Justice and Kathleen Harrison. In 1958, Miller played Brunet in Maclean Rogers' drama Mark of the Phoenix alongside Julia Arnall, Sheldon Lawrence and Anton Diffring. He appeared twice as Nat Danziger in ITV Play of the Week in 1955 and 1958, and in three episodes of the BBC's Sunday Night Theatre—one in 1956 and two in 1959. He again played a rabbi in a 1956 episode of ITV Television Playhouse entitled Skipper Next to God, and made two further appearances in the series later in the decade. In 1959, Miller had an uncredited role as Kakky in Expresso Bongo directed by Val Guest. He played a doctor in the television film Henry IV and appeared as Dr. Schrott in Anthony Asquith's film Libel, starring alongside Olivia de Havilland and Dirk Bogarde. ### 1960s–death In 1960, Miller portrayed Piggy in Robert Siodmak's The Rough and the Smooth opposite Tony Britton, William Bendix and Edward Chapman. He played Dr. Pfeiffer in the episode Twentieth Century Theatre: The Price of Freedom of the BBC Sunday Night Play. The same year, Miller starred in Michael Powell's psychological horror thriller Peeping Tom, playing a doctor who the main protagonist (Karlheinz Böhm), a serial killer who murders women while using a portable movie camera fitted with a spike to record their dying expressions of terror, approaches to cure his scopophilia. It was a controversial film at the time of release with themes of child abuse, sadomasochism and fetishism, although Miller's performance, played comically, stood in contrast to the film's dark themes, and it has since gained a cult following and is now considered a masterpiece. In 1960, Miller also portrayed Stravros in the episode The Lovers of the series Danger Man and Dr. Samuel Odenheim in Otto Preminger's war film Exodus opposite Paul Newman, Eva Marie Saint, Ralph Richardson and Sal Mineo. In 1962, Miller starred as Rossi in the Hammer Film Productions horror The Phantom of the Opera under the directorship of Terence Fisher, and had roles in the TV series Man of the World, Zero One, and Ghost Squad. In 1963—a busy and high-status year for Miller— he featured in Ken Annakin's comedy The Fast Lady. He portrayed Dr. Schroeder in Incident at Midnight; and reprised this character in the television series The Edgar Wallace Mystery Theatre. Next was a role as Hugo Bergmann in the Nicholas Ray-directed historical epic 55 Days at Peking opposite Charlton Heston, Ava Gardner, and David Niven. The film is a dramatization of the Battle of Peking during the 1900 Boxer Rebellion and received two Academy Award nominations for Dimitri Tiomkin (Best Song and Original Music Score). The same year, Miller appeared as Dr. Schwutzbacher in Anthony Asquith's The V.I.P.s as Dr. Schwatzbacher opposite Richard Burton, Elizabeth Taylor, Louis Jourdan, Orson Welles and Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress winner Margaret Rutherford. The film was one of the biggest British MGM productions in years. The team of director Asquith, producer Anatole de Grunwald and writer Rattigan produced another portmanteau film the following year entitled The Yellow Rolls-Royce, in which Miller played a minor role as a head waiter. Also in 1963, he played the photographer Pierre Luigi in Blake Edwards's The Pink Panther opposite Niven, Peter Sellers and Robert Wagner In 1964, Miller appeared as Professor Gruber in the science fiction horror picture Children of the Damned, and played Kublai Khan in two episodes of Doctor Who: "Assassin at Peking" and "Mighty Kublai Khan". He also portrayed Dr. Zoren in the "Fish on the Hook" episode of Danger Man, and from 1964 onwards, Miller became a regular cast member in ITC productions, albeit with minor roles. He appeared in two episodes of The Saint in (1964-5), and had an uncredited role as Professor Spencer in The Avengers episode "The Master Minds". He also starred as Herman in the Christopher Miles comedy film Up Jumped a Swagman—which co-starred other ITC regulars Annette Andre and Ronald Radd. In 1966, Miller appeared in the BBC television series Theatre 625 episode "Focus" and in The Baron episode, Enemy of the State. In 1967, he starred as Montross in The Forsyte Saga episode "Portrait of Fleur" and made an appearance as a watchmaker in The Prisoner episode "It's Your Funeral". In 1969, he featured in the BBC Play of the Month, playing Professeur Vivier in the episode "Maigret at Bay", and also had roles in The Troubleshooters and Doctor in the House before making his final appearance as Dutrov in the series Department S. Miller was booked for a role in The Last Valley, but while shooting on location in Innsbruck he died aged 69 on 26 August 1969 after suffering a heart attack. ## Filmography ### Films ### Television
40,647,807	North Carolina Highway 403	1,085,179,276	State highway in North Carolina, US	[ "State highways in North Carolina", "Transportation in Duplin County, North Carolina", "Transportation in Sampson County, North Carolina", "Transportation in Wayne County, North Carolina" ]	North Carolina Highway 403 (NC 403) is a primary state highway located in U.S. State of North Carolina. The highway travels through Sampson, Duplin, and Wayne Counties between its southern terminus at U.S. Route 701 Business (US 701 Business) in Clinton and NC 55 in Williams. Between its termini, NC 403 connects to Interstate 40 (I-40) and Faison. The highway is primarily rural and predominantly travels through rural forests and farmlands. While signed in a north-south direction, NC 403 physically travels in a northeast-southwest direction along the duration of its route. Prior to the establishment of NC 403, multiple secondary roads linked Clinton and Faison. NC 403 was established in 1933, running along secondary roads from US 701/NC 23 north of Clinton to US 117/NC 40 in Faison. By 1935, the southern terminus was shifted to NC 24 at Warsaw Road in Clinton. NC 403 was extended northeast from Faison to NC 55 in Williams in 1957. The southern terminus of NC 403 was once again moved from Warsaw Road to US 701 (modern-day US 701 Business) in 1966. In 2009, US 117 Connector was routed from I-40 to US 117, creating a 0.2-mile (0.32 km) concurrency near the I-40 interchange. ## Route description NC 403 is a predominantly two-lane rural highway that traverses 25.7 miles (41.4 km) from Clinton to Williams. The southern terminus of NC 403 is located at an at-grade intersection with US 701 Business (Northeast Boulevard) northeast of downtown Clinton. From the intersection, NC 403 runs northeastward along the two-lane Faison Highway, exiting Clinton to the northeast. Outside of Clinton, the majority of the surrounding area is farmland and forested areas. However, some residential neighborhoods are located adjacent to NC 403 on the outskirts of the city. The highway crosses Beaverdam Swamp and makes a gradual turn northward. Beyond the initial curve, the highway makes several minor turns to return to a northeastern orientation. NC 403 intersects Keener Road which runs westward to the census-designated place of Keener. The highway crosses several other river branches of the Cape Fear River as it approaches I-40. As NC 403 approaches I-40, it widens to a four-lane divided highway. NC 403 meets I-40 at a diamond interchange (I-40 exit 355) southwest of Faison. US 117 Connector begins at the interchange, marking the beginning of the NC 403/US 117 Connector concurrency. NC 403 continues northeast for 0.2 miles (0.32 km) until reaching an at-grade intersection northeast of I-40. At the intersection, NC 403 turns southeastward toward Faison while US 117 Connector continues northeast toward Calypso. NC 403 travels 0.7 miles (1.1 km) before crossing into Duplin County. Approaching Faison, NC 403 makes a reverse curve before intersecting NC 50 west of the town. At the intersection, NC 50 turns to run concurrently with NC 403 to the east. Entering Faison from the west, NC 403 and NC 50 travel along Main Street to pass through the downtown area of Faison. Immediately east of the central business area, the highway crosses a CSX Transportation owned railroad line at an at-grade crossing and meets US 117/NC 50 at an intersection. The NC 403/NC 50 concurrency ends at the intersection as NC 50 turns south to follow US 117 toward Warsaw. NC 403 exits Faison to the east and the surrounding area becomes predominately farmland. The highway makes a turn to the northeast and intersects several secondary roads that run northwest to Calypso. NC 403 makes a turn to the southeast before intersecting Beautancus Road which runs north to Mount Olive. At the intersection, the highway turns back to the northeast, an orientation it largely remains for the duration of its route. NC 403 passes through a community southeast of Mount Olive, with several businesses and residential buildings located adjacent to the highway. From the community, NC 403 continues northeastward for 2.1 miles (3.4 km) and crosses the Northeast Cape Fear River and enters Wayne County. It continues 0.7 miles (1.1 km) to its northern terminus at NC 55 in the unincorporated community of Williams. The North Carolina Department of Transportation (NCDOT) measures average daily traffic volumes along many of the roadways it maintains. In 2016, average daily traffic volumes along NC 403 varied from 1,200 vehicles per day at the Northeast Cape Fear River to 12,000 vehicles per day along the section to roadway concurrent with US 117 Connector east of I-40. NC 403 is part of the National Highway System for 0.2 miles (0.32 km), entirely concurrent with US 117 Connector near Faison. Additionally, NC 403 connects with the National Highway system at I-40. ## History In 1930, several graded secondary roads linked Clinton and Faison along the future routing of NC 403. NC 403 first appeared on North Carolina state highway maps in 1933. The highway began at US 701/NC 23 two miles (three point two kilometres) north of Clinton and ran northeast to US 117/NC 40 in Faison. From its establishment NC 403 was classified as a gravel or topsoil road. By 1935, the southern terminus of NC 403 was adjusted to the south ending at NC 24 (modern-day Warsaw Road) in Clinton. The highway was paved by 1940. In 1957, the northern terminus of NC 403 was extended northeast from US 117 in Faison to NC 55 in Williams. The majority of the new NC 403 routing was along pre-existing secondary roads between Faison and Williams. However, a new highway was created between modern-day Bill Clifton Road and Friendship Church Road, east of Faison. In 1966, NC 403 was shortened by 0.4 miles (0.64 km) on its southern end. The southern terminus was moved from Warsaw Road to US 701 (modern-day US 701 Business), removing NC 403 from College Street. The routing of NC 403 near I-40 was adjusted upon the construction of a secondary road (Sampson County SR 1723) running from NC 403 to US 117. Completed by 1995, a curve along NC 403 east of I-40 was eliminated in favor of the modern-day intersection. In 2009, US 117 Connector was established from I-40 to US 117 near Calypso. The new connector route replaced Sampson County SR 1723 and was routed to overlap NC 403 for 0.2 miles (0.32 km) northeast of I-40. ## Major intersections
32,272,591	Dukes Meadows	1,171,952,189	Riverside park in Chiswick, London	[ "Chiswick", "Meadows in Greater London", "Parks and open spaces in the London Borough of Hounslow", "Parks and open spaces on the River Thames" ]	Dukes Meadows is a riverside park in Chiswick, London. The land was bought by the council in 1923, and the park was opened in 1926. It is cared for by the Dukes Meadows Trust. The area is home to the Chiswick Farmers' Market, which helps to pay for the park's maintenance. From 2023 the Dukes Meadows Footbridge forms part of the Thames Path. ## History ### Threats In 1902, the land to the south of Chiswick's Grove Park district consisted of orchards and meadows with a farmhouse. A plan was made that year to build homes for 40,000 people (more than the population of Chiswick at that time) on the site, in a new town to be called Burlingwick, but they were never built. A second threat arose in 1914, when the Brentford Gas Company introduced a bill in Parliament to build a gasworks over 80 acres (32 hectares) of the meadows. Chiswick residents objected to the plan. On 6 February 1914, The Times printed an editorial opposing the scheme, stating that "The scheme offends against the modern axiom of town-planning which insists that all amenities of living for workers should be safeguarded in densely populated areas, the new industries should be established as far afield as possible, and that land ripe for building – such as the Chiswick orchard farm – near the heart of the metropolis should be utilized for parks and garden settlement. It is to be hoped that no more will be heard of so unwelcome and unnecessary a proposal". The bill was not passed. In 1926, a third threat emerged, a plan by the London and Home Counties Electricity Authority to build an electricity generating station on the scale of Battersea Power Station, over an area of 45 acres (18 hectares). The authority had bought Chiswick House and its grounds from the Duke of Devonshire, and offered to swap these for the Dukes Meadows land. The local Council was keen to get Chiswick House, but the deal was opposed by residents and rowers alike. A private member's bill was brought to Parliament but it was rejected in 1927. In 1928, the new Central Electricity Board dropped the plan, as other stations including Fulham Power Station would have sufficient capacity. ### Creation In 1923, Chiswick Urban District purchased over 200 acres (81 hectares) of land from the Duke of Devonshire to create a park. To finance the purchase, gravel extraction took place from 1924 to 1937, at a rate of five acres per year, earning £1500 per acre; the gravel pits were restored and filled in with rubbish from central London after 1948. Paddling pools were constructed on the eastern side of the meadows. A seaside-type promenade and a bandstand were built alongside the Thames riverfront and opened by Prince Albert, Duke of York (later King George VI) in 1926. ### Reputation The murder of Elizabeth Figg, whose body was found on 17 June 1959 in the Meadows, is one of the six unsolved killings of the Hammersmith nude murders. At that time, the park had a reputation as a lovers' lane, and prostitutes were known to take their clients there. ## Park ### Farmers market, allotments, and sports The Chiswick farmers market opened in 2001, and was visited by the 11th Duke of Devonshire that year. The market is held every Sunday in the courtyard that once belonged to Grove Park Farmhouse. The stalls sell meat, cheese, vegetables, fruit, juices, and prepared dishes. Next to the farmers market is an area of allotments run by the London Borough of Hounslow. Much of the rest of the Dukes Meadows area, outside the public park, is covered with sports fields, used for golf, tennis, football, rugby, and other sports. A house on the golf course is the main filming location for the pre-recorded tasks in the gameshow Taskmaster. ### Dukes Meadows Trust In 1998, a group of local people formed the Friends of Dukes Meadows to protect the interests of the park; this was registered as a charity in 2001, and in 2006, it became the Dukes Meadows Trust. The old paddling pools, which had fallen into disuse, were replaced with a new water play area and fountain (just to the north), a refreshments kiosk, and a sandpit. Volunteers working for the Trust tidied the whole area, created a community garden, planted hedges and fruit trees, and painted the bandstand. Construction work was paid for with rent from Chiswick Farmers' Market and from the converted farm buildings. The approach was cited in CABE Space's "guide for community groups working to improve public space". ### Thames Path The Thames Path runs beside the river, along the southern edge of Dukes Meadows. At the upstream side, the path was diverted by the railway leading to Barnes Railway Bridge. The Dukes Meadows Footbridge connects the Thames Path on either side of the railway, allowing the path to follow the river without diversion, in the words of the London Borough of Hounslow's report Duke's Meadows Regeneration, "removing a frustrating dog-leg along the scenic walking and cycling route."
3,812,150	Civilian Public Service	1,157,467,722	United States conscientious objector program from 1941 to 1947	[ "1941 establishments in the United States", "1947 disestablishments in the United States", "American conscientious objectors", "Civilian Public Service", "Conscientious objection organizations", "Conscription in the United States", "Government agencies disestablished in 1947", "Government agencies established in 1941", "Mennonitism in the United States", "Quakerism in the United States", "United States home front during World War II" ]	The Civilian Public Service (CPS) was a program of the United States government that provided conscientious objectors with an alternative to military service during World War II. From 1941 to 1947, nearly 12,000 draftees, willing to serve their country in some capacity but unwilling to perform any type of military service, accepted assignments in "work of national importance" in 152 CPS camps throughout the United States and Puerto Rico. Draftees from the historic peace churches and other faiths worked in areas such as soil conservation, forestry, fire fighting, agriculture, under the supervision of such agencies as the U.S. Forest Service, the Soil Conservation Service, and the National Park Service. Others helped provide social services and mental health services. The CPS men served without wages and minimal support from the federal government. The cost of maintaining the CPS camps and providing for the needs of the men was the responsibility of their congregations and families. CPS men served longer than regular draftees and were not released until well after the end of the war. Initially skeptical of the program, government agencies learned to appreciate the men's service and requested more workers from the program. CPS made significant contributions to forest fire prevention, erosion and flood control, medical science and reform of the mental health system. ## Background Conscientious objectors (COs) refuse to participate in military service because of belief or religious training. During wartime, this stance conflicts with conscription efforts. Those willing to accept non-combatant roles, such as medical personnel, are accommodated. There are few legal options for draftees who cannot cooperate with the military in any way. ### Experiences of World War I The conscription law of World War I provided for noncombatant service for members of a religious organization whose members were forbidden from participating in war of any form. This exemption effectively limited conscientious objector status to members of the historic peace churches: Mennonites (and other Anabaptist groups such as Hutterites), Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) and Church of the Brethren. The law gave the President authority to assign such draftees to any noncombatant military role. Conscientious objectors who refused noncombatant service during World War I were imprisoned in military facilities such as Fort Lewis (Washington), Alcatraz Island (California) and Fort Leavenworth (Kansas). The government assumed that COs could be converted into soldiers once they were exposed to life in their assigned military camps. Simultaneously the Justice Department was preparing to indict 181 Mennonite leaders for violating the espionage act because of a statement they adopted against performing military service. The draftees' refusal to put on a uniform or cooperate in any way caused difficulties for both the government and the COs. The treatment received by nearly 2,000 of these absolute COs included short rations, solitary confinement and physical abuse so severe as to cause the deaths of two Hutterite draftees. ### Preparation for World War II After World War I, and with another European war looming, leaders from the historic peace churches met to strategize about how to cooperate with the government to avoid the difficulties of World War I. Holding a common view that any participation in military service was not acceptable, they devised a plan of civilian alternative service, based on experience gained by American Friends Service Committee work in Europe during and after World War I and forestry service done by Russian Mennonites in lieu of military service in Tsarist Russia. As the United States prepared for another war, the historic peace churches, represented by Friends who understood inner dealings of Washington D.C. politics, attempted to influence new draft bills to ensure their men could fulfill their duty in an alternative, non-military type of service. On June 20, 1940, the Burke-Wadsworth Bill came before Congress. The arrangements for conscientious objectors were almost identical to the World War I provisions. ### Selective Service Act The Friends representatives continued attempting to make the bill more favorable to the historic peace churches. The Burke-Wadsworth Bill passed on September 14, 1940, becoming the Selective Training and Service Act of 1940. The influence of the churches was evident in section 5(g), which says in part: "Any such person claiming such exemption from combatant training and service ... in lieu of such induction, be assigned to work of national importance under civilian direction." The bill offered four improvements from the perspective of the churches over the World War I provisions. The exemption applied to conscientious objection based on religious training or belief, opening the door for members of any religious denomination to apply for CO status. Draftees turned down by local draft board could appeal under the new law. Those assigned to "work of national importance" would be under civilian, not military, control and violations of law on the part of those in the program were subject to normal federal jurisdiction, not the military justice system. From the military perspective, it removed the burden of dealing with thousands of uncooperative draftees and segregated the COs and their philosophy from military service members. Unlike harsher methods, the military found that this gentler approach resulted in about one in eight eventually transferring to military service. ## Organization When registration commenced on October 16, 1940, no structure was in place to handle thousands of anticipated conscientious objectors. Church representatives meeting with government officials learned that little thought had been put into the program, and the churches were advised to create a plan. Because the government wanted to deal with one body, not individual religious denominations, the National Council for Religious Conscientious Objectors was formed as a liaison between the churches and the federal government. The historic peace churches outlined a plan that included running and maintaining CPS camps under church control. However, President Roosevelt opposed any plan not involving military control over the draftees. To save their plan and retain civilian direction of the program, the churches offered to fund the camps. Aides convinced Roosevelt that putting the COs to work in out-of-the-way camps was preferable to repeating the difficulties of World War I. Selective Service and the peace churches agreed to a six-month trial of church supported and funded camps for conscientious objectors and thus Civilian Public Service was born. The first camp opened on May 15, 1941, near Baltimore, Maryland. A total of 152 camps and units were established over the next six years. Six of the units, however, never became operational. The federal government provided work projects, housing, camp furnishings and paid for transportation to the camps. The responsibilities of the churches included day-to-day management of the camps, subsistence costs, meals and healthcare for the men. When the young men arrived at the first camps, they started a six-month experiment that would extend to six years. ### Camp life Civilian Public Service men lived in barracks-style camps, such as former Civilian Conservation Corps facilities. The camps served as a base of operations, from which the COs departed to their daily assignments. Sites were located typically in rural areas near the agricultural, soil conservation and forestry projects where the work took place. A large camp such as number 57 near Hill City, South Dakota, had five dormitories and housed as many as 172 men building the Deerfield Dam. Later, with projects located in urban areas, the men lived in smaller units, communal housing near their assignments. CPS men typically worked nine hours, six days per week. Mennonite Central Committee, American Friends Service Committee and Brethren Service Committee administered almost all of the camps. The Association of Catholic Conscientious Objectors managed four camps and the Methodist World Peace Commission two. Each camp was assigned a director responsible for supervising camp operation. The director managed the needs of the men, oversaw maintenance of the camp facilities, handled community relations and reported to Selective Service officials. Initially a pastor had the camp director role. Later, capable men from among the CPS workers directed the camps. Besides the director, a matron, business manager and dietitian staffed a typical camp. An educational director was responsible for creating recreational, social and educational programs for the men. Church history, Bible and first aid were standard course topics. The strength of instructional programs varied from camp to camp, and after nine hours of physical labor, it could be difficult to motivate the men to attend classes. Most camps had libraries, some showed current films and camp number 56 (Camp Angel) near Waldport, Oregon had a particular emphasis on the arts. Camps produced newsletters and yearbooks documenting their experiences. The camp dietitian, with the help of men assigned as cooks, prepared all of the meals. Camps with large gardens provided their own fresh vegetables. Sponsoring congregations also supplied home canned and fresh produce. The camps were subject to the same shortages and rationing as the rest of the nation. Sunday worship services were organized by the camp director if he was a pastor, by a visiting pastor, or by the CPS men themselves. While the historic peace churches organized the CPS, 38% of the men came from other denominations and 4% claimed no religious affiliation. Men spent their free time doing crafts such as woodworking, rugmaking, leatherwork and photography. Outdoor activities included hiking and swimming. Men formed choirs and music ensembles, performing in neighboring towns when relations were good. The men earned two days of furlough for each month of service. These days could be saved to allow enough time to travel several hundred miles home or in some cases traded to other men in exchange for cash. Men with wives and dependents found it difficult to support their families. Beyond a small allowance, the men did not get paid for their service, nor were their dependents given an allowance. To be closer to their husbands, women sought employment near their husband's assignment. Later, when jobs on dairy farms became available, families could live together in housing provided for farm workers. Men who became uncooperative with the CPS system and were unable to adjust to the church-managed camps were reassigned to a few camps managed by the Selective Service System. These camps tended to be the least productive and most difficult to administer. Men who felt compelled to protest the restrictions of the conscription law attempted to disrupt the program through the use of various techniques, including the initiation of work slowdowns and labor strikes. Routine rule breaking frustrated camp directors. The most difficult cases were given to the federal court system and the men imprisoned. ### Finances Churches were primarily responsible for financing Civilian Public Service, providing for the men's food, clothes, and other material needs. The churches also provided and paid for the camp director. To cover personal needs, the men received a monthly allowance of between \$2.50 and \$5.00 (equivalent to \$ and \$ respectively in ). When jobs were available in surrounding farms and communities, those willing to work beyond their regular CPS jobs could earn extra spending money. The federal government spent \$1.3 million on the CPS program. The men performed \$6 million of unpaid labor in return. Men who worked for farmers or psychiatric hospitals received regular wages, which they were required to give to the federal government. Objections to this practice developed immediately because the men felt they were helping to fund the war. A compromise was reached where the wages were put into a special fund that was unused until after the end of the war. At one point, church representatives attempted unsuccessfully to have these funds used for providing a living allowance for the men's dependents. ## Types of work The first Civilian Public Service projects were in rural areas where the men performed tasks related to soil conservation, agriculture and forestry. Later men were assigned to projects in cities where they worked in hospitals, psychiatric wards, and university research centers (as test subjects at times). ### Soil conservation and agriculture Anticipating the rural background of most men, the initial camps provided soil conservation and farming-related projects. By August 1945, 550 men worked on dairy farms and with milk testing. Labor-intensive farming operations like dairies were short of workers and accepted COs to help fill the gap. Men assigned to the Bureau of Reclamation built contours to prevent soil erosion, constructed 164 reservoirs and 249 dams. A sixth of all CPS work was performed in this area. ### Forestry and National Parks At Forest Service and National Park Service camps, CPS men were responsible for fire control. Between fires they built forest trails, cared for nursery stock, planted thousands of seedlings and engaged in pest control. Campgrounds and roadways on the Blue Ridge Parkway and Skyline Drive of Virginia are products of CPS labor. Hundreds of men volunteered for smoke jumping, showing their willingness to take great personal risks. When fire was detected by a lookout, smoke jumpers were flown directly to the site and dropped by parachute to quickly contain and extinguish the fire. From base camps scattered through the forests of Montana, Idaho and Oregon, the men were flown as many as 200 miles to fire sites, carrying firefighting tools and a two-day supply of K-rations. For larger fires, additional men, supplies and food were airdropped to expand the effort. Up to 240 CPS men served in this specialized program. One of the smokejumping schools was at Camp Paxson in Montana. ### Mental health As the war progressed, a critical shortage of workers in psychiatric hospitals developed, because staff had left for better paying jobs with fewer hours and improved working conditions. Understaffed wards at Philadelphia State Hospital had one attendant member for 300 patients, the minimum ratio being 10:1. The government balked at initial requests that CPS workers have these positions, believing it better to keep the men segregated in the rural camps to prevent the spread of their philosophy. Eventually the men received permission to work for the mental institutions as attendants or psychiatric aides. Individuals who found jobs at the rural camps unfulfilling and meaningless volunteered for this new type of assignment. The mental health field promised to provide the work of national importance that the program was designed to produce. By the end of 1945, more than 2000 CPS men worked in 41 institutions in 20 states. The CPS men discovered appalling conditions in the mental hospital wards. In an interview, a conscientious objector described his experience when he first entered a mental hospital in October 1942: > It is sort of like a perpetual bad dream. The smells, the sounds of the insane voices, the bad equipment. The long, dark corridors. I tell you, it is all very much like a medieval fairytale of the nether regions. We’d heard about how these patients had been treated by the attendants, Beat with rods, you know, do all kind of things. We took a vow before we left the camp, we decided that we would not assault or in any way, strike a patient. > > I opened one of those rooms, and there was a man lying on the floor. I leaned over to try to see what I could do to minister to him in some way, do something for him. He may have been on a mattress or he may have been on the bare floor. No he was on the bare floor, because when I tried to move him, his skin came off. His skin was bloody and stuck to the floor and when I tried to lift him up it just peeled his skin off. He was in the last stages of syphilis. He died less than a week afterwards. Now that was my first introduction to what was badly needed in that institution. The CPS men objected to the mistreatment and abuse of patients and determined to improve conditions in the psychiatric wards. They wanted to show other attendants alternatives to violence when dealing with patients. Frank Olmstead, chairman of the War Resisters League observed: > One objector assigned to a violent ward refused to take the broomstick offered by the Charge. When he entered the ward the patients crowded around asking, "Where is your broomstick?" He said he thought he would not need it. "But suppose some of us gang up on you?" The CO guessed they wouldn't do that and started talking about other things. Within a few days the patients were seen gathering around the unarmed attendant telling him of their troubles. He felt much safer than the Charge who had only his broomstick for company. Outraged workers surveyed CPS men in other hospitals and learned of the degree of abuse throughout the psychiatric care system. Contacting church managers and government officials, the COs begin advocating for reforms to end the abuses. Conditions were exposed in institutions such as Cleveland State Hospital, Eastern State Hospital in Virginia and Hudson River State Hospital. One explained: > And the governor came in and they cleaned out the hospital. I mean, they had hearings. We all had to appear in court and all that kind of stuff. And within a month or so, the hospital was completely changed. The superintendent was fired and the new superintendent was put in, and not only did they do our hospital, they did all the hospitals, mental hospitals in Virginia. The reformers were especially active at the Byberry Hospital in Philadelphia where four Friends initiated The Attendant magazine as a way to communicate ideas and promote reform. This periodical later became The Psychiatric Aide, a professional journal for mental health workers. On May 6, 1946 Life Magazine printed an exposé of the mental healthcare system based on the reports of COs. Another effort of CPS, Mental Hygiene Project became the National Mental Health Foundation. Initially skeptical about the value of Civilian Public Service, Eleanor Roosevelt, impressed by the changes introduced by COs in the mental health system, became a sponsor of the National Mental Health Foundation and actively inspired other prominent citizens including Owen J. Roberts, Pearl Buck and Harry Emerson Fosdick to join her in advancing the organization's objectives of reform and humane treatment of patients. ### Medical experiments A faction of the Civilian Public Service camps developed into a scientific research unit known as Camp \#115, or the “Guinea pig units.” These units included around 500 conscientious objectors who volunteered to be scientific test subjects in a wide range of human medical experiments in the country's top universities and hospitals. The majority of these experiments were conducted under the direction and approval of the Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD), the Committee on Medical Research (CMR), and the Surgeon General at leading academic and medical institutions such as Harvard Medical School, Yale and Stanford Universities, and Massachusetts General Hospital. These experiments involved a range of research topics, including studying disease, survival in extreme conditions, and equipment testing. The experiments often endangered the health of the COs. The following chart lists the unit numbers, facility, type of project, capacity of CPS assignees, and dates of many experiments done on COs that were approved by the OSRD and CMR as reported by Selective Service. The numbers reported may be slightly inaccurate as some COs and experiments were not properly recorded. #### Specific Experiments ##### Typhus Typhus, a disease transmitted by body lice, was considered to be “one of the most dangerous of the potential epidemic diseases which were expected to occur during or after the war.” The Rockefeller Foundation, with support of the US government, headed an experiment on louse disinfestation techniques. Initially its leadership paid homeless individuals \$7 a day to participate, however, the "difficulty in securing suitable subjects” led the foundation to be the first experiment to use American WWII COs as subjects. A total of 32 COs volunteered for the experiment. In July 1942, Dr. Davis and Dr. Wheeler began the experiment with COs at a site in Campton, New Hampshire that became nicknamed “Camp Liceum.” They collected lice from an alcoholic ward of Bellevue Hospital and brought it with them to the facility. For 18 days, the men were required to wear undergarments infested with live lice and their eggs. For the second half, they were split into groups and given various delousing powders. Most of the powders proved ineffective and the medical legacy of the experiment was short lived; however, it set a precedent for the use of COs in experiments. Only a few years after the study, scientists discovered DDT which helped prevent a Typhus epidemic and eliminated the need for the Lice Experiment's results. ##### Hepatitis During the 1940s the cause, method of communication, and treatment of infectious hepatitis were not well understood. Experimentation began with COs working at psychiatric hospitals and expanded to a major research project with 30 to 60 test subjects at the University of Pennsylvania and Yale University. The men were inoculated with infected blood plasma, swallowed nose and throat washings, and the human body wastes of infected patients, and drank contaminated water. The infectious hepatitis research was instrumental in determining that a virus, rather than bacteria, is responsible for the Hepatitis A and that it is transmitted through human filth, serum and drinking water. ##### Malaria During the early 1940s, malaria was a major threat to troops fighting in the Pacific Front and quinine was the chief anti-malarial drug. Made from the bark of the South American cinchona tree, quinine was in short supply during the war, so scientists began searching for alternative treatments. There were over 14 different experiments conducted on COs with an emphasis on malaria research. In many of the cases, the test subjects were bitten by malarial mosquitoes and when the fever reached its peak after three to four days they were given various experimental treatments. During one Malaria experiment at the University of Minnesota, twelve CPS men underwent tests to determine the recovery period for those infected with malaria. This research documented the debilitating effects of the disease and the amount of time required for a complete recovery. ##### Cold and pneumonia CPS men participated in tests in Pinehurst, North Carolina and Gatlinburg, Tennessee during which they drank throat washings contaminated with soldiers' colds and pneumonia. Through this experiment, researchers with the Commission on Acute Respiratory Disease came to the conclusion that colds and some types of pneumonia are caused by a virus rather than bacteria. ##### Starvation To study the effects of diet and nutrition, Ancel Keys of the University of Minnesota Laboratory of Physiological Hygiene placed 36 conscientious objectors on a controlled diet. Later known as the Minnesota Starvation Experiment, the study was split into three parts: a control period, a semi-starvation period, and a refeeding period. For three months the subjects were given a normal 3,200 calories (13,000 kJ) daily diet depending on the weight. This was followed by six months of a 1,800 calories (7,500 kJ) diet, fewer calories than provided by the famine diet experienced by the civilian population in wartime Europe. The results showed an average of 24% loss in body weight, 40% loss in resting metabolism, decreased heart size, decreased blood pressure, 30% decrease in lung capacity, and other serious effects. The research not only documented the men's ability to maintain physical output, but also the psychological effects of the restrictive calorie diet such as introversion, lethargy, irritability and severe depression. The study then followed the men's long recovery as they returned to a normal diet and regained the weight lost during the experimentation. The study provided valuable insights into hunger and starvation and the results were made available to all major relief agencies concerned with postwar food and nutrition problems, helping to inspire the Marshall Plan. It became the most widely publicized of any of the experiments on COs and the results continue to be beneficial to the study of famine and anorexia. ##### Other experiments A number of other experiments were done to help test soldiers' abilities to survive in the extreme conditions the war presented. These tests included exposure to excessively high altitudes, cold, and heat. For example, to test the effects of extreme heat on soldiers, a group of COs at the University of Rochester rode stationary bikes in 123 degree heat on empty stomachs. In a different experiment, CO participants at Indiana University slept in frigid, temperature-controlled rooms wearing soaked clothing. The results of this study were used to gain information for the army on how different types of clothing responded to cold weather. Experiments also helped to decide adequate survival rations, calculate the duration of time men could survive on life rafts, and calculate the amount of time men could survive drinking only ocean water. #### Willingness to participate and public sentiment Although every COs experience was different, overall, even with the harsh experimental conditions, most participants described their work in the Guinea Pig Units positively. At the time the experiments were thought of as “work of national importance” and an overwhelming number of the COs preferred this form of objection to other CPS manual labor tasks. In fact, "the amount of men not selected for these dreadful experiments after volunteering outpaced the numbers actually chosen". Over 40 years after the experiment, CO Peter D. Watson, discussing his experiences in the Guinea Pig Units at the University of Rochester's medical school, said “it was a chance to serve and to do something worthwhile.’’ They took pride in their efforts, as their research directly helped soldiers during WWII and continues to have a lasting effect on the medical field today. Many COs reported that this work served as a form of humanitarian work that aligned with their pacifist and religious beliefs. Although public views toward COs were generally negative, as they were viewed as cowardly, emasculate, and untrustworthy, after 1944 when the government released their participation in experiments, the media covered the COs involved in experimentation in a positive light. The Minnesota Starvation Experiment was featured in Life Magazine in 1945, making it the first of the Guinea Pig Experiments to be widely publicized. After this publication, other newspapers and journals including The Washington Post, Cosmopolitan, World-Telegram, Survey Graphic, and Coronet Magazine began discussing these COs positively. This press coverage tended to focus on the sacrifice the COs were making and the risks they were facing, depicting them as far more patriotic and heroic than prior representations. ##### Ethical considerations Despite the positive medical impact these studies using COs have had, scholars have deemed the experiments unethical by modern standards. In most of the experiments, the participants were subject to unsafe conditions and many left with permanent negative health effects. As a young surgeon, C. Everett Koop, who later became the 13th Surgeon General of the United States, was part of the research team at the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine. He later expressed regret for his involvement in the studies. In an interview for the documentary "The Good War and Those Who Refused to Fight It", Dr. Koop described his experience with CPS test subjects: > And the first time I was introduced to this whole program when I as a young surgeon, was asked to do serial biopsies on their livers to see what the effect of the virus was in the production of the changes in the liver. And in that way, I got to know that a lot of these young men had no idea that the risk they were taking also included death. And some of those youngsters did die and it was a very difficult thing for me to be part of, because you know, you’re powerless, when you’re part of the big team. > > It couldn't happen today. Internal Review Boards would not permit the use of a live virus in human subjects unless they really understood what was going to happen to them. And I doubt that even if they knew what the risk was, that an Internal Review Board in any academic institution would consent to that kind of experimental work. ### War Relief and Seacowboys In 1945 and 1946, after World War II, ships were converted to livestock ships, also called "cowboy ships". From 1945 to 1947 the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration and the Brethren Service Committee of the Church of the Brethren sent livestock to war-torn countries. These "seagoing cowboys" made about 360 trips on 73 different ships. Of the 7,000 seagoing cowboys, 366 were from the Civilian Public Service, these volunteered to be "seagoing cowboys". The Heifers for Relief project was started by the Church of the Brethren in 1942; in 1953 this became Heifer International. These ships were known as cowboy ships and moved livestock across the Atlantic Ocean. These ships moved horses, heifers, and mules as well as a some chicks, rabbits, and goats. ## Closure and impact Civilian Public Service men were released from their assignments and the camps closed during March 1947, nineteen months after the end of the war in the Pacific. Reforms in the mental health system continued after the war. The experience of Mennonite COs was instrumental in creating regional mental health facilities in California, Kansas and Maryland. Lewis Hill, who was in CPS camp number 37 near Coleville, California, together with Henry Leroy Finch Jr. and several other COs founded Pacifica Network and KPFA Radio in Berkeley, California, the world's first listener-sponsored radio station. Poets William Everson and William Stafford were both in CPS camps. Actor Francis (Fritz) William Weaver spent time in the Big Flats (New York) CPS Camp number 46. Men from the historic peace churches volunteered for relief and reconstruction after their release from CPS. The 1947 Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to American and British Friends Service Committees for their relief work in Europe after the war. Mennonite Central Committee redirected its effort from camp administration to relief and reconstruction in Europe after the war. Civilian Public Service created a precedent for the Alternative Service Program for conscientious objectors in the United States during the Korean and Vietnam Wars. Although the CPS program was not duplicated, the idea of offering men an opportunity to do "work of national importance" instead of military service was established. ## See also - Civilian Bonds - Jewish Peace Fellowship - Swiss Civilian Service - Zivildienst People - Delamere Francis McCloskey, Los Angeles City Council member, 1941–43, opposed the camps
55,899,939	He Siyuan	1,171,236,040	Chinese educator, politician, and guerrilla leader	[ "1896 births", "1982 deaths", "20th-century translators", "Academic staff of Sun Yat-sen University", "Chinese expatriates in France", "Chinese expatriates in the United States", "Educators from Shandong", "Governors of Shandong", "Mayors of Beijing", "Members of the 2nd Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference", "Members of the 3rd Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference", "Members of the 4th Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference", "Members of the Kuomintang", "Military personnel of the Republic of China in the Second Sino-Japanese War", "National University of Peking alumni", "People's Republic of China translators", "Politicians from Heze", "Republic of China people who surrendered to the Chinese Communist Party", "University of Chicago alumni", "University of Paris alumni" ]	He Siyuan (Chinese: 何思源; Wade–Giles: Ho Ssu-yüan; 1896 – April 1982), also spelled Ho Shih-yuan, was a Chinese educator, politician and guerrilla leader. Educated in China, the United States, and France, he was an economics professor at Sun Yat-sen University and education minister of Shandong Province. When Japan invaded China in 1937, he organized a guerrilla force to fight the resistance war in Shandong, and was the wartime governor of the province. He later became Mayor of Beijing until he negotiated to surrender to communist forces when KMT was losing. He survived Chiang's two attempts to assassinate him, but lost his youngest daughter in the second attack. In 1949 he negotiated the peaceful surrender of Beijing to the Communist forces, ensuring the safety of its millions of residents. Fluent in four European languages, after 1949 he mainly worked on translating foreign publications into Chinese. His elder daughter, He Luli, grew up to become Vice-Mayor of Beijing and Chairwoman of the Revolutionary Committee of the Chinese Kuomintang. ## Early life and education He Siyuan was born in 1896 in Heze, Shandong Province. His courtesy name was Xiancha (仙槎). His family had produced prominent scholar-officials in history, but his own parents were middle-class peasants. He studied at Shandong No. 6 Provincial High School in Heze, before being admitted to the preparatory school of Peking University in 1915, where he became an active participant of the New Culture Movement. He was especially interested in foreign languages, and in April 1917 his translation of an article on money by Samuel Smiles was published in Chen Duxiu's influential magazine New Youth. He entered Peking University in 1918, majoring in philosophy. He soon joined the Xinchao (New Tide) Society founded by his close friend Fu Sinian, who was to become an eminent educator and scholar. He published many articles in the Xinchao journal. ## Study abroad After participating in the May Fourth Movement in 1919, He Siyuan left for the United States in August 1919 to study at the University of Chicago. In 1922, he and other Chinese students in the US protested at the Washington Naval Conference to demand Japan's return of Shandong Province to China. Deeply concerned with China's political weakness at the time, he abandoned philosophy and shifted his focus to more practical social sciences such as sociology, economics, and political science. He left the US for Germany, and then went to France and studied at the University of Paris. There he met his future wife, a Frenchwoman who later adopted the Chinese name He Yiwen (何宜文). ## Academic and government career He Siyuan returned to China in 1926, and was hired by his friend Fu Sinian as an economics professor at the newly established Sun Yat-sen University in Guangzhou. He married Yiwen in 1928 and she naturalized as a Chinese citizen. They had four children: sons He Lilu (何理路) and He Yili (何宜理), and daughters He Luli and He Lumei (何鲁美). While at Sun Yat-sen University he published the books A Brief History of Politics and Diplomacy of Modern China (中国近代政治外交略史, 1927) and Research Methods in Social Sciences (社会科学研究法, 1928). He joined the Kuomintang (Nationalist Party) in 1927. In early 1928, Chiang Kai-shek's Northern Expedition army entered Shandong Province. At the recommendation of Dai Jitao, President of Sun Yat-sen University, Chiang appointed He Siyuan as education minister of his home province, which was then ruled by various warlords only nominally loyal to Chiang's Nationalist government. Despite the lack of funds, He Siyuan invested in teacher training and reorganized the defunct provincial Shandong University and the private Tsingtao University into the National Shandong University in 1932. ## Military career during the Sino-Japanese War After Japan invaded China in 1937 and threatened Shandong's capital Jinan, the Shandong military governor Han Fuju abandoned his army and fled the province (and was later executed). Although He Siyuan was a civilian official, he chose to remain in Shandong and organize a guerrilla force to fight the Japanese. He Siyuan sent Yiwen and their four children to live in the British concession in Tianjin for safety. When the Japanese attacked the British Colonial government in December 1941, Japan occupied the British concession and Yiwen moved the family home to Tianjin's Italian concession. On 31 December, the Italian authorities arrested Yiwen and the children and handed them to the Japanese, who held them as hostages and demanded He Siyuan's surrender. He refused the demand, condemned Japan and Italy's breach of international law through media and diplomatic channels, and held Italian missionaries in China as a bargaining chip. The Japanese eventually relented and released his family. During the Anti-Japanese War, He Siyuan cooperated with the Communist guerrilla forces in Shandong and had contact with the Communist leader Chen Yi. In the autumn of 1944, he reported to Chiang Kai-shek in the wartime capital of Chongqing, and Chiang appointed him as Governor of Shandong in December. After the surrender of Japan at the end of World War II in 1945, he took over the province from the occupiers. ## Surrender of Beijing In November 1946, General Wang Yaowu was appointed Chairman of Shandong and He Siyuan became Mayor of Beijing (then known as Beiping), succeeding Xiong Bin. He was a popular mayor, personally officiating group weddings in the Huairen Hall in Zhongnanhai. 60 years later, some surviving couples organized a reunion to commemorate him. He renamed a street in Beijing after General Zhang Zizhong, who had supplied He Siyuan's guerrilla force in Shandong but was killed in action in 1940. During the Chinese Civil War between the Kuomintang and the Communists, He Siyuan clashed with Chiang Kai-shek, who after an attempt in April 1948 to assassinate him in downtown Beijing failed, fired him in June and replaced him with Liu Yaozhang. In January 1949, He Siyuan negotiated with the Communists for the surrender of Beijing. To prevent the surrender, Chiang Kai-shek made another attempt to assassinate him. In the early morning of 18 January 1949, two bombs exploded in his home, killing his 12-year-old daughter Lumei and gravely wounding his wife, who never fully recovered from the injury. He Siyuan and the other children were also wounded. Undaunted, he proceeded with the negotiation and reached an agreement for the peaceful surrender of Beijing, ensuring the safety of its millions of residents and the preservation of the architectural heritage of the ancient capital. The Juntong agent who planted the bombs, Colonel Duan Yunpeng, was captured in 1954 and executed in 1967. ## Later life and legacy After the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, He Siyuan worked for the People's Publishing House and was elected to the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC). Fluent in English, German, French, and Russian, he devoted himself to the translation of foreign works into Chinese, publishing 16 volumes by the early 1960s. He also contributed to the editing of the French–Chinese Dictionary and German Grammar. He died in Beijing on 28 April 1982, at the age of 86. He Siyuan's daughter He Luli became a doctor and a high-ranking politician. She entered politics after practicing medicine for decades, and served as Vice-Mayor of Beijing, Chairwoman of the Revolutionary Committee of the Chinese Kuomintang, Vice Chairwoman of the CPPCC, and Vice Chairperson of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress.
370,331	Old Street station	1,151,117,457	London Underground and railway station	[ "Former City and South London Railway stations", "Former Great Northern and City Railway stations", "London station group", "Northern line stations", "Railway stations in Great Britain closed in 1975", "Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1901", "Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1904", "Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1976", "Railway stations in the London Borough of Islington", "Railway stations located underground in the United Kingdom", "Railway stations served by Govia Thameslink Railway", "Tube stations in the London Borough of Islington", "Unopened Northern Heights extension stations" ]	Old Street is a National Rail and London Underground station at the junction of Old Street and City Road in central London, England. The station is on the Bank branch of the Northern line between Angel and Moorgate stations and on the Northern City Line between Moorgate and Essex Road stations. The station is in the London Borough of Islington (straddling the Hackney border). It is in Travelcard Zone 1. The station was built by the City and South London Railway and opened in 1901. It was rebuilt by Stanley Heaps in 1925 with a more uniform frontage, and again in 1968, replacing all surface buildings with a subsurface complex. In 2014, it was redeveloped to provide more retail space. Old Street station has become busier, attracting over 20 million visitors in 2014; a trend expected to continue following redevelopment of the local area as a centre for the British Information Technology industry. ## Location Old Street station is in the London Borough of Islington, close to the boundary with the London Borough of Hackney to the north-east. It is in the centre of, and underneath the Old Street Roundabout, a major intersection on the London Inner Ring Road which is partly in Islington's Bunhill ward and partly in Hackney's Hoxton ward. There is no street-level station building. Access to the platform is provided by ramps and stairs to a modern entrance adjacent to a sub-surface shopping parade, known as St Agnes Well. Expanding its catchment, on the Northern line between Old Street and Angel is a disused station named . The station is on the National Rail network's Northern City Line, 45 chains (900 m) down-line from Moorgate served by Great Northern trains. Although a through-station on this route, for ticketing purposes Old Street is considered a central London terminus. On the Underground, it is on the Bank (eastern) branch of the Northern line, between Moorgate and , in Travelcard Zone 1. ## History ### City and South London Railway The station was opened on 17 November 1901 as an extension of the City and South London Railway (C&SLR), the first deep-level tube railway in London that connected the City of London with Southwark. It was part of an extension from Moorgate to Angel, along with the station at City Road. The area around the station was originally a mix of light industry, commerce and warehouses. The Northern City Line platforms were opened on 14 February 1904 by the Great Northern & City Railway, which built its tunnels to a 16-foot (4.9 m) diameter capable of accommodating main-line trains as it was intended to carry such services from its northern terminus at the Great Northern Railway's Finsbury Park station to Moorgate. Before Moorgate was expanded in 1938 to include in-station escalators between platforms, Old Street was used as the main interchange between the C&SLR and the Northern City lines. The Finsbury Park connection eventually opened in November 1976, with the line becoming a British Rail route, with through services to Hertford and Welwyn Garden City. The C&SLR was built with smaller tunnels than the later tube lines and needed to be enlarged to enable them to accommodate standard stock trains. The section between Euston and Moorgate closed on 8 August 1922 and reopened on 20 April 1924. The surface building was rebuilt in 1925 when escalators replaced the lift shaft to access the platform tunnels. The station frontage was redesigned by the Underground Electric Railways Company of London's architect Stanley Heaps with consultant architect Charles Holden. Holden had been recommended by managing director Frank Pick to make uniform facades for several station entrances. He designed the stations for the C&SLR's extension to Morden which was being built. Old Street was used as a bomb shelter during World War II; the nearby City Road station (which had closed in 1922) was temporarily re-opened to use as a shelter. ### Reconstruction In 1968, the station was again modified; the surface building was replaced with a sub-surface structure in the centre of the roundabout and another escalator shaft was added. During the 1990s corrosion caused by excessive soil acidity required a section of the cast iron running tunnel lining in the Northern line, south of Old Street, to be relined with stainless steel tunnel segments. In the early 1970s, Old Street was planned to be a stop on a new tube line from Wimbledon in the southwest to Leytonstone in the northeast, via Waterloo and Holborn. The route incorporated parts of existing lines at each end but was not built because of a lack of funding. In 2014 the station was redeveloped in a collaboration between Transport for London and letting agency Appear Here. Pop-up retail spaces were constructed around the station entrance in a drive to increase revenue. Old Street station has had increased footfall in the 21st century. In 2014, around 23 million people passed through the station annually. The station is considered strategically important, as the area around Old Street is being developed as a centre for Information Technology. In 2017, the London Borough of Islington announced plans to redevelop the area around the station with a new entrance and better facilities for cyclists. ## Incidents On 16 August 1921, a man fell onto the track and was killed. He was identified by a card containing personal details in his pocket. On 25 March 1970, an escalator at the station broke down during the morning rush hour. Six people were taken to hospital for minor injuries after they fell. In March 2015, a man was struck and killed by a train. An inquiry returned a verdict of accidental death. Two significant incidents occurred in 2017. In May, the station was closed after a body was found in the station complex. On 30 September, the station was evacuated after passengers heard a loud "bang". Around 20 ambulances and numerous police officers attended the scene, believing it to be a potential terrorist incident. A search around the station found nothing suspicious. ## Services The station has four platforms. Platforms 1–2 serve the Northern line on the London Underground network, while platforms 3–4 serve the Northern City Line on the National Rail network. Both are deep-level tube lines. The station is part of the London station group and acts as a final destination for people travelling with National Rail tickets marked "London Terminals". Late evening and weekend services were introduced at the National Rail station, as part of the Great Northern Thameslink franchise in 2015. Services at the station are as follows. ### National Rail All National Rail services at Old Street are operated by Great Northern using EMUs. The typical off-peak service in trains per hour is: - 4 tph to Moorgate - 2 tph to Stevenage via Hertford North - 2 tph to Welwyn Garden City During the peak hours, the station is served by an additional half-hourly service between Moorgate and Hertford North and the service between Moorgate and Welwyn Garden City is increased to 4 tph. ### London Underground The typical off-peak London Underground service on the Northern line in trains per hour is: - 20 tph to Morden via Bank - 10 tph to Edgware - 8 tph to High Barnet - 2 tph to Mill Hill East During the peak hours, the service is increased up to 22 tph in each direction. ### Connections London Buses routes 21, 43, 55, 76, 135, 141, 205, 214, 243 and night routes N55, N205 and N271 serve the station. ## Cultural references The graffiti artist Banksy painted a Pulp Fiction mural near Old Street station in 2002. It was based on Vincent Vega and Jules Winnfield from the film of the same name, except the characters held bananas in place of guns. It was accidentally painted over in 2007. A Transport for London representative said "Our graffiti removal teams are staffed by professional cleaners, not professional art critics".
1,958,472	Catalogue of Women	1,167,372,192	Ancient Greek epic poem	[ "6th-century BC books", "6th-century BC poems", "7th-century BC books", "7th-century BC poems", "Ancient Greek biographical works", "Ancient Greek epic poems", "Books about women", "Hesiod", "Lists of women", "Lost poems", "Women in Greek mythology" ]	The Catalogue of Women (Ancient Greek: Γυναικῶν Κατάλογος, romanized: Gunaikôn Katálogos)—also known as the Ehoiai (Ancient Greek: Ἠοῖαι, romanized: Ēoîai, )—is a fragmentary Greek epic poem that was attributed to Hesiod during antiquity. The "women" of the title were in fact heroines, many of whom lay with gods, bearing the heroes of Greek mythology to both divine and mortal paramours. In contrast with the focus upon narrative in the Homeric Iliad and Odyssey, the Catalogue was structured around a vast system of genealogies stemming from these unions and, in M. L. West's appraisal, covered "the whole of the heroic age." Through the course of the poem's five books, these family trees were embellished with stories involving many of their members, and so the poem amounted to a compendium of heroic mythology in much the same way that the Hesiodic Theogony presents a systematic account of the Greek pantheon built upon divine genealogies. Most scholars do not currently believe that the Catalogue should be considered the work of Hesiod, but questions about the poem's authenticity have not lessened its interest for the study of literary, social and historical topics. As a Hesiodic work that treats in depth the Homeric world of the heroes, the Catalogue offers a transition between the divine sphere of the Theogony and the terrestrial focus of the Works and Days by virtue of its subjects' status as demigods. Given the poem's concentration upon heroines in addition to heroes, it provides evidence for the roles and perceptions of women in Greek literature and society during the period of its composition and popularity. Greek aristocratic communities, the ruling elite, traced their lineages back to the heroes of epic poetry; thus the Catalogue, a veritable "map of the Hellenic world in genealogical terms," preserves much information about a complex system of kinship associations and hierarchies that continued to have political importance long after the Archaic period. Many of the myths in the Catalogue are otherwise unattested, either entirely so or in the form narrated therein, and held a special fascination for poets and scholars from the late Archaic period through the Hellenistic and Roman eras. Despite its popularity among the Hellenistic literati and reading public of Roman Egypt, the poem went out of circulation before it could pass into a medieval manuscript tradition and is preserved today by papyrus fragments and quotations in ancient authors. Still, the Catalogue is much better attested than most "lost" works, with some 1,300 whole or partial lines surviving: "between a third and a quarter of the original poem", by one estimate. The evidence for the poem's reconstruction—not only elements of its content, but the distribution of that content within the Catalogue—is indeed extensive, but the fragmentary nature of this evidence leaves many unresolved complexities and has over the course of the past century led to several scholarly missteps. ## Title and the ē' hoiē-formula Ancient authors most commonly referred to the poem as the Catalogue of Women, or simply the Catalogue, but several alternate titles were also employed. The tenth-century encyclopedia known as the Suda gives an expanded version, the Catalogue of Heroic Women (Γυναικῶν Ἡρωϊνῶν Κατάλογος), and another late source, the twelfth-century Byzantine poet and grammarian Tzetzes, prefers to call the poem the Heroic Genealogy (Ἡρωϊκὴ Γενεαλογία). But the earliest and most popular alternative title was Ehoiai (Ἠοῖαι), after the feminine formula ē' hoiē (ἠ' οἵη, ), "or such as", which introduces new sections within the poem via the introduction of a heroine or heroines. This nickname also provided the standard title for a similar Hesiodic work, the Megalai Ehoiai or Great Ehoiai (Μεγάλαι Ἠοῖαι). As is reflected by its use as an alternate title, the ē' hoiē-formula was one of the poem's most recognizable features. It may have belonged originally to a genre of poetry that simply listed notable heroines, but in the Catalogue the formula is used as a structuring tool that allows the poet to resume a broken branch of a family tree, or to jump horizontally across genealogies to a new figure and line of descent. A characteristic example is found in the introduction of the daughters of Porthaon at Cat. fr. 26.5–9: The preceding section of the poem had dealt at some length with the extended family of Porthaon's sister Demodice, tracing her line down to the generation following the Trojan War. Here ē' hoiai (plural) is used to jump backwards in order to complete the account of the descendants of Porthaon and Demodice's father Agenor by covering the son's family. Elsewhere the formula is used in transitions to more distant branches. The Ehoie of Mestra, for example, ultimately serves to reintroduce the family of Sisyphus, Mestra's great-granduncle who hoped to win her as bride for his son Glaucus. Although that marriage does not take place, the descendants of Sisyphus are soon presented. ## Content According to the Suda, the Catalogue was five books long. The length of each is unknown, but it is likely that the entire poem consisted of anywhere from 4000 to over 5000 lines. The majority of the content was structured around major genealogical units: the descendants of Aeolus were found in book 1 and at least part of book 2, followed by those of Inachus, Pelasgus, Atlas and Pelops in the later books. It is believed that a rough guide to this structure can be found in the Bibliotheca, a Roman-era mythological handbook transmitted under the name of Apollodorus of Athens which used the Catalogue as a primary source for many genealogical details and appears to have followed the poem's overall arrangement. ### Book 1 The first is by far the best-attested book of the poem, with several extensive papyri overlapping ancient quotations or coinciding with paraphrases: at least 420 verses of dactylic hexameter survive in part or entire. One papyrus includes line numbers which, taken together with the system of overlaps among the other sources, allows much of the book's content to be assigned approximate line numbers. Perhaps the most significant of these overlaps is between the papyrus containing the opening lines of the poem and the Theogony: the Catalogue was styled as a continuation of the "canonical" Hesiodic poem, with the final two verses of the Theogony standing as Catalogue of Women book 1, lines 1–2. Toward the end of the Theogony as transmitted by the manuscript tradition, following Zeus's final ordering of Olympus and his siring several key deities, the poet invokes the Muses to sing of the "tribe of goddesses ... immortals who slept with mortal men, bearing children like gods." After some 150 verses on this topic, the proem to the Catalogue comes in the form of another re-invocation of the Muses to introduce a new, only slightly more terrestrial topic (Cat. fr. 1.1–5): The immediately subsequent lines describe significant characteristics of the heroic age. The first allowed for the liaisons that are the poem's ostensible subject: gods and mortals freely interacted in those days. A further significant detail about the heroic condition is offered next in one of the most puzzling passages of the Catalogue. Men and women are said to have been not "equally long-lived" (ἰσαίωνες, isaiōnes, a hapax legomenon), but it is unclear whether this refers to different lifespans among the heroes themselves, a difference between the lives of the heroes and "today's" man, or between the lifespans of the heroes and the gods. The differing fates of the heroes are then described: some appear to have lived a long life characterized by perpetual youth, while others were apparently condemned to an early death by the gods. The papyrus is damaged at this point, and the full implications of these comparisons are unknown. The Muses are next addressed again, asked to sing of "however many [Zeus] lay with, siring the race of glorious kings ... and Poseidon [lay with] ... Ares ... Hermes ... [Heph]aestus ... Heracles"; here the papyrus ends. #### First families The repeated use of the introductory phrase "or such as ..." implies an initial "such as ...", and it is likely that this first woman treated was Pyrrha, wife of Deucalion. There is some debate about whether the Catalogue included an account of the Flood myth, but the creation of a race of humans born from stones cast by Deucalion and Pyrrha does appear to have figured in the poem. Zeus unsurprisingly had first pick from the catalogue of women, and sired Hellen by Pyrrha. Pyrrha also had three daughters by Deucalion: Thyia, Protogeneia and Pandora, who was named for her maternal grandmother, the famous Pandora. Like their mother, these three lay with Zeus, bearing sons from whom several early Greek tribes were said to descend. Thyia bore Magnes and Macedon; Protogeneia bore Aethlius, the grandfather of Aetolus; and Pandora's son was Graecus. But it was the family of Hellen, who would himself ultimately be the eponym for the entire Greek world, that had the greatest mythological significance. He sired Dorus, Xuthus and Aeolus, apparently by Othryis, the nymph of Mount Othrys. Dorus was the eponym of the Dorians, and his son Aegimius' sons, Dymas and Pamphylus, gave their names to two of the three Dorian tribes, the Dymanes and Pamphyli. The third division was called the Hylleis, after Heracles' son Hyllus, with whom Pamphylus and Dymas migrated to the Peloponnese. Xuthus married Erechtheus' daughter Creusa and was the father of Ion and Achaeus, along with a daughter named Diomede. The relation between the progenitors of Greek tribes among the descendants of Deucalion is outlined in the following table: #### Aeolids What was likely the largest unified stemma to be treated, the account of the descendants of Aeolus and Aenarete's five daughters and seven sons, stretched from before the 200th line of book 1 well into the second book. The sons who were certainly found in the Catalogue are Cretheus, Athamas, Sisyphus, Salmoneus, Deion (or Deioneus) and Perieres. A seventh son's name is obscured in lacuna: he has been identified tentatively as Minyas, Locrus or a second Magnes, not the eponym of the Magnetes, but the father of Dictys and Polydectes of the Danaë-Perseus myth. No similar doubt attends the identities of Aeolus' daughters: they were Peisidice, Alcyone, Calyce, Canace and Perimede. The families of the daughters were treated first, and much of the middle of book 1—over 400 lines—was devoted to recounting their descendants. Aeolus' extended family, via both sons and daughters, is notable for a concentration of fantastical narratives and folk elements of a sort largely absent from the Homeric poems, beginning with the doomed, hubristic love of Ceyx and Alcyone, who called one another "Zeus" and "Hera" and were turned into the kingfisher and halcyon as punishment (frr. 10a.83–98, 10d OCT, 15). After treating the Thessalian families of Peisidice and Canace, the poet turned to the intermingled Aetolian-Elian lines of Calyce and Perimede. Perimede had earlier in the book borne two sons to the river Achelous, one of whom was the grandfather of Oeneus, Hippodamas. To Aethlius Calyce bore Endymion, whose son Aetolus was the eponym of Aetolia and the great-grandfather of Demodice and Porthaon, through whom the later Aetolian and Elian genealogies were traced. Somewhere within these families, Eurytus and Cteatus were found in a form more fearsome than they were in the Iliad: in the Catalogue they were fierce conjoined twins with two heads, four arms and an equal number of legs. Most significant for the epic tradition, however, was the marriage of Demodice's son Thestius and Porthaon's daughter Eurythemiste which produced the daughters Leda, Althaea and Hypermestra, who are introduced in a group Ehoiai at fr. 23a.3–5. Leda's marriage to Tyndareus is followed by the births of Clytemnestra, Timandra and Phylonoe, the last of whom Artemis made immortal. Clytemnestra and Agamemnon had two daughters, Electra and Iphimede, the name used in the poem for the woman later and more famously known as Iphigenia. It had been prophesied that she must be sacrificed to Artemis before the Greek fleet could sail for Troy, but in the Catalogue version of events the goddess replaced her with an eidolon and immortalized Iphimede as "Artemis Enodia", or Hecate. Next Orestes' birth and matricide are reported, the earliest extant account of his killing Clytemnestra, as the planned sacrifice of Iphimede/Iphigenia is first found in the Catalogue. Timandra's marriage to Echemus follows, followed in turn by Leda's bearing the Dioscuri to Zeus in several damaged lines. It is unknown if Helen's birth was reported here, for the testimonia leave her parentage uncertain. Althaea lies with Ares and bears Meleager, whose heroic qualities are described along with his death at the hands of Apollo during the conflict with the Curetes that was the sequel to the Hunt for the Calydonian Boar. Among Althaea's children by Oeneus, Deianeira is singled out for her role in the death and apotheosis of Heracles. The poet next turns his attention to the Porthaonids (see above) and closes out his account of the female Aeolids with the Sirens, daughters of Sterope and Achelous. The Ehoie of Salmoneus' daughter Tyro provides the transition to the families of the male Aeolids. As king of Elis, Salmoneus forced his subjects to worship him as Zeus and simulated the god's thunder and lightning by dragging bronze cauldrons from his chariot and throwing torches through the air. The real Zeus destroyed king and subjects alike, but spared Tyro and conducted her to the house of her uncle Cretheus in Thessaly because she wrangled with her impious father. There she became enamored of the river Enipeus, but Poseidon had his own designs upon Tyro and in the guise of the river lay with her, siring Neleus and Pelias. The brothers did not get along, and Zeus gave them different realms to rule: Pelias received as his lot Iolcos; to Neleus fell Pylos in the western Peloponnese. The house of Neleus now takes center-stage. Heracles sacked Pylos, killing all the male Neleids, save Nestor who was off in Gerenia, another Messenian city. Periclymenus, a son of Neleus to whom Poseidon had granted the ability to change shape, was Pylos' only bulwark against the onslaught of Heracles, and the Catalogue-poet granted him a brief aristeia which ended when Athena pointed out that the bee on Heracles' chariot was actually the Pylian defender. Following the account of Nestor's marriage and family, the contest for Neleus' daughter Pero was narrated. The father would give her hand to whoever could rustle the cattle of Iphicles from Phylace, a feat accomplished by Bias with the help of his brother Melampus. The poet then turned to the family of Pelias as the last assignable papyrus fragment from book 1 breaks off. It is likely that Tyro's children by Cretheus—Aeson, Pheres and Amythaon—followed, and there might have been room in the book to at least start the family of Cretheus' brother Athamas. Athamas ruled in Boeotia and had a complicated family life, several details of which are known to have played part in the Catalogue. His first children were Phrixus and Helle, whose mother was Nephele. In what was the first episode of the Argonautic saga, she gave her children a ram with a golden fleece upon which they fled the intrigues of their stepmother Ino according to other sources. Athamas was driven mad by the gods, perhaps because he took the young Dionysus into his household, and slaughtered his and Ino's son Learchus; Ino herself jumped into the sea with their son Melicertes and became the sea-goddess Leucothea. At some point before his marriage to Ino, Athamas had sired Leucon and Schoeneus by Themisto, and Leucon's daughters Peisidice, Euippe and Hyperippe were given extended group treatment in the Catalogue. ### Book 2 It is uncertain at what point among the extant fragments the division between books 1 and 2 fell, but at least some of the Aeolid families were covered in the second book. The families of Perieres, Deion and Sisyphus (in that order) were most likely found in the 2nd book because there does not appear to be enough room left in book 1 to accommodate them as a group after the children of Neleus and Pelias. It was once thought that the Ehoie of Atalanta opened the book, but recently published evidence casts doubt upon this view (see Book 3, below). Perieres' family was centered around Messene. His son Leucippus had several daughters, but Arsinoe was singled out for extensive treatment. To Apollo she bore Asclepius, whom Zeus killed. In a rage Apollo killed the Cyclopes, after which Zeus was about to hurl him into Tartarus when Leto interceded and arranged for Apollo to serve as a laborer for Admetus instead. Directly following the Asclepius affair comes the Ehoie of Asterodeia, the daughter of Deion. She bore Crisus and Panopeus to Phocus; the brothers did not get along, quarreling while still in the womb. Another daughter of Deion, Philonis, bore Philammon to Apollo and Autolycus to Hermes. Philammon sired Thamyris; Autolycus, the grandfather of Odysseus, was a master thief who could change the appearance of his booty to avoid detection. Autolycus' daughter Polymele, the mother of Jason, is apparently born directly preceding the Ehoie of Mestra, the daughter of Erysichthon. Mestra's story is one of the best preserved and most studied sections of the Catalogue. She had the ability to change her shape at will, a skill which her father Erysichthon exploited in service of a ravening hunger with which he had been cursed and for which reason the people had nicknamed him Aethon (Αἴθων, Aithon, "Blazing"). He would marry off Mestra for the bride prices she garnered, only to have the girl return home in some different form. The most notable victim of this plot was Sisyphus, who, despite his characteristic cunning, could never retain custody of his would-be daughter-in-law. Strife arose between Sisyphus and Erysichthon which no mortal could resolve, and the case was handed over to another authority. The text is damaged at this point, and identity of the mediator is a matter of dispute, as is the nature of the verdict rendered. Exactly how this judgement resolves the quarrel over Mestra is obscure, but Sisyphus ultimately comes out on the losing end, for Mestra does not bear children to Glaucus. Instead Poseidon whisks her off to Kos, where she bears Eurypylus to the god. Eurypylus' descendants rule the island, which is sacked by Heracles in a brief allusion to the great hero's adventures. On his way home from attacking Troy for the horses of Laomedon, he assaulted Kos before going on to participate in the gigantomachy. The Ehoie of Mestra closes with her returning to Athens to care for her father, but the poet's attention stays with Sisyphus, as he and his son are the male subjects of the Ehoie of Eurynome which immediately follows. She was wise and beautiful, having been taught womanly arts by Athena. Sisyphus attempted to cheat her of her cattle, but Zeus intervened. Although he did not get what he was after, Sisyphus did accomplish with Eurynome what he could not with Mestra: a marriage for Glaucus. The gods again got in the way, though, and she bore Bellerophontes to Poseidon, who gave his son the winged horse Pegasus with which Bellerophontes slew the Chimera. In the Iliad this task was presented as the order of Proetus' father-in-law Iobates, and in the Catalogue it appears to be followed immediately by the marriage of Bellerophontes and a daughter of the Lycian king. #### Inachids In the Bibliotheca the descendants of Inachus followed Deucalion's, and the Catalogue appears to have followed the same order, likely introducing the Inachids via the Ehoie of Niobe, the river god's granddaughter. To Zeus she bore Argus, the eponym of Argos, who in turn sired Peiren, the father of Io. Zeus's affair with Io had a place in the Catalogue, for ancient authors cite the poem's version of this myth when quoting an aition for the fact that "all's far in love ...", at least: Zeus and Io's "clandestine deeds" produced a son, Epaphus, who was the father of Libya. The families of her two sons Agenor and Belus were covered in depth: the former's line in book 3, the latter's following his birth. Belus had a daughter, Thronia, who bore Arabus (the eponym of Arabia) to Hermes; Belus' sons were Aegyptus and Danaus. The myth of the mass-wedding of Aegyptus' fifty sons and Danaus' fifty daughters came at this point, but little survives of the narrative in the Catalogue. Danaus and his daughters fled to Argos and introduced the practice of digging wells, "making waterless Argos well-watered Argos" (Ἄργος ἄνυδρον ἐὸν Δανααὶ θέσαν Ἄργος ἔνυδρον). Aegyptus' sons followed the Danaids to Greece in order to compel them to marry, and, as in the predominant version of the myth, Hypermestra alone consummated her union with Lynceus and bore Abas, whose sons were Acrisius and Proetus. The daughters of Proetus offended Hera or Dionysus or both in some way, and were cursed with leprosy or madness which could only be cured by Melampous, a service which Abas rewarded by granting the seer and his brother Bias shares of Argos to rule. Acrisius' daughter was Danaë. Her golden liaison with Zeus, the birth of Perseus, and mother and son's involuntary exile in the larnax are quickly recounted, and Perseus' siring of Alcaeus, Sthenelus and Electryon by Andromeda also comes in quick succession. ### Book 3 The division between books 2 and 3 presents a special problem for the reconstruction of the Catalogue. A scholion to Theocritus, Idyll 3.40 appears to attribute the story of Atalanta to "Hesiod in book 3", a method of citation that almost certainly refers to the present poem. One papyrus concludes with what appears to be the beginning of the first line of Atalanta's Ehoie followed by a forked paragraphos and blank space, suggesting that it is a reclamans; another papyrus (pictured) clearly transmits the ends of the first few lines of her section preceded by blank space, giving the possibility that it was the beginning of a book. These two fragments would combine to give: The account that follows is one of the most extensive and exciting episodes of the Catalogue to survive from antiquity. Atalanta wished to avoid marriage, but a throng of suitors gathered because of her beauty. Her father Schoeneus promised her hand to the one who could beat his swift daughter in a footrace, with one further condition: any who accepted the challenge and lost would be put to death. Aphrodite had given one of the contestants, Hippomenes, three golden apples with which to temp the girl off course; these he threw as he ran and begged Atalanta to have pity upon him. The toss of the third apple finally accomplished its aim, but the couple did not live happily after: through the will of Zeus Atalanta was transformed into lion because she had seen "what it is not lawful to see," which presumably means that she had unlawfully entered a holy precinct. This is where the evidence for Atalanta leaves off, and it remains unknown just where and how the passage fit in the Catalogue. It is possible that the attribution to book three was simply incorrect, and Atalante's Ehoie came within the family of Athamas in books one or two. Another possibility is that she was introduced in the context of her mother's family. Her identity in the Catalogue is unknown, but this hypothesis could allow for Atalanta to appear within the Inachid stemma, following the Danae-Ehoie within the extended family of Belus. #### Agenorids In the Catalogue and later mythographic tradition, the family of Belus' brother Agenor was something "like a repository for aliens and displaced persons." His son Phoenix was the eponym of Phoenicia, and if Cepheus and Cadmus were also his sons, the Agenorids would have been present in Aethiopia and Thebes as well. By one Alphesiboea Phoenix sired Adonis. Cassiepeia bore to him Phineus; she was perhaps also the mother of Phoenix's daughter Europa, but the girl's mother might have been Telephaassa, as in Moschus' Europa. Europa's tale, well known in later classical literature and beyond, appears in a largely familiar form in the Catalogue. She caught Zeus's eye while she and some friends were gathering flowers in a meadow. The god transformed into a bull with breath smelling of saffron, in the guise of which he abducted Europa, carrying her upon his back to Crete. There she bore Minos, Rhadamanthys and Sarpedon to Zeus, and he gave her a necklace made by Hephaestus that would figure in Theban saga as the Necklace of Harmonia. Sarpedon ruled Lycia, and was apparently granted a lifespan equal to three generations of men by Zeus. His death at Troy and the rain of blood it inspired Zeus to send is briefly described. Minos ruled Crete, succeeding his stepfather Asterion. Poseidon sent up from the sea a bull which had sex with Minos' wife Pasiphae, siring the Minotaur. To Minos she also bore Deucalion, Catreus, Androgeos and Eurygyes, though it is equally possible that these last two names referred to a single son. At least one daughter, Ariadne, was surely present, for the myth of Androgeos–Eurygyes' death in Athens and the subsequent sacrifice of Athenian youths to the Minotaur will presuppose Theseus' expedition to Crete and Ariadne's complicity in slaying the beast. Phineus was even better-traveled than his sister Europa, and his biography in the Catalogue was apparently a "pièce de résistance" meant to conclude the geographically diverse Inachid stemma with an appropriate flourish. He ruled in Thrace, but was kidnapped by the Harpies. Zetes and Calais, the Boreads, pursued the tormentors and tormented to the ends of the earth. The poet catalogued many far-flung and remarkable races encountered during the chase, including: the Katoudaioi ("Subterranean Men"), Pygmies, Melanes ("Black Men"), Aethiopians, Libyans, "horse-milking" Scythians, Hemikynes ("Half-Dogs") and the Makrokephaloi, as well as griffins. Ephorus called the episode the Gês Períodos (Γῆς Περίοδος, "Journey Around the World"), and it was once thought that this title referred to an independent work, one erroneously attributed to Hesiod. This view was disproved conclusively in 1911 with the publication of an extensive papyrus fragment (pictured) of the episode which derived from the same bookroll that contained the myth of Europa described above. #### Arcadia It is likely that the section describing the Arcadian descendants of Pelasgus and Arcas followed that of the Inachids. Pelasgus was autochthonous; he sired Lycaon either by the Oceanid Meliboea or by Cyllene, the oread of an Arcadian mountain which still bears her name. Lycaon's fifty impious sons drew the ire of Zeus and were all destroyed, save Nyctimus. The majority of the subsequently covered Arcadian figures descend from Arcas, who was the son of Zeus and Callisto, a local nymph. A familiar version of her catasterism is attributed to "Hesiod" by Pseudo-Eratosthenes, but the Hesiodic work intended in this citation might have been the Astronomia. Arcas had at least two sons: Elatus and Apheidas. Elatus sired Aepytus, the father of Tlesenor and Peirithous; Apheidas was the father of Stheneboea, the wife of Proetus, and Aleus. Aleus' daughter Auge was for some reason entrusted to the care of Teuthras in Mysia, where she lay with Heracles and bore Telephus. Telephus was on the Mysian throne when the Greek expedition to Troy accidentally landed there and found themselves fighting fellow "Achaeans." #### Atlantids In the Bibliotheca, the Arcadian genealogies are immediately followed by the Atlantids, and this progression is known to mirror the structure of the Catalogue because other fragments of the papyrus roll that transmits the Telephus myth cover families of Atlas' daughters: Taygete, Electra, Alcyone, Sterope, Celaeno, Maia and Merope. Maia bore Hermes to Zeus on Mount Cyllene. Taygete also slept with Zeus, becoming the mother of Lacedaemon, through whom much of the Spartan line was traced, including Tyndareos, the father of Helen, and Penelope, the wife of Odysseus. To Zeus yet again Electra bore Dardanus, the progenitor of the Trojan line, and Eetion, who was killed for sleeping with Demeter. Dardanus' sons were Erichthonius and Ilus. Hyrieus and Hyperes were Poseidon's children by Alcyone. Her section included the Ehoie of Hyrieus' daughter Antiope, who bore Amphion and Zethus to Zeus. Hyperes' daughter Arethusa slept with Poseidon and was changed to a spring in Euboea, but not before bearing Abas, the eponym of the Abantes. His line is traced down to Elephenor, leader of the Abantes in the Trojan War. Sterope lay with Ares and bore Oenomaus, but it is possible that this union was delayed to book four as part of the section treating the family of Pelops and Oenomaus' daughter Hippodameia. ### Book 4 Before the papyri began to accrue, the longest extant passage of the Catalogue was known from the Shield of Heracles, the first 56 lines of which were borrowed from book 4 according to an ancient hypothesis to the Shield. This passage, the Ehoie of Alcmene, recounts how she went to Thebes with her husband Amphitryon, who could not consummate the marriage until he had avenged the deaths of her brothers at the hands of the Taphians and Teleboans. As Amphitryon returned having accomplished this feat, Zeus lay with Alcmene; upon his return that very night, so too did Amphitryon. To the god Alcmene bore Heracles and to the hero she bore Iphicles. Alcmene belongs to the Pelopid line—her mother Lysidice was a daughter of Pelops and Hippodameia—, and the passages preceding her Ehoie also concern Pelopids. Three of Pelops' daughters married sons of Perseus: Lysidice married Electryon, Nicippe wed Sthenelus, and Astydameia wed Alcaeus. Nicippe and Sthenelus' daughter Astymedusa married Oedipus, and at the funeral games in his honor his son Polynices caught the eye of his future wife Argeia, the daughter of Adrastus. Pelops' son Atreus was the father of Pleisthenes who, contrary to the better known genealogy, was the father of Agamemnon and Menelaus. Their mother was Aerope, the daughter of Catreus, and their births were reported in the verses directly preceding the Ehoie of Alcmene. Besides the Pelopid line, and whatever remained of the Atlantid stemmata among which it ultimately belongs, little is known for certain about the further content of book 4. It is possible that an Athenian section including the various autochthonous kings of Athens and the daughters of Cecrops was found here. A family springing from the river Asopus has also been proposed for this region based on the presence of "several persons or families that other sources represent as descended from daughters of Asopos." The most notable family that would belong to this section is that of Asopus' daughter Aegina, the nymph of the island that bears her name who slept with Zeus and bore Aeacus. Fearing that Aeacus would be lonely on his island, Zeus changed all of Aegina's ants into men, spawning the tribe of Myrmidons, a play upon their name and the Greek word for "ant", μύρμηξ, mýrmēx. This is the family to which Achilles belongs, the most notable hero in the Trojan saga, as well as his father Peleus and uncles Telamon and Menoetius. ### Book 5 The final book was different in that it apparently left behind the genealogical structure of the first four books. Book five opened with a nearly 200-line catalogue of the suitors of Helen, similar in style to the Catalogue of Ships in Iliad book 2. Although it is likely that the entire catalogue included twenty-five to thirty suitors, only twelve are attested by name. From Argos Amphilochus and Alcmaeon, the sons of Amphiaraus, attempted to win Helen, but were perhaps never able to join in the contest because of their punishment for the matricide of Eriphyle. Ever shrewd, Odysseus did not give gifts but simply sent envoys to Castor and Polydeuces, because he knew that Menelaus would ultimately prevail. Thoas was not so wise and gave many sheep and cows in the hope of winning Helen. From Phylace, many gifts were given by Podarces and Protesilaus, who were cousins in the Catalogue, not brothers as in the Catalogue of Ships. Athenian Menestheus gave many gold cauldrons and tripods, confident that he was the wealthiest of all the heroes. Ajax wooed Helen from Salamis, promising to pillage the surrounding lands and give their possession as part of his gift. Idomeneus made the long journey from Crete himself, aware of Helen's beauty only from secondhand accounts. Before giving his decision, Tyndareus bound all the suitors to his fateful oath: should anyone ever take his daughter by force, all those who had wooed her must exact vengeance upon her abductor. To this all the suitors readily agreed, each believing that he would be given Helen's hand. At this point the Catalogue of Suitors has come to a close, but even as Menelaus' success is reported, the poet introduces Achilles because of his status as the greatest hero of the Trojan saga and his central role in Zeus's plan to bring the Heroic Age to a close. With the aid of Agamemnon, Menelaus had given the most bride prices, but were Achilles already of age, he would surely have won Helen's hand, "for neither warlike Menelaus nor any other human on earth would have defeated him". But Achilles was not present, and Menelaus won Helen, who bore Hermione to him. #### The end of the Heroic Age The marriage of Helen and Menelaus precipitates the Trojan War, the event that ultimately brings the heroic age to an end, but the circumstances surrounding this transition in the Catalogue are unclear. Directly following the birth of Hermione strife arises among the gods, and Zeus hatches a plan to stir up trouble among mankind. The exact meaning of this plan is obscure because of deficiencies in the text, and several interpretations have been proposed, the most commonly accepted being that Zeus plans to destroy a great number of men by causing the war, ultimately removing the heroes to a life lived in conditions resembling the Golden Age. Another possibility is that Zeus intends to destroy the race of heroes and return the world to its former order, when gods slept with each other, not mortals. In any event, a great change is coming, and as the final placed fragment of the Catalogue breaks off, several enigmatic scenes are sketched. A great storm arises which dwindles the strength of mankind: These lines, described by West as "the finest passage of poetry yet known from the Catalogue", might parallel Calchas' prophecy in Iliad 2, which presages the first nine fruitless years of the Trojan War via the image of a snake devouring nine sparrows. Here the "hairless one," a kenning for a snake, gives birth to what appears to be the first of three sets of triplets, and as the remains of the papyrus become more meager, the snake sloughs its skin, representing the regeneration that will come once the heroic age comes to an end and the world is given over to mortals. ### Notable unplaced and disputed fragments Many fragments that are securely attributed to the Catalogue, some of which are relatively substantial, cannot be placed within the poem because their content is either too obscure or could be assigned to different individuals or genealogies which are themselves difficult to locate within the five books. #### Cyrene The place of Cyrene within the poem has implications beyond the level of content, for if her narrative is to be connected to the city of Cyrene in Libya, the terminus post quem for the composition of the Catalogue would be 631 BC, the approximate year of that city's foundation. Pindar, Pythian 9 tells how Apollo saw Cyrene hunting in her native Thessaly and was immediately enamored of the tomboy. The god goes to the cave of the wise centaur Chiron and asks who she is and whether it would be wise to consort with her. Chiron then prophesies that it is fated for Cyrene and Apollo to mate, and that he will bring her across the sea to Libya, where she will be queen of a portion of the land and bear to him a son, Aristaeus. A scholium on the ode states that "Pindar took the story from an Ehoie of Hesiod's" (ἀπὸ δὲ Ἠοίας Ἡσιόδου τὴν ἱστορίαν ἔλαβεν ὁ Πίνδαρος) and relates the opening lines of the section (Cat. fr. 215): Richard Janko, who believes that the Catalogue was composed c. 690, argues that the extent to which Pindar relied upon the Hesiodic text is unknown and that, even if Apollo did carry Cyrene to Libya, this does not presuppose an aetiology of the city. Others have argued that the citation is also vague regarding just which Hesiodic poem included the Cyrene-Ehoie, the Catalogue or the Megalai Ehoiai: the latter might have included a narrative similar to Pindar's, with the former presenting a different version of the myth, if indeed the Catalogue treated Cyrene at all. The complete removal of Cyrene would not, however, be easily accommodated by related evidence—it would presumably also involve transferring two fragments concerning Aristaeus which have traditionally been attributed to the Catalogue, and his son Actaeon certainly appeared in the poem. #### Actaeon The myth of Actaeon is known to have been narrated in the Catalogue by virtue of a paraphrase found in a fragmentary dictionary of metamorphoses. According to the dictionary, the Catalogue included a variant of the myth in which Actaeon was changed into a stag by Artemis and then killed by his own hounds because he attempted to take Semele as his wife, thus angering Zeus, who had designs upon the woman. Before this testimonium appeared, another papyrus containing 21 hexameters related to the Actaeon myth was published by Edgar Lobel, who tentatively attributed the text to the Catalogue. As the fragment opens, Actaeon has already been torn apart by his dogs, and a goddess—Athena or, less likely, Artemis—arrives at Chiron's cave. She prophesies to the centaur that Dionysus will be born to Semele and that Actaeon's dogs will roam the hills with him until his apotheosis, after which they will return to stay with Chiron. At this point the papyrus is damaged, but it is clear that the dogs are delivered from a "madness" (λύσσα, lussa, line 15) and begin to mourn their master as the goddess returns to Olympus. Merkelbach and West did not include this papyrus in their edition of the fragment, the latter calling it an "incoherent epic pastiche" which would cause the author of the Catalogue to "turn in his grave if he knew that it had been attributed to him." According to Glenn Most, some scholars believe that the text is Hellenistic, but it is demonstrably archaic, and at least a few classicists today consider it to be part of the Catalogue. ## Date, composition and authorship During antiquity the Catalogue was almost universally considered the work of Hesiod. Pausanias reports, however, that the Boeotians living around Mount Helicon during his day believed that the only genuine Hesiodic poem was the Works and Days and that even the first 10 lines of that poem (the so-called "hymn to Zeus") were spurious. The only other surviving expression of doubt is found in Aelian, who cites "Hesiod" for the number of Niobe's children, but qualifies his citation with "unless these verses are not by Hesiod, but have been passed off falsely as his, like many other passages." But Aelian's skepticism could have stemmed from the belief, still common today, that Hesiodic poetry was especially susceptible to interpolation, and it is impossible to tell whether he regarded the entire Catalogue as spurious or not. These two passages are, in any event, isolated, and more discerning critics like Apollonius of Rhodes, Aristophanes of Byzantium and Crates of Mallus apparently found no reason to doubt the attribution to Hesiod, going so far as to cite the Catalogue in arguments concerning the content and authenticity of other Hesiodic poems. Modern scholars have not shared the confidence of their Hellenistic counterparts, and today the Catalogue is generally considered to be a post-Hesiodic composition. Since Hesiod is supposed to have lived around the turn of the seventh century BCE, the Cyrene-Ehoie alone could guarantee that the poem was not his. Richard Janko's survey of epic language, on the other hand, suggests that the Catalogue is very early, nearly contemporary with Hesiod's Theogony, and Janko sees no reason why the Catalogue "should not be by the same poet as the Theogony," who "calls himself Hesiod." But a different critical strain, one which views the transmitted Homeric and Hesiodic poems as ultimate products of rhapsodic recomposition within an oral tradition, would hold that from an initial Hesiodic nucleus the Catalogue arrived at its final form well after period to which Hesiod has been assigned. Such a scenario could account for perceived anachronisms in the mythological content and in the linguistic character of the poem, but would sidestep the issue of the relation between the Catalogue as it has been transmitted and the broader corpus of early Greek epic. M. L. West argues on poetic, linguistic, cultural and political grounds that an Athenian poet "compiled the Catalogue of Women and attached it to Hesiod's Theogony, as if it were all Hesiodic," sometime between 580 and 520 BCE, and thinks it possible that this range might be narrowed to the period following 540. He sees, for example, the marriage of Xuthus to a daughter of Erechtheus as a means of subordinating all of Ionia to Athens, since their union produced the eponym Ion. Similarly, Sicyon is made a son of Erechtheus (fr. 224), which West takes as a reflection of the tyrant Cleisthenes of Sicyon's attempts to promote Ionian–Athenian interests in the polis, which had traditionally been more closely connected to Dorian Argos. These and other considerations would, in West's view, establish a terminus post quem of c. 575 BCE, but he prefers a later dating on the assumption that Theogony 965–1020, which he assigns to the latter portion of the sixth century BCE, was contemporaneous with the composition of the Catalogue. West's arguments have been highly influential, but other scholars have arrived at different conclusions using the same evidence. Fowler thinks that the Sicyon genealogy would more likely reflect a composition before Cleisthenes' death (c. 575 BCE) and dates the poem to the period closely following the First Sacred War (595–585 BCE), connecting its content to the growing influence of the Amphictyonic League and placing its author in Aeolian Thessaly because of the Aeolid family-trees centered around that region which dominate the earlier portions of the poem. Hirschberger, on the other hand, takes this focus upon the Aeolids and the Catalogue poet's perceived interest in eastern peoples to be indicative of a poet from Aeolis in Asia Minor; she proposes that the Catalogue was composed there between 630 and 590 BCE, viewing the composition of the Shield of Heracles and an apparent allusion to the poem by Stesichorus (died c. 555 BCE) as providing the ultimate terminus ante quem. ## Reception The Catalogue's greatest influence was felt during the Hellenistic period, when the poem was used as an extra-Homeric touchstone for the poets of the era who favored recondite and antiquarian references over direct engagement with the more prominent members of the canon. The most famous Hellenistic allusion to the Catalogue is found in Hermesianax's Leontion, which included a catalogue of great literary figures and their loves, beginning with Orpheus and Agriope (more commonly known as Eurydice) and proceeding down to the poet's contemporaries, including his teacher Philitas of Cos. Many of the entries engage playfully with their subjects' work: Homer, for example, is portrayed as pining for Penelope. Directly preceding that lovestruck bard comes Hesiod's blurb: Here the ē' hoiē-formula is styled as the name of a woman, cleverly rendered "Anne Other" by Helen Asquith, and the grumpy Hesiod who reviled his home in Ascra at Works and Days 639–40 becomes a discomfited lover-boy in the village. Phanocles, a near contemporary of Hermesianax, composed an elegiac catalogue of mythological pederastic relationships entitled the Loves or Beautiful Boys in which each story was introduced by the formula ē' hōs (ἠ' ὡς), "or like". Nicaenetus of Samos, a later Hellenistic poet, wrote his own Catalogue of Women and the otherwise unknown Sosicrates (or Sostratus) of Phanagoria was said to have written an Ehoioi (Ἠοῖοι), the masculine equivalent of "Ehoiai". While allusions to the ehoie-formula and catalogue structure of the poem are most easily recognized, interaction with the Catalogue in Hellenistic poetry was not limited to plays upon these aspects: direct engagement with the myths found in the Catalogue were a popular way for the Alexandrians to show their Hesiodic affiliations. At Rome the poets of the Late Republic and Augustan age continued the Hellenistic period's allusive engagement with the Catalogue. Catullus, a poet who made plain his Callimachean affiliations, is the earliest Roman author who can be seen to engage with the Catalogue. In his epyllion on the wedding of Peleus and Thetis, Catullus alludes to the theoxeny that the proem to the Catalogue presented as a defining characteristic of the heroic age and to the epithalamium of the couple that was sung in a later book. In the Aeneid Vergil closes his catalogue of combatants with the swift female warrior Camilla, alluding to the Hesiodic account of Iphiclus' speed in "a remarkably subtle nod to tradition in the best Alexandrian style." Ovid picked up on Vergil's allusion in the Metamorphoses with his treatment of Atalanta, which recast's his Roman forebear's allusion to Iphiclus in such a way that it highlights the Hesiodic character of his own poem in contrast with the Homeric character of the Aeneid. ## Transmission and reconstruction It is impossible to tell exactly when the last complete copy of the Catalogue was lost. Fragments of over fifty ancient copies have been found, dating from the Hellenistic period through early Byzantine times. A book label from the century or so after the latest Catalogue papyrus lists the contents of a fifth- or sixth-century Hesiodic codex as "Hesiod's Theogony, Works and Days and Shield", and it appears that by this time the Byzantine triad of Hesiod's works had become the notional corpus, to the detriment of the other poems which had traveled under the poet's name. Knowledge of the Catalogue did not cease altogether with the loss of the final complete copy, however, and well into medieval times authors such as Eustathius and Tzetzes could cite the poem via fragments contained in other ancient authors. Other vestiges of the poem's influence are less clear: the Pseudo-Apollodoran Bibliotheca, an early Roman-era handbook of Greek mythology, for example, is widely believed to have taken the Catalogue as its primary structural model, although this is not stated explicitly within that text. The collection and interpretation of the Hesiodic fragments in the modern era began during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, primarily with the editions of and . The earliest collections simply presented ancient quotations organized by the quoting author, and it was not until the work of , and that attempts at a proper reconstruction began. Marckscheffel was the first to recognize that the early portions of the poem treated the descendants of Deucalion in a systematic fashion, but he regarded what were called the "Catalogue of Women" and "Ehoiai" as two initially separate works that had been joined: the former was genealogically structured, while the latter, in Marckscheffel's view, simply recounted myths involving notable Thessalian and Boeotian heroines, with each introduced by the ē' hoiē-formula. Since the Ehoie of Alcmene was attested for book 4, Marckscheffel proposed that books 1–3 were the "Catalogue", and books 4 and 5 were the "Ehoiai". As the nineteenth century progressed, there were several other important observations about the genealogical structure of the Catalogue. In 1860 Adolf Kirchhoff noted the mass of information connected to the family of Io, a stemma which could be assigned to the third book because of an ancient citation placing Phineus, one of her descendants, there. The picture of the Catalogue that was emerging began to resemble the Bibliotheca in structure, but Theodor Bergk was the first to suggest explicitly (though in passing) that the poem might be reconstructed with the help of the mythographic work. Bergk and his contemporaries still largely followed Marckscheffel's conclusion that the Catalogue and Ehoiai were semi-distinct texts, and it was not until 1894 that Friedrich Leo finally demonstrated that these were in fact alternate titles for a single poem. A few years before Leo's paper, the first small papyrus fragment was found, and the first half of the twentieth century would see the publication of several other pieces which added significantly to the modern text of the Catalogue. Among these finds were important passages, the Catalogue of Suitors and Epithalamium of Peleus and Thetis for example, but few advanced the modern understanding of the work's overall structure. The appearance of the proem in 1956 actually led to a major misapprehension, for the list of gods found therein, beginning with Zeus and proceeding through the divine Heracles, led some to believe that the Catalogue was not organized in a strictly genealogical manner, but presented the unions of gods and heroines organized to some extent by amorous deity. Six years later, with the publication of the 28th part of the Oxyrhynchus Papyri, the corpus of papyrus witnesses to the fragmentary Hesiodic poems was nearly doubled, with the lion's share of these new texts belonging to the Catalogue. The new papyri proved once and for all that the poem was organized by genealogies of the great families in a way similar to the Bibliotheca, and that the poet's use of the ē' hoiē-formula was not a random method of introduction but an organizing tool within an overall structure. ## Editions and translations ### Critical editions - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . ### Translations - (To be consulted with caution: out of date even for 1908.) - (The link is to the 1st edition of 1914.) English translation with facing Greek text; now obsolete except for its translations of the ancient quotations. - German translation. - Italian translation with facing Greek text; faithfully based upon the editions of Merkelbach and West. - Includes ancient assessments of the Catalogue. - English translation with facing Greek text; takes much recent scholarship into consideration.
7,993,810	M-156 (Michigan highway)	1,167,465,849	State highway in Lenawee County, Michigan, United States	[ "State highways in Michigan", "Transportation in Lenawee County, Michigan" ]	M-156 is a state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan. The highway is entirely within Lenawee County and begins in Morenci at the Ohio state line with State Route 108 (SR 108) and runs north to M-34 at Clayton. The highway runs through farm land along Lime Creek outside of the two communities, providing access to the Lake Hudson State Recreation Area. The trunkline dates back to the early 1930s, and has been unchanged since a realignment in 1980. ## Route description SR 108 crosses into Michigan on the southern edge of Morenci where it becomes M-156. From there the road continues northward on East Street through residential neighborhoods for about two-thirds mile (1.1 km) to Main Street near downtown where it turns west. The trunkline follows Main Street for three few blocks before turning north on North Street. The highway exits town near the Oak Grove Cemetery. M-156 follows Lime Creek Highway, which runs parallel to the stream of the same name, through farm land. Near the intersection with Morenci Highway, M-156 crosses a line of the Norfolk Southern Railway in the community of Seneca. North of the rail crossing, M-156 follows Morenci Highway northward and passes to the east of Lake Hudson and the Lake Hudson State Recreation Area before terminating at a junction with M-34 in Clayton. Like other state highways in Michigan, M-156 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation (MDOT). In 2011, the department's traffic surveys showed that on average, 4,235 vehicles used the highway daily along Main Street in Morenci and 1,412 vehicles did so each day near the state line, the highest and lowest counts along the highway, respectively. No section of M-156 is listed on the National Highway System, a network of roads important to the country's economy, defense, and mobility. ## History M-156 was designated along its current routing in late 1931 or early 1932. It was fully paved by the middle of 1936. The highway was unchanged until a series of curves were changed north of Morenci. After the construction was finished, the former segments of highway were abandoned as a public roadway on April 3, 1980. ## Major intersections ## See also
18,152,603	Greenzo	1,145,604,179	null	[ "2007 American television episodes", "30 Rock (season 2) episodes", "Al Gore" ]	"Greenzo" is the fifth episode of NBC's second season of 30 Rock and twenty-sixth episode overall. It was written by Jon Pollack and directed by series producer Don Scardino. It aired on November 8, 2007 in the United States. Guest stars in this episode include Kevin Brown, Grizz Chapman, Al Gore, John Lutz, Madison McKinley Garton, Maulik Pancholy, Paula Pell, Dion Sapp, David Schwimmer and Meredith Vieira. The episode focuses on Jack Donaghy's (played by Alec Baldwin) success, and later disaster, with Greenzo (David Schwimmer), "America's first non-judgmental, business-friendly environmental advocate." Kenneth Parcell (Jack McBrayer) decides to throw a party, but, knowing that nobody will attend, Liz Lemon (Tina Fey) and Tracy Jordan (Tracy Morgan) plot to make the party a success. Jenna Maroney (Jane Krakowski) and Liz suspect that Pete Hornberger (Scott Adsit) is having an affair. ## Plot Don Geiss, the chairman of General Electric (GE), challenges Jack and his rivals to come up with an idea to make money "from this environmentalism trend." This leads to him casting an actor called Jared to play Greenzo, NBC's environmental mascot. Initially, Greenzo is a success, making a well received appearance on The Today Show with Meredith Vieira. Eventually, he becomes more and more self-absorbed and starts insulting the TGS staff and criticizing the staff's environmentally unfriendly habits. This is until he conducts a second interview, when he begins ranting negatively about "big companies and their two-faced, fat cat executives," referring to GE and Jack. Angered, Jack fires Jared and tries tricking Al Gore into replacing him to no avail. Also, a drunken Greenzo shows up and tries to continue only to mess things up even more. When a large globe ignites, Liz says "The Earth is broken. We need another." Meanwhile, Kenneth is planning a party. Knowing this, Liz recounts past parties of Kenneth's to Tracy, telling him that she was the only other person who attended those parties. Feeling pity for Kenneth, Tracy tells the biggest gossips on TGS with Tracy Jordan, Grizz and Dot Com (Grizz Chapman and Kevin Brown), that T.I. will be attending. They persuade other people to attend by telling various other lies. The resulting party is so outrageous that Kenneth decides never to throw a party again. When Liz finds another woman's lipstick in her apartment, she and Jenna begin to suspect that Pete, who is separated from his wife, is having an affair. Liz later discovers, much to her horror, that Pete is having an "affair" with his own wife, Paula Hornberger (Paula Pell), in Liz's apartment, due to Paula getting turned on by the "sneaking around". Later, Pete asks if he can still stay with Liz because for the first time, they have been able to date. ## Production "Greenzo" is the first episode of 30 Rock written by Jon Pollack. Pollack was added to the writing staff of 30 Rock at the beginning of the second season. The episode is the ninth episode of 30 Rock directed by Don Scardino. This episode aired as part of Green Week, an initiative introduced by NBC's Chief Executive Jeff Zucker which included having every primetime program which aired between November 4, 2007 and November 10, 2007 contain some sort of positive environmental theme. This was also the first episode of 30 Rock to air after the start of the 2007–2008 Writers Guild of America strike. The strike began on November 5, 2007 and ended on February 12, 2008. This episode was filmed on September 27 and September 28, 2007. ## Reception "Greenzo" brought in an average of 6.6 million viewers, the highest number of viewers since the second season premiere, "SeinfeldVision". The episode also achieved a 3.1/8 in the key 18- to 49-year-old demographic, matching the series' highest rating in that demographic. The 3.1 refers to 3.1% of all 18- to 49-year-olds in the U.S. and the 8 refers to 8% of all 18- to 49-year-olds watching television at the time of the broadcast, in the U.S. This episode also ranked in first place in the men 18–34 demographic, against programs airing on other networks in the same timeslot. Matt Webb Mitovich of TV Guide praised "David Schwimmer for throwing himself into this role" as Jared, "this rather unlikable lout." Webb Mitovich also wrote that "[Kenneth's] party in and of itself has to be one of 30 Rock's finest and most manic moments." Bob Sassone of AOL's TV Squad thought that "[David] Schwimmer was good as Greenzo" and that "the subplots were some of the most bizarre this season." Robert Canning of IGN thought that the "cameo from Al Gore at the end of the show added little to the episode. It was a fine bit, but it wasn't helped by the fact that nearly the entire scene had already aired in the promos leading up to the episode" and that "seeing [Schwimmer] desperately take on the role of Greenzo and then get carried away with the whole concept could have been hysterically self-referential [to his work on the situation comedy Friends]. Instead we got Jerrod [sic] as Greenzo and the whole thing just felt flat and forced." Canning rated the episode "8 out of 10" Pittsburgh Post-Gazette's Rob Owen also felt that Al Gore's appearance had been "already given away in [NBC's] promos". He praised the episode's dialogue, saying that Baldwin's line, "you could put on a silly hat and tell the kids how outsourcing means cheaper toys for Christmas" was the sort of dialogue that "makes 30 Rock rock. Hard." Jeff Labrecque of Entertainment Weekly wrote that this episode "was one of the best of season 2" and that "Schwimmer's performance reminded [him] of his most bizarre episodes as Friends' Ross Geller, like 'The One With Ross's Sandwich'."
5,236,640	Imsai Arasan 23rd Pulikecei	1,169,164,215	2006 film by Chimbu Deven	[ "2000s Tamil-language films", "2000s historical comedy films", "2006 comedy films", "2006 directorial debut films", "2006 films", "Fictional kings", "Films directed by Chimbu Deven", "Films set in the 1700s", "Indian historical comedy films", "Indian satirical films", "Twins in Indian films" ]	Imsai Arasan 23rd Pulikesi () is a 2006 Indian Tamil-language historical-comedy film written and directed by Chimbu Deven. The film stars Vadivelu in his debut as a solo lead actor. Monica and Tejashree play the female leads, while Manorama, Nassar, Ilavarasu, Sreeman and Nagesh play supporting roles. Sabesh–Murali composed the soundtrack album and background score. S. Shankar produced and distributed the film under his production banner S Pictures. Set in the late 18th century during the early stages of the British Raj, the film tells the story of twin brothers separated at birth. Pulikesi XXIII, the foolish elder brother, becomes a puppet of his uncle, the Chief Minister, while Ukraputhan, the wise younger brother, becomes a patriot intent on saving his land and his brother. Principal photography began in November 2005 at Prasad Studios. Imsai Arasan 23rd Pulikesi was released on 8 July 2006, and was the first historical Tamil film released since Madhuraiyai Meetta Sundharapandiyan (1978). The film received positive reviews, with critics praising the screenplay, the performances, and the dialogues. A box office success, the film won two Tamil Nadu State Film Awards and one Filmfare Award. ## Plot In the South Indian kingdom of Cholapuram Paalayam in the year 1771, Raja Mokkaiyappar and his queen, Rani Bhavani Ammaiyar are desperate for a child, as all their previous twenty-two children have died at birth. Unknown to them, Bhavani's brother, Sangilimayan, who is also the Rajaguru (High priest), is responsible for the death of their children. Sangilimayan is shocked to see that his sister has given birth to twins. Before informing the king about the birth, he calls the palace astrologer, Chinnavadayaan, who predicts that the elder twin will be incapable of making decisions on his own while the younger one will be smarter. Sangilimayan orders the palace doctor, Kailasakaruppan, to kill the younger one, but Chinnavadayaan tells Sangilimayan that his actions would not be good for the kingdom. Instead, Sangilimayan orders the palace doctor to abandon the child in a nearby river. The elder child is named Pulikesi XXIII. Maragathavalli, Kailasakaruppan's childless wife, rescues the abandoned child from the river, and the couple decides to raise him as their own, naming him Ukraputhan. Twenty-five years pass, and Pulikesi is now the king of Cholapuram Paalayam. As foretold, he is foolish as well as lecherous. He is a puppet in the hands of Sangilimayan, who collaborates with the British for his own personal gain, and does not attend to the needs of the people of his kingdom. Pulikesi also tortures his subjects. He creates an outdoor stadium for different castes to fight against each other and punishes his palace guards even when they make the slightest of mistakes; he also uses his guards as targets for shooting practice. Ukraputhan, now an educated revolutionary, collaborates with his friends to overthrow the British. Ukraputhan falls in love with Vasantha Sundari, who reciprocates his feelings. When Ukraputhan plots to overthrow Pulikesi for serving the British, he is shocked to see that they look alike. Ukraputhan then learns about his birth from his foster-parents and realizes that Pulikesi is his identical-twin brother. To save the land from Sangilimayan and the British, Ukraputhan switches places with an unconscious Pulikesi as the king whilst sending Pulikesi to prison. As the king, Ukraputhan reveals his true identity to Agandamuthu, the commander-in-chief, and joins forces with him to help bring about new reforms. He converts the palace harem into a playground and helps fund and provide for the education of children; to grow crops, he creates fertile land for tilling the soil. In a break with past policies of the kingdom, Ukraputhan refuses to pay tributes and taxes demanded by the British. Bhavani Ammaiyar praises Ukraputhan's reforms, unaware that Ukraputhan is disguised as Pulikesi. In jail, Pulikesi is taken care of by Soolayini, who provides refreshments to the soldiers. Eventually, the two fall in love. All of this happens while Sangilimayan is away on a business trip visiting British officers in Chennai pattinam. When he learns of the new reforms, he confronts Ukraputhan, who defies him. Later, Pulikesi escapes from prison and overhears a conversation between Ukraputhan, Agandamuthu, and Chinnavadayaan. Pulikesi learns the truth about his birth and realizes his mistake. He reunites with Ukraputhan to reform the kingdom, but is beaten by one of Sangilimayan's men and is locked up in the palace. However, he escapes with the help of Kollan, the palace blacksmith. Believing that Agandamuthu was responsible for Pulikesi's change of mind, Sangilimayan arrests him and Ukraputhan. After escaping, Pulikesi appears before Sangilimayan as Ukraputhan but is recognized by his minister, Mangunipandiyan when he inadvertently uses his catchphrase. A fight between the twins and Sangilimayan follows; Sangilimayan is overpowered by Ukraputhan and is about to be killed when Bhavani Ammaiyar intervenes. Feeling guilty for betraying his kingdom, Sangilimayan, at the behest of his sister, has a change of heart and apologizes to her; she forgives him. The kingdom attains independence from British rule and Pulikesi and Ukraputhan marry their respective lovers, Soolayini and Vasantha Sundari. Pulikesi then introduces 10 ordinances for the welfare of the people of Cholapuram Paalayam. ## Cast ## Production ### Development Chimbu Deven worked as a cartoonist in the Tamil magazine Ananda Vikatan before venturing into mainstream cinema as an associate to director Cheran in three of his films, Vetri Kodi Kattu (2000), Pandavar Bhoomi (2001) and Autograph (2004). Imsai Arasan 23rd Pulikesi draws inspiration from a cartoon created by Deven, which originally appeared in Ananda Vikatan. Deven, who wrote the script, showed it to director S. Shankar. Shankar was impressed with the script as soon as he read it, and offered to produce and distribute the film under his production company S Pictures, making the film his third as producer after Mudhalvan (1999) and Kaadhal (2004). As a former comic strip illustrator, Deven used the storyboard technique to develop the film. Cinematography was handled by Arthur A. Wilson and editing by G. Sasikumar. P. Krishnamoorthy was signed up as the film's art director. S. Naveen, who later directed Moodar Koodam (2013), worked as an assistant director in the film. The dialogues for the film were written in chaste Tamil. Research was conducted at the Roja Muthiah Research Library. ### Casting Deven approached Vadivelu in October 2005 and offered him the lead roles. Vadivelu was initially hesitant to accept the offer as he felt that the audience would not want to see him as the central character, but after Vadivelu read the script, he decided to take up the role. Regarding the selection of Vadivelu for the roles, Deven noted that one of the royal characters from his comic book strip in Ananda Vikatan closely resembled Vadivelu, including his complexion and nativity. Swarnamalya and actress Nagma were considered for the female leads, but Monica and Tejashree eventually got the parts. Director-actor Ilavarasu played the role of Pulikesi's minister, Mangunipandiyan. Actress M. N. Rajam played Ukraputhan's mother. Nagesh played Raja Mokkayappar. ### Filming Principal photography began at Prasad Studios on 16 November 2005, under the working title of Imsai Mannan 23am Pulikesi. It was the first historical film made in Tamil cinema since Madhuraiyai Meetta Sundharapandiyan (1978) almost three decades previously. Shooting also took place at AVM Studios. The second schedule of the film was held in Prasad Studios. The song "Aah Adivaa" was shot at Prasad Studios and choreographed by Sivasankar. Due to poor weather, the outdoor portions of the song were shot indoors. A total of eleven sets were created for all of the filming schedules. Filming also took place in Chengalpattu, Tiruvannamalai and Pondicherry. Spoofs on Sivaji Ganesan, M. G. Ramachandran and Avvaiyar are seen in the film. Wipes and split screen transitions are commonly used. Principal photography was completed in 55—61 days. ## Themes and influences Although Imsai Arasan 23rd Pulikesi is a historical film set in the late 18th century AD, most of the issues it raises are contemporary. Topics discussed include child labour, globalisation, the bureaucratic inefficiency of government, pesticide usage in soft drinks, and divisions in the caste system. In their 2010 book, Cinemas of South India: Culture, Resistance, Ideology under the section Dualities and Negotiation 23rd Imsai Arasan Pulikesi, Sowmya Dechamma C. C., Elavarthi Sathya Prakash and Jananie Kalyanaraman mention the soft drinks that are satirized include Coca-Cola and Pepsi. The two are called Akka Mala and Gup-C respectively. They also note that Pulikesi and Ukraputhan have contrasting differences with respect to attitude towards women, education, governance, and demonstration of both skill in weaponry and physical prowess. Kalyanaraman compares Vadivelu's balancing of both his comic and heroic abilities through the roles of Pulikesi and Ukraputhan to Nagesh's roles in Server Sundaram (1964) and Ethir Neechal (1968), where Nagesh plays more serious roles. The mustache sported by Vadivelu is inspired and modeled after mustaches worn by the Spanish Catalan surrealist painter, Salvador Dalí and Tamil poet, Subramania Bharati. Historical references in the film include places like Nalanda University, which was active around the 2nd century AD, and people like Veerapandiya Kattabomman, Robert Clive, and Ettappan. S. Theodore Baskaran and Malathi Rangarajan called the film a parody of Uthama Puthiran (1958). Malathi Rangarajan said that the sequences in the song "Aah Aadivaa" are reminiscent of scenes from the song "Yaaradi Nee Mohini" from Uthama Puthiran. Theodore Baskaran also compared the film to M. G. Ramachandran films like Malaikkallan (1954) and Nadodi Mannan (1958). Saraswathy Srinivas of Rediff compared the film to Alexandre Dumas's novel, The Man in the Iron Mask. ## Music Sabesh–Murali composed both the film's soundtrack album and background score. The soundtrack album features five songs with lyrics written by Pulamaipithan. The songs were rendered in a style authentic to the film's period setting. The soundtrack album was released on 9 June 2006. The album was received positively by critics. G. Dhananjayan, in his book Best of Tamil Cinema, said the songs contributed to the film's success and were popular during its theatrical run. Praises were directed mainly towards the musicians, the melodious interludes of "Aah Aadivaa" and the fusion of modern western and traditional Indian music in "Vaanam Namakul". ## Marketing and release The film was originally scheduled for release on 19 May 2006. However, the film's release was delayed due to its use of animals without prior approval from the Animal Welfare Board of India (AWBI). According to a rule issued in 2001, film producers must obtain prior approval from the AWBI to use animals in a film. Further, scenes with animals must be filmed with a veterinary physician on the set. Crucial to the film's story, the scenes were not re-edited. In an interview, Deven stated that the elephants and horses in the film were not subjected to any cruelty. When Shankar approached the AWBI for a No Objection Certificate (NOC), he was denied. On 18 May, the Madras High Court requested that the AWBI issue the necessary certificate, but the organisation refused and said that it was the responsibility of the Central Board of Film Certification (CBFC). In response, the CBFC cited a rule issued by the Bombay High Court, which noted that it was mandatory for the AWBI to provide an NOC to films which used animals. This led to the initial postponement of the film's release until 9 June. On 13 June, the Madras High Court ordered that the film be given a censorship certificate by 19 June, along with the NOC from the AWBI. Because of this sequence of events, the film's release date was further postponed. Shankar and Vadivelu requested the then Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu, M. Karunanidhi, to intervene. A week before the release date, and with the help of Karunanidhi, Imsai Arasan 23rd Pulikecei was cleared by the Central Government. The film received an NOC, and was subsequently given a 'U' (Universal) certificate without any cuts by the CBFC. After months of delay, the film's release finally occurred on 8 July in 135 screens across Tamil Nadu. R. B. Choudary's Super Good Films purchased the theatrical rights of the Telugu dubbed version, which was released with the title, Himsinche 23 Va Raju Pulikesi. Vadivelu's voice was dubbed by Brahmanandam in the Telugu version. The film was banned in Karnataka as the Karnataka Film Chamber of Commerce objected to a spoof film with Pulikecei's name in the title being released in their state. Pulakesi II was a famous king who belonged to the Western Chalukya Empire and ruled the Karnataka region in the seventh century. Post-release, vendors sold unauthorised copies of the film on VCD in many areas of Tamil Nadu, especially in Chennai, where CDs were sold for ₹ 35 to 40, and Madurai and Dindigul, where CDs were sold at ₹ 45 to 50. Police conducted raids in the Avadi and Ambattur areas of Chennai where they seized 6636 VCDs. Although infringement helped increase the film's popularity, its theatrical run at the box office was still a financial success. Sri Lankan Cricketer Muttiah Muralitharan watched the film in Kamala Theatres in Chennai with his family on 11 July 2006. He praised the film's innovative story, further saying that Vadivelu had developed a huge fan following in Sri Lanka through this film. To further promote the film, 50 children who watched it were given "Pulikesi moustaches". The moustache became quite popular with children and further boosted the film's popularity. Deven said that the moustache would become as popular as Superman's outfit and Spider-Man's mask. Distributed by AP International, it was released on DVD in single disc format. The satellite rights of the film were sold to Kalaignar TV, and the worldwide premiere occurred on channel's launch date 15 September 2007. ## Reception ### Critical response Critics responded positively to Imsai Arasan 23rd Pulikesi, noting the quality of its story, Vadivelu's performance, its highlighting of contemporary political and social concerns, and the film's art direction, cinematography, and music. Malathi Rangarajan of The Hindu approved of the way Deven presented comedy, saying that it came in "the most unexpected situations." Film historian Sundararaj Theodore Baskaran described Imsai Arasan 23rd Pulikecei as "a parody with healthy concerns". Both Bijoy Bharathan of The Times of India and Sudhish Kamath of The Hindu applauded Vadivelu's comic timing. Ananda Vikatan, in its original review of the film dated 23 July 2006, lauded Vadivelu's performance. S. Sudha of Rediff.com said that Vadivelu was the strength of the film. She credited the film's art direction and cinematography as one of its major highlights. Art director Krishnamoorthy performed intense research to create the costumes for the characters and to design the palace sets. According to Theodore Baskaran, Arthur A. Wilson's cinematography "creates a series of arresting images" which helps facilitate the directorial narrative. However, Sify criticised the inclusion of songs in the film post-interval, stating that they "mar the film's tempo". ### Box office Imsai Arasan 23rd Pulikecei was a box office success. The film opened to full houses in theatres across Chennai, Coimbatore and Madurai. At the Mayajaal Multiplex centre in Chennai, the film grossed ₹ 301,000 in its first week and a total of ₹ 427,000 by the end of the second week of its theatrical run. Tickets were sold in black at the Devi Cineplex in Chennai for ₹ 150 against the original theatre price of ₹ 50. The film completed a theatrical run of 100 days at the box office. The film's 100th day celebration function was held on 14 October 2006 at the Kalaivanar Arangam located in the Chepauk district of Chennai. Rajinikanth, Vijay, Vivek, Sathyaraj, Prabhu Ganesan, Abirami Ramanathan and directors Lingusamy and Balaji Sakthivel attended the function. Rajinikanth presented Vadivelu with a trophy for his performance in the film. Technicians who were involved with the film were also honoured. According to an analysis in 2007 by T. V. Mahalingam of Business Today, the film earned a worldwide box office collection of ₹ 150 million. ### Accolades The film won two Tamil Nadu State Film Awards. Vadivelu won the Best Comedian award while P. Krishnamoorthy won the Best Art Director award. Vadivelu also won the Filmfare Award for Best Comedian for his performance in the film. ## Legacy Imsai Arasan 23rd Pulikecei became an important film in Vadivelu's career. It continued a trend of films with different themes that focused on social issues. K. Jeshi of The Hindu placed it in a category of films that discuss social issues like Sethu (1999), Kaadhal (2004), Veyil (2006), Mozhi (2007) and Paruthiveeran (2007). Another critic from The Hindu, Sumit Bhattacharjee, compared it with other period films like The Ten Commandements (1956) Ben-Hur (1959) Titanic (1997), Gladiator (2000), 300 (2007) and Jodhaa Akbar (2008). Mahendran included Imsai Arasan 23rd Pulikecei in his list of all-time favourite films. H. Murali, who produced the film Jaganmohini (2009), in an interview with Malathi Rangarajan of The Hindu, says the success of Imsai Arasan 23rd Pulikecei inspired him to make Jaganmohini. Subha J. Rao and K. Jeshi of The Hindu placed the film in league with other successful comedy films like Kadhalikka Neramillai (1964), Thillu Mullu (1981) and Michael Madana Kama Rajan (1990). Behindwoods included the "Pulikesi moustache" in its list of "Best accessories used in Tamil Cinema". A dialogue spoken by Vadivelu in the film, "Ka Ka Ka Po", which expands into Karuththukkalai Katchithamaaga Kavvikkondir Pongal (You have understood what I am saying), became a very popular meme used on social networking sites. Behindwoods included this dialogue in its list of Vadivelu memes. "Ka Ka Ka Po" also served as the title for a 2016 Tamil film by P. S. Vijay and as an acronym for director Nalan Kumarasamy's romantic comedy Kadhalum Kadandhu Pogum (2016). The dialogue "Pandrikku Nandri Solli" (Saying thank you to the Pig) inspired the title of a 2022 film. ## Cancelled sequel In August 2017, Shankar announced that a sequel, titled Imsai Arasan 24th Pulikecei, was scheduled for release in 2018. Vadivelu signed on to reprise his role as Pulikesi while Chimbu Deven and Shankar were to return as director and producer respectively. Shankar would have co-produced the film with Allirajah Subaskaran of Lyca Productions. Parvathy Omanakuttan was cast as the film's heroine. Ghibran joined as the music composer while R. Saravanan, a former assistant to Nirav Shah, was hired to handle the cinematography. Vivek Harshan and T. Muthuraj was chosen the editing and art direction respectively. Vadivelu later opted out, citing creative differences, and the project was dropped mid-way through shoot.
23,411,815	Savior (Rise Against song)	1,170,616,927	null	[ "2008 songs", "2009 singles", "American hard rock songs", "DGC Records singles", "Interscope Records singles", "Rise Against songs", "Songs written by Tim McIlrath" ]	"Savior" is a song by American punk rock band Rise Against, featured on their fifth studio album Appeal to Reason (2008). In contrast to the social and political topics normally discussed in Rise Against songs, "Savior" is about forgiveness and broken relationships. It is a punk rock song, with a "frenetic pace" that John Hanson of Sputnikmusic described as reminiscent of tracks from the band's 2003 album Revolutions per Minute. It was released as Appeal to Reason's third single on June 3, 2009. "Savior" was well received by critics, with praise for its lyrics. It remains one of the band's most commercially successful singles to date. It peaked at number three on both the Hot Rock Songs and Alternative Songs music charts, and became the record holder for the most consecutive weeks spent on the latter chart with sixty-five weeks. The accompanying music video depicts actors in animal costumes engaging in a mosh pit. ## Composition "Savior" is a punk rock song, and was described by Aaron Burgess of The A.V. Club as an "uptempo anthem". The song's composition is written in the time signature of common time, with a tempo of 94 beats per minute. It follows verse-chorus form, and is composed in the key F minor, with a melody that spans a tonal range of E♭<sub>4</sub> to C<sub>6</sub>. John Hanson of Sputnikmusic noted that the song had a "frenetic pace", which was reminiscent of many of the tracks from the band's 2003 album Revolutions per Minute. Lyrically, "Savior" deviates from the social and political topics normally discussed in Rise Against songs, and is instead about forgiveness and broken relationships. It tells the story of a couple who have recently split up. The two attempt to reconcile their differences, with lines such as "I don't hate you, boy / I just want to save you while there's still something left to save." Critics have characterized the lyrics as "poignant", and "poetic". Lead vocalist Tim McIlrath wrote the lyrics. While writing the lyrics for Rise Against songs, McIlrath will often sing nonsensical words over completed melodies, in order to identify the lyrical tone that each song will eventually convey. For "Savior", McIlrath remarked that while he mostly sang gibberish, he always found himself singing the line "I don't hate you". McIlrath used this line as a base to construct the lyrics and themes present within "Savior". In a 2014 interview, McIlrath commented on how he had originally voted to cut the song from Appeal to Reason, but was eventually overruled. ## Release and reception "Savior" was released on June 3, 2009, as the third and final single from Rise Against's fifth album Appeal to Reason. It remains one of the band's most successful singles to date, and spent a considerable amount of time on multiple Billboard music charts. Reaching as high as number two on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart, it spent thirty-six weeks on the chart, the fourth most time for any song on the chart. "Savior" peaked at number three on both the Hot Rock Songs and Alternative Songs charts, and is the former record-holder for the most time spent for the Alternative Songs chart with sixty-five weeks. It also held the longevity record on the Hot Rock Songs chart with sixty-three weeks, before Awolnation's "Sail" broke the record by spending ninety-six weeks. Despite a peak at number three, "Savior" topped the year end Hot Rock charts for 2010 and was certified platinum in the United States by the Recording Industry Association of America, denoting shipments of 1,000,000 copies. In Canada, the song reached number sixty-eight on the Canadian Hot 100. It has also been certified 3x Gold in Germany by the Bundesverband Musikindustrie and Gold in the United Kingdom by the British Phonographic Industry. "Savior" was well received by critics. Hanson and Davey Boy of Sputnikmusic both praised the song; Hanson described it as "one of the most inspired songs [Rise Against] have written to date", while Boy wrote that "'Savior' sees absolutely everything come together perfectly to make for one hell of a song". Burgess felt that "Savior" was one of three Appeal to Reason tracks that would "satisfy anyone still uneasy about Rise Against's radio aspirations". Bob Hoose of Plugged In complimented the positive and hopeful lyrics. ## Music video The accompanying music video was directed by Kevin Kerslake, who had previously directed the band's music videos for "Ready to Fall", and "Re-Education (Through Labor)". The video centers around actors wearing animal costumes, who in the beginning, engage in a mosh pit. One of the animals, a polar bear, is constantly being punched and kicked by an elephant, and decides to leave. While traveling on a bus, it sees the same elephant limping. The polar bear reluctantly asks the driver to stop and let the elephant on, who sits next to the polar bear, and the two hold hands. Scenes of Rise Against performing and destroying their instruments are intermittently shown throughout. McIlrath originally envisioned a simple performance video, with the band "going nuts in a parking lot, trashing equipment, having fun and showing the physical nature of Rise Against". However, Kerslake came up with the idea for the animals, as he felt it would be a bizarre element that would keep people watching. Despite its humorous nature, Kerslake stated that there were some political undertones in the video, with the polar bear representing endangered species, while the elephant represents the Republican Party of the United States. ## Credits and personnel Credits adapted from the liner notes of Appeal to Reason. ### Rise Against - Tim McIlrath – lead vocals, rhythm guitar - Zach Blair – lead guitar, backing vocals - Joe Principe – bass guitar, backing vocals - Brandon Barnes – drums Additional backing vocals by Chad Price ### Production - Bill Stevenson, Jason Livermore – producers - Bill Stevenson, Jason Livermore, Andrew Berlin – audio engineering - Chris Lord-Alge – mixing - Ted Jensen – mastering ## Charts and certifications ### Weekly charts ### Certifications ### Year-end charts ### Decade-end charts
69,386,185	SS Emperor	1,143,392,614	Canadian Great Lakes freighter 1910-1947	[ "1910 ships", "Canada Steamship Lines", "Great Lakes freighters", "Maritime incidents in 1911", "Maritime incidents in 1914", "Maritime incidents in 1926", "Maritime incidents in 1936", "Maritime incidents in 1937", "Maritime incidents in 1947", "Merchant ships of Canada", "National Register of Historic Places in Isle Royale National Park", "National Register of Historic Places in Keweenaw County, Michigan", "Ships built in Collingwood, Ontario", "Shipwrecks of Lake Superior", "Shipwrecks of the Michigan coast", "Wreck diving sites in the United States" ]	SS Emperor was a steel-hulled Canadian lake freighter in service between 1911 and 1947. She was built between 1910 and April 1911 by the Collingwood Shipbuilding Company in Collingwood, Ontario, for Inland Lines, Ltd. of Midland, Ontario. She entered service on May 3, 1911. Emperor was sold to Canada Steamship Lines of Montreal, Quebec. Under the ownership of Canada Steamship Lines, she carried a wide variety of cargoes, but most frequently iron ore to Point Edward, Ontario, where it would be transported to Hamilton, Ontario, by train. After the opening of the fourth Welland Canal, Emperor carried the ore directly to Hamilton. She was involved in several accidents throughout her career. After discharging a cargo of coal in Fort William, Ontario, on June 3, 1947, Emperor headed to Port Arthur, Ontario, where she loaded 10,264 long tons (11,496 short tons; 10,429 t) of iron ore bound for Ashtabula, Ohio. She left Port Arthur at 10:55 p.m. (EST). The weather was clear, and visibility was good. At midnight, Captain Eldon Walkinshaw handed over watch duties to first mate James A. Morrey. Emperor ran hard aground on Canoe Rocks, on the northeast point of Isle Royale shortly before 4:15 a.m. on June 4. She sank in between 20 and 35 minutes. 12 of her crew were killed, while the 21 survivors were picked up by the United States Coast Guard Cutter Kimball. Emperor's wreck is the most recent, and second largest shipwreck of Isle Royale, surpassed only by the freighter Chester A. Congdon, which also wrecked on Canoe Rocks. The wreck rests in 25 to 175 feet (7.6 to 53.3 m). Her bow lies partially broken up in shallow water, while her stern is intact and in deeper water. The wreck was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1984, and has become a popular site for recreational divers. ## History ### Background In 1843, the gunship USS Michigan, built in Erie, Pennsylvania, became the first iron-hulled vessel built on the Great Lakes. In the mid-1840s, Canadian companies began importing iron vessels prefabricated by shipyards in the United Kingdom. The first iron-hulled merchant ship built on the Great Lakes, Merchant, was constructed in 1862. Despite the success of Merchant, wooden vessels remained preferable to iron ones until the 1880s, due to their inexpensiveness and the abundance of timber. In the early 1880s, shipyards around the Great Lakes began to construct iron ships on a relatively large scale. In 1884, the first steel freighters were built on the Great Lakes. By the 1890s, the majority of ships constructed on the lakes were made of steel. The late 19th and early 20th centuries saw a rapid increase in the size of lake freighters; the first 400-foot (121.9 m) freighter was built in 1895, the first 500-foot (152.4 m) freighter was constructed five years later. Throughout the 1880s, the iron ore trade on the Great Lakes grew exponentially, primarily due to the increasing size of the lake freighters, and the rise in the number of trips made by ore boats to the ore docks of Lake Superior. As the railways were unable to keep up with the rapid production of iron ore, most of it was transported by bulk freighters. ### Design and construction Emperor (Canadian official number 126654) was built in Collingwood, Ontario, between 1910 and 1911, by the Collingwood Shipbuilding Company. She was launched into Collingwood harbour on December 17, 1910, as hull number 28; she was christened by James Playfair of Midland, Ontario. Emperor was built for the Playfair managed Inland Lines, Ltd. of Hamilton, Ontario. Playfair was known to give the ships in his fleet names related to royalty. Emperor was ready to go into commission in April 1911. When she was completed, Emperor became the largest Canadian ship built to that date, earning her the nickname "The Pride of Canada". She was built exclusively for the iron ore trade. Built with an arch-and-web frame system designed to create an unobstructed cargo hold, Emperor had 30 cargo hatches. The hatches were 9 feet (2.7 m) by 36 feet (11.0 m) wide, and were placed 12 feet (3.7 m) apart. Emperor's cargo hold was divided into five separate compartments, each with six hatches and a capacity of 2,000 long tons (2,032 t); she had a total cargo capacity of 10,000 long tons (10,160 t). There was an ore chute at each hatch. She was equipped with seven side-ballast and bilge tanks (each with a capacity of 5,021 long tons (5,102 t)), which were connected with seven steel pipes. The side and bottom tanks were not separated. This tank system enabled Emperor to quickly take on and discharge water. Emperor had 11 bulkheads. Her pilothouse, the captain's and mate's quarters were at the bow, while the crew's quarters were located at the stern. Emperor's engine room was 67 feet (20.4 m) in length. The hull of Emperor had an overall length of 525 feet (160.0 m), and a length between perpendiculars of 504 feet (153.6 m). Her beam was 56.1 feet (17.1 m) (some sources state 56 feet (17.1 m)) wide. The moulded depth (roughly speaking, the vertical height of Emperor's hull) was 31 feet (9.4 m). Her maximum draught was 27 feet (8.2 m). Emperor had a gross register tonnage of 7,031 and a net register tonnage of 5,408. Emperor was powered by a 2,200 hp (1,600 kW) 82 rpm triple-expansion steam engine; the cylinders of the engine were 23 inches (58.4 cm), 38.5 inches (97.8 cm) and 63 inches (160.0 cm) in diameter, and had a stroke of 42 inches (106.7 cm). Steam for the engine was provided by two coal-fired, single-ended 180-pound-per-square-inch (1,200 kPa) 15.6-by-12-foot (4.8 by 3.7 m) Scotch marine boilers. The engine and boilers were both built by the Collingwood Shipbuilding Company. Emperor had a registered nominal speed of 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph). ### Service history Emperor was accepted by Inland Lines, Ltd. after she ran her sea trials in Georgian Bay off Collingwood. She commenced her maiden voyage on May 3, 1911, sailing upbound, without cargo. While upbound on Lake Huron on May 17, Emperor broke her propeller shaft in Thunder Bay. She was towed to DeTour, Michigan, by the package freighter Superior, after which she was towed to Port Arthur, Ontario, for repairs. On June 16, 1911, the Richelieu & Ontario Navigation Company, Ltd. of Montreal, Quebec, acquired a controlling interest in Inland Lines, Ltd. On October 18, 1911, Emperor was bound from Fort William, Ontario, for Midland with 310,000 bushels of wheat. While anchoring below the Canadian lock at the Soo Locks, Emperor overrode her anchor, tore a hole in her bow and sank into 20 feet (6.1 m) of water 400 feet (121.9 m) below the lower entry. Her stern went against the north pier, while her bow swung 100 feet (30.5 m) into the channel, blocking it. She was raised on May 19, and after temporary repairs were made, she taken to Midland. Emperor's captain, George Pearson said: > I was not on the bast at the time of the accident, the steamer being temporarily in charge of the first mate. It is usual for a steamer leaving the lock to give a sharp blast, indicating to the canal crew that all is in readiness for the flood. In this case the flood was forced. As soon as the gates were opened the force of the water parted the lines of the steamer, causing her to leave the canal at high speed. The mate ordered an anchor dropped. The water at this point was not sufficiently deep to override the anchor, with the result that it was hit by the steamer and tore a hole in her bottom. A court inquiry conducted in Collingwood by Dominion Wreck Commissioner L. A. Demmers determined that the canal employees were to blame for the sinking, as they flooded the lock without checking if Emperor was ready. The court further stated that it believed it was "customary for the master of a vessel to sound one blast of the whistle as a signal to the canal authorities to begin flooding", also adding that it "thinks it is extremely necessary that masters of all vessels should have copies of the regulations governing the operation of locks and canals". Emperor's officers were acquitted of any wrongdoing, with the blame being placed on a watchman who "happened to be a deck hand, and therefore irresponsible". In 1913, the Richelieu & Ontario Navigation Company, Ltd. was merged into the newly-formed, Montreal-based Canada Transportation Company, Ltd., the name of which was almost immediately changed to Canada Steamship Lines. While under the ownership of Canada Steamship Lines, Emperor carried a wide variety of cargoes, but mainly carried iron ore to Point Edward, Ontario, which was then taken to the steel mills of Hamilton, Ontario, by train. While bound for a Lake Superior port, Emperor ran aground on Pointe aux Pins on the north shore of Lake Erie, on the morning of May 29, 1914. She was pulled off the next day by the tugs Hackett and James Reid. On October 29, 1926, Emperor ran aground near Mackinaw City, Michigan, on Major Shoal. She was freed at 16:00 p.m., after jettisoning 886 long tons (992 short tons; 900 t) of iron ore. Sometime before 1932, Emperor reportedly ran aground on an unknown object near Michipicoten Island, while on her way to Fort William. While bound for the lakehead with 8,858 long tons (9,921 short tons; 9,000 t) of coal on the night of November 24, 1936, Emperor encountered a heavy storm. While she was between Passage Island and Lamb Island, she lost her rudder. Emperor spent November 25 drifting in the storm. The tug James Whalen was sent to aid Emperor. However, before she arrived, the canaller Renvoyle arrived on the scene and towed Emperor to Fort William. One of Emperor's deckhands was swept overboard in the storm, and drowned. On May 4, 1937, Emperor was bound from Port Weller, Ontario, for Hamilton with a cargo of iron ore she loaded in Ashland, Wisconsin. Conditions on Lake Ontario were foggy, which caused Emperor to miss the port turn, which would then have put her on a course to the piers of the Burlington Canal at the entrance to Hamilton harbour. However, she carried on, eventually running aground near Bronte, Ontario, at 11:00 p.m. The tug Rival and barge Londonderry arrived from Kingston, Ontario, to free her. After a portion of Emperor's cargo was removed, she was refloated on May 6, having sustained hardly any damage. In the spring of 1940, Emperor's first mate James A. Morrey fell overboard from one of the bridge wings. He sustained no serious injuries. ### Final voyage After unloading a cargo of coal in Fort William on June 3, 1947, Emperor headed to the Canadian National Railway ore dock in Port Arthur, where she loaded 10,264 long tons (11,496 short tons; 10,429 t) of iron ore from the Steep Rock Mine. The loading of the ore took six to seven hours. She left Port Arthur for Ashtabula, Ohio, at 10:55 p.m. (EST), under the command of Captain Eldon Walkinshaw. She had a draught of 21.3 feet (6.5 m) at the bow, and 21.9 feet (6.7 m) at the stern. Two of Emperor's 35–man crew were left behind at Fort William. The weather was clement; there was little wind, and visibility was good. At midnight, Walkinshaw handed over watch duties to first mate James A. Morrey, who had supervised the loading of the iron ore. Shortly before 4:15 a.m., Emperor crashed into Canoe Rocks, on the northeast point of Isle Royale, and broke in two. About 10 minutes after Emperor struck Canoe Rocks, Walkinshaw gave the order to abandon ship. By that time, she had developed a serious list. The starboard lifeboat was successfully launched, but was leaking due to the absence of a bilge plug. The port boat capsized when it was sucked under by Emperor as she sank. The night steward claimed that Emperor's boilers exploded during the sinking. She sank in between 20 and 35 minutes. The United States Coast Guard Cutter Kimball, which was maintaining navigation lights in the vicinity of Blake Point, intercepted an SOS signal from Emperor, arriving on the scene in 35 minutes. After Kimball transported the 21 survivors and the body of cook Evelyn Schultz to Fort William, she travelled back to the wreck to search for survivors and bodies. Canada Steamship Lines also chartered the excursion boat Coastal Queen to assist in the search. However, bad weather prevented diver E. J. Fowler, who was on board Coastal Queen from reaching the wreck. #### Investigation The investigation into Emperor's sinking proved to be difficult, as Walkinshaw, Morrey, and helmsman J. Prokup all died. An investigation carried out by the Department of Transport blamed Morrey, who they claimed "did not keep proper watch", for the sinking of Emperor. They determined that Morrey, who was meant to be on watch duty until 6:00 a.m., was likely sleep deprived at the time of the grounding, and had not made the usual navigational checks Emperor would have required to pass safely between Isle Royale and Passage Island. The courts criticised the prevailing system "which required the First Mate to be in charge of the loading of the ship during the period when he should have been off duty, resulted in his becoming overly tired, suffering as he was from a lack of sleep". Furthermore, Prokup, who was unacquainted with that part of Lake Superior, failed to detect the error in Emperor's course. Also criticised were the usage of wooden lifeboats and the lack of lifeboat drills performed on board Emperor in 1947. The Board of Investigation fully exonerated Captain Walkinshaw, stating that "under all the circumstances he did everything possible most promptly and efficiently". They also praised the captain and crew of Kimball for their rescue of the survivors. #### Aftermath Emperor was the final and second-largest shipwreck to occur at Isle Royale. She was also the largest shipwreck to have occurred on Lake Superior since the loss of the freighter Chester A. Congdon in 1918, and the deadliest since the sinking of the canaller Kamloops in 1927, both also at Isle Royale. The first dives to Emperor's wreck took place on June 12, 1947. They were conducted by Fowler, who made a total of three, roughly 30 minute dives to the wreck. In 1948, Canada Steamship Lines replaced Emperor with the freighter Burlington. In 1975, sport divers from the Inland Divers Club of Duluth, Minnesota, discovered the preserved remains of a crew member near Emperor's engine room and reported it to the National Park Service. The body was missing its eyes, nose and arms from the elbow down. However, the clothes, facial features and hair all remained intact. In order to deter potential looters, the body was later reportedly sunk at the end of the stern by Canadian divers. Soon after, the remains of one additional crew member were discovered resting on a bunk; the disposition of this body is unknown. Although unverified, several other bodies are reported to have been found. ## Emperor wreck The wreck of Emperor rests in between 25 feet (7.6 m) of water at the bow, and 175 feet (53.3 m) of water at the stern, in two partially attached sections. The bow has sustained severe damage, mostly due to the impact of ice, while the stern is intact. The bow section stretches from 25 feet (7.6 m) at the bow's tip, down into about 80 feet (24.4 m) of water, where the intact stern section starts. The bow section includes two 7,000-pound (3,175.1 kg) anchors, a windlass and chain locker, as well as five relatively intact cargo hatches. The stern features an intact and penetrable engine room, an intact mast, and a partially intact cabin. Emperor's boilers are undamaged, proving the night steward's account of a boiler explosion false. The roof on the port side of the cabin has partially collapsed, as the funnel (also present) fell on top of it with sufficient force to not only damage the roof, but also the bulkhead. There are 17 intact cargo hatches aft of the break in the hull. The propeller blades broke off as Emperor sank, leaving only the propeller hub and rudder. Her cargo holds still contain her cargo of iron ore. Wreckages from the canaller Dunelm which ran aground in 1910, but was freed, lies 100 yards (91.4 m) east of Emperor's bow. Emperor's wreck was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on June 12, 1984. Between 1980 and 1985, Emperor was the second-most popular shipwreck at Isle Royale National Park, behind the excursion steamer America. However, as of 2009, she is Isle Royale's most frequently visited shipwreck, accounting for over 350 of the 1062 dives made to the wrecks in the park that year.
47,147,077	Vampyr (video game)	1,172,071,502	2018 video game	[ "2018 video games", "Action role-playing video games", "Dark fantasy video games", "Don't Nod", "Fiction about murder", "Focus Entertainment games", "Nintendo Switch games", "Open-world video games", "PlayStation 4 games", "Single-player video games", "Sororicide in fiction", "Spanish flu in popular culture", "Unreal Engine games", "Video games about influenza outbreaks", "Video games about psychic powers", "Video games about the paranormal", "Video games about vampires", "Video games developed in France", "Video games scored by Olivier Deriviere", "Video games set in London", "Video games set in the 1910s", "Windows games", "Xbox One games" ]	Vampyr is an action role-playing video game developed by Dontnod Entertainment and published by Focus Home Interactive. It was released for PlayStation 4, Windows, and Xbox One on 5 June 2018, and for Nintendo Switch on 29 October 2019. The plot relates how Jonathan Reid, a doctor who has turned into a vampire, is torn between the Hippocratic Oath and his newfound bloodthirsty nature. While some boss battles are mandatory, most combat can be avoided, and the player is under no obligation to kill innocents to finish the game. Dialogue options are used for conversation and hunting prey to feed on, which replenishes strength and levels up the lead character. Weapons and supernatural abilities are employed while combatting enemies. Set during the era of the Spanish flu, London serves as a fictionalised semi-open world composed of four districts, amenable to destruction based on the player's actions. The game was first mentioned at a Focus Home event in January 2015. The developers researched the setting by travelling to London and consulting history books and documentaries. The visuals were made with fictional and factual reference points in mind. Olivier Deriviere composed the original score and infused it with industrial music. The game was met with mixed reviews from critics, who praised the primary game mechanic, setting, character development, and voice acting, but criticised the combat, overall narrative, technical problems, aspects of the choice-based system, and animations. The game surpassed one million copies sold within ten months. ## Gameplay Vampyr is an action role-playing game played from a third-person view. The player controls Jonathan E. Reid, a doctor who was made into a vampire, and whose thirst for blood compels him to kill innocent people. To do this successfully, he must study and change his targets' habits, collect clues, and maintain relationships with the sixty citizens under his care in London, which serves as a fictionalised semi-open world built around hubs of neighbourhoods tethered to other areas. A skill tree facilitates the improvement of abilities, which is fuelled by experience points gained from blood and, alternatively, investigation. Feeding on human blood provides nourishment in addition to unlocking new vampiric powers. Abilities can be manually activated and passively upgraded. Active skills afford defensive, aggressive, healing, and tactical measures; passive skills increase health, stamina, the blood gauge and absorption, bite damage and regeneration, and carry capacity. It is possible to finish the game without killing citizens, which best preserves Reid's cover as a doctor, but leaves him nearly incapable of levelling up. Killing no one unlocks one of four endings. He can turn people into vampires, and is only able to enter a house with an invitation. Locals each have their different backgrounds, relationships, and routines. If killed, they impart their last thought. The "Mesmerise" ability controls the behaviour of weaker targets, like coercing them into revealing information, or guiding them to less conspicuous areas so as to feed without combat. With crafted medicine, Reid can heal the injured and sick, who if eaten, will yield more experience points as a result; the rate of their affliction can be viewed using vampire senses, which also detect blood. Each of the four districts has a score based on the average health of its citizens. Reid navigates London using a waypoint, and collectible documents are scattered around the city. Reid can wield improvised melee weapons, such as a saw, as well as ranged weapons including the Webley Revolver. Being able to use three-hit combos, dodge rolls, and parrying, he can fight against other vampires like him—aristocrats who go by the name of Ekon; sewer-dwelling vampires known as Skals; the Vulkod—a stronger breed of vampire resembling werewolves; Nemrod—vampires who hunt their own kind; and the Guard of Priwen—a secret society of vampire slayers. Boss fights are featured, and in some cases mandatory. Reid is adaptable to other vampire features, like the claws of a Vulkod. Weapon improvement through crafting is made possible by looting items. While using vampiric powers in combat, the character's blood bar drains. This forces him to feed so he can immediately replenish his strength. With the vitality attained from killing a human being, he can boil the blood of his enemies, cast blood spears, throw mist bombs, and turn invisible. He uses his control of shadows to hide himself and strike at his opponents. He can use "Spring" to scale locations and charge rapidly across gaps, which is also useful for avoiding combat. ## Plot Doctor Jonathan Reid, returning to London from the Great War in 1918, awakes in a mass grave as a vampire. Overwhelmed with bloodlust, he inadvertently kills his sister Mary, who was searching for his body nearby. Jonathan takes shelter from vampire hunters in an abandoned house and starts hearing the disembodied voice of his maker, a typical feature in the progeny of vampires. Realising London is profuse with corpses, he follows a blood trail to a bar. The bartender points Jonathan to William Bishop, a suspicious patron. Bishop is caught feeding on a man named Sean Hampton and is killed by the vampire Lady Ashbury. Doctor Edgar Swansea rescues Hampton and hires Jonathan to practice medicine at Pembroke Hospital. After the room of patient Harriet Jones is found covered in blood and Hampton disappears, Jonathan tracks him down for questioning. Hampton insists he did not murder Jones and directs him to an underground haven for corrupted vampires known as Skals, where it is revealed that Jones faked her death. Jonathan later discovers a corpse in the street bearing his mother's brooch. He pursues the perpetrator towards the cemetery in Whitechapel and finds his sister Mary with their mother Emelyne, realising Mary was turned into a vampire the night he fed on her. Mary is intent on killing him to rid herself of his voice, but dies trying. Jonathan vows to uncover what is behind the Skal epidemic, which he learns has been mistaken for the Spanish flu. Lady Ashbury invites Jonathan to the West End on behalf of the Ascalon Club, a secret society of highborn vampires. By the order of its leader Lord Redgrave, Jonathan roots out the source of Skals in the district. Swansea is later kidnapped and, once located, admits to attempting to heal Jones with Lady Ashbury's blood, thereby creating the Skal epidemic; once Ashbury finds out, she flees in shame. It is made known that the entity Myrddin, claimant to the role of Jonathan's maker, sired him to defeat his mother Morrigan, also known as the "Red Queen", after she possessed Jones to wreak havoc upon London. Jonathan defeats Morrigan in battle, resolving then to travel after Lady Ashbury to her family castle, where she hid with her maker William Marshal, 1st Earl of Pembroke. Now a ravenous vampire, Marshal explains to Jonathan that when he fought the previous Disaster that caused the Black Plague (and the Great Fire of London that was caused by him), he succumbed to the blood of hate and hurt Ashbury. After discovering a cure for it and using it on Ashbury, he chose to live in his castle to hold back his dark thirst and as an atonement. Marshal then asks Ashbury to end his life, which she complies. The ending then differs on the amount of civilians that were embraced, with Jonathan's eyes either gradually changing to red with or remaining human: If Jonathan embraced less than five civilians, Reid will succeed in talking Ashbury out of killing herself and vows to find a cure for the blood of hate, with the two either traveling across the world and visiting America or locking themselves up in Ashbury's Estate with Old Bridget standing guard for them. Myrddin will be proud of Jonathan and either wish him peace or luck on his new quest. If Jonathan embraced between five and nine civilians or more than ten, Ashbury will incinerate herself; if Reid embraced less than ten civilians, he will declare his love for her and will never get over Ashbury's death, but otherwise won't be affected by her death and will become a monster with no sympathy for humanity that kills indiscriminately. Myrddin will then express pity towards Jonathan for having lost his way or disapproval over his fallen champion. ## Development Development began with a team of sixty people, later expanded to around eighty, many of whom worked on Dontnod Entertainment's previous project Life Is Strange. The project was first revealed in January 2015 at a Focus Home event. For a short time, the developer considered setting the game in 1950s America, but after narrative director Stéphane Beauverger joined the project, it was discarded to inspire a more gothic mood with focus on the 1918 Spanish flu pandemic, set in London. The paintings of Phil Hale influenced the art style, also for the purpose of atmosphere. Dontnod researched the setting by visiting London and taking photographs, but since the city had been largely rebuilt, history books and documentaries concerning Whitechapel, the London Docks, and the Isle of Dogs were also consulted. The literary sources Liquid History: The Thames Through Time and The Book of Facial Expressions: Babies to Teens provided geographical and anthropological insight, respectively, while the television series Casualty 1900s and The Knick were turned to for medical information. Anthony Howell was hired to voice Jonathan Reid. The characters and dialogue were scripted by two French writers and translated into English by two native speakers. Dontnod decided on the British accent, though the marketing department wanted more. The period was studied using both factual and fictional reference points to create the visuals, realised with photorealistic lighting, and post-processes running on the Unreal Engine 4. Motion capture was used to track character movement. In August 2016, the major obstacles in developing the Xbox One version had been overcome with the assurance that there would be no downgrades despite its hardware disadvantages. The game has one save slot, a decision Dontnod made for in-game choices to have "real, meaningful impact"; to avoid corrupted saves, they implemented backup systems. Adhering to either Reid's Hippocratic Oath or vampiric nature intends to explore the dualism of his survival as both a doctor and vampire. Olivier Deriviere served as the composer throughout development, infusing the score with industrial music to portray the solitude and inner struggle of the main character. Eric-Maria Couturier played the cello, whose sounds were intended to go from "emotional" to "bestial". The bass flute, piano, double bass, and cimbalom (chosen for how it reflected that period in London) were also employed, each characterising an aspect of the story. Deriviere saw the choir as representing an oppressive influence on the main character, and thought its combination with industrial music was effective given the amount of post-processing. The soundtrack was released on 3 May 2018 on Bandcamp, and launched on all digital platforms the day the game came out. Vampyr was released to manufacturing in May 2018. ## Release The game was officially announced at E3 2015. After a technical issue delayed it from its original November 2017 launch date, Vampyr was rescheduled for Q1/Q2 2018. The final episode of a making-of video series revealed that it would be released on 5 June (for PlayStation 4, Windows, and Xbox One). Those who pre-ordered the game gained access to bonus downloadable content called "The Hunters Heirlooms", which contained exclusive in-game cosmetics. If pre-ordered through select retailers in Europe and Australia, a phonograph record of the soundtrack was included. In May 2018, Dontnod confirmed that Vampyr would not be using Denuvo Anti-Tamper, a technology criticised for damaging computer performance. A launch trailer came out the following month, leading up to the release. Two new difficulties, Story and Hard mode, launched on 26 September 2018. Vampyr was added to Xbox Game Pass, a subscription-based service for Xbox One games, on 28 March 2019. A Nintendo Switch version developed by Saber Interactive was released on 29 October 2019. ## Reception Vampyr received "mixed or average reviews", according to review aggregator Metacritic. Destructoid's Kevin Mersereau enjoyed the dialogue conversations, atmosphere, and character development. Emma Schaefer of EGM declared Reid's dualism between doctor and vampire the title's greatest strength, while also praising the character development for imbuing "even the lowest beggar" with some importance. Matt Utley at Game Revolution enjoyed the atmosphere, each district's distinct look, and aspects of the combat. Writing for GameSpot, Justin Clark was impressed with the effect of decisions and how this tied into the core gameplay, calling it "empowering". He also commended the "enthralling" characterisations, "exquisite" setting, and "captivating" voice acting. GamesRadar+'s Leon Hurley, like Schaefer, found the mechanic of testing Reid's morality compelling, calling the characters well-realised and integral. Also approved of was the "atmospheric victorian London setting". Brandin Tyrrel, writing for IGN, termed Vampyr "a fresh and genuine take" on vampire mythology. He was generally satisfied with how choices turned out and said the recreation of London as a "gloomy, somber city" was bolstered by authentic characters, whose writing and performances he also enjoyed. Tyrrel welcomed the story and enjoyed the citizen mechanics, something Andy Kelly at PC Gamer also appreciated, hoping that more video games would follow suit. He called the dialogue-driven storytelling "compelling" and the setting "atmospheric". Alice Bell of VideoGamer.com wrote, "Vampyr serves delicious ladles of angst and drama with a hearty slice of excellent, morally grey choice system that will genuinely surprise you, all wrapped up in a wonderfully gloomy London". Conversely, Mersereau scolded the overall narrative for its "threadbare" contribution. He called the combat "a low-grade Witcher knockoff", complaining about its lack of precision and "sloppy" mechanics. Lengthy loading screens and constant hangs were also cited as a source of annoyance. Schaefer lambasted the animations for being "a little wonky" and the unpolished nature of the game. To Utley, Vampyr failed to impress, in particular its character development and impact of choice. He also had technical problems (low resolution, "choppy" performance, and lengthy loading times). Already frustrated with the combat, Clark said frame rate drops and frequent loading screens worsened the experience. He found that the narrative became weaker in the final chapters. Hurley viewed the combat as "functional at best"; "solid if uninventive", and chastised how small decisions led to big mistakes, which he felt forfeited responsibility for one's actions. Tyrrel cited lip syncing as a primary concern of the animation, criticised the lack of variety in combat, and experienced the same technical difficulties as Mersereau, Utley, and Clark, albeit noting that they amounted to minor annoyances. Kelly disliked the "dull, repetitive" combat sequences and, despite noting a variety of fighting styles, saw this ultimately as a "tiresome" distraction. Agreeing with many others on the combat, Bell described it as continuously turning "sour". ### Sales and accolades Focus Home Interactive stated that Vampyr would be considered successful if it sold one million copies, although half would turn a profit. It debuted in the United Kingdom, Germany, and France as the best-selling video game across all formats, reaching second place on the Italian chart (behind FIFA 18). Vampyr sold 450,000 copies after one month of release, contributing to an increase of over twenty percent of its publisher's revenue for the first quarter of 2018. That October, the publisher cited Vampyr as a key factor in its second quarter's €44.3 million revenue. By April 2019, Vampyr had sold one million copies; these sales contributed to a 22.1% rise in revenue for Dontnod, equivalent to a increase from the previous fiscal year. At E3 2017, Vampyr received one of GamesRadar+'s Best of E3 awards and was nominated for GamesBeat's Unreal Underdog award and Game Critics Awards' Best RPG award. It was later nominated for the Best Console Game, Best Screenplay, and Best Soundtrack awards at the 2018 Ping Awards, and for "Best Role-Playing Game" at the Titanium Awards, and won the "Game, Original Role Playing" award at the NAVGTR Awards, whereas its other nominations were for the "Original Dramatic Score, New IP" and "Use of Sound, New IP" awards. ## Legacy In August 2018, it was announced that the television production company Fox 21 Television Studios had optioned Vampyr as a series, with Wonderland Sound and Vision and DJ2 Entertainment also attached to the project. McG, founder of Wonderland Sound and Vision, is set to direct and will serve as executive producer with Mary Viola, Corey Marsh, Dmitri Johnson, Stephan Bugaj. Dontnod Entertainment and Focus Home Interactive have announced to have renewed their partnership for a new game in April 2019. It was revealed to be Banishers: Ghosts of New Eden in 2022.
8,586,887	New York State Route 186	1,135,187,184	State highway in Franklin County, New York, US	[ "State highways in New York (state)", "Transportation in Franklin County, New York" ]	New York State Route 186 (NY 186) is a short east–west state highway in northern New York in the United States. The highway is located entirely within the town of Harrietstown in the southwest part of Franklin County. The western terminus is at NY 30 and the eastern terminus is at NY 86. NY 186 lies south of, and serves, the Adirondack Regional Airport. The current alignment of NY 186 was designated in 1989 to follow a former routing of NY 86. ## Route description In the west, NY 186 begins at NY 30 in Harrietstown, near the eastern bank of Lake Clear. Known as Lake Clear Road, NY 186 heads east-northeastward, crossing a pair of train tracks and later a creek. Situated within the forested terrain of the Adirondack State Park, the highway passes to the south of, and serves, the Adirondack Regional Airport. South of the airport NY 186 intersects several local roads. The highway turns more towards the northeast upon passing the airport, and proceeds uneventfully. Subsequent to turning towards the east, NY 186 terminates at NY 86, still within Harrietstown. ## History The modern routing of NY 186 was originally designated as part of NY 10 when the first set of posted routes in New York were assigned in 1924. In the 1930 renumbering, NY 10 was rerouted east of Lake Clear to follow modern NY 30 north to the Canadian border. The former routing of NY 10 between Lake Clear and Harrietstown was incorporated into NY 86, a new route extending from Lake Clear to Jay. NY 86 remained on this alignment until March 28, 1989, when the NY 192 designation was deleted. NY 86 was then rerouted to follow the former routing of NY 192 northwestward to Paul Smiths. The Lake Clear–Harrietstown roadway, vacated by NY 86, was redesignated as NY 186. ## Major intersections ## See also
70,427,287	Chatterbox (restaurant)	1,136,063,146	Restaurant in Singapore	[ "1971 establishments in Singapore", "Restaurants established in 1971", "Restaurants in Singapore" ]	Chatterbox is a restaurant located in Hilton Singapore Orchard. The restaurant opened on 1 August 1971 at The Mandarin Singapore and has since undergone several relocations and renovations. It is known for its Hainanese chicken rice, which was introduced to Chatterbox's first menu by German executive chef Peter Gehrmann. ## Description Chatterbox is located on the fifth floor of Hilton Singapore Orchard. Its main dining area can seat 126 diners, whereas its bar can seat another 15. The restaurant primarily serves Asian cuisine. It is known for its Hainanese chicken rice, the recipe for which is reportedly only known by six chefs. The chicken, which is delivered fresh from a Malaysian farm, is steamed in a food steamer and served with aged jasmine rice cooked with ginger, garlic, and pandan leaves. The chicken rice is complemented by soy sauce, chilli padi sauce, and ginger paste. Other dishes served at Chatterbox include coconut ice cream, lobster laksa, ngo hiang, rojak, and salted egg chicken wings. ## History The restaurant opened on 1 August 1971 at The Mandarin Singapore. Its menu was developed by German executive chef Peter Gehrmann and initially offered three local dishes, including char kway teow, laksa, and Hainanese chicken rice. The year of its opening, local politician Tony Tan and his wife celebrated their wedding anniversary with a chicken rice dinner at Chatterbox. In January 1980, the restaurant moved to the hotel's ground floor and doubled its seating capacity; the relocation cost . In November 1989, Chatterbox was closed for a month of renovations costing around ; American architect Cliff Turtle was commissioned to redesign the restaurant. The restaurant introduced a chicken rice mascot named "Cheeky Chick" in July 1999; Weekend East described it as "an adorable stuffed chicken with ping-pong eyes". In August 2006, to commemorate its thirty-fifth anniversary, the restaurant held a chicken rice eating competition; the winner finished his portion in one minute and eleven seconds. In September 2019, Chatterbox Café, the first overseas offshoot of Chatterbox, opened in Tsim Sha Tsui, Hong Kong. In October 2021, the Singaporean restaurant was closed for major renovations costing around . It reopened on 14 March 2022, after the hotel had been rebranded as Hilton Singapore Orchard. ## Reception and legacy Writing for local newspaper The Straits Times in July 1982, T. Phadoemchit described Chatterbox as "Singapore's most profitable hotel coffeeshop". According to a June 1983 report by the Singaporean Business Times, Chatterbox's chicken rice sales alone earned the restaurant , or some 136,000 servings; the restaurant's total turnover for the previous year was . Tatler Asia reviewer Dudi Aureus visited the restaurant after its reopening in March 2022 and praised it for being "a stalwart for elevated local fare in the local F&B scene all these years". Priyanka Elhence of Epicure Asia highlighted the decor and its "calming and elegant spa-like look", whereas Yeoh Wee Teck of The New Paper found the renovations "stunning". Chatterbox was one of the earliest hotel restaurants in Singapore to serve local cuisine. The restaurant is believed to have popularised the eating of chicken rice as an individual dish, rather than one shared among several people, as had been the norm prior to August 1971. The chicken rice at Chatterbox has been widely regarded as the most famous in Singapore.
1,904,001	2002 Pacific hurricane season	1,169,594,773	Hurricane season in the Pacific Ocean	[ "2002 Pacific hurricane season", "Pacific hurricane seasons", "Tropical cyclones in 2002" ]	The 2002 Pacific hurricane season was an above-average season which produced fifteen named storms. Eight hurricanes formed, including three Category 5 hurricanes, which tied for the most in a season with 1994 and 2018. Moreover, the season was a near-average season in terms of accumulated cyclone energy (ACE), with a total index of 125 units. The season officially began on May 15 in the East Pacific Ocean, and on June 1 in the Central Pacific and they both ended on November 30. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Pacific basin. However, the formation of tropical cyclones is possible at any time of the year. Tropical activity began with the formation of Tropical Storm Alma on May 24, before it became a major hurricane. The strongest hurricane of the season, Kenna, formed on October 22 and peaked as a Category 5 hurricane two days later. June was extremely quiet with no hurricanes forming during the month. August was active with four systems developing, of which two became hurricanes. Activity decreased appreciably in September throughout November as most of the storms remained weak and short-lived. The final storm of the season, Tropical Depression Sixteen-E, dissipated on November 16, about two weeks before the official end. Land impact was relatively significant. Kenna made landfall near Puerto Vallarta, located in the Mexican state of Jalisco on October 25, killing four people. Kenna was, at the time, the second-most powerful hurricane to ever strike the western coast of Mexico, hitting with winds of 140 mph (220 km/h), as well as the strongest landfall in terms of windspeed until Hurricane Patricia in 2015. Elsewhere, Tropical Storm Julio made landfall in Mexico, and Tropical Storm Boris dumped torrential rain along the Mexican coast, despite remaining offshore. Other storms were individually unusual. Hurricanes Elida and Hernan also reached Category 5 intensity, but neither caused any damage. Hurricane Fausto had no effect on land, but it regenerated into a weak tropical storm at an abnormally high latitude. Damage across the basin reached \$101.23 million (2002 USD), while 7 people were killed by Julio and Kenna. ## Seasonal summary The season officially began on May 15 in Eastern Pacific and on June 1 in Central Pacific; both ended on November 30. There were 16 tropical storms in the eastern Pacific Ocean in the season. Of those, eight became hurricanes, of which six became major hurricanes by reaching Category 3 or higher on the Saffir–Simpson scale. Three reached Category 5 intensity, a record shared with the 1994 season and the 2018 season. Four tropical depressions formed and dissipated before reaching the intensity of a tropical storm. In the Central Pacific Hurricane Center's area of responsibility, one tropical storm and two hurricanes formed, with one of the hurricanes intensifying into a major hurricane. In the eastern Pacific proper, the season saw below average activity in terms of the number of total storms and hurricanes, but about average activity in terms of major hurricanes. Only three systems, Tropical Storms Boris and Julio and Hurricane Kenna, had significant impact on land. Julio and Kenna caused the only two landfalls this year. Most of the season's impact, including all casualties and most of the damage, was caused by Kenna. A moderately strong El Niño, ongoing during the season, may have contributed to the disproportionate number of major hurricanes, as well as reduced activity in the Atlantic. Also of note was an unusual gap in storm formation during the first three weeks of August in this season, historically a prime period for tropical cyclone formation. ## Systems ### Hurricane Alma A complex formation involving a tropical wave and a gale over the Gulf of Tehuantepec formed Tropical Depression One-E on May 24. It slowly strengthened into the first tropical storm of the season two days later. Alma then turned north, moving near the edge of a subtropical ridge over Mexico. Its rate of intensification picked up, and Alma became a hurricane on May 28. Alma reached Category 3 intensity on May 30. The hurricane began to weaken almost immediately thereafter under the influence of wind shear and cool water. Alma rapidly fell apart, and degenerated into a weak low-pressure area by June 1. The hurricane did not impact land. A special feature about Alma was that it was one of only five Pacific major hurricanes in May. ### Tropical Storm Boris On June 8, an area of disturbed weather that had absorbed a tropical wave spawned Tropical Depression Two-E. It became a tropical storm the next day. After peaking on June 9, with a pressure of 997 mb, steering currents collapsed and Boris stalled out in the ocean between two ridges of high pressure. Shear increased, and the cyclone weakened to a depression on June 10. The next day, Boris degenerated into a remnant low. The remnant drifted east and then southeast before dissipating on June 12. Boris dumped heavy rains on sections of the Mexican coast. The maximum amount was 10.60 inches (269 mm) at San Felipe Usila. These rains damaged several homes at an unspecified location. In addition, rainfall damaged several homes in Tequila, Jalisco, but the National Hurricane Center believes that Boris likely did not cause the rain. No deaths were attributed to this storm. ### Tropical Depression Three-E A tropical wave that crossed Central America organized and developed into a tropical depression on June 27. Contrary to forecasts, the depression did not strengthen further because of strong wind shear. By June 29, the depression had become a remnant low, which was observed as a swirl of clouds for a few more days before dissipating. ### Tropical Storm Cristina An area of disturbed weather near Panama drifted to a location south of Puerto Ángel, Oaxaca, and organized into Tropical Depression Four-E on July 9. It moved westward through a hostile environment of strong shear. The wind shear disrupted the cyclone's convection and weakened its circulation. Despite the shear, the depression strengthened into a tropical storm early on July 12 and was named Cristina. This broke down the steering ridge, and Cristina turned to the north and peaked on July 14. Then, the wind shear won out and Cristina quickly weakened. Cristina dissipated into a swirl of clouds on July 16, without ever threatening land. No impact was reported. ### Hurricane Douglas A tropical wave exited the west coast of Africa on July 8 and crossed the Atlantic without much development. In the Caribbean, showers increased, but wind shear prevented development. The wave crossed into the eastern Pacific on July 16, and wind shear decreased to allow the convection to organize. Tropical Depression Five-E developed on July 20 about 395 miles (636 km) south of Manzanillo, Mexico. At that time, gradual strengthening was anticipated. The depression quickly intensified into Tropical Storm Douglas. Around that time, most of the deep convection was situated south of the atmospheric circulation. Initially expected to become a hurricane only briefly, late on July 21, the NHC reported that Douglas had become a hurricane. Upon becoming a hurricane, Douglas was situated in low wind shear environment; however, Hurricane Douglas was expected to reach cold waters in 36 hours, and thus was not predicted to become a major hurricane. Douglas became a Category 2 hurricane on July 22, reaching peak winds of 105 miles per hour (170 km/h). Douglas held this intensity for 18 hours as it traveled westward. When Douglas weakened from its peak intensity, it had an organized cloud pattern, but the thunderstorm activity was weakening, typical of most Pacific hurricanes that reach cooler waters. The weakening briefly stopped after Douglas went through an eyewall replacement cycle, but Douglas was downgraded to a tropical storm late on July 24 as the storm only had a small area of deep convection left. Tropical storm Douglas briefly stopped weakening as convection increased, only to fade away again hours later. The storm was downgraded to a tropical depression early on July 26, and later that day degenerated into a remnant low-pressure area. The remnant low dissipated the next day. ### Hurricane Elida A tropical wave generated into Tropical Depression Six-E on July 23. It moved westward and reached storm strength 12 hours after it formed. Elida rapidly deepened, developing a pinhole eye, and becoming a hurricane on July 24 and further reaching major hurricane intensity six hours later. Elida's rapid intensification continued, becoming a Category 5 hurricane for six hours on July 25. Despite moving over warm waters, Elida began to weaken because it began an eyewall replacement cycle. When the cycle ended, the cyclone was over cooler water and unsteadily weakened. Elida fell to a tropical storm on July 27, then degenerated into a remnant low and turned to the northeast. The remnant dissipated over the open ocean about 535 mi (860 km) west of Los Angeles. Elida is one of the fastest intensifying eastern Pacific hurricanes. Its rate of intensification is rivaled only by 1997's Linda, 2015's Patricia, and 2018's Norman. Elida had no direct impact on land. However, it did send heavy waves along the shores of Mexico. No one was killed and no damage was reported. ### Tropical Depression Seven-E A tropical wave that had reached the Eastern Pacific from Africa was first spotted on July 23. The wave continued westward with little development occurring until August 3, when convection increased. After additional slow organization, the wave was classified as Tropical Depression Seven-E on August 6 near the tip of Baja California. The system did not strengthen much, and development was halted when wind shear destroyed the system on August 8. The depression never came near land and hence no one was killed or injured. Like Tropical Depression Three-E, this cyclone was forecast to reach tropical storm intensity, but it never did. ### Hurricane Fausto After a rather lengthy lull punctuated by only Tropical Depression Seven-E, a tropical wave formed Tropical Depression Eight-E on August 21. Initially taking a westward track, the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Fausto on August 22. It turned to the west-northwest and stayed on that path for the next six days. Fausto steadily strengthened and intensified into a hurricane on August 22. It continued to intensify, peaking as a Category 4 on August 24, and also substantially increased in size. The hurricane began to weaken thereafter, and was a minimal tropical storm by the time it entered the Central Pacific Hurricane Center's area of responsibility on August 27. The tropical cyclone dropped to a depression and degenerated into a non-convective swirl of clouds on August 28. Fausto's remnants passed north of the Hawaiian Islands uneventfully until they interacted with a tropical upper-tropospheric trough (TUTT) on August 30. In combination with warm waters, a tropical depression with some subtropical features developed. At this time it was located around latitude 30°N. By September 1, Fausto had redeveloped into a tiny but tropical ministorm. Its rebirth was brief, however, as a mid-latitude cyclone absorbed the system early on September 3. Fausto's regeneration north of Hawaii was unusual but not unprecedented. The other time this happened since 1966 was in the 1975 season. That time, another TUTT absorbed the remnant of Hurricane Ilsa, which led to the formation of an unnamed hurricane at high latitude. Other tropical cyclones have strengthened north of Hawaii, but the actual formation of one is rare. ### Tropical Storm Alika An area of convection acquired a closed circulation and became Tropical Depression One-C on August 22. It stayed disorganized for the next several days. It organized more fully and intensified into a tropical storm on August 25 and was named Alika. After peaking as a moderately strong tropical storm on August 25, wind shear caused by the pre-Ele tropical depression and an upper-level low near Hawaii weakened the storm to a depression on August 27. Alika dissipated the next day, having never threatened land. ### Tropical Storm Genevieve A tropical wave formed Tropical Depression Nine-E on August 26. It was upgraded to a tropical storm and named Genevieve the next day. It moved westward and nearly strengthened to a hurricane, peaking in intensity on August 28. At that point, the cyclone encountered cooler waters, which caused it to weaken slowly, weakening to a depression on August 30. The depression hung on until it lost convection on the September 2. A swirl of remnant clouds persisted for a few more days. Genevieve had no impact on land, with no reports of casualties or damage being received by the National Hurricane Center. ### Hurricane Ele An eastern extension of the monsoon trough south of Hawaii organized into Tropical Depression Two-C on August 27 and strengthened into Tropical Storm Ele six hours later. Despite the nearby presence of Alika, Ele developed rapidly and strengthened into a hurricane on August 28. After contributing to the dissipation of Alika, Ele continued intensifying. It reached Category 2 intensity late on August 28 and quickly became a major hurricane six hours later. The hurricane then crossed the International Date Line and became a typhoon in the 2002 Pacific typhoon season. Typhoon Ele turned to the northwest after crossing the dateline and continued to strengthen. It reached Category 4 before turning north and weakening again. After briefly restrengthening back into a Category 4, the typhoon weakened and turned to the northwest. Ele was downgraded to a tropical storm on September 7, a depression on September 9, and then dissipated shortly afterwards. Ele did not affect land. ### Hurricane Hernan A weak wave in the ITCZ organized into Tropical Depression Ten-E on August 30. It headed west-northwest and quickly intensified into a tropical storm and eventually, a hurricane. Hernan then began rapidly deepening, reaching Category 5 intensity on September 1. It maintained that intensity for 12 hours before tracking over cooler waters. The storm weakened steadily, with wind shear contributing to its deterioration. Hernan then degenerated into a remnant low on September 6. The low turned to the southwest and dissipated three days later. Hernan passed close enough to Socorro Island to bring strong winds to the island. In addition, the hurricane's large and powerful wind field caused waves between 12 foot (3.7 m) and 20 foot (6.1 m) in height and strong rip currents on the southwest coast of California. Other than the aforementioned regions, Hernan had no significant impact on land. ### Tropical Depression Eleven-E Of the four tropical depressions this season that did not become named storms, only Eleven-E threatened land. An area of disturbed weather associated with a tropical wave formed into a tropical cyclone on September 5. It tracked northwestward, before turning southwest. It weakened into a remnant low on September 8. The remnant turned north and dissipated on September 10 offshore of the Baja California peninsula. The cyclone was nearly a tropical storm when it peaked on September 6. It was forecast to become a tropical storm and pass close to the peninsula. This prompted a tropical storm warning and a hurricane watch. With the weakening of the cyclone the watch and warning were discontinued. No damage or casualties were reported in association with this tropical cyclone. ### Tropical Storm Iselle Part of the same tropical wave that formed Tropical Depression Seven in the Atlantic basin organized into Tropical Depression Twelve-E on September 15. It strengthened further into Tropical Storm Iselle the next day. The storm headed northwest and paralleled the coast of Mexico, nearly strengthening into a hurricane late on September 17. While near its peak intensity, a trough abruptly recurved the system to the northeast. Wind shear also increased, and Iselle consequently fell apart on satellite imagery. It weakened to a depression on September 19. Iselle then degenerated into a remnant low the next day and rapidly degenerated, dissipating on September 20. Iselle never made landfall. Iselle threatened parts of southwestern Mexico and warnings and watches were issued for that area. Heavy rains were reported over parts of the Baja California Peninsula. The highest amount of rainfall was 6.16 inches (156 mm) at Guadeloupe and Mulege, Baja California Sur. There were no reports of damage or casualties. ### Tropical Storm Julio An area of convection and disturbed weather, possibly related to outflow from Hurricane Isidore in the Atlantic basin, developed a circulation on September 23 and organized into Tropical Depression Thirteen-E on September 25. The depression headed northward and strengthened into a tropical storm that same day. Julio turned to the northwest and peaked in intensity as a minimal tropical storm near Lázaro Cárdenas, Michoacán. On September 26, Julio made landfall. The storm rapidly dissipated over Mexico. Three fatalities were reported from Julio. However, in Guerrero, around 100 houses in Acapulco and Zihuatanejo were damaged or washed away by flash flooding. The highest rainfall reported was 16.10 inches (409 mm) at Zihuatanejo and La Unión, Guerrero. ### Hurricane Kenna A disturbance possibly associated with a tropical wave organized into Tropical Depression Fourteen-E on October 22. It strengthened into a tropical storm that same day and a hurricane on October 23. The next day, Kenna became the third Category 5 hurricane of the season. A trough over Mexico recurved the hurricane, and it started accelerating towards Mexico. Despite moving over waters that were still warm, wind shear weakened the system to a minimal Category 4 by the time of its landfall over Mexico late on October 25. Mountainous terrain rapidly weakened Kenna, and the system dissipated early on October 26. Hurricane Kenna was the third-strongest Pacific hurricane to make landfall on record. It was also the second-strongest October hurricane in any season, and the third strongest Pacific hurricane overall. In San Blas, Nayarit, 8,800 people were affected; 1,540 houses were damaged or destroyed, which was 80% to 90% of houses in the town. In Santiago Ixcuintla, 3,770 houses were damaged. Agriculture in the affected area was disrupted. Farmers required aid, and many fruit crops were destroyed. Tourism in Puerto Vallarta was disrupted, with much of the damage to hotels. Insurance companies reported that Kenna's total damage was \$96 million (2002 USD). Kenna killed four people in Mexico and injured over a hundred. The low death toll is likely due to massive evacuations in San Blas, Nayarit, and elsewhere ahead of the hurricane. ### Tropical Storm Lowell A weak tropical wave located over the open Pacific Ocean organized into Tropical Depression Fifteen-E on October 22. It strengthened into a tropical storm the next day. Shortly afterwards, wind shear increased. Lowell's convection was disrupted, and its center of circulation became exposed. The cyclone crossed into the Central Pacific Hurricane Center's area of responsibility on October 26. The shear relaxed, and the depression restrengthened into a tropical storm. Lowell drifted in slow steering currents until it approached Hurricane Huko. The proximity of Huko caused a gradual weakening in Lowell, and it dissipated on October 31. ### Hurricane Huko In late October, an active monsoon trough persisted south of Hawaii along 10°N latitude, developing an area of convection on October 24. Later that day, the disturbance was classified as Tropical Depression Three-C about 850 mi (1,370 km) south-southeast of Honolulu. Initially poorly organized, it moved to the north and steadily intensified, becoming Tropical Storm Huko early on October 26 while turning northwestward. Late on October 28, Huko reached hurricane strength, but its close proximity to Tropical Storm Lowell and a brief increase in wind shear weakened it back to a tropical storm on October 30. Shortly after turning to the west, conditions allowed for Huko to re-attain hurricane strength on October 31 while it was passing around 140 mi (225 km) south of Johnston Atoll. On November 2, a ridge caused the hurricane to accelerate, and the next day it crossed the International Date Line into the Western Pacific, becoming a typhoon. While passing near Johnston Atoll, the outer rainbands of the hurricane produced wind gusts up to 30 mph (48 km/h) and locally heavy rainfall. The remnants of Huko later reentered the basin, eventually affecting California. The system was responsible for heavy rains, causing flooding along a small stream in Bakersfield. Total damage was approximately \$23,000 (2002 USD). ### Tropical Depression Sixteen-E Tropical Depression Sixteen-E formed from a disturbance in the Intertropical Convergence Zone. Despite being located in a hostile environment, it managed to organize into a tropical depression on November 14. It was briefly forecast to strengthen into a tropical storm. However, wind shear prevented that from occurring. Consequently, the depression degenerated into a remnant low on November 16 and dissipated soon after that. ### Other systems In addition to the above systems, an area of convection persisted near a developing circulation about 575 mi (925 km) west-southwest of Johnston Atoll on July 18. An upper-level low to the northeast provided outflow, and the Joint Typhoon Warning Center issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert early on July 19. Although not classified by the CPHC, the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) remarked that a tropical depression had developed by early on July 20, just east of the International Date Line. Soon after, it crossed into the western Pacific and briefly intensified into Tropical Storm Kalmaegi. Also on October 30, the JMA indicated that Tropical Storm Maysak moved into the basin and became extratropical few hours later. ## Storm names The following names were used for named storms that form in the northeastern Pacific Ocean during 2002. Retired names, if any, will be announced by the World Meteorological Organization during the 25th session of the RA IV Hurricane Committee in the spring of 2003. The names not retired from this list will be used again in the 2008 season. This was the same list used in the 1996 season. For storms that form in the Central Pacific Hurricane Center's area of responsibility, encompassing the area between 140 degrees west and the International Date Line, all names are used in a series of four rotating lists. The next four names that were slated for use in 2002 are shown below, though only three of them were used during the season. ### Retirement On March 31, 2003, at the 25th session of the RA IV hurricane committee, the World Meteorological Organization retired the name Kenna from its rotating name lists due to the deaths and damages it caused, and it will not be used again for another Pacific hurricane. Kenna was replaced with Karina for the 2008 Pacific hurricane season. ## Season effects This is a table of all the storms that formed in the 2002 Pacific hurricane season. It includes their duration, names, intensities, areas affected, damages, and death totals. Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect (an example of an indirect death would be a traffic accident), but were still related to that storm. Damage and deaths include totals while the storm was extratropical, a wave, or a low, and all the damage figures are in 2002 USD. ## See also - Tropical cyclones in 2002 - List of Pacific hurricanes - Pacific hurricane season - 2002 Atlantic hurricane season - 2002 Pacific typhoon season - 2002 North Indian Ocean cyclone season - South-West Indian Ocean cyclone seasons: 2001–02, 2002–03 - Australian region cyclone seasons: 2001–02, 2002–03 - South Pacific cyclone seasons: 2001–02, 2002–03
67,437,431	Leonel Gómez Vides	1,139,178,439	Salvadoran political activist (1940–2009)	[ "1940 births", "2009 deaths", "People from Santa Ana, El Salvador", "Salvadoran human rights activists", "Salvadoran male writers" ]	Leonel Eugenio Gómez Vides (December 31, 1940 – November 25, 2009) was a Salvadoran political activist. Born into a wealthy family, Gómez worked on land reform issues on behalf of the poor. Following an assassination attempt in 1981, Gómez lived in exile in the United States for a number of years. While in exile, Gómez developed close relationships with American political figures such as Joe Moakley and Bill Walker. He returned to El Salvador in 1989 and helped broker the 1992 Chapultepec Peace Accords that ended the country's civil war. Gómez died in 2009 of a heart attack. ## Early life Gómez was born on December 31, 1940, in Santa Ana, El Salvador. He grew up in the coffee-farming region around the city, in a well-off family he once described as being descended from "conquistadors, priests, and pirates". The family plantation, Gómez recalled, "covered about 100 city blocks". As a teenager, Gómez attended several secondary schools and the University of Pennsylvania in the United States, but returned to El Salvador before graduating to take over the family's plantation after his father died. A good marksman, Gómez at one point served as the coach of the Salvadoran army Olympic rifle team. His deeds in the 1969 Football War against Honduras earned him lasting respect from some military officers. He was also a medal-winning motorcycle racer, winning the Central American championship in 1961. Gómez was married twice, to Eugenia B. Gómez and Teresa Arene; both marriages ended in divorce. Gómez and his first wife had two daughters. ## Political activist Gómez spent his adult life in a variety of roles as a political activist. Early in his career, he was involved in organizing peasant unions among El Salvador's campesinos, becoming a prominent figure in the Salvadoran Communal Union. Gómez eventually became the general manager and deputy director of ISTA (Instituto Salvadoreño de Transformación Agraria), the Salvadoran land reform agency. Author Thomas Anderson described Gómez as "the real organizer of the land-reform movement". Gómez came to know American poet Carolyn Forché through his cousin, the poet Claribel Alegría. He introduced Forché to El Salvador and served as a mentor during her extensive time in the country just before the Salvadoran Civil War began in 1979. As fighting worsened, Gómez battled corruption within ISTA and organized a June 1980 strike to press the issue. Since he was an advocate for land redistribution from large plantations to peasant co-operatives, Gómez alienated some members of his family, who considered him a class traitor. The historian Robert Wesson described him as a "maverick member of the upper classes". Gómez was viewed with suspicion by elements of both the left and right, as his political loyalties were hard to pin down, but nevertheless retained some trust from members in all factions. Fermán Cienfuegos, a guerilla leader, recalled that the FMLN affectionately nicknamed Gómez El Gordo. In 1981, Rodolfo Viera, his superior at ISTA, was murdered alongside two American advisors at the Sheraton hotel in El Salvador. Gómez narrowly avoided being murdered himself, as he was also supposed to attend the dinner at which Viera was killed, but had not received his invitation in time. He was arrested and accused of secretly being the communist guerrilla Comandante Santiago (whose real identity was actually Carlos Consalvi). Gómez was released, only to narrowly escape death squads sent the next day by hiding under a pile of garbage. Gómez subsequently spent time in exile in the United States. Working as an activist, Gómez was unable to persuade the US government to end its support for the authoritarian Salvadoran regime. However, he became known as an expert on the Salvadoran military. Gómez helped arrange public attention and pressure on the Salvadoran government with his extensive network of contacts in Washington, D.C. For instance, Gómez testified before the US Senate Subcommittee on Inter-American Affairs on March 11, 1981: > In conclusion, I ask you: Is this the kind of government you want to support? I ask you to think about the corruption, the bloodshed, the killings that have been perpetuated by the Salvadoran army time after time... What more do you need to know? How long will you have to wait until the American people rise up and tell you what everyone already knows? While in exile, Gómez developed close relationships with politicians such as Senator Pat Leahy, Congressman Joe Moakley, and future Representative Jim McGovern, then working as an aide to Moakley. Moakley and Gómez first met shortly after the American invasion of Panama; Gómez was initially skeptical about the sincerity of a fresh American effort to end the fighting in El Salvador. ### Return to El Salvador Returning to El Salvador in late 1989, Gómez at first lived in the American embassy compound for his safety, thanks to his friendship with the American ambassador, Bill Walker. Walker warned Salvadoran leaders that Gómez was not to be harmed at the risk of severe fallout in Washington. Gómez introduced Walker to political leaders in El Salvador, such as ARENA chief Roberto D'Aubuisson and Vice Minister of Defense Orlando Zepeda. Congressman Moakley subsequently hired him to help investigate the 1989 murders of Jesuits in El Salvador, as part of a US congressional commission, the Moakley Commission. Academic and historian Teresa Whitfield has described Gómez's role as "a back-channel bridge builder and conduit of information," a function which "was as useful to all concerned as it was unique." Journalist Stephen Kinzer described him as "one of the best-informed people in El Salvador," noting his "macho bravado". Gómez's work for the Moakley Commission led to a number of key breakthroughs, significantly increasing the pressure on El Salvador's government to come to a negotiated settlement with the rebels. In June 1991, working "quietly behind the scenes," he devised a meeting between Moakley, Walker, and the FMLN, that would be seen as a "turning point" in the peace process. Cienfuegos, a FMLN leader, had been skeptical that the American government was sincere about any peace agreement that included a governing role for the FMLN. Gómez arranged for Moakley to visit Santa Marta, a rebel-held area, in a sign of good faith, since there were fears of kidnap and the war was ongoing. Gómez's work played an important role in reaching the 1992 Chapultepec Peace Accords which ended the Salvadoran war. ## Later life In later years, Gómez became an analyst and commentator on organized crime in El Salvador. He also continued with labor organizing work, and raised charitable funds for libraries, orphanages, and campesinos in El Salvador. Gómez died of heart failure in a hospital in San Salvador on November 25, 2009. At his death, McGovern commented: "It's amazing to me that Leonel died of natural causes and wasn't murdered, given the hornet's nests he stirred up time and time again". Forché expressed a similar sentiment in her 2019 memoir What You Have Heard Is True, which centers on her friendship with Gómez. In 2019, Gómez was remembered by his brother-in-law as someone "accused of being a communist by the right and a CIA agent by the communists".
750,103	Kirk McLean	1,165,914,483	Canadian ice hockey player	[ "1966 births", "Canadian ice hockey coaches", "Canadian ice hockey goaltenders", "Carolina Hurricanes players", "Colorado Avalanche coaches", "Florida Panthers players", "Ice hockey people from North York", "Living people", "Maine Mariners (AHL) players", "National Hockey League All-Stars", "National Hockey League broadcasters", "New Jersey Devils draft picks", "New Jersey Devils players", "New York Rangers players", "Oshawa Generals players", "People from Willowdale, Toronto", "Vancouver Canucks players" ]	Kirk Alan McLean (born June 26, 1966) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey goaltender who played in the National Hockey League (NHL) for the New Jersey Devils, Vancouver Canucks, Carolina Hurricanes, Florida Panthers and New York Rangers. He played in the style of a stand-up goaltender. McLean played major junior hockey with the Oshawa Generals of the Ontario Hockey League (OHL) and was drafted in the sixth round, 107th overall by the Devils in 1984. He played with the Devils' American Hockey League (AHL) affiliate, the Maine Mariners, before being traded to the Canucks in 1987. He is best known for his 10 and a half seasons with the Canucks, during which time he was a finalist for two Vezina Trophies in 1989 and 1992, named to two NHL All-Star Games and received Second All-Star team honours. In 1994, he backstopped the Canucks to the seventh game of the Stanley Cup Finals against the Rangers. In 1998, he was traded away and spent the final three seasons of his career with the Hurricanes, Panthers and Rangers, before retiring in 2001. Since retiring, McLean has been a goaltending coach for the Kamloops Blazers of the Western Hockey League (WHL), worked in broadcasting with the Canucks' pay-per-view telecasts and became a part-owner of the British Columbia Hockey League (BCHL)'s Burnaby Express (now Coquitlam Express). He was involved in the restaurant business in Vancouver. He now works for the Vancouver Canucks as the Ambassador and is a boardmember of the Canuck Alumni Foundation. ## Early life McLean was born in North York, Ontario, on June 26, 1966, and is of Scottish and smaller Irish descent, in which his mask had his family's Scottish tartan on it. He grew up dreaming of playing for the Toronto Maple Leafs and looked up to NHL star Bernie Parent as a role model. Playing minor ice hockey in the Metro Toronto Hockey League (MTHL) with the Don Mills Flyers, he recorded a 2.01 goals against average (GAA) over 26 games in the 1982–83 season. He played in the 1979 Quebec International Pee-Wee Hockey Tournament with Don Mills. ## Playing career ### New Jersey Devils (1985–87) McLean played major junior in the Ontario Hockey League (OHL) for three seasons with the Oshawa Generals. Following his rookie season with the Generals, he was drafted by the New Jersey Devils in the 1984 NHL Entry Draft with their sixth pick, 107th overall. He debuted with the Devils in 1985–86, appearing in two games after being called up from Oshawa on April 2, 1986. McLean had to compete with numerous other goaltenders in the Devils' system for ice time. Following the club's 1987 training camp, he and Craig Billington were sent to their AHL affiliate, the Maine Mariners, while Karl Friesen and Chris Terreri were chosen to backup Alain Chevrier. Sean Burke was also in the Devils' system, although he was playing for the Canadian National Team at the beginning of the season. McLean was called up from Maine on December 19, 1986, after Friesen was released and Terreri was sidelined with the flu. He arrived in New Jersey three hours before game-time against the Washington Capitals that day. He appeared in relief of Chevrier after the starter allowed three goals in the first 81 seconds. McLean allowed one goal on 24 shots for the rest of the game while earning the win in a 6–4 comeback victory. He appeared in four games during his call-up before being reassigned on January 6, 1987. After his return to the AHL, McLean suffered an injury, damaging cartilage in his right knee during a game on February 15. The injury required arthroscopic surgery. He finished the campaign in Maine with a 15-23-4 record and 3.22 GAA in 45 games. While training in the off-season, McLean injured his left knee and underwent his second arthroscopic surgery on July 29, 1987. ### Vancouver Canucks (1987–98) #### Arrival to Stanley Cup run (1987–94) Leading up to the 1987–88 season, McLean was traded, along with Greg Adams and a second round choice (Leif Rohlin) in the 1988 NHL Entry Draft, to the Vancouver Canucks for centre Patrik Sundström and the Canucks' second- (Jeff Christian) and fourth-round draft picks (Matt Ruchty) in 1988, on September 15, 1987. The deal constituted the first major transactions by newly appointed Vancouver Canucks and New Jersey Devils general managers Pat Quinn and Lou Lamoriello, respectively. McLean's acquisition was an integral part of Vancouver's rebuilding process, led by Quinn. Within the next two years, McLean was joined in the Canucks organization by additional franchise cornerstones Trevor Linden and Pavel Bure. He became known to fans as "Captain Kirk", in reference to the Star Trek protagonist. McLean made 14 saves in his Canucks debut, recording an 8–2 win over the St. Louis Blues in the season opener on October 8, 1987. He notched his first NHL career shutout later that season on February 17, 1988, making 27 saves in a 5–0 win against the Pittsburgh Penguins. McLean split playing time with long-time Canucks starter Richard Brodeur in his first season in Vancouver, playing in 41 games with an 11-27-4 record, 3.71 GAA and .875 save percentage. He won his first of three Molson Cups with the Canucks at the end of the season, having earned the most three stars selections on the team. McLean emerged the following season in 1988–89 with a winning 20-17-3 record, 3.08 GAA and .891 save percentage. Early in the season, he returned to New Jersey in a game against the Devils and recorded a shutout against his former team in a 4–0 Canucks win on October 20, 1988. He went on to receive his first Vezina Trophy nomination as the league's best goaltender and finished third in voting, losing to Patrick Roy of the Montreal Canadiens. In 1989–90, McLean appeared in his first NHL All-Star Game in Pittsburgh and was the top goaltender at the Skills Competition by allowing the fewest goals against for the Breakaway Relay and Rapid Fire events. He led the league in games and minutes played with 63 and 3,738, respectively. McLean also set Canucks records with 1,797 shots against and 1,581 saves (both marks have since been surpassed). Backstopping the Canucks to 21 wins, 33 losses and 10 ties, he won his first Cyclone Taylor Trophy as Canucks MVP and second Molson Cup. Early in the 1990–91 season, McLean re-signed with the Canucks to a one-year contract with a second year option on October 16, 1990. He was set to make \$145,000 prior to re-organizing his contract for the season. McLean struggled in his fourth year with the Canucks, however, recording a career-worst 3.99 GAA with a 10-22-3 record in 41 games. McLean bounced back the following season in 1991–92, starting the season with five consecutive wins to be named league player of the week for October 3 to 13, 1991. He set an NHL record for wins in October with nine (McLean's mark was matched by the Toronto Maple Leafs' Felix Potvin and Philadelphia Flyers' Dominic Roussel in October 1993 and surpassed by the Detroit Red Wings' Manny Legace's 10 wins in October 2005); he was named player of the month. Another season and historic highlight for McLean occurred at the Montreal Forum on December 4 when he stopped 45 shots in a 3–0 win, not only earning him his third shutout of the season but also the Canucks first shutout against the Montreal Canadiens in franchise history; the performance garnered a standing ovation from Canadiens' fans in attendance. McLean went on to lead the league with five shutouts (tied with the Chicago Blackhawks' Ed Belfour, the Canadiens' Patrick Roy and the Winnipeg Jets' Bob Essensa) and 38 wins in 65 games (tied with the Red Wings' Tim Cheveldae), as Vancouver won their first Smythe Division title since 1975. He appeared in his second All-Star Game, won his second Cyclone Taylor Trophy and was named to the second All-Star team. He earned his second Vezina Trophy nomination, finishing second in voting as Roy won the award once more. He recorded personal bests with a 2.74 GAA and 38 wins, the latter of which set a Canucks single-season goaltending record. (The mark stood for 15 years before Roberto Luongo recorded 47 wins in 2006–07.) In the subsequent 1992 playoffs, McLean recorded his first post-season shutout by stopping 33 shots in a 5–0 win against the Winnipeg Jets in game seven of the opening round. The win eliminated the Jets after the Canucks overcame a 3–1 series deficit. McLean appeared in 54 games in 1992–93, posting a 28-21-3 record. He recorded three shutouts, which included back-to-back blankings in January 1993. Playing against the Los Angeles Kings in the second round of the 1993 playoffs, McLean recorded his 15th playoff win in a 7–2 Game 4 victory, establishing himself as the winningest playoff goaltender in Canucks history. The Canucks were, however, eliminated in six games by Los Angeles, the eventual Western Conference champions. Towards the end of the 1993–94 season, McLean became a part of hockey history in a game against the Los Angeles Kings on March 23, 1994, by allowing Wayne Gretzky's 802nd career NHL goal. The goal broke Gordie Howe's record of 801, making Gretzky the all-time leading goal-scorer in NHL history. Despite allowing the historic goal, the Canucks won the game 6–3. McLean finished the season with a losing 23–26–3 record, as the Canucks finished with the seventh seed in the Western Conference. McLean's peak with the Canucks came during the subsequent 1994 Stanley Cup playoffs, when he backstopped them to the seventh game of the Stanley Cup Finals. Facing the Calgary Flames in the opening round, he made one of the most memorable plays in Canucks and NHL playoff history – a series saving stop on Flames forward Robert Reichel during the first overtime of the seventh game. Reichel had one-timed a pass from Theoren Fleury on a 3-on-1 when McLean threw out both his pads to make the stop and preserve the series. With McLean out of position and Reichel having had an open net to shoot at, the red light even came on at the Olympic Saddledome to signal a goal. The following overtime, Bure scored to eliminate the Flames and advance the Canucks to the second round. Vancouver defeated the Dallas Stars the following round to advance to the semi-finals against the Toronto Maple Leafs. McLean posted back-to-back shutouts against the Leafs in the third and fourth games to tie the NHL playoff record of four shutouts in a single year (the New York Rangers' Mike Richter also recorded four that year; they became the seventh and eighth goaltenders to tie the record. Five more goaltenders went on to record four shutouts until the Red Wings' Dominik Hašek broke the record with six in 2002). He also became the first goaltender to record back-to-back shutouts in the semifinals since the Red Wings' Terry Sawchuk did so against the Maple Leafs in 1952. McLean's shutout streak lasted a total of 143 minutes and 17 seconds. The Canucks went on to capture the Clarence S. Campbell Bowl as Western Conference champions to meet the New York Rangers in the Finals. McLean opened the series with a 52-save performance, including 17 in overtime, to win the first game 3–2. It was the second-most saves by a goaltender in a Stanley Cup Finals game, coming within four stops of Canadiens goaltender Ken Dryden's 56 saves in 1971 against the Chicago Blackhawks. It also remained the most saves by a Canucks goaltender in a playoff game until Luongo made 72 stops in 2007. Canucks head coach Pat Quinn commented after the game that McLean's performance should be sent "in an instructional package...to young goaltender[s]." Although the Canucks managed to force a game seven after falling 3–1 in the series, they eventually lost the Stanley Cup to the Rangers by a 3–2 score in the final game. McLean finished the 1994 playoffs with a 15–9 record, a 2.29 GAA and .928 save percentage. His 1,544 minutes played, 820 shots against and 761 saves all set playoff records (they have since been surpassed). #### Post-lockout to trade (1994–97) The following lockout-shortened 1994–95 season, McLean appeared in 40 of the Canucks' 48 games and recorded all 18 wins for the team. Winning his third and final Molson Cup, he posted a career-high .904 save percentage along with a 2.75 GAA. Before the season ended, McLean signed a five-year contract extension that included the 1994–95 season, worth an approximate \$2.4 million per season, on April 5, 1995. Vancouver failed to defend their Western Conference title of the previous year's playoffs, however, as the Chicago Blackhawks swept them in the second round. McLean's play began to slip in 1995–96 as his GAA inflated to 3.54 and he recorded a losing 15-21-9 record. He was sidelined for six weeks during the season, beginning in January 1996, due to a cartilage tear in his left knee that required arthroscopic surgery. Rookie Corey Hirsch, who began the season as McLean's backup, in comparison recorded a 2.93 GAA and a 17-14-6 record. McLean was chosen to start in the opening series against the top-seeded Colorado Avalanche, but was pulled in favour of Hirsch during Game 1 after allowing three goals on 12 shots. The game marked McLean's final playoff appearance of his career as Hirsch played the remaining five games. The Avalanche eliminated Vancouver in six games and went on to win the Stanley Cup. McLean reinjured his knee during the 1996–97 season during a game against the Dallas Stars on November 11, 1996. He missed approximately a month after undergoing his second arthroscopic surgery of the year in mid-November 1996. McLean and Hirsch continued to share starts in 1996–97, as McLean appeared in 44 games with a 21-18-3 record and 3.21 GAA. ### Post-Vancouver (1998–2001) McLean's tenure with the Canucks ended the following season in 1997–98. Pat Quinn was dismissed as general manager early in the campaign and was replaced by a four-man committee of team executives. On the recommendation of newly hired head coach Mike Keenan, the management team dealt McLean to the Carolina Hurricanes on January 3, 1998. He was sent in a trade, along with winger Martin Gélinas, in exchange for goaltender Sean Burke, winger Geoff Sanderson and defenceman Enrico Ciccone. After ten-and-a-half seasons in Vancouver, McLean left as the franchise's all-time leader in regular season games played (516), wins (211) and shutouts (20), as well as playoff games played (68), wins (34) and shutouts (6). (Luongo surpassed McLean's regular season shutouts total with his 21st on October 26, 2009.) McLean's departure marked the beginning of an unstable period of time for Canucks goaltending. In the seven-and-a-half seasons between the time McLean was traded away and Luongo was acquired by the Canucks, a total of 18 goaltenders played for the club. General manager Brian Burke, who succeeded the four-man committee, coined the term "goalie graveyard" during his time in Vancouver to describe the club's goaltending fortunes. McLean entered his first game with the Hurricanes with the NHL's worst GAA at 3.68, but helped his new club to a 4–1 win to record his first victory with Carolina. His tenure in Carolina was brief, as the Hurricanes traded him after eight appearances to the Florida Panthers for forward Ray Sheppard on March 24, 1998. He made his debut with the Panthers two days later on March 26 and recorded a 5–4 win against the Canadiens. The following season, McLean recorded his first shutout with the Panthers in a 1–0 win against the Nashville Predators. He went on to match his personal best 2.74 GAA in his first and only full season with the Panthers in 1998–99, playing in 30 games as Sean Burke's backup. The following off-season, he signed a two-year deal, worth an approximate \$1.64 million with bonus incentives for games played, as an unrestricted free agent with the New York Rangers on July 13, 1999. McLean was brought in to replace Dan Cloutier, who had been traded away, as Mike Richter's backup. McLean was forced to switch his number upon joining the club, as his customary number 1 was retired in honor of Ed Giacomin, he opted to wear number 30. McLean was thrust into the starter's role in the first month of the 1999–2000 season, as Richter was sidelined with back problems early He made his Rangers debut in the season opener, making 25 saves in a 2–1 loss on October 5, 1999. He completed the season with a 2.89 GAA in 22 games. The following campaign in 2000–01, McLean's GAA rose to 3.49 GAA in 23 games. After two seasons in New York and 17 seasons in the NHL overall, McLean retired in 2001. ## International play Over the course of his career, McLean represented Canada in international competition once. On March 28, 1990, McLean was among the players named to Canada's roster for the 1990 World Championships in Bern and Fribourg, Switzerland. McLean was given the role of starting goaltender, with Ken Wregget serving as his backup. Canada won its first four-round robin games with McLean in net, including an 8–0 shutout victory versus Norway in which McLean split goaltending duties with Wregget, thus clinching a spot in the medal round. As the round robin continued, Canada added to their perfect record with a 5–3 victory over Czechoslovakia in which McLean stopped 25 of 28 shots for the victory. McLean started Canada's next game, a 3–1 victory versus Sweden, but was replaced in the second period by third string goaltender Bob Essensa who had yet to play in the tournament. Following a 3–3 tie with the Soviet Union, Canada clinched first place in the round robin. The game was one of McLean's best of the tournament, as he managed to keep the Soviet Union at bay during the third period in which they had a 14–2 margin in shots on goal. After suffering a 3–2 loss versus Czechoslovakia in the opening game of the medal round, Canada opted to start Essensa versus the Soviet Union. Essensa let in four early goals before being replaced by McLean, who let in another three in a 7–1 loss to move Canada out of contention for the gold medal. In the final game of the tournament versus Sweden, Canada suffered a 6–4 loss and finished fourth overall for the tournament, missing out on their opportunity for a bronze medal that would have come with a win versus Sweden. ## Post-playing career Following McLean's retirement, he was hired as a goaltending coach for the Kamloops Blazers of the WHL. He served in that capacity for one season, in 2002–03. McLean also returned to the Canucks organization as a broadcaster for the team's pay-per-view telecasts. McLean has also pursued the restaurant business in Vancouver, British Columbia. He co-owns McLean's restaurant (opened June 24, 2010), the result of buying out other owners of So.cial at Le Magasin, a restaurant in the Gastown neighbourhood that opened in April 2007, with his former Canucks head coach, Bob McCammon. McLean is also a part-owner in the Coquitlam Express, a Junior A team in the BCHL. The ownership group includes several other former NHLers, including Darcy Rota, Bill Ranford and Dave Lowry. From Sept 3, 2010, to May 14, 2013, McLean served as Colorado Avalanche's goaltending consultant;. During the 2010–11 season, McLean was honoured by the Canucks in a ceremony prior to a game against the Avalanche on November 25, 2010. The organization made him the second inductee of the Canucks' Ring of Honour, commemorating the team's best players of all-time with plaques circling the Rogers Arena stands. McLean was named to BC's Hockey Hall of Fame on Jan 22, 2014. ## Personal life Following his retirement, McLean moved back to Vancouver, where he joined the Canucks' alumni squad. The group is active in the local community, participating in fundraisers and working alongside Hockey Canada and BC Hockey for minor hockey associations. In September 2011, his off-ice efforts as a member of the Canucks' alumni were recognized and he was presented the Jake Milford Award. McLean has pursued various interests besides hockey during and after his playing career. An avid golfer, he is part of the Marine Drive Golf Club in Vancouver and the Nicklaus North Golf Club in Whistler. He was also accepted into the Royal Portrush Golf Club in Northern Ireland in 2008. McLean began playing regularly at the age of 10. Involved in thoroughbred horse racing, he co-owned Regal Discovery, a colt who won the 136th Queen's Plate in 1995, with his wife Lesley and her parents Anne and Ron. McLean and Lesley have since divorced. He was also briefly married to Canadian journalist Jane MacDougall, a columnist for the National Post newspaper. He is now married to ex-model and media account consultant Genevieve Duford, living together in Vancouver. 2017/05/19 ## Career statistics ### Regular season and playoffs ### International ### All-Star Games ## Awards ### NHL ### Vancouver Canucks ## Vancouver Canucks records ### All-time - Regular season games played, goaltender - 516 - Regular season wins, goaltender - 211 - Regular season losses, goaltender – 228 - Playoff games played, goaltender - 68 - Playoff wins, goaltender - 34 - Playoff losses, goaltender – 34 - Playoff shutouts - 6 ### Single-season - Playoff wins – 15 (1994) - Playoff shutouts – 4 (1994) (tied with Roberto Luongo, 2011) - Playoff shots against – 820 (1994) - Playoff saves – 761 (1994) - Playoff minutes played – 1,543 (1994) ## Transactions - June 9, 1984 – Drafted in the sixth round, 107th overall by the New Jersey Devils in the 1984 NHL Entry Draft. - September 15, 1987 – Traded by the New Jersey Devils with Greg Adams and the Devils' second round selection (Leif Rohlin) in the 1988 NHL Entry Draft to the Vancouver Canucks for Patrik Sundstrom, the Canucks' second round selection (Jeff Christian) in the 1988 NHL Entry Draft, and the Canucks' fourth round selection (Matt Ruchty) in the 1988 NHL Entry Draft. - January 3, 1998 – Traded by the Vancouver Canucks with Martin Gélinas to the Carolina Hurricanes for Sean Burke, Enrico Ciccone, and Geoff Sanderson. - March 24, 1998 – Traded by the Carolina Hurricanes to the Florida Panthers for Ray Sheppard. - July 13, 1999 – Signed as an unrestricted free agent by the New York Rangers.
15,512,751	Franklin Matthias	1,115,714,700	American nuclear engineer (1908–1993)	[ "1908 births", "1993 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "American civil engineers", "American military engineers", "Engineers from Wisconsin", "Hanford Site people", "Manhattan Project people", "Military personnel from Wisconsin", "People from Ashland County, Wisconsin", "Recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (US Army)", "United States Army colonels", "United States Army personnel of World War II", "University of Wisconsin–Madison College of Engineering alumni" ]	Franklin Thompson Matthias (13 March 1908 – 3 December 1993) was an American civil engineer who directed the construction of the Hanford nuclear site, a key facility of the Manhattan Project during World War II. A graduate of the University of Wisconsin–Madison, Matthias joined the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) as a Junior Hydraulic Engineer in 1935 and worked on hydroelectric projects. In April 1941, he was called to active duty by the United States Army and joined the Construction Division of the Army Corps of Engineers. He was area engineer at the Manhattan Project's Hanford site from 1942 to 1945. As such, he supervised the enormous construction effort, which included three chemical separation plants so large that they were known as "Queen Marys", and the world's first three production-scale nuclear reactors. After the war, Matthais went to Brazil, where he helped build a hydroelectric facility. He joined the Aluminum Company of Canada (Alcan) in 1951, and was involved in the construction of its Kemano-Kitimat hydroelectric dam and aluminum smelter project in northern British Columbia and the Chute-des-Passes project in Quebec. He was a vice president at Kaiser Engineering from 1960 to 1973. ## Early life Franklin Thompson Matthias was born in Glidden, Wisconsin, on 13 March 1908, the son of Franklin Herman Matthias and Christina Thompson. He had two older brothers, Harold and Norman, and a younger brother, Carl. In 1928 he became an instructor in Topographical and Hydraulic Engineering at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, from which he received his Bachelor of Science (B.S.) degree in civil engineering in 1931, and his Master of Science (M.S.) degree in civil engineering in 1933. While there, he joined the Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC). In 1930 and 1931, he was editor of the Wisconsin Engineer, and president of the university YMCA. He was a member of Tau Beta Pi, Phi Kappa Phi and Scabbard and Blade, and was a national officer of Chi Epsilon from 1931 to 1942. On 1 August 1933, Matthias married Reva Baumgarten, a fellow graduate of the University of Wisconsin, who taught speech therapy in schools in Beloit, Wisconsin. In 1935, he was hired by the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) as a Junior Hydraulic Engineer, and worked on hydroelectric and hydraulic problems and on construction, planning and plant design. He left the TVA in 1939, and spent a year working with a contractor on dredging the Tennessee River. In 1940 and 1941, he worked for the A. L. Johnson Construction Company, and on tunnels and aqueducts for the Dravo Corporation. ## World War II In April 1941, Matthias was called to active duty by the United States Army as a first lieutenant, and joined the Construction Division of the Army Corps of Engineers, where he received rapid promotion. On 14 December 1942, as a 34-year-old lieutenant colonel, he accompanied Colonel Kenneth Nichols to Wilmington, Delaware, to discuss the location of a proposed plutonium production plant with representatives of DuPont. At this point, Matthias had not yet been assigned to the Manhattan Project, whose mission was to build an atomic bomb, but he had worked on some special studies for it, and had worked with its director, Brigadier General Leslie R. Groves, Jr., on the construction of The Pentagon. He was already Groves's choice for area engineer for the plutonium project. Initially, the intention had been to locate the plutonium plant with the Manhattan Project's other production facilities at the Clinton Engineer Works in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, but concerns had arisen about the dangers of an atomic explosion, and Knoxville lay only 20 miles (32 km) away. A larger site was required where facilities could be separated from each other. It had to be in a sparsely populated but accessible area with access to abundant water and electric power. When he returned from the meeting, Matthias was met by Groves, who instructed him to take a survey team and find a suitable site. Matthias surveyed four sites in California and Washington, and chose the area around Richland, Washington. Matthias later recalled that: > As far as my working relationship with Du Pont was concerned, of course, we had differences from day one. I was fortunate that Gil Church and Walt Simon (Du Pont's project construction manager and operations manager) were people I could deal with and respect, and we had a very good working relationship. I remember one time Granville Read (Du Pont's assistant chief engineer) called up Groves and said Matthias and Church were having a big argument about something and what should we do? Groves replied, "Well, if those two guys don't have some arguments, then neither of them are worth a damn." Because of the isolation of the site, known as the Hanford Engineer Works, Matthias exercised more administrative autonomy than the Manhattan Project's other area engineers. The number of personnel assigned to his office grew to over 500 in 1944. Construction work commenced on the 400,000-acre (160,000 ha) site in April 1943. The size of the construction work force eventually reached 44,900 in June 1944; over 150,000 workers were employed at the site between 1943 and 1946. The scale of the task was enormous. Matthias supervised the construction of 554 buildings, 386 miles (621 km) of roads, 158 miles (254 km) of railroad track, three chemical separation plants and the world's first three production-scale nuclear reactors. The 800-foot-long (240 m) chemical separation plants, where the plutonium was separated from uranium slugs that had been irradiated in the reactors, were so large that they were known as "Queen Marys", after the ocean liner. Because the slugs were dangerously radioactive, the Queen Marys had concrete walls 7 feet (2.1 m) thick, and operations were by remote control. The first production batch of uranium slugs were dissolved at the separation plant on 26 December 1944, and in January 1945 Matthias personally couriered the first batch of plutonium nitrate to Los Angeles, where he handed it over to another courier, who took it to the Los Alamos Laboratory. Plutonium from Hanford would be used in the Fat Man bomb used in the bombing of Nagasaki. For his wartime services, he was awarded the Distinguished Service Medal. ## Later life Matthias left the Army in 1946 and went to Brazil as a project manager for the construction for a hydroelectric facility, eventually becoming the Manager of Engineering at Brazilian Traction. Late in 1951 he joined the Aluminum Company of Canada (Alcan) as the Project Manager of Engineering and Construction of the Kemano-Kitimat hydroelectric dam and aluminum smelter project in northern British Columbia. In 1956 he moved to Montreal as its Director of Engineering, and worked on the Chute-des-Passes project. In 1960 he joined Kaiser Engineering in Oakland, California, as its Vice President for heavy construction and hydroelectric engineering, and was its Vice President of transportation projects from 1970 to 1973. He retired in 1973 at the age of 65. Matthias was a Registered Professional Engineer in Wisconsin, California, Nebraska, Pennsylvania, and British Columbia. For some years after his retirement he remained active as a consultant, working for firms including Kaiser Engineering, Pacific Gas and Electric, Louisiana Pacific and Bechtel. He was a member of the Advisory Board of the California Water Resources Association, the Committee on Large Dams, Committee on Construction of Nuclear Facilities, and the American Society of Civil Engineers. He also wrote the chapter on "Construction Services" in the Handbook of Heavy Construction (1971). In 1993, he was informed that he had cancer of the lungs, liver and pancreas. He died six week later, on 3 December 1993, at a nursing home in Walnut Creek, California. He was survived by his son Michael and younger brother Carl. His second wife, Mary Teresa Benderska, whom he had married on 29 October 1948, had died in 1986, and his daughter Gelen Christine had died in 1965. His papers are in the Hagley Museum and Library in Wilmington, Delaware.
70,467,139	2022 EFL League Two play-off final	1,170,272,482	Association football match	[ "2022 English Football League play-offs", "2022 sports events in London", "EFL League Two play-off finals", "Events at Wembley Stadium", "Mansfield Town F.C. matches", "May 2022 sports events in the United Kingdom", "Port Vale F.C. matches" ]	The 2022 EFL League Two play-off Final was an association football match which was played on 28 May 2022 at Wembley Stadium, London, to determine the fourth and final team to gain promotion from EFL League Two, the fourth tier of English football, to EFL League One. The top three teams of the League Two, Forest Green Rovers, Exeter City and Bristol Rovers, gained automatic promotion to League One, while the clubs placed from fourth to seventh in the table took part in the 2022 English Football League play-offs. Port Vale and Mansfield Town competed for the final place in the 2022–23 season in League One. Jarred Gillett was the referee for the match, which was played in front of 37,303 spectators. Port Vale took the lead midway through the first half through Kian Harratt and doubled their advantage four minutes later when James Wilson scored. Mansfield Town's Oliver Hawkins was then sent off after being shown two yellow cards in the space of five minutes to reduce his team to ten players. Port Vale had two goals disallowed for offside before Mal Benning scored with five minutes to go to secure a 3–0 win for his side. Wilson was named man of the match. ## Route to the final Port Vale finished the regular 2021–22 season in fifth place in EFL League Two, the fourth tier of the English football league system, two places and one point ahead of Mansfield Town. Both therefore missed out on the three automatic places for promotion to EFL League One and instead took part in the play-offs to determine the fourth promoted team. Port Vale finished two points behind Bristol Rovers (who were promoted in third place) and six behind both second-placed Exeter City and league winners Forest Green Rovers. Northampton Town dropped to fourth position in the table on the final day of regular season despite winning 3–1 at Barrow, as Bristol Rovers defeated bottom club Scunthorpe United 7–0 to secure automatic promotion on goals scored. Mansfield Town faced fourth-placed Northampton Town in their play-off semi-final with the first match of the two-legged tie being held at the One Call Stadium in Mansfield on 14 May 2022. Rhys Oates gave the home side an early lead when he struck the ball into the Northampton Town goal through goalkeeper Jonny Maxted's legs. Jordan Bowery then scored in the 31st minute from a Jamie Murphy cross to double Mansfield Town's lead. Midway through the second half, Northampton Town halved the deficit when Ali Koiki scored after a pass from Louis Appéré, and the match ended 2–1. The second leg took place four days later at Sixfields Stadium in Northampton. Steve McLaughlin gave the visiting side the lead in the 31st minute, from an Elliott Hewitt cross, to extend Mansfield Town's aggregate lead. Despite dominating possession, Northampton Town failed to score and the match ended 1–0, with Mansfield Town progressing to the play-off final 3–1 on aggregate. In the other play-off semi-final, Port Vale faced Swindon Town and the first leg was played on 15 May 2022 at the County Ground in Swindon. Midway through the first half, Harry McKirdy gave the home side the lead, scoring with a header from a corner from Jonny Williams. He doubled his side's advantage in the 68th minute: Port Vale goalkeeper Aidan Stone saved a shot from Jack Payne but the ball rebounded to McKirdy who scored. With seven minutes remaining, Port Vale scored through James Wilson who tapped the ball into the Swindon Town goal from a Jamie Proctor shot, and the match ended 2–1 to Swindon Town. The return leg took place at Vale Park, Stoke-on-Trent, four days later. Eight minutes into the match, Kian Harratt crossed the ball for Port Vale's Wilson to score, to level the tie 2–2 on aggregate. No further goals were scored in regular time, and the match went into extra time, during which Darrell Clarke, the Port Vale manager, was sent off after an altercation with Dion Conroy. No additional goals were scored so the game had to be decided with a penalty shoot-out. Swindon Town goalkeeper Lewis Ward saved penalties from both David Worrall and Ryan Edmondson but McKirdy's strike went high over the crossbar. Stone then saved Josh Davison's penalty before Mal Benning scored Port Vale's sixth spot-kick to make it 6–5. Ellis Iandolo's penalty was off-target and Port Vale won the shoot-out to qualify for the final. After the shoot-out, a crowd of supporters invaded the pitch, with Swindon Town manager Ben Garner stating that his players had been "verbally and physically abused". ## Match ### Background This was Mansfield Town's second appearance in a play-off final, having lost on penalties to Huddersfield Town in the 2004 Football League Third Division play-off final. They had played in the fourth tier of English football since gaining promotion back to the English Football League after winning the Football Conference in the 2012–13 season. This was Mansfield Town's first visit to Wembley Stadium since losing 1–0 against Darlington in the 2011 FA Trophy Final. Port Vale had participated in play-off finals twice before, winning the two-legged 1989 Football League Third Division play-off final against Bristol Rovers, and losing the 1993 Football League Second Division play-off final 3–0 against West Bromwich Albion at the old Wembley stadium. They had played in League Two since being relegated from League One in the 2016–17 season. This year's play-off final marked Port Vale's first appearance at the renovated Wembley Stadium. In the league games between the sides during the regular season, Port Vale secured a 1–1 draw away at the One Call Stadium in October 2021 before winning 3–1 at home the following March. Going into the final, Wilson was Port Vale's top scorer with 14 goals in 46 matches, followed by Proctor on 13 goals in 33 games. Oates was the leading scorer for Mansfield Town, having scored 12 goals in 44 games, followed by Bowery on 9 goals in 46 matches. In May 2022, the EFL announced that for the first time, the video assistant referee (VAR) system would be used at all play-off finals. The referee for the final was Jarred Gillett, who was assisted by Neil Davies and Nick Greenhalgh. James Linnington was the fourth official while Peter Bankes acted as the VAR. Before the match, Mansfield Town's manager Nigel Clough confirmed that neither he nor Clarke were consulted about the introduction of VAR. Port Vale made no changes to their starting eleven from the side who played in the second leg of the play-off semi-final while Mansfield brought in Murphy and Matty Longstaff. Mansfield Town wore gold shirts, navy shorts and gold socks while Port Vale's kit comprised white shirts, shorts and socks. Port Vale manager Clarke had returned from bereavement leave 22 days before the final and upon winning the play-off semi-final stated that: "We've got one more game to go against Mansfield, which is fitting because it's where my eldest daughter came from ... it's the town where I was born ... it'll be an emotional day but I'm looking forward to the final." Andy Crosby, Port Vale's assistant manager, led his side out for the final, having covered for Clarke during his absence earlier in the season. ### Summary Mansfield Town kicked off the match at around 4.00 p.m. on 28 May 2022 in front of 37,303 supporters at Wembley Stadium, London. In the ninth minute, Murphy took advantage of a mistake between Port Vale's goalkeeper Stone and James Gibbons but his header was saved by Stone. Seven minutes later, Hall headed the ball back into his own penalty area forcing Stone to make a clearance. On 19 minutes, John-Joe O'Toole conceded possession of the ball midway inside his own half allowing Port Vale's Ben Garrity to pass to Harratt whose long-range shot struck the bottom of the Mansfield Town goalpost. A minute later, Port Vale took the lead when Benning's cross was headed into the Mansfield Town goal at close range by Harratt. In the 24th minute, Port Vale doubled their lead through Wilson: Worrall crossed from the right and Garrity's header struck the Mansfield Town crossbar, rebounding to Wilson who scored. In the 30th minute, Hawkins received the first booking of the game for a foul on Port Vale's Nathan Smith. Four minutes later, Benning's shot was saved at the near post by Mansfield Town's goalkeeper Nathan Bishop. Hawkins was then sent off in the 35th minute after receiving his second yellow card in the space of five minutes, this time for a late tackle on Wilson. With three minutes of regular time in the half remaining, Connor Hall cleared a close-range shot from Bowery after a mistake from Stone. Hewitt became the second Mansfield Town player to be booked when he fouled Jake Taylor in the 44th minute before Benning's free kick was headed wide of the Mansfield Town goal. In first-half injury time, James Perch was shown a yellow card for late tackle on Garrity but the resulting free kick Wilson went narrowly outside the post. Bishop then saved from Wilson and the half came to an end with Port Vale leading 2–0. Neither side made any changes to their playing personnel during the interval. In the 52nd minute, Taylor's volley from just outside the Mansfield Town penalty area went wide of the goalpost. Two minutes later, Mansfield Town made the first substitution of the match with George Lapslie coming on to replace Murphy. On the hour mark, McLaughlin's strike went wide of Port Vale's goal. Soon after, Harratt shot the ball from close range into the Mansfield Town net but the goal was disallowed as he was adjudged to have been offside. In the 66th minute, Mansfield Town made their second change, with George Maris replacing Longstaff. A minute later, former Mansfield Town player Harry Charsley came on in place of Taylor in Port Vale's first substitution of the game. In the 70th minute, Port Vale had a second disallowed goal after Charsley struck the ball into the net from a curling Worrall cross: the recent substitute was deemed to have been offside. Two minutes later Stone saved a shot from Oates who also saw a 74th minute strike go wide of the Port Vale goal. With fourteen minutes of the match remaining, Proctor replaced Harratt for Port Vale in their second substitution. Three minutes later Lucas Akins came on for Mansfield Town's last substitution, in place of Stephen Quinn. In the 85th minute, Benning made it 3–0 to Port Vale after volleying in a cross from Worrall. Aaron Martin then replaced Worrall in Port Vale's final substitution of the game. After three minutes of injury time, the final whistle was blown and Port Vale won the match 3–0 to secure promotion to League One. ### Details ## Post-match Reflecting on the season and his personal life, Port Vale manager Clarke said "With all we’ve come through, to put in that performance in the manner we did was outstanding." Mansfield Town manager Nigel Clough said "We didn't give ourselves a chance" and noted that he would not be watching his former side Nottingham Forest in the 2022 EFL Championship play-off final, claiming "I don’t care if I don’t see another football game for the foreseeable future". Wilson was named as man of the match.
4,579,043	Clifton Down railway station	1,160,828,235	Railway station in Bristol, England	[ "Clifton, Bristol", "DfT Category F2 stations", "Former Clifton Extension Railway stations", "Grade II listed buildings in Bristol", "Grade II listed railway stations", "Railway stations in Bristol", "Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1874", "Railway stations served by Great Western Railway" ]	Clifton Down railway station is on the Severn Beach line and serves the district of Clifton in Bristol, England. It is 3.9 miles (6.3 km) from Bristol Temple Meads. Its three letter station code is CFN. The station has two platforms, each serving trains in one direction only. As of 2015 it is managed by Great Western Railway, which is the third franchise to be responsible for the station since privatisation in 1997. They provide all train services at the station, mainly a train every 30 minutes in each direction. The station was opened in 1874 by the Great Western and Midland Railways as part of the Clifton Extension Railway, designed to connect the port of Avonmouth to the national rail network. The station had a large gothic revival building on the Bristol-bound platform, with smaller passenger facilities on the opposite platform and a goods yard beyond. Between 1903 and 1930 the station employed an average of 22 staff. Excursion trains were a regular sight, bringing people to nearby Bristol Zoo. The Severn Beach Line declined over the latter half of the twentieth century, with passenger numbers falling significantly. Goods services at Clifton Down ended in 1965, and all staff were withdrawn in 1967. The line was largely reduced to single track in 1970, leaving Clifton Down as one of the few passing places. Services had decreased to ten per day each direction by 2005, but have since increased to a train every 30 minutes in each direction. ## History ### Joint railway era The Clifton Extension Railway was opened from Narroways Hill Junction to Clifton Down as a joint venture between the Great Western Railway and Midland Railway to connect their main lines to the Bristol Port Railway and Pier in the Avon Gorge. Clifton Down railway station opened on 1 October 1874, when passenger services began, and was for a while the terminal station. It was the second station along the line from Narroways Hill Junction where the Extension Railway left the Bristol and South Wales Union Railway's main line to Wales. It remained the second station until Redland was opened in 1897. The line was built at standard gauge. The station was built by Messrs Baker & Son of Canon's Marsh, Bristol. The buildings, constructed in a Gothic Revival style, cost £20,000, with the main buildings on the northern platform. There was a large booking hall with sizeable fireplaces at each end. Pointed ground floor doorways gave access to the hall, which was adjacent to the booking offices and waiting rooms. It is believed that the station master's lodgings in this building were never used as such. A wide carriage drive led down to the northern platform, which was linked to the southern platform by a glass-covered footbridge. There was originally no waiting room on the southern platform, but one was built in October 1898. The platforms were mostly covered by "ridge and furrow" glass roofs, supported by iron columns. The station was flooded in August 1883, which resulted in the installation of extra drainage. There was a large goods yard to the south of the platforms, accessed from the west, with a 28-lever signal box at the west end of the southern platform. The initial service provided at Clifton Down by the Midland Railway was to Fishponds and Mangotsfield, where passengers could change for services to Bath, Birmingham and other Midland destinations. The Great Western provided services from Clifton Down to Bristol Temple Meads, the city's major station, where passengers could change for trains to London, Exeter and Wales, among others. The Great Western also provided occasional through services to Weston-super-Mare. There were a total of 23 trains in each direction between the two companies Monday-Saturday. On Sundays, there was no Midland service, but seven Great Western trains. The fare to Temple Meads was 6d first-class and 3d third-class. The Clifton Down Tunnel, the final link to the Bristol Port Railway and Pier, was opened in 1877, initially allowing freight trains to reach Avonmouth Docks. It was not until 1885 that it was cleared for passenger use, which allowed services to Avonmouth via Sea Mills and Shirehampton. There was a trial Midland service between Bristol St Philip's and Avonmouth in September 1885, but this was ended after a month. In 1886, the daily Great Western service was six trains each way between Avonmouth and Temple Meads, 24 trains from Clifton Down to Temple Meads and 26 the other direction. The Midland provided 12 services from Clifton Down to Fishponds, and 11 back. Clifton Down had large numbers of excursion trains, both arriving and departing. There were regular trains during the summer season to Weston-super-Mare and Clevedon, as well as to Weymouth, London and, more locally, football specials to Ashton Gate. There were also regular excursion trains, known as "Monkey Specials" for visitors to the nearby Bristol Zoo. In 1886, the Bath and West Show being held on Durdham Down generated some 33,000 extra passengers over five days, with direct services from Bath Green Park and an extra 16 services from Temple Meads. The Show was held on Durdham Down again in 1921, temporarily increasing traffic from Temple Meads by 12 trains per day, although there was increased competition from local bus services. The station also received visits from King Edward VII in 1902 and 1908, and from a delegation of British Empire Prime Ministers in 1907. The line had initially been managed by the Clifton Extension Railway Joint Committee, but in 1894 the line's management was passed to the Great Western & Midland Railways Joint Committee. In 1909, the station master at Redland was withdrawn, his duties incorporated into the job of Clifton Down station master. In 1910, Clifton Down saw 17 Great Western services from Avonmouth to Temple Meads and 15 the other way, a further 20 trains each day operating between Clifton and Temple Meads, and 13 Midland trains each way between Clifton and Fishponds or Mangotsfield. Midland services were suspended from 1 January 1917 to 15 May 1919 due to the First World War. The Hotwells section of the Bristol Port Railway and Pier closed in 1922, so to compensate, an additional six trains were provided from Clifton Down to Avonmouth, and four back. In 1923, grouping resulted in the Midland Railway being absorbed into the London, Midland and Scottish Railway (LMS), and the line continued in a joint arrangement between the Great Western and the LMS. From 1924, many trains to Avonmouth were extended to Severn Beach, a growing seaside resort, and some on to Pilning, then back to Temple Meads via Patchway. Between 1903 and 1930 the station employed an average of 22 staff, and in 1926 the station master assumed control over Montpelier as well. The platform canopies were partially removed in the 1930s, and bomb-damage during the Bristol Blitz saw them cut back further. The war also saw the end of services to Fishponds and Mangotsfield, the last operating on 31 March 1941. By 1947, just before the start of the British Rail era, there were 33 services each direction between Avonmouth and Temple Meads, and 18 on Sundays. Some trains made circular trips to and from Temple Meads via Clifton Down and Henbury or Pilning. ### British Rail and privatisation When the railways were nationalised in 1948, services at Clifton Down came under the aegis of the Western Region of British Railways, and there remained a strong staff presence in 1958, with a station master, chief booking clerk, four other clerks, six porters, a shunter, a checker and a weighbridge assistant. Passenger numbers however dropped sharply in 1961 as the result of a fare increase, and so in 1962 a new reduced timetable was enacted, which lost more passengers, and saw the withdrawal of a special schoolchildren's service. A year later in 1963, the Beeching report suggested that all services along the Severn Beach Line be withdrawn. Following meetings with staff, it was decided to keep the line open to Severn Beach, but to close the section to Pilning, and also end services via Henbury. These services duly ended, and in July 1965 the goods yard at Clifton Down also closed. The line however was still threatened, and on 10 February 1967 it was announced that all services between Stapleton Road and Severn Beach would be discontinued. An enquiry followed, and in June that year the decision was reversed, on the condition that tickets be issued on the trains. Thus, on 17 July 1967, all stations along the line, including Clifton Down, had their staff withdrawn. The decrease of costs allowed a reduction of ticket prices, but the line was still under threat until in June 1969 it was decided that the line's closure would result in significant hardship, and so a grant was allocated to ensure continued services. Service levels however still declined: though the "Monkey Specials" were still going strong into the 1960s, with 340,000 excursion passengers arriving between 1958 and 1966, the closure of many of the Welsh Valley Lines and the construction of the Severn Bridge led to their demise in the early 1970s. Most of the Severn Beach Line was reduced to single track in late 1970, leaving Clifton Down as one of the few passing places. The glass platform canopies were completely removed in May 1971, and the glass-covered footbridge was also removed, leaving a set of steps from Whiteladies road as the only access to the southern platform. In the late 1970s and the early 1980s, the Clifton Down Shopping Centre was built over most of the goods yard, the rest covered by a housing development. British Rail was split into business-led sectors in the 1980s, at which time operations at Clifton Down passed to Regional Railways. A programme of refurbishment was carried out in 1992/3, including the installation of a new metal footbridge and ramp access to the southern platform. In December 1994, the station building, which had been bricked up when staff were withdrawn, and was by then the Steam Tavern public house, was designated a grade II listed building, along with the screen walls. The pub was revived in the mid-2000s as the Roo Bar, an Australian-themed bar. At this time, all trains ran to Severn Beach, but the service pattern was irregular. This changed in 1995 when an hourly timetable was introduced for peak times, but services were terminated at Avonmouth, allowing a single Sprinter unit to work the service. There was a better service on Saturdays as more rolling stock was available, but there was no Sunday service. Talk arose again of the line being closed completely. Local tourism expert Bernard Lane described the line's state as > ... the line the railway wished was not there. It was the line that got bus substitution whenever they were short of trains or queues, when a rugby match in Cardiff needed a special. It has a problem in that the route is slow and not very direct; for years it was invisible, short of marketing and lacking a regular interval timetable. When the railway was privatised in 1997, local services were franchised to Wales & West, which was succeeded by Wessex Trains, an arm of National Express, in 2001. Following action by Friends of Severn Beach Railway (FOSBR) and a string of protests, services had increased to 10 per day in each direction by 2005, with Bristol City Council providing a subsidy to Wessex Trains. The Wessex franchise was amalgamated with the Great Western franchise into the Greater Western franchise from 2006, and responsibility passed to First Great Western, a subsidiary company of FirstGroup, rebranded in 2015 as Great Western Railway. A minimum service requirement was written into the franchise agreement, ensuring an hourly service along the line. In 2007, the Council unanimously agreed to pay £450,000 per annum to fund extra services from May 2008 for three years, which resulted in a 60% increase in passenger numbers along the line, and a 110% increase at Clifton Down. Sunday services to Severn Beach were restored in 2010. Passenger numbers at Clifton Down were further boosted by a marketing campaign by the Severnside Community Rail Partnership to attract more people, especially students, to use the station. The work won a Department for Transport Community Rail Marketing Award in 2007. The Severnside CRP also formed a support group for the station, and improved the provision of timetabling information through the use of simplified departure timetable posters. In 2009, they painted a large station sign on the road bridge over the line, and in 2010 they collaborated with Redland Green School to decorate the bricked-up windows and doors of the station building with animal artwork to brighten up the station and promote Bristol Zoo. The work won a Community Rail Award. Customer help points with next train information screens were installed during 2008/09, paid for by money from the Department for Transport's "Access for All" fund and local councils. Ticket machines were installed in early 2011, following complaints that passengers were unable to pay their fares. The station building was again renamed in 2016, and is now the Steam Bristol beer hall and rotisserie. ## Description Clifton Down railway station is on the Severn Beach Line, serving the district of Clifton in Bristol. The station is located on the busy shopping street Whiteladies Road, next door to a shopping centre. The wider area is largely residential. Bristol Zoo is under a mile away. The station is located 3 miles 72 chains (6.3 km) along the line from Bristol Temple Meads, and 9 miles 51 chains (15.5 km) from Severn Beach. It is the fifth station from Temple Meads. There are two running lines, roughly oriented east–west, but curving towards the north at both ends. There are two 120-yard (110 m)-long platforms to the north and south of the running lines, connected by a footbridge at the east end. The southern platform, Platform 1, serves trains towards Avonmouth, the northern platform, Platform 2, serves trains towards Temple Meads. The station is in an enclosed cutting, and runs under the road to the east. To the west is the Clifton Down Tunnel under Clifton Down, from which the station takes its name. The station is one of the few double track sections of the Severn Beach Line, and so is often used as a passing place. Facilities at the station are minimal – shelters, benches and timetable information are provided. Customer help points give live train information. There is no ticket office but there is one ticket machine which can be used to buy or collect tickets. The station car park is to the north of the platforms, with 40 spaces. There is step-free access to the northern platform from the car park, and a set of steps from the footbridge. There is also stepped access to the footbridge from the south, and a ramp down to the southern platform. There is no taxi rank, but there are bus stops on Whiteladies Road. Cycle storage is available on the platform. The disused station building's bricked-up windows and doors feature artwork of animals created by students at Redland Green School, and promote links with nearby Bristol Zoo. The building is accessible from the car park, and houses an Australian-themed pub. It is a Grade II listed building. ## Services All services at Clifton Down are operated by Great Western Railway using Turbo DMUs. The typical off-peak service in trains per hour is: - 2 tph to Bristol Temple Meads of which 1 continues to Weston-super-Mare - 2 tph to Avonmouth of which 1 continues to Severn Beach On Sundays, there is an hourly service between Bristol Temple Meads and Severn Beach with one train per day to and from Weston-super-Mare. Services previously ran every 40 minutes in each direction but were increased to half-hourly in the December 2021 timetable change. ## Future First Great Western declined a contractual option to continue the Greater Western passenger franchise (of which services at Clifton Down are a part) beyond 2013, citing a desire for a longer-term contract due to the impending upgrade to the Great Western Main Line. The franchise was put out to tender, but the process was halted and later scrapped due to the fallout from the collapse of the InterCity West Coast franchise competition. A two-year franchise extension until September 2015 was agreed in October 2013, and subsequently extended until March 2019. With the coming upgrade to the Great Western Main Line, the main line from London to Bristol is due to be electrified by 2016. However, the electrification will not extend beyond the main lines, so Clifton Down will continue to be served by diesel trains, with the current "Sprinter" units expected to be replaced by and "Turbo" units. Stephen Williams, former MP for Bristol West, questioned whether electrification could continue to Clifton Down. Then-Secretary of State for Transport Philip Hammond replied that it would have to be looked at in the future. The group Friends of Suburban Bristol Railways supports the electrification of the entire Severn Beach Line. Improved services at Clifton Down are called for as part of the Greater Bristol Metro scheme, a rail transport plan which aims to enhance transport capacity in the Bristol area. There is an aspiration for half-hourly services, with trains towards Bristol terminating alternately at Portishead and Bath Spa, however due to the large sections of the Severn Beach Line which are single-track and to the congested main line from Temple Meads, such frequency is not currently feasible. The scheme was given the go-ahead in July 2012 as part of the City Deal, whereby local councils would be given greater control over money by the government. There are also calls for the reopening of the Henbury Loop Line, which could allow a direct service from Clifton Down to Bristol Parkway via Avonmouth. Plans for a loop were rejected by the West of England Joint Transport Board, however Bristol City Councillors voted to send the decision back to the board for further discussion. ## See also - Rail services in Bristol
554,008	USS Fanshaw Bay	1,150,848,815	Casablanca-class escort carrier of the U.S. Navy	[ "1943 ships", "Casablanca-class escort carriers", "S4-S2-BB3 ships", "Ships built in Vancouver, Washington", "World War II escort aircraft carriers of the United States" ]	USS Fanshaw Bay (CVE-70) was a Casablanca-class escort carrier of the United States Navy. She was named after Fanshaw Bay, located within Cape Fanshaw, of the Alexander Archipelago in the Territory of Alaska. The cape was given its name by Charles Mitchell Thomas, who was mapping the area, in 1887. Built for service during World War II, the ship was launched in November 1943, and commissioned in December, and served in support of the Mariana and Palau Islands campaign, the Battle off Samar, and the Battle of Okinawa. Postwar, she participated in Operation Magic Carpet. She was decommissioned in August 1946, when she was mothballed in the Pacific Reserve Fleet. Ultimately, she was sold for scrapping in September 1959. ## Design and description Fanshaw Bay was a Casablanca-class escort carrier, the most numerous type of aircraft carriers ever built, and was designed specifically to be mass-produced using prefabricated sections, in order to replace heavy early war losses. Standardized with her sister ships, she was 512 ft 3 in (156.13 m) long overall, had a beam of 65 ft 2 in (19.86 m), and a draft of 20 ft 9 in (6.32 m). She displaced 8,188 long tons (8,319 t) standard, 10,902 long tons (11,077 t) with a full load. She had a 257 ft (78 m) long hangar deck and a 477 ft (145 m) long flight deck. She was powered with two Skinner Unaflow reciprocating steam engines, which drove two shafts, providing 9,000 horsepower (6,700 kW), thus enabling her to make . The ship had a cruising range of 10,240 nautical miles (18,960 km; 11,780 mi) at a speed of 15 knots (28 km/h; 17 mph). Her compact size necessitated the installment of an aircraft catapult at her bow, and there were two aircraft elevators to facilitate the movement of aircraft between the flight and hangar deck: one each fore and aft. One 5 in (127 mm)/38 caliber dual-purpose gun was mounted on the stern. Anti-aircraft defense was provided by eight Bofors 40 mm (1.6 in) anti-aircraft guns in single mounts, as well as twelve Oerlikon 20 mm (0.79 in) cannons, which were mounted around the perimeter of the deck. By the end of the war, Casablanca-class carriers had been modified to carry thirty 20 mm (0.79 in) cannons, and the amount of Bofors 40 mm (1.6 in) guns had been doubled to sixteen, by putting them into twin mounts. These modifications were in response to increasing casualties due to kamikaze attacks. Casablanca-class escort carriers were designed to carry 27 aircraft, but the hangar deck could accommodate more. During the Mariana and Palau Islands campaign, the beginning of the Philippines campaign, and the Battle off Samar, she carried 16 FM-2 Wildcat fighters, and 12 TBM-1C Avenger torpedo bombers, for a total of 28 aircraft. However, during the Battle of Okinawa, she carried 24 FM-2 fighters and 6 TBM-3 torpedo bombers for a total of 30 aircraft. ## Construction The escort carrier was laid down on 18 May 1943, under a Maritime Commission contract, MC hull 1107, by Kaiser Shipbuilding Company, Vancouver, Washington. She was named Fanshaw Bay, as part of a tradition which named escort carriers after bays or sounds in Alaska. She was launched on 1 November 1943; sponsored by Mrs. Lorna V. Kenworthy, the wife of Captain Jesse L. Kenworthy Jr., who was the executive officer of the battleship Oklahoma during the Attack on Pearl Harbor. She was transferred to the United States Navy and commissioned on 9 December 1943, with Captain Douglass Pollock Johnson in command. ## Service history Upon being commissioned, Fanshaw Bay took on armaments at Port Townsend, Washington on 31 December, and proceeded on a shakedown cruise down the West Coast. During this period, she stopped at Port Angeles, Washington from 6 January 1944 to 8 January, along with another pause at San Francisco, California between 11 and 16 January, where she took on a load of aircraft. She was also assigned to become the flagship of Carrier Division 25, commanded by Rear Admiral Gerald F. Bogan. She departed from San Francisco on 16 January, ferrying her load to Gladstone, Queensland, arriving on 2 February. On her return trip, she touched at Brisbane from 8 to 12 February, and at Nouméa from 15 to 16 February. Upon returning, she underwent maintenance and her crew underwent leave at San Diego from 4 March to 6 April. There, Fanshaw Bay received her aircraft contingent, originally intended to be Composite Squadron 4 (VC-4), but switched to Composite Squadron 68 (VC-68), which consisted of 16 FM-2 fighters and 10 TBM-1C torpedo bombers. She departed San Diego on 6 April, accompanied by the seaplane tender Orca, making a stop at Pearl Harbor on 10 April, and arriving at Majuro on 20 April. En route, on 11 April, one of her torpedo bombers crashed in an accident, with its crew being rescued by Orca. Upon arriving at Majuro, she began conducting antisubmarine patrols, along with the destroyer escorts John C. Butler, Raymond, and Richard M. Rowell. Ten days of patrols returned no contacts, and she retired to Pearl Harbor. ### Mariana and Palau Islands campaign On 29 May, she sortied from Pearl Harbor, bound for Eniwetok Atoll, where she acted as the flagship of Task Group 52.14, which was assigned to support the upcoming Mariana and Palau Islands campaign. En route, two of her Wildcats were lost, and another was slightly damaged, through accidents. She began combat operations on 11 June, some 30 mi (48 km) west of Saipan, providing aerial reconnaissance, close air support, and antisubmarine patrols in support of the Battle of Saipan. On 15 June, at 17:15 in the late afternoon, the officers of Fanshaw Bay received a report of five Japanese aircraft proceeding towards her task group 71 mi (114 km) to her southwest. Fighters were scrambled, and the aircraft were intercepted 36 mi (58 km) away, harrying them as they quickly proceeded towards the carriers. Four of them were shot down, although a fifth aircraft was able to drop a torpedo aimed at Fanshaw Bay at 18:12. Fortunately for the carrier, the Japanese plane approaching from the starboard bow, perhaps disrupted by the anti-aircraft fire, dropped its torpedo at a slight turn. Therefore, Fanshaw Bay engaged in a hard right turn, easily dodging the torpedo. The Japanese aircraft was subsequently shot down at 18:15. On 17 June, one of Fanshaw Bay's torpedo bombers conducting antisubmarine patrols crashed shortly after takeoff, veering port into the sea. A large explosion was triggered, likely from the detonation of one of the bomber's depth charges, killing all three of its crew. Later that day, another torpedo bomber was lost, and although two of the crew were recovered, the radioman drowned with the aircraft. In the late afternoon, the task group detected about seventy Japanese aircraft approaching quickly from the southeast, 40 mi (64 km) out. Fighters were scrambled, and Fanshaw Bay launched fourteen Wildcats to supplement the thirty-two launched by the other escort carriers. Her fighters, intercepting the planes, shot down one. Nonetheless, the Japanese force penetrated the air screen, and made for the carriers. Early on in the attack, the Japanese planes focused on Fanshaw Bay and White Plains. Her anti-aircraft guns provided adept assistance, shooting down three planes, and damaging two more. However, at 18:52, a Japanese bomber made a run for Fanshaw Bay, dropping a bomb (believed to be 250 lb (110 kg)) as it flew about 1,500 ft (460 m) above the carrier. The bomb penetrated into her aft aircraft elevator, punching through the wooden decking, and detonating within the hangar bay, some 5 ft (1.5 m) below the flight deck. Shrapnel was launched through the hangar, instantly killing eleven men of Repair Party 3, which had taken up position forward of the elevator. Munitions were stored on both sides of the elevator, and shrapnel sliced through three torpedoes, although they failed to detonate. Nonetheless, the blast had enough force to rupture a fire main, sever electrical cables, and to even eject depth charges from the bomb bays of the Avengers stored within the hangar deck. In addition, several fires were kindled, total steering control was lost, and the ship acquired a 3° list to the port. Although the fires were quickly put under control by the crew, several of her aircraft were compelled to land on other carriers as a result of the blazes. In the action, three planes from her aircraft contingent were lost in the turmoil, albeit there were no fatalities. Rear Admiral Bogan was also compelled to transfer his flag to the destroyer Porterfield in order to more effectively lead the fleet. The rest of Fanshaw Bay's damage was not so easily resolved. Steering control was not regained until 3:55 in the morning of 18 June. Of even greater concern to the ship's officers was that of her list, with her stern sinking 6 ft (1.8 m) lower than design specifications. Originally, they believed that the ship's outer skin had been penetrated, letting seawater in. Further investigation revealed that the cause for the list came from the ruptured fire main, which the damage control teams struggled to plug. Bogan, continuously frustrated by the progress of damage control, later complained in a 1969 interview that Fanshaw Bay was "the worst ship [he’d] ever seen in any Navy" and that "the entire complement was incompetent." Regardless of opinions, Fanshaw Bay suffered 14 dead and 23 wounded from the attack. On 18 June, at 11:30 in the morning, her dead were buried at sea in a ceremony. Fanshaw Bay retired from operations and proceeded to Pearl Harbor for a long period of repairs. Nonetheless, limited flight operations continued, with a fighter pilot perishing in an accident on 29 June. ### Battle of Morotai Upon finishing her repairs, Fanshaw Bay continued acting as the flagship of Carrier Division 25, now under the command of Rear Admiral Clifton A. F. Sprague. After departing from Pearl Harbor, she arrived at Manus Island, of the Admiralty Islands. Fanshaw Bay, along with five other escort carriers and a screen of eight destroyer escorts, was assigned to Task Group 77.1, which would support the landings on Morotai. Notably, her aircraft contingent had been swapped, and she now hosted Composite Squadron 66 (VC-66). She departed Manus on 10 September, and she began air support operations on 15 September. On 17 September, two Avengers, one from Fanshaw Bay, collided while moving into formation on an antisubmarine patrol. Of the six men involved, only a single survivor was recovered by the submarine chaser PC-1137. On 19 September, Fanshaw Bay lost another aircraft, with one of her Wildcats, diving on a Zero, missing and exploding on contact with the water. The carrier continued to hemorrhage aircraft, with an additional two fighters and a torpedo bomber crashing by 27 September. On 3 October, the majority of the escort carriers had already retired, leaving only Fanshaw Bay and St. Lo to continue operations. Fanshaw Bay was preparing to retire back to Manus during the night. At the time, her task group was operating 35 mi (56 km) to the north of the island, when the Japanese submarine Ro-41 fired a spread of torpedoes towards the escort carriers. The first indicator of a torpedo attack occurred when a torpedo was spotted passing to the front of St. Lo, and off the port beam of Fanshaw Bay. Before maneuvers could be conducted, a second torpedo detonated on the destroyer escort Shelton, killing thirteen, and wounding twenty-two. The destroyer screen commenced dropping depth charges, forcing Ro-41 away. ### Battle off Samar Fanshaw Bay quietly retired back to Manus, where preparations began for the Philippines campaign. More specifically, Fanshaw Bay, as the flagship for "Taffy 3", would be providing aerial cover for the planned landings on the island of Leyte. After a brief period of replenishment at Manus from 7 to 12 October, Fanshaw Bay set off for the Philippines. En route, on 16 October, Fanshaw Bay lost yet another aircraft to an accident, with one of her fighters wrecking itself on the flight deck, before being caught by an arresting cable, which resulted in the aircraft precariously dangling over her port side. Her crew, and after a short while, the aircraft, were subsequently recovered. At the time of the invasion, Taffy 3 consisted of Fanshaw Bay, St. Lo, White Plains, Kalinin Bay, Kitkun Bay, and Gambier Bay, along with an accompanying screen of three destroyers and four destroyer escorts. As the U.S. fleet gathered off the Philippines, the Japanese garrison on Suluan managed to alert their command. This prompted Admiral Soemu Toyoda to launch Shō-Gō 1, a gambit to defend Japan's access to the oil fields of Southeast Asia. On 18 and 19 October, Taffy 3 conducted strikes against Japanese bases located within Cebu, Negros, and Panay, destroying a total of thirty-eight planes, and damaging twenty-eight more. She then steamed off the island of Samar from 20 to 25 October, providing air support for U.S. forces onshore, and dropping leaflets on Japanese positions. In the meantime, Admiral William Halsey Jr. led his Third Fleet northwards, after spotting Vice Admiral Jisaburō Ozawa's diversionary Northern Force. Thus, the only ships covering the vulnerable landing crafts of Leyte Gulf were the three escort carrier task groups and their screens. Taffy 3, the northmost task group, would bear the brunt of Vice Admiral Takeo Kurita's Center Force as it swung through the San Bernardino Strait. On the early morning of 25 October, Kurita's Center Force had already crossed the San Bernardino Strait unmolested, and was entering the open waters of Leyte Gulf. White Plains's radar had possibly spotted the Japanese force maneuvering into position at 3:00, but this information was disregarded by the ship's command. Although World War II era surface radar was notoriously faulty, the speed and course of the spotted blip was consistent with the course set by the Center Force. At 4:30, the escort carriers went to general quarters in preparation for another round of airstrikes and close air support. By 5:30, Taffy 3 had launched twelve fighters to conduct a combat air patrol, before launching another two Wildcats and four Avengers shortly afterwards. The task group continued launching aircraft throughout the morning. By the time of the attack, Fanshaw Bay therefore only had twelve aircraft on hand, none of which were equipped to deal with heavily armed surface warships. The first indication of Japanese contact happened shortly after 6:30, when Taffy 3 experienced three almost simultaneous warnings. Firstly, they began receiving unencrypted Japanese chatter. Secondly, they spotted antiaircraft fire, estimated at 20 mi (32 km) to the north, where there was known to be no Allied surface presence. In fact, an Avenger from St. Lo had stumbled into the midst of the Japanese fleet, and began radioing Rear Admiral Sprague warnings. Thirdly, Fanshaw Bay's radar operators spotted an unmistakable surface signature of unknown surface ships just 18.5 mi (29.8 km) away. Upon coming to an understanding of the severity of the situation, Sprague ordered Taffy 3 to steam eastward, in hopes of being shielded by a passing rain squall. At 6:52, Fanshaw Bay launched the remaining twelve of her planes, which consisted of a single Wildcat, and eleven Avengers. Of the Avengers, ten were carrying a single 500 lb (230 kg) semi-armor piercing bomb, and one was carrying two 350 lb (160 kg) depth charges. Sprague also radioed for assistance from Vice Admiral Jesse B. Oldendorf, the commander of Task Group 77.2, which had just defeated the Southern Force in the Battle of Surigao Strait. Unfortunately for Sprague, Oldendorf was at least three hours sail away, Task Group 77.2 was scattered over an immense distance because of the previous night's battle, and it was low on both fuel and ammunition. Taffy 3 would have to confront the Center Force by itself. Fanshaw Bay and White Plains were located on the west flank, and therefore bore the opening volleys of the engagement. Beginning at 6:58, both of the carriers came under fire from the Japanese task group, which was situated about 16.6 mi (26.7 km) away. The Japanese were firing dye-marked shells to gauge their aim, and the escort carriers were, much to the concern of their command, straddled in plumes of colored water. The officers would certainly be more concerned if they were able to correspond the color of the dyed water to that of a particular Japanese ship, as plumes of red, green, blue, purple, pink and yellow dyed water started to dot the ocean. Unbeknownst to the crew, the pink dyes corresponded to the Japanese battleship Yamato, with its 18 in (460 mm) guns, the largest ever manufactured, and the yellow dyes corresponded to the Japanese battleship Kongo, with its 14 in (360 mm) guns. Fortunately for Fanshaw Bay's crew, as the shells slowly creeped up to her stern, she happened across a passing rain squall at 7:03, reducing visibility to just 0.5 mi (0.80 km). At the same time that Fanshaw Bay was being harried by shells, the twelve aircraft that she had launched, joined by four fighters which had been on patrol, commenced attacks against the leading Japanese ships. Their attacks were mostly ineffective, mostly due to their light armaments and a general lack of coordination. The task group emerged from the rain squall by 7:23, but it was not until 7:50 that Fanshaw Bay came under concentrated fire again. At 7:50, four 8 in (200 mm) shells made impact with her hull, with another two missing just in front of her bow. One shell penetrated through a ventilator, killing two men as it tore into the carrier. Another shell passed under one of her Bofors guns, tearing the face off of one of her crew. Deflected by the gun's shield, the shell ricocheted over her flight deck. Another shell destroyed her catapult track, and resulted in a small explosion within her flag office. Four small fires had been kindled by these shells, but they were quickly put under control, along with a minor issue with flooding. Although four men had been killed in the attack, her operational capability was not significantly compromised. Rather, Fanshaw Bay's 5 in (130 mm) gun responded by firing against one of the leading Japanese cruisers, landing at least five hits against its superstructure. Fanshaw Bay continued whilst under concentrated fire for the next hour, conducting a variety of evasive maneuvers. At 8:35, with the task force weaving back and forth, Fanshaw Bay had a close call with the destroyer Heermann, narrowly avoiding a collision. Despite the addition of smoke screens, and the heroic defense of her escorts, by 8:55, the Japanese had already closed the distance to only 6.25 mi (10.06 km). During the intervening period, the Japanese shells had sparked a series of fires, which the damage control parties struggled to contain, and the situation seemed to be deteriorating. She was also forced to dodge torpedo attacks launched by the Japanese destroyer screen. Fortunately for her crew, Admiral Kurita, discouraged by the dogged defense of Taffy 3 and his losses, harried by constant air attacks, and believing that he was facing an equal or perhaps a superior force, was convinced to withdraw. At 9:25, to the bewilderment of Rear Admiral Sprague, the Japanese fleet turned around and retired. In the chaos of the action, Fanshaw Bay lost four Wildcats and an Avenger. In addition, Gambier Bay was severely damaged and sunk as a result of Japanese naval gunfire, with her survivors being left behind by the beleaguered task force. As Taffy 3 retired to the southeast following the engagement, five Japanese kamikaze Zeroes, along with four escorting fighters, were spotted at 10:51. The first kamikaze aimed for Kitkun Bay, but its aim was off, only clipping the carrier before detonating over the flight deck and plunging into the ocean. The second and third planes went for Fanshaw Bay. The first plane to approach was shot down by her 5 in (130 mm) gun, and it nosedived into the ocean. However, one of its bombs still exploded some 15 ft (4.6 m) from her hull, sending shrapnel across the carrier. As the other kamikaze maneuvered into a position to strike the ship, it was shot down a safe distance from the carrier by her anti-aircraft gunners. The fourth kamikaze proceeded towards White Plains, but only clipped the carrier, inflicting minor damage. The fifth kamikaze plunged towards, and sunk St. Lo with the loss of 113 lives. Even more kamikazes attempted to follow on the successful attack on St. Lo, but accurate anti-aircraft fire and an effective fighter screen ensured that the carriers sustained no more substantial damage. With her destroyer screen detached to recover the survivors of St. Lo, Fanshaw Bay retired towards Manus, recovering aircraft from the action throughout the day. At the end of the day, the carrier's crew had suffered four dead, and four wounded, with three having to be transferred to for treatment ashore. Arriving at Manus on 1 November, she replenished until 7 November, and proceeded back to the West Coast, making a stop at Pearl Harbor. She arrived at San Diego, where repairs were made for the damage sustained in the Battle off Samar. On 10 January 1945, Captain Murr Edward Arnold took over command of the vessel. In addition, a new aircraft contingent, Composite Spotting Squadron 2 (VOC-2), was embarked upon the carrier. Upon finishing repairs, she steamed for the waters off of Hawaii, where training operations were conducted, along with routine patrols. ### Battle of Okinawa After finishing training, she sailed westwards to Ulithi, arriving on 14 March. There, she was designated as the flagship of Carrier Division 26, under the command of Rear Admiral Sprague. Preparations were made for the upcoming landings on Okinawa. On 21 March, she departed for Okinawa, and her aircraft began combat operations on 25 March. Her planes supported the initial landings on 1 April, providing extensive close air support, and neutralizing Japanese positions. On 7 April, Rear Admiral Ernest Wheeler Litch took over command of Carrier Division 26. Fanshaw Bay remained on station off of Okinawa for sixty-nine consecutive days, and her air contingent flew 2,089 sorties in the battle, claiming five Japanese planes. Throughout the operation, she witnessed near constant kamikaze attacks, with some 1,465 Japanese kamikazes involved. Following a short period of replenishment at San Pedro Bay, Fanshaw Bay again returned to Okinawa, arriving off of the Sakishima Islands on 9 June to continue launching airstrikes. She continued these operations until 27 June, when she was assigned to Task Force 39, commanded by Rear Admiral Alexander Sharp. Consisting of 107 minesweepers, seven minelayers, and seven netlayers, the Task Force began minesweeping operations within the East China Sea, beginning on 5 July. Fanshaw Bay, along with three other escort carriers, provided an aerial screen for the minesweepers, and launched strikes against targets situated around the mouth of the Yangtze River on 28 July. On 30 July, she withdrew from the operations, having assisted the minesweepers in clearing 404 mines over 7,300 sq mi (19,000 km<sup>2</sup>), with no loss in ships, despite the occasional Japanese submarine or plane. Fanshaw Bay anchored within Nakagusuku Bay, where she endured further kamikaze and submarine incursions. She then steamed for Guam and Eniwetok, where she loaded aircraft. She was assigned to Vice Admiral Frank Jack Fletcher's Ninth Fleet, which was operating off of the Aleutian Islands. As she departed from Eniwetok, she received news of the Japanese surrender on August 15. ### Post-war With the conclusion of offensive operations, Fanshaw Bay proceeded northwards, mooring at Kuluk Bay, Adak Island. There, she joined Task Force 44, and sailed southwards to assist in the Japanese occupation. She operated off of Japan between 31 August and 9 September, covering troops as they landed on Hokkaido. After the formal signing of surrender by the Japanese garrison on Hokkaido on 9 September, she returned to Pearl Harbor, arriving on 24 September. At Pearl Harbor, she joined the "Magic Carpet" fleet, which repatriated U.S. servicemen from throughout the Pacific. She cruised around the Pacific, making stops and returning U.S. servicemen back to the mainland, sailing a total of 23,500 mi (37,800 km) along the way, and with an average of 1,400 passengers on-board during each journey. She first steamed for San Francisco, arriving on 20 October, took on passengers at Pearl Harbor on 27 October, and returned her passengers to San Diego on 4 November. She then made a trip to Japan, arriving at Tokyo Bay on 28 November, returning to the West Coast on 18 December, where she was discharged from the "Magic Carpet" fleet. Following release, Fanshaw Bay sailed northwards, arriving at Port Angeles, Washington, on 26 January 1946. Inactivation work began at Tacoma on 29 January, and she was decommissioned on 14 August. She was mothballed as part of the Pacific Reserve Fleet, and she was redesignated as a helicopter escort carrier whilst in reserve on 12 June 1955. She was struck from the Navy list on 1 March 1959, and sold for scrapping on 29 August to Hyman-Michaels Co., Chicago. She was ultimately broken up in Portland, Oregon, later that year. Fanshaw Bay received five battle stars for World War II service, and along with the rest of Taffy 3, received the Presidential Unit Citation for conduct during the Battle off Samar.
32,408,640	History of Western role-playing video games	1,171,805,602	null	[ "History of video games", "Role-playing video games" ]	Western role-playing video games are role-playing video games developed in the Western world, including The Americas and Europe. They originated on mainframe university computer systems in the 1970s, were later popularized by titles such as Ultima and Wizardry in the early- to mid-1980s, and continue to be produced for modern home computer and video game console systems. The genre's "Golden Age" occurred in the mid- to late-1980s, and its popularity suffered a downturn in the mid-1990s as developers struggled to keep up with changing fashion, hardware evolution and increasing development costs. A later series of isometric role-playing games, published by Interplay Productions and Blizzard Entertainment, was developed over a longer time period and set new standards of production quality. Computer role-playing games (CRPGs) are once again popular. Recent titles, such as BioWare's Mass Effect series and Bethesda Softworks' The Elder Scrolls series, have been produced for console systems and have received multi-platform releases, although independently developed games are frequently created as personal computer (PC) exclusives. Developers of role-playing games have continuously experimented with various graphical perspectives and styles of play, such as real-time and turn-based time-keeping systems, axonometric and first-person graphical projections, and single-character or multi-character parties. Subgenres include action role-playing games, roguelikes and tactical role-playing games. ## Early American computer RPGs (mid-1970s–mid-1980s) ### Mainframe computers (mid-1970s–early 1980s) The earliest role-playing video games were created in the mid-to-late 1970s, as offshoots of early university mainframe text-based RPGs that were played on PDP-10, PLATO and Unix-based systems. These included m199h, created in 1974, Dungeon, written in 1975 or 1976, pedit5, created in 1975, and dnd, also from 1975. These early games were inspired by pen-and-paper role-playing games, particularly Dungeons & Dragons, which was first published in 1974, and J. R. R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings trilogy. Some of the first graphical computer RPGs (CRPGs) after pedit5 and dnd included orthanc (1978), which was named after Saruman's tower in Lord of the Rings, avathar (1979), later renamed avatar, oubliette (1977), named after the French word for "dungeon", moria (1975), dungeons of degorath, baradur, emprise, bnd, sorcery, and dndworld. All of these were developed and became popular on the PLATO system during the late 1970s, in large part due to PLATO's speed, fast graphics, and large number of players with access to its nationwide network of terminals. PLATO was a mainframe system that supported multiple users and allowed them to play simultaneously, a feature not commonly available to owners of home personal computer systems at the time. These were followed by games on other platforms, such as Temple of Apshai, written in 1979 for the TRS-80 and followed by two add-ons; Akalabeth: World of Doom (1980), which gave rise to the well-known Ultima series; Wizardry (1981), and Sword of Fargoal (1982). Games of this era were also influenced by text adventures such as Colossal Cave Adventure (1976) and Zork (1976); early MUDs, tabletop wargames such as Chainmail (1971), and sports games such as Strat-O-Matic. The popular dungeon crawler Rogue was developed in 1980, for Unix-based systems, by two students at Berkeley. It used ASCII graphics, and featured a deep system of gameplay and a multitude of randomly generated items and locations. Rogue was later distributed as free software with the BSD operating system, and was followed by an entire genre of "roguelikes" that were inspired by and emulated the original game's mechanics, and by later titles such as Diablo. Later examples of roguelikes include Angband (1990), Ancient Domains of Mystery (1993) and Linley's Dungeon Crawl (1997). The keyboard was frequently the only input supported by these games, and their graphics were simple and often monochromatic. Some titles, like Rogue, represented objects through text characters, such as '@' for the main character and 'Z' for zombies. No single game featured all of the characteristics expected in a modern CRPG, such as exploration of subterranean dungeons, use of weapons and items, "leveling up" and quest completion, but it is possible to see the evolution of these features during this era and that which followed. ### Ultima and Wizardry (early–mid-1980s) Although simplified for use with the console gamepad, many innovations of the early Ultimas—in particular Ultima III: Exodus (1983) by developer Richard Garriott—became standard among later RPGs in both the personal computer and console markets. These ideas included the use of tiled graphics and party-based combat, a mix of fantasy and science-fiction elements, and time travel. The game's written narrative was an innovative feature that allowed it to convey a larger story than was found in the minimal plots common at the time. Most games, including Garriott's own Akalabeth, focused primarily on basic gameplay mechanics like combat, and paid little attention to story and narrative. Ultima III is considered by many to have been the first modern CRPG. It was originally published for the Apple II, but was ported to many other platforms and influenced the development of later titles, including such console RPGs as Excalibur (1983) and Dragon Quest (1986). Garriott introduced a system of chivalry and code of conduct in Ultima IV: Quest of the Avatar (1985) that persisted throughout later Ultimas. The player's Avatar tackles such problems as fundamentalism, racism and xenophobia, and based on his or her actions is tested periodically in ways that are sometimes obvious and sometimes unseen. This code of conduct was in part a response to the efforts among some Christian groups to mitigate the rising popularity of Dungeons & Dragons. Continuing until Ultima IX: Ascension (1999), it covered a range of virtues that included compassion, justice, humility and honor. This system of morals and ethics was unique at the time, as other video games allowed players to be lauded as "heroes" by the game worlds' denizens, no matter what the player's actions had been. In Ultima IV, on the other hand, players were forced to consider the moral consequences of their actions. According to Garriott, Ultima was now "more than a mere fantasy escape. It provided a world with a framework of deeper meaning[,] a level of detail[, and] diversity of interaction[,] that is rarely attempted." "I thought people might completely reject this game because some folks play just to kill, kill, kill. To succeed in this game, you had to radically change the way you'd ever played a game before." The Wizardry series was created for the Apple II at roughly the same time, in 1981. Wizardry featured a 3D, first-person view, an intuitive interface, party-based combat, and pre-constructed levels that encouraged players to draw their own maps. It allowed players to import characters from previous games, albeit with reduced experience levels, and introduced a moral alignment feature that limited the areas players could visit. The series was extremely difficult when compared to other RPGs of the time, possibly because they were modeled after pen-and-paper role-playing games of similar difficulty. Wizardry IV (1986) in particular is considered one of the most difficult CRPGs ever created. It is unique in that the player controls the villain of the first game in an attempt to escape his prison dungeon and gain freedom in the above world. Unlike Ultima, which evolved with each installment, the Wizardry series retained and refined the same style and core mechanics over time, and improved only its graphics and level design as the years progressed. By June 1982, Temple of Apshai had sold 30,000 copies, Wizardry 24,000 copies, and Ultima 20,000. Garriott even discussed collaborating with Wizardry's Andrew C. Greenberg on "the ultimate fantasy role-playing game". The first Wizardry outsold (more than 200,000 copies sold in its first three years) the first Ultima and received better reviews, but over time Ultima became more popular by improving its technology and making games more friendly, while Wizardry required new players to play the first game before its first two sequels, and the very difficult Wizardry IV sold poorly. Telengard, a BASIC port of the earlier PDP-10 game DND, and Dungeons of Daggorath, both released in 1982, introduced real-time gameplay. Earlier dungeon crawl games had used turn-based movement, in which the enemies only moved when the adventuring party did. Tunnels of Doom, produced the same year, introduced separate screens for exploration and combat. Dragon Quest is most commonly claimed as the first role-playing video game produced for a console, though journalist Joe Fielder cites the earlier Dragonstomper. ## Golden Age (late 1980s–early 1990s) The Might and Magic series, highly popular in the 1980s and onward, began with the 1986 release of Might and Magic Book One: The Secret of the Inner Sanctum for the Apple II. It encompasses a total of ten games, the most recent of which was released in 2014, as well as the popular turn-based strategy series Heroes of Might and Magic. The series featured a mix of complex statistics, large numbers of weapons and spells, and enormous worlds in which to play. It was among the longest-lived CRPG series, alongside Ultima and Wizardry, It is also notable for making race and gender an important aspect of gameplay. Strategic Simulations, Inc.'s series of "Gold Box" CRPGs, which began in 1988 with Pool of Radiance for the Apple II and Commodore 64, was the first widely successful official video game adaptation of TSR's Advanced Dungeons & Dragons license and rules. These games featured a first-person display for movement and exploration, combined with an overhead tactical display for combat that tried to model D&D's turn-based mechanics. Better known for producing computer wargames, SSI created one of the defining series of the period. The games spawned a series of novels, and titles continued to be published until the game engine was retired in 1993, although users who had purchased Forgotten Realms: Unlimited Adventures were able to create their own adventures and play them using the Gold Box engine. The later titles were developed by Stormfront Studios, who also produced Neverwinter Nights, a multi-player implementation of the Gold Box engine which ran on America Online from 1991 to 1997. As in the Wizardry series, characters could be imported from one game into another. SSI had already published many RPGs based on original properties. Its "hardcore" RPG Wizard's Crown (1985) presaged the Gold Box games' design, with eight-character parties, a skill-based experience system, highly detailed combat mechanics, dozens of commands, injuries and bleeding, and strengths and weaknesses versus individual weapon classes. The game did not, however, offer much in terms of role-playing or narrative beyond buying, selling and killing. Wizard's Crown was followed by The Eternal Dagger in 1987, a similar game that removed some of its predecessor's more complicated elements. Interplay Productions developed a string of hits in the form of The Bard's Tale (1985) and its sequels under publisher Electronic Arts, originally for the Apple II and Commodore 64. The series became the first outside Wizardry to challenge Ultima's sales. It combined colorful graphics with a clean interface and simple rules, and was one of the first CRPG series to reach a mainstream audience. It spawned a series of novels by authors such as Mercedes Lackey, something that arguably did not occur again until the release of Diablo in 1997. The series allowed players to explore cities in detail, at a time when many games relegated them to simple menu screens with "buy"/"sell" options. A construction set released in 1991 allowed players to create their own games, and Interplay re-used the engine in its 1988 post-apocalyptic CRPG Wasteland. FTL Games' Dungeon Master (1987) for the Atari ST introduced several user-interface innovations, such as direct manipulation of objects and the environment using the mouse, and popularized mouse-driven interfaces for computer RPGs. Unusually for the era, it features a real-time, first-person viewpoint, now common in first-person shooters and more recent games such as The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion. The game's real-time combat elements were akin to Active Time Battle. The game's complex magic system used runes that could be combined in specific sequences to create magical spells. These sequences were not detailed in the game manual, instead players were required to discover them through trial and error. Sequels followed in 1989 and 1993. The game's first-person, real-time mechanics were copied in SSI's "Black Box" series, from Eye of the Beholder (1990) onward. Dungeon Master sold 40,000 copies in its first year of release, and became the best-selling Atari ST title. Times of Lore, designed by Chris Roberts and released by Origin Systems in 1988, introduced the action-adventure and action role-playing game formula of console titles such as The Legend of Zelda to the American computer RPG market. Times of Lore and Dungeon Master went on to directly inspire several later Origin Systems titles, including Bad Blood (1990), Ultima VI: The False Prophet (1990) and Ultima VII (1992). Ultima VI made some major changes to the Ultima formula, including a constant-scale open world (replacing the unscaled overworld of earlier Ultima titles) and a point & click interface. The Ultima series went on to span over a dozen titles, including the spin-off series Worlds of Ultima (1990–1991) and Ultima Underworld (1992–1993), and the multiplayer online series, Ultima Online (1997). Ultima Underworld: The Stygian Abyss (1992) offered players a full 360 degree view of the game world. Ultima VII: The Black Gate (1992) was the first real-time title in the series, and was fully playable with the computer mouse. Garriott later left Origin Systems and Electronic Arts to form Destination Games, under publisher NCsoft. He was involved with a number of NCsoft's MMORPGs, including Lineage (1998) and Tabula Rasa (2007), before his 2009 departure. The Wizardry series' most famous titles did not appear until years after its debut, and installments were published as recently as 2001. Wizardry VII (1992) has been said to possess one of the best character class systems of any CRPG. Quest for Glory (1989) was produced by Sierra Entertainment, known for point-and-click adventure games, and combined CRPG and adventure-game mechanics into a unique, genre-bending mix. The series featured involved stories, complex puzzles, and arcade-like combat. The last of its five titles was released in 1998. It was originally conceived as a tetralogy built around the themes of the four cardinal directions, the four classical elements, the four seasons and the four mythologies. The designers felt that the series' storyline made Shadows of Darkness too difficult, and so inserted a fifth game, Wages of War, into the canon and renumbered the series. Legends of Valour (1992) provided an early example of open-world, non-linear gameplay in an RPG. It was cited as an influence on The Elder Scrolls series. Sierra's Betrayal at Krondor (1993) was based upon author Raymond E. Feist's Midkemia setting. It featured turn-based, semi-tactical combat, a skill-based experience system, and a magic system similar to that of Dungeon Master, but suffered due to outdated, polygonal graphics. Feist was heavily consulted during development, and later created his own novelization based upon the game. The sequel Betrayal in Antara (1997) re-used the first game's engine but—as Sierra had lost its license for Krondor—was set in a different universe. Return to Krondor (1998) used a new game engine, but returned to Feist's setting. Westwood Studios's Lands of Lore series (1993) featured a story-based approach to RPG design. It served as a stylistic "mirror" to Japanese RPGs of the time, with brightly colored, cheerful graphics, a simple combat system borrowed from Dungeon Master, and a semi-linear story. These elements contrasted with Western RPGs' stereotype as dark, gritty and rules-centric games. ## Decline (mid-1990s) In the mid-1990s, developers of Western RPGs lost their ability to keep up with hardware advances; RPGs had previously been at or near the forefront of gaming technology, but the improved computer graphics and increased storage space facilitated by CD-ROM technology created expectations that developers struggled to meet. This caused lengthy delays between releases, and closures among less popular franchises. Scorpia in 1994 said that, "Nothing has come along to equal or exceed" Ultima IV ten years later. She wondered if "maybe nothing ever will. I hope that's not the case, though, because that would mean the CRPG has stagnated". Computer Games later wrote that "[d]uring the now-infamous mid-nineties CRPG lull, the toughest dungeons were the bottomless pits of failed designs, and the fiercest beasts the deadly-dull CRPG releases". Increases in development budgets and team sizes meant that sequels took three or more years to be released, instead of the almost-yearly releases seen in SSI's Gold Box series. The growth of development teams increased the likelihood that software bugs would appear, as code produced by programmers working in different teams was merged into a whole. A lack of technical standards among hardware manufacturers forced developers to support each manufacturer's implementation, or risk losing players. Further, competition arose from other genres. Players turned away from RPGs, flight simulators and adventure games in favor of action-oriented titles, such as first-person shooters and real-time strategy games. Later RPGs would draw influences from action genres, but would face new challenges in the form of massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs), a late-1990s trend that may have siphoned players away from single-player RPGs. They also faced competition from Japanese console RPGs, which were becoming increasingly dominant around that time, for reasons such as more accessible, faster-paced action-adventure-oriented gameplay, and a stronger emphasis on storytelling and character interactions. ## North American computer RPGs (late 1990s) ### Diablo and action RPGs The dark fantasy-themed RPG Diablo was released by Blizzard Entertainment on December 31, 1996, in the midst of a stagnant PC RPG market. Diablo is set in the fictional kingdom of Khanduras, in the world of Sanctuary, and has the player take control of a lone hero who battles to rid the world of Diablo, the Lord of Terror. Its development was influenced by Moria and Angband, and Diablo resembles a roguelike due to its focus on dungeon crawling, and its procedurally generated levels. Major differences include the commercial quality of the game's graphics, its simplified character development, and its fast, real-time action. A factor in Diablo's success was its support for online, collaborative play over a local area network or through its Battle.net online service. This greatly extended its replay value, though cheating was a problem. While not the first RPG to feature real-time combat, Diablo's effect on the market was significant, a reflection of the changes that took place in other genres following the release of the action titles, Doom and Dune II. It had many imitators, and its formula of simple, fast combat and replayability were used by what were later referred to as "Diablo clones", and more broadly "action RPGs". Action RPGs typically give each player real-time control of a single character. Combat and action are emphasized, while plot and character interaction are kept to a minimum, a formula referred to as "the Fight, Loot, and Level cycle". The inclusion of any content beyond leveling up and killing enemies becomes a challenge in these "hack and slash" games, because the sheer number of items, locations and monsters makes it difficult to design an encounter that is unique and works regardless of how a character has been customized. On the other hand, a game that omits technical depth can seem overly streamlined. The result in either case is a repetitive experience that does not feel tailored to the player. RPGs can suffer in the area of exploration. Traditional RPGs encourage exploration of every detail of the game world, and provide for a more organic experience in which NPCs are distributed according to the internal logic of the game world or plot. Action games reward players for quick movement from location to location, and tend to ensure that no obstacles occur along the way. Games such as Mass Effect streamline the player's movements across the game world by indicating which NPCs can be interacted with, and by making it easier for players to find locations and shopkeepers who can exchange items for money or goods. Some of the best characteristics of RPGs can be lost when these road blocks are eliminated in the name of streamlining the player's experience. One action RPG which overcame these limitations was the FPS/RPG hybrid Deus Ex (2000), designed by Warren Spector. This cyberpunk spy thriller offered multiple solutions to problems through intricately-layered dialogue choices, a deep skill tree, and hand-crafted environments. Players were challenged to act in-character through dialog choices appropriate to his or her chosen role, and by intelligent use of the surrounding environment. This produced a unique experience that was tailored to each player. According to Spector, the game's dialogue choices were inspired by the console role-playing game, Suikoden (1995). Diablo was followed by the Diablo: Hellfire expansion pack in 1997, and a sequel, Diablo II, in 2000. Diablo II received its own expansion, Diablo II: Lord of Destruction, in 2001. Diablo, Diablo II, Diablo II: Lord of Destruction and the Diablo II strategy guide were bundled together in stores as parts of the Diablo Battle Chest; and appeared on the NPD Group's top 10 PC games sales list as recently as 2010. A third game, Diablo III, was announced on June 28, 2008, and released on May 15, 2012. Examples of "Diablo clones" include Fate (2005), Sacred (2004), Torchlight (2009), Din's Curse (2011), Hellgate: London (2007) and Path of Exile (2013). Like Diablo and Rogue before them, Torchlight, Din's Curse, Hellgate: London, Fate and Path of Exile used procedural generation to create new game levels dynamically. ### Interplay, BioWare and Black Isle Studios Interplay, now known as Interplay Entertainment and a publisher in its own right, produced several late 1990s RPG titles through two new developers, Black Isle Studios and BioWare. Black Isle released the groundbreaking Fallout (1997) which, reminiscent of Interplay's earlier Wasteland, was set in an alternate history future America following a nuclear holocaust. One of the few successful late-1990 video game RPGs not set in a swords-and-sorcery environment, Fallout was notable for its open-ended and largely nonlinear gameplay and quest system, tongue-in-cheek humor, and pervasive sense of style. Players were afforded numerous moral choices to shape the game world based on how NPCs might react to the player, much like the original Ultimas. Fallout was nearly as influential on post-crash RPGs as Ultima was on Golden Age RPGs, and is considered by some to be the first "modern" CRPG. Black Isle produced a sequel, Fallout 2, co-designed by Chris Avellone in 1998. Third-party developer Micro Forté created Fallout Tactics: Brotherhood of Steel, a tactical RPG based on the franchise, which was published in 2001 under Interplay's strategy division 14 Degrees East. BioWare's Baldur's Gate series was no less important, being the most significant D&D series to be released since the Gold Box era. The games created the most accurate and in-depth D&D simulation to date, and featured support for up to six players in cooperative mode. Baldur's Gate (1998) provided an epic story with NPC followers and written dialogue that continued through both titles and two expansion packs. Black Isle produced a more combat-oriented series, Icewind Dale, using the same engine soon afterwards; and followed it up with 1999's Planescape: Torment. The critically acclaimed D&D title became known for its moody, artistic air and extensive writing and player choices. Together, Interplay's Fallout, Planescape: Torment and Baldur's Gate series are considered by critics to be some of the finest CRPGs ever made. Black Isle's games during this time period often shared engines to cut down on development time and costs, and most feature an overhead axonometrically projected third-person interface. Their titles, apart from the two Fallout games, used various versions of the Infinity Engine that had been developed by BioWare for Baldur's Gate. Interplay's collapse resulted in the shutdown of Black Isle and the cancellation of the third games in both the Fallout and Baldur's Gate series, as well as of an original title, Torn. Instead, they published a trio of console-only action RPGs, Baldur's Gate: Dark Alliance (2001), Baldur's Gate: Dark Alliance II (2004), and Fallout: Brotherhood of Steel (2004). One of the last CRPGs released before Interplay went defunct was the poorly-received Lionheart: Legacy of the Crusader (2003) by developer Reflexive Entertainment, notable for using the SPECIAL system introduced by Fallout. ## Resurgence (2000s–present) The new century saw an increasing number of multi-platform releases. The move to 3D game engines, along with constant improvements in graphic quality, led to progressively more detailed and realistic game worlds. BioWare produced Neverwinter Nights (2002) for Atari, the first CRPG to fuse the third-edition Dungeons & Dragons rules with a 3D display in which the user could vary the viewing angle and distance. New game content could be generated using the Aurora toolset supplied as part of the game release, and players could share their modules and play cooperatively with friends online. Based in part on experiences while playing Ultima Online, one of the goals during development was to reproduce the feel of a live pen-and-paper RPG experience, complete with a human Dungeon Master. Neverwinter Nights (NWN) was very successful commercially, and spawned three official expansion packs and a sequel developed by Obsidian Entertainment. BioWare later produced the acclaimed Star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic, which married the d20 system with the Star Wars franchise; as well as the original Jade Empire (2005), Mass Effect (2007–2012) and Dragon Age (2009–2014) series, all which were released for multiple platforms. With the Mass Effect and the Dragon Age titles, Bioware also utilized a save import system where decisions in the earlier games impact the story in the later games. During the production of Fallout 2, several of Black Isle's key members left the studio to form Troika Games, citing disagreements with the development team structure. The new studio's first title was Arcanum: Of Steamworks and Magick Obscura (2001), an original, nonlinear steampunk-themed RPG with fantasy elements. Several Arcanum designers worked on Fallout, and the two titles share an aesthetic and sense of humor. Arcanum was followed by The Temple of Elemental Evil (2003), based on the Dungeons & Dragons 3.5 Edition rules and set in the Greyhawk universe; and Vampire: The Masquerade – Bloodlines (2004), based on White Wolf's Vampire: The Masquerade. All three games received positive reviews—as well as cult followings— but were criticized for shipping with numerous bugs. Troika's reputation became "Great Ideas. Never Enough Testing", and by 2005 the studio was in financial trouble, no longer able to secure funding for additional titles. Most of the developers left for other studios. When Black Isle closed down, several employees formed Obsidian Entertainment, who released Star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic II – The Sith Lords (2005), a sequel to BioWare's successful Star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic. Obsidian later created a sequel to another BioWare game: Neverwinter Nights 2 was released on Halloween of 2006, and featured the 3.5 Edition D&D ruleset. It was followed by two expansions and an "adventure pack", in 2007 and 2008. Obsidian Entertainment began development of a role-playing game based on the Alien film franchise in 2006, but it was canceled, along with an original title under the working name of Seven Dwarves. Obsidian's most recent RPGs are The Outer Worlds (2019), a sci-fi game set in an alternate future, released for multiple platforms, and Pillars of Eternity II: Deadfire (2018). The company released Dungeon Siege III on June 17, 2011. Obsidian Entertainment is now a subsidiary of Microsoft Studios. ### Bethesda Bethesda Softworks has developed RPGs since 1994, in its epic fantasy The Elder Scrolls series. Daggerfall (1996) is notable as an early 3D first-person RPG with an expansive world. The series drew attention to sandbox gameplay, which gives the player wide choices of free-roaming activities unrelated to the game's main storyline. The Elder Scrolls series was seen as an alternative to the "highly linear, story-based games" that dominated the computer RPG genre at the time, and the series' freedom of play inspired comparisons to Grand Theft Auto III. According to Todd Howard, "I think [Daggerfall is] one of those games that people can 'project' themselves on. It does so many things and allows [for] so many play styles that people can easily imagine what type of person they'd like to be in-game." The series' popularity exploded with the release of The Elder Scrolls III: Morrowind (2002), for the Xbox and PC. Morrowind became a successful and award-winning RPG due to its open-ended play, richly detailed game world, and flexibility in character creation and advancement. Two expansions were released: Tribunal in 2002 and Bloodmoon in 2003. The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion (2006), released for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 as well as the PC, was an enhanced sequel that featured scripted NPC behaviors, significantly improved graphics, and the company's first foray into micro transactions, an emerging trend among Western RPG makers. Two expansion packs, Shivering Isles and Knights of the Nine, were developed, as were several smaller downloadable packages, each costing between \$1–3. Oblivion'''s immediate successor, The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim, was released to wide critical acclaim on November 11, 2011 and remains one of the bestselling video games to date, with over 30 million sold copies. Interplay's decision to scrap plans for Fallout 3 and Bethesda's subsequent acquisition of the Fallout brand created mixed feelings among the series' small but vocal fan community as well as "hardcore" PC gamers. Problems cited included the number of lackluster additions to the series since the release of the original two games, as well as a perceived track record on the part of Bethesda for simplifying and streamlining its own franchises in order to appeal to a wider audience (a.k.a. "dumbing down"). Nevertheless, Bethesda released Fallout 3 in North America on October 28, 2008 to wide acclaim and much fanfare, and the game was quickly followed by five "content packs" and several additional sequels and spin-offs. Fallout: New Vegas (2010), created by Obsidian Entertainment and using the same engine as Fallout 3, was released to generally favorable reviews but would later go on to become a cult classic. Fallout 4, released in 2015, featured improved graphics and gunplay, and for the first time in the series a "voiced" protagonist. Fallout 76, released in 2018, featured online-only multiplayer modes and survival crafting mechanics. ### Video game consoles and "accessibility" Multi-platform releases were common in the early days of RPGs, but there was a period during the 1990s when this was not generally the case. The sixth generation of home gaming consoles led many game developers to resume this practice, and some opted to develop primarily or exclusively for consoles. The combination of the Xbox and DirectX technologies proved especially popular due to the two systems' architectural similarities, as well as their common set of development tools. Multimedia and art assets, which account for a greater proportion of a game's development budget today than in the past, are also easily transferable between multiple platforms. Development for multiple platforms is profitable, but difficult. Optimizations needed for one platform architecture do not necessarily translate well to others. Legacy platforms such as the Sega Genesis and PlayStation 3 were seen as difficult to develop for compared to their competitors, and even today developers are still not yet fully comfortable with new technologies such as multi-core processors and hyper-threading. Multi-platform releases are increasingly common, but not all similarities between game editions can be fully explained by game design alone. Rather, they can often be attributed to developers' lack of willingness to support all the optimizations needed to expose a single platform's full potential. There remain franchise stalwarts that exist solely on one system, however. Developers for handheld and mobile systems in particular are seen as being able to get away with more since they are not forced to operate under the pressures of \$20 million budgets and scrutiny from publishers' marketing departments to the same degree as other console game developers. Nintendo, credited with popularizing the handheld console concept with the release of the Game Boy in 1989, has recently combined its TV and handheld consoles into a single device, however. Several major PC RPG titles have been affected by multi-platform releases, mostly due to console exclusivity publishing deals with Microsoft. BioWare's Star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic was developed primarily for the Xbox, and not ported to the PC until several months later. Their original IP, Jade Empire (2005) was also an Xbox exclusive, and did not receive a Windows version until Jade Empire – Special Edition (which included bonus content) in 2007. Obsidian's KOTOR sequel was released in December 2004 for the Xbox, followed by a PC version in February 2005; and Fable (2004) by Lionhead Studios did not receive a PC port until its reissue as a Platinum Hit in 2005. Fable II (2008) and Fable III (2010) were platform exclusives when they were released, as well. Sequels to many of the titles previously mentioned in this article have also been developed for next-gen console systems. The Fallout and Baldur's Gate series of PC RPGs spawned console-friendly, Diablo-style action titles for the PS2 and Xbox as their respective PC series ended. Bethesda's The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion was released simultaneously for console and PC, but was considered a major launch title for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3. BioWare continued to produce launch-exclusive RPG titles for the Xbox 360, such as Mass Effect (2007). They also produced the multi-platform Dragon Age series starting in 2009. This change in focus away from the PC platform to console systems has met with criticism, due to the concessions required to adapt games to the altered interfaces and control systems, as well as a perceived need to make games "accessible" to a wider demographic. (A process referred to variously as "dumbing down" or "console-itis" by vocal detractors.) Developer Josh Sawyer of Obsidian Entertainment lamented the decline of high-profile computer-exclusive RPGs, and claimed that the collapse of Troika Games meant that there were "no pure CRPG developers left", outside of small companies like Spiderweb Software. According to video game historian and vlogger Matt Barton, "Successful CRPGs of modern times often seem more like action adventures or first-person shooters than anything ever released by Origin." Other criticisms include the increasing emphasis on video quality and voiceovers, and their detrimental effect on development budgets and the amount and quality of dialogue created for games. Lastly, there are concerns over the games' narrative and writing styles. Once considered the "savior" of the Western RPG following the CRPG drought of the mid-1990s, BioWare shed the novel-like writing style and other conventions of Western RPGs with Mass Effect. Instead, it replaced these conventions with the more cinematic style and streamlined action of Japanese console RPGs such as Final Fantasy and other video game genres. While constituting a major departure from established practice, and—along with other factors—raising questions as to whether games like Mass Effect are actually RPGs, BioWare's success as a company has been attributed to successfully "marrying Western mechanics with Japanese-style character interactions". There have been other less subtle shifts away from the core influences of Dungeons & Dragons that existed in the 1980s and 1990s, as well. Games that were originally closely tied to the system's basic mechanics such as dice rolls and turn-based tactical combat, have begun moving in the direction of real-time modes, simplified mechanics and skill-based interfaces. Some argue Dungeons & Dragons itself has diverged from its table-top roots, with the 4th Edition D&D rules being compared to video games such as World of Warcraft and Fire Emblem. Other people have even accused certain real-time RPGs (within the contexts of their respective franchises and genres) and board games of being "dumbed-down" by their creators. Nevertheless, even as non-role-playing game genres have adopted more and more RPG elements, developers and publishers continue to be concerned that the term "role-playing game" and its association with complicated pen-and-paper rules systems such as D&D may alienate a significant number of players. ### "Indie" and European game studios The technical sophistication required to make modern video games and the high expectations of players (at least, in terms of the number and quality of voice-overs and increasing graphical fidelity) make it difficult for independent developers to impress audiences to the same degree that large game makers with extensive budgets and development teams are able to. But innovation and quality need not necessarily be stymied. Like the movie industry, the "indie" (short for "independent") video game scene plays a crucial role in formulating new ideas and concepts that mainstream publishers and marketing departments, stuck in their rigid antiquated ways, might deem too unworkable or radical, but later adopt. There are many examples of movies that never gained approval within a corporate framework that ended up being financially successful and/or iconic among filmgoers. Likewise, "indie" video game developers are able to be successful by putting development time and effort into aspects of a game larger corporate enterprises might ignore. Lastly, independent developers can be successful by focusing on smaller niche markets. European countries, and Germany in particular, remain more receptive to PC-exclusives and, to older, more "hardcore" design decisions, in general. The new millennium saw a number of independently-published RPGs for the PC, as well as a number of CRPGs developed in Europe and points farther east, leading some to call Eastern Europe a "hotbed" of RPG development in recent years. Examples of independently-produced RPGs include Spiderweb Software's Geneforge (2001–2009) and Avernum (2000–2010) series; Pyrrhic Tales: Prelude to Darkness (2002) by Zero Sum Software; Eschalon: Book I (2007) and Book II (2010) by Basilisk Games; Depths of Peril (2007) and Din's Curse (2010) by Soldak Entertainment; Knights of the Chalice (2009) by Heroic Games; and Underrail (2015) by Stygian Software. Examples of Central and Eastern European RPGs include Belgian developer Larian Studios' Divinity series (2002-2017); Russian developer Nival Interactive's series of tactical RPGs, starting with Silent Storm (2003); German developer Ascaron Entertainment's Sacred series of action RPGs (2004-2014); and Polish developer Reality Pump's Two Worlds (2007) and Two Worlds 2 (2010). Hybrid RPGs include Russian developer Elemental Games' multi-genre Space Rangers (2002) and Space Rangers 2: Dominators (2004); Ukrainian developer GSC Game World's hybrid survival horror RPG/first-person shooter S.T.A.L.K.E.R.: Shadow of Chernobyl (2007); Turkish developer TaleWorlds' hybrid series of RPG/medieval combat simulators, starting with Mount & Blade (2008); and Toby Fox's very-hard-to-describe console game-inspired RPG, Undertale (2015). The critically acclaimed Gothic series, by German developer Piranha Bytes, first appeared in 2001. Lauded for its complex interaction with other in-game characters and attractive graphics, it was nonetheless criticized for its difficult control scheme and high system requirements. The third game in particular was notable for its performance issues at the time. Piranha Bytes split from publisher JoWood Productions in 2007, due to a contract dispute between the two companies. JoWooD retained the rights to the Gothic name and to current and future games released under that trademark. Piranha Bytes have since gone on to develop the Risen series (2009-2014) with publisher Deep Silver, and ELEX (2017) with publisher THQ Nordic. A fourth, "casual" installment of the Gothic series, this time by developer Spellbound Entertainment, was published by JoWood in 2010. This was followed by an expansion in 2011. The rights to the Gothic series may have reverted to Piranha Bytes following the release of Risen II in 2012. The Finnish independent development studio Almost Human released Legend of Grimrock, a Dungeon Master-inspired game, in 2012. A reboot of the long-abandoned tile-based dungeon-crawler sub-genre, it was a commercial success that reached the top of Steam's "Top Sellers list" in April of that year. The Estonian development house ZA/UM released Disco Elysium to wide critical acclaim in 2019. Set in a large city still recovering from a war decades prior to the game's start, it features players taking the role of an amnesic detective charged with solving a murder mystery, who comes to recall events about his own past as well as current forces trying to affect the city. It won numerous awards, including "Best Narrative", "Best Independent Game", "Best Role-Playing Game" and "Fresh Indie Game" at The Game Awards 2019 held in Los Angeles. Examples exist of developers leaving larger studios to form their own, independent development houses, as well. For instance, in 2009, a pair of developers left Obsidian Entertainment to form DoubleBear Productions, and began development of the post-apocalyptic zombie tactical RPG, Dead State (2014), using Iron Tower Studios' The Age of Decadence (2015) game engine. Three employees left BioWare in 2012 to form Stoic Studio and develop the tactical RPG The Banner Saga (2014) and its sequels. Dead State and The Banner Saga were both supported in part by the public through the crowdfunding website Kickstarter, a recent trend among independent video game developers. Other examples of crowdfunded tactical RPGs include inXile Entertainment's Wasteland sequels (2014, 2020); and Harebrained Schemes' Shadowrun Returns (2013-2015) and BattleTech (2018) series. Iron Tower Studios later went on to create Dungeon Rats (2016), a tactical RPG spin-off to The Age of Decadence. Their latest title, Colony Ship: A Post-Earth Role Playing Game, a Fallout homage was released for early access on 6 April 2021 and is currently still in development. ### CD Projekt Red CD Projekt Red, best known for The Witcher series (2007-2015) and Cyberpunk 2077 (2020), was formed in 2002 in Warsaw by Polish video game retailers Marcin Iwiński and Michał Kiciński. The company began by translating major video-game releases into Polish, collaborating with Interplay Entertainment on two Baldur's Gate titles. When Baldur's Gate: Dark Alliance was cancelled, the company decided to reuse the code for their own video game, The Witcher, based on the works of Andrzej Sapkowski. After the release of The Witcher, CD Projekt worked on a console port called The Witcher: White Wolf; but development issues and increasing costs led the company to the brink of bankruptcy. CD Projekt later released The Witcher 2: Assassins of Kings in 2011 and The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt in 2015, with the latter winning various Game of the Year awards. In 2020, the company released Cyberpunk 2077, open-world role-playing game based on the Cyberpunk 2020 tabletop game system, for which it opened a new division in Wrocław. Much-anticipated after a several-years-long wait, Cyberpunk 2077 received considerable praise for its narrative, setting, and graphics, although several of its gameplay elements received mixed reviews. After viewing a pre-release trailer, however, writer William Gibson, credited with pioneering the cyberpunk genre, remarked that the game seemed like "GTA skinned-over with a generic 80s retro-future", although he later expressed an affinity toward the first gameplay demo. Its themes and representation of transgender characters also received scrutiny. Further, Cyberpunk 2077'' was widely criticized for bugs, particularly in the console versions which suffered from severe performance issues. (Sony removed the game from the PlayStation Store soon after release.) Later, CD Projekt would become subject to investigations and class-action lawsuits for their perceived attempts in downplaying the severity of the game's technical issues prior to its release.
4,308,185	Geoffrey Kirk	1,133,797,317	British classical scholar (1921–2003)	[ "1921 births", "2003 deaths", "Alumni of Clare College, Cambridge", "British expatriates in Greece", "British scholars of ancient Greek philosophy", "English classical scholars", "Fellows of Trinity Hall, Cambridge", "Fellows of the British Academy", "Homeric scholars", "Members of the University of Cambridge faculty of classics", "People educated at Rossall School", "People from Fittleworth", "People from Woodbridge, Suffolk", "Recipients of the Distinguished Service Cross (United Kingdom)", "Regius Professors of Greek (Cambridge)", "Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve personnel of World War II", "Scholars of ancient Greek literature" ]	Geoffrey Stephen Kirk, ((1921-12-03)3 December 1921 – (2003-03-10)10 March 2003) was a British classicist who served as the 35th Regius Professor of Greek at the University of Cambridge. He published widely on pre-Socratic philosophy and the work of the Greek poet Homer, culminating in a six-volume philological commentary on the Iliad published between 1985 and 1993. Born into a middle-class family in Nottingham, he began studying classics at Clare College, Cambridge but joined the Royal Navy during World War II. He was deployed to the Aegean Sea as part of the Levant Schooner Flotilla and distinguished himself through his command of modern Greek. His service, for which he was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross, became the basis for his 1997 memoir Towards The Aegean Sea. Kirk began his career as a lecturer and fellow of Trinity Hall, Cambridge in the 1950s. He also held professorships at Yale and Bristol University. In 1974, having gained a reputation as a leading Hellenist through the publication of his first major study (Heraclitus: the Cosmic Fragments, 1954), he succeeded Denys Page as the Regius Professor of Greek at Cambridge. After his retirement in 1983, he dedicated himself to his Iliad commentary but began to suffer from depressive illness. ## Early life Geoffrey Stephen Kirk was born in December 1921 in Nottingham. His parents were Frederic Kirk, an educational administrator at Northampton Polytechnic and World War I veteran, and his wife Enid. Having spent part of his childhood in the Hertfordshire town of Radlett, he was educated at the independent Rossall School in Lancashire. In 1939, he won a scholarship to study classics at Clare College, Cambridge. ## Military service and return to Cambridge In 1941, after only one year at Cambridge University, Kirk volunteered to join the Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve. His supervisor at Cambridge was Robert Rattenbury, whom Hugh Lloyd-Jones later called "a sound scholar but by no means an inspiring teacher". When Kirk said he was leaving to join the Navy, Rattenbury remarked: "Good Heavens! Well, I don't suppose I shall be seeing you again!" Kirk served in the Levant Schooner Flotilla, an Allied naval organisation operating in the Aegean Sea. He rose to command a caïque, one of the Aegean fishing boats which were used by the Allies to stage landings on the Greek coast. Having learnt some modern Greek, he distinguished himself through his communication with Greek resistance forces and was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross in August 1945. Later in life, he reflected on the events of his wartime service in a 1997 memoir entitled Towards The Aegean Sea. After the End of World War II, Kirk returned to Cambridge to resume his studies towards the Classical Tripos. He was most influenced by his tutor at Clare College, the historian of ancient Greece N. G. L. Hammond, and by the Hellenist Harry Sandbach. In 1946, he graduated BA with First Class Honours. ## Career ### Beginnings at Trinity Hall Kirk's first academic position was a research fellowship at Trinity Hall, Cambridge. However, he spent much of his time away from the college. A stint at British School at Athens (1947—1948) was followed by a period as a Commonwealth Fund Fellow at Harvard University, lasting from 1949 to 1950. In 1950, Kirk married the artist Barbara Traill, with whom he had one daughter. He then took up a permanent position at Cambridge. Working as an assistant lecturer in ancient Greek literature, he was elected a fellow of Trinity Hall. Unusually for his time, Kirk attained a series of promotions in his first decade as a tenured academic: he was made a university lecturer in 1952 and a reader in 1961. The 1950s and 1960s witnessed the publication of several monographs which helped to establish his international reputation as a scholar of archaic Greece: he edited the fragments of the philosopher Heraclitus (1954), wrote a study on the poems of Homer (1962), and, together with classicist John Raven, co-edited a volume on pre-Socratic philosophy (1958). He was elected a Fellow of the British Academy in 1959 at just thirty eight years of age. ### Professorships in the United States and England In 1965, Kirk returned to the United States and took up a professorship of classics at Yale University. He held this appointment until 1970. During this period, he also spent a year as the Sather Professor of Classical Literature at the University of California, Berkeley and delivered the 1968 Sather Classical Lectures entitled Myth: Its Meaning and Functions. Having spent five years in North America, Kirk returned to the United Kingdom when offered the chair of Greek at the University of Bristol in 1971. However, his tenure did not last long: in 1973, Denys Page had retired from the Regius Chair of Greek at Cambridge. The following year, Kirk was elected to succeed Page and became the 35th holder of the chair. Trinity College, Cambridge duly admitted him to its fellowship. Having published the content of his Sather Lectures in 1970, his work on Greek literature continued with a translation of the Bacchae (1970) by the tragedian Euripides and a second monograph on Homer (Homer and the Oral Tradition, 1977). In 1979, he briefly returned to the United States to take up a distinguished visiting professorship at Tulane University. In 1975, while serving as the Regius Professor, Kirk's marriage to his wife was dissolved. He then married Kirsten Ricks, the former wife of the literary critic Christopher Ricks, in September of the same year. Although the pair did not have any children, he acquired four stepchildren from Kirsten's first marriage. ## Retirement and death Kirk retired from his teaching duties in 1982. Continuing for some time to live at their house in Woodbridge, Suffolk, he and his wife later moved to Bath and finally settled in Fittleworth, West Sussex. Much of his retirement was taken up by work on a large-scale commentary on Homer's Iliad. Intended to be the crowning achievement of his academic career, the book was published in six volumes between 1985 and 1993. While he was the sole author of the first two volumes, the remaining ones were published in co-operation with fellow classicists Mark W. Edwards, Richard Janko, Nicholas Richardson, and John B. Hainsworth. In his retirement, Kirk increasingly suffered from depressive illness, leading to a "stressful and unsettled" life. He died from heart failure in March 2003 in a nursing home at Rake, West Sussex. He was survived by his second wife Kirsten, his daughter and four stepchildren. ## Legacy Kirks's reputation as a classical scholar was based initially on his work on pre-Socratic philosophy. His first book (Heraclitus: the Cosmic Fragments, 1954) was well received among the scholars community. Gregory Vlastos, a leading interpreter of Plato, remarked that it "compell[ed] one to reconsider many things one has previously taken for granted". Co-authored with John Raven, his 1959 book The Presocratic Philosophers became, in the words of Hellenist Hugh Lloyd-Jones, "an invaluable substitute" for previous treatments of the topic. From about 1960, his research focus lay with the Homeric epics. In this area, he was under the influence of his Cambridge predecessor Denys Page who had held that the poems were products of an oral tradition of poetry. Kirk's Songs of Homer (1962) presented a more nuanced expression of Page's views and treated the poems' transition from oral to written forms. The comprehensive commentary on the Iliad published in his retirement was praised by The Guardian as "coherent [...] and wide-ranging in interpretation". However, it has been criticised by Lloyd-Jones for adhering to oralist theories, which had become outdated by the time of the commentary's publication. ## Selected publications
19,690,848	Paracetamol poisoning	1,173,155,981	Toxicity due to paracetamol overdose	[ "Hepatotoxins", "Poisoning by drugs, medicaments and biological substances", "Wikipedia emergency medicine articles ready to translate", "Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate" ]	Paracetamol poisoning, also known as acetaminophen poisoning, is caused by excessive use of the medication paracetamol (acetaminophen). Most people have few or non-specific symptoms in the first 24 hours following overdose. These symptoms include feeling tired, abdominal pain, or nausea. This is typically followed by absence of symptoms for a couple of days, after which yellowish skin, blood clotting problems, and confusion occurs as a result of liver failure. Additional complications may include kidney failure, pancreatitis, low blood sugar, and lactic acidosis. If death does not occur, people tend to recover fully over a couple of weeks. Without treatment, death from toxicity occurs 4 to 18 days later. Paracetamol poisoning can occur accidentally or as an attempt to die by suicide. Risk factors for toxicity include alcoholism, malnutrition, and the taking of certain other hepatotoxic medications. Liver damage results not from paracetamol itself, but from one of its metabolites, N-acetyl-p-benzoquinone imine (NAPQI). NAPQI decreases the liver's glutathione and directly damages cells in the liver. Diagnosis is based on the blood level of paracetamol at specific times after the medication was taken. These values are often plotted on the Rumack-Matthew nomogram to determine level of concern. Treatment may include activated charcoal if the person seeks medical help soon after the overdose. Attempting to force the person to vomit is not recommended. If there is a potential for toxicity, the antidote acetylcysteine is recommended. The medication is generally given for at least 24 hours. Psychiatric care may be required following recovery. A liver transplant may be required if damage to the liver becomes severe. The need for transplant is often based on low blood pH, high blood lactate, poor blood clotting, or significant hepatic encephalopathy. With early treatment liver failure is rare. Death occurs in about 0.1% of cases. Paracetamol poisoning was first described in the 1960s. Rates of poisoning vary significantly between regions of the world. In the United States more than 100,000 cases occur a year. In the United Kingdom it is the medication responsible for the greatest number of overdoses. Young children are most commonly affected. In the United States and the United Kingdom, paracetamol is the most common cause of acute liver failure. ## Signs and symptoms The signs and symptoms of paracetamol toxicity occur in three phases. The first phase begins within hours of overdose, and consists of nausea, vomiting, a pale appearance, and sweating. However, patients often have no specific symptoms or only mild symptoms in the first 24 hours of poisoning. Rarely, after massive overdoses, patients may develop symptoms of metabolic acidosis and coma early in the course of poisoning. The second phase occurs between 24 hours and 72 hours following overdose and consists of signs of increasing liver damage. In general, damage occurs in liver cells as they metabolize the paracetamol. The individual may experience right upper quadrant abdominal pain. The increasing liver damage also changes biochemical markers of liver function; International normalized ratio (INR) and the liver transaminases ALT and AST rise to abnormal levels. Acute kidney failure may also occur during this phase, typically caused by either hepatorenal syndrome or multiple organ dysfunction syndrome. In some cases, acute kidney failure may be the primary clinical manifestation of toxicity. In these cases, it has been suggested that the toxic metabolite is produced more in the kidneys than in the liver. The third phase follows at 3 to 5 days, and is marked by complications of massive liver necrosis leading to fulminant liver failure with complications of coagulation defects, low blood sugar, kidney failure, hepatic encephalopathy, brain swelling, sepsis, multiple organ failure, and death. If the third phase is survived, the liver necrosis runs its course, and liver and kidney function typically return to normal in a few weeks. The severity of paracetamol toxicity varies depending on the dose and whether appropriate treatment is received. ## Cause The toxic dose of paracetamol is highly variable. In general the recommended maximum daily dose for healthy adults is 4 grams. Higher doses lead to increasing risk of toxicity. In adults, single doses above 10 grams or 200 mg/kg of bodyweight, whichever is lower, have a reasonable likelihood of causing toxicity. Toxicity can also occur when multiple smaller doses within 24 hours exceed these levels. Following a dose of 1 gram of paracetamol four times a day for two weeks, patients can expect an increase in alanine transaminase in their liver to typically about three times the normal value. It is unlikely that this dose would lead to liver failure. Studies have shown significant hepatotoxicity is uncommon in patients who have taken greater than normal doses over 3 to 4 days. In adults, a dose of 6 grams a day over the preceding 48 hours could potentially lead to toxicity, while in children acute doses above 200 mg/kg could potentially cause toxicity. Acute paracetamol overdose in children rarely causes illness or death, and it is very uncommon for children to have levels that require treatment, with chronic larger-than-normal doses being the major cause of toxicity in children. Intentional overdosing (self-poisoning, with suicidal intent) is frequently implicated in paracetamol toxicity. In a 2006 review, paracetamol was the most frequently ingested compound in intentional overdosing. In rare individuals, paracetamol toxicity can result from normal use. This may be due to individual ("idiosyncratic") differences in the expression and activity of certain enzymes in one of the metabolic pathways that handle paracetamol (see paracetamol's metabolism). ### Risk factors A number of factors can potentially increase the risk of developing paracetamol toxicity. Chronic excessive alcohol consumption can induce CYP2E1, thus increasing the potential toxicity of paracetamol. In one study of patients with liver injury, 64% reported alcohol intakes of greater than 80 grams a day, while 35% took 60 grams a day or less. Whether chronic alcoholism should be considered a risk factor has been debated by some clinical toxicologists. For chronic alcohol users, acute alcohol ingestion at the time of a paracetamol overdose may have a protective effect. For non-chronic alcohol users, acute alcohol consumption had no protective effect. Fasting is a risk factor, possibly because of depletion of liver glutathione reserves. The concomitant use of the CYP2E1 inducer isoniazid increases the risk of hepatotoxicity, though whether 2E1 induction is related to the hepatotoxicity in this case is unclear. Concomitant use of other drugs that induce CYP enzymes, such as antiepileptics including carbamazepine, phenytoin, and barbiturates, have also been reported as risk factors. ## Pathophysiology When taken in normal therapeutic doses, paracetamol has been shown to be safe. Following a therapeutic dose, it is mostly converted to nontoxic metabolites via Phase II metabolism by conjugation with sulfate and glucuronide, with a small portion being oxidized via the cytochrome P450 enzyme system. Cytochromes P450 2E1 and 3A4 convert approximately 5% of paracetamol to a highly reactive intermediary metabolite, N-acetyl-p-benzoquinone imine (NAPQI). Under normal conditions, NAPQI is detoxified by conjugation with glutathione to form cysteine and mercapturic acid conjugates. In cases of paracetamol overdose, the sulfate and glucuronide pathways become saturated, and more paracetamol is shunted to the cytochrome P450 system to produce NAPQI. As a result, hepatocellular supplies of glutathione become depleted, as the demand for glutathione is higher than its regeneration. NAPQI therefore remains in its toxic form in the liver and reacts with cellular membrane molecules, resulting in widespread hepatocyte damage and death, leading to acute liver necrosis. In animal studies, the liver's stores of glutathione must be depleted to less than 70% of normal levels before liver toxicity occurs. ## Diagnosis A person's history of taking paracetamol is somewhat accurate for the diagnosis. The most effective way to diagnose poisoning is by obtaining a blood paracetamol level. A drug nomogram developed in 1975, called the Rumack–Matthew nomogram, estimates the risk of toxicity based on the serum concentration of paracetamol at a given number of hours after ingestion. To determine the risk of potential hepatotoxicity, the paracetamol level is traced along the nomogram. Use of a timed serum paracetamol level plotted on the nomogram appears to be the best marker indicating the potential for liver injury. A paracetamol level drawn in the first four hours after ingestion may underestimate the amount in the system because paracetamol may still be in the process of being absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract. Therefore, a serum level taken before 4 hours is not recommended. Clinical or biochemical evidence of liver toxicity may develop in one to four days, although, in severe cases, it may be evident in 12 hours. Right-upper-quadrant tenderness may be present and can aid in diagnosis. Laboratory studies may show evidence of liver necrosis with elevated AST, ALT, bilirubin, and prolonged coagulation times, particularly an elevated prothrombin time. After paracetamol overdose, when AST and ALT exceed 1000 IU/L, paracetamol-induced hepatotoxicity can be diagnosed. In some cases, the AST and ALT levels can exceed 10,000 IU/L. ### Detection in body fluids Paracetamol may be quantified in blood, plasma, or urine as a diagnostic tool in clinical poisoning situations or to aid in the medicolegal investigation of suspicious deaths. The concentration in serum after a typical dose of paracetamol usually peaks below 30 mg/L, which equals 200 μmol/L. Levels of 30–300 mg/L (200–2000 μmol/L) are often observed in overdose patients. Postmortem blood levels have ranged from 50 to 400 mg/L in persons dying due to acute overdosage. Automated colorimetric techniques, gas chromatography and liquid chromatography are currently in use for the laboratory analysis of the drug in physiological specimens. ## Prevention ### Limitation of availability Limiting the availability of paracetamol tablets has been attempted in some countries. In the UK, sales of over-the-counter paracetamol are restricted to packs of 32 x 500 mg tablets in pharmacies, and 16 x 500 mg tablets in non-pharmacy outlets. Pharmacists may provide up to 100 tablets for those with chronic conditions at the pharmacist's discretion. In Ireland, the limits are 24 and 12 tablets, respectively. Subsequent study suggests that the reduced availability in large numbers had a significant effect in reducing poisoning deaths from paracetamol overdose. One suggested method of prevention is to make paracetamol a prescription-only medicine, or to remove it entirely from the market. However, overdose is a relatively minor problem; for example, 0.08% of the UK population (over 50 thousand people) present with paracetamol overdose each year. In contrast, paracetamol is a safe and effective medication that is taken without complications by millions of people. In addition, alternative pain relief medications such as aspirin are more toxic in overdose, whereas non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs are associated with more adverse effects following normal use. ### Combination with other agents One strategy for reducing harm done by acetaminophen overdoses is selling paracetamol pre-combined in tablets either with an emetic or an antidote. Paradote was a tablet sold in the UK which combined 500 mg paracetamol with 100 mg methionine, an amino acid formerly used in the treatment of paracetamol overdose. There have been no studies so far on the effectiveness of paracetamol when given in combination with its most commonly used antidote, acetylcysteine. Calcitriol, the active metabolite of vitamin D<sub>3</sub>, appears to be a catalyst for glutathione production. Calcitriol was found to increase glutathione levels in rat astrocyte primary cultures on average by 42%, increasing glutathione protein concentrations from 29 nmol/mg to 41 nmol/mg, 24 and 48 hours after administration; it continued to have an influence on glutathione levels 96 hours after administration. It has been proposed that co-administration of calcitriol, via injection, may improve treatment outcomes. ### Paracetamol replacements Paracetamol ester prodrug with L-pyroglutamic acid (PCA), a biosynthetic precursor of glutathione, has been synthesized to reduce paracetamol hepatotoxicity and improve bioavailability. The toxicological studies of different paracetamol esters show that L-5-oxo-pyrrolidine-2-paracetamol carboxylate reduces toxicity after administration of an overdose of paracetamol to mice. The liver glutathione values in mice induced by intraperitoneal injection of the ester are superimposable with the GSH levels recorded in untreated mice control group. The mice group treated with an equivalent dose of paracetamol showed a significant decrease of glutathione of 35% (p\<0.01 vs untreated control group). The oral LD50 was found to be greater than 2000 mg kg-1, whereas the intraperitoneal LD50 was 1900 mg kg-1. These results taken together with the good hydrolysis and bioavailability data show that this ester is a potential candidate as a prodrug of paracetamol. ## Treatment ### Gastrointestinal decontamination In adults, the initial treatment for paracetamol overdose is gastrointestinal decontamination. Paracetamol absorption from the gastrointestinal tract is complete within two hours under normal circumstances, so decontamination is most helpful if performed within this timeframe. Gastric lavage, better known as stomach pumping, may be considered if the amount ingested is potentially life-threatening and the procedure can be performed within 60 minutes of ingestion. Administration of activated charcoal is the most common gastrointestinal decontamination procedure as it efficiently adsorbs paracetamol, thereby reducing its gastrointestinal absorption. Administering activated charcoal also poses less risk of aspiration than gastric lavage. It appears that the most benefit from activated charcoal is gained if it is given within 30 minutes to two hours of ingestion. Administering activated charcoal later than 2 hours can be considered in patients that may have delayed gastric emptying due to co-ingested drugs or following ingestion of sustained- or delayed-release paracetamol preparations. Activated charcoal should also be administered if co-ingested drugs warrant decontamination. There was reluctance to give activated charcoal in paracetamol overdose, because of the concern that it may also absorb the oral antidote acetylcysteine. Studies have shown that 39% less acetylcysteine is absorbed into the body when they are administered together. There are conflicting recommendations regarding whether to change the dosing of oral acetylcysteine after the administration of activated charcoal, and even whether the dosing of acetylcysteine needs to be altered at all. Intravenous acetylcysteine has no interaction with activated charcoal. Inducing vomiting with syrup of ipecac has no role in paracetamol overdose because the vomiting it induces delays the effective administration of activated charcoal and oral acetylcysteine. Liver injury is extremely rare after acute accidental ingestion in children under 6 years of age. Children with accidental exposures do not require gastrointestinal decontamination with either gastric lavage, activated charcoal, or syrup of ipecac. ### Acetylcysteine Acetylcysteine, also called N-acetylcysteine or NAC, works to reduce paracetamol toxicity by replenishing body stores of the antioxidant glutathione. Glutathione reacts with the toxic NAPQI metabolite so that it does not damage cells and can be safely excreted. NAC was usually given following a treatment nomogram (one for patients with risk factors, and one for those without) but the use of the nomogram is no longer recommended as the evidence base to support the use of risk factors was poor and inconsistent and many of the risk factors are imprecise and difficult to determine with sufficient certainty in clinical practice. Cysteamine and methionine have also been used to prevent hepatotoxicity, although studies show that both are associated with more adverse effects than acetylcysteine. Additionally, acetylcysteine has been shown to be a more effective antidote, particularly in patients presenting greater than 8 hours post-ingestion and for those who present with liver failure symptoms. If the person presents less than eight hours after paracetamol overdose, then acetylcysteine significantly reduces the risk of serious hepatotoxicity and guarantees survival. If acetylcysteine is started more than 8 hours after ingestion, there is a sharp decline in its effectiveness because the cascade of toxic events in the liver has already begun, and the risk of acute liver necrosis and death increases dramatically. Although acetylcysteine is most effective if given early, it still has beneficial effects if given as late as 48 hours after ingestion. If the person presents more than eight hours after the paracetamol overdose, then activated charcoal is not useful, and acetylcysteine is started immediately. In earlier presentations, charcoal can be given when the patient arrives and acetylcysteine is initiated while waiting for the paracetamol level results to return from the laboratory. In United States practice, intravenous (IV) and oral administration are considered to be equally effective and safe if given within 8 hours of ingestion. However, IV is the only recommended route in Australasian and British practice. Oral acetylcysteine is given as a 140 mg/kg loading dose followed by 70 mg/kg every four hours for 17 more doses, and if the patient vomits within 1 hour of dose, the dose must be repeated. Oral acetylcysteine may be poorly tolerated due to its unpleasant taste, odor, and its tendency to cause nausea and vomiting. If repeated doses of charcoal are indicated because of another ingested drug, then subsequent doses of charcoal and acetylcysteine should be staggered. Intravenous acetylcysteine is given as a continuous infusion over 20 hours for a total dose 300 mg/kg. Recommended administration involves infusion of a 150 mg/kg loading dose over 15 to 60 minutes, followed by a 50 mg/kg infusion over four hours; the last 100 mg/kg are infused over the remaining 16 hours of the protocol. Intravenous acetylcysteine has the advantage of shortening hospital stay, increasing both doctor and patient convenience, and allowing administration of activated charcoal to reduce absorption of both the paracetamol and any co-ingested drugs without concerns about interference with oral acetylcysteine. Intravenous dosing varies with weight, specifically in children. For patients less than 20 kg, the loading dose is 150 mg/kg in 3 mL/kg diluent, administered over 60 minutes; the second dose is 50 mg/kg in 7 mL/kg diluent over 4 hours; and the third and final dose is 100 mg/kg in 14 mL/kg diluent over 16 hours. The most common adverse effect to acetylcysteine treatment is an anaphylactoid reaction, usually manifested by rash, wheeze, or mild hypotension. Adverse reactions are more common in people treated with IV acetylcysteine, occurring in up to 20% of patients. Anaphylactoid reactions are more likely to occur with the first infusion (the loading dose). Rarely, severe life-threatening reactions may occur in predisposed individuals, such as patients with asthma or atopic dermatitis, and may be characterized by respiratory distress, facial swelling, and even death. If an anaphylactoid reaction occurs the acetylcysteine is temporarily halted or slowed and antihistamines and other supportive care is administered. For example, a nebulised beta-agonist like salbutamol may be indicated in the event of significant bronchospasm (or prophylactically in patients with a history of bronchospasm secondary to acetylcysteine). It is also important to closely monitor fluids and electrolytes. ### Liver transplant In people who develop acute liver failure or who are otherwise expected to die from liver failure, the mainstay of management is liver transplantation. Liver transplants are performed in specialist centers. The most commonly used criteria for liver transplant were developed by physicians at King's College Hospital in London. Patients are recommended for transplant if they have an arterial blood pH less than 7.3 after fluid resuscitation or if a patient has Grade III or IV encephalopathy, a prothrombin time greater than 100 seconds, and a serum creatinine greater than 300 mmol/L In a 24-hour period. Other forms of liver support have been used including partial liver transplants. These techniques have the advantage of supporting the patient while their own liver regenerates. Once liver function returns immunosuppressive drugs are commenced and they have to take immunosuppressive medication for the rest of their lives. ## Prognosis The mortality rate from paracetamol overdose increases two days after the ingestion, reaches a maximum on day four, and then gradually decreases. Acidosis is the most important single indicator of probable mortality and the need for transplantation. A mortality rate of 95% without transplant was reported in patients who had a documented pH less than 7.30. Other indicators of poor prognosis include chronic kidney disease (stage 3 or worse), hepatic encephalopathy, a markedly elevated prothrombin time, or an elevated blood lactic acid level (lactic acidosis). One study has shown that a factor V level less than 10% of normal indicated a poor prognosis (91% mortality), whereas a ratio of factor VIII to factor V of less than 30 indicated a good prognosis (100% survival). Patients with a poor prognosis are usually identified for likely liver transplantation. Patients that do not die are expected to fully recover and have a normal life expectancy and quality of life. ## Epidemiology Many over-the-counter and prescription-only medications contain paracetamol. Because of its wide availability paired with comparably high toxicity, (compared to ibuprofen and aspirin) there is a much higher potential for overdose. Paracetamol toxicity is one of the most common causes of poisoning worldwide. In the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand, paracetamol is the most common cause of drug overdoses. Additionally, in both the United States and the United Kingdom it is the most common cause of acute liver failure. In England and Wales an estimated 41,200 cases of paracetamol poisoning occurred in 1989 to 1990, with a mortality of 0.40%. It is estimated that 150 to 200 deaths and 15 to 20 liver transplants occur as a result of poisoning each year in England and Wales. Paracetamol overdose results in more calls to poison control centers in the US than overdose of any other pharmacological substance, accounting for more than 100,000 calls, as well as 56,000 emergency room visits, 2,600 hospitalizations, and 458 deaths due to acute liver failure per year. A study of cases of acute liver failure between November 2000 and October 2004 by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in the US found that paracetamol was the cause of 41% of all cases in adults, and 25% of cases in children.
33,069,509	Avitomyrmex	1,173,607,635	Extinct genus of ants	[ "Fossil ant genera", "Fossil taxa described in 2006", "Hymenoptera of North America", "Myrmeciinae", "Prehistoric insects of North America", "Ypresian insects" ]	Avitomyrmex is an extinct genus of bulldog ants in the subfamily Myrmeciinae which contains three described species. The genus was described in 2006 from Ypresian stage (Early Eocene) deposits of British Columbia, Canada. Almost all the specimens collected are queens, with an exception of a single fossilised worker. These ants are large, and the eyes are also large and well-developed; a sting is present in one species. The behaviour of these ants may have been similar to extant Myrmeciinae ants, such as foraging solitarily for arthropod prey and never leaving pheromone trails to food sources. Avitomyrmex has not been assigned to any tribe, instead generally being regarded as incertae sedis within Myrmeciinae. However, its identity as an ant has been challenged, although it is undoubtedly a hymenopteran insect. ## History and classification Avitomyrmex is an extinct genus of ants with three described species. Fossils of Avitomyrmex, along with other extinct Myrmeciinae ants were first studied and described by Bruce Archibald, Stefan Cover and Corrie Moreau of the Museum of Comparative Zoology in Cambridge, Massachusetts. They published their 2006 description of the genus and species in an Annals of the Entomological Society of America journal article. The genus name is a combination of the Latin "avitus" meaning "ancient" or "grandfatherly" and the Greek myrmex, meaning "ant". Included with the genus description, the paper contained the description of Avitomyrmex mastax, Avitomyrmex systenus, and the type species Avitomyrmex elongatus. These fossil species date back to the Middle Ypresian. Archibald and colleagues originally classified Avitomyrmex as incertae sedis (Latin for "of uncertain placement") within the ant subfamily Myrmeciinae, as the specimens are unable to be properly identified. In 2008, however, Cesare Baroni Urbani of the University of Basel, Switzerland, noted that no specimen in this genus allows a proper examination of the apomorphy (key diagnostic traits) of the subfamilial or familial characters. While Baroni Urbani excludes Avitomyrmex from Myrmeciinae and classifies it as incertae sedis in Hymenoptera, the morphological characters and wings show the specimens are undoubtedly a hymenopteran insect. A 2012 report by Russian palaeoentomologist Gennady M. Dlussky of the Moscow State University describing new Myrmeciinae accepted the classification of Archibald and colleagues without mentioning the comments of Baroni Urbani. The following cladograms generated by Archibald and colleagues show two possible phylogenetic positions of Avitomyrmex among some ants of the subfamily Myrmeciinae; the cladogram on the right included three additional extinct genera compared to that on the left. It is suggested that Avitomyrmex may be closely related to other extinct Myrmeciinae ants such as Macabeemyrma and Ypresiomyrma, as well as the extant Nothomyrmecia macrops. ## Description There are several characters which separate Avitomyrmex from other ant genera. The most notable feature is the distinctly slender nature of the queens and workers morphology. This is shown clearly in the shape of the petiole connecting the thorax and the abdomen. While similar to the modern myrmeciine genus Nothomyrmecia of Southern Australia, the two genera are distinguishable by the structure of the petiole, with Avitomyrmex lacking the peduncle seen in Nothomyrmecia. The eyes are large and well developed, the mandibles are subtriangular but poorly preserved, and a sting is present on examined A. systenus fossils. As for A. elongatus and A. mastax, it is unknown if the two ants have a sting, due to either poor preservation or the sting has not been preserved at all. ### A. elongatus A. elongatus was described from a single side of a compression fossil found from the Middle Ypresian McAbee Fossil Beds, Tranquille Formation, near Cache Creek, British Columbia. The incomplete specimen of a queen, numbered 2003.2.8CDM032, is currently preserved in the paleontology collections housed at the Courtenay and District Museum, Courtenay, British Columbia. Archibald, Cover, and Moreau coined the specific epithet from the Latin "elongatus" meaning "prolonged" in reference to the elongated morphology of the type specimen. The species is discernible from the other two species of Avitomyrmex by its notably larger size, the preserved portion of the ant being over 20 millimetres (0.8 inches). The forewings are almost as large as the specimen, measuring around 18 millimetres (0.7 inches) while the hindwings are too poorly preserved to be studied. The holotype is preserved with a partly disarticulated gaster and is missing her head. ### A. mastax The second species described from the McAbee Fossil Beds is A. mastax which, unlike A. elongatus, is known from two specimens. The holotype and paratype are both included in the Thompson Rivers University, Kamloops collections as UCCIPRL-18 F-850 and UCCIPRL-18 F-929 respectively. The holotype specimen is a partial queen which is incomplete, with one forewing and the head fairly preserved, and the other isolated body portions indistinct. The paratype is a mostly complete queen missing parts of her gaster, legs and hind wings. Overall the species is estimated to have been 15 millimetres (0.6 inches) long and has a forewing length of 13 millimetres (0.5 inches). A. mastax is distinguishable from the other species in Avitomyrmex by its smaller mandible size, being less than half the length of the head with eight teeth, and additionally the shape of the head capsule. The specimen also has large compound eyes. The specific epithet mastax is from the Greek "mastax" meaning "jaw" or "mandible", a reference to the small size of the mandibles compared to the other species of Avitomyrmex. ### A. systenus Of the three described species of Avitomyrmex found at the McAbee Fossil Beds, only A. systenus is known from worker caste specimens. The holotype is currently deposited in the Courtenay and District Museum paleontology collections as 2003.2.11 CDM 035 while the paratype, UCCIPR L-18 F-989, and an additional hypotype worker, UCCIPR L-18 F-825, which is tentatively assigned to the species are both deposited in Thompson Rivers University collections. Based on the mostly complete workers, mature specimens are estimated to have been 15 millimetres (0.6 inches). Due to the size of adult workers they cannot be attributed to A. elongatus while the overall petiole, head capsule and mandible structure distinguish it from A. mastax. The eyes are large and one-third the length of the head, and the legs are indistinctly preserved but long. The pronotum is almost flat, and the gaster is narrow. The shape of the head was the basis for Archibald, Cover and Moreau choosing the specific epithet systenus, which is from the Greek word systenos meaning "tapering to a point". ## Ecology Archibald and colleagues suggested that the life habits of Avitomyrmex species may have been similar to that of extant Myrmeciinae ants. These ants may have nested in the soil or in trees, possibly being an arboreal nesting genus. This may be the case as one Myrmecia species is known to inhabit trees exclusively. Workers most likely preyed on arthropods, killing them with their sting and fed on nectar; workers would have been found foraging onto trees or low vegetation without leaving any pheromone trails to food sources or recruit nestmates, as they were solitary foragers. Avitomyrmex ants most likely used their large eyes to locate prey and for navigational purposes.
32,615,025	Miles Morales	1,173,609,013	Fictional Marvel Comics superhero	[ "African-American superheroes", "Avengers (comics) characters", "Black characters in animation", "Black characters in films", "Black characters in video games", "Black people in comics", "Characters created by Brian Michael Bendis", "Comics characters introduced in 2011", "Fictional Afro–Latin American people", "Fictional characters from Brooklyn", "Fictional characters from parallel universes", "Fictional characters who can turn invisible", "Fictional characters with electric or magnetic abilities", "Fictional characters with precognition", "Fictional genetically engineered characters", "Fictional high school students", "Incarnations of Spider-Man", "Marvel Comics American superheroes", "Marvel Comics adapted into films", "Marvel Comics characters who can move at superhuman speeds", "Marvel Comics characters with superhuman senses", "Marvel Comics characters with superhuman strength", "Marvel Comics child superheroes", "Marvel Comics mutates", "Puerto Rican superheroes", "S.H.I.E.L.D. agents", "Teenage characters in comics", "Teenage superheroes", "Ultimate Marvel characters", "Vigilante characters in comics" ]	Miles Gonzalo Morales (/məˈrælɛs/) is a fictional character, a superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. He is one of the characters known as Spider-Man, having been created in 2011 by writer Brian Michael Bendis and artist Sara Pichelli, with input by Marvel's then-editor-in-chief Axel Alonso. The character possesses powers similar to those of the original Spider-Man, which were derived from the bite of a spider genetically engineered by Spider-Man's nemesis Norman Osborn in an attempt to duplicate those abilities. The biracial teenage son of an African-American father and a Puerto Rican mother, Miles Morales is the second Spider-Man to appear in Ultimate Marvel, an imprint with a separate continuity from the mainstream Marvel Universe called the Ultimate Universe (Earth-1610), first appearing in Ultimate Fallout \#4 (August 2011), following the death of the Ultimate Peter Parker. He was featured in the Ultimate Comics: Spider-Man comic book series, and after Marvel ended the Ultimate imprint in 2015, Miles was made a character in the main Marvel Universe (Earth-616), beginning with stories under the All-New, All-Different Marvel branding that debuted that same year, with Miles' original Earth-616 counterpart, the villainous Ultimatum, introduced in Spider-Men II in 2017. Reaction to the character varied. Some, including Spider-Man's co-creator, Stan Lee, approved the creation of a positive role model for children of color. Others expressed displeasure at the replacement of Peter Parker, with The Guardian, Fox News, and Culture Map Houston reporting that some fans viewed the decision as an attempt by Marvel Comics to exhibit political correctness, and that the introduction of a minority Spider-Man was simply a publicity stunt to attract more readers, a charge Alonso denied. Alexandra Petri of The Washington Post called for the character to be judged on the quality of his stories, which garnered positive reviews. As a result of the character's popularity, Miles Morales has been adapted in numerous media outside comics. The character was not the lead protagonist in the Ultimate Spider-Man animated television series, but was later added to the main cast, as an alternate Spider-Man from another universe voiced by Donald Glover in season three and Ogie Banks in season four, now named Kid Arachnid. Nadji Jeter first voiced the character in the Disney XD animated series Spider-Man (2017–20), and went on to reprise his role in the Marvel's Spider-Man video game series developed by Insomniac Games, and Marvel Ultimate Alliance 3: The Black Order (2019). The character is the protagonist of the animated Spider-Verse film franchise produced by Sony Pictures Animation, with Shameik Moore voicing the character in the Academy Award-winning feature film Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse (2018), as well as its sequels Across the Spider-Verse (2023) and Beyond the Spider-Verse, in which Jharrel Jerome also voices Miles' Earth-42 counterpart, the villainous Prowler. ## Publication history The concept of an African American Spider-Man was first discussed a few months before the November 2008 election of Barack Obama as President of the United States. Marvel Comics' then-editor-in-chief Axel Alonso describes the catalyst, "When we were planning 'Ultimatum,' we realized that we were standing at the brink of America electing its first African-American President and we acknowledged that maybe it was time to take a good look at one of our icons." This new Spider-Man would replace Parker as Spider-Man only in Ultimate Marvel, an imprint whose storyline is set in a universe separate from the mainstream Marvel universe, in which Marvel's characters were reimagined for a 21st-century audience. The replacement of Ultimate Peter Parker was considered as a possible part of the 2008–09 "Ultimatum" story arc that restructured much of the Ultimate Marvel universe, but those early thoughts were abandoned because the story for that character had not yet been developed. When Marvel's editorial staff decided that the Ultimate universe's Peter Parker would be killed in the 2011 storyline "Death of Spider-Man", the character Miles Morales was created. Although Morales is the first black Spider-Man, he marks the second time a Latino character has taken the Spider-Man identity. Miguel O'Hara, who is of Mexican and Irish descent, was the title character in the 1990s series Spider-Man 2099. Miles Morales was created by writer Brian Michael Bendis and artist Sara Pichelli. Bendis's thoughts about the character, and the way he looked in his first appearance, were heavily influenced by African-American actor Donald Glover's appearance in Spider-Man pajamas in "Anthropology 101", the second-season premiere of the television comedy series Community. This was a reference to an unsuccessful online campaign that attempted to secure Glover an audition for the lead role in the 2012 film The Amazing Spider-Man. Bendis said of Glover, "He looked fantastic! I saw him in the costume and thought, 'I would like to read that book.' So I was glad I was writing that book." In creating the visual look for Miles, Pichelli followed her usual practice of approaching the design by giving thought to the character's personality, including the background that influenced it, and the distinctive traits that he would exhibit, such as the clothing he wears, his body language and expressions. Pichelli also designed Spider-Man's new costume, a mostly black outfit with red webbing and a red spider logo. Pichelli had worked on four issues of Ultimate Spider-Man before she was approached to work on the new title with Miles Morales. Pichelli, who works with a Cintiq 12wx graphic tablet, added more screentones to her illustrations to give what she called "a more 'pop' feeling to the book", which she felt would be fitting to the series. Morales was born and raised in Brooklyn, New York City, the then-13-year-old son of an African American father and a Puerto Rican mother. Axel Alonso has described Miles as an intelligent nerd with an aptitude for science similar to his predecessor, Peter Parker. The character made his debut in the fourth issue of the Ultimate Fallout miniseries, which was released on August 3, 2011. He later starred in the relaunched Ultimate Comics: Spider-Man series, written by Bendis and drawn by Pichelli, in September 2011. In contrasting Miles with Peter Parker, Bendis has depicted different conflicts and anxieties for the character. Right after acquiring his superhuman abilities from a spider bite at the home of his uncle, Aaron, whom Miles admires but does not initially know is a career criminal, Miles' father, Jefferson, explains to Miles that before Miles was born, Jefferson and Aaron were thieves who spent time in prison, and that while Jefferson reformed when he got older, Aaron has not. According to Bendis, this gives Miles cause to wonder if the traits that lead to criminal behavior are hardwired into his DNA, leading him to question whether he is essentially a good person or not, and what his future holds for him. These issues further haunt Miles after he becomes disillusioned with Aaron, and Aaron dies from an accidental explosion triggered during a battle between the two of them, saying, "You are just like me" to Miles before dying. In 2012, Morales appeared in the miniseries Spider-Men, in which he encounters the Spider-Man of the mainstream Marvel universe. In June 2013, the character appeared in the climax of Age of Ultron \#10, which was also written by Brian Michael Bendis. Though mostly set in the mainstream Marvel universe, or Earth-616 as it is known in dialogue, the story depicts major changes to the space-time continuum as a result of the time travel on the part of characters, resulting in Miles witnessing the coming of the mainstream Marvel Galactus, an entity that consumes planets, to Earth. Despite its initial press and critical reception, Ultimate Comics Spider-Man was not a huge hit in the direct market. By August 2013, sales on the title had slipped, and sales for the other two Ultimate titles, Ultimate Comics X-Men and Ultimate Comics The Ultimates, had dropped to numbers at which mainstream Marvel titles are canceled. That November, Ultimate Comics Spider-Man ended its run with issue \#28, and the other two titles ended along with it, to make way for the miniseries Cataclysm: Ultimate Spider-Man, one of the books in the crossover storyline "Cataclysm", in which the heroes of the Ultimate universe face the threat of the Earth-616 Galactus, and Miles is transported to the mainstream Marvel universe. Following "Cataclysm", Miles starred in a new title called Miles Morales: Ultimate Spider-Man, again with Bendis as writer, as part of Ultimate Marvel Now, an initiative with which Marvel relaunched the Ultimate Marvel line. Miles Morales was also made a member of the eponymous team in All-New Ultimates, a series written by Michel Fiffe and drawn by Amilcar Pinna. Both series ran for 12 issues. The twelfth and final issue of Miles Morales: Ultimate Spider-Man concluded with a cliffhanger that led directly into the 2015 "Secret Wars" storyline. Marvel ended the Ultimate Marvel imprint with the "Secret Wars" storyline, in which the Marvel Universe was merged with other alternate universes, including the Ultimate Universe. Following "Secret Wars", Miles was made a character of the mainstream Marvel Universe, and a member of the titular team in All-New, All-Different Avengers. He also headlines his third solo series, titled simply Spider-Man, which debuted February 3, 2016, with Bendis and Pichelli returning as the creative team. Pichelli would be succeeded by Nico Leon and Oscar Bazaldua. In the storyline, Peter Parker expands the scope of his activities globally, while the now-16-year-old Miles continues to patrol New York City, and deals with issues such as confrontations with Parker's rogues gallery, the public's reaction to his ethnicity, and his love life. Each issue was numbered sequentially beginning with issue 1, and ending with issue 21, when the numbering switched to legacy numbering, in order to assume an unbroken numbering from 2000's Ultimate Spider-Man \#1, with the following issue continuing with issue 234. On November 7, 2017, it was announced that Bendis, having signed an exclusive contract with DC Comics, would be leaving Marvel in early 2018, and Spider-Man canceled with issue \#240 (May 2018). On September 13, 2018, Marvel announced that Saladin Ahmed and Javier Garron would be the writer and artist, respectively on a fourth ongoing solo series, Miles Morales: Spider-Man, the first issue of which was released on December 12, 2018, coinciding with the premiere of the animated feature film, Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse. The visual design of that film would reportedly influence a new costume designed by Chase Conley for the character's tenth anniversary in 2021, which included trademark sneakers. This series concluded with issue 42 in September 2022. In December 2022 Marvel debuted the next series, Miles Morales: Spider-Man by writer Cody Ziglar and artist Federico Vicentini. On July 9, 2020, Marvel announced that an original graphic novel, Miles Morales: Shock Waves, would be released in 2021 in partnership with Scholastic, written by Opposite of Always author Justin A. Reynolds, with art by Pablo Leon. ## Fictional character biography ### First appearance Miles Morales first appeared in Ultimate Comics: Fallout \#4, which was published in August 2011, in which he foils an assault by Kangaroo a short time after Peter Parker's death. He wears a Spider-Man costume similar to Parker's, but considers changing it when spectators tell him it is in "bad taste". ### Ultimate Comics: Spider-Man The opening story arc of Ultimate Comics: Spider-Man, which premiered in September 2011, is set prior to Ultimate Fallout \#4, and establishes the character of Miles Morales, a grade-schooler who lives with his mother Rio Morales, a nurse, and his father Jefferson Davis, and details how he received his superhuman abilities. After scientist Dr. Conrad Markus uses Parker's blood to recreate the formula that created Spider-Man, the Prowler (Aaron Davis, Miles's uncle) steals the formula, and in the process, one of the spiders created by Markus crawls into the Prowler's duffel bag. Days later, Miles is bitten by the spider during a visit to Aaron's apartment. Morales develops superhuman abilities similar to those Peter has, but does not tell his parents, due to his father's distrust of superheroes, confiding only in his best friend Ganke Lee. Miles, who wants a normal life, is unhappy about having these abilities and resistant to the idea of risking his life to engage in superheroics, a reaction that Bendis wrote to further contrast Miles with Parker. However, after witnessing Spider-Man's death at the Green Goblin's hands, the guilt-ridden Miles realizes he could have helped. After Ganke suggests he assume the Spider-Man mantle, and learns from Gwen Stacy why Parker did what he did, Miles is inspired to try costumed crimefighting. His first time out, he is confronted not only by those who feel his use of the Spider-Man costume is in bad taste, but also by Spider-Woman over his use of the Spider-Man identity. She unmasks and arrests Miles and takes him to S.H.I.E.L.D. headquarters, where Nick Fury reveals that he knows about Miles and his family, including the criminal activity of Miles' uncle. After Miles helps S.H.I.E.L.D. subdue the escaped supervillain Electro, S.H.I.E.L.D. releases Miles and gives him a modified black-and-red version of the Spider-Man costume, which Ganke feels makes Miles "officially" the new Spider-Man. He also receives the blessing of the Earth-616 Peter Parker during the 2012 Spider-Men miniseries, in which Parker briefly visits the Ultimate Marvel universe and meets Miles. After the media report the emergence of a new Spider-Man, Aaron deduces that it is Miles, and offers to train Miles and work with him. After Aaron uses Miles in his ongoing conflict with the Mexican crime lord Scorpion, Miles realizes he is being exploited, and refuses to assist his uncle further, despite Aaron's threat to inform Jefferson of his secret. This leads to an altercation that results in the malfunction of Aaron's weapons, which explode, killing Aaron. In subsequent storylines, Miles becomes acquainted with Parker's loved ones, May Parker, Gwen and Mary Jane Watson, who know of his secret identity and give him Parker's web shooters. He also work alongside the Ultimates superhuman team's various members. In a 2013 storyline, when investigative journalist Betty Brant incorrectly concludes that Miles' father, Jefferson, is the new Spider-Man, she is murdered by Markus, who has become the Venom symbiote's newest host. In the subsequent "Venom War" storyline, Venom critically injures Jefferson. When Venom confronts Spider-Man at the hospital, Rio learns her son is Spider-Man. During the battle, both she and Markus are killed by police gunfire, though before she dies, Rio tells Miles not to reveal his secret to Jefferson. Miles quits being Spider-Man as a result. A year later he has a girlfriend, Kate Bishop, and plans to tell her about his former life as Spider-Man. S.H.I.E.L.D. pressures him to return to that role, and he reluctantly does so, after Ganke and Spider-Woman convince him that there needs to be a Spider-Man. ### "Cataclysm" In the "Cataclysm" storyline, the mainstream Marvel version of Galactus comes to Miles' Earth to consume it for its energy. Believing the world is ending, Miles reveals his double life to his father, who holds Miles responsible for the deaths of Aaron and Rio, and disowns him. Miles also journeys to the mainstream Marvel universe with Reed Richards to acquire information on how to repel Galactus. ### Miles Morales: Ultimate Spider-Man In his second solo series, Miles Morales: Ultimate Spider-Man, Miles encounters the presumed-dead Peter Parker, who cannot explain his reappearance, and who does not intend to return to his former life. Together, the two Spider-Men defeat the Goblin, who is also revealed to be alive, but who is killed during the course of the story. After witnessing Miles courageously battle the Goblin, Peter acknowledges Miles a worthy successor, and decides to retire from superheroics for a life with family and Mary Jane. Miles' father Jefferson reappears, revealing to his son that as young men, Jefferson and Aaron worked for a criminal in the organization of Wilson Fisk, though Jefferson was spying for S.H.I.E.L.D. He afterward declined an offer to join S.H.I.E.L.D., and went on to marry Rio and have Miles. He explains he had fled after learning Miles was Spider-Man because it stirred unresolved issues from that time, and tells Miles he no longer blames him for his mother's death, and regrets abandoning him. When Miles reveals his secret identity to Katie, the Bishop family is revealed to be sleeper agents for the terrorist group Hydra who then kidnap Miles, his father and Ganke, as part of a plan involving Dr. Doom. Miles and the other prisoners are freed, however, in part with help from Judge (Miles's dorm mate), Maria Hill and other superhuman colleagues. ### End of Ultimate imprint and merge with Marvel-616 During the events of the 2015 "Secret Wars" storyline, both the Ultimate Marvel universe and the mainstream Earth-616 universe are destroyed. Miles survives the destruction by infiltrating an escape ship designed by the Cabal. After eight years in stasis, Miles awakens on the planet Battleworld, created from the remains of destroyed alternate Earths. He reunites with Earth-616's Peter Parker and the other surviving heroes from that former mainstream-Marvel Earth. They battle Doctor Doom, who with his new powers, appointed himself God Emperor of the planet. At the conclusion of the storyline, the Molecule Man, in gratitude for Miles' earlier compassion, restores Earth-616, with Miles and his family, including his mother, restored to life in the process, among its inhabitants. Aaron is also later revealed to have been restored to life, retaining his knowledge of Miles's dual identity, and becomes the villainous Iron Spider. Both Miles and Peter share the Spider-Man mantle in the new universe, though the now-16-year-old Miles patrols New York City, while Peter acts globally. Miles also joins the latest team of Avengers in the 2016 series All-New, All-Different Avengers, In this new continuity, Miles and his loved ones initially have no memories of their origins in the Ultimate universe, though Miles eventually learns of his past there, including details such as Rio's "death". Jefferson is aware of his double life, but Rio is not, nor is S.H.I.E.L.D., though Rio eventually learns the truth. Miles' circle of fellow superheroes who know of his double identity expands to include Kamala Khan, the fourth Ms. Marvel, and the former X-Man Fabio Medina, a school roommate of Miles and Ganke. This group of confidants later includes the teen superhero Bombshell. His relationship with Bishop apparently did not occur in this continuity, as Miles begins seeing classmate Barbara Rodriguez, whom he calls his "first serious girlfriend", who is unaware of his double life. Miles becomes a central figure in the 2016–2017 "Civil War II" storyline. Afterward, Miles joins other teen superheroes to form a new incarnation of the Champions, who star in their self-titled series. In a 2019 story, Jefferson tells Miles he has his mother's surname because Jefferson's physically abusive father was "not a good person" and not having his grandfather's name gave Miles a "clean start". ## Powers and abilities Bitten by a genetically engineered spider known as specimen 42, which is slightly different from the one that granted Peter Parker superhuman powers, Miles Morales possesses abilities similar to the original Spider-Man's, including enhanced strength, agility, and reflexes, the ability to adhere to walls and ceilings with his hands and feet (even through clothing), and a "spider sense" that warns him of danger with a buzzing sensation in his head. Though his strength and agility are similar to those of the original younger Spider-Man, his spider-sense is not as strong, as it only warns him of immediate danger. He has two abilities that the original Spider-Man does not have: the ability to camouflage himself, including his clothing, to match his surroundings, making him effectively invisible, and a "venom strike" that can temporarily paralyze almost anyone with just a touch. The venom strike does not employ actual venom, but is a type of directed energy that can be conducted through Miles' gloves, and can be used against an opponent at a distance by conducting it through a material in which both Miles and his opponent are in contact, such as the webbing of the Earth-616's Spider-Man. It can break chains being used to restrain Miles and even repel non-ferrous objects, such as plastic Lego bricks. The venom strike is powerful enough to render unconscious a person as large as Hank Pym's Giant-Man. It is powerful enough to drive away the symbiotic villain Venom during Miles's first encounter with the creature, but by their second encounter, Venom has developed such a tolerance to the strike that Miles has to be completely enveloped by the symbiote before the venom strike is able to separate the symbiote from its host. Doctor Octopus also developed a set of tentacles that would not conduct the venom strike. The effect of the venom strike manifests itself a few seconds after it is implemented, and is described by Bendis as being comparable to the feeling of being kicked in the testicles. Miles can effect a more powerful version of the strike, which he calls a "mega venom blast". When Miles employs this ability, his eyes glow with yellow energy, which then explodes outwards in a radiant burst that can not only repel a large group of opponents, but also destroy thick ropes and chains that have been used to restrain him. This application of the strike leaves him "dizzy and useless", and cannot be used multiple times in rapid succession without a "recharging" period for Miles, though he can still make use of the conventional strike against people during this period. The conventional venom strike is mostly useless against the supervillain Armadillo, but during Miles' encounter with that villain, his venom blast manifests itself in a form similar to his webbing, which he uses like a lasso to pull Armadillo towards him and knock him unconscious with a venom strike-powered punch. Miles' body also possesses a significant resistance to injury. During an altercation with the Roxxon mercenary Taskmaster, Miles is thrown through a brick wall without any apparent serious injury, though the experience is painful for him. Miles wears a costume given to him by S.H.I.E.L.D., and initially uses Peter Parker's web shooters, which are given to him by May Parker. He is eventually given a new set of webshooters by S.H.I.E.L.D. as well. ## Reception The character Miles Morales was first reported by USA Today on August 2, 2011, shortly before the character officially debuted in Ultimate Fallout \#4. The announcement received international coverage in the mainstream media and was met with mixed reactions by audiences. Chris Huntington of The New York Times lauded the creation of Morales, relating that it gave his adopted Ethiopian son Dagim a superhero who looks like him. The Guardian and Culture Map Houston reported that some fans viewed the decision as an example of political correctness, and that the introduction of a minority Spider-Man was a publicity stunt to attract more readers, while others felt that a person of color as Spider-Man would set a positive example for minority readers, particularly children. Many Spider-Man fans were disappointed that Peter Parker was killed, regardless of who replaced him. The wide-ranging critical reception prompted The Washington Post to run an article called, "Sorry, Peter Parker. The response to the black Spider-Man shows why we need one", in which writer Alexandra Petri wrote that the character should be judged on the quality of its stories rather than on his appearance or ethnicity. Radio host and conservative pundit Lou Dobbs expressed outrage over the original Spider-Man being replaced by Morales, stating during a television commentary, "Peter Parker, who was a white orphan from Queens, was killed off in June during a fight with his nemesis, the Green Goblin...Marvel Comics saying it's replacing the iconic character with Miles Morales, who is part Latino and part Black." Political satirist Jon Stewart mocked Dobbs' criticism on The Daily Show, while also pointing out that Morales replaced Spider-Man only in the Ultimate universe, and that the original Peter Parker would still be appearing in several titles. Conservative talk show host Glenn Beck, claiming that Miles resembled President Barack Obama, argued that the new Spider-Man was a result of a comment from Michelle Obama about changing traditions. However, Beck said he did not care about Miles' race, and also acknowledged that this was not the mainstream Spider-Man. Axel Alonso denied the character was created out of political correctness, stating "Simple fact is Marvel comics reflect the world in all its shapes, sizes and colors. We believe there's an audience of people out there who is thirsty for a character like Miles Morales." Bendis also denied that the character's ethnicity was an attempt to generate publicity. Original Spider-Man co-creator Stan Lee approved of Miles, stating that "Doing our bit to try to make our nation, and the world, color blind is definitely the right thing." In a review for the first issue, David Pepose of Newsarama wrote, "The biggest victory that Bendis scores with Miles Morales is that he makes us care about him, and care about him quickly. Even though we're still scratching the surface of what makes him tick, we're seeing the world through his eyes, and it's similar to Peter Parker's but a whole lot tougher. But that kind of Parker-style guilt—that neurotic, nearly masochistic tendency for self-sacrifice that comes with great power and greater responsibility—is still intact." Jesse Schedeen of IGN wrote that "Miles still feels like a bit of an outsider in his own book. Bendis never quite paints a complete picture of Miles—his thoughts, motivations, personality quirks, and so forth. Miles is largely a reactionary figure throughout the book as he confronts struggles like registering for a charter school or dealing with family squabbles." Schedeen also opined that "Miles occupies a more urban, racially diverse, and tense landscape. All the story doesn't pander or lean too heavily on elements like racial and economic tension to move forward. Miles is simply a character who speaks to a slightly different teen experience, and one not nearly as well represented in superhero comics as Peter's". James Hunt of CBR.com rated the issue \#1 four and a half out of five stars, lauding Bendis for emphasizing Morales' character and his supporting cast instead of rushing him into costume. The first issue holds a score of 8.0 out of 10 at the review aggregator website Comic Book Roundup, based on 13 reviews, while the final issue, \#200, holds a score of 8.4, based on 14 reviews, and the series overall holds an average issue rating of 8.3. The second solo series, Miles Morales: Ultimate Spider-Man, has an average issue rating of 8.2 out of 10 at Comic Book Roundup, while the third series, Spider-Man, holds a rating of 7.6, and the fourth, Miles Morales: Spider-Man, holds a rating of 8.4. ## Alternate versions ### Ultimatum In the 2012 miniseries Spider-Men, the mainstream Marvel Universe Peter Parker briefly visits the Ultimate Marvel universe and meets Miles Morales. This was followed up in the 2017 sequel miniseries Spider-Men II, in which the Earth-616 version of Miles Morales makes his first appearance, and is revealed to be a fully-grown adult with a scarred face. This version of Miles became a close friend and confidant to the mob enforcer Wilson Fisk when he saved Fisk's life in prison, an event that resulted in the scars on Miles' face. Miles worked for Fisk following their time in prison, aiding him during Wilson's violent rise to crime boss in New York. Subsequent to this, after Miles fell in love with a woman named Barbara Sanchez, Fisk arranged to have all traces of Miles' existence erased from searchable records in order help Miles leave his criminal life behind him. Years later, after Barbara died, Fisk informs a grief-stricken Miles that he has knowledge of a parallel universe in which Barbara might still be alive. Miles hires the Taskmaster, who confirms not only that the Ultimate Universe still exists following the events of the "Secret Wars" storyline, but that its version of Barbara is still alive. The adult Miles journeys to the Ultimate Universe to reunite with his lost love, essentially switching places with his younger counterpart. In a 2019–2020 storyline, Miles takes on the criminal identity of Ultimatum, and having acquired a costume equipped with the size-shifting technology of Giant-Man, returns to the Marvel-616 universe with the Ultimate Universe's Green Goblin as his henchman. He establishes a crime partnership with Fisk, and floods the area with a drug derived from Green Goblin's blood that mutates people into monstrous slaves called Goblinoids. He kidnaps the teenaged Miles and Aaron Davis, and reveals to them the existence of the multiverse. He plans to return Miles and his family to the Ultimate Universe with an interdimensional portal generator, after which he will be free to take over Brooklyn without interference. After the two abductees free themselves, they and their allies battle Ultimatum's forces. During the melee, Aaron induces an explosion that destroys the portal generator and sends the two villains back to the Ultimate Universe, but which kills himself in the process, a loss that devastates Miles. ### Other versions In Deadpool Killustrated \#1 (Jan. 2013), Miles Morales' corpse is seen among those of various Spider-Men across various dimensions of the multiverse that an alternate Deadpool has killed. In the 2014 book Ultimate FF \#4, a version of Miles Morales' Spider-Ham is introduced with the name Miles Morhames, who hails from a dimension inhabited by beings that resemble anthropomorphic animals. His origin is similar to the Ultimate version, in that after the death of Peter Porker, Miles Morhames was inspired to become a hero. In the 2017 "Sitting in a Tree" storyline that ran in Spider-Man and Spider-Gwen, Miles is transported to Earth-8, where that dimension's versions of him and fellow costumed crimefighter Gwen Stacy have been married for 20 years, and have two children. In a 2017 storyline that ran in Unbelievable Gwenpool, a future version of Miles Morales whose wife and child were killed after an evil Gwen Poole of the future revealed his and all other superheroes' identities, travels back in time to kill a young Gwen. He accidentally brings the older version of Gwen Poole with him, which leads to her to encounter her younger self. In the 2017 book Venomverse: War Stories \#1, a version of Miles appears with other heroes in the world of the Venomized Doctor Doom, in which each person is bonded to a symbiote. In "Secret Roar", a 2019 story in Spider-Man Annual (Vol. 3) \#1, different versions of Earth's superheroes gather together to fight a Celestial, including a feline version of Miles Morales named Meows Morales. He is presumed dead along with most of the heroes after being killed by the Celestial. In the continuity of the 2019 miniseries Spider-Man: Life Story, which depicts the characters of the Marvel Universe aging naturally after 1962, Miles becomes Spider-Man sometime in the 2010s. An elderly Peter Parker discovers that Miles' brain houses the mind of Otto Octavius, who took possession of Miles' body shortly after Miles became Spider-Man, and trapped the young hero in his own dying body (as Octavius had done to Peter in the 2012 Marvel-616 storyline "Dying Wish"). After Peter sacrifices his life in saving Octavius, Octavius switches his and Miles back to their original bodies, after which Miles is given Peter's original Spider-Man costume by Mary Jane Watson. An elderly Miles Morales appears as the protagonist of the one-shot Miles Morales: The End, which is set in a post-apocalyptic Brooklyn, and casts Miles as "the last bastion of civilization". The book is one of six featuring Marvel characters as part of its The End series, which were announced at the 2019 New York Comic Con for January 2020 release. In the 2021 "Heroes Reborn" storyline, a change in the timeline results in a continuity in which the Squadron Supreme are Earth's mightiest heroes while the Avengers never existed. In this continuity, after Falcon was killed by the Goblin, Miles used his electrical engineering knowledge to design a flight suit and became the new Falcon. The original Falcon's partner, Nighthawk, still traumatized by his death, refuses to mentor Miles. Miles later forms a team called the Champions with Girl Power (Kamala Khan) and Kid Spectrum (Sam Alexander). The 2022 miniseries What If...? Miles Morales introduces alternate versions of Miles that had become Captain America, Wolverine, Hulk, and Thor. Issue 4, written by Yehudi Mercado and drawn by Paco Medina and Luigi Zagaria, garnered controversy for its stereotypical language and depictions of black culture. Mercado, who identifies as Mexican and Jewish, publicly apologized for this. He stated he would donate his salary for the issue to the Brooklyn Book Bodega, and resolved to work toward effecting greater authenticity in his depiction of minorities. ## In other media ### Television - Miles Morales appears in Ultimate Spider-Man, voiced by Donald Glover in "The Spider-Verse" and subsequently by Ogie Banks. After being alluded to in the first season, he is introduced in the third season four-part episode "The Spider-Verse". Miles returns as a recurring character in the fourth season, during which he gets stranded in Peter Parker's universe, joins the Web Warriors, and takes on the alias Kid Arachnid. - Miles Morales appears in Marvel Super Hero Adventures, voiced by Zac Siewert. - Miles Morales appears in Spider-Man (2017), voiced by Nadji Jeter. He is introduced as a normal teenager who eventually obtains spider abilities in the season one episode "Ultimate Spider-Man", after which Peter Parker mentors him. Miles has the alias Kid Arachnid in promotion releases but he later takes on the alias Spy-D. - Miles Morales appears in Spidey and His Amazing Friends, voiced by Jakari Fraser. This version goes by the alias Spin and works alongside Peter Parker / Spider-Man. ### Film Writer Brian Michael Bendis stated that he favored adapting Miles Morales into a feature film in some way, as did actor Andrew Garfield. Producers Avi Arad and Matt Tolmach indicated that they did not intend to have Miles appear. But after Marvel brokered a deal with Sony that resulted in the addition of the Spider-Man films in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU), producer Kevin Feige stated that Miles would not appear in the MCU for the foreseeable future but was interested in opportunities to explore Morales. Miles is confirmed to exist in the MCU, as Aaron Davis mentions him in the film Spider-Man: Homecoming to Peter Parker of the MCU, and is again alluded to in Spider-Man: No Way Home when Max Dillon / Electro says "There's gotta be a black Spider-Man somewhere out there." to Peter Parker of The Amazing Spider-Man films. Amy Pascal has stated that a live action film with the character was in development. #### Spider-Verse Miles Morales appears as the main protagonist in the animated Spider-Verse film series, voiced by Shameik Moore. He appears in the films Into the Spider-Verse (2018), Across the Spider-Verse (2023), and Beyond the Spider-Verse (2024). - Additionally, the alternate Earth-42 variant Miles G. Morales appears as the Prowler, voiced by Jharrel Jerome. ### Video games - Miles Morales's suit appears as an alternate costume for Peter Parker / Spider-Man in Spider-Man: Edge of Time and The Amazing Spider-Man 2. - Miles Morales appears as a playable character in Marvel Super Hero Squad Online, voiced by Alimi Ballard. - Miles Morales appears as an unlockable playable character in Spider-Man Unlimited. - Miles Morales appears as an unlockable playable character in Marvel Avengers Alliance. - Miles Morales appears as an unlockable playable character in Marvel Future Fight. - Miles Morales appears as an unlockable playable character in Marvel Puzzle Quest. - Miles Morales appears as an unlockable playable character in Marvel Contest of Champions. - Miles Morales appears as an unlockable playable character in Marvel Avengers Alliance 2. - Miles Morales appears as an unlockable playable character in Lego Marvel's Avengers. He is available through the "Spider-Man" DLC pack. - Miles Morales appears as an unlockable playable character in Marvel Avengers Academy, voiced by Brandon Winckler. - Miles Morales appears as an unlockable "Team-Up" character in Marvel Heroes, voiced again by Ogie Banks. - Miles Morales appears as an unlockable playable character in Lego Marvel Super Heroes 2. - Miles Morales appears as a playable character and a main story boss in Marvel Ultimate Alliance 3: The Black Order, voiced by Nadji Jeter. - Miles Morales appears in Insomniac Games' Marvel's Spider-Man series, voiced again by Nadji Jeter. - He first appears in Marvel's Spider-Man (2018), where he is playable at certain points in the storyline and is bitten by a genetically-altered spider created by Oscorp, gaining spider-like abilities. He later reveals his new powers to Peter Parker, who in turn reveals his identity as Spider-Man. In The City That Never Sleeps DLC, Peter begins to train Miles on how to use his powers at the latter's insistence. - In Spider-Man: Miles Morales, Miles has largely mastered his powers and begun assisting Peter as the second Spider-Man. When Peter leaves New York for several weeks, Miles must learn to become his own Spider-Man as he tries to protect his new home, Harlem, from a conflict between the Roxxon Energy Corporation and the Underground criminal group, led by his friend Phin Mason / Tinkerer. - In the upcoming Marvel's Spider-Man 2, Miles still holds grudges towards Li for a City Hall incident which killed the former's father in the first game. ### Novel Miles Morales is the main character of Jason Reynolds' novel Miles Morales: Spider-Man. ### Merchandise In March 2018, Sideshow Collectibles debuted a Miles Morales Premium Format Figure, a 17"-tall polystone statue depicting Morales jumping over the gaping jaws of a giant Venom symbiote. The statue features two removal heads, with and without the mask, and an extra hand holding the mask. Upon its release, the statue was priced at \$520. ## Collected editions ### Ultimate Comics: Spider-Man (2011–2013) ### Miles Morales: The Ultimate Spider-Man (2014–2015) ### Spider-Man vol. 2. (2016–2017) ### Miles Morales: Spider-Man (2018–2022) ### Miniseries and one shots ### Hardcover Omnibus (2011–2023)
41,134,607	Cyclone Lua	1,170,726,390	Category 3 Australian region tropical cyclone in 2012	[ "2010s in Western Australia", "2011–12 Australian region cyclone season", "2012 in Australia", "Category 3 Australian region cyclones", "Retired Australian region cyclones", "Tropical cyclones in 2012", "Tropical cyclones in Western Australia" ]	Severe Tropical Cyclone Lua affected a sparsely populated region of Western Australia during mid-March 2012. Originating in a broad low pressure area that formed northwest of Australia by 8 March, the storm was plagued by inhibiting wind shear for the duration of its formative stages. However, it gradually organised, and received the name Lua on 13 March. The cyclone meandered for the first several days of its existence, caught between weak and competing steering currents. After the cyclone drifted northwestward, a building ridge of high pressure to the north drove Lua southeastward toward the Pilbara region. Ultimately intensifying into an upper-end Category 3 severe tropical cyclone with maximum sustained 10-minute winds of 155 km/h (96 mph), Lua made landfall near the remote community of Pardoo, about 150 km (93 mi) east of Port Hedland. It steadily weakened as it progressed south over interior Western Australia, diminishing below tropical cyclone status on 18 March. The threat of the impending cyclone halted local industries such as oil production and iron ore mining and exporting. The Port of Port Hedland, a highly important iron ore shipping terminal, was forced to close for about 52 hours, contributing to inflated iron ore prices and delayed shipments. Multiple companies suspended work at oil fields and mines throughout the region, cutting national oil production by 25% and iron ore exports by 4.7% versus the previous month. Overall, Lua is attributed to \$217 million (2012 AUD; \$230 million 2012 USD) in lost revenue. Lua produced strong winds and widespread rainfall on land, but damage was limited by the lack of population in the storm's path. The Pardoo Roadhouse bore the brunt of the storm, and damage was reported at several other cattle stations and homesteads; at these sites, the storm damaged the exteriors of various structures and brought down swaths of trees. Central Western Australia endured several days of record-breaking rainfall and cool weather. The Government of Western Australia provided disaster relief funds to the hardest-hit areas, and Lua was later retired from the list of tropical cyclone names. ## Meteorological history Cyclone Lua originated in a broad area of disturbed weather that was spawned by a deep trough of low pressure and enhanced by a Madden–Julian oscillation pulse. The precursor to Lua was first identified through satellite imagery by 8 March 2012, while situated about 1,100 km (680 mi) to the north-northwest of Learmonth. Analysis of the disturbance revealed a diffuse low-level centre of circulation loosely bounded by sporadic, but multiplying, convection. On 9 March, the Bureau of Meteorology's (BoM) Tropical Cyclone Warning Center (TCWC) in Perth recognised the developing system and remarked on the potential for tropical cyclone formation over the following several days. The low pressure area meandered for several days, making some progress toward the east, and gradually consolidated. By 12 March, the system had developed persistent deep convection over the eastern half of its core and organised banding features elsewhere. Moderate vertical wind shear initially hampered intensification, though the BoM designated the system Tropical Low 16U; at the time, it was centred roughly 230 km (140 mi) northwest of Karratha, Western Australia. At 2300 UTC on 12 March, the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert. With increasingly favourable environmental conditions—including warm ocean waters and dwindling wind shear—the low organised significantly between 12 and 13 March, and at 0600 UTC on the 13th, TCWC Perth upgraded the low to Tropical Cyclone Lua. Simultaneously, the JTWC issued its first tropical cyclone warning on 17S. Contrary to real-time operations, the official BoM "best track" database does not list the storm as having attained Category 1 tropical cyclone intensity until 0000 UTC on 14 March. At the time of its designation, Lua was nearly stationary in terms of forward movement, caught in the equilibrium between a blocking ridge to the southwest and increasing monsoonal winds from the northwest. The ridge began to drive Lua north-northwestward at up to 20 km/h (12 mph), before the storm resumed its slow pace on 14 March. The storm remained relatively disorganised, its strengthening limited by moderate wind shear and dry air entering its centre. Consequently, a large void of thunderstorm activity created a "horseshoe pattern". Nonetheless, Lua proved resilient, and good outflow helped compensate for the adverse shear. The southwesterly steering currents weakened, causing the storm to begin its anticipated curve toward the east and east-southeast. According to the JTWC, the storm completed a small loop as a result of competing steering factors. At the same time, the upper levels of the atmosphere became far more conducive to the cyclone's intensification, and the storm's banding pattern tightened. With a building ridge to its north, Lua accelerated east-southeastward on 15 March, and with wind shear oscillating but generally decreasing, the storm became a Category 3 severe tropical cyclone at 1800 UTC. Continuing to intensify, Lua began to exhibit an ill-defined eye on visible satellite imagery on 16 March. The storm was expansive, producing storm-force winds in a circular area 850 km (530 mi) across. Still, the deepest convection and most favourable outflow was focused away from the eastern semicircle due to persistent light easterly wind shear. The storm's structure improved throughout the day and into the night, and at 1800 UTC on 16 March, the storm attained its peak 10-minute maximum sustained winds of 155 km/h (96 mph), classifying it as an upper-end Category 3 severe tropical cyclone. Early on 17 March, the storm turned due south toward the Pilbara coast, and the JTWC reported that Lua's peak strength was marked by 1-minute sustained winds of 175 km/h (109 mph), at 0600 UTC. At its deepest, the storm possessed a central barometric pressure of 935 hPa (27.6 inHg). Lua made landfall near Pardoo, about 150 km (93 mi) east-northeast of Port Hedland, at 0700 UTC while still at peak intensity. The cyclone steadily weakened as it progressed southward, tracking directly over the Yarrie mine before passing about halfway between Newman and Jigalong. With little extant convection and a shallow, exposed centre, Lua deteriorated below tropical cyclone status early on 18 March near Wiluna. The cyclone's remnants later entered the Goldfields-Esperance region. ## Preparations and economic impact The BoM hoisted its first Cyclone Watch on 14 March for coastal areas between Mardie Station and Cape Leveque. A Cyclone Warning was posted the next day for a smaller stretch of coastline within that range. As Lua approached the coastline, the Cyclone Warning was in place from Cape Leveque to Dampier. Communities between Bidyadanga and Port Hedland were under a Red Alert, the highest level of caution issued by the Fire and Emergency Services Authority of Western Australia (FESA). The alert advised included residents to "go to shelter immediately". Localities elsewhere between Broome and Whim Creek were on Yellow Alert, while a Blue Alert was issued between Whim Creek and Dampier, to the west of the Yellow Alert area. Work at multiple oil fields and mining sites was suspended or slowed, with non-essential staff being removed at the sites remaining in operation. It was estimated that national oil production was reduced by about 25% during the storm's approach. Officials of the Port of Port Hedland, an important iron ore exporting terminal, closed and evacuated the port by the morning of 16 March, operating under standard emergency preparedness procedure. Overall, nearly 40 ships in the port were relocated from the port out of the path of the storm. The Port of Dampier was also closed. The Port of Port Hedland reopened to shipping on 18 March, about 52 hours after its closure, with little or no damage reported, though the downtime drove iron ore prices up for a time, and reduced exports of the raw material by 4.7% compared to the previous month. In total, Lua cost natural resources companies over \$217 million (2012 AUD; \$230 million 2012 USD) in stunted industry, accounting for nearly all of the monetary losses resulting from the storm. With the destruction wrought by Cyclone Laurence in 2009 still fresh in their minds, residents, business owners, and farmers worked hurriedly to prepare their properties and livestock for Lua's onslaught. Horizon Power temporarily redirected power supply in the towns of Marble Bar and Nullagine from solar power stations to diesel generator stations. Evacuation shelters were opened to refugees of the storm with no safe living arrangements starting 16 March. About 110 individuals sought shelter at one such location in Nullagine. As the storm moved inland, flood warnings were posted throughout the Kimberley and the Pilbara, where officials closed public access to Karijini National Park. The impending cyclone forced the closure of the Great Northern and North West Coast highways, while flights to and from several airports were cancelled. ## Meteorological effects and aftermath On coming ashore, Cyclona Lua produced strong winds, gusting to 150 km/h (93 mph) at Port Hedland, and appreciable rainfall, peaking at 88.6 mm (3.49 in) at Bidyadanga. The precipitation was widespread, affecting a large area of interior Western Australia. The overcast weather led to abnormally cool temperatures, which broke monthly records in portions of the central and eastern Pilbara. For instance, the Port Hedland Airport recorded a maximum temperature of 24.1 °C on 17 March, the coldest March day in the station's history; the previous record of 25.8 °C was set 64 years prior. As the remnants of Lua continued poleward, they continued to drop heavy rainfall, including a daily total (19 March) of 75.0 mm (2.95 in) at Edjudina, setting the record for the wettest March day there. A barometer reading of 939 hPa (27.7 inHg) at Rowley Shoals represented the lowest observed pressure associated with the storm. Striking a relatively isolated area, the cyclone's effects were limited, and no fatalities or injuries were reported. Indeed, a FESA official noted that initial reports of damage were "scant". Preliminary assessments suggested that Pardoo Roadhouse and the small surrounding community bore the brunt of the storm, as most towns and farms in the region escaped relatively unscathed. The manager of the roadhouse relayed that the height of the storm was "absolutely horrific", downing numerous trees and causing some structural damage. Some destruction was also observed at the Yarrie Homestead, where return to normalcy was expected to take as long as 12 months. Numerous buildings on the Warrawagine Homestead sustained damage such as compromised roofs and doors, which amounted to an estimated \$70,000 (2012 AUD; 74,000 2012 USD). Several head of cattle were killed by the storm. Moderate to major flooding took place in several areas, especially along the De Grey River drainage basin, though the rainfall proved beneficial in much of the climatologically dry area. The above-normal precipitation allowed farmers to get a head-start on planting winter crops. In the aftermath of the storm, the Western Australia state government allocated relief funds to offset the cost of recovery and clean-up in several of the affected towns. Individuals and families became eligible to apply for personal grants and small business owners would be considered for special interest rates on new loans. Local government entities listed under the proclamation were the shires of Ashburton, Broome, East Pilbara, Meekatharra, and the Town of Port Hedland. Disaster assistance money in these jurisdictions would be used to restore public assets and infrastructure impaired by the storm. The name Lua was later retired from the cyclical list of tropical cyclone names due to the system's adverse effects on land and was replaced by the name Luana. ## See also - Cyclone Yasi, which struck Queensland in early 2011 - Cyclone Laurence, which struck Western Australia in late 2009 - Cyclones Rusty (2013), Kelvin (2018) and Ilsa (2023), which all made landfall in the same region between Port Hedland and Broome as severe tropical cyclones after Lua - Cyclones Gwenda (1999) and Inigo (2003), tied for the strongest Australian region tropical cyclones on record; both would strike Western Australia after peaking in strength.
13,730,014	Lord Adolphus FitzClarence	1,172,325,987	British naval officer (1802–1856)	[ "1802 births", "1856 deaths", "FitzClarence family", "Illegitimate children of William IV of the United Kingdom", "Royal Navy officers", "Royal Navy rear admirals", "Sons of kings", "Younger sons of marquesses" ]	Rear-Admiral Lord Adolphus FitzClarence GCH ADC (18 February 1802 – 17 May 1856) was a British Royal Navy officer and illegitimate son of Prince William, the future William IV, and his mistress Dorothea Jordan. FitzClarence joined the navy in 1813. In the following year he joined a fourth rate which saw service in the War of 1812, including in the unsuccessful blockade and chase of USS Constitution. FitzClarence saw frequent service in the Mediterranean Sea. Coming under the patronage of Rear-Admiral Sir Thomas Fremantle, FitzClarence received further naval education from Commander William Henry Smyth and served in the Ionian Islands upholding British neutrality in the Greek War of Independence. FitzClarence was promoted to commander in 1823 and in quick succession commanded two brig-sloops in the North Sea, before being promoted to captain at the end of the year. His rapid rise through the ranks was brought about by the influence of his father. After another period serving in the Mediterranean, FitzClarence was employed escorting dignitaries, such as George Ramsay, 9th Earl of Dalhousie, to and from their posts abroad. He spent time in India, Canada, and off Lisbon, the latter in response to the outbreak of the Liberal Wars. In 1830 FitzClarence's father was crowned king. In quick succession FitzClarence was given command of the royal yacht HMY Royal George, created a Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Guelphic Order, and appointed Groom of the Robes. He was only occasionally called to captain Royal George. When his father died in 1837, FitzClarence's cousin Victoria took the throne and, to his surprise, allowed FitzClarence to continue in command of the royal yacht, which was replaced with HMY Victoria and Albert. He commanded the new yacht on trips for Victoria and her family, including fleet reviews and diplomatic visits to France. FitzClarence retired from the Royal Navy upon being promoted to rear-admiral in 1853 and died, unmarried, three years later. ## Early life Adolphus FitzClarence was born at Bushy Park, Middlesex, now Greater London, on 18 February 1802. He was the seventh illegitimate child of Prince William, Duke of Clarence and his mistress, the actress Dorothea Jordan. Clarence named most of his children after his siblings. FitzClarence was named for Prince Adolphus, Duke of Cambridge. FitzClarence was especially close with his mother, from whom he inherited a love of the theatre. In 1808 she described him as: > really the finest child I have ever saw and certainly the handsomest of all mine. Clarence discarded Jordan in 1811 when put under pressure to marry a foreign princess and produce a legitimate heir. FitzClarence attended a boarding school in Sunbury-on-Thames and then in 1813, with the Napoleonic Wars ongoing, joined the Royal Navy. ## Military career ### War of 1812 As a first-class volunteer, FitzClarence joined the 98-gun ship of the line HMS Impregnable on 26 May 1814. Impregnable was part of the escort charged with taking the monarchs allied to Britain, Alexander I of Russia and Frederick William III of Prussia, from Calais to Dover for peace celebrations. FitzClarence's father, as admiral of the fleet, commanded the escort with Impregnable as his flagship. The process was completed on 6 June. While Clarence stayed in Impregnable to organise the return of Alexander and Frederick to France, FitzClarence transferred to serve on board the 50-gun fourth rate HMS Newcastle on 15 June. With the War of 1812 ongoing, Newcastle sailed from Spithead on 23 June as escort to a convoy travelling to Halifax, Nova Scotia. The ship captured an American privateer en route and arrived on 17 September, after which she joined the blockade of the 44-gun frigate USS Constitution in Boston. During this, FitzClarence was promoted to midshipman on 14 October. Constitution escaped the blockade in December, and Newcastle was one of three ships to chase her to the Cape Verde Islands, from where the ship escaped the British and returned to Boston after a brief skirmish on 11 March 1815. Newcastle spent time at Barbados, Halifax, and Quebec before returning to Britain on 26 September. ### Mediterranean service Newcastle was paid off and after two months of leave, FitzClarence joined the 38-gun frigate HMS Tagus on 27 November. He became lifelong friends with Midshipman Charles Fremantle, a future admiral, who joined Tagus at the same time. Tagus joined the Mediterranean Fleet in early 1816, where talks were ongoing with Algiers to stop the Barbary States' practice of Christian slavery. As part of this process Tagus sailed to Constantinople, carrying Algerian diplomats in May. Tagus was refused permission to pass through the Dardanelles and waited for the return of the diplomats at the Tavşan Islands. Perceiving that they would be heavily delayed, Tagus returned to the Mediterranean Fleet in August, but only arrived at Malta on 31 August, missing the bombardment of Algiers by four days. The majority of the Mediterranean Fleet returned to Britain in the wake of the bombardment, but Tagus and FitzClarence stayed in the Mediterranean, based off the Ionian Islands for much of 1817 to ensure that the plague there did not spread to the mainland. For three months during the summer FitzClarence left Tagus to serve in the flagship in the Mediterranean, HMS Albion. During this period he visited Palermo, Naples, Livorno, and Malta. FitzClarence then returned to Tagus, which in April 1818 sailed to Alexandria, escorting two sons of Slimane of Morocco to Tangier. Joining the ship for the journey was FitzClarence's brother Captain George FitzClarence, taking British Army dispatches from India to Britain. George remarked on the surprising ability of the FitzClarence brothers to coincidentally meet each other, Adolphus and George having very briefly crossed paths before during the chase of Constitution. Tagus arrived at Malta on 15 May and remained in the Mediterranean until November, when she returned to Britain to be paid off. FitzClarence left Tagus on 26 December and soon after joined the 74-gun ship of the line HMS Rochfort. Also serving in Rochfort was another of FitzClarence's brothers, Midshipman Augustus FitzClarence. Rochfort was designated as the new flagship for the Mediterranean under Rear-Admiral Sir Thomas Fremantle, the father of FitzClarence's friend Charles, who would soon also join the ship. FitzClarence's previous captain on Tagus reported to the elder Fremantle that FitzClarence was "promising, but his eye (the most necessary appendage of a Seaman) prevents his being so quick as he should be." FitzClarence likely had a damaged eye. The politician Sir William Fraser recorded that FitzClarence "was a man of peculiar appearance. Having one eyelid drooping, he held his head at a particular angle." Rochfort arrived in the Mediterranean on 3 March 1819, and in April Fremantle had his son and FitzClarence transferred to the 10-gun sloop HMS Aid. The ship was employed on surveying duties in the Ionian Islands and Adriatic Sea under Commander William Henry Smyth, who Fremantle thought to be a "remarkable good astronomer, draughtsman and surveyor". It was the admiral's hope that by posting the two to Smyth they would improve their navigational skills. FitzClarence returned to Rochfort in July, subsequently visiting Algiers and Tunis as part of Anglo-French efforts to stop Barbary piracy through diplomatic means. In early December Fremantle reported to Clarence that he was "quite satisfied" with both FitzClarence brothers on Rochfort. Two weeks later the admiral died in Naples. Rochfort returned home with Fremantle's family in February 1820, but FitzClarence stayed in the Mediterranean by transferring to the 40-gun frigate HMS Glasgow, whose captain became commander-in-chief in the wake of Fremantle's death. Glasgow initially served off the Ionian Islands before being stationed off Naples when it was thought that Austria might invade the nation. The ship paid off at Portsmouth in March 1821. ### Lieutenant FitzClarence was promoted to lieutenant on 23 April. His first posting as a lieutenant came in November when he was sent to the 42-gun frigate HMS Euryalus, initially at Spithead but expected to sail for the Mediterranean. Before this happened, Clarence visited to inspect the ship on 29 January 1822, spending three hours on board. Euryalus left for the Mediterranean soon afterwards and was stationed in the Ionian Islands as part of the British response to the Greek War of Independence. Both Britain and the Ionians were neutral parties in the conflict, but with close ties between the islands and Greece, Euryalus was employed ensuring that no assistance was given to the Greeks, and to defeat any marauding Greek corsairs. Euryalus was subsequently sent on several diplomatic missions, first visiting Naples in November to give a portrait as a gift to Pope Pius VII, and then travelling to Tunis for further anti-piracy talks in June 1823. FitzClarence continued in Euryalus until 13 July when, at Zante, he learned of his promotion to commander which had taken place on 17 May. He returned to Britain via Malta soon afterwards. ### First commands FitzClarence's first command came on 9 January 1824 when he joined the 10-gun brig-sloop HMS Brisk, whose previous commander had drowned at Sheerness two weeks earlier. He commanded Brisk on the North Sea Station until 28 February, when he was transferred to command the 18-gun brig-sloop HMS Redwing, also in the North Sea. His first service in Redwing was to escort Clarence, sailing in HMY Royal Sovereign, from the Thames to Plymouth and back again. FitzClarence met his father again at Spithead in October when Clarence inspected the fleet there, including a half-hour visit to Redwing. As Clarence passed back and forth around the fleet, Redwing was forced to fire seven 21-gun salutes in three hours. The ship was subsequently posted to Newcastle-upon-Tyne to help put down unrest among the merchant seamen there at the request of the mayor. Still only twenty-two years old, FitzClarence was promoted to captain on 24 December. This quick promotion came about because of the strong influence of his father Clarence, and was equalled in the service only by the rise of Richard Saunders Dundas, whose father was First Lord of the Admiralty. FitzClarence left Redwing in January 1825 and spent a year on half pay, before on 9 February 1826 he was appointed to command the 20-gun post ship HMS Ariadne. This was another occasion in which FitzClarence replaced a captain in unusual circumstances, the previous commander of Ariadne having been dismissed for purchasing a slave at Zanzibar to use as a prostitute. ### Return to the Mediterranean FitzClarence sailed Ariadne to the Mediterranean in June, carrying money for the treasuries of Gibraltar, Malta, and Corfu. Having completed this duty FitzClarence returned to the Ionian Islands, where he again served to preserve neutrality in the ongoing Greek War of Independence. He most likely met another of his brothers, Lieutenant-Colonel Frederick FitzClarence, while the latter served with his British Army unit on Corfu. In November the Governor of Malta, Francis Rawdon-Hastings, 1st Marquess of Hastings, died in the Bay of Naples. Ariadne, at the time at Naples, was sent to return his body to Malta. In early 1827 the ship then carried the replacement governor, Sir Frederick Ponsonby, from Corfu to Malta. While at Corfu FitzClarence learned that his father's elder brother Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany, had died, leaving Clarence heir to the throne. Continuing the trend of meeting his siblings in the course of his naval duties, in May FitzClarence transported his sister Amelia FitzClarence through the Adriatic alongside Lucius Cary, 10th Viscount Falkland, who she would marry three years later. FitzClarence continued to command Ariadne in the Mediterranean until 28 September when he was superseded. He thus missed his second naval battle, the Battle of Navarino taking place three weeks later. FitzClarence returned to Britain as a passenger in the 46-gun frigate HMS Seringapatam. He arrived at Portsmouth just as his father, who had been made Lord High Admiral of the United Kingdom, was making an inspection of the fleet and as such was visited by him before leaving the ship. ### Diplomatic and escort duties FitzClarence received his next command, of the 28-gun frigate HMS Challenger, in December. The ship sailed from Portsmouth in March 1828 to join the Lisbon Station, protecting British interests as Portugal headed towards the opening of the Liberal Wars. There was little for the British force to do and the ships returned to Britain in May. Challenger was then ordered to Canada in June, where she conveyed the new Governor General of Canada, Sir James Kempt, from Halifax to Quebec. FitzClarence then took on board the previous holder of that office, George Ramsay, 9th Earl of Dalhousie, and escorted him home to Scotland. On 28 August Clarence, who was soon to leave his post as Lord High Admiral, used his influence to have FitzClarence given command of the 42-gun frigate HMS Pallas. Pallas was at the time under the command of FitzClarence's old friend Charles Fremantle, who swapped with him to take command of Challenger. Continuing the relationship between the FitzClarences and Fremantles, Charles' younger brother Midshipman Stephen Grenville Fremantle had been serving under FitzClarence on Challenger, and transferred with him to Pallas. With the Liberal Wars having begun, in December Pallas was sent with several other ships to preserve the Liberal-controlled Azores from a Miguelist expedition sailing from Britain to attack them. FitzClarence was senior British officer on the blockade until Pallas returned to Plymouth in February 1829. Upon his arrival, the Admiralty demanded a report from FitzClarence over two news articles about his service off the Azores that had appeared in The Times without the Admiralty's prior knowledge of the events. The first of these articles suggested that FitzClarence had failed to stop an American merchant ship from breaking the blockade and landing 300 Portuguese soldiers, and the second reported that FitzClarence and three of his men had been wounded by Portuguese soldiers over a water supply dispute while ashore. FitzClarence argued in his report to the Admiralty that both Times' articles were grossly exaggerated. Later in the year FitzClarence again acted as escort to Dalhousie, who had been appointed Commander-in-Chief, India. Pallas left Britain on 20 July carrying Dalhousie and John Turner, Anglican Bishop of Calcutta, to India, arriving on 9 December having stopped at Madeira and the Cape of Good Hope. In around January 1830 the ship left for Britain with the prior commander-in-chief Stapleton Cotton, 1st Viscount Combermere, on board. They made stops at the Cape, St Helena, and Ascension Island, at the latter location adding turtles to a cargo that already included a Bengal tiger, cheetah, elk, Angora goat, and several antelopes. The ship arrived at Spithead on 30 April. ### Royal favours George IV died on 26 June and FitzClarence's father took the throne as William IV. FitzClarence was given command of the royal yacht HMY Royal George on 22 July and became Groom of the Robes two days later. Despite his new role with Royal George, FitzClarence had one last duty to complete in Pallas, sailing for Halifax in the same month to bring home his sister Mary Fox and her husband Charles Richard Fox. The ship returned to Portsmouth on 8 September and FitzClarence left the command a day later. As illegitimate children FitzClarence and his nine siblings had held, and would continue to hold, controversial positions within British society; with their father now the monarch they took advantage, requesting of him new titles, official positions, and money. On 24 May 1831 William granted FitzClarence the rank of a younger son of a marquess by Royal Warrant of Precedence, allowing him to be known as Lord Adolphus FitzClarence. Continuing to reward his illegitimate children, on 24 February 1832 William appointed FitzClarence a Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Guelphic Order, and he subsequently became a Lord of the Bedchamber in Ordinary on 5 January 1833, at which point he relinquished his previous role as Groom of the Robes. FitzClarence was the only one of his five brothers to stay on good terms with their father throughout his reign. FitzClarence's command of Royal George was almost completely nominal, as the ship only very rarely left Portsmouth. In 1832 and 1833 Royal George's tender Emerald was used by Princess Victoria, Duchess of Kent, and her daughter Princess Victoria, the heir to the throne, for trips to North Wales, but Adolphus was not included on these. The elder Victoria took pains to have her daughter avoid William's illegitimate children, who she believed would "contaminate" her with their company. FitzClarence was instead given other small jobs to complete, such as in 1832 escorting the model frigate Royal Louisa to be presented to Frederick William of Prussia at Potsdam. In 1834 FitzClarence completed his only major service in Royal George herself, taking his stepmother Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen to Holland and back. William never used the yacht during his reign. FitzClarence took command of the yacht Firebrand in 1835 to carry Auguste, Duke of Leuchtenberg from Ostend to Woolwich on his way to marry Maria II of Portugal. William attempted to make him Ranger of Home Park, Windsor, in January 1837, but the prime minister, William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne, refused the appointment to William's "mortification and disappointment". ### Accession of Victoria Victoria succeeded William on 20 June 1837. FitzClarence lost his position as Lord of the Bedchamber. As an illegitimate child of the former monarch FitzClarence did not expect to retain any of his privileged roles or positions within the British establishment, but Victoria kept him on in command of Royal George and continued to pay the allowance that his uncle George IV had first given him. Victoria reported that he: > burst into tears, and said it was unexpected, for [he and his siblings] did not dare to hope for anything. Victoria made use of Royal George more often than had FitzClarence's father and his family. She made her first visit to the yacht on 28 February 1842 during a visit to the fleet at Portsmouth, and made use of the ship in August to travel from Woolwich to Leith to begin a tour of Scotland. The voyage was a poor one for Royal George, having to be uncomfortably towed most of the way by two steamships as the wind was against them. Victoria chose to return to Woolwich in a steamship instead of Royal George, and soon afterwards decided to replace the vessel. FitzClarence was appointed captain of the replacement royal yacht, the paddle steamer HMY Victoria and Albert. The ship was commissioned at Deptford on 8 August. Later that month Victoria, Albert, Prince Consort, and the Home Secretary Sir James Graham, travelled in Victoria and Albert to Dartmouth, Plymouth, and Falmouth, before sailing over to Le Tréport to meet with Louis Philippe I, in the first journey by an English monarch to France since the Field of the Cloth of Gold in 1520. FitzClarence then took the royal party to Ostend on 12 September to visit Victoria's uncle Leopold I of Belgium. ### Later royal yacht service Victoria used the royal yacht again in October 1844 to review a combined Anglo-French fleet at Spithead in honour of a visit from Louis Philippe. In June the following year FitzClarence commanded Victoria and Albert at Spithead again, as Victoria made a review of the Experimental Squadron there. Victoria and Albert then used the yacht to travel to Germany later in the year, and made a second visit to Le Tréport. The subsequent years of FitzClarence's career were spent commanding the yacht on various cruises for Victoria and her family around Ireland and mainland Europe; he was appointed a naval aide-de-camp to Victoria in 1848. FitzClarence continued with the royal yacht into the next decade, being appointed a commodore in October 1852. His last major service with Victoria and Albert came on 11 August 1853, when the yacht was used by Victoria at a review of twenty-five Royal Navy warships at Spithead, during which the ship led the fleet out to sea where it had a mock battle with several other warships. FitzClarence was promoted to rear-admiral in September 1853 and at the same time retired from the Royal Navy, ending twenty-three years of royal yacht commands. FitzClarence continued as an aide-de-camp to Victoria, and after a long illness died at Newburgh Priory on 17 May 1856, aged fifty-four. He never married. Victoria commented upon hearing of his death that: > he positively killed himself by living too well. He was only 54, though he looked quite 10 or 12 years older. Money had been an issue for FitzClarence throughout most of his life, and his remaining funds were insufficient to pay his debts, funeral expenses, and legacies. He was interred in the chancel of St. Michael's Church, Coxwold. ## Notes and citations
20,146,600	Sweet Dreams (Beyoncé song)	1,172,843,830	2009 single by Beyoncé	[ "2008 songs", "2009 singles", "Beyoncé songs", "Columbia Records singles", "Electropop songs", "Number-one singles in New Zealand", "Song recordings produced by Beyoncé", "Song recordings produced by Jim Jonsin", "Song recordings produced by Rico Love", "Songs about dreams", "Songs written by Beyoncé", "Songs written by Jim Jonsin", "Songs written by Rico Love", "Songs written by Wayne Wilkins" ]	"Sweet Dreams" is a song recorded by American singer Beyoncé from her third studio album I Am... Sasha Fierce (2008). Originally titled "Beautiful Nightmare", it leaked online in March 2008. The song was written and produced by Beyoncé, James Scheffer, Wayne Wilkins, and Rico Love. Columbia Records released "Sweet Dreams" as the album's sixth single, to mainstream radio and rhythmic contemporary radio playlists in the United States on June 2, 2009, and elsewhere on July 13. It is an electropop song whose instrumentation includes synthesizers, a keyboard, and snare drums. Beyoncé employs slinky vocals to sing the lyrics, which describe a romantic relationship that the female protagonist believes could be a dream. Music critics praised the beats, synthpop sound and Beyoncé's vocals in "Sweet Dreams". Some critics noted that the sliding bassline gave the song a dark quality and resembles the one used in some of Michael Jackson's songs on Thriller (1982). "Sweet Dreams" gained popularity for its electronic style, which contrasts her earlier R&B, urban, and funk-tinged releases. The song was nominated for the Viewers Choice Award at the 2010 BET Awards. "Sweet Dreams" peaked at number ten on the Billboard Hot 100. Outside of the United States, "Sweet Dreams" topped the charts in New Zealand, and peaked within the top ten of the charts in many countries, including Australia, the Czech Republic, the Republic of Ireland, Slovakia, and the United Kingdom. "Sweet Dreams" was certified platinum in the United States, Australia, and New Zealand. The song's accompanying music video was directed by Adria Petty, and was filmed in Brooklyn, New York. It mainly uses a green screen and computer-generated effects, making the clip minimal and performance-based. The video sees Beyoncé wearing a golden robot suit designed by French fashion designer Thierry Mugler. Critics described it as high-fashion and noted that she reprised some of the choreography from her 2008 video for "Single Ladies". Beyoncé promoted the song by performing it live at the 2009 MTV Europe Music Awards and occasionally during the I Am... World Tour (2009–10). "Sweet Dreams" was recognized as one of the most performed songs of 2009 at the 27th American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers (ASCAP) Pop Music Awards. The song was used in a Cryster Geyser Water Japanese advertisement that featured Beyoncé. ## Production and recording Initially titled "Beautiful Nightmare", "Sweet Dreams" became one of the first songs composed for Beyoncé Knowles' 2008 double album I Am... Sasha Fierce. Record producer Rico Love regarded writing "Sweet Dreams" with Knowles as "the experience of a lifetime". When Knowles went to the South Beat Studios in Miami Beach, Florida, she was not prepared to record and had to attend the opening concert of her husband Jay-Z's tour. However, when she heard a demo of the song, she was impressed and wanted to record it immediately. She sang and recorded “Sweet Dreams” in 15 minutes. Knowles, Wayne Wilkins and Jim Jonsin did some additional writing and produced the song alongside Love at the same studio. Knowles and Love worked on the vocal arrangements; Knowles appreciated Love's background vocals in the hook and retained them. Jim Caruana assisted in recording the music. Love then recorded Knowles' vocals; the recording session lasted for an hour. Lastly, Wilkins mixed the track. "Sweet Dreams" appears on the Sasha Fierce disc of I Am... Sasha Fierce as it allowed Knowles to portray her alter ego Sasha Fierce, whom Knowles described as her "fun, more sensual, more aggressive, more outspoken [...] and more glamorous side". ## Composition and lyrical interpretation "Sweet Dreams" is an electropop song that incorporates elements of rock and old-school funk music. The song is built on undulating electro rhythms and a thumping beat; its groove fits into hip hop phrasing. It is mainly driven by a keyboard and also has guitar, piano, synthesizer, snare drum and bass instrumentation. Many music critics noted that several components of "Sweet Dreams" are reminiscent of the songs on Michael Jackson's 1982 album Thriller. James Montgomery of MTV News said that the "gnarly low end" sounds like Jackson's song "Beat It" (1983). Nick Levine of Digital Spy noted that the electronic bassline is similar to those used in Jackson's songs "Thriller" (1983) and "Bad" (1987). Arielle Castillo of the Miami New Times noted that Jackson could use the beat of "Sweet Dreams" to bring up to date his Thriller-era style. The lyrics of "Sweet Dreams" are about a female protagonist who has some insecurities about her new romantic relationship; she is confused about whether her relationship with her partner is a "sweet dream or a beautiful nightmare". The song starts with a bassline, which is occasionally interrupted by spare snare kicks, drum fills and Knowles' chanting, "Turn the lights on". She then adopts slinky vocals to begin the first verse. The "expansive-yet-molecular" chorus then starts with the line, "You can be a sweet dream or a beautiful nightmare / Either way, I don't wanna wake up from you". The song is written in the key of E-flat minor with a tempo of 122 beats per minute. Beyoncé's vocals span from D♭<sub>4</sub> to E<sub>5</sub> in the song. ## Leak and release "Sweet Dreams" was leaked under its original title the day after it was recorded in March 2008, eight months before the album's release. It was the first time that a song by Knowles was leaked before its inclusion on an upcoming album. She responded to the leak on her official website, thanking her fans for the positive response towards the song, before clarifying that it was just a work in progress and that she did not intend to release new material in the near future. About the leak, Love told MTV News: > I was more concerned that [Beyoncé] would feel that we did it. A lot of times producers or songwriters leak records because they feel if you put the song out there it would go [on to become a hit]. Usually a leak that far in advance of an album release puts the song in serious jeopardy of being excluded from the final track list. It was frustrating. I felt like you work hard to get in the studio to work with Beyoncé. [But] I was blessed ... that song turned out [to] have nine lives. Under the song's original title "Beautiful Nightmare", "Sweet Dreams" gained some attention in the United States, where it amassed enough airplay to chart at number forty-five on Hot Dance Club Songs chart and at number fifty-seven on Pop 100 Airplay chart. "Broken-Hearted Girl" was initially intended as the sixth US and fourth international single alongside the stateside-only single "Ego" (2009). However, its release was scrapped at the last minute, and replaced by "Sweet Dreams", which Knowles selected for a summer single release because she wanted a dance song. She added, "It's very rare to find an uptempo song [...] that's not just about going to a club or partying or being a sexy girl". "Sweet Dreams" was added to US contemporary hit radio and rhythmic contemporary radio playlists on June 2, 2009. Dance remixes of the song alongside the album version of "Ego" and its remixes were later released on the same digital EP on August 17, 2009, in the US. ## Critical reception ### Reviews "Sweet Dreams" was acclaimed by critics, some of whom praised its dark tone and electropop sound that is different from Knowles' previous work. James Montgomery of MTV News wrote that Knowles' vocals, which he called, "icy and cool, slippery like mercury [and] nothing to scoff at either", help make the song an "undeniable smash" that is unique compared to the work of other artists. Jennifer Vineyard of the same publication argued that the rock elements and smooth vocals contribute to Knowles' "fierce" alter ego, who "dares the listener to dream of her, warning that it might be a 'beautiful nightmare'." Arielle Castillo of Miami New Times noted that "Sweet Dreams" is another one of Jim Jonsin's productions with a keyboard-propelled arrangement, but unlike the material Jonsin crafted for Soulja Boy, the song is "swirling, and darker". Joey Guerra of the Houston Chronicle and Gary Trust of Billboard magazine agreed and said the song is one of Knowles' purest dance songs and is "an irresistible call to the dance floor". Describing "Sweet Dreams" as a "cool dance track", Dennis Amith of J!-ENT complimented its arrangement, calling it "experimental" with "cool transitions". Adam Mazmanian of The Washington Times described the song as "a gritty slow grind with a salacious bassline" and noted that Knowles "delivers a near parody of a good-girl voice" while singing the chorus. Ryan Dombal of Pitchfork Media wrote that "Sweet Dreams" sounds like a song Rihanna would sing. Echoing Dombal's sentiments, Nick Levine of Digital Spy wrote that the best song on the Sasha Fierce disc is a "dark[ish] electropop track called 'Sweet Dreams', [which] actually sounds like the cousin of Rihanna's 'Disturbia'". On a separate review for the single, Levine awarded "Sweet Dreams" a rating of four stars out of five, and commented that the song seduces listeners with its catchy chorus hook, and thereafter keeps them intrigued by "placing a hint of darkness just beneath the shiny, synthy surface". Spence D. of IGN Music wrote that though "Sweet Dreams" is not a "stellar track", it is superior to other album tracks, including "Diva" and "Radio". Similarly, Vicki Lutas of BBC Music wrote that even though "Sweet Dreams" appears to lack something, it is undeniably a good song overall. She added that "Sweet Dreams" may not be Knowles' finest or most memorable work, but it remains her best offering since her 2003 song "Crazy in Love". Lutas also commended Knowles' vocal delivery, which he described as "beautiful and soft, yet strong and powerful". Talia Kraines of the same publication wrote that "Sweet Dreams" is one of the standout tracks on the Sasha Fierce disc though she believed Knowles did not get as experimental as she did on her 2006 song "Ring the Alarm". ### Recognition and accolades "Sweet Dreams" earned Knowles the Best Female Vocal accolade at the 2009 Music MP3 Awards. It was nominated for Best R&B/Urban Dance Track at the 25th Annual International Dance Music Awards, but lost to the Black Eyed Peas's 2009 song "I Gotta Feeling". It was also nominated for the Viewers Choice Award at the 2010 BET Awards. The American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers (ASCAP) recognized "Sweet Dreams" as one of the most performed songs of 2009 at the 27th ASCAP Pop Music Awards. On the occasion of Knowles' thirtieth birthday, Erika Ramirez and Jason Lipshutz of Billboard magazine ranked the song at number 21 on their list of Knowles' 30 biggest Billboard hits, and noted that its electropop sound, which was in contrast to Knowles' previous singles, showcased her range of talent. On The Village Voice's 2009 Pazz & Jop singles list, "Sweet Dreams" was ranked at number 115. In 2013, John Boone and Jennifer Cady of E! Online placed the song at number five on their list of ten best Knowles' songs, writing that Knowles "stepped away from R&B roots with this surreal electropop tune, which features these standout lyrics: 'My guilty pleasure, I ain't going nowhere / As long as you're here, I'll be floating on air' (which, from Bey's mouth, sounds like the greatest threat ever)". ## Chart performance "Sweet Dreams" debuted at number 97 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart issue dated August 8, 2009. It peaked at number ten for two non-consecutive weeks on the charts issued dated November 7 and 21, 2009. The song became Knowles' thirteenth top ten Hot 100 single as a solo artist during the 2000s, and tied her with Ludacris and T-Pain for second-most top tens on the chart since 2000; Knowles' husband Jay-Z lead with fourteen in that period. Knowles' is the third song titled "Sweet Dreams" to reach the top ten of the Hot 100 chart, following "Sweet Dreams" by Air Supply in 1982 and "Sweet Dreams (Are Made of This)" by Eurythmics in 1983. For the week ending September 12, 2009, it topped the US Hot Dance Club Songs chart; it became Knowles' eleventh number-one song, and was the fourth song from I Am... Sasha Fierce to top that chart. "Sweet Dreams" tied Knowles with Kristine W for second-most number one songs on the Hot Dance Club Songs during the 2000s. "Sweet Dreams" was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), denoting sales of one million digital copies. As of October 2012, it had sold 1,691,000 digital downloads in the US. In the United Kingdom, "Sweet Dreams" debuted at number 52 on the UK Singles Chart on July 18, 2009. It peaked at number five on the UK Singles Chart on August 9, 2009 for three consecutive weeks, and became Knowles' eighth top ten single in Britain as a solo artist. In Australia, the song peaked at number two on the ARIA Singles Chart on August 9, 2009. The song spent 38 consecutive weeks on the ARIA Singles Chart, where it last charted on March 1, 2010; it was certified 4× platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) in 2023, for 280,000 equivalent units. ## Music video ### Background and concept The accompanying music video for "Sweet Dreams" was directed by Adria Petty, whom Knowles chose because of her intelligence and beautiful visual references. After Knowles learned the choreography in Los Angeles, the video was shot in a studio in Brooklyn, New York City. It was the seventh video from the album, and the second to have complete color, being "Halo"'s the first. Knowles described it as more "graphic" when compared to the previous six videos, and commented it took "Sasha [Fierce] to the next level". In the video, Fierce is symbolized by the golden robot suit she wears; it was designed by French fashion designer Thierry Mugler. A green-screen and computer-generated imagery (CGI) were used for the video to create a minimal and performance-based clip. The CGI was employed to create a context-less void, as the background was deleted and a void-like digital canvas was created for the dance routine that is executed by Knowles and her dancers Saidah Nairobi and Ashley Everett, who all sport numerous flashy and symmetrical costumes throughout the video. Accordingly, there were no concerns of cutting as the images were merged into one another using computers. A high number of camera lens glare effects was used in the video, part of which was inspired by British designer Gareth Pugh's Autumn/Winter 2009 video presentation. Knowles further commented about the fashion and choreography: > The fashion was extremely important in this video because everything was so minimal ... With the choreography, we really focused on hitting all of the accents in the drum beat. What makes this choreography so interesting is that in one instance, it is very staccato and hard... And the next instance; the movement is very smooth and there are lots of melts with inter-kit movement in the fingers and hands. On June 12, 2009, a behind-the-scenes video with Knowles' dance rehearsal was released; Knowles was dressed in golden costumes and was performing some robotic movements. A 30-second clip from the video was posted online on July 8, 2009; it showed Knowles alongside her two female back-up dancers in a virtual desert. The following day, the full video was leaked online but was soon deleted after Knowles' label issued warnings to infringing websites. The video for "Sweet Dreams" premiered on MTV later the same day. ### Synopsis and analysis The video opens with Knowles tossing and turning in her bed; her idea was to make the opening shot look like "a dark fairy tale". As she tries to sleep, Johannes Brahms's "Wiegenlied" plays softly in the background. She then levitates off her bed using her stomach muscles to move the top half of her body. Knowles said that the levitation shot was the hardest one as she had difficulties making her neck look straight. She added that the scene represents the nightmare and the white bird flying above her takes her into her dream, which unfolds after the screech of an electric guitar. Knowles is transported to a desert and several clouds are present in the background. She wears a black Roberto Cavalli dress and boots; as the music begins, her two backup dancers wearing Gareth Pugh pieces appear. The scene changes into a computer-generated sci-fi landscape where Knowles is inscribed with a circle and square in a similar fashion to Leonardo da Vinci's Vitruvian Man. The first chorus is brought in by a subtle glass-breaking sound effect as the sci-fi special effects disappear and Knowles appears in a silver one-shouldered mini dress on a white background. Accompanied by her backup dancers, she performs dance moves described as "sophisticated", "street and hip-busting". The second chorus shows Knowles wearing a silver-lined bodysuit while smashing mirrors. During the bridge, the video fades to black and white and Knowles appears wearing the gold robot suit, and gold and diamond nail rings valued at \$US 36,000 and designed by Jules Kim. With it, she executes some robotic movements. As the chorus begins to play for the third and final time, digital doubling and mirroring are used to create a collection of dance moves and multiple images of Knowles arching her back. The gold outfit is then reused, this time in color. Knowles performs another dance routine with her two backup dancers, then says, "Turn the lights out", and the video ends. ### Reception James Montgomery of MTV News wrote that the video is "an eye-popping, herky-jerky, high-fashion" one. He praised the way Knowles "[pops] her pelvis in ways never imagined", and the wardrobe changes in the clip, before concluding: "She expands on her burgeoning robot fetish, flashes the crazy eyes and contorts her body in downright unsettling ways. All of which is to say that 'Sweet Dreams' is just like every amazingly crazy Beyoncé video from the past three years, which — to extend the point — also means that it's pretty great." Olivia Smith of Daily News noted that in the video, Knowles references Jane Fonda in the movie Barbarella (1968), Tin Woodman and Pamela Anderson through the different costumes she wears. Smith further compared the video with the one for "Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)", writing that Knowles reprises some of the moves she performed there. Brandon Soderberg of Slant Magazine described the introductory part of the video as a David Lynch-like mixture of eroticism and symbolism. He added that the video was "one part Victoria's Secret commercial, another part dream logic anti-narrative, and a CGI-assisted freakout all around", and commended the video for being "an excess of body and action, not filmic techniques", adding that the dancing in the video "blow[s] our minds anew". Rolling Stone found similarities between the video for "Sweet Dreams", Kanye West's video for "Paranoid" (2009) and the cover artworks of English rock band Yes. Canadian magazine Dose also compared the video with "Paranoid" due to their similar dream sequences. Vicki Lutas of the BBC did not appreciate the first 30 seconds of the video, writing that "the dark, horror-type music, the pumping heartbeat, the equally spooky lullaby, the screech of an electric guitar", gave her the impression that she was watching "some [19]80s magician, with a Knowles soundtrack". However, she complimented the rest of the video writing that "things (thankfully) move away from the Hallowe'en cheese and into familiar Beyoncé territory (right from the fact it's proper [19]80s pop through to the video essentially being 'Single Ladies' with Beyoncé and 2 dancers)". Lutas concluded that the video might not be remembered for long or hailed as Beyoncé's finest and more memorable work, but it remains one of the best music videos from Knowles she has seen since "Crazy in Love". Nick Levine of Digital Spy compared the dancing moves in the video with those in "Single Ladies". It was ranked at number 13 on BET's Notarized: Top 100 Videos of 2009 countdown. Tamar Anitai of MTV placed the video at number three on his list of the best five videos of 2009, wrote that it "isn't just another high-fashion look at Beyoncé", and continued, "It's the dark yin to the brighter, lighter fare of 'Single Ladies.' This is a 360-degree look at Beyoncé's life: Beyoncé the woman, Sasha Fierce the performer, and the powerful force that occupies the spaces in between." In 2013, John Boone and Jennifer Cady of E! Online placed the video at number ten on their list of Knowles' ten best music videos, praising Knowles' sexy robotic look. ## Promotion Knowles was due to perform "Sweet Dreams" at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards on September 13. However, last minute changes were brought to her performance that night; wearing a leotard and a silver glove, Knowles sang a short drum-led remix of "Sweet Dreams" before switching to "Single Ladies", accompanied by two female backup dancers. Wearing a red Agent Provocateur corset, stockings and long satin gloves, Knowles sang "Sweet Dreams" at the MTV Europe Music Awards 2009 on November 5. Charly Wilder of Spin magazine commented that Knowles overshadowed American singer Katy Perry (host of the event) "with her mesmerizing, sexed-up rendition" of "Sweet Dreams". "Sweet Dreams" was not regularly performed on the I Am... World Tour, a 2009–10 world tour in support of I Am... Sasha Fierce, but a video interlude featuring the song was included. Knowles sang an acoustic and downtempo rendition of the song live during the concert residency I Am... Yours that was held at the Encore Theater in Las Vegas on August 2, 2009. She blended it into a romantic medley that also included her 2003 song "Dangerously in Love 2" and Anita Baker's 1986 song "Sweet Love". The performance was subsequently included on her 2009 CD/DVD live album I Am... Yours: An Intimate Performance at Wynn Las Vegas. Knowles performed "Sweet Dreams" live at the Glastonbury Festival on June 6, 2011; she mixed it with "Sweet Dreams (Are Made of This)" by Eurythmics. "Sweet Dreams" was used in a commercial for Crystal Geyser bottled water in which Knowles appeared; she dances and drinks water while the song is played in the background. ## Cover versions An unofficial remix of "Sweet Dreams", featuring American rappers Lil Wayne and Nicki Minaj, was included on Wayne's 2009 mixtape No Ceilings. English electro-rock duo the Big Pink covered the song in a live session for BBC Radio 1 on November 7, 2009. They also performed it at the 2010 Isle of Wight Festival on June 13, 2010. The cover later became the B-side to their 2010 single "Tonight". Jon Caramanica of The New York Times commented that their version had a "disarmingly flat affect, delivering it as the ramble of a neurotic" when compared to the original. Likewise, Pitchfork's Ryan Dombal felt that their cover "obliterates the original's Hi-NRG pulse, turning it into something a lot moodier and creepier". On November 1, 2010, American professional basketball player, Shaquille O'Neal, dressed as his female alter ego Shaquita for Halloween, and gave a lip-synching performance of Knowles' "Sweet Dreams". In September 2011, Jade Collins covered "Sweet Dreams" during an episode of the ninth series of The X Factor. On October 27, 2012, boy band Union J covered the song during the same season of the show. ### Jessica Sanchez version On March 28, 2012, Jessica Sanchez, a contestant of the eleventh season of American Idol, covered "Sweet Dreams" performing a slow-tempo ballad version of the song accompanied at the beginning by harps. Her performance received favorable comments and a standing ovation from the judges of the show. Jennifer Lopez commented, "You did a beautiful job on it ... If I was Beyoncé and I was home and I heard that, I'd be like 'I got to do that in my next concert, slow that one down.'" Steven Tyler described Sanchez's performance as "great" while Randy Jackson noted that it was "unbelievable, sensational". James Montgomery of MTV News graded her performance with a B, and called the cover "a bit of an odd choice, and yet also a supremely confident one". He added, "For once, she pulled things back, and maybe suffered a bit for doing so, but there were still plenty of subtly great moments, particularly in the verses. Might not have been her best—it definitely lacked in vocal fireworks ... And really, it was good enough". Mellisa Locker of Rolling Stone praised Sanchez's performance, calling it a "brilliant job" and adding that "it's risky, but Beyoncé has done it, and if anyone can pull off a dazzling repeat performance, it's Jessica". She further compared the performance with the dream sequence from the 1945 film Spellbound but noted that it was "slightly weirder". Jim Farber of the Daily News commented that "her take on a song by her clear role model, Beyoncé, showed too much similarity in their timbres and phrasing, making Sanchez's voice seem redundant ... despite the fact she switched up the arrangement of the bootylicious song she chose, 'Sweet Dreams.'" Amy Reiter of the Los Angeles Times wrote, "Sanchez gave yet another perfectly calibrated performance with Beyoncé's 'Sweet Dreams,' balancing restraint and power. Everything from her voice to her dress to the red door she walked through seemed polished and tour-ready". The Arizona Republic's Randy Cordova praised the performance, saying that the slow-tempo version allowed Sanchez "to really delve into the song's emotional core". The Hollywood Reporter's Erin Carlson praised the tonned-down theatrical stage during the performance and Sanchez's vibrato voice, further describing the performance as a "near-perfection". ## Formats and track listings - "Ego / Sweet Dreams (Singles & Dance Mixes)" 1. "Ego" – 3:57 2. "Ego" (DJ Escape & Johnny Vicious Club Remix) – 8:22 3. "Ego" (Slang "Big Ego" Club Remix) – 6:18 4. "Sweet Dreams" – 3:28 5. "Sweet Dreams" (OK DAC Club Remix) – 5:14 6. "Sweet Dreams" (Karmatronic Club Remix) – 6:36 - Germany digital EP 1. "Sweet Dreams" – 3:28 2. "Sweet Dreams" (Groove Police Remix – Radio Edit) – 3:10 3. "Ego" – 3:57 4. "Ego" (Remix) [feat. Kanye West] – 4:43 5. "Sweet Dreams" (Video) – 4:00 6. "Ego" (Remix) [feat. Kanye West] (Video) – 4:52 - Digital EP 1. "Sweet Dreams" (Dave Spoon Remix) – 7:07 2. "Sweet Dreams" (Steve Pitron & Max Sanna Remix – Radio Edit) – 3:37 3. "Sweet Dreams" (Steve Pitron & Max Sanna Club Remix) – 7:38 4. "Sweet Dreams" (Oli Collins & Fred Portelli Remix) – 5:38 5. "Sweet Dreams" – 3:28 - Digital single; Germany and UK CD single 1. "Sweet Dreams" – 3:28 2. "Sweet Dreams" (Steve Pitron & Max Sanna Remix) [Radio Edit] – 3:35 - UK download single 1. "Sweet Dreams" – 3:28 ## Credits and personnel Credits are taken from I Am... Sasha Fierce liner notes. - Beyoncé Knowles – lead vocals, music producer, songwriter - Rico Love – vocal producer, music producer, songwriter, additional vocals - Jim Caruana – recording engineer - James Scheffer – music producer, songwriter - Wayne Wilkins – songwriter, audio mixer, music producer ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications ## Release history ## See also - List of Billboard Hot Dance Club Play number ones of 2009 - List of Billboard Rhythmic number-one songs of the 2000s - List of number-one singles from the 2000s (New Zealand)
27,977	South Park	1,173,627,722	American animated sitcom	[ "1990s American LGBT-related animated television series", "1990s American adult animated television series", "1990s American animated comedy television series", "1990s American black comedy television series", "1990s American satirical television series", "1990s American school television series", "1990s American sitcoms", "1990s American surreal comedy television series", "1997 American television series debuts", "2000s American LGBT-related animated television series", "2000s American adult animated television series", "2000s American animated comedy television series", "2000s American animated television series", "2000s American black comedy television series", "2000s American satirical television series", "2000s American school television series", "2000s American sitcoms", "2000s American surreal comedy television series", "2010s American LGBT-related animated television series", "2010s American adult animated television series", "2010s American animated comedy television series", "2010s American animated television series", "2010s American black comedy television series", "2010s American satirical television series", "2010s American school television series", "2010s American sitcoms", "2010s American surreal comedy television series", "2020s American LGBT-related animated television series", "2020s American adult animated television series", "2020s American animated comedy television series", "2020s American animated television series", "2020s American black comedy television series", "2020s American satirical television series", "2020s American school television series", "2020s American sitcoms", "2020s American surreal comedy television series", "American adult animated comedy television series", "American adult computer-animated television series", "American animated sitcoms", "American comedy television series", "American satirical television shows", "American television series with live action and animation", "Animated satirical television series", "Animated television series about children", "Bisexuality-related television series", "Colorado culture", "Comedy Central animated television series", "Elementary school television series", "English-language television shows", "Fictional populated places in Colorado", "Film and television memes", "Gay-related television shows", "Lesbian-related television shows", "Peabody Award-winning television programs", "South Park", "Television series created by Matt Stone", "Television series created by Trey Parker", "Television shows adapted into films", "Television shows adapted into video games", "Television shows set in Colorado", "Transgender-related television shows", "Works banned in China" ]	South Park is an American animated sitcom created by Trey Parker and Matt Stone and developed by Brian Graden for Comedy Central. The series revolves around four boys—Stan Marsh, Kyle Broflovski, Eric Cartman, and Kenny McCormick—and their exploits in and around the titular Colorado town. South Park also features many recurring characters. The series became infamous for its profanity and dark, surreal humor that satirizes a large range of subject matter. Parker and Stone developed South Park from two animated short films, both titled The Spirit of Christmas, released in 1992 and 1995. The second short became one of the first Internet viral videos, leading to the series' production. The pilot episode was produced using cutout animation; the remainder of the series uses computer animation recalling the prior technique. Since the fourth season, episodes are generally written and produced during the week preceding its broadcast, with Parker serving as the lead writer and director. Since its debut on August 13, 1997, episodes of South Park have been broadcast. It debuted with great success, consistently earning the highest ratings of any basic cable program. Subsequent ratings have varied, but it remains one of Comedy Central's longest-running programs. In August 2021, South Park was renewed through 2027, and a series of television specials was announced for Paramount+, the first two of which were released later that year. In October 2019, it was announced that WarnerMedia acquired exclusive streaming rights to South Park starting in June 2020 for HBO Max. The series’ twenty-sixth season premiered on February 8, 2023. South Park has received critical acclaim, and is included in various publications' lists of greatest television shows. It has received numerous accolades, including five Primetime Emmy Awards and a Peabody Award. A theatrical film, South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut, was released in June 1999 to commercial and critical success, garnering an Academy Award nomination. In 2013, TV Guide ranked South Park the tenth Greatest TV Cartoon of All Time. ## Premise ### Setting and characters South Park centers around four boys: Stan Marsh, Kyle Broflovski, Eric Cartman and Kenny McCormick. The boys live in the fictional small town of South Park, located within the real-life South Park basin in the Rocky Mountains of central Colorado, approximately a one-hour drive from Denver. The town is also home to an assortment of other characters, including students, families, elementary school staff, and other various residents. Prominent settings include South Park Elementary, various neighborhoods and the surrounding mountain range, actual Colorado landmarks, and the businesses along the town's main street, all of which are based on the appearance of similar locations in Fairplay, Colorado. As one of the few television programs set in the Mountain West region that takes place outside the urban core of Denver, South Park frequently features the unique culture of the region, including cattle ranchers, Old West theme parks, snowy climates, mountaineering, Mormons, real-life Colorado locations such as Casa Bonita and Cave of the Winds, and many other regionally specific characteristics. Stan is portrayed as the everyman of the group, described in official media as an "average, American 4th grader." Kyle is Jewish, and his portrayal as one of the few such people in South Park is often dealt with satirically. Stan is modeled after Parker, while Kyle is modeled after Stone. They are best friends, and their friendship, symbolically intended to reflect Parker and Stone's friendship, is a common topic throughout the series. Cartman (as he is commonly referred to) is amoral and increasingly psychopathic, and is commonly portrayed as an antagonist. His staunch antisemitism has resulted in a progressive rivalry with Kyle. Kenny, who comes from a poor family, tightly wears his parka hood to the point where it obscures most of his face and muffles his speech. During the first five seasons, Kenny died in almost every episode before reappearing in the next with no definite explanation. He was killed off in the fifth season episode "Kenny Dies", being reintroduced in the sixth season finale. Since then, Kenny is depicted as dying sporadically. During the first 58 episodes, the children were in the third grade. During the fourth season, they entered the fourth grade, where they have remained ever since. Plots are often set in motion by events, ranging from the fairly typical to the supernatural and extraordinary, which frequently happen in the town. The boys often act as the voice of reason when these events cause panic or incongruous behavior among the adult populace, who are customarily depicted as irrational, gullible, and prone to overreaction. They are frequently confused by the contradictory and hypocritical behavior of their parents and other adults, and often perceive them as having distorted views on morality and society. ### Themes and style Each episode opens with a tongue-in-cheek all persons fictitious disclaimer: "All characters and events in this show—even those based on real people—are entirely fictional. All celebrity voices are impersonated.....poorly. The following program contains coarse language and due to its content it should not be viewed by anyone." South Park was the first weekly program to be rated TV-MA, and is generally intended for adult audiences. The boys and most other child characters use strong profanity, with only the most taboo words being bleeped during a typical broadcast. Parker and Stone perceive this as the manner in which real-life small boys speak when they are alone. South Park commonly makes use of carnivalesque and absurdist techniques, numerous running gags, violence, sexual content, offhand pop-cultural references, and satirical portrayal of celebrities. Early episodes tended to be shock value-oriented and featured more slapstick-style humor. While social satire had been used on the show occasionally earlier on, it became more prevalent as the series progressed, with the show retaining some of its focus on the boys' fondness of scatological humor in an attempt to remind adult viewers "what it was like to be eight years old." Parker and Stone also began further developing other characters by giving them larger roles in certain storylines, and began writing plots as parables based on religion, politics, and numerous other topics. This provided the opportunity for the show to spoof both extreme sides of contentious issues, while lampooning both liberal and conservative points of view. Rebecca Raphael described the show as "an equal opportunity offender", while Parker and Stone describe their main purpose as to "be funny" and "make people laugh", while stating that no particular topic or group of people be exempt from mockery and satire. Parker and Stone insist that the show is still more about "kids being kids" and "what it's like to be in [elementary school] in America", stating that the introduction of a more satirical element to the series was the result of the two adding more of a "moral center" to the show so that it would rely less on simply being crude and shocking in an attempt to maintain an audience. While profane, Parker notes that there is still an "underlying sweetness" aspect to the child characters, and Time described the boys as "sometimes cruel but with a core of innocence." Usually, the boys or other characters pondered over what transpired during an episode and conveyed the important lesson taken from it with a short monologue. During earlier seasons, this speech commonly began with a variation of the phrase "You know, I've learned something today...". ## Development Parker and Stone met in film class at the University of Colorado in 1992 and discovered a shared love of Monty Python, which they often cite as one of their primary inspirations. They created an animated short entitled The Spirit of Christmas. The film was created by animating construction paper cutouts with stop motion, and features prototypes of the main characters of South Park, including a character resembling Cartman but named "Kenny", an unnamed character resembling what is today Kenny, and two near-identical unnamed characters who resemble Stan and Kyle. Fox Broadcasting Company executive and mutual friend Brian Graden commissioned Parker and Stone to create a second short film as a video Christmas card. Created in 1995, the second The Spirit of Christmas short resembled the style of the later series more closely. To differentiate between the two homonymous shorts, the first short is often referred to as Jesus vs. Frosty, and the second short as Jesus vs. Santa. Graden sent copies of the video to several of his friends, and from there it was copied and distributed, including on the internet, where it became one of the first viral videos. As Jesus vs. Santa became more popular, Parker and Stone began talks of developing the short into a television series about four children residing in the fictional Colorado town of South Park. Fox eagerly agreed to meet with the duo about the show's premise, having prided itself on edgier products such as Cops, The Simpsons, and The X-Files. However, during the meeting at the Fox office in Century City, disagreements between the two creators and the network began to arise, mainly over the latter's refusal to air a show that included a supporting talking stool character named Mr. Hankey. Some executives at 20th Century Fox Television (which was to produce the series) agreed with its then-sister network's stance on Mr. Hankey and repeatedly requested Parker and Stone to remove the character in order for the show to proceed. Refusing to meet their demands, the duo cut ties with Fox and its sister companies all together and began shopping the series somewhere else. The two then entered negotiations with both MTV and Comedy Central. Parker preferred the show be produced by Comedy Central, fearing that MTV would turn it into a kids show. When Comedy Central executive Doug Herzog watched the short, he commissioned for it to be developed into a series. Parker and Stone assembled a small staff and spent three months creating the pilot episode "Cartman Gets an Anal Probe". South Park was in danger of being canceled before it even aired when the show fared poorly with test audiences, particularly with women. However, the shorts were still gaining more popularity over the Internet, and Comedy Central ordered a run of six episodes. South Park debuted with "Cartman Gets an Anal Probe" on August 13, 1997. ## Production Except for the pilot episode, which was produced using cutout animation, all episodes of South Park are created with the use of software, primarily Autodesk Maya. As opposed to the pilot, which took three months to complete, and other animated sitcoms, which are traditionally hand-drawn by companies in South Korea in a process that takes roughly eight to nine months, individual episodes of South Park take significantly less time to produce. Using computers as an animation method, the show's production staff were able to generate an episode in about three weeks during the first seasons. Now, with a staff of about 70 people, episodes are typically completed in one week, with some in as little as three to four days. Nearly the entire production of an episode is accomplished within one set of offices, which were originally at a complex in Westwood, Los Angeles, California and are now part of South Park Studios in Culver City, California. Parker and Stone have been the show's executive producers throughout its entire history. Debbie Liebling, who was Senior Vice President of original programming and development for Comedy Central, also served as an executive producer during the show's first five seasons, coordinating the show's production efforts between South Park Studios and Comedy Central's headquarters in New York City. During its early stages, finished episodes of South Park were hastily recorded to D-2 to be sent to Comedy Central for airing in just a few days' time. Each episode used to cost \$250,000. ### Writing Scripts are not written before a season begins. Production of an episode begins on a Thursday, with the show's writing consultants brainstorming with Parker and Stone. Former staff writers include Pam Brady, who has since written scripts for the films Hot Rod, Hamlet 2 and Team America: World Police (with Parker and Stone), and Nancy Pimental, who served as co-host of Win Ben Stein's Money and wrote the film The Sweetest Thing after her tenure with the show during its first three seasons. Television producer and writer Norman Lear, an alleged idol of both Parker and Stone, served as a guest writing consultant for the season seven (2003) episodes "Cancelled" and "I'm a Little Bit Country". During the 12th and 13th seasons, Saturday Night Live actor and writer Bill Hader served as a creative consultant and co-producer. After exchanging ideas, Parker will write a script, and from there the entire team of animators, editors, technicians, and sound engineers will each typically work 100–120 hours in the ensuing week. Since the show's fourth season (2000), Parker has assumed most of the show's directorial duties, while Stone relinquished his share of the directing to focus on handling the coordination and business aspects of the production. On Wednesday, a completed episode is sent to Comedy Central's headquarters via satellite uplink, sometimes just a few hours before its air time of 10 PM Eastern Time. Parker and Stone state that subjecting themselves to a one-week deadline creates more spontaneity amongst themselves in the creative process, which they feel results in a funnier show. The schedule also allows South Park to both stay more topical and respond more quickly to specific current events than other satiric animated shows. One of the earliest examples of this was in the season four (2000) episode "Quintuplets 2000", which references the United States Border Patrol's raid of a house during the Elián González affair, an event which occurred only four days before the episode originally aired. The season nine (2005) episode "Best Friends Forever" references the Terri Schiavo case, and originally aired in the midst of the controversy and less than 12 hours before she died. A scene in the season seven (2003) finale "It's Christmas in Canada" references the discovery of dictator Saddam Hussein in a "spider hole" and his subsequent capture, which happened a mere three days prior to the episode airing. The season 12 (2008) episode "About Last Night..." revolves around Barack Obama's victory in the 2008 presidential election, and aired less than 24 hours after Obama was declared the winner, using segments of dialogue from Obama's real victory speech. On October 16, 2013, the show failed to meet their production deadline for the first time ever, after a power outage on October 15 at the production studio prevented the episode, season 17's "Goth Kids 3: Dawn of the Posers", from being finished in time. The episode was rescheduled to air a week later on October 23, 2013. ### Animation The show's style of animation is inspired by the paper cut-out cartoons made by Terry Gilliam for Monty Python's Flying Circus, of which Parker and Stone have been lifelong fans. Construction paper and traditional stop motion cutout animation techniques were used in the original animated shorts and in the pilot episode. Subsequent episodes have been produced by computer animation, providing a similar look to the originals while requiring a fraction of the time to produce. Before computer artists begin animating an episode, a series of animatics drawn in Toon Boom are provided by the show's storyboard artists. The characters and objects are composed of simple geometrical shapes and primary and secondary colors. Most child characters are the same size and shape, and are distinguished by their clothing, hair and skin colors, and headwear. Characters are mostly presented two-dimensionally and from only one angle. Their movements are animated in an intentionally jerky fashion, as they are purposely not offered the same free range of motion associated with hand-drawn characters. Occasionally, some non-fictional characters are depicted with photographic cutouts of their actual head and face in lieu of a face reminiscent of the show's traditional style. Canadians on the show are often portrayed in an even more minimalist fashion; they have simple beady eyes, and the top halves of their heads simply flap up and down when the characters speak. When the show began using computers, the cardboard cutouts were scanned and re-drawn with CorelDRAW, then imported into PowerAnimator, which was used with SGI workstations to animate the characters. The workstations were linked to a 54-processor render farm that could render 10 to 15 shots an hour. Beginning with season five, the animators began using Maya instead of PowerAnimator. As of 2012, the studio ran a 120-processor render farm that can produce 30 or more shots an hour. PowerAnimator and Maya are high-end programs mainly used for 3D computer graphics, while co-producer and former animation director Eric Stough notes that PowerAnimator was initially chosen because its features helped animators retain the show's "homemade" look. PowerAnimator was also used for making some of the show's visual effects, which are now created using Motion, a newer graphics program created by Apple, Inc. for their Mac OS X operating system. The show's visual quality has improved in recent seasons, though several other techniques are used to intentionally preserve the cheap cutout animation look. A few episodes feature sections of live-action footage, while others have incorporated other styles of animation. Portions of the season eight (2004) premiere "Good Times with Weapons" are done in anime style, while the season 10 episode "Make Love, Not Warcraft" is done partly in machinima. The season 12 episode "Major Boobage", a homage to the 1981 animated film Heavy Metal, implements scenes accomplished with rotoscoping. ### Voice cast Parker and Stone voice most of the male South Park characters. Mary Kay Bergman voiced the majority of the female characters until her death in November 1999. Mona Marshall and Eliza Schneider succeeded Bergman, with Schneider leaving the show after its seventh season (2003). She was replaced by April Stewart, who, along with Marshall, continues to voice most of the female characters. Bergman was originally listed in the credits under the alias Shannen Cassidy to protect her reputation as the voice of several Disney and other kid-friendly characters. Stewart was originally credited under the name Gracie Lazar, while Schneider was sometimes credited under her rock opera performance pseudonym Blue Girl. Other voice actors and members of South Park's production staff have voiced minor characters for various episodes, while a few staff members voice recurring characters. Supervising producer Jennifer Howell voices student Bebe Stevens; co-producer and storyboard artist Adrien Beard voices Tolkien Black, who was the school's only African-American student until the introduction of Nichole in "Cartman Finds Love"; writing consultant Vernon Chatman voices an anthropomorphic towel named Towelie; and production supervisor John Hansen voices Mr. Slave, the former gay lover of Mr. Garrison. Throughout the show's run, the voices for toddler and kindergarten characters have been provided by various small children of the show's production staff. When voicing child characters, the voice actors speak within their normal vocal range while adding a childlike inflection. The recorded audio is then edited with Pro Tools, and the pitch is altered to make the voice sound more like that of a fourth grader. Isaac Hayes voiced the character of Chef, an African-American, soul-singing cafeteria worker who was one of the few adults the boys consistently trusted. Hayes agreed to voice the character after being among Parker and Stone's ideal candidates, which also included Lou Rawls and Barry White. Hayes, who lived and hosted a radio show in New York during his tenure with South Park, recorded his dialogue on a digital audio tape while a director gave directions over the phone, after which the tape would be shipped to the show's production studio in California. After Hayes left the show in early 2006, the character of Chef was killed off in the season 10 (2006) premiere "The Return of Chef". #### Guest stars Celebrities who are depicted on the show are usually impersonated, though some celebrities do their own voices for the show. Celebrities who have voiced themselves include Michael Buffer, Brent Musburger, Jay Leno, Robert Smith, and the bands Radiohead and Korn. Comedy team Cheech & Chong voiced characters representing their likenesses for the season four (2000) episode "Cherokee Hair Tampons", which was the duo's first collaborative effort in 20 years. Malcolm McDowell appears in live-action sequences as the narrator of the season four episode "Pip". Jennifer Aniston, Richard Belzer, Natasha Henstridge, Norman Lear, and Peter Serafinowicz have guest starred as other speaking characters. During South Park's earliest seasons, several high-profile celebrities inquired about guest-starring on the show. As a joke, Parker and Stone responded by offering low-profile, non-speaking roles, most of which were accepted; George Clooney provided the barks for Stan's dog Sparky in the season one (1997) episode "Big Gay Al's Big Gay Boat Ride", Leno provided the meows for Cartman's cat in the season one finale "Cartman's Mom Is a Dirty Slut", and Henry Winkler voiced the various growls and grunts of a kid-eating monster in the season two (1998) episode "City on the Edge of Forever". Jerry Seinfeld offered to lend his voice for the Thanksgiving episode "Starvin' Marvin", but declined to appear when he was only offered a role as "Turkey \#2". ### Music Parker says that the varying uses of music are of utmost importance to South Park. Several characters often play or sing songs in order to change or influence a group's behavior, or to educate, motivate, or indoctrinate others. The show also frequently features scenes in which its characters have disapproving reactions to the performances of certain popular musicians. Adam Berry, the show's original score composer, used sound synthesis to simulate a small orchestra, and frequently alluded to existing famous pieces of music. Berry also used signature acoustic guitar and mandolin cues as leitmotifs for the show's establishing shots. After Berry left in 2001, Jamie Dunlap and Scott Nickoley of the Los Angeles-based Mad City Production Studios provided the show's original music for the next seven seasons. Since 2008, Dunlap has been credited as the show's sole score composer. Dunlap's contributions to the show are one of the few that are not achieved at the show's own production offices. Dunlap reads a script, creates a score using digital audio software, and then e-mails the audio file to South Park Studios, where it is edited to fit with the completed episode. In addition to singing in an effort to explain something to the children, Chef would also sing about things relevant to what had transpired in the plot. These songs were original compositions written by Parker, and they were performed by Hayes in the same sexually suggestive R&B style he had used during his own music career. The band DVDA, which consists of Parker and Stone, along with show staff members Bruce Howell and D.A. Young, performed the music for these compositions and, until the character's death on the show, were listed as "Chef's Band" in the closing credits. Rick James, Elton John, Meat Loaf, Joe Strummer, Ozzy Osbourne, Primus, Rancid, and Ween all guest starred and briefly performed in the season two (1998) episode "Chef Aid". Korn debuted their single "Falling Away from Me" as guest stars on the season three (1999) episode "Korn's Groovy Pirate Ghost Mystery". #### Main theme The show's theme song was a musical score performed by the band Primus, with the lyrics alternately sung by the band's lead singer, Les Claypool, and the show's four central characters during the opening title sequence. Kenny's muffled lines are altered after every few seasons. His lines are usually sexually explicit in nature, such as his original lines, "I like girls with big fat titties, I like girls with deep vaginas". The original unaired opening composition was originally slower and had a length of 40 seconds. It was deemed too long for the opening sequence. So Parker and Stone sped it up for the show's opening, having Claypool re-record his vocals. The instrumental version of the original composition is often played during the show's closing credits. The opening song played in the first four seasons (and the end credits in all seasons) has a folk rock instrumentation with bass guitar, trumpets and rhythmic drums. Its beat is fast in the opening and leisurely in the closing credits. It is in the minor key and it features a tritone or a diminished fifth, creating a melodic dissonance, which captures the show's surrealistic nature. In the latter parts of season 4 and season 5, the opening tune has an electro funk arrangement with pop qualities. Seasons 6–9 have a sprightly bluegrass instrumentation with a usage of banjo and is set in the major key. For the later seasons, the arrangement is electro rock with a breakbeat influence, which feature electric guitars backed up by synthesized, groovy drumbeats. The opening theme song has been remixed three times during the course of the series, including a remix performed by Paul Robb. In 2006, the theme music was remixed with the song "Whamola" by Colonel Les Claypool's Fearless Flying Frog Brigade, from the album Purple Onion. ## Episodes ## Distribution ### International South Park is broadcast internationally in several countries and territories, including India, New Zealand, and several countries throughout Europe and Latin America on channels that are subsidiaries of Comedy Central and Paramount Media Networks, both subsidiaries of Paramount. In distribution deals with Comedy Central, other independent networks also broadcast the series in other international markets. In Australia, the show is broadcast on The Comedy Channel, Comedy Central and free-to-air channel SBS Viceland (before 2009), while new episodes aired on SBS. The program also airs free-to-air in Australia on 10 Shake, a sister network to Comedy Central through Paramount. The series is broadcast uncensored in Canada in English on The Comedy Network and, later, Much. The series was formerly broadcast on Global. South Park also airs in Irish on TG4 in Ireland, STV in Scotland, Comedy Central and MTV in the UK (previously on Sky One, Channel 4, VIVA and 5Star), B92 in Serbia, and on Game One and NRJ 12 in France. In September 2020, SBS, which aired South Park in Australia since 1997, removed South Park from its television line-up, though reruns could air on SBS Viceland. ### Syndication Broadcast syndication rights to South Park were acquired by Debmar-Mercury and Tribune Entertainment in 2003 and 2004 respectively. Episodes further edited for content began running in syndication on September 19, 2005, and are aired in the United States with the TV-14 rating. 20th Television replaced Tribune as co-distributor in early 2008. The series is currently aired in syndication in 90 percent of the television markets across the U.S. and Canada, where it generates an estimated US\$25 million a year in advertising revenue. In 2019, CBS Television Distribution (the syndication arm of ViacomCBS, now known as Paramount Global), took over the full distribution rights following the acquisition of 21st Century Fox (parent of 20th Television) by The Walt Disney Company (who had employed Debmar-Mercury founder Mort Marcus as the head of their syndication division), distributing the show in syndication. In 2021, South Park Studios struck a deal with ViacomCBS, which allows the show to be renewed all the way up to season 30 and 14 additional films, enough to carry the show to at least 2027. ### Home media Complete seasons of South Park have been regularly released in their entirety on DVD since 2002, with season twenty-three being the most recently released. Several other themed DVD compilations have been released by Rhino Entertainment and Comedy Central, while the three-episode Imaginationland story arc was reissued straight-to-DVD as a full-length feature in 2008. Blu-ray releases started in 2008 with the release of season twelve. Subsequent seasons have been released in this format alongside the longer-running DVD releases. The first eleven seasons were released on Blu-ray for the first time in December 2017. ### Streaming In March 2008, Comedy Central made every episode of South Park available for free full-length on-demand legal streaming on the official South Park Studios website. From March 2008 until December 2013 new episodes were added to the site the day following their debut, and an uncensored version was posted the following day. The episode stayed up for the remainder of the week, then taken down, and added to the site three weeks later. Within a week, the site served more than a million streams of full episodes, and the number grew to 55 million by October 2008. Legal issues prevent the U.S. content from being accessible outside the U.S., so local servers have been set up in other countries. In September 2009, a South Park Studios website with streaming episodes was launched in the UK and Ireland. In Canada, episodes were available for streaming from The Comedy Network's website, though due to digital rights restrictions, they are no longer available. In April 2010, the season five episode "Super Best Friends" and the season fourteen episodes "200" and "201" were removed from the site; additionally, these episodes no longer air in reruns and are only available exclusively on DVD and Blu-ray. These episodes remain unavailable following the 2014 purchase by Hulu. In July 2014, it was announced that Hulu had signed a three-year deal purchasing exclusive online streaming rights to the South Park for a reported \$80 million. Following the announcement every episode remained available for free on the South Park Studios website, using the Hulu player. As of September 2014, following the premiere of the eighteenth season, only 30 select episodes would be featured for free viewing at a time on a rotating basis on the website, with new episodes being available for an entire month starting the day following their original airings. The entire series was available on Hulu by this point. As of July 2015, all episodes of South Park are available for streaming in Canada on the service CraveTV, which first consisted of seasons 1–18. Subsequent seasons were released the following July. In early October 2019, industry rumors suggested that the streaming rights for South Park were being offered to various services, creating an intense bidding war that was estimated to be as high as . HBO and South Park Digital Studios announced that HBO had secured a multi-year deal for the exclusive streaming rights for South Park on their HBO Max service starting June 24, 2020. While the terms of the deal were not disclosed, Variety reported the deal fell between and . Beginning with season 25 in 2022, HBO Max posts new episodes next day after their Comedy Central airing. Once that deal expires in 2025, Paramount+ will become the exclusive streaming home. In addition, the season 27 episodes in 2024 would stream first on Paramount+ before hitting HBO Max. In February 2023, Warner Bros. Discovery filed a lawsuit which claimed that Paramount breached its exclusivity contract with HBO Max by airing South Park on its own streaming platform. ### Re-rendered episodes From its debut in 1997 to the season twelve finale in 2008 the series had been originally produced in standard definition, with a 4:3 aspect ratio. In 2009, the series switched to being produced in 16:9 high definition 1080p with the beginning of the thirteenth season. Since this, all twelve seasons originally produced in standard definition have been remastered by South Park Studios, being fully re-rendered in high definition. The aspect ratio of these episodes were also converted from 4:3 to 16:9 as well. The re-rendered versions were also released on Blu-ray. Several of the re-rendered episodes from the earlier seasons have their original uncensored audio tracks; they had previously been released in censored form. The fifth-season episode "Super Best Friends", which was pulled from syndication and online streams following the controversy surrounding episode "201", was not released alongside the rest of the season when it was released in HD on iTunes in 2011. The episode was later re-rendered and made available for the Blu-ray release of the season that was released on December 5, 2017. The episode is presented in its original presentation, without Muhammad's image being obscured as in later episodes of the series. ## Reception ### Ratings When South Park debuted, it was a huge ratings success for Comedy Central and is seen as being largely responsible for the success of the channel, with Herzog crediting it for putting the network "on the map". The show's first episode, "Cartman Gets an Anal Probe", earned a Nielsen rating of 1.3 (980,000 viewers), at the time considered high for a cable program. The show instantly generated buzz among television viewers, and mass viewing parties began assembling on college campuses. By the time the eighth episode, "Starvin' Marvin", aired — three months after the show debuted — ratings and viewership had tripled, and South Park was already the most successful show in Comedy Central's history. When the tenth episode "Damien" aired the following February, viewership increased another 33 percent. The episode earned a 6.4 rating, which at the time was over 10 times the average rating earned by a cable show aired in prime time. The ratings peaked with the second episode of season two, "Cartman's Mom Is Still a Dirty Slut", which aired on April 22, 1998. The episode earned an 8.2 rating (6.2 million viewers) and, at the time, set a record as the highest-rated non-sports show in basic cable history. During the spring of 1998, eight of the ten highest-rated shows on basic cable were South Park episodes. South Park's second season would average an 5.8 rating (12.5 million viewers) which was a lower rating due to Comedy Central's households being much higher. The success of South Park prompted more cable companies to carry Comedy Central and led it to its becoming one of the fastest-growing cable channels. The number of households that had Comedy Central jumped from 9.1 million in 1997 to 50 million in June 1998. When the show debuted, the most Comedy Central had earned for a 30-second commercial was US\$7,500. Within a year, advertisers were paying an average of US\$40,000 for 30 seconds of advertising time during airings of South Park in its second season, while some paid as much as US\$80,000. By the third season (1999), the series' ratings began to decrease. The third-season premiere episode drew 3.4 million viewers, a dramatic drop from the 5.5 million of the previous season's premiere. Stone and Parker attributed this drop in the show's ratings to the media hype that surrounded the show in the previous year, adding that the third season ratings reflected the show's "true" fan base. Regardless the viewership stayed consistent with an average rating being between 3.0 (8 million viewers) to a 5.5 (17.5 million viewers). The show's ratings dropped further in its fourth season (2000), with episodes averaging just above 1.5 million viewers (though the season premiere would get 22.1 million viewers due to the hype caused by the movie). The ratings eventually increased, and seasons five through nine consistently averaged about 3 million viewers per episode. Season 8's episode Goobacks would have South Park's viewership peak at 30 million viewers. Seasons 10 to 12 would average 5 million viewers. Though its viewership is lower than it was at the height of its popularity in its earliest seasons, South Park remains one of the highest-rated series on Comedy Central. The season 14 (2010) premiere gained 3.7 million viewers, the show's highest-rated season premiere since 1998. In 2016, a New York Times study of the 50 TV shows with the most Facebook Likes found that "perhaps unsurprisingly, South Park ... is most popular in Colorado". More recent seasons have seen substantially lower ratings, with Season 25 averaging 0.65 million viewers an episode. ### Recognitions and awards In 2004, Channel 4 voted South Park the third-greatest cartoon of all time. In 2007, Time magazine included the show on its list of the "100 Best TV Shows of All Time", proclaiming it as "America's best source of rapid-fire satire for [the past] decade". The same year, Rolling Stone declared it to be the funniest show on television since its debut 10 years prior. In 2008, South Park was named the 12th-greatest TV show of the past 25 years by Entertainment Weekly, while AOL declared it as having the "most astute" characters of any show in history when naming it the 16th-best television comedy series of all time. In 2011, South Park was voted number one in the 25 Greatest Animated TV Series poll by Entertainment Weekly. The character of Cartman ranked 10th on TV Guide's 2002 list of the "Top 50 Greatest Cartoon Characters", 198th on VH1's "200 Greatest Pop Culture Icons", 19th on Bravo's "100 Greatest TV Characters" television special in 2004, and second on MSNBC's 2005 list of TV's scariest characters behind Mr. Burns from The Simpsons. In 2006, Comedy Central received a Peabody Award for South Park's "stringent social commentary" and "undeniably fearless lampooning of all that is self-important and hypocritical in American life". In 2013, the Writers Guild of America ranked South Park at number 63 among the "101 Best-Written Shows Ever". Also in 2013, TV Guide listed the show at number 10 among the "60 Greatest Cartoons of All Time". In 2019, the series was ranked 42nd on The Guardian newspaper's list of the 100 best TV shows of the 21st century. South Park won the CableACE Award for Best Animated Series in 1997, the last year the awards were given out. In 1998, South Park was nominated for the Annie Award for Outstanding Achievement in an Animated Primetime or Late Night Television Program. It was also nominated for the 1998 GLAAD Award for Outstanding TV – Individual Episode for "Big Gay Al's Big Gay Boat Ride". South Park has been nominated for the Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program sixteen times (1998, 2000, 2002, 2004–2011, and 2013–2017). The show has won the award for Outstanding Animated Program (For Programming Less Than One Hour) four times, for the 2005 episode "Best Friends Forever", the 2006 episode "Make Love, Not Warcraft", the 2009 episode "Margaritaville", and the 2012 episode "Raising the Bar". The "Imaginationland" trilogy of episodes won the Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program (For Programming One Hour or More) in 2008. ### Criticism The show's frequent depiction of taboo subject matter, general toilet humor, accessibility to younger viewers, disregard for conservative sensibilities, negative depiction of liberal causes, and portrayal of religion for comic effect have generated controversy and debate over the course of its run. As the series became popular, students in two schools were barred from wearing South Park-related T-shirts, and the headmaster of a UK public school asked parents not to let their children watch the programme after eight- and nine-year-old children voted the South Park character Cartman as their favorite personality in a 1999 poll. Parker and Stone assert that the show is not meant to be viewed by young children, and the show is certified with TV ratings that indicate its intention for mature audiences. Parents Television Council founder L. Brent Bozell III and Action for Children's Television founder Peggy Charren have both condemned the show, with the latter claiming it is "dangerous to the democracy". Several other activist groups have protested the show's parodies of Christianity and portrayal of Jesus Christ. Stone has stated that parents who disapprove of South Park for its portrayal of how kids behave are upset because they "have an idyllic vision of what kids are like", adding "[kids] don't have any kind of social tact or etiquette, they're just complete little raging bastards". #### Controversies The show further lampooned the controversy surrounding its use of profanity, as well as the media attention surrounding the network show Chicago Hope's singular use of the word shit, with the season five premiere "It Hits the Fan", in which the word shit is said 162 times without being bleeped for censorship purposes, while also appearing uncensored in written form. In the days following the show's original airing, 5,000 disapproving e-mails were sent to Comedy Central. Despite its 43 uncensored uses of the racial slur nigger, the season 11 episode "With Apologies to Jesse Jackson" generated relatively little controversy, as most in the black community and the NAACP praised the episode for its context and its comedic way of conveying other races' perceptions of how black people feel when hearing the word. Specific controversies regarding the show have included an April Fools' Day prank played on its viewers in 1998, its depiction of the Virgin Mary in the season nine (2005) finale "Bloody Mary" that angered several Catholics, its depiction of Steve Irwin with a stingray barb stuck in his chest in the episode "Hell on Earth 2006", which originally aired less than two months after Irwin was killed in the same fashion, Comedy Central's censorship of the depiction of Muhammad in the season 10 episode "Cartoon Wars Part II" in the wake of the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy and consistent mockery of the concept of climate change by using climate change denialist talking points. The season nine (2005) episode "Trapped in the Closet" denounces Scientology as nothing more than "a big fat global scam", while freely divulging church information that Scientology normally only reveals to members who make significant monetary contributions to the church. The episode also ambiguously parodies the rumors involving the sexual orientation of Scientologist Tom Cruise, who allegedly demanded any further reruns of the episode be canceled. Isaac Hayes, a Scientologist, later quit South Park because of his objection to the episode. The season fourteen episodes "200" and "201" were mired in controversy for satirizing issues surrounding the depiction of the Islamic prophet, Muhammad. The website for the organization Revolution Muslim, a New York-based radical Muslim organization, posted an entry that included a warning to creators Parker and Stone that they risk violent retribution for their depictions of Muhammad. It said that they "will probably wind up like Theo van Gogh for airing this show". The posting provided the addresses to Comedy Central in New York and the production company in Los Angeles. The author of the post, Zachary Adam Chesser (whose alias is Abu Talhah al-Amrikee), said it was meant to serve as a warning to Parker and Stone, not a threat, and that providing the addresses was meant to give people the opportunity to protest. Despite Chesser's claims that the website entry was a warning, several media outlets and observers interpreted it as a threat. Support for the episode has come in the form of Everybody Draw Mohammed Day, a movement started on Facebook that encourages people to draw Muhammad on May 20. The "200" episode, which also depicted the Buddha snorting cocaine, prompted the government of Sri Lanka to ban the series outright. Due to many taboo topics in China, such as Dalai Lama, Winnie the Pooh, summary execution, cannabis culture, and organ harvesting being involved in the season 23 (2019) episode "Band in China", South Park was entirely banned in China after the episode's broadcast. The series' Baidu Baike article, Baidu Tieba forum, Douban page, Zhihu page and Bilibili videos have been deleted or inaccessible to the public, all related keywords and topics have been prohibited from being searched and discussed on China-based search engines and social media sites including Baidu, QQ, Sina Weibo and on WeChat public platforms. Parker and Stone issued a sarcastic apology in response. ## Influence and legacy ### Cultural Commentary made in episodes has been interpreted as statements Parker and Stone are attempting to make to the viewing public, and these opinions have been subject to much critical analysis in the media and literary world within the framework of popular philosophical, theological, social, and political concepts. Since South Park debuted, college students have written term papers and doctoral theses analyzing the show, while Brooklyn College offers a course called "South Park and Political Correctness". Soon after one of Kenny's trademark deaths on the show, other characters would typically shout "Oh my God, they killed Kenny!", followed by another yelling out "You bastard(s)!"—these lines were usually said by the characters Stan and Kyle, respectively. The exclamation quickly became a popular catchphrase, while the running gag of Kenny's recurring deaths is one of the more recognized hallmarks among viewers of modern television. Cartman's exclamations of "Respect my authori-tah!" and "Screw you guys ...I'm going home!" became catchphrases as well, and during the show's earlier seasons, were highly popular in the lexicon of viewers. Cartman's eccentric intonation of "Hey!" was included in the 2002 edition of The Oxford Dictionary of Catchphrases. In the season two episode "Chef Aid", attorney Johnnie Cochran uses what's called in the show the Chewbacca defense, which is a legal strategy that involves addressing plot holes related to Chewbacca in the film Return of the Jedi rather than discussing the trial at hand during a closing argument in a deliberate attempt to confuse jurors into thinking there is reasonable doubt. The term "Chewbacca defense" has been documented as being used by criminologists, forensic scientists, and political commentators in their various discussions of similar methods used in legal cases and public forums. Another season two episode, "Gnomes", revolves around a group of "underpants gnomes" who, as their name suggests, run a corporation stealing people's underpants. When asked about their business model, various gnomes reply that theirs is a three-step process: Phase 1 is "collect underpants". Phase 3 is "profit". However, the gnomes are unable to explain what is to occur between the first and final steps, and "Phase 2" is accompanied by a large question mark on their corporate flow chart. Using "????" and "PROFIT!" as the last two steps in a process (usually jokingly) has become a widely popular Internet meme because of this. Especially in the context of politics and economics, "underpants gnomes" has been used by some commentators to characterize a conspicuous gap of logic or planning. When Sophie Rutschmann of the University of Strasbourg discovered a mutated gene that causes an adult fruit fly to die within two days after it is infected with certain bacteria, she named the gene kep1 in honor of Kenny. ### Political While some conservatives have condemned South Park for its vulgarity, a growing population of people who hold center-right political beliefs, including teenagers and young adults, have embraced the show for its tendency to mock liberal viewpoints and lampoon liberal celebrities and icons. Political commentator Andrew Sullivan dubbed the group South Park Republicans, or South Park conservatives. Sullivan averred that members of the group are "extremely skeptical of political correctness but also are socially liberal on many issues", though he says the phrase applied to them is meant to be more of a casual indication of beliefs than a strong partisan label. Brian C. Anderson describes the group as "generally characterized by holding strong libertarian beliefs and rejecting more conservative social policy", and notes that although the show makes "wicked fun of conservatives", it is "at the forefront of a conservative revolt against liberal media" and Hollywood's "liberal hegemony." Parker and Stone reject the idea that the show has any underlying political position, and deny having a political agenda when creating an episode. The two claim the show's higher proportion of instances lampooning liberal rather than conservative orthodoxies stems simply from their preference for making fun of liberals. While Stone has been quoted saying, "I hate conservatives, but I really fucking hate liberals", Stone and Parker have explained that their drive to lampoon a given target comes first from the target's insistence on telling other people how to behave. The duo explain that they regard liberals as having both delusions of entitlement to remain free from satire, and a propensity to enforce political correctness while patronizing the citizens of Middle America. Parker and Stone are uncomfortable with the idea of themselves or South Park being assigned any kind of partisan classification. Parker said he rejects the "South Park Republican" and "South Park conservative" labels, feeling that either tag implies that one only adheres to strictly conservative or liberal viewpoints. The duo has in the past reluctantly labeled themselves libertarians and fans of government gridlock. In 2006, they said that they were "rooting for Hillary Clinton in 2008 simply because it would be weird to have her as president." ## Franchise ## See also - South Park (Park County, Colorado) - South Park City
2,086,141	Galidor: Defenders of the Outer Dimension	1,171,417,091	2002 science-fiction television series	[ "2000s American mystery television series", "2000s American science fiction television series", "2000s Canadian science fiction television series", "2002 American television series debuts", "2002 American television series endings", "2002 Canadian television series debuts", "2002 Canadian television series endings", "2002 video games", "Action-adventure games", "American action television series", "American adventure television series", "American science fiction television series", "American television shows featuring puppetry", "Canadian action television series", "Canadian adventure television series", "Canadian mystery television series", "Canadian science fiction television series", "Canadian television shows featuring puppetry", "Cancelled GameCube games", "Cancelled PlayStation 2 games", "English-language television shows", "Fox Broadcasting Company original programming", "Fox Kids", "Game Boy Advance games", "Lego video games", "Television series about teenagers", "Television series reboots", "Tiertex Design Studios games", "Video game reboots", "Video games developed in the United Kingdom", "Windows games", "YTV (Canadian TV channel) original programming" ]	Galidor: Defenders of the Outer Dimension (commonly shortened to Galidor) is a science fiction television series created by Thomas W. Lynch and The Lego Group, and co-produced by CinéGroupe and the Tom Lynch Company in association with YTV. Galidor premiered on February 9, 2002, and ran for twenty-six episodes across two seasons, airing its last episode on August 24, 2002. It had limited reruns on other international networks. The series follows teenager Nicholas "Nick" Bluetooth and his friend Allegra Zen after they are transported to the Outer Dimension, where Nick uses his newfound "glinch" shapeshifting ability to aid resistance efforts against the tyrant Gorm who has conquered the Outer Dimension in search of the hidden realm of Galidor. The concept for Galidor as a toy line with an associated television series was created by the Lego Group, hoping to break into a new merchandise market during a period of financial trouble. The concept was brought to Lynch in 2000, who created the story and characters and initially planned out a five-season story arc. The series began filming in September 2001 at the Cine Cite studios in Montreal with a budget of US\$16 million. The show combined practical effects and live actors with puppets and green-screen CGI. The series saw minimal attention, and mixed reviews both at the time and in retrospect due to its plot and focus on special effects. The franchise was a commercial failure, though the toys gained a cult following in later years. ## Plot On his fifteenth birthday, Nicholas "Nick" Bluetooth−who lives a quiet life with his grandfather−finds a floating device in his room. Accompanied by his friend Allegra Zen, Nick discovers a ship dubbed the Egg. Nick and Allegra are transported by the Egg to the Outer Dimension, a network of isolated realms currently controlled by the tyrant Gorm. In the Outer Dimension, Nick displays a shapeshifting ability called glinching, allowing him to transform his limbs into different mechanical or organic objects. Nick and Allegra are soon joined by companions who suffered due to Gorm's actions. They are Jen, a plant-like being preserved in a robotic form; Euripides, the last survivor of a genocide enacted by Gorm's forces; and Nepol, a warrior of the Siktari people. Nick also receives visions from Riana, queen of the hidden realm of Galidor and his biological mother. It is revealed that the Egg was sent from the Outer Dimension by Nick's father Sam, who has been missing since his childhood. Known as the Stranger in the Outer Dimension and now presumed dead, Sam is blamed for a computer virus created by Gorm which destroyed navigation maps in the Outer Dimension; the device that led Nick to the Egg is the last map in existence. Gorm now wants to conquer the Outer Dimension including Galidor, seeking out Nick's glinch powers to ensure his victory. Nick was left on Earth to hide him from Gorm, who managed to steal a piece of his glinch abilities, before Galidor was sealed away by Riana. The main storyline revolves around Nick and his allies finding pieces of the key to unlock the way to Galidor, racing against Gorm and his agents while helping the people of the Outer Dimension's realms. One of Gorm's agents, the Galidorian Lind, defects to join Nick's cause so she can reach home again. Gorm ends up recovering the Key and unlocking the doorway to Galidor, prompting a confrontation where Nick apparently destroys Gorm. The series ends with Nick reaching Galidor and reuniting with Riana, while Gorm is revealed to have survived and is holding Sam hostage. ## Cast and characters - Matthew Ewald as Nicholas "Nick" Bluetooth. A fifteen year-old who grew up without his parents, living a quiet life with his grandfather and dreaming of there being something more to the world. After coming to the Outer Dimension using the Egg ship, he unlocks the ability to "glinch", temporarily shapeshifting his limbs into the limbs of aliens and specialised machines. - Marie-Marguerite Sabongui as Allegra Zane. Nick's best friend, a karate expert, and holding a more practical outlook than Nick. Initially frightened after she is dragged with Nick into the Outer Dimension, she ultimately sides with the resistance forces against Gorm. - Michael O'Reilly as the voice of Jens. A master mechanic who maintains the Egg ship. Originally a plant-like being, he was burned by Gorm and his brain was preserved in a robot body. Jens is performed by Sam Magdi. - Georges Morris as the voice of Euripides. Former Chief Philosopher to Galidor's court, and now Nick's adviser. Euripedes is the last Amphibib, a species native to the realm of Arbo wiped out by Gorm. Euripides's puppet form is performed by Jeffrey Hall. - Walter Massey as the voice of Nepol. A warrior of the Siktari and a general in Galidor's army. Originally eight feet tall, he was shrunk to a small stature. Nepal is performed by Claude Girous. - Ian Finlay as the voice of Gorm. The main antagonist of the series. Gorm is a master illusionist who uses glinch powers stolen from Nick to create his armies, intending to conquer all of the Outer Dimension. Gorm is performed by Steven P. Park. - Karen Cliche as Lind. A recurring character and native Galidorian, she is introduced as an agent of Gorm being trained as his successor. She eventually defects to Nick's side out of a wish to return home. ## Production During the late 1990s to early 2000s, Danish toy company The Lego Group were suffering from falling profits; while licenses for franchises such as Star Wars and the in-house Bionicle line proved profitable, at the time there was a market shift away from the style of brick building toys the Lego Group had designed up to that point. Intending to break into the action figure market, the Lego Group created a concept of figures with interchangeable limbs and an associated storyline. The intent was giving buyers both design freedom with the sets and an entertaining narrative. The Lego Group decided to create a television series to tell the toy line's story, and approached Thomas W. Lynch about the project in 2000; Lynch was well known in television for his work on multiple series aimed at the "tween" demographic. Lynch liked the concept, and worked together with the Lego Group designers to create what became Galidor: Defenders of the Outer Dimension, designing the story and characters based on the draft figure designs. Galidor was co-produced by the Tom Lynch Company and Montreal-based CinéGroupe in association with Canadian channel YTV. CinéGroupe handled worldwide distribution in partnership with Columbia TriStar Intl. Television. The Lego Group held exclusive merchandise rights, collaboration on promotion and additional merchandise with United Media. Lynch and CinéGroupe president Jacques Pettigrew were executive producers, the production executive was Ken Katsumoto, Michel Lemire and Marie-Claude Beauchamp acted as series producers, and the lead director was George Mihalka. Mihalka directed several individual episodes alongside others including Jim Donovan and Giles Walker. The series cinematographer was Daniel Villeneuve, and Alan Best was CGI supervising director. The music, which combined electronic and techno with choral elements, was created by British composer Andrew R. Powell. Powell had worked on some of Lynch's earlier series. When creating Galidor, Lynch wanted to combine a coming-of-age story with the "fun" of the The Mummy (1999) and its sequel. Drawing inspiration from the Hero's journey concept, Nicholas was created as a character dealing with feelings of both personal and social isolation. Tom Chehak acted as showrunner working from Lynch's draft, overseeing the scripts and music, alongside working with the various partners to keep the show in line with project goals. The episode scripts were written by a large team including Lynch, Chehak, Alex Epstein and Damian Kindler. Lynch had a rough story plan spanning five seasons totalling 100 episodes, with the intention being to film the first two seasons, break for a few months, then produce the third season. Ewald, who played Nicholas, had previously acted in supporting roles and Minnesota theatre with Galidor being his first lead part. In contrast, Allegra was Sabongui's debut as an actor, having only done work in school productions before. Ewald and Sabongui auditioned on the same day, which coincided with the September 11 attacks, and bonded both during the aftermath and while filming. Active production on Galidor began on September 25, 2001. Filming took place at the Cine Cite studios in Montreal, both in practical sets and against green screens. The show's two seasons were given a combined budget of C\$25 million (US\$16 million). Each episode, allotted a budget of C\$1 million (US\$620,000), was filmed and completed over a few weeks. Lynch was eager to create a series that blended CGI with practical elements and live actors. The show also incorporated practical effects, full body costumes for characters like Gorm, and puppet characters with incorporated animatronics. Ewald and Sabongui performed many of their own stunts, while Gorm's stunts were performed by Derrick Damon Reeve. Roughly a third of the storyboards were dedicated to CGI, which involved extensive cross-checking between crews and the overlaying of up to four different graphical elements in some scenes. The amount of CGI was limited due to the budget, with Lynch and Best cooperating on finding camera angles that balanced CGI with sets and practical effects. Shooting was done using a single HD camera to minimize post-production work. During the last couple of months shooting, Lynch learned that Fox Family was being bought by The Walt Disney Company. This worried him, as he assumed the purchase was due to the commercially-successful Power Rangers franchise, and that Disney would not be interested in funding new series like Galidor. He also noted that Galidor shared copyright with the Lego Group rather than being an in-house property, further discouraging promotion from Disney. ## Broadcast Galidor began simultaneous broadcast on YTV in Canada and Fox Kids in the United States on February 9, 2002 in the morning time slot. After its debut, the show was moved around to different slots. The original broadcast ended on August 24, 2002. It was the last original show to debut on Fox Kids before it was rebranded as FoxBox under new owners 4Kids Entertainment in September 2002. Also beginning in September 2002, Galidor was repeated on ABC Family. It was broadcast on Saturdays and Sundays. Galidor was one of the debut titles of a tween-focused programming block on Australia's Foxtel in May 2002, broadcasting on Sundays and Mondays. Originally scheduled for UK broadcast on BBC1 in January 2003, it was broadcast from February 16 to July 23 of that year on BBC2's early morning CBBC programming slot. The series was brought over by Theresa Plummer-Andrews, then an executive producer for CBBC and keen to bring in new international shows. Two versions of the theme song were created for the show; a 30 second version for broadcast in the United States, and a minute-long international version. ### Episodes #### Season 1 (2002) #### Season 2 (2002) ## Reception and legacy In April 2002, it was reported that the series had boosted FoxKids viewership within the show's target demographic. In their 2002 fiscal report, the Lego Group felt that the series had failed to attract the predicted popularity needed in the United States. Lynch noted that the show was not a ratings success overall, which he attributed to lack of marketing. In a review for the Rome News-Tribune after its first few episodes aired, Evan Levine cited the special effects as Galidor's main attraction, otherwise finding the premise and characters unoriginal. He did see potential and positively noted its theme of alienation. The show was a runner-up in the 2002 Kidscreen Awards in the "Teen/Tween" category. Lynch remembered being shocked by critical and audience reactions to Galidor, which were less enthusiastic than with his earlier series. In a Bloomberg News article about the Lego Group in 2010, Jay Green referred to Galidor as "a Saturday morning cartoon cliché" which was dismissed as a long commercial for the toy line. In 2013 David Robertson, then a practice professor at the University of Pennsylvania and co-author of a non-fiction book on the Lego Group, called the television series bad and felt it had negatively impacted the careers of its actors. As part of a 2021 article on the Power Rangers franchise, Paste Magazine's Dave Trumbor mentioned the show as one of a number of productions at the time that failed to gain an audience, stating they had "abysmally immature computer-generated graphics as stand-ins for suited monsters". Different sources have blamed the failure of Galidor on issues caused by the purchase of Fox Family and consequent lack of publicity for the series, the television series being low quality, the Lego Group's lack of experience with television, and poor reactions to the toy line. Lynch described Galidor as a learning experience that informed his later focus on story over special effects. ## In other media and merchandise ### Video games As part of Galidor's promotion, a web browser game titled Galidor Quest was released through the project website. An adventure game played from a town-down perspective, the goal was for the player to create an Outer Dimension character and progress the story through combat and solving puzzles. Players could compete with each other in an online arena. The browser game was part of a mixed media promotional approach compared to later alternate reality games. In December 2001, the Lego Group partnered with Electronic Arts to publish a video game tie-in based on the Galidor toys and series. The video game was split across two versions. The Game Boy Advance was developed by Tiertex Design Studios, while Asylum Entertainment was developing a version for Windows, PlayStation 2 and GameCube. In May 2002, publisher Electronic Arts first displayed the Game Boy Advance and PlayStation 2 versions at E3 2002. The Game Boy Advance version was released by Lego Interactive and Electronic Arts in North America on October 29, 2002. The game received a mixed reception, with reviews usually citing repetitive gameplay and unresponsive controls. Asylum Entertainment's game, produced by Nick Ferguson, was developed under Lego Interactive's request for a "traditional" platform game themed around Nick's glinching abilities. It was initially scheduled for a release in early 2003, and in July 2003, Electronic Arts announced that would be released in September of that year. During this period, Asylum Entertainment staff saw the mixed reactions series and toy line, and were eager to get it finished and move onto a new contract. On September 3, 2003, Asylum Entertainment announced that, due to financial instability, they had cancelled their Galidor game for all platforms, and laid off the game's team. The unfinished Windows version ended up getting budget re-releases of individual Lego video games, or Lego video game bundles, released by Focus Multimedia (2004) and ValuSoft (2006) in Europe and North America, respectively. ### Toys Production of the toy line ran parallel with the series, led by senior Lego Group designer Niels Milan Pedersen. The design drew inspiration from a number of early concepts about evolving and merging creatures, with the specifics coming together following talks with Lynch. The Lego Group's marketing division at the time was pushing for the action figure approach, as it considered traditional Lego bricks to be no longer commercially viable. The Lego Group described Galidor as a new venture due to wanting to expand the merchandise and media beyond their traditional boundaries. Their plan was to launch the toys after the series had gained traction. One notable element of the crossover was the Kek Powerizer, a hybrid design combining the action figure elements with a rudimentary electronic device which would play sound clips based on both the parts attached to the Kek Powerizer body and the sound signals received from either the television series or video games. The Kek Powerizer's voice lines were recorded by Brian Hamilton. Galidor and its associated theme was announced in early 2001. They also advertised the project through print adverts and a McDonald gift promotion. Bionicle comic writer Greg Farshtey created a tie-in comic for the theme, and a dedicated exhibition was created in Legoland theme parks showing off the toys and clips from the series. While those at the Lego Group's Denmark headquarters were having doubts about the line as the series and toy line neared release, the North American office remained enthusiastic and pushed for more figures to be produced. The designers only saw the series close to its broadcast, disliking it as a whole and being disappointed at the rubber suit style for many of the alien characters. The figures saw a limited preview release in March 2002, and a full retail release in July. They were at the time exclusive to the United States, with the plan being to launch them internationally to coincide with the show's overseas broadcast. Sales of the toys were poor, and declined following the end of the series. The Galidor toy line was discontinued in 2002 leading to some sets being cancelled, with the Lego Group's stating they would abandon the action figure style going forward. The Lego Group later called Galidor the worst-selling toy line in their history, and it was blamed along with other factors for the company's near-bankruptcy in 2003. Pedersen later noted that the Lego Group were unwise to launch the Galidor line in direct competition with Bionicle. In the years since, the toys have gained a cult following among both fans and Lego Group designers. Pedersen recalled the line as "quite special" but let down by the marketing.
1,298,872	Mission to the Unknown	1,173,710,814	null	[ "1965 British television episodes", "Dalek television stories", "Doctor Who missing episodes", "Fiction set in the 4th millennium", "First Doctor serials", "Television episodes written by Terry Nation" ]	"Mission to the Unknown" is the second serial of the third season of the British science fiction television series Doctor Who. Written by Terry Nation and directed by Derek Martinus, the single episode was broadcast on BBC1 on 9 October 1965. The only standalone regular episode of the show's original run, it serves as an introduction to the 12-part story The Daleks' Master Plan. It is notable for the complete absence of the regular cast and the TARDIS; it is the only serial in the show's history not to feature the Doctor at all. The story focuses on Space Security Agent Marc Cory (Edward de Souza) and his attempts to warn Earth of the Daleks' plan to take over the Solar System. After the show's second production block was granted an additional episode, outgoing story editor Dennis Spooner commissioned Nation to write an extra episode as a cutaway to set up The Daleks' Master Plan. Nation wrote the episode while considering a Dalek-focused spin-off; he used film character James Bond as inspiration for Marc Cory. "Mission to the Unknown" was produced by the same team as its predecessor, Galaxy 4, in a five-week period that concluded the show's second production block; the two serials were held back to open the third season. Failing health prevented original director Mervyn Pinfield from continuing, replaced by Martinus. Production took place at the Television Centre in August 1965. "Mission to the Unknown" received 8.3 million viewers, a drop from the previous serial. Contemporary and retrospective reviews were generally positive, with praise for the script and direction, though some viewers were confused that the following serial did not immediately continue the narrative. The videotapes of the episode were wiped by the BBC in July 1974, and it remains missing with no remaining footage. Usually alongside The Daleks' Master Plan, "Mission to the Unknown" received print and audiobook adaptations, with off-air recordings used to construct the latter. In 2019, director Andrew Ireland and University of Central Lancashire students recreated the episode in live-action, replicating the 1960s production values. ## Plot On the planet Kembel, Marc Cory (Edward de Souza) and Gordon Lowery (Jeremy Young) of UN Deep Space Force Group 1 are attempting to repair their spaceship to reach their rendezvous when they are attacked by the third crew member, Jeff Garvey (Barry Jackson), who was in a violent state of mind upon waking up in the jungle. Cory shoots Garvey dead when he was about to fire at Lowery. Bringing Lowery into the spaceship for debriefing, Cory explains himself to be a Space Security agent assigned to investigate a possible Dalek base for universal invasion with the presence of a Varga plant confirming their presence. Outside, Garvey's body mutates into a Varga. At the Daleks' base, the Dalek Supreme is informed that representatives from seven planets will soon arrive, and sends a Dalek platoon to destroy Cory and Lowery. Cory stands guard against the slow-moving Varga plants while Lowery finishes building a rescue beacon. They notice a spaceship flying above them, Cory deducing the Daleks are planning something big. As Lowery was about to record a message, Cory notices something moving in the jungle. Lowery and Cory flee as the Dalek platoon arrives and destroys their ship. In the Dalek base, the representatives from the seven galaxies have gathered in a conference room. The Dalek Supreme assures representative Malpha (Robert Cartland) that the human intruders will be dealt with. Cory is forced to kill Lowery upon discovering he became infected by a Varga plant and records a message, only to be surrounded by the Daleks and exterminated. At the Dalek base, the representatives approve an alliance, agreeing with the Daleks' plan to take over the Solar System. ## Production ### Conception and writing In October 1964, BBC Head of Drama and Doctor Who co-creator Sydney Newman had granted producer Verity Lambert an additional episode in the second production block to compensate for the second season's Planet of Giants—the penultimate serial of the first production block—being cut from four episodes to three. As most stories were generally structured as four or six parts, this extra episode failed to fit the regular schedule. Outgoing story editor Dennis Spooner commissioned Terry Nation—creator of the Daleks and the writer of the first season's The Daleks (1963–1964) and second season's The Dalek Invasion of Earth (1964) and The Chase (1965)—to co-write the third season's The Daleks' Master Plan (1965–1966), and it was decided the extra episode would be used as a cutaway to set up the 12-part story. By April 1965, Donald Tosh was in the process of replacing Spooner as story editor. The episode was produced by the same team as its predecessor, Galaxy 4; they were the final to be filmed in the show's second production block, but were held back to open its third season in September. Mervyn Pinfield—an experienced BBC figure who acted as the show's associate producer from its origins to January 1965—was originally assigned to direct both serials, but his failing health prevented him from continuing, and Lambert brought on new director Derek Martinus to direct the five episodes. Martinus had recently completed the BBC's internal directors' course and had no previous experience leading a television production. Having only seen a few episodes of Doctor Who, Martinus reviewed some of the previous stories with Lambert; he found them disappointing, which shocked Lambert, but stated that he wanted to aim for higher standards. Though Lambert was credited as producer on "Mission to the Unknown"—the final story for which she was credited—her role had essentially been replaced by John Wiles. Nation was commissioned to write the episode on 25 February 1965; he delivered the script by 14 May, having been writing for The Saint at the time. He approached the episode as a technical problem, requiring a small cast and self-contained narrative. The success of the Daleks—particularly due to their imminent American debut in the film Dr. Who and the Daleks (1965)—led Nation to consider the viability of a Dalek-focused spin-off. In writing "Mission to the Unknown", he realised such a story would need a hero and wrote Marc Cory as a "space-age Bond", inspired by the recent release of Goldfinger (1964). The episode was originally set on the planet Varga, home of the Varga plants, but this was renamed Kemble (later spelled Kembel) during script revisions for The Daleks' Master Plan. The episode's draft script was titled "Dalek Cutaway", while the rehearsal script received the name "Mission to the Unknown"; the names were alternated and combined in internal documentation, and the final title has been the subject of much debate. ### Casting and filming "Mission to the Unknown" was unique in that it does not feature any of the main cast or the TARDIS—the only serial in the show's history not to feature the Doctor at all—a decision made partly to save money on their fees. Despite not appearing in the episode, William Hartnell was still credited for portraying the Doctor, while Maureen O'Brien and Peter Purves received credits in Radio Times as Vicki and Steven Taylor, respectively, but not in the episode itself. Young had previously starred as Kal in the first Doctor Who serial, An Unearthly Child; he was excited to work with Hartnell again but disappointed when he discovered his absence. Cartland had also appeared in Galaxy 4, directed by Martinus. The Dalek voices—provided by regular actors David Graham and Peter Hawkins—were pre-recorded in Lime Grove Studios on 4 August 1965. The episode was Richard Hunt's first on Doctor Who as set designer; he made the jungle design, while series veteran Raymond Cusick on the rocket and message launcher, made both from stock set elements and by Shawcraft Models. For the Daleks' conference room, Cusick was inspired by the Nuremberg rallies. The episode used stock music composed by Trevor Duncan. Pre-filming for "Mission to the Unknown" took place on 25 June 1965 at Ealing Studios; the scene in which Garvey mutates into a Varga plant was recorded on 35 mm film. Rehearsals for the episode began on 2 August at the Territorial Army Drill Hall on Uxbridge Road, and the episode was recorded in Studio TC4 of the Television Centre on 6 August. The final scene of Galaxy 4 was recorded alongside the episode so as to avoid re-hiring Jackson and rebuilding the set; the scene was later inserted into Galaxy 4 during editing. Four of the Dalek props from The Chase were used in the episode. Recording for "Mission to the Unknown" cost . ## Reception ### Broadcast and ratings The episode was broadcast on BBC1 on 9 October 1965. Viewership dropped from the preceding serial, while the Appreciation Index remained reasonable at 54. 16 mm film recordings were made available for international sale, but the episode was never sold overseas, and BBC Enterprises withdrew it in 1974. The Australian Broadcasting Corporation considered the recording, but it was rejected by the Film Censorship Board in September 1966 as it was considered to constitute "horror", particularly the masked aliens, Varga mutations, and dialogue about murder. The original 405-line tape was cleared for wiping in July 1969, and the episode was erased in July 1974. It remains missing; no known footage exists, though an off-air audio recording was made by fan David Butler. ### Critical response Bill Edmund of Television Today described the episode as an "exciting start" to The Daleks' Master Plan. Several viewers were confused by the lack of Daleks in the following serial—The Myth Makers, set during the Trojan War—and some felt that they had become less frightening. Conversely, some felt that the episode's other monsters were too scary. In A Voyage Through 25 Years of Doctor Who (1988), Ian Levine praised the "array of creatures", particularly the design of Malpha. In The Discontinuity Guide (1995), Paul Cornell, Martin Day, and Keith Topping described the episode as "macho, with a sinister atmosphere". In The Television Companion (1998), David J. Howe and Stephen James Walker wrote that the presence of the lead actors was "hardly missed" due to Nation's script and Martinus's direction, praising the tense atmosphere and set designs. ## Commercial releases The story was novelised as part of The Daleks' Master Plan Part I: Mission to the Unknown by John Peel with a cover by Alister Pearson, published in paperback by Target Books and W. H. Allen in September 1989. An unabridged reading of the book was published as Daleks: Mission to the Unknown by BBC Audiobooks in May 2010 as a five-disc set, read by Peter Purves and Jean Marsh with Dalek voices by Nicholas Briggs. Audio from the episode featured on the first CD of the five-disc soundtrack The Daleks' Master Plan, released by BBC Worldwide in October 2001 with linking narration by Purves; the first CD was distributed with the magazine SFX to promote the full set. In April 2010, The Telegraph printed vouchers for readers to obtain the CD from WHSmith. A library edition of the audiobook was released by AudioGO in 2011, and Demon Music Group published it as a vinyl record in March 2019. ## Recreation After writing and producing his doctorate thesis about a 1960s-style recreation of the 2006 Doctor Who episode "Tooth and Claw" at Bournemouth University in 2012, Andrew Ireland wrote a proposal to recreate "Mission to the Unknown" the following year and brought it to the University of Central Lancashire (UCLan), but did not follow up; he specifically chose the episode as it was a self-contained story without any of the main cast. In mid-2018, when asked for an interview about his thesis by Doctor Who Magazine, he revisited the idea. By now an academic and Pro-Vice Chancellor of Digital and Creative Industries at UCLan, he obtained permission for the recreation from the BBC and Nation's estate, writing a passionate email to the latter, who was "very supportive". With a support team at UCLan, Ireland began researching the project around this time. ### Production The recreation was created in about five days in February 2019, and the multi-camera shoot was done in three days from 20 to 23 February. It was filmed in colour and converted to black-and-white in editing; the on-set camera monitors also displayed the image in black-and-white. Ireland, who directed the recreation, used both the original camera script and a newly-formatted one. He edited the episode by placing it atop the original's audio for the sequences to closely match. Several teams at UCLan worked in different departments, including costume design, fashion, make-up, and music; an external subcontractor constructed some of the sets based on the production team's designs. Mandip Gill, a UCLan drama graduate who played Yasmin Khan in Doctor Who from 2018 to 2022, sent a video message of support to the cast and crew alongside Thirteenth Doctor actress Jodie Whittaker. Peter Purves and Edward de Souza visited the set, and the former used his social media platforms to publicise the production. Janette Rawstron, the recreation's lead make-up artist who taught Media Make-Up at the nearby Accrington and Rossendale College, considered Malpha the biggest challenge, as the heat of the lighting caused parts of the make-up to shift around. For the jungle set, Ireland borrowed a technique used in the 1982 Doctor Who serial Kinda, spreading foliage across the studio floor; these were required to be moved to the side for the Daleks to move. Foliage and pot plants were sourced from around the university and from productions like Coronation Street. Nicholas Briggs portrayed the Daleks in the recreation; he and Ireland met in 2013. Briggs felt the Dalek voices in "Mission to the Unknown" and The Daleks' Master Plan sounded "a bit more like" actors Hawkins and Graham than the Daleks; he adjusted his ring modulator to avoid this, but attempted to recreate the original voices as closely as possible. James Burgess operated the Daleks and, alongside his father Mike, provided a blue-and-silver Dalek for use. In the recreation, Marco Simioni played Marc Cory, Dan Gilligan played Lowery, Jacob Marrison played Garvey, and Paul Stenton played Malpha. The Dalek set was used in one scene in the original episode, and later returned for use throughout The Daleks' Master Plan; however, due to the set's complexity and infrequent usage, the recreation uses models instead, with full-size close-ups for shots of the Daleks. The model shots were filmed some weeks after main production. ### Release and reception The recreation premiered on the Doctor Who YouTube channel on 9 October 2019 at 5:50 p.m., exactly 54 years after the episode's original broadcast. A behind-the-scenes documentary about the recreation, created by YouTuber Josh Snares, was released on YouTube. The Guardian's Martin Belam described the recreation as "effective", praising the Varga plants and Dalek death effect, but noted the source material itself was "a bit stilted, stagey and even slapstick at points", calling it "an interesting curiosity rather than a 'must see'". Erik Amaya of Comicon.com similarly felt the dated techniques "make the 25-minute story feel slower than it actually is" but this was "the whole point of the project", lauding the accuracy of the recreation. The episode was awarded a Special Jury Prize at the Learning on Screen Awards in 2020.
9,552,309	The Fighting Irish	1,122,883,407	null	[ "2007 American television episodes", "30 Rock (season 1) episodes" ]	"The Fighting Irish" is the seventeenth episode of NBC's first season of 30 Rock. It was written by one of the season's co-executive producers, Jack Burditt, and it was directed by Dennie Gordon. It aired on March 8, 2007, in the United States. Guest stars who appear in this episode are Dan Bakkedahl, Katrina Bowden, Anna Chlumsky, Siobhan Fallon Hogan, Nathan Lane, Boris McGiver, Brian Murray, Maulik Pancholy, Lonny Ross, Molly Shannon, Jason Sudeikis and Kristen Sudeikis. The episode features the appearance of Jack Donaghy's (Alec Baldwin) brother, Eddie Donaghy (Nathan Lane), who visits Jack claiming that their father (Brian Murray) is dead. Jack also tells Liz Lemon (Tina Fey) that she has to fire ten percent of her staff. Liz struggles with this task until she meets Floyd's girlfriend, Liz Lemler (Chlumsky), who works in the accounting department at TGS with Tracy Jordan. ## Plot Jack's down-and-out brother, Eddie, pays him a visit claiming that their father is dead. Jack and Eddie, after feuding, later bond and even decide to invite their sisters (Molly Shannon and Siobhan Fallon Hogan) and brother-in-law (Boris McGiver) to 30 Rock for an impromptu family reunion. As his family are about to watch a taping of TGS, Jack's supposedly dead father visits Jack in his office, claiming that Eddie is dead. It is soon revealed that Eddie and his father pretended to be dead in conflicting plans to scam the entirety of 30 Rock. This eventually leads the family confronting each other live on the TGS stage and Liz getting knocked out by one of Jack's sisters, further resulting in a brawl. Meanwhile, Liz has been told by Jack that she has to fire ten percent of her staff. While the staff try their best to keep their jobs, Liz struggles with making a decision of whom to fire. Liz's problem is solved when Floyd, for whom Liz has romantic feelings, tells her that his girlfriend works in accounting at TGS. Liz meets with Floyd's girlfriend to gain leverage, leading her to discover that the other Liz seeks commitment with Floyd. Enraged, Liz promptly fires her then goes on a rampage around 30 Rock firing people, including her producer Pete Hornberger (Scott Adsit), who disagrees with her decision to fire Floyd's girlfriend for her own personal gain along with the entire accounting department who attempt to stick up for their fired colleague. Jack later tells her that he hired all the fired people back, but he is transferring Floyd's girlfriend to General Electric headquarters in Fairfield, Connecticut. Tracy Jordan (Tracy Morgan) has been told by his lawyer that he should join a religion. He asks advice of people including Liz and Jack, going as far as attending church with Kenneth Parcell (Jack McBrayer). When Eddie explains Irish Catholicism to Tracy, emphasizing the seeming free ride aspect of confession, he decides that this is the religion he was looking for and joins. He changes his mind after learning about the "constant, crushing guilt" from Jack. ## Production Jason Sudeikis, Molly Shannon and Siobhan Fallon Hogan, who play Floyd, Katherine Catherine and Patrica in this episode, have all appeared in the main cast of Saturday Night Live, a weekly sketch comedy series which airs on NBC in the United States. Kristen Sudeikis, the sister of Jason Sudeikis, appears in this episode as an "advanced hip-hop groove" gym class instructor. Kristen Sudeikis is a professional choreographer. Judah Friedlander, who portrays Frank Rossitano on the show, is known for his trademark trucker hats which he wears in and out of the Frank character. The hats normally have short words or phrases glued onto them. Friedlander has stated that he makes the hats himself. He has also said that "some are in-jokes, and some are just flat out jokes." The idea came from Friedlander's stand-up persona in which his hats are all printed with "world champion" in different languages in different appearances. In this episode, Frank wears an "extra-flashy 'Liz Rocks' hat" to try to persuade Liz not to fire him. This episode is the third episode written by Jack Burditt after "Jack Meets Dennis" and "The Baby Show". Also, this is the first episode directed by Dennie Gordon. ## Reception In the U.S., this episode was viewed by 5.2 million viewers and received a rating of 2.5/6 in the key adults 18–49 demographic according to the Nielsen ratings system. The 2.5 refers to 2.5% of all 18- to 49-year-olds, and the 6 refers to 6% of all 18- to 49-year-olds watching television at the time of the broadcast. Robert Canning of IGN wrote that "while the episode was fun, there just weren't as many of the laugh-out-loud moments that have made recent episode so memorable." Matt Webb Mitovich of TV Guide wrote that "something about this week's episode, in which Liz claimed power, Jack found family and Tracy sought religion (a subplot deserving of far greater screen time), just wasn't clicking for [him]." Julia Ward of AOL's TV Squad thought that "this episode didn't reach the farcical highs of 'Black Tie'. It was more standard sitcom fare than goofy bliss, but it wasn't bad."
58,596,856	German torpedo boat T31	1,122,102,063	German torpedo boat	[ "1943 ships", "Maritime incidents in June 1944", "Ships built by Schichau", "Ships built in Elbing", "Type 39 torpedo boats", "World War II shipwrecks in the Baltic Sea" ]	The German torpedo boat T31 was one of fifteen Type 39 torpedo boats built for the Kriegsmarine (German Navy) during World War II. Completed in early 1944, the boat was assigned to convoy escort duties and supporting German forces in the Baltic. She was sunk in combat with Soviet motor torpedo boats on 20 June off the Finnish coast on 20 June with 82 men killed. ## Design and description The Type 39 torpedo boat was conceived as a general-purpose design, much larger than preceding German torpedo boats. The boats had an overall length of 102.5 meters (336 ft 3 in) and were 97 meters (318 ft 3 in) long at the waterline. They had a beam of 10 meters (32 ft 10 in), a draft of 3.22 meters (10 ft 7 in) at deep load and displaced 1,294 metric tons (1,274 long tons) at standard load and 1,754 metric tons (1,726 long tons) at deep load. Their crew numbered 206 officers and sailors. The Type 39s were fitted with a pair of geared steam turbine sets, each driving one propeller, using steam from four high-pressure water-tube boilers. The turbines were designed to produce 32,000 shaft horsepower (24,000 kW) which was intended give the ships a maximum speed of 33.5 knots (62.0 km/h; 38.6 mph). They carried enough fuel oil to give them a range of 2,400 nautical miles (4,400 km; 2,800 mi) at 19 knots (35 km/h; 22 mph). As built, the Type 39 ships mounted four 10.5 cm (4.1 in) SK C/32 guns in single mounts protected by gun shields; one forward of the superstructure, one between the funnels, and two aft, one superfiring over the other. Anti-aircraft defense was provided by four 3.7 cm (1.5 in) SK C/30 AA guns in two twin-gun mounts on platforms abaft the rear funnel and a dozen 2 cm (0.8 in) C/38 guns. One quadruple mount was positioned on the aft superstructure and two more were fitted on the bridge wings. They carried six above-water 533 mm (21 in) torpedo tubes in two triple mounts amidships and could also carry 30 mines; the full complement of 60 mines made the ships top-heavy which could be dangerous in bad weather. For anti-submarine work the boats were fitted with a S-Gerät sonar and four depth charge launchers. The Type 39s were equipped with a FuMO 21 radar and various FumB radar detectors were installed late in the war. ## Construction and career T31 was ordered on 20 January 1941 from Schichau, laid down at their Elbing, East Prussia, shipyard as yard number 1513, launched in 1943 and commissioned on 5 February 1944. After working up, T31 and her sister T30 were tasked to support Finnish forces in Vyborg Bay and Koivisto Sound during the Vyborg–Petrozavodsk Offensive. On 20 June they engaged Soviet motor torpedo boats and claimed 3–5 boats sunk, but T31 was sunk by a torpedo from TKA37 at off Nerva (or Narvi) island, with the loss of 82 crewmen.
23,516,172	1755 Cape Ann earthquake	1,172,473,566	Magnitude 6 earthquake (November 18, 1755) off the coast of Massachusetts	[ "1750s earthquakes", "1755 in the Province of Massachusetts Bay", "1755 in the Thirteen Colonies", "1755 natural disasters", "18th-century tsunamis", "Earthquakes in Canada", "Earthquakes in the United States", "Natural disasters in Massachusetts", "Pre-statehood history of Massachusetts", "Tsunamis in the United States" ]	The 1755 Cape Ann earthquake took place off the coast of the British Province of Massachusetts Bay (present-day Massachusetts) on November 18. At between 6.0 and 6.3 on the Richter scale, it remains the largest earthquake in the history of Massachusetts. No one was killed, but it damaged hundreds of buildings in Boston and was felt as far north as Nova Scotia and as far south as South Carolina. Sailors on a ship more than 200 miles (320 km) offshore felt the quake, and mistook it at first for their ship running aground. Many residents of Boston and the surrounding areas attributed the quake to God, and it occasioned a brief increase in religious fervor in the city. Modern studies estimate that if a similar quake shook Boston today, it would result in as much as \$5 billion in damage and hundreds of deaths. Some discussion has revolved around the idea that this may have been a remotely triggered event from the 1755 Lisbon earthquake or its aftershocks. ## Epicenter The earthquake took place on November 18, 1755, at approximately 4:30 AM local time. Future President of the United States John Adams, then staying at his father's house in Braintree, Massachusetts, was awakened by the quake, which impressed him so much that he began a diary that night. He wrote that the quake "continued near four minutes" and that "[t]he house seemed to rock and reel and crack as if it would fall in ruins about us." Its epicenter is believed to have been offshore, approximately 24 miles (39 km) east of Cape Ann. The quake was felt as far north as Halifax, Nova Scotia, south to the Chesapeake Bay and South Carolina, and from Lake George and Lake Champlain in the northwest to a ship 200 miles (320 km) off the east coast. Sailors on the ship reported that the quake was so strong, they had feared that they had run aground. The region experienced several aftershocks, the first of which was a little more than an hour after the quake. Most of these aftershocks could not be felt in Boston, affecting only the northeastern coast of the colony. Modern research has estimated that the quake was between 6.0 and 6.3 on the Richter scale, and the United States Geological Survey lists it as the largest earthquake in the history of Massachusetts. Scientists are unclear on the causes of this and other quakes in the northeastern United States. There are a number of old faults in the region, but none of them is known still to be active. It is possible that the Cape Ann earthquake may have been remotely triggered by a larger earthquake in Lisbon, Portugal, a few weeks prior, although there is not enough evidence to prove that they are linked. ## Damage Boston and Cape Ann were the most heavily damaged. In Boston, damage was concentrated in areas of infill near the harbor; infill is less sturdy in earthquakes than solid land. From 1,300 to 1,600 chimneys in the city were damaged in some way, the gable ends of some houses collapsed, and a number of roofs were damaged by falling chimneys. Stone chimneys and buildings were damaged in Falmouth (present-day Portland, Maine), Springfield, Massachusetts, and New Haven, Connecticut, as well. Some church steeples in Boston were damaged, ending up tilted from vertical. Stone fencing in rural areas was damaged. Observers also reported that several springs dried up, new ones were created, and cracks appeared in the ground near Scituate, Lancaster, and Pembroke. In this last town, observers noted water and fine sand coming from the crack. Non-structural damage was minor; residents reported damage to china and glassware, and a distiller lost some of his product after a cistern was damaged. The Cape Ann earthquake may also have created the first recorded tsunami in U.S. history. Observers in the Leeward Islands nearly 1,000 miles (1,600 km) south of Cape Ann, reported a receding of water followed by a large wave that lifted several boats ashore and left fish floundering on the beach. ## Legacy Many Massachusetts residents of the time perceived the quake as punishment from God for immoral behavior. In the days after the earthquake, special prayer services were held and civic authorities declared fast days. A number of sermons and other writings were published as a consequence, including Jeremiah Newland's Verses Occasioned by the Earthquakes in the Month of November, 1755 and Thomas Prince's Earthquakes the Works of God and Tokens of his Just Displeasure. Well before 1755, the new rational materialist ideas promulgated by Enlightenment scientists had begun to heavily influence the better-educated citizens of colonial America; therefore not all explanations of the event were theological. John Winthrop, a Harvard professor, proposed an alternate explanation having to do with heat and chemical vapors inside the surface of the earth. John Adams, in comments in the margins of Winthrop’s Lecture on Earthquakes wrote: > "I am not able to satisfy myself, whether the very general if not universal apprehension that Thunder, Earthquakes, Pestilence, Famine &c. are designed merely as Punishments of sins and Warnings to forsake, is natural to Mankind, or whether it was artfully propagated, or whether it was derived from Revelation. An Imagination that those Things are of no Use in Nature but to punish and alarm and arouse sinners, could not be derived from real Revelation, because it is far from being true, tho few Persons can be persuaded to think so." Since the 1755 earthquake, Boston and its surrounding towns have become a major metropolitan area. Much new construction has been built on infill, especially in the Back Bay area, which may be prone to greater shaking and to compaction of the sand and gravel used as fill. Many older buildings in the Boston area are built from stone and brick, and are likely to collapse completely during a major earthquake. Given this, modern observers have expressed concern about the effects of another quake in such a major city. A 1990 study by the Massachusetts Emergency Management Agency estimated potential financial losses at between \$4 billion and \$5 billion, and potential loss of life in the hundreds. As a consequence, the state has updated building codes and zoning laws to require that new construction and additions in vulnerable areas be built to resist earthquakes. ## See also - 1755 Lisbon earthquake - List of earthquakes in the United States - List of historical earthquakes
4,109,668	Jurassic Park (song)	1,128,002,116	1993 song by "Weird Al" Yankovic	[ "\"Weird Al\" Yankovic songs", "1993 singles", "1993 songs", "Music videos directed by Mark Osborne", "Scotti Brothers Records singles", "Songs about dinosaurs", "Songs with lyrics by \"Weird Al\" Yankovic", "Songs written by Jimmy Webb", "Stop-motion animated music videos", "Works based on Jurassic Park" ]	"Jurassic Park" is a parody of Richard Harris's version of Jimmy Webb's song "MacArthur Park", written and performed by "Weird Al" Yankovic; it was released both as a single and as part of Yankovic's Alapalooza album in October 1993. "Jurassic Park" was penned by Yankovic after he remembered the enjoyment he had when he combined a classic rock track with a recent movie theme with his 1985 song "Yoda". Yankovic decided to combine the plot of the recent movie Jurassic Park—a film about a park on a fictional island where geneticists have succeeded in cloning dinosaurs—with the classic Richard Harris track "MacArthur Park". The song was paired with an elaborately animated music video, which was created by Mark Osborne and Scott Nordlund almost entirely via claymation. The video did not receive extensive play on MTV, although it was popular on The Box, VH1, and in Canada, where it was played on MuchMusic. The video, due to its animation, also later went on to be praised at various animation festivals worldwide. "Jurassic Park" was met with mixed to positive reviews; while many reviewers enjoyed Yankovic's humor, others felt that the song did not satirize the source material, but instead merely recounted the plot to the movie. Webb himself was very pleased with the final result and has been known to sing the parody lyrics in concert. Although the single did not chart in the United States, it peaked at number 5 on the Canadian magazine The Record's single chart. The video was also nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Short Form Music Video at the 37th Grammy Awards, although it did not win. ## Writing Yankovic was inspired to write the song after he heard The Kinks' song "Lola" while driving in his car one day, noting, "I was driving a rent-a-car through Florida when the song 'Lola' came on the radio, and it got me thinking about how much fun I had doing 'Yoda' [a song from 1985's Dare to Be Stupid] where I took a then-current topic and combined it with a classic rock tune." He soon turned his attention to the then-recently-released film Jurassic Park, based on the eponymous 1990 novel by Michael Crichton, which involved a group of scientists visiting the titular park located on the fictional island of Isla Nublar, where geneticists have successfully created genetically-engineered dinosaurs. Deciding to write a parody about the movie, he considered various songs to spoof, eventually deciding on the 1968 hit single "MacArthur Park", which was performed by Richard Harris. Yankovic approached the original song's writer, Jimmy Webb, who agreed to the idea and was so amused by the parody that he later penned a letter to Yankovic that read, "Well, [this parody] oughta [sic] bury that song once and for all!" Additionally, Crichton and director Steven Spielberg permitted Yankovic to produce the track. ## Recording and lyrics Yankovic entered the studio to record "Jurassic Park" on July 16, 1993. Backing Yankovic were Jon "Bermuda" Schwartz on drums, Steve Jay on bass, and Jim West on guitar. "MacArthur Park" contained an actual orchestra complete with a strings section. "Jurassic Park", however, features synth strings courtesy of keyboardist Brad Buxer, who programmed the section himself. Intermixed during the interlude are various dinosaur sound effects courtesy of Sandy Berman; Berman had previously created similar sounds for a theme park attraction, and loaned Yankovic the sound effects. At 3:53 in length, the song is considerably shorter than the original, which clocks in at 7:21. Largely, this is due to the fact that the middle section featured in the original—the so called "After the Loves of My Life" section—is omitted from Yankovic's parody. The song itself recounts both the plot of the movie, and contains various in-jokes and references therein. One line about lawyers—"A huge tyrannosaurus ate our lawyer / Well, I suppose that proves they're really not all bad"—was deliberately placed in the song to be ambiguous, as it could either be referring to lawyers or dinosaurs as being "not all bad". The song also makes various pop culture references, mentioning both E tickets and Barney. ## Music video When it came time for a video for "Jurassic Park", Yankovic opted to use stop-motion and claymation; he joked during a Q&A that this was because "it's just too hard to find real live dinosaurs these days." "Jurassic Park" was Yankovic's first video that was entirely animated—previous videos, such as "Money for Nothing/Beverly Hillbillies" and "Dare to Be Stupid" had featured elements of animation. The video was directed by Mark Osborne and Scott Nordlund. Yankovic initially heard of the duo from Bill Manspeaker, the lead singer of the comedy rock band Green Jellÿ. After being hired for the project, the two "basically turned a private residence in Los Angeles into a clay animation studio." The two worked between July and August 1993, and slept in shifts, so that the final project would be ready for its release in October 1993. Yankovic remained hands-off in its creation, allowing the two full creative freedom for the video. One critic noted that the music video seems to have been done in the style of Will Vinton's Dinosaur! A Fun-Filled Trip Back in Time! The video parodies scenes from, as well as the general plot of, the 1993 movie, and contains a myriad of sight-gags—as is usual for Yankovic's videos—such as a claymation version of Steven Spielberg running from dinosaurs, Barney having his head bitten off, and a Velociraptor attempting to break down a door, only to realize it has a key. ## Release ### Reception "Jurassic Park" was released as the lead single from Yankovic's 1993 album Alapalooza. The single did not chart in the United States, but it sold well in Canada, where it peaked at number 5 on the Canadian magazine The Record's single chart. The video for "Jurassic Park" received light rotation on MTV. Yankovic later explained in an interview that "[MTV] played it a few times, and then just yanked it, because it wasn't really part of their sound." In contrast, the single was a success on The Box and they played it "incessantly". Furthermore, in Canada, the song was a massive success on MuchMusic, making Alapalooza Yankovic's best selling album in Canada, with over 200,000 units sold, according to Music Canada. However, the video was played and remained popular on VH1 well after its release; it ranked within the Top 50 Most-Played Clips during the months of August and September 1999, according to Billboard magazine. The video for "Jurassic Park" was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Short Form Music Video at the 37th Grammy Awards, but lost to the video for "Love Is Strong" by The Rolling Stones. Nonetheless, it received attention in animation festivals worldwide for its use of claymation effects. Jimmy Webb was particularly pleased with the finished product. According to Yankovic, several times during different concerts in New York and Los Angeles that Yankovic was in attendance, Webb would start to perform the original, feign forgetting the words, and then invite Yankovic on stage to help him sing "Jurassic Park" instead. For a Christmas present one year, Webb even sent Yankovic a rubber dinosaur mask as a joke. Yankovic later noted that Webb "was the coolest". Yankovic referred to the song during his Rifftrax commentary for Jurassic Park, declaring, "Jurassic Park in the light? Not so frightening." ### Reviews Chris Hicks of the Deseret News called the single "absolutely hilarious", and rhetorically asked "who else would think of adapting that ridiculously popular movie's themes to new lyrics for Jimmy Webb's classic ditty 'MacArthur Park'?" Hicks felt that the song's funniest moments involved the jokes revolving around lawyers and the mention of Barney. Amanda Cohen of the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette wrote that it combined "the schlock of the original song with schtick about the dinosaur movie" and proved that "Yankovic is as funny as ever". Furthermore, she noted that it was evidence that "his voice improves with every new release". In a review of the Spike and Mike's Festival of Animation, Arthur Salm called the piece a "knockout" and praised the humor, specifically highlighting the claymation cameo of Steven Spielberg and the "goofy velociraptor" from the opening of the video. Some critics felt that the song did not satirize the source material, but instead merely regurgitated the plot to Jurassic Park. Entertainment Weekly referred to the claymation video for the "Jurassic Park" as "clever but toothless". The magazine argued that Yankovic's parody did not lampoon the original material, but instead transposed new elements on top of them. Rob Owen of Richmond Times-Dispatch wrote that the song "does nothing but recount the plot of the hit movie" and that "dinosaurs don't lend themselves to music". ## Track listing CD single 1. "Jurassic Park" – 3:53 2. "Frank's 2000" TV" – 4:04 ## Credits and personnel - "Weird" Al Yankovic – vocals, background vocals, keyboards, production, arrangement - Jim West – guitar - Steve Jay – bass guitar - Jon "Bermuda" Schwartz – drums, tambourine, cymbals and timpani - Brad Buxer – keyboards, synthetic orchestration - Sandy Berman – dinosaur growls - Tony Papa – engineering ## Charts ## See also - List of singles by "Weird Al" Yankovic - List of songs by "Weird Al" Yankovic
73,065,568	Seongsu Bridge disaster	1,170,150,984	1994 bridge collapse in Seoul, South Korea	[ "1990s in Seoul", "1994 disasters in South Korea", "1994 in South Korea", "1994 road incidents", "Bridge disasters caused by construction error", "Bridge disasters in South Korea", "Buildings and structures demolished in 1994", "Buildings and structures demolished in 1996", "Collapsed buildings and structures", "Corporate scandals", "Disasters in Seoul", "Gangnam District", "History of Seoul", "History of South Korea", "Man-made disasters in South Korea", "October 1994 events in Asia", "Seongdong District", "Transport disasters in South Korea" ]	The Seongsu Bridge disaster occurred on the morning of October 21, 1994, when a section of the upper truss of the Seongsu Bridge collapsed onto the Han River in Seoul, South Korea, killing 32 people and injuring 17 others. A combination of faulty welding, rusted extension hinges, and insufficient maintenance resulted in the structural failure of the bridge. The collapse was part of a string of disasters during the modernization of South Korea, including the fire of a sightseeing boat, the sinking of MV Seohae, the crash of Asiana Airlines Flight 733, the Gupo Station rail accident, the 1995 Daegu gas explosions, and the Sampoong Department Store collapse. Seventeen Seoul Metropolitan Government, Dongbu Corporation, and Dong Ah Construction [ko] officials were convicted in connection to the collapse. The Mayor of Seoul Lee Won-jong [ko] and his successor Woo Myoung-kyu [ko] both resigned in response to the disaster. On November 10, 2000, the Dong Ah Group, the parent company of Dong Ah Construction, filed for bankruptcy and the company dissolved on May 11, 2001. ## Background Construction for the Seongsu Bridge began on April 9, 1977, and was completed on October 15, 1979, by the Dong Ah Construction Industrial Company [ko] at a cost of 11.58 billion won (equivalent to ₩ billion in ). At the time, foreign firms were excluded from construction contracts, stretching thin domestic construction companies who faced increasing demand as a result of military dictator Park Chung Hee's development plan south of the Han River. The cantilever bridge had four lanes of traffic, a width of 19.4 m (64 ft), and spanned 1,160 m (3,810 ft). The speed limit on the bridge was 60 km/h (37 mph). The bridge was praised for its focus on its aesthetics in addition to functional considerations, setting it apart from other bridges built at the time. The bridge became the 11th bridge constructed over the Han River and alleviated traffic on the nearby Yeongdong and Hannam bridges. Two years earlier, the Second Haengju Bridge collapsed during construction with no casualties. Later that year, the Changseon Bridge [ko] () in Namhae, South Gyeongsang Province, would collapse under similar circumstances as the Seongsu Bridge. At the time, bids for construction projects frequently went to companies that promised the fastest construction, incentivizing cheap and rushed construction at the expense of safety. Dong Ah Construction's bid for the Seongsu Bridge's construction contract was half the price of its expected cost at the time. The rushed construction of the bridge was attributed as a negative consequence of South Korea's ppalli ppalli () culture. The Seongsu Bridge linked the Seongdong District north of the river to the southern Gangnam District and was one of the busiest bridges in Seoul. Following the development of the Gangnam region, the number of vehicles using the bridge increased exponentially to 160,000 vehicles per day. The bridge connected to the Seoul Olympic Highway to the south. During the 15 years from its construction to its collapse, the Seongsu Bridge had never been subject to a detailed inspection because it was less than 20 years old and inspections had focused solely on aging structures. ## Collapse On October 20, 1994, at 9:30 p.m. KST the evening before the collapse, workers for the Seoul Metropolitan Government laid a small steel plate onto a seam on the bridge, 50 m (160 ft) away from the site of the eventual collapse, to cover up a large gap that had formed at the joint. Repairs for the bridge had been scheduled for that day but were postponed due to bad weather. On Friday, October 21, at 6:00 a.m., drivers filed a report after seeing cracks in the bridge, but the city government dismissed the reports, saying that the crack had been repaired through the installation of the steel plate. At 7:38 a.m., during the beginning of the morning rush hour, a 48 m (157 ft) span on the north side of the Seongsu Bridge suddenly gave way into the Han River 20 m (66 ft) below. Survivors of the collapse compared the sound of the collapse to thunder. Traffic was flowing at a speed of 40 km/h (25 mph), and a total of six vehicles were involved in the incident, including a police van and a commuter bus carrying 31 occupants. The police van carried 11 police and auxiliary police officers, that were selected as model officers for Police Day [ko] celebrations that day. Heavy rain the night before the collapse reportedly reduced the number of vehicles on the road at the time. The collapse sent two cars and the police van down with the bridge, while an additional two cars fell into the river. The Number 16 bus operated by the Hansung Transporation Company [ko] was traveling North from Seoul Grand Park to Beon-dong and had nearly crossed the span when the bridge collapsed. The collapse caused the rear of the bus to tilt over backwards and plummet onto its roof, crumpling to half its size. ### Victims Thirty-two people were killed in the disaster including 29 victims on the Number 16 bus, which held 31 people when it fell. Among the dead were the bus driver and nine students from the Muhak Girls' High School [ko] and the Muhak Girls' Middle School [ko] in the Haengdang neighborhood of Seongdong District. Two of the victims on the bus survived the fall, but died waiting for first responders. The victims were treated at six hospitals, including the National Police Hospital [ko], while the 32 dead were enshrined at 15 hospitals throughout Seoul. Among the victims was 40-year-old Adele Aida, an undocumented immigrant from the Philippines, who was traveling to a meeting of Filipinos in Korea. Initial reports incorrectly reported over 40 deaths after police either mistakenly combined the list of the dead and the injured or doubled the number of deaths. ### Rescue The 11 police and auxiliary officers in the police van that fell with the bridge became the first to respond to the disaster. The officers quickly undressed and used their clothes to tie a rope and warm other victims of the disaster, saving a total of 10 drowning people. First responders arrived more than 20 minutes after the collapse, and rescue operations began at 8:10 a.m. KST. The late response of the first responders drew public ire and was the result of call center employees mistaking emergency calls for prank calls. These rescue operations were carried out by 30 officers and members of the Seoul Metropolitan Police and the Han River Patrol () and consisted of two helicopters, three barges and 10 yawls. At 9:40 a.m., 20 divers from the Sea Salvage & Rescue Unit [ko] of the Korean Navy arrived at the scene to recover bodies from the river. In response to the collapse, a total of 1,500 people were mobilized from the Seoul Metropolitan Police Agency, the Korean Armed Forces, and the Seoul Metropolitan Fire Service. The rescue team included 150 underwater exploration special forces from the fire service. Rescue efforts were hampered by rain, tides, and heavy traffic. ## Investigation Officials initially stated that they believed the collapse occurred as a result of long-term excessive load on the bridge, culminating in the fracture of a rusted connection hinge. Overloaded vehicles carrying loads greater than their maximum capacity were regularly passing through the bridge. This led to a crackdown on overloaded vehicles over the Hangang Bridge out of fear of a similar collapse. Investigations by the Korean Broadcasting System the next day found that the Seongsu Bridge, along with the Dongho Bridge and the Hangang Bridge, suffered from rushed construction, noting that severely rusted steel on the bridges had been painted over, bolts were missing from the bridges, and segments of the bridges were only welded on the outside. Following the collapse, it was also revealed that the Seoul Metropolitan Government had planned to expand the bridge from four to five lanes through a reversible lane. On June 30, 1995, the Seoul District Prosecutors' Office, in collaboration with the Korean Society of Civil Engineers (), would release the conclusions of their investigation in a white paper. The white paper concluded that the primary cause of the collapse was the poor welding of the bridge and manufacturing defects in the pins connecting the vertical trusses of the bridge. Radiographic testing carried out following the collapse found that 110 out of the 111 connections in the bridge were filled with defects and that welds often only penetrated 2 to 8mm when the beams were 18mm thick. At the time, due to the lack of domestic technical skills in steel plate welding, Dong Ah Construction hired a Zainichi Korean to manage the Bupyeo steel factory (). However, when his insistence on inspecting the welds led to delays, he was fired. The white paper would further conclude that the Seoul Metropolitan Government and the Dongbu Corporation had failed to maintain the bridge, and even visual inspections and basic repairs had not been carried out. Despite being designed for loads no heavier than 36.3 tons, the bridge regularly carried loads greater than 47.3 tons, resulting in the creation of fatigue cracks in the structure of the bridge. At the time, only four bridges in Seoul were built to withstand loads greater than 42 tons. In addition, the frequent use of inexperienced subcontractors, the lack of a system to monitor discrepancies in design and construction, the management of construction by non-technical officials, and rampant corruption were all listed as exacerbating factors in the collapse. Maintenance of the bridge was neglected due to limited fiscal resources, and connecting pins used in the bridge had become heavily rusted. While the white paper found no flaws in the proposed design of the bridge, as a result of the poor construction, the investigation concluded that "the risk of collapse was 100% and the collapse of the Seongsu Bridge was inevitable." The original white paper was criticized for publishing the names, genders, resident registration numbers, addresses, and occupations of the victims, omitting only the personal information of the minors and eleven police officers. In addition, the exact compensation received by each of the deceased victims' families was released in the original white paper. ## Legal proceedings Immediately following the collapse, prosecutors launched a criminal investigation into Dong Ah Construction. Four days later, prosecutors found damage reports submitted in February and April to the Seoul Metropolitan Government by the Dongbu Corporation, which was responsible for bridge maintenance and repair. These reports stated the steel girders supporting the Seongsu Bridge were in urgent need of repair and included photographs of the damage on the bridge. On October 26, prosecutors arrested the head of the city government's construction office and six other Seoul City officials for falsely reporting that the bridge was safe without performing the required daily checks. In the end, the Seoul District Prosecutor's Office's investigation would lead to 17 arrests in connection to the collapse: four Seoul Metropolitan Government officials, seven Dongbu Corporation officials, and six Dong Ah Construction officials. Prosecutors decided against arresting former mayor of Seoul Lee Won-jong [ko], stating that they did not find evidence that he was ever informed of the imminent collapse. The 17 defendants were tried collectively at the 7th Seoul Criminal District Court under Judge Kim Dong-hwan (), and proceedings began on December 15, 1994. Defendants from Dong Ah Construction were charged with criminal negligence resulting in death, injury, the obstruction of traffic, and an automobile accident. Defendants from the Seoul Metropolitan Government and the Dongbu Corporation were additionally charged with forgery of public documents, use of forged public documents, forgery of private documents, and use of forged private documents. Defendants from Dong Ah Construction argued that the five-year statute of limitations for negligent manslaughter had passed because the bridge had been built 15 years ago. However, the judge ruled that the statute of limitations for criminal negligence began on the date of the accident and not the date of construction, a decision appellate courts would later uphold. The officials testified that they were not aware of any poor construction. On April 20, 1995, the district court convicted 16 defendants while acquitting construction site manager Shin Dong-hyun (), ruling that Shin was not in a position to be aware of any defects in the welding of the bridge. Sentences varied from ten months to three years imprisonment, but were suspended by the judge who argued that the defendants had already served six months and should not be punished further for poor construction that had been carried out 15 years ago. Seoul District Prosecutors immediately appealed the decisions, and the case was taken to the Seoul Central District Court. The criminal appeal was held under Judge Han Jung-duk (). On June 11, 1997, the appeals court reversed the lower court's ruling, convicting Shin Dong-hyun and sentencing him to two years imprisonment. Former production manager of Bupyeo Steel factory Park Hyo-su () was sentenced to two years imprisonment, having previously been serving a suspended sentence of five years' probation from three years imprisonment. Yeo Yong-won (), the former director of the Dongbu Construction office in Seoul, was sentenced to one year six months imprisonment, having previously been serving a suspended sentence of four years' probation from two years imprisonment. Sentences for all other defendants were reversed to their original lengths of ten months to three years imprisonment, two to five years' probation, and fines of 5 million won each (equivalent to ₩ million in ). In December 1995, between the decision of the first court and the appeals court, an amendment to the law reduced the punishment for forging public documents to a fine. In particular, the former head of the city's road construction office Lee Shin-young () was the only defendant not convicted with negligent manslaughter. Thus, in June 1997, Lee's sentence was reduced from two years' probation, suspended from one year imprisonment, to a fine of 5 million won. The former head of the city's road maintenance office Kim Jae-seok () was sentenced to one year and six months imprisonment and three years probation. Construction supervisors for the city of Seoul Kim Seok-gi () and Lee Woo-yeon () were sentenced to one year and six months imprisonment and three years' probation while Lee was sentenced to one year imprisonment and two years' probation. Former Vice President Kim Myeong-nyeon () and public affairs manager Jang Rae-ik () of Dong Ah Construction were both sentenced to two years imprisonment and five years' probation. Technical director of Bupyeo steel factory Lee Kyu-dae () was sentenced to three years imprisonment and five years' probation. The defendants appealed the ruling, and the case was taken to the Korean Supreme Court. In South Korea, the Supreme Court can only consider appeals with regards to the law and cannot alter sentencing. Defendants argued that they were not individually responsible for the bridge collapse because no individual action had caused the bridge to collapse. Between the appeals court ruling and the Supreme Court ruling, one defendant died. On November 28, 1997, the Supreme Court upheld the convictions of all 16 defendants and accepted the lower court's ruling that the Dong Ah Construction Industrial Company was guilty of criminal negligence in its poor construction of the bridge. ## Aftermath An estimated 5,000 vehicles had to be redirected onto arterial roads, causing traffic congestion lasting until 11 p.m. that night. Following the disaster, Prime Minister Lee Yung-dug offered his resignation, but President Kim Young-sam declined, stating that changing safety measures was more important than changing people. In contrast, the resignation offer of Lee Won-jong, the Mayor of Seoul, was accepted at 7 p.m. that day. He would be replaced by Governor of North Gyeongsang Province Woo Myoung-kyu [ko] on October 31 before being replaced again by Choi Byung-ryeol 11 days later, when it was revealed that Woo had been Deputy Mayor [ko] when internal reports had questioned the safety of the bridge. Kim held a meeting with his cabinet on October 23 calling for the elimination of deficient companies from the construction industry and the revision of laws to increase the depth and breadth of inspections. The next day, Kim appeared on national television in his second official apology of his term. In his address, he stated that the rapid development of South Korea since the 1960s had brought both positive and negative outcomes, and that his government would promise to minimize all risks to Koreans. He then apologized, stating that the disaster was the result of his own lack of virtue and that he recognized the issues in the management system brought to light by the collapse. Nevertheless, the Sampoong Department Store collapse would occur nine months later, becoming the deadliest peacetime disaster in South Korean history. The recurrence of major disasters during the Kim Young-Sam administration gave his government the popular nickname the "Disaster Republic [ko]". In response to the bridge disaster, opposition parties in the National Assembly called on members of Kim's cabinet to resign, raising motions of no confidence which were voted down. The Seoul Citizen's Day celebrations set for the week after the bridge collapse were postponed. On November 30 of that year, newspaper clippings documenting the disaster were included in the Seoul Millennium Time Capsule [ko] which marked the 600th anniversary of the capital city of Seoul. On November 10, 2000, the Dong Ah Group [ko], the parent company of Dong Ah Construction, filed for bankruptcy and dissolved six months later, on May 11, 2001. ### Compensation The Cabinet paid 4 million won (equivalent to ₩ million in ) in compensation to each of the families of the 32 people who died in the incident. In addition, the Cabinet paid for the medical expenses of the injured and compensated them in consultation with their families, with the exception of the police officers. The Temporary Workers Friendly Association of Korea () and the Lotte Welfare Foundation also provided compensation to the family of Adele Aida through the Philippine embassy. Many of those who survived the disaster have reported to have had permanent psychological trauma from the incident. ### Impact The collapse prompted the Seoul Metropolitan Government to begin a more thorough safety assessment of the 14 other bridges that crossed the Han River and into whether the Seongsu Bridge could be safely fixed. As a result of these investigations, the Dangsan Railway Bridge was closed for reconstruction on December 31, 1996, being re-opened to the public on November 22, 1999. On January 5, 1995, in response to the disaster, the Special Act on the Safety Management of Structures was passed, which expanded the frequency and scope of inspections. In July of that year, the Disaster Control Act would be passed, a response to the deadly collapses of the Seongsu Bridge and the Sampoong Department Store. Although the city government initially planned to repair and reopen the Seongsu Bridge to traffic within three months, this plan was reversed following public outcry. Starting on April 26, 1995, the remainder of the bridge was dismantled, and construction for the new bridge began in March 1996 under Hyundai Engineering & Construction. Construction for the replacement bridge would cost 78 billion won (equivalent to ₩ billion in ), about 6.8 times the original price. The new bridge was opened to the public on July 3, 1997, by Mayor Cho Soon, and a memorial was held on the bridge. ### Memorial The Memorial Stone for the Victims of the Seongsu Bridge Disaster () was erected on October 21, 1997, by the families of the Seongsu Bridge disaster victims. The memorial commemorates the victims of the disaster and aims to raise awareness on the safe management of public infrastructure. The memorial is located in the middle of Gangbyeon Expressway on the north side of the bridge, and has been criticized for its inaccessibility by foot. In August 1999, a father of a Muhak Girls' High School student who died in the Seongsu Bridge disaster died by suicide in front of the memorial. Memorials are held at the stone every year, and a 20th anniversary memorial service was held at the stone in 2014. ## In popular culture - DJ DOC's second studio album Murphy's Law [ko] (1995) contains the tracks "Breaking News" and "Seongsu Bridge" which were made in response to the disaster. - The rock band N.EX.T.'s third album, The Return of N.EX.T Part 2: World [ko] (1995), mentions the Seongsu Bridge collapse in its criticism of South Korea's development. - The Seongsu Bridge disaster was the subject of Jeong Yoon-cheol's 1997 debut short film Memorial Photographing (). - The manhwa series Yahoo [ko] (1998–2003) by Yoon Tae-ho was based on the collapse of the Seongsu Bridge. - The 2018 film House of Hummingbird revolves around the Seongsu Bridge disaster as a major plot point. ## Gallery ## See also - List of man-made disasters in South Korea - List of bridge failures - I-35W Mississippi River Bridge collapse - Daegu subway fire - Sinking of MV Sewol - 2021 Gwangju building collapse - Gwangju Hwajeong I-Park exterior wall collapse
59,052,395	Light on Yoga	1,147,686,537	1966 book on the Iyengar Yoga style of modern yoga as exercise	[ "1966 non-fiction books", "Modern yoga books" ]	Light on Yoga: Yoga Dipika (Sanskrit: योग दीपिका, "Yoga Dīpikā") is a 1966 book on the Iyengar Yoga style of modern yoga as exercise by B. K. S. Iyengar, first published in English. It describes more than 200 yoga postures or asanas, and is illustrated with some 600 monochrome photographs of Iyengar demonstrating these. The book has been described as the 'bible of modern yoga', and its presentation of the asanas has been called "unprecedented" and "encyclopedic". It has been translated into at least 23 languages and has sold over three million copies. ## Context Yoga is a group of physical, mental, and spiritual practices from ancient India, forming one of the six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophical traditions. In the Western world, however, yoga is often taken to mean a modern form of medieval Hatha yoga, practised mainly for exercise, consisting largely of the postures called asanas. B. K. S. Iyengar (1918-2014) was born in a poor family of Brahmins in Karnataka, India. In childhood he suffered from diseases including typhoid, malaria and tuberculosis, and became extremely stiff. At the age of 18 he decided to spend his life doing yoga, and by 1938 he was already performing the asanas fluently. The violinist Yehudi Menuhin became his pupil in 1952 and then invited him to teach in Europe, which he did from the 1960s. Iyengar made yoga popular, first in India and then around the world. ## Book ### Publication Light on Yoga was first published in English by George Allen and Unwin in 1966, with a foreword by his pupil, the violinist Yehudi Menuhin. Revised editions were brought out in 1968 and 1976. A paperback edition was published by The Aquarian Press in 1991 under the Thorsons imprint. The book became an international best-seller; it has been translated into at least 23 languages including Chinese, Czech, Hebrew, Japanese, Hungarian, Portuguese, Russian, and Thai and has sold over three million copies. ### Contents The book has three parts: a technical introduction to yoga, in which hatha yoga is explained to be one of the eight limbs of yoga; a detailed illustrated description of the asanas (some 200 postures, illustrated by some 600 monochrome photographs of Iyengar), followed by a brief account of the bandhas and kriyas; and an account of pranayama, yoga breathing. An appendix defines a set of asana courses, i.e. which postures to do each week, building up in difficulty, in courses structured to last up to 300 weeks. A second appendix defines the asanas supposed to be "curative" for a range of diseases and conditions from "Acidity" to "Varicose Veins". The book has a glossary of all the Sanskrit terms employed. ### Approach Each asana is named in Sanskrit with its etymology, graded, and described separately with two or more pages of text and monochrome photographs of Iyengar. For example, Utthita Trikonasana, the extended triangle pose, is stated to be at grade 3 out of a possible 60 in terms of difficulty. The technique for going into the triangle pose, performing it, and returning from it, is described in eight steps. The technique is written as a set of instructions, such as "Inhale deeply and with a jump spread apart the legs sideways 3 to 31⁄2 feet". Its claimed effects on the muscles and body are described in a concluding paragraph. The three photographs show Iyengar in a preparatory pose and then in the triangle pose itself from front and rear. ### Illustrations The scholar-practitioner Norman Sjoman notes that Light on Yoga served to popularise the practice of asanas more than any previous book for three reasons, namely the large number of asanas illustrated, the "clear no-nonsense descriptions, and the obvious refinement of the illustrations." The approximately 600 illustrations of the 200 asanas are all monochrome photographs (though many paperback editions have a later colour photograph on the cover). Within the confines of a conventionally sized book, the photographs are never more than about 3 inches (7.6 cm) by 2 inches (5.1 cm). All are of Iyengar, dressed only in a pair of briefs and a necklace string. The images are sometimes shown three (e.g. for Koundinyasana) or four (e.g. for Mulabandhasana) to a page, generally and in those cases illustrating a single asana. The degree of attention to detail in the illustrations may be understood from the coverage of one asana, Sarvangasana (Shoulder Stand), which is illustrated with 15 photographs of the main pose, and 37 more of the "Sarvangasana cycle". ## Reception Light on Yoga has become known as the "bible" of yoga; Publishers Weekly wrote that it "set the standard" for books about yoga, with instructions and illustrations of the poses. The yoga scholar Mark Singleton, writing in Yoga Journal, called the presentation of the asanas "unprecedented" and "encyclopedic", describing Light on Yoga as "the most influential do-it-yourself yoga book of all time". Yehudi Menuhin, in his foreword to the book, wrote that "Whoever has had the privilege of receiving Mr Iyengar's attention, or of witnessing the precision, refinement and beauty of his art, is introduced to that vision of perfection and innocence which is man as first created — unarmed, unashamed, son of God, lord of creation — in the Garden of Eden". The scholar of religion Andrea Jain observes that the book "prescribed a thoroughly individualistic system of postural yoga", one that was "rigorous and disciplined", requiring "belts, bricks, and ropes". She quotes Elizabeth De Michelis as writing that it "instantly became the global standard reference on modern yoga as a body practice." Jain argues that Light on Yoga had the particular attraction for a consumer audience that its clear stepwise instructions enabled them to practice at home, and to read about the "biomedical explanations of each posture and its fitness and health benefits." Jain notes also that the book built up the Iyengar Yoga brand by claiming a connection to the ancient tradition of yoga as far back as Patanjali's Yoga Sutras, for instance with the epigraphic prayer to Patanjali at the front of the book. Michelle Goldberg, in The New Yorker, states that the book "remains unparallelled as a guide to asana practice", and quotes Yoga Journal as saying "when 'teachers refer to the correct way to do a posture, they're usually alluding to the alignment Mr. Iyengar instructs and expertly models in his book.'" She notes that while Iyengar attributes the asanas to Patanjali's Yoga Sutras, he was being "too modest. It was he, not any ancient sage, who figured out how to show people the world over the safest way to stand on their heads." For example, she explains, the triangle pose and the sun salutation "don't appear in any ancient yogic text" but were put together into a method by Iyengar's brother-in-law and first teacher, Krishnamacharya. Derek Beres, writing in Big Think, called the book "wildly popular" and "essentially the bible for yoga practitioners." He describes some of the science that Iyengar claims for yoga as suspect: "Iyengar had a habit of calling things proven even though no actual scientific research had been conducted." Beres tried Iyengar yoga alongside the "more aerobic Vinyasa" style, and "always appreciated [Iyengar yoga's] anatomical focus and the emphasis on breath before anything else." The yoga teacher Bernie Gourley notes the book's strengths, the asanas "with his perfect alignment", but also that the book does not "systematically address contraindications" to each asana, nor does it provide evidence for the claimed benefits. The Light on Yoga project by the yoga teacher Jack Cuneo and the photographer Rick Cummings has attempted to photograph all the yoga poses in the book, to be followed by restating all the instructions in Cuneo's own words. ## See also - Complete Illustrated Book of Yoga - Swami Vishnudevananda's bestselling 1960 yoga handbook - Yoga the Iyengar Way - a 1990 handbook to the major asanas by three senior Iyengar teachers
20,297,793	Kansas City Chiefs	1,172,410,099	National Football League franchise in Kansas City, Missouri	[ "1963 establishments in Missouri", "American Football League teams", "American football teams established in 1960", "American football teams in Kansas City, Missouri", "Dallas Texans", "Kansas City Chiefs", "National Football League teams", "Sports in the Kansas City metropolitan area", "Sports teams in the Kansas City metropolitan area" ]	The Kansas City Chiefs are a professional American football team based in Kansas City, Missouri. The Chiefs compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member club of the league's American Football Conference (AFC) West division. The team was founded in 1959 as the Dallas Texans by businessman Lamar Hunt, and was a charter member of the American Football League (AFL). In spring 1963, the team relocated to Kansas City, and assumed its current name. The Chiefs joined the NFL as a result of the merger in , and the team is valued at over \$3.7 billion. Following Hunt's death in 2006, his wife, Norma, and children became legal owners of the team. After Norma's death in 2023, the Hunt children inherited her stake in the franchise. Clark Hunt, one of the Hunt's children, has served as chairman and CEO since 2006 and is the ultimate authority over personnel decisions. He is also the team representative at league owner meetings. The Chiefs won three AFL championships, in 1962, 1966, and 1969, and were the second AFL team (after the New York Jets) to defeat an NFL team in an AFL–NFL World Championship Game, when they defeated the Minnesota Vikings in Super Bowl IV. That victory on January 11, 1970, was the final game before the leagues' merger went into full effect. The Chiefs were also the second team, after the Green Bay Packers (whom they played in Super Bowl I), to appear in more than one Super Bowl (and the first AFL team to do so) as well as the first to appear in the championship game in two different decades. Despite post-season success early in the franchise's history, winning five of their first six postseason games, the team struggled to find success in the playoffs for decades, including losing ten of eleven playoff games from 1993 to 2017, which included an eight-game losing streak. Since then, the Chiefs have risen to dynastic performance under head coach Andy Reid and quarterback Patrick Mahomes, appearing in three Super Bowls since 2019 and winning two, LIV and LVII. ## Franchise history ### American Football League In 1959, Lamar Hunt began discussions with other businessmen to establish a professional football league that would rival the National Football League. Hunt's desire to secure a football team was heightened after watching the 1958 NFL Championship Game between the New York Giants and Baltimore Colts. After unsuccessful attempts to purchase and relocate the NFL's Chicago Cardinals to his hometown of Dallas, Texas, Hunt went to the NFL and asked to create an expansion franchise in Dallas. The NFL turned him down, so Hunt then established the American Football League and started his own team, the Dallas Texans, to begin play in 1960. Hunt hired a little-known assistant coach from the University of Miami football team, Hank Stram, to be the team's head coach after the job offer was declined by Bud Wilkinson and Tom Landry. After Stram was hired, Don Klosterman was hired as head scout, and was credited by many for bringing a wealth of talent to the Texans after luring it away from the NFL, often hiding players and using creative means to land them. The Texans shared the Cotton Bowl with the NFL's Dallas Cowboys for three seasons. The Texans were to have exclusive access to the stadium until the NFL put an expansion team, the Dallas Cowboys, there. While the team averaged a league-best 24,500 at the Cotton Bowl, the Texans gained less attention due to the AFL's relatively lower profile compared to the NFL's. In the franchise's first two seasons, the team managed only an 8–6 and 6–8 record, respectively. In their third season, the Texans strolled to an 11–3 record and a berth in the team's first American Football League Championship Game, against the Houston Oilers. The game was broadcast nationally on ABC and the Texans defeated the Oilers 20–17 in double overtime. The game lasted 77 minutes and 54 seconds, which still stands as the longest championship game in professional football history. It turned out to be the last game the team would play as the Dallas Texans. Despite competing against a Cowboys team that managed only a 9–28–3 record in their first three seasons, Hunt decided that the Dallas–Fort Worth media market could not sustain two professional football franchises. He considered moving the Texans to either Atlanta or Miami for the 1963 season. He was ultimately swayed by an offer from Kansas City Mayor Harold Roe Bartle. Bartle promised to triple the franchise's season ticket sales and expand the seating capacity of Municipal Stadium to accommodate the team. Hunt agreed to relocate the franchise to Kansas City on May 22, 1963, and on May 26, the team was renamed the Kansas City Chiefs. Hunt and head coach Hank Stram initially planned to retain the Texans name, but a fan contest determined the new "Chiefs" name in honor of Mayor Bartle's nickname that he acquired in his professional role as Scout Executive of the St. Joseph and Kansas City Boy Scout Councils, and founder of the Scouting Society, the Tribe of Mic-O-Say. Despite the historical use of Native American features, it has been acknowledged that the team's naming was not a direct reference to Native Americans but only to Bartle's nickname "Chief". Business Insider journalist Meredith Cash even stated in January 2020 that Bartle "insisted on the team being named after himself" and that "Bartle was known as Chief Lone Bear within Mic-O-Say circles, and eventually the nickname "Chief" caught on among people throughout Kansas City." The franchise became one of the strongest teams in the now thriving American Football League, with the most playoff appearances for an AFL team (tied with the Oakland Raiders), and the most AFL Championships (3). The team's dominance helped Lamar Hunt become a central figure in negotiations with NFL Commissioner Pete Rozelle to agree on an AFL–NFL merger. In the meetings between the two leagues, a merged league championship game was agreed to be played in January 1967 following the conclusion of the leagues' respective 1966 seasons. Hunt insisted on calling the game the "Super Bowl" after seeing his children playing with a popular toy at the time, a Super Ball. While the first few games were designated the "AFL–NFL World Championship Game", the Super Bowl name became its officially licensed title in years to come. The Chiefs cruised to an 11–2–1 record in 1966, and defeated the defending AFL Champion Buffalo Bills in the AFL Championship Game. The Chiefs were invited to play the NFL's league champion Green Bay Packers in the first AFL–NFL World Championship Game. Kansas City and Green Bay played a close game for the first half, but Green Bay took control in the final two quarters, winning the game by a score of 35–10. The Chiefs lost the game but gained the respect of several Packers opponents following the game. The Chiefs' inter-league match-up with the Packers was not the last time that they would face an NFL opponent, especially on the championship stage. The following August, Kansas City hosted the NFL's Chicago Bears in the 1967 preseason and won the game 66–24. Despite losing to the division rival Oakland Raiders twice in the regular season in 1969, the two teams met for a third time in the AFL Championship Game, where Kansas City won 17–7. Backup quarterback Mike Livingston led the team in a six-game winning streak after Len Dawson suffered a leg injury which kept him out of most of the season's games. While getting plenty of help from the club's defense, Dawson returned from the injury and led the Chiefs to Super Bowl IV. Against the NFL champion Minnesota Vikings, who were favored by 12+1⁄2, the Chiefs dominated the game 23–7 to claim the team's first Super Bowl championship. Dawson was named the game's Most Valuable Player after completing 12-of-17 passes for 142 yards and one touchdown, with 1 interception. The following season, the Chiefs and the rest of the American Football League merged with the National Football League after the AFL–NFL merger became official. The Chiefs were placed in the American Football Conference's West Division. From 1960 to 1969, the Chiefs/Texans won 87 games, which is the most in the ten-year history of the AFL. ### Hank Stram leaves team In 1970, the Chiefs won only seven games in their first season in the NFL and missed the playoffs. The following season, the Chiefs tallied a 10–3–1 record and won the AFC West Division. Head coach Hank Stram considered his 1971 Chiefs team as his best, but they failed to capture their championship dominance from 1969. Most of the pieces of the team which won Super Bowl IV two years earlier were still in place for the 1971 season. The Chiefs tied with the Miami Dolphins for the best record in the AFC, and both teams met in a Christmas Day playoff game which the Chiefs lost 27–24 in double overtime. The Dolphins outlasted the Chiefs with a 37-yard field goal. The game surpassed the 1962 AFL Championship Game as the longest ever at 82 minutes and 40 seconds. The game was also the final football game at Kansas City's Municipal Stadium. In 1972, the Chiefs moved into the newly constructed Arrowhead Stadium at the Truman Sports Complex outside of Downtown Kansas City. The team's first game at Arrowhead was against the St. Louis Cardinals, a preseason game which the Chiefs won 24–14. Linebacker Willie Lanier and quarterback Len Dawson won the NFL Man of the Year Award in 1972 and 1973, respectively. The Chiefs would not return to the post-season for the remainder of the 1970s, and the 1973 season was the team's last winning season for seven years. Hank Stram was fired following a 5–9 season in 1974, and many of the Chiefs' future Hall of Fame players would depart by the middle of the decade. From 1975 to 1988, the Chiefs had become a team that rarely won which provided Chiefs fans with nothing but futility. Five head coaches struggled to achieve the same success as Stram, compiling an 81–121–1 record. In 1980, Coach Marv Levy cut future Hall of Fame Kicker Jan Stenerud for little-known Nick Lowery, who would become the most accurate kicker in NFL History over the next fourteen years. In 1981, running back Joe Delaney rushed for 1,121 yards and was named the AFC Rookie of the Year. The Chiefs finished the season with a 9–7 record and entered the 1982 season with optimism. The NFL Players Association strike curbed the Chiefs' chances of returning to the postseason for the first time in over a decade. The Chiefs tallied a 3–6 record and in the off-season, Joe Delaney died while trying to save several children from drowning in a pond near his home in Louisiana. The Chiefs drafted quarterback Todd Blackledge over future greats such as Jim Kelly and Dan Marino in the 1983 NFL Draft. Blackledge never started a full season for Kansas City while Kelly and Marino played Hall of Fame careers. While the Chiefs struggled on offense in the 1980s, the Chiefs had a strong defensive unit consisting of Pro Bowlers such as Bill Maas, Albert Lewis, Art Still and Deron Cherry. John Mackovic took over head coaching duties for the 1983 season after Marv Levy was fired. Over the next four seasons, Mackovic coached the Chiefs to a 30–34 record, but took the team to its first postseason appearance in 15 years in the 1986 NFL playoffs. They lost to the New York Jets in the wild-card round. Despite leading the Chiefs to only their third winning season and second playoff appearance since the merger, Mackovic was fired for what Hunt described as a lack of chemistry. Frank Gansz served as head coach for the next two seasons, but won only eight of 31 games. ### Marty Schottenheimer era (1989–1998) On December 19, 1988, owner Lamar Hunt hired Carl Peterson as the team's new president, general manager, and chief executive officer. Peterson fired head coach Frank Gansz two weeks after taking over and hired Marty Schottenheimer as the club's seventh head coach. In the 1988 and 1989 NFL Drafts, the Chiefs selected both defensive end Neil Smith and linebacker Derrick Thomas, respectively. The defense that Thomas and Smith anchored in their seven seasons together was a big reason why the Chiefs reached the postseason in six straight years. In Schottenheimer's ten-season tenure as head coach, the Chiefs became a perennial playoff contender, featuring offensive players including Steve DeBerg, Christian Okoye, Stephone Paige and Barry Word, a strong defense, anchored by Thomas, Smith, Albert Lewis and Deron Cherry, and on special teams, Nick Lowery, who was then the most accurate kicker in NFL History. The team recorded a 101–58–1 record, and clinched seven playoff berths. The Chiefs' 1993 season was the franchise's most successful in 22 years. With newly acquired quarterback Joe Montana and running back Marcus Allen, two former Super Bowl champions and MVPs, the Chiefs further strengthened their position in the NFL. The 11–5 Chiefs defeated the Pittsburgh Steelers and Houston Oilers on their way to the franchise's first AFC Championship Game appearance against the Buffalo Bills. The Chiefs were overwhelmed by the Bills and lost the game by a score of 30–13. The Chiefs' victory on January 16, 1994, against the Oilers remained the franchise's last post-season victory for 22 years until their 30–0 victory over the Houston Texans on January 9, 2016. In the 1995 NFL playoffs, the 13–3 Chiefs hosted the Indianapolis Colts in a cold, damp late afternoon game at Arrowhead Stadium. Kansas City lost the game 10–7 against the underdog Colts, after kicker Lin Elliot missed three field-goal attempts and quarterback Steve Bono threw three interceptions. The Chiefs selected tight end Tony Gonzalez with the 13th overall selection in the 1997 NFL Draft, a move which some considered to be a gamble being that Gonzalez was primarily a basketball player at California. During a 1997 season full of injuries to starting quarterback Elvis Grbac, backup quarterback Rich Gannon took the reins of the Chiefs' offense as the team headed to another 13–3 season. Head coach Marty Schottenheimer chose Grbac to start the playoff game against the Denver Broncos despite Gannon's successes in previous weeks. Grbac's production in the game was lacking, and the Chiefs lost to the Broncos 14–10. Denver went on to capture their fifth AFC Championship by defeating Pittsburgh, and then defeated the Green Bay Packers in Super Bowl XXXII. Coach Schottenheimer announced his resignation from the Chiefs following the 1998 season. Following Schottenheimer's resignation, defensive coordinator Gunther Cunningham took over coaching duties for the next two seasons, compiling a 16–16 record. By the end of the Chiefs' decade of regular-season dominance, Gannon had signed with the Oakland Raiders, Neil Smith signed with the Denver Broncos, and Derrick Thomas was paralyzed from a car accident on January 23, 2000. Thomas died from complications of his injury weeks later. After allegedly reading online that he would be relieved of duties, head coach Gunther Cunningham was fired. ### Dick Vermeil years (2001–2005) Looking to change the Chiefs' game plan which relied on a tough defensive strategy for the past decade, Carl Peterson contacted Dick Vermeil about the Chiefs' head coaching vacancy for the 2001 season. Vermeil previously led the St. Louis Rams to a victory in Super Bowl XXXIV. Vermeil was hired on January 12. The Chiefs then traded a first-round draft pick in the 2001 NFL Draft to St. Louis for quarterback Trent Green and signed free agent running back Priest Holmes to be the team's cornerstones on offense. In 2003, Kansas City began the season with nine consecutive victories, a franchise record. They finished the season with a 13–3 record and the team's offense led the NFL in several categories under the direction of USA Today's Offensive Coach of the Year honoree, Al Saunders. Running back Priest Holmes surpassed Marshall Faulk's single-season touchdown record by scoring his 27th rushing touchdown against the Chicago Bears in the team's regular-season finale. The team clinched the second seed in the 2004 NFL playoffs and hosted the Indianapolis Colts in the AFC Divisional Playoffs. In a game where neither team punted, the Chiefs lost the shoot-out 38–31. It was the third time in nine seasons that the Chiefs went 8–0 at home in the regular season, only to lose their post-season opener at Arrowhead. After a disappointing 7–9 record in 2004, the 2005 Chiefs finished with a 10–6 record but no playoff berth. They were the fourth team since 1990 to miss the playoffs with a 10–6 record. Running back Larry Johnson started in place of the injured Priest Holmes and rushed for 1,750 yards in only nine starts. Prior to the Chiefs' final game of the season, head coach Dick Vermeil announced his retirement. The Chiefs won the game 37–3 over the playoff-bound Cincinnati Bengals. ### Decline Within two weeks of Vermeil's retirement, the Chiefs returned to their defensive roots with the selection of its next head coach. The team introduced Herm Edwards, a former Chiefs scout and head coach of the New York Jets, as the team's tenth head coach after trading a fourth-round selection in the 2006 NFL Draft to the Jets. Quarterback Trent Green suffered a severe concussion in the team's season opener to the Cincinnati Bengals which left him out of play for eight weeks. Backup quarterback Damon Huard took over in Green's absence and led the Chiefs to a 5–3 record. Kansas City was awarded a Thanksgiving Day game against the Denver Broncos in response to owner Lamar Hunt's lobbying for a third Thanksgiving Day game. The Chiefs defeated the Broncos 19–10 in the first Thanksgiving Day game in Kansas City since 1969. Hunt was hospitalized at the time of the game and died weeks later on December 13 due to complications with prostate cancer. The Chiefs honored their owner for the remainder of the season, as did the rest of the league. Trent Green returned in the middle of the season, but struggled in the final stretch, and running back Larry Johnson set an NFL record with 416 carries in a season. Kansas City managed to clinch their first playoff berth in three seasons with a 9–7 record and a bizarre sequence of six losses from other AFC teams on New Year's Eve, culminating with a Broncos loss to the 49ers. The Indianapolis Colts hosted the Chiefs in the Wild Card playoffs and defeated Kansas City 23–8. In 2007, Trent Green was traded to the Miami Dolphins leaving the door open for either Damon Huard or Brodie Croyle to become the new starting quarterback. After starting the season with a 4–3 record, the Chiefs lost the remaining nine games when running back Larry Johnson suffered a season-ending foot injury and the quarterback position lacked stability with Huard and Croyle. Despite the team's 4–12 record, tight end Tony Gonzalez broke Shannon Sharpe's NFL record for touchdowns at the position (63) and defensive end Jared Allen led the NFL in quarterback sacks with 15.5. The Chiefs began their 2008 season with the youngest team in the NFL. The starting lineup had an average of 25.5 years of age. By releasing several veteran players such as cornerback Ty Law and wide receiver Eddie Kennison and trading defensive end Jared Allen, the Chiefs began a youth movement. The Chiefs had a league-high thirteen selections in the 2008 NFL Draft and chose defensive tackle Glenn Dorsey and offensive lineman Branden Albert in the first round. Analysts quickly called Kansas City's selections as the best of the entire draft. Entering the season, the Chiefs were unsure if injury-prone quarterback Brodie Croyle, who was the incumbent starter, could be their quarterback in the long-term. Croyle was injured in the team's first game of the season and Damon Huard started in Croyle's absence. Tyler Thigpen become the third Chiefs starting quarterback in as many games for a start against the Atlanta Falcons. After a poor performance by Thigpen, in which he threw three interceptions against the Falcons defense, Huard was retained as the starting quarterback. The Chiefs struggled off the field as much as on as tight end Tony Gonzalez demanded a trade and running back Larry Johnson was involved in legal trouble. Croyle returned for the Chiefs' game against the Tennessee Titans, but both he and Damon Huard suffered season-ending injuries in the game. The Chiefs reorganized their offense to a new spread offense game plan focused around Tyler Thigpen. The Chiefs' new offense was implemented to help Thigpen play to the best of his abilities and also following the absence of Larry Johnson, who was suspended for his off-field conduct. The Chiefs made a huge gamble by using the spread offense, as most in the NFL believe that it cannot work in professional football, and also head coach Herm Edwards was traditionally in favor of more conservative, run-oriented game plans. The 2008 season ended with a franchise worst 2–14 record, where the team suffered historic blowout defeats nearly week-in and week-out, a 34–0 shut-out to the Carolina Panthers, and allowed a franchise-high 54 points against the Buffalo Bills. The team's general manager, chief executive officer, and team president Carl Peterson resigned at the end of the season, and former New England Patriots vice president of player personnel Scott Pioli was hired as his replacement for 2009. On January 23, 2009, Herm Edwards was fired as head coach, and two weeks later Todd Haley signed a four-year contract to become Edwards' successor. Haley had a background with Pioli, which made him an attractive hire for Pioli's first coach in Kansas City. In April 2009, Tony Gonzalez was traded to the Atlanta Falcons after failed trade attempts over the previous two seasons. Notably, head coach Todd Haley fired offensive coordinator Chan Gailey just weeks before the start of the 2009 season and chose to take on the coordinator duties himself. Throughout 2009 the Chiefs acquired veterans to supplement the Chiefs' young talent including Matt Cassel, Mike Vrabel, Bobby Engram, Mike Brown, Chris Chambers, and Andy Alleman. The team finished with a 4–12 record, just a two-game improvement upon their record from the 2008 season. For the 2010 season, the Chiefs made significant hires for their coaching staff, bringing on former Patriots assistant coaches Charlie Weis and Romeo Crennel to coach the offense and defense, respectively. The coaching additions proved to be very successful, as the Chiefs would go on to secure their first AFC West title since 2003. Their ten victories in the 2010 season combined for as many as the team had won in their previous three seasons combined. On January 9, 2011, the Chiefs lost their home Wild Card playoff game to the Baltimore Ravens 30–7. Six players were chosen for the Pro Bowl: Dwayne Bowe, Jamaal Charles, Brian Waters, Tamba Hali, Matt Cassel, and rookie safety Eric Berry. Jamaal Charles won the FEDEX ground player of the year award and Dwayne Bowe led the NFL in Touchdown Receptions. For their first pick in the 2011 NFL draft, the team selected Jon Baldwin. After a poor start, Haley was relieved of duties as head coach on December 12. Clark Hunt made note of "bright spots at different points this season," but felt that overall the Chiefs were not progressing. The highest point of the 2011 season was an upset win against the Packers, who at that time, were undefeated with a 13–0 record. Defensive coordinator Romeo Crennel would be named the team's interim head coach for the remaining three games of the season, including the aforementioned Packers game. On January 9, 2012, Crennel was named the 11th full-time head coach in Chiefs history. The 2012, Chiefs became the first team since the 1929 Buffalo Bisons to not lead in regulation through any of their first nine games. The Chiefs tied their franchise-worst record of 2–14 and clinched the No. 1 overall pick in the 2013 NFL Draft. It is the first time since the merger they have held the first overall pick. ### Reemergence Following the 2012 season, the Chiefs fired head coach Romeo Crennel and general manager Scott Pioli. Former Philadelphia Eagles head coach Andy Reid was brought in as head coach to work with new general manager John Dorsey, a former Green Bay Packers head scout. The Chiefs acquired quarterback Alex Smith from the San Francisco 49ers for the Chiefs' second-round pick, 34th overall, in the 2013 draft and a conditional pick in 2014 draft. Matt Cassel was released shortly after. The Chiefs selected Eric Fisher with the first overall pick of the 2013 NFL Draft. In 2013, the Chiefs started 9–0 for the second time in team history. They led in their wildcard game against the Indianapolis Colts 38–10 shortly after halftime, but collapsed late and lost 45–44. In 2014, the Chiefs attempted to make the playoffs for the second straight season for the first time since 1995, finishing 9–7 and getting eliminated in Week 17. After a promising win for the Chiefs against Houston in Week 1, Kansas City went on a five-game losing streak culminating in a 16–10 loss to Minnesota and the loss of Jamaal Charles to a torn ACL. They made one of the most improbable season comebacks in the NFL and won ten straight to improve their record from 1–5 to 11–5. The team clinched a playoff berth after a 17–13 win over Cleveland in Week 16 to become only the second post-merger NFL team to make the playoffs following a 1–5 start. The streak achieved by the Chiefs broke a franchise record for nine straight (2003, 2013) and second nine plus game win streak under Reid. After a Week 17 win over Oakland 23–17, the Chiefs achieved their longest winning streak in franchise history at ten games. They qualified for the playoffs, playing in the 2015 AFC Wild-Card playoff game, held at NRG Stadium in Houston, Texas on January 9, 2016. The Chiefs defeated the Houston Texans 30–0 to earn their first NFL playoff win in 23 seasons, dating back to the 1993–94 NFL playoffs, a win that also came in Houston. The Chiefs' Wild-Card playoff victory ended what was at the time the third-longest drought in the NFL, and it also ended a then NFL record eight-game playoff losing streak. Riddled with injuries, they were defeated by the New England Patriots 27–20 in the AFC Divisional Round. The Chiefs first game of the 2016-2017 season was against their division rival, the San Diego Chargers. After facing a 24–3 deficit with six minutes left in the 3rd quarter, the Chiefs engineered a 33–27 comeback win ending with a two-yard touchdown run by Alex Smith in overtime to give the Chiefs their largest regular season comeback to start the season at 1–0. On Christmas Day, the Chiefs defeated the Denver Broncos 33–10 to give Kansas City their tenth straight win against divisional opponents. On January 1, 2017, the Chiefs clinched the AFC West and the second seed going into the playoffs that year, where they fell to the Pittsburgh Steelers 18–16 in the divisional round as Chris Boswell hit 6 field goals. The Chiefs finished the 2017–18 season with a 10–6 record, and won the AFC West. This was the first time in Chiefs history that they won the AFC West in back-to-back years. In the Wild Card round, the Chiefs lost a tight game to the Tennessee Titans 22–21, allowing Derrick Henry to rush for 156 yards. The loss extended their NFL record for most consecutive home playoff losses to six. The game marked the end of Alex Smith's five-year tenure with the Chiefs, as he was traded to the Washington Redskins a few weeks later. #### Patrick Mahomes becomes the starter Patrick Mahomes made his NFL debut and first career start in the December 31, 2017 game against the Denver Broncos. The Chiefs won the game 27-24, with Mahomes going 22 for 35 with 284 yards and one interception. The Chiefs began the 2018 season with first-year starter Mahomes as their quarterback and finished the regular season with a record of 12–4, clinching the AFC West for the third year in a row and the AFC's top seed. This included victories over division rivals Los Angeles Chargers, Oakland Raiders and Denver Broncos (twice), along with important conference victories over the Pittsburgh Steelers, Cincinnati Bengals, and Jacksonville Jaguars. Their first loss of the season came at the hands of the New England Patriots with a last-second field goal. Their second loss of the season came against the Los Angeles Rams with a final score of 51–54, in which the Kansas City Chiefs made history by becoming the first NFL team to lose a game after scoring more than 50 points. Mahomes finished the season with 5,097 yards and 50 touchdowns, both team records. He became the 11th quarterback to throw for 5,000 yards and the 3rd to throw for 50 touchdowns. He joined Peyton Manning as only the 2nd player in NFL history to throw for 5,000 yards and 50 touchdowns. For his performance during the season, he was named AP NFL MVP, the first Chief to ever win the award. In the AFC Divisional round on January 12, 2019, the Chiefs defeated the Indianapolis Colts 31–13 to move on to the AFC Championship Game. This marked the Chiefs' first playoff win in Arrowhead Stadium in 25 years. This also enabled the Chiefs to host the AFC Championship Game for the first time ever. The next week, Kansas City's bid for its first Super Bowl berth in 49 years ended with a 37–31 overtime loss to the New England Patriots. The Chiefs finished the 2019 regular season with a 12–4 record, winning the AFC West division title for the fourth straight year, and clinched the AFC's second seed behind the Baltimore Ravens. The Chiefs defeated the Houston Texans 51–31 in the AFC Divisional Game after falling behind 24–0 at the start of the second quarter with Mahomes throwing for five touchdowns. The Chiefs hosted their second AFC Championship game in consecutive years facing the sixth-seed Tennessee Titans. The Chiefs then defeated the Titans 35–24 and advanced to Super Bowl LIV. This marked their first Super Bowl appearance in 50 years, since Super Bowl IV. On February 2, 2020, in Hard Rock Stadium in Miami Gardens, Florida, the Chiefs played against the NFC's top seed, the San Francisco 49ers. Following halftime when both teams were tied at ten points, Mahomes threw 2 interceptions in back to back drives in the 3rd and 4th quarters, resulting in the 49ers having a 20–10 lead with under 12 minutes remaining in the game. The Chiefs scored touchdowns on their next two possessions, with Mahomes throwing touchdowns to Travis Kelce and Damien Williams. With a 24–20 lead with under two minutes remaining, Williams had a 38-yard touchdown run to effectively seal the game for the Chiefs. This marked the first time in NFL postseason history that a team faced ten point deficits in three straight games and won all three by double-digit margins. Mahomes won the Super Bowl Most Valuable Player Award, ending the Chiefs' Super Bowl drought dating back to the AFL-NFL Merger. On July 6, 2020, Mahomes signed a record ten–year, \$503 million contract extension keeping him under contract until the conclusion of the 2031 season. The contract is the largest ever signed in North American sports, more than tripling the value of the previous largest contract signed (although said contract was for a shorter 5 years, signed by Matt Ryan of the Atlanta Falcons). With their week 14 victory over the Miami Dolphins, the Chiefs clinched their fifth consecutive division title. The victory also gave the Chiefs their first 12–1 record in franchise history. They would later win 14 games for the first time in franchise history. In the playoffs they defeated the Cleveland Browns and Buffalo Bills to win the AFC Championship for the second consecutive year. The Chiefs would face the Tampa Bay Buccaneers in Super Bowl LV at Raymond James Stadium in Tampa, ultimately losing 9–31, failing to score a touchdown in the game. On December 26, 2021, the Chiefs beat the Pittsburgh Steelers 36–10, earning the team's sixth straight AFC West title. The Chiefs began their playoff slate with a win against the Pittsburgh Steelers in the Wild Card round, and advanced to play the Buffalo Bills in the divisional round. Their 42–36 victory over Buffalo came in a game sports commentators and analysts dubbed as one of the greatest modern day NFL playoff games. Despite being the first team to host the AFC Championship game for four consecutive seasons, the team finished the season losing 24–27 in overtime to the Cincinnati Bengals. The Chiefs began their 2022 season by trading Tyreek Hill to the Miami Dolphins, and instead opting to stock up on picks in the 2022 NFL Draft. The finished the season with a 14–3 regular season record, with losses coming from the Colts, Bills, and Bengals. All three losses were by margins of less than four points. The Chiefs won their seventh consecutive AFC West division championship, and secured the \#1 seed in the AFC playoffs. The team hosted their fifth consecutive AFC Championship Game, and second consecutive against the Cincinnati Bengals, winning 23–20 on a game-winning field goal from Harrison Butker. In Super Bowl LVII, the Chiefs defeated the Philadelphia Eagles 38–35 again on a field goal from Butker. With the victory, Mahomes became the first player since Kurt Warner in 1999 to win both the NFL MVP Award and Super Bowl MVP Award in the same season. Head coach Andy Reid won his second Super Bowl championship over the Eagles, the team he had previously led to a Super Bowl appearance. ## Championships The Chiefs have won three Super Bowl Championships and three AFL Championships – the latter of which were won twice as the Kansas City Chiefs and once under their original name, the Dallas Texans. ### Super Bowl championships ### American Football League championships ### AFC championships ## Logos and uniforms When the Texans began playing in 1960, the team's logo consisted of the state of Texas in white with a yellow star marking the location of the city of Dallas. Originally, Hunt chose Columbia blue and orange for the Texans' uniforms, but Bud Adams chose Columbia blue and scarlet for his Houston Oilers franchise. Hunt reverted to red and gold for the Texans' uniforms, which even after the team relocated to Kansas City, remain as the franchise's colors to this day. The state of Texas on the team's helmet was replaced by an arrowhead design originally sketched by Lamar Hunt on a napkin. Hunt's inspiration for the interlocking "KC" design was the "SF" inside of an oval on the San Francisco 49ers helmets. Unlike the 49ers' logo, Kansas City's overlapping initials appear inside a white arrowhead instead of an oval and are surrounded by a thin black outline. From 1960 to 1973, the Chiefs had grey facemask bars on their helmets, but changed to white facemasks in 1974, making them one of the first teams (alongside the San Diego Chargers, who introduced a yellow facemask that same year) in the NFL to use a non-gray facemask. The Chiefs' uniform design has essentially remained the same throughout the club's history with only four minor changes occurring. It consists of a red helmet, and either red or white jerseys with the opposite color numbers and names. White pants were used with both jerseys from 1960 to 1967, and 1989 to 1999. Beginning in 2009, during the Pioli/Haley era, the team has alternated between white and red pants for road games during the season. Prior to September 15, 2013, the Chiefs always wore white pants with their red jerseys. The Chiefs do not have an official alternate jersey, although unofficial alternate jerseys are sold for retail. The Chiefs wore their white jerseys with white pants at home for the 2006 season opener against the Cincinnati Bengals. The logic behind the uniform selection that day was that the Bengals would have to wear their black uniform on a day when hot temperatures were forecast. In 2007, the Kansas City Chiefs honored Lamar Hunt and the AFL with a special patch. It features the AFL's logo from the 1960s with Hunt's "LH" initials inside the football. In 2008, the patch became permanently affixed to the left chest of both Kansas City's home and away jerseys. In select games for the 2009 season, the Chiefs, as well as the other founding teams of the American Football League, wore a "throwback" uniform to celebrate the AFL's 50th anniversary. For the first time in team history, the Chiefs wore red jerseys with red pants, forming an all-red combo in their home opener against the Dallas Cowboys on September 15, 2013. The all-red uniform is now an official uniform combination and has been used multiple times since. It is commonly used for prime-time games at home. The all-red look also served as the basis for the Chiefs' Color Rush design. ## Arrowhead Stadium Arrowhead Stadium has been the Chiefs' home field since 1972 and has a capacity of 76,416, which makes it the fifth-largest stadium in the NFL. The stadium underwent a \$375 million renovation, completed in mid-2010, which included new luxury boxes, wider concourses and enhanced amenities. The stadium renovation was paid for by \$250 million in taxpayer money and \$125 million from the Hunt Family. The stadium cost \$53 million to build in 1972, and an average ticket in 2009 costs \$81. Aramark serves as the stadium's concession provider and T-Mobile, Anheuser-Busch and Coca-Cola are major corporate sponsors. Dating back to the Chiefs' home opener in 1991 to mid-2009, the Chiefs had 155 consecutive sellout games. The streak ended with the final home game of the 2009 season against the Cleveland Browns, resulting in the first local TV blackout in over 19 years. Arrowhead has been called one of the world's finest stadiums and has long held a reputation for being one of the toughest and loudest outdoor stadiums for opposing players to play in. All noise is directly attributed to its fans and was once measured at 116 decibels by the Acoustical Design Group of Mission, Kansas. By way of comparison, take-off of aircraft may lead to a sound level of 106 decibels at the ground. Sports Illustrated named Arrowhead Stadium the "toughest place to play" for opposing teams in 2005. The tailgate party environment outside the stadium on gameday has been compared to a "college football" atmosphere. Arrowhead Stadium features frequent fly-overs from a B-2 Spirit stealth bomber from nearby Whiteman Air Force Base. Since the 1994 NFL season, the stadium has had a natural grass playing surface. From 1972 to 1993, the stadium had an artificial AstroTurf surface. During the game against the Oakland Raiders on October 13, 2013, Arrowhead Stadium once again became the loudest stadium in the world when the fans set the Guinness Book of World Records record for loudest crowd in an outdoor stadium (137.5 dB), breaking the record set by the Seattle Seahawks just four weeks prior. A few weeks after, Seattle re-gained the record by reaching a noise level of 137.6 decibels. Chiefs fans have reclaimed the record once again on September 29, 2014, on ESPN's Monday Night Football against the New England Patriots, the fans recorded a sound reading of 142.2 decibels. The stadium has been officially named GEHA Field at Arrowhead Stadium (pronounced G.E.H.A.) since 2021. The stadium was renamed after GEHA signed a naming rights deal with the Chiefs. ## Training camp and practice facility When the franchise was based in Dallas, the team conducted their inaugural training camp at the New Mexico Military Institute in Roswell, New Mexico. They moved camp to Southern Methodist University, owner Lamar Hunt's alma mater, for 1961 and continued to practice there until 1965. From 1966 to 1971, the Chiefs practiced in Swope Park in Kansas City, and from 1972 to 1991 held camp at William Jewell College in Clay County, Missouri–where Lamar Hunt had extensive business dealings including Worlds of Fun, Oceans of Fun and SubTropolis. From 1992 to 2009 the Chiefs conducted summer training camp at the University of Wisconsin–River Falls in River Falls, Wisconsin. The Chiefs' 2007 training camp was documented in the HBO/NFL Films documentary reality television series, Hard Knocks. Following the passage of a \$25 million state tax credit proposal, the Chiefs moved their training camp to Missouri Western State University in St. Joseph, Missouri, in 2010. The bulk of the tax credits went for improvements to Arrowhead Stadium with \$10 million applied to the move to Missouri Western. A climate-controlled, 120-yard NFL regulation grass indoor field, and office space for the Chiefs was constructed at Missouri Western adjacent to the school's Spratt Stadium before the 2010 season. Outside of training camp and during the regular season, the Chiefs conduct practices at their own training facility nearby Arrowhead Stadium. The facility is located near the Raytown Road entrance to the Truman Sports Complex just east of Interstate 435 and features three outdoor fields (two grass and one artificial turf) as well as an indoor facility with its own full-size field. ## Rivalries The Chiefs share intense rivalries with their three AFC West opponents, namely the Denver Broncos, Las Vegas Raiders, and Los Angeles Chargers, with the Raiders rivalry considered one of the most bitter in the NFL. In terms of NFC teams, the Chiefs formerly shared a cross-state rivalry with teams located across the state of Missouri in St. Louis, namely the Cardinals and Rams. An individual rivalry between quarterback Patrick Mahomes and Buffalo Bills quarterback Josh Allen has developed in recent years, with many comparing it to the former rivalry between Tom Brady and Peyton Manning. The Mahomes led Chiefs also developed a rivalry with the Joe Burrow led Cincinnati Bengals, with Burrow being the only AFC quarterback to date to hold a winning record against Mahomes. ## Mascots and cheerleaders The Chiefs' first mascot was Warpaint, a nickname given to several breeds of pinto horse. Warpaint served as the team's mascot from 1963 to 1988. The first Warpaint (born in 1955, died in 1992) was ridden bareback by rider Bob Johnson who wore a full Native American headdress. Warpaint circled the field at the beginning of each Chiefs home game and performed victory laps following each Chiefs touchdown. On September 20, 2009, a new Warpaint horse was unveiled at the Chiefs' home opener. Warpaint was ridden by a cheerleader in its return. The Chiefs again retired Warpaint in 2021 as a part of their commitment to stop the use of Native American imagery. In the mid-1980s, the Chiefs featured a short-lived unnamed "Indian man" mascot which was later scrapped in 1988. Since 1989 the cartoon-like K. C. Wolf, portrayed by Dan Meers in a wolf costume, has served as the team's mascot. The mascot was named after the Chiefs' "Wolfpack", a group of rabid fans from the team's days at Municipal Stadium. K. C. Wolf is one of the most popular NFL mascots and was the league's first mascot inducted into the Mascot Hall of Fame in 2006. The Chiefs have employed a cheerleading squad since the team's inception in 1960. In the team's early days, the all-female squad was referred to as the Chiefettes. In addition to the Cheerleaders, in the early 1970s, there was also a dance/drill team that performed for pre-game and halftime. From 1986 to 1992, the cheerleader squad featured a mix of men and women. From 1993 to 2019, the all-female squad has been known as the Chiefs Cheerleaders, and in 2020, one male joined the team. ## Notable players ### Current roster ### Retired numbers ### Pro Football Hall of Famers Twenty-five members of the Pro Football Hall of Fame spent at least some portion of their career with the Chiefs. Thirteen spent the majority of the career with the Chiefs. Ten of the Chiefs in the Hall of Fame were involved with the Chiefs during their Super Bowl Championship season of 1969. The Chiefs have 3 contributors, 3 coaches, and 18 players in the Hall of Fame. Derrick Thomas is the only Chief in the Hall of Fame that was inducted posthumously. Listed below are only people whose tenure with the Chiefs is their reason for induction, not former Chiefs coaches inducted as a player, the only exception being Emmitt Thomas who was inducted as a player for the Chiefs and later become an assistant coach for the team. ### Chiefs Hall of Fame Established in 1970, the Chiefs Hall of Fame has inducted a new member, with the exception of the 1983 and 2020 seasons, every year to honor their players, coaches, and contributors in an annual ceremony. The requirements for induction are that a player, coach, or contributor must have been with the Chiefs for four seasons and been out of the NFL for four seasons at the time of induction. There are some exceptions, such as Joe Delaney and Derrick Thomas, Delaney was with the team for only two seasons before his death, Thomas was inducted 1 year after his death in January 2000 (2 years after his final season). The Chiefs have the second-most enshrinees of any NFL team in their team Hall of Fame behind the Green Bay Packers, who have enshrined over 100 players and team contributors over the years in the Green Bay Packers Hall of Fame. Nineteen players and the coach of the Super Bowl IV championship team have been inducted into the ring of honor. Three players were posthumously inducted, Derrick Thomas, Joe Delaney, and Mack Lee Hill. - Posthumous induction ## Head coaches Thirteen head coaches have served the Texans/Chiefs franchise since their first season in 1960. Hank Stram, the team's first head coach, led the Chiefs to three AFL championship victories and two appearances in the Super Bowl. Stram was the team's longest-tenured head coach, holding the position from 1960 to 1974. Marty Schottenheimer was hired in 1989 and led Kansas City to seven playoff appearances in his ten seasons as head coach. Schottenheimer had the best winning percentage (.634) of all Chiefs coaches. Gunther Cunningham was on the Chiefs' coaching staff in various positions from 1995 to 2008, serving as the team's head coach in between stints as the team's defensive coordinator. Dick Vermeil coached the team to a franchise-best 9–0 start in the 2003 season. Of the ten Chiefs coaches, Hank Stram, Marv Levy, and Dick Vermeil have been elected into the Pro Football Hall of Fame, Levy is more well known for his time with the Buffalo Bills. Herm Edwards served as the team's head coach from 2006 to 2008, compiling a 15–33 record and a franchise worst 6–26 record over a two-year span. Todd Haley compiled a 19–26 record with the team from 2009 to 2011, including an AFC West division title in 2010. Haley was fired with three games left in the 2011 season. Romeo Crennel was named interim coach, and was promoted to full-time coach in January 2012. Crennel was fired on Monday, December 31, 2012, after finishing the 2012 season with a 2–14 record. On January 5, 2013, the Chiefs hired Andy Reid to be their next head coach. In Reid's tenure, the Chiefs have never had a sub-.500 season, making the playoffs in 8 of his 9 seasons as head coach, winning the division six times, and two consecutive Super Bowl appearances. ## Ownership and administration The franchise was founded in 1959 by Lamar Hunt after a failed attempt by Hunt to purchase an NFL franchise and relocate them to Texas. Hunt remained the team's owner until his death in 2006. The Hunt family kept ownership of the team following Lamar's death and Clark Hunt, Lamar's son, represents the family's interests. While Hunt's official title is CEO and Chairman of the Board, he represents the team at all owner meetings. In 2010, Hunt assumed role as CEO alongside his role as chairman of the board. According to Forbes, the team entered the 2022 season valued at \$3.7 billion ranking them 23rd among the 32 NFL teams. Owner Lamar Hunt served as the team's president from 1960 to 1976. Because of Lamar Hunt's contributions to the NFL, the AFC Championship trophy is named after him. He promoted general manager Jack Steadman to become the team's president in 1977. Steadman held the job until Carl Peterson was hired by Hunt in 1988 to replace him. Peterson resigned the title as team president in 2008. Denny Thum became the team's interim president following Peterson's departure and was officially given the full position in May 2009. Thum resigned from his position on September 14, 2010. Don Rossi served as the team's general manager for half of the 1960 season, resigning in November 1960. Jack Steadman assumed duties from Rossi and served in the position until 1976. Steadman was promoted to team president in 1976 and despite being relieved of those duties in 1988, he remained with the franchise until 2006 in various positions. Jim Schaaf took over for Steadman as general manager until being fired in December 1988. Carl Peterson was hired in 1988 to serve as the team's general manager, chief executive officer and team president. Peterson remained in the position for nineteen years until he announced his resignation from the team in 2008. Denny Thum served as interim general manager until January 13, 2009, when the Chiefs named New England Patriots executive Scott Pioli the team's new general manager. Pioli was released in early January after the hiring of Andy Reid, and was replaced by John Dorsey. Pioli's record as the Chief's general manager was 23–41. On June 22, 2017, the Chiefs fired Dorsey. They hired Brett Veach as the new general manager on July 10, 2017. ### Staff ## Media Kansas City radio station WDAF-FM (106.5) is the flagship station for The Chiefs Football Radio Network. The network has affiliates across Missouri, Kansas, Iowa, Nebraska, and Texas, and national reach through desktop and mobile devices. As part of the newest television contracts, non-primetime games are broadcast on CBS or Fox with the biggest markets being the metropolitan areas of Kansas City, Wichita, and Omaha. The Chiefs' owned production company is named 65 Toss Power Trap Productions, after a play from the Chiefs Super Bowl IV victory which led to a five-yard touchdown run by Mike Garrett. ## Culture ### Fan base The Chiefs boast one of the most loyal fan bases in the NFL. Kansas City is the sixth-smallest media market with an NFL team, but they have had the second-highest attendance average over the last decade. Studies by Bizjournals in 2006 gave the Chiefs high marks for consistently drawing capacity crowds in both good seasons and bad. The Chiefs averaged 77,300 fans per game from 1996 to 2006, second in the NFL behind the Washington Redskins. The franchise has an official fan club called Chiefs Kingdom which gives members opportunities to ticket priority benefits and VIP treatment. At the end of "The Star-Spangled Banner" before home games, many Chiefs fans intentionally yell out "CHIEFS!" rather than singing "brave" as the final word. This can also occasionally be heard in road games and even at sporting events for the nearby University of Kansas. In 1996, general manager Carl Peterson said "We all look forward, not only at Arrowhead, but on the road, too, to when we get to that stanza of the National Anthem... Our players love it." After the September 11, 2001 attacks, Chiefs fans refrained from doing so in honor of those who lost their lives in the tragedy and continued to do so for the remainder of the 2001 season. At the Chiefs' September 23, 2001, home game against the New York Giants, fans gave the opposing Giants a standing ovation. In the past, fans would chant while pointing in the direction of the visiting team, "We're gonna beat the hell outta you...you...you, you, you, you!" over the song "Rock and Roll Part 2". The chant starts after the third "hey!" in the song. The original version of the song by Gary Glitter was previously used until the NFL banned his music from its facilities in 2006 following the British rocker's conviction on sexual abuse charges in Vietnam. A cover version of the song played by Tube Tops 2000 was used from 2006 until the 2015 season. The practice was later completely discontinued prior to the 2015 season after Glitter was arrested again. The team would eventually adopt Beastie Boys' "(You Gotta) Fight for Your Right (To Party!)" after Travis Kelce shouted the main chorus while celebrating victories in the AFC Championship Game and Super Bowl. Notable fans include Brad Pitt, Paul Rudd, Jason Sudeikis, Henry Cavill, David Koechner, Rob Riggle, Heidi Gardner, John Amos, Melissa Etheridge, and Eric Stonestreet. Arrowhead Stadium is also recognized by Guinness World Records as having the loudest outdoor stadium in the world. This was achieved on September 29, 2014, in a Monday Night Football game against the New England Patriots when the crowd achieved a roar of 142.2 decibels which is comparable to standing 100 feet (30 m) from a jet engine, which even with short term exposure, can cause permanent damage. #### International outreach The NFL introduced the league's international home marketing area program in 2021, which sees teams secure international marketing rights in countries beyond the United States. The Chiefs were designated as a home team to Germany alongside the Carolina Panthers, New England Patriots, and Tampa Bay Buccaneers. In 2023 the NFL also granted the Chiefs permission to expand its marketing and fan outreach to Austria and Switzerland. The Chiefs will host a game in Germany during their 2023 season against the Miami Dolphins. The Chiefs have played international regular season games against Detroit in 2015 in London, and against the LA Chargers in 2019 in Mexico City. The team participated in preseason exhibition games dubbed the American Bowl in Berlin (1990), Tokyo (1994 and 1998), and Monterrey, Mexico (1996). The Chiefs' fan base has expanded across the world like many other NFL teams. A Twitter account is dedicated to Chiefs fans in the UK and has been recognized by the Kansas City Chiefs and is their official UK fan page. They have many dedicated fans writing articles and interviewing players of the team such as Tamba Hali. ### Tony DiPardo From various periods between 1963 and the 2008 season, trumpeter Tony DiPardo and The T.D. Pack Band played live music at every Chiefs home game. The band was known as The Zing Band when the team was located at Municipal Stadium. DiPardo was honored by head coach Hank Stram in 1969 with a Super Bowl ring for the team's victory in Super Bowl IV. When his health was declining, DiPardo took a leave of absence from the band from 1983 to 1988. DiPardo's daughter took over as bandleader in 1989, by which time DiPardo returned to the band by popular demand. For the 2009 season, due to renovations at Arrowhead Stadium, the band did not return to perform at the stadium. DiPardo died on January 27, 2011, at age 98. He had been hospitalized since December 2010 after suffering a brain aneurysm. ## Name controversy For various reasons, the team has faced charges of racism and anti-Indigenous cultural appropriation and misuse of names, symbols, and practices. The name comes from the nickname of former Kansas City mayor Harold Roe Bartle, who nicknamed himself "Chief" as part of creating the Tribe of Mic-O-Say, a group affiliated with the Boy Scouts of America that uses fake Native American imagery, stories, and made-up ceremonies where its participants "play Indian." Over the life of the franchise the following have also been displayed: an arrowhead logo, fans' "tomahawk chop" gestures during games, a horse named Warpaint, the use of a large drum, and the wearing of face paint, headdresses, and other Native American symbols. Chiefs fans also carry on a tradition that began at Florida State University in the mid 1980s by using the Seminole WarChant as a rallying cry during key moments in their football games. Prior to each home game, a former Chiefs player or a famous Chiefs fan (such as NASCAR driver Clint Bowyer or rapper Tech N9ne), called the honorary drum leader, bangs on a drum with a large drum stick to start the Tomahawk chop. The Chiefs' and their fans' use of American Indian imagery and stereotypes has been the source of controversy, as some decry usage of symbols like the "war drum," songs and spectacles like the "Tomahawk Chop," and stereotypical dress of fans in faux war paint and headdresses. In 2016, Native American groups asked the Kansas City Chiefs to stop doing the tomahawk chop. In the same year a similar request was made of Exeter Chiefs. The editorial board of the Kansas City Star newspaper called for the cessation of the "Tomahawk Chop" in late 2019, noting opposition from Native Americans and Tribes, and stating that the practice stereotypes and dehumanizes Native Americans. The National Congress of American Indians and the Kansas City Indian Center have called for the mascot to be retired. The Chiefs have escaped the more intense criticism of other teams, such as the Washington Redskins and Cleveland Indians who changed their names beginning with their 2022 seasons, for using Native American names and logos. Attention increased in 2020 in advance of their appearance in Super Bowl LIV. While there have been efforts to address other issues, such as fans wearing warpaint and headdresses, the tomahawk chop and the accompanying chant is defended, including by some local Native Americans. In a national survey, half of Native Americans said the "tomahawk chop" bothered or offended them, rising to 65% among those more engaged in Native traditions. ## See also - List of Kansas City Chiefs seasons - Sports in Kansas City
12,930,987	Robert of Bath	1,143,550,235	12th-century Bishop of Bath	[ "1166 deaths", "12th-century English Roman Catholic bishops", "Bishops of Bath", "Year of birth unknown" ]	Robert or sometimes Robert of Lewes (died 1166) was a medieval English Bishop of Bath. He began his career as a monk at Lewes Priory as well as performing administrative functions for Henry of Blois. It was Henry who secured Robert's selection as bishop. While bishop, Robert built in his diocese and set up the system of archdeacons there. He may have been the author of the Gesta Stephani, a work detailing the history of King Stephen's life. ## Life Robert was a native of England, but his ancestry was Flemish, probably of noble birth. His birthdate and when he became a monk are not known. He was a Cluniac and a monk of Lewes Priory and a protégé of Henry of Blois who employed him at Glastonbury Abbey on administrative tasks. He may have been the prior of Winchester Cathedral but there is no certain evidence of this, as it is based on an appearance of a "Robert, prior of Winchester" on the 1130 Pipe Roll, and a 15th-century historian. He was named Bishop of Bath through the influence of Henry of Blois, and was consecrated probably in March 1136. Robert was instrumental in reorganizing his diocese as well as building and restoration work at Wells. He was the bishop that set up the territorial organization of the archdeacons of the diocese. Contemporaries considered him pious as well as a man of business. Robert continued the building work on church building at Bath, and gave borough status to the town of Wells. He also reorganized the church at Wells, which had previously been the cathedral for the diocese prior to John of Tours moving the episcopal seat to Bath. In 1138, during Robert of Gloucester's rising against King Stephen of England, Robert was in charge of the defenses of Bath. He captured Geoffrey Talbot, who was a supporter of Robert of Gloucester's, but when he went out to parley with another group of Gloucester's supporters, the bishop was captured even though he had been offered a safe conduct for the parley. The bishop was then exchanged for Geoffrey Talbot. In 1141, he was at the gathering where Henry of Blois changed allegiance to the Empress Matilda at Winchester. Robert died 31 August 1166 and was buried in Bath Abbey before the high altar. He may have been the author of the Gesta Stephani, an identification first made by the historian R. H. C. Davis in 1962. While it is not certain that Robert was the author, the outlook of the work certainly fits with the known outlook of Robert.
248,750	Great tit	1,170,913,554	Passerine bird in the tit family Paridae	[ "Birds described in 1758", "Birds of Eurasia", "Parus", "Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus" ]	The great tit (Parus major) is a passerine bird in the tit family Paridae. It is a widespread and common species throughout Europe, the Middle East, Central Asia and east across the Palearctic to the Amur River, south to parts of North Africa where it is generally resident in any sort of woodland; most great tits do not migrate except in extremely harsh winters. Until 2005 this species was lumped with numerous other subspecies. DNA studies have shown these other subspecies to be distinct from the great tit and these have now been separated as two distinct species, the cinereous tit (Parus cinereus) of southern Asia, and the Japanese tit (Parus minor) of East Asia. The great tit remains the most widespread species in the genus Parus. The great tit is a distinctive bird with a black head and neck, prominent white cheeks, olive upperparts and yellow underparts, with some variation amongst the numerous subspecies. It is predominantly insectivorous in the summer, but will consume a wider range of food items in the winter months, including small hibernating bats. Like all tits it is a cavity nester, usually nesting in a hole in a tree. The female lays around 12 eggs and incubates them alone, although both parents raise the chicks. In most years the pair will raise two broods. The nests may be raided by woodpeckers, squirrels and weasels and infested with fleas, and adults may be hunted by sparrowhawks. The great tit has adapted well to human changes in the environment and is a common and familiar bird in urban parks and gardens. The great tit is also an important study species in ornithology. ## Taxonomy The great tit was described under its current binomial name by Carl Linnaeus in his 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae. Its scientific name is derived from the Latin parus "tit" and maior "larger". Francis Willughby had used the name in the 17th century. The great tit was formerly treated as ranging from Britain to Japan and south to the islands of Indonesia, with 36 described subspecies ascribed to four main species groups. The major group had 13 subspecies across Europe, temperate Asia and north Africa, the minor group's nine subspecies occurred from southeast Russia and Japan into northern southeast Asia and the 11 subspecies in the cinereus group were found from Iran across south Asia to Indonesia. The three bokharensis subspecies were often treated as a separate species, Parus bokharensis, the Turkestan tit. This form was once thought to form a ring species around the Tibetan Plateau, with gene flow throughout the subspecies, but this theory was abandoned when sequences of mitochondrial DNA were examined, finding that the four groups were distinct (monophyletic) and that the hybridisation zones between the groups were the result of secondary contact after a temporary period of isolation. A study published in 2005 confirmed that the major group was distinct from the cinereus and minor groups and that along with P. m. bokharensis it diverged from these two groups around 1.5 million years ago. The divergence between the bokharensis and major groups was estimated to have been about half a million years ago. The study also examined hybrids between representatives of the major and minor groups in the Amur Valley where the two meet. Hybrids were rare, suggesting that there were some reproductive barriers between the two groups. The study recommended that the two eastern groups be split out as new species, the cinereous tit (Parus cinereus), and the Japanese tit (Parus minor), but that the Turkestan tit be lumped in with the great tit. This taxonomy has been followed by some authorities, for example the IOC World Bird List. The Handbook of the Birds of the World volume treating the Parus species went for the more traditional classification, treating the Turkestan tit as a separate species but retaining the Japanese and cinereous tits with the great tit, a move that has not been without criticism. The nominate subspecies of the great tit is the most widespread, its range stretching from the Iberian Peninsula to the Amur Valley and from Scandinavia to the Middle East. The other subspecies have much more restricted distributions, four being restricted to islands and the remainder of the P. m. major subspecies representing former glacial refuge populations. The dominance of a single, morphologically uniform subspecies over such a large area suggests that the nominate race rapidly recolonised a large area after the last glacial epoch. This hypothesis is supported by genetic studies which suggest a geologically recent genetic bottleneck followed by a rapid population expansion. The genus Parus once held most of the species of tit in the family Paridae, but morphological and genetic studies led to the splitting of that large genus in 1998. The great tit was retained in Parus, which along with Cyanistes comprises a lineage of tits known as the "non-hoarders", with reference to the hoarding behaviour of members of the other clade. The genus Parus is still the largest in the family, but may be split again. Other than those species formerly considered to be subspecies, the great tit's closest relatives are the white-naped and green-backed tits of southern Asia. Hybrids with tits outside the genus Parus are very rare, but have been recorded with blue tit, coal tit, and probably marsh tit. ### Subspecies There are currently 15 recognised subspecies of great tit: - P. m. newtoni, described by Pražák in 1894, is found across the British Isles. - P. m. major, described by Linnaeus in 1758, is found throughout much of Europe, Asia Minor, northern and eastern Kazakhstan, southern Siberia and northern Mongolia, as far as the mid-Amur Valley. - P. m. excelsus, described by Buvry in 1857, is found in northwestern Africa. - P. m. corsus, described by Kleinschmidt in 1903, is found in Portugal, southern Spain, and Corsica. - P. m. mallorcae, described by von Jordans in 1913, is found in the Balearic Islands. - P. m. ecki, described by von Jordans in 1970, is found on Sardinia. - P. m. niethammeri, described by von Jordans in 1970, is found on Crete. - P. m. aphrodite, described by Madarász in 1901, is found in southern Italy, southern Greece, Cyprus and the Aegean Islands. - P. m. terrasanctae was described by Hartert in 1910. It is found in Lebanon, Israel, Jordan and Syria. - P. m. karelini, described by Zarudny in 1910, is found in southeastern Azerbaijan and northwestern Iran. - P. m. blandfordi was described by Pražák in 1894. It is found in north central and southwestern Iran. - P. m. bokharensis was described by Lichtenstein in 1823. It is found in southern Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan and far north of Iran and Afghanistan. It was, along with following two subspecies, once treated as separate species. - P. m. turkestanicus, was described by Zarudny & Loudon in 1905, and ranges from east Kazakhstan to extreme north west China and west Mongolia. - P. m. ferghanensis, was described by Buturlin in 1912, and is found in Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan. - P. m. kapustini, was described by Portenko in 1954, and is found in north west China (north west Xinjiang) to Mongolia and Siberia. ## Description The great tit is large for a tit at 12.5 to 14.0 cm (4.9–5.5 in) in length, and has a distinctive appearance that makes it easy to recognise. The nominate race P. major major has a bluish-black crown, black neck, throat, bib and head, and white cheeks and ear coverts. The breast is bright lemon-yellow and there is a broad black mid-line stripe running from the bib to vent. There is a dull white spot on the neck turning to greenish yellow on the upper nape. The rest of the nape and back are green tinged with olive. The wing-coverts are green, the rest of the wing is bluish-grey with a white wing-bar. The tail is bluish grey with white outer tips. The plumage of the female is similar to that of the male except that the colours are overall duller; the bib is less intensely black, as is the line running down the belly, which is also narrower and sometimes broken. Young birds are like the female, except that they have dull olive-brown napes and necks, greyish rumps, and greyer tails, with less defined white tips. There is some variation in the subspecies. P. m. newtoni is like the nominate race but has a slightly longer bill, the mantle is slightly deeper green, there is less white on the tail tips, and the ventral mid-line stripe is broader on the belly. P. m. corsus also resembles the nominate form but has duller upperparts, less white in the tail and less yellow in the nape. P. m. mallorcae is like the nominate subspecies, but has a larger bill, greyer-blue upperparts and slightly paler underparts. P. m. ecki is like P. m. mallorcae except with bluer upperparts and paler underparts. P. m. excelsus is similar to the nominate race but has much brighter green upperparts, bright yellow underparts and no (or very little) white on the tail. P. m. aphrodite has darker, more olive-grey upperparts, and the underparts are more yellow to pale cream. P. m. niethammeri is similar to P. m. aphrodite but the upperparts are duller and less green, and the underparts are pale yellow. P. m. terrasanctae resembles the previous two subspecies but has slightly paler upperparts. P. m. blandfordi is like the nominate but with a greyer mantle and scapulars and pale yellow underparts, and P. m. karelini is intermediate between the nominate and P. m. blandfordi, and lacks white on the tail. The plumage of P. m. bokharensis is much greyer, pale creamy white to washed out grey underparts, a larger white cheep patch, a grey tail, wings, back and nape. It is also slightly smaller, with a smaller bill but longer tail. The situation is similar for the two related subspecies in the Turkestan tit group. P. m. turkestanicus is like P. m. bokharensis but with a larger bill and darker upperparts. P. m. ferghanensis is like P. m. bokharensis but with a smaller bill, darker grey on the flanks and a more yellow wash on the juvenile birds. The colour of the male bird's breast has been shown to correlate with stronger sperm, and is one way that the male demonstrates his reproductive superiority to females. Higher levels of carotenoid increase the intensity of the yellow of the breast its colour, and also enable the sperm to better withstand the onslaught of free radicals. Carotenoids cannot be synthesized by the bird and have to be obtained from food, so a bright colour in a male demonstrates his ability to obtain good nutrition. However, the saturation of the yellow colour is also influenced by environmental factors, such as weather conditions. The width of the male's ventral stripe, which varies with individual, is selected for by females, with higher quality females apparently selecting males with wider stripes. ### Voice The great tit is, like other tits, a vocal bird, and has up to 40 types of calls and songs. The calls are generally the same between the sexes, but the male is much more vocal and the female rarely calls. Soft single notes such as "pit", "spick", or "chit" are used as contact calls. A loud "tink" is used by adult males as an alarm or in territorial disputes. One of the most familiar is a "teacher, teacher", often likened to a squeaky wheelbarrow wheel, which is used in proclaiming ownership of a territory. In former times, English folk considered the "saw-sharpening" call to be a foretelling of rain. There is little geographic variation in calls, but tits from the two south Asian groups recently split from the great tit do not recognise or react to the calls of the temperate great tits. One explanation for the great tit's wide repertoire is the Beau Geste hypothesis. The eponymous hero of the novel propped dead soldiers against the battlements to give the impression that his fort was better defended than was really the case. Similarly, the multiplicity of calls gives the impression that the tit's territory is more densely occupied than it actually is. Whether the theory is correct or not, those birds with large vocabularies are socially dominant and breed more successfully. ## Distribution, movements and habitat The great tit has a wide distribution across much of Eurasia. It can be found across all of Europe except for Iceland and northern Scandinavia, including numerous Mediterranean islands. In North Africa it lives in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. It also occurs across the Middle East, and parts of Central Asia from northern Iran and Afghanistan to Mongolia, as well as across northern Asia from the Urals as far east as northern China and the Amur Valley. The great tit occupies a range of habitats. It is most commonly found in open deciduous woodland, mixed forests, forest edges and gardens. In dense forests, including conifer forests it prefers forest clearings. In northern Siberia it lives in boreal taiga. In North Africa it rather resides in oak forests as well as stands of Atlas cedar and even palm groves. In the east of its range in Siberia, Mongolia and China it favours riverine willow and birch forest. Riverine woodlands of willows, poplars are among the habitats of the Turkestan subspecies, as well as low scrubland, oases; at higher altitudes it occupies habitats ranging from dense deciduous and coniferous forests to open areas with scattered trees. The great tit is generally not migratory. Pairs will usually remain near or in their territory year round, even in the northern parts of their range. Young birds will disperse from their parents' territory, but usually not far. Populations may become irruptive in poor or harsh winters, meaning that groups of up to a thousand birds may unpredictably move from northern Europe to the Baltic and also to Netherlands, Britain, even as far as the southern Balkans. The great tit was unsuccessfully introduced into the United States; birds were set free near Cincinnati, Ohio between 1872 and 1874 but failed to become established. Suggestions that they were an excellent control measure for codling moths nearly led to their introduction to some new areas particularly in the United States of America, however this plan was not implemented. A small population is present in the upper Midwest, believed to be the descendants of birds liberated in Chicago in 2002 along with European goldfinches, Eurasian jays, common chaffinches, European greenfinches, saffron finches, blue tits and Eurasian linnets, although sightings of some of these species pre-date the supposed introduction date. Birds were introduced to the Almaty Province in what is now Kazakhstan in 1960–61 and became established, although their present status is unclear. ## Behaviour ### Diet and feeding Great tits are primarily insectivorous in the summer, feeding on insects and spiders which they capture by foliage gleaning. Their larger invertebrate prey include cockroaches, grasshoppers and crickets, lacewings, earwigs, bugs (Hemiptera), ants, flies (Diptera), caddis flies, beetles, scorpion flies, harvestmen, bees and wasps, snails and woodlice. During the breeding season, the tits prefer to feed protein-rich caterpillars to their young. A study published in 2007 found that great tits helped to reduce caterpillar damage in apple orchards by as much as 50%. Nestlings also undergo a period in their early development where they are fed a number of spiders, possibly for nutritional reasons. In autumn and winter, when insect prey becomes scarcer, great tits add berries and seeds to their diet. Seeds and fruit usually come from deciduous trees and shrubs, like for instance the seeds of beech and hazel. Where it is available they will readily take table scraps, peanuts and sunflower seeds from bird tables. In particularly severe winters they may consume 44% of their body weight in sunflower seeds. They often forage on the ground, particularly in years with high beech mast production. Great tits, along with other tits, will join winter mixed-species foraging flocks. Large food items, such as large seeds or prey, are dealt with by "hold-hammering", where the item is held with one or both feet and then struck with the bill until it is ready to eat. Using this method, a great tit can get into a hazelnut in about twenty minutes. When feeding young, adults will hammer off the heads of large insects to make them easier to consume, and remove the gut from caterpillars so that the tannins in the gut will not retard the chick's growth. Great tits combine dietary versatility with a considerable amount of intelligence and the ability to solve problems with insight learning, that is to solve a problem through insight rather than trial and error. In England, great tits learned to break the foil caps of milk bottles delivered at the doorstep of homes to obtain the cream at the top. This behaviour, first noted in 1921, spread rapidly in the next two decades. In 2009, great tits were reported killing, and eating the brains of roosting pipistrelle bats. This is the first time a songbird has been recorded preying on bats. The tits only do this during winter when the bats are hibernating and other food is scarce. They have also been recorded using tools, using a conifer needle in the bill to extract larvae from a hole in a tree. ### Breeding Great tits are monogamous breeders and establish breeding territories. These territories are established in late January and defence begins in late winter or early spring. Territories are usually reoccupied in successive years, even if one of the pair dies, so long as the brood is raised successfully. Females are likely to disperse to new territories if their nest is predated the previous year. If the pair divorces for some reason then the birds will disperse, with females travelling further than males to establish new territories. Although the great tit is socially monogamous, extra-pair copulations are frequent. One study in Germany found that 40% of nests contained some offspring fathered by parents other than the breeding male and that 8.5% of all chicks were the result of cuckoldry. Adult males tend to have a higher reproductive success compared to sub-adults. Great tits are seasonal breeders. The exact timing of breeding varies by a number of factors, most importantly location. Most breeding occurs between January and September; in Europe the breeding season usually begins after March. In Israel there are exceptional records of breeding during the months of October to December. The amount of sunlight and daytime temperatures will also affect breeding timing. One study found a strong correlation between the timing of laying and the peak abundance of caterpillar prey, which is in turn correlated to temperature. On an individual level, younger females tend to start laying later than older females. Great tits are cavity nesters, breeding in a hole that is usually inside a tree, although occasionally in a wall or rock face, and they will readily take to nest boxes. The nest inside the cavity is built by the female, and is made of plant fibres, grasses, moss, hair, wool and feathers. The number in the clutch is often very large, as many as 18, but five to twelve is more common. Clutch size is smaller when birds start laying later, and is also lower when the density of competitors is higher. Second broods tend to have smaller clutches. Insularity also affects clutch size, with great tits on offshore islands laying smaller clutches with larger eggs than mainland birds. The eggs are white with red spots. The female undertakes all incubation duties, and is fed by the male during incubation. The bird is a close sitter, hissing when disturbed. The timing of hatching, which is best synchronised with peak availability of prey, can be manipulated when environmental conditions change after the laying of the first egg by delaying the beginning of incubation, laying more eggs or pausing during incubation. The incubation period is between 12 and 15 days. The chicks, like those of all tits, hatch unfeathered and blind. Once feathers begin to erupt, the nestlings are unusual for altricial birds in having plumage coloured with carotenoids similar to their parents (in most species it is dun-coloured to avoid predation). The nape is yellow and attracts the attention of the parents by its ultraviolet reflectance. This may be to make them easier to find in low light, or be a signal of fitness to win the parents' attention. This patch turns white after the first moult at age two months, and diminishes in size as the bird grows. Chicks are fed by both parents, usually receiving 6 to 7 g (0.21–0.25 oz) of food a day. Both parents provision the chicks with food and aid in nest sanitation by removing faecal packets, with no difference in the feeding effort between the sexes. The nestling period is between 16 and 22 days, with chicks being independent of the parents eight days after fledging. Feeding of the fledgeling may continue after independence, lasting up to 25 days in chicks from the first brood, but as long as 50 days in the second brood. Nestlings from second broods have weaker immune systems and body condition than those from first broods, and hence have a lower juvenile survival rate. Inbreeding depression occurs when the offspring produced as a result of a mating between close relatives show reduced fitness. The reduced fitness is generally considered to be a consequence of the increased expression of deleterious recessive alleles in these offspring. In natural populations of P. major, inbreeding is avoided by dispersal of individuals from their birthplace, which reduces the chance of mating with a close relative. ### Ecology The Eurasian sparrowhawk is a predator of great tits, with the young from second broods being at higher risk partly because of the hawk's greater need for food for its own developing young. The nests of great tits are raided by great spotted woodpeckers, particularly when nesting in certain types of nest boxes. Other nest predators include introduced grey squirrels (in Britain) and least weasels, which are able to take nesting adults as well. A species of biting louse (Mallophaga) described as Rostrinirmus hudeci was isolated and described in 1981 from great tits in central Europe. The hen flea Ceratophyllus gallinae is exceedingly common in the nests of blue and great tits. It was originally a specialist tit flea, but the dry, crowded conditions of chicken runs enabled it to flourish with its new host. This flea is preferentially predated by the clown beetle Gnathoncus punctulatus, The rove beetle Microglotta pulla also feeds on fleas and their larvae. Although these beetles often remain in deserted nests, they can only breed in the elevated temperatures produced by brooding birds, tits being the preferred hosts. Great tits compete with the pied flycatcher for nesting boxes, and can kill prospecting flycatcher males. Incidences of fatal competition are more frequent when nesting times overlap, and climate change has led to greater synchrony of nesting between the two species and flycatcher deaths. Having killed the flycatchers, the great tits may consume their brains. ## Physiology Great tits have been found to possess special physiological adaptations for cold environments. When preparing for winter months, the great tit can increase how thermogenic (heat producing) its blood is. The mechanism for this adaptation is a seasonal increase in mitochondrial volume and mitochondrial respiration in red blood cells and increased uncoupling of the electron transport from ATP production. As a result, the energy that would have been used to make ATP is released as heat and their blood becomes more thermogenic. In the face of winter food shortages, the great tit has also shown a type of peripheral vasoconstriction (constriction of blood vessels) to reduce heat loss and cold injury. Reduced cold injury and heat loss is mediated by the great tits’ counter-current vascular arrangements, and peripheral vasoconstriction in major vessels in and around the birds’ bill and legs. This mechanism allows uninsulated regions (i.e., bill and legs) to remain close to the surrounding temperature. In response to food restriction, the great tits’ bill temperature dropped, and once food availably was increased, bill temperatures gradually returned to normal. Vasoconstriction of blood vessels in the bill not only serves as an energy saving mechanism, but also reduces the amount of heat transferred from core body tissues to the skin (via cutaneous vasodilation), which, in turn, reduces heat loss rate by lowering skin temperature relative to the environment. ## Relationship with humans The great tit is a popular garden bird due to its acrobatic performances when feeding on nuts or seed. Its willingness to move into nest boxes has made it a valuable study subject in ornithology; it has been particularly useful as a model for the study of the evolution of various life-history traits, particularly clutch size. A study of a literature database search found 1,349 articles relating to Parus major for the period between 1969 and 2002. The great tit has generally adjusted to human modifications of the environment. It is more common and has better breeding success in areas with undisturbed forest cover, but it has adapted to human modified habitats. It can be very common in urban areas. For example, the breeding population in the city of Sheffield (a city of half a million people) has been estimated at some 17,000 individuals. In adapting to human environments its song has been observed to change in noise-polluted urban environments. In areas with low frequency background noise pollution, the song has a higher frequency than in quieter areas. This tit has expanded its range, moving northwards into Scandinavia and Scotland, and south into Israel and Egypt. The total population is estimated at between 300–1,100 million birds in a range of 32.4 million km<sup>2</sup> (12.5 million sq mi). While there have been some localised declines in population in areas with poorer quality habitats, its large range and high numbers mean that the great tit is not considered to be threatened, and it is classed as least concern on the IUCN Red List.
29,083,300	Vardar offensive	1,169,830,241	World War I military operation	[ "1918 in Serbia", "Battles of World War I involving Bulgaria", "Battles of World War I involving France", "Battles of World War I involving Germany", "Battles of World War I involving Greece", "Battles of World War I involving Italy", "Battles of World War I involving Serbia", "Battles of World War I involving the United Kingdom", "Battles of the Balkans Theatre (World War I)", "Conflicts in 1918", "Macedonian front", "Military history of North Macedonia", "September 1918 events", "Vardar Macedonia (1912–1918)" ]	The Vardar offensive (Bulgarian: Офанзива при Вардар) was a World War I military operation, fought between 15 and 29 September 1918. The operation took place during the final stage of the Balkans Campaign. On September 15, a combined force of Serbian, French and Greek troops attacked the Bulgarian-held trenches in Dobro Pole ("Good Field"), at the time part of Serbia (present-day North Macedonia). The assault and the preceding artillery preparation had devastating effects on Bulgarian morale, eventually leading to mass desertions. On September 18, a second Entente formation assaulted the Bulgarian positions in the vicinity of Lake Doiran. Effectively employing machine gun and artillery fire the Bulgarians managed to stall the Allied advance on the Doiran sector. However the collapse of the front at Dobro Pole forced the Bulgarians to withdraw from Doiran. The Allies pursued the German 11th Army and the Bulgarian 1st Army, while pushing deeper into Vardar Macedonia. By 29 September, the Allies had captured the former HQ of Skopje, thus endangering the remnants of the 11th Army. The parallel development of the anti-monarchist Radomir Rebellion forced Bulgaria to sign the Armistice of Salonica and withdraw from the war. The treaty included the full capitulation of the 11th Army, bringing the final tally of Bulgarian and German prisoners to 77,000 and granting the Allies 500 artillery pieces. The Bulgarian downfall turned the strategic and operational balance of the war against the Central Powers. The Macedonian Front was brought to an end at noon on 30 September, when the ceasefire came into effect. ## Prelude The 28 June 1914, assassination of Austro-Hungarian heir presumptive Archduke Franz Ferdinand precipitated Austria-Hungary's declaration of war against Serbia. The conflict quickly attracted the involvement of all major European countries, pitting the Central Powers against the Entente coalition and starting World War I. Serbia was defeated during the autumn 1915 phase of the Serbian Campaign, prompting France and Britain to transfer troops from the Gallipoli Campaign to Greek Macedonia. The Macedonian front was thus established in an effort to support the remnants of the Serbian army to conquer Vardar Macedonia. On 17 August 1916, in the Struma offensive Bulgaria invaded Greece, easily conquering all Greek territory east of the Struma, since the Greek Army was ordered not to resist by the pro-German King Constantine. The surrender of territory recently won with difficulty in the Second Balkan War of 1913 was the last straw for many supporters of Liberal Party politician Eleftherios Venizelos. With Allied assistance, they launched a coup which secured Thessaloniki and most of Greek Macedonia, causing the National Schism. In June 1917, the Venizelists gained full control of the country, immediately declaring war on the Central Powers and joining the Allied Army of the Orient operating on the Balkan Front. The Greek entry into the war along with the 24 division reinforcements that the Army had received in the spring of the same year had created a strategic advantage for the Entente. On 30 May 1918, the Allies launched an offensive on the heavily fortified Skra salient, commencing the battle of Skra-di-Legen. Utilizing the cover of heavy artillery a Franco-Hellenic force made a rapid push into the enemy trenches, conquering Skra and the surrounding system of fortifications. Greek casualties amounted to 434–440 killed in action, 154–164 missing in action and 1,974–2,220 wounded, France lost approximately 150 men killed or injured. A total of 1,782 soldiers of the Central Powers became prisoners of war, including a small number of German engineers and artillery specialists that served in Bulgarian units; considerable amounts of military equipment also fell into Entente hands. The plan for a Bulgarian counterattack against Skra remained unfulfilled as the Bulgarian soldiers refused to take part in the operation. Both the Greek and the French press used the opportunity to extol the efforts of the Greek army, favorably influencing the Greek mobilization. The fall of Skra prompted Bulgarian prime minister Vasil Radoslavov to resign on 21 June 1918. Aleksandar Malinov who assumed office immediately afterwards pursued secret negotiations with Britain, offering Bulgaria's exit from the war with the condition that Bulgaria fully retain eastern Macedonia. However, British prime minister David Lloyd George rejected the proposal, assuring the Greek ambassador in London Ioannis Gennadius, that Britain would not act against Greek interests. In late July 1918, Bulgarian commander-in-chief Nikola Zhekov sent German Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg a message regarding a rumored Entente offensive, and detailed Bulgaria's inability to adequately defend the Vardar portion of the front. Zhekov requested that Germany immediately reinforce the Balkan Front, hinting that Austria-Hungary would also be required to strengthen its positions in Albania. On 17 August, Hindenburg pledged to provide Bulgaria with support once the situation on other front permits it. Hindenburg's reluctance to support Bulgaria was also manifested by the early September redeployment of the last German Jäger battalion stationed in Macedonia back into Germany. The Bulgarians, using information from escaped prisoners of war, determined that Entente forces would engage in hostile actions west of lake Ohrid, in Monastir, Dobro Pole or Human. On 27 August, the 2nd and 3rd Bulgarian Divisions stationed at Dobro Pole were ordered to make emergency preparations, as new evidence indicated a frontal assault on Dobro Pole along with a secondary attack on Human. By 7 September, Dobro Pole was reinforced by one machine gun company, six battalions and ten heavy howitzers, the head of Army Group Scholtz General Friedrich von Scholtz then stated that the defensive measures made the defense of the front feasible. Scholtz had failed to take into account the departure of Bulgarian chief of staff Nikola Zhekov and his subsequent replacement by Georgi Todorov. Widespread insubordination and desertions also plagued the Bulgarian troops who refused to participate in fortification works; poor rations and fatigue contributed to the low morale. A day prior to the Entente offensive, General Louis Franchet d'Espèrey laid out the final plan for the operation. The first phase consisted of a combined Franco-Serbian attack on the positions of the 2nd and 3rd Bulgarian Divisions, which was expected to create a breach of the front line in the area of Dobro Pole, while also posing a danger to the Bulgarian supply lines on river Vardar. The 1,875-metre (6,152 ft) Dobro Pole ("Good Field") peak dominated the region, providing excellent observation points for the defenders. Dobro Pole was surrounded by a well-developed system of trenches which, in combination with the rough terrain, made the area impassable for wheeled transport. Dobro Pole was, however, lower and less steep than the mountains on other parts of the front that averaged 2,000 metres (6,600 ft). A second Anglo-Franco-Hellenic force would then attack the Bulgarian 1st Army between the Vardar river and Lake Doiran, preventing it from forming new defensive positions in the area. The initial advance would allow the Armée d'Orient to progress in support of other units first to Prilep, Disma and Borran. In the meantime, an Anglo-Hellenic force would strike Mount Belasica, occupying the Rupel Pass. The Doiran sector had previously been subject to two major Entente offensives known as the First Battle of Doiran (August 1916) and Second Battle of Doiran (April–May 1917). Both engagements ended in decisive Bulgarian victories, forcing the Allies to limit their operations to small raids and harassing fire. Between 1916 and July 1918, Bulgarian defenses around Doiran underwent a period of considerable reorganization under the personal supervision of General Vladimir Vazov. The sector was divided into two 14-kilometre (8.7 mi) defensive areas, protected by the Mountain Division and the 9th Infantry Division respectively. Bulgaria established combat security outposts at a distance of 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) from the enemy trenches, while also reinforcing the defenses of the dominant Dub and Kala Tepe mountains. Similarly to Dobro Pole the defenses consisted of a series of mutually supporting trenches, with built in observation posts, machine gun positions and artillery pieces. D'Espèrey expected to march the Allied Army of the Orient through the towns of Demir Hisar, Rupel, Petrici, Blagusa, Gradec, Štip and Belessa finally seizing Skopje. Units stationed at Katsania and Tetovo would prevent a Bulgarian flanking maneuver, while the main body of the force would widen the breach both in Štip and Prilep. In case of a collapse of the front between Dobro Pole and Tzena, the Bulgarian 1st Army and the German 11th Army. Armies would either be annihilated or, in less favorable circumstances, perform an organised retreat to a new defensive line on river Crna. The prevention of such a retreat was to be achieved by a rapid, penetrating attack on Gradsko, Dren Planina and Visoka. ## Offensive ### Battle of Dobro Pole At 8 a.m. on 14 September 1918, Entente forces commenced a 566-gun artillery barrage on enemy positions. Their aircraft also bombed enemy positions and strafed a 250-truck column moving towards Kozjak. On the same day, Scholtz sent Hindenburg a telegraph stating that > ... all indications point out that an enemy offensive will target the 11th Army on both sides of Vardar as well as Dobro Pole.... The Bulgarian high command did not attempt to perform a spoiling attack as they lacked the necessary vehicles and pack animals. The barrage did not cause a significant number of casualties but severely affected the Bulgarian esprit de corps. On the night between 14 and 15 September, Franco-Serbian patrols reported that the artillery barrage had dealt sufficient damage to the barbed wire entanglements separating the trenches. At 5:30 a.m. on 15 September, the French 122nd and 17th (Colonial) Divisions struck Sokol, Dobro Pole, Kravitski Kamene and Kravitsa while the Serbian Shumadia Division assaulted Kamene and Veternik. The Greek Archipelago Division, 3rd Division and 4th Division under Panagiotis Gargalidis acted as a link between the Serbian and French troops without entering combat. The offensive immediately caused a wave of mass desertion among the Bulgarian units; the remaining infantrymen and artillery squadrons were not able to hold their ground. During the course of the battle, the 122nd Division broke into two columns and suffered heavy casualties. The left column managed to reach a position located 50 metres (160 ft) from Sokol at 6:30 a.m. and take the peak at the end of the day. At 16:00 pm, the right column captured Dobro Pole after rushing a 200-metre (660 ft) segment of steep terrain. The 17th Division seized Kravitsa at 7:00 am, suppressing the last signs of resistance. Two Franco-Greek Regiments attempted to storm Zborsko but were pushed back in the ensuing counterattack, as powerful pockets of resistance between the Sousnitsa and Bigrut streams facilitated its defense. Greek units then focused on Sousnitsa the fall of which created an opening in the Bulgarian rear and put the surrounding units to flight. Using dispersed bluffs as cover, soldiers of the Shumadia Division took over Veternik, Kamene and the western part of a nearby mountain range with considerable difficulty. Elements of the same unit successfully flanked Kravitski Kamene while the 17th Division was engaging in a frontal assault. At 16:00 pm, the Serbian 1st Army's thrust on Sokol failed to produce intended results. An attack later that night did secure the peak. The two French divisions were then ordered to remain in position while the Serbian Timok and Yugoslav Divisions moved forward. By the end of the day, Bulgaria lost approximately 40–50 percent of the 12,000 soldiers involved in the battle, including 3,000 prisoners of war, 2,689 dead and 50 out of the initial 158 artillery pieces. Entente casualties amounted to 1,700 Frenchmen and 200 Serbians killed in action. On the morning of 16 September, the Serbians overran the Kozjak mountain range and the Golo Bilo peak. They were joined by the 35th Greek Regiment which crossed the Poroi river and later marching on Topolets. At 11:00 am, Franco-Hellenic units stormed Zborsko for a second time and were met by heavy artillery and machine gun fire. The attack was rebuffed with the loss of 158 Greeks and roughly the same number of French lives and attempts to take the area were suspended. Živojin Mišić's 1st Army and the Armée d'Orient performed a night attack on the Gradešnica fortified zone, suppressing the defenders. The 1st Division Group moved into a position on the Poroi river north of Brahovo in conjunction with the Timok Division. By the night of 16 September, the gap in what formerly constituted the front-line had extended to 25 kilometres (16 mi) in width and 7 kilometres (4.3 mi) in depth. The Allied command ordered its air department to continue attacking all bridges on the river Vardar. At 4.00 a.m. on 17 September, Hellenic components of the 1st Division Group raided mount Preslap, a key position housing Bulgarian artillery. The Greeks rapidly descended from Golo Bilo and then began climbing the cliffs of Preslap with their bare hands. The Preslap garrison proceeded to abandon their positions and retreat eastwards. Having lost their artillery cover forces at Zborsko followed their comrades in retreat. The Timok Division conquered Topolets and advanced towards Studena Voda and Preslap while the Morava and Yugoslav Divisions overran Koutskov Kamene. At the same time, the Drina and Danube Divisions seized Gradešnica along with the Poltsista and Besistsa peaks, then halted at Melinitsa. On 18 September, the 11th French Colonial Division and the 6th Greek Regiment occupied the villages of Zovik, Staravina and , approaching towards the bridge on Crna. An Entente air raid destroyed another bridge north of Razim Bey. Bulgarian forces failed at putting a stop to the Allied offensive, abandoning their wounded and large quantities of military equipment. By the end of the day, Allied troops had advanced 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) into enemy territory while also seizing locales of strategic importance that would later enable them to continue pushing deeper into Vardar Macedonia. ### Battle of Doiran On 16 September, the Allies commenced a 232 gun and 24 howitzer artillery barrage on the Bulgarian positions between Vardar and Doiran. Bulgaria responded in kind, with the artillery duel continuing during the following two days. On the night of 17–18 September, Bulgarian positions were targeted by nine salvos of gas shells, however the attack failed to produce any considerable effect due to the preceding arrival of new gas masks and the adequate training of the defenders. At 5.00 a.m. on 18 September, the British XII Corps executed a pincer maneuver on the 9th Bulgarian Division, while the Greek Serres Division and the 83rd British Brigade assaulted the Bulgarian trenches to the west, taking numerous prisoners. On the north–east direction the Crete Division and the 28th British Division advanced between the lake and Belasica, after clearing out the Bulgarian outpost line. The 26th British Division seized a number of Bulgarian security outposts but was quickly repulsed by heavy artillery fire and counter-attacks that recaptured the lost ground. It was not until 7:20 am, when the Serres Division managed to make limited gains on the flanks having suffered numerous casualties and lost momentum. In the meantime the 22nd British Division overtook two central trenchlines. Supported by concentrated artillery and machine gun fire the 3rd Bulgarian Brigade pushed the Allies back, by the end of the day the sum of the Entente forces were back at their starting point, the British 67th Brigade having lost 65 percent of its soldiers. The offensive was resumed at 4.00 a.m. on 19 September after a night of heavy shelling. The operation involved the British 77th and 65th Brigades, the French 2/2nd Zouaves regiment. along with the Serres and 14th Greek Divisions. Following five hours of intense fighting the Allies managed to overrun the town of Dojran, mount Kala Tepe and Teton Hill, with the Pip Ridge and mount Dub remaining in Bulgarian hands. In the aftermath of the engagement the Allied command found itself to be unable to make any further offensive operations on the Doiran sector as it no longer possessed an adequate reserve of manpower. Bulgaria lost a total of 518 dead, 998 wounded, and 1,210 captured. Greek casualties amounted to 503 killed, 2,286 injured and 615 missing, with the British suffering 3,871 dead and wounded. ### Subsequent operations On 20 September, the 17th and 122nd French Colonial Divisions along with the 1st Serbian Army crossed river Crna. News of a breakthrough at Dobro Pole prompted the defenders of Doiran to abandon their positions and rush to the defense of their homeland, in order to prevent a future occupation by the Entente. On 21 September, the Allies became aware of the Bulgarian withdrawal after observing a series of fires and munition dump explosions on the Bulgarian positions, a pursuit by the British XII Corps was launched immediately. The Serbian advanced guard approached Krivolak, thus creating a wedge between the 1st Bulgarian and 11th German Armies in an effort to force the latter to retire towards Albania. The 2nd Bulgarian Army headed towards the Kosturino Pass avoiding direct engagement with the Allies. At 17:30 p.m. on 22 September, the Italian 35th Division under General Ernesto Mombelli joined the offensive, seizing Hill 1050 stronghold from the 302nd German Division and taking 150 prisoners. Fighting took place in Kanatlarci and along the Monastir–Prilep road, in Cepik, Kalabak and Topolčani as the Allies continued to advance towards Prilep. At 14:00 p.m. on 23 September, General Louis Franchet d'Espèrey announced that the initial plan of the operation was to be modified. The Italians were ordered to strike Kičevo with the aim of preventing the enemy forces stationed at Monastir from reaching the railroad hub in Uskub, the 11th Colonial French Division was instead tasked with securing Prilep. Half an hour later the French entered Prilep, to the east Franco–Serbian columns marched on Štip, Veles, Brod and through the Peristeri mountain range. On 24 September, Bulgarian infantry supported by artillery halted the advance of the Italian cavalry between Kruševo and the Buchin bridge. At 17:00 pm, an Italo–Serbian assault resulted in the fall of Stepanci. On 25 September, the Sicilia Brigade captured Kruševo and the surrounding peaks after being reinforced by the 11th Colonial French Division. The Quadruple Alliance High Command set Uskub as the rallying point for its forces in Vardar Macedonia, intending to later strengthen them with units from Germany and Austria. The 30th and 156th French Divisions occupied Prevaletz and Drvenik respectively. On 25 September, a band of Bulgarian deserters who had previously fled from Dobro Pole arrived at Kyustendil, looting the city and putting the Bulgarian High Command to flight. The mass of retreating Bulgarian mutineers then converged on the railway center of Radomir in Bulgaria, just 48 kilometres (30 mi) from the capital city of Sofia. On the evening of 26 September, Italian cavalry wrestled Goloznica from a Saxon infantry unit, later entering Drenovo where it received information of a Bulgarian withdrawal from Veles. On 27 September, the leaders of the Bulgarian Agrarian National Union took control of these troops and proclaimed the establishment of the Bulgarian Republic. About 4,000–5,000 rebellious troops threatened Sofia the following day, in what came to be known the Radomir Rebellion. The Serbian Second Army having previously taken Štip, entered Veles, Kochana and Grlena. Uskub was protected by a garrison of six and a half battalions, four armored trains and four artillery batteries split between a mountain range south of the city and a position north of lake Kaplan. Between 27–28 September, the 1st and 4th French Colonial Regiments made their way through Drachevo and Pagaruza, successfully bypassing any sentries located in the 20-kilometre (12 mi) gap between the two Bulgarian formations that protected Uskub. At 4:00 a.m. on 29 September, French General François Léon Jouinot-Gambetta laid out the plan for the final stage of the offensive, the attack on Uskub. The assault was launched an hour later, French spahi utilized thick fog to advance on mount Vodna, however they were forced to regroup after facing heavy resistance. A pincer movement by the 1st Colonial Regiment created a bridgehead at river Vardar, while the 4th Colonial Regiment seized Lisici village. At 9:00 am, the spahis overtook Vodna, later shifting their attention towards the Kalkandelen road. The 1st Colonial Regiment joined the spahis, opening machine gun fire on the retreating 61st German Corps and causing numerous casualties. At 11:00 am, the French entered Uskub, detaining 220 Bulgarian and 139 German soldiers, while also seizing 5 guns and large amounts of ordnance. ## Aftermath Under those chaotic circumstances a Bulgarian delegation arrived in Thessaloniki to ask for an armistice. On 29 September, the Bulgarians were granted the Armistice of Salonica by General d'Esperey. The Bulgarian downfall turned the strategic and operational balance of the war against the Central Powers. The Macedonian Front was brought to an end at noon on 30 September, when the ceasefire came into effect. The treaty included the full capitulation of the 11th German Army, bringing the final tally of German and Bulgarian prisoners to 77,000 and granting the Allies 500 artillery pieces. The Radomir Rebellion was put down, by Bulgarian forces, as of the 2 October, while Tsar Ferdinand I of Bulgaria abdicated and went into exile the following day. New balance was best described by German Emperor Wilhelm II in his telegram to Bulgarian Tsar Ferdinand I: "Disgraceful! 62,000 Serbs decided the war!". On 29 September 1918, the German Supreme Army Command informed Kaiser Wilhelm II and the Imperial Chancellor Count Georg von Hertling, that the military situation facing Germany was hopeless. The British Army headed east towards the European side of the Ottoman Empire, while the French and Serbian forces continued north. The British Army neared Constantinople and, without a force capable of stopping the advance, the Ottoman government asked for an armistice (the Armistice of Mudros) on 26 October. In Serbia, "Desperate Frankie" (as the British nicknamed d'Esperey) continued to advance and the Serbo-French Army re-captured the country, overrunning several weak German divisions that tried to block its push near Niš. On 3 November, Austria-Hungary was forced to sign an armistice on the Italian Front ending the war there. On 10 November, d'Esperey's army crossed the Danube river and was poised to enter the Hungarian heartland. At the request of the French general, Count Mihály Károlyi, leading the Hungarian government, came to Belgrade and signed another armistice. ## See also - Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine - Kingdom of Yugoslavia
33,258,284	North Carolina Highway 102	1,159,942,499	State highway in North Carolina, US	[ "State highways in North Carolina", "Transportation in Beaufort County, North Carolina", "Transportation in Pitt County, North Carolina" ]	North Carolina Highway 102 (NC 102) is a primary state highway in the U.S. state of North Carolina. It runs from NC 903 near Ayden to US 17 near Hackney between Vanceboro and Chocowinity. Most of the highway is rural, the only town it serves is Ayden. NC 102 appeared on the first state highway map in 1924, running from Snow Hill to Goldsboro. At its peak, the road stretched from US 17 at its current eastern terminus to US 301 north of Fayetteville. The routing from I-95 to Snow Hill was renumbered as US 13 in 1977, and the segment of the route from its current western terminus to Snow Hill was replaced by an extension of NC 903. ## Route description NC 102 begins at NC 903 west of Ayden. It then heads east until it reaches Ayden. After about two miles (3.2 km), NC 102 enters Ayden, and has an interchange with NC 11 Bypass and then an intersection with NC 11. NC 102 continues through Ayden along 3rd Street, and in the heart of Ayden crosses a CSX rail line. From there NC 102 then continues east out of Ayden still along 3rd Street. After leaving Ayden, NC 102 enters a very rural area with many farms and small forests. About a mile (1.2 km) further east NC 102 has a junction with Ayden Golf Club Road. As NC 102 continues to the east it crosses Fork Swamp and has a junction with County Home Road (Secondary Road 1725, or SR 1725). About a mile to the east (1.3 km) the road turns to head in a southeastern direction instead of the eastern direction of most of the route. The routing along this part of the road almost parallels NC 43 to the east of the road. 3.7 miles (6.0 km) after the road turned in a southeastern direction. NC 102 intersects Stokestown–St.Johns Road (SR 1753). The road continues across Clayroot Swamp before the intersection with NC 43. The route continues eastward from that intersection and crosses Creeping Swamp and Gorham Swamp before crossing over a railroad owned by Norfolk Southern. Immediately after NC 102 crosses the railroad tracks, it ends at US 17. ## History NC 102 first appeared on the 1924 first official state map running from NC 10 (present day US 70 Business) to NC 12 in Snow Hill. The 1930 North Carolina state map shows that a section of NC 102 was built from NC 60 north of Fayetteville to NC 22 in Sampson County. This section was not connected to the rest of NC 102 which had also been extended south of Goldsboro to Newton Grove. By 1931 the two sections of NC 102 were connected with NC 102 running a short concurrency with NC 23 south of Newton Grove. Between 1931 and 1936, the road was extended to its current eastern terminus at US 17. The road had a short concurrency with US 258 from Snow Hill to three miles (4.8 km) to the northeast. Between 1931 and 1938, NC 102 was rerouted in Goldsboro leaving NC 102A the old route. In 1941, NC 102 was routed onto US 13 through Newton Grove. Around 1953 the road was routed back onto its original routing through Goldsboro, eliminating NC 102A. Between 1956 and 1957, US 13 was extended along NC 102 from Snow Hill to US 70 east of Goldsboro. In 1958, NC 102 was routed along a freeway around Goldsboro, along with US 70 and US 117. Between 1958 and 1961, NC 102 was routed onto new routing, which is currently US 13. Between the years of 1961 and 1963, the section of routing between US 301 and I-95 was downgraded to a secondary road. During the same time the routing between I-95 and Snow Hill was renumbered as US 13. In 1977, NC 102 was truncated to its current western terminus. The routing it left behind was used to extend NC 903. The routing of NC 102 has stayed the same since 1977. ## Major intersections ## Special routes ### Goldsboro alternate route North Carolina Highway 102A (NC 102A) was established between 1931–38 as a renumbering of NC 102, from Chestnut Street, along George and Ash Streets, ending at Center Street. It also shared a concurrency with US 70/NC 111 along Ash Street. By 1953, it was decommissioned in favor of US 117-A and NC 102.
28,484	Sputnik 1	1,172,952,654	First artificial Earth satellite	[ "1957 in international relations", "1957 in the Soviet Union", "1958 in the Soviet Union", "Amateur radio history", "Articles containing video clips", "Cold War terminology", "First artificial satellites of a country", "Geospace monitoring satellites", "History of electronic engineering", "Nikita Khrushchev", "Satellites of the Soviet Union", "Soviet inventions", "Spacecraft launched in 1957", "Spacecraft which reentered in 1958", "Sputnik", "Technology demonstration satellites" ]	Sputnik 1 (/ˈspʌtnɪk, ˈspʊtnɪk/, Russian: Спутник-1, Satellite 1) was the first artificial Earth satellite. It was launched into an elliptical low Earth orbit by the Soviet Union on 4 October 1957 as part of the Soviet space program. It sent a radio signal back to Earth for three weeks before its three silver-zinc batteries ran out. Aerodynamic drag caused it to fall back into the atmosphere on 4 January 1958. It was a polished metal sphere 58 cm (23 in) in diameter with four external radio antennas to broadcast radio pulses. Its radio signal was easily detectable by amateur radio operators, and the 65° orbital inclination made its flight path cover virtually the entire inhabited Earth. The satellite's success was unanticipated by the United States. This precipitated the American Sputnik crisis and triggered the Space Race, part of the Cold War. The launch was the beginning of a new era of political, military, technological and scientific developments. The word sputnik is Russian for traveller when interpreted in an astronomical context; its other meanings are spouse or traveling companion. Tracking and studying Sputnik 1 from Earth provided scientists with valuable information. The density of the upper atmosphere could be deduced from its drag on the orbit, and the propagation of its radio signals gave data about the ionosphere. Sputnik 1 was launched during the International Geophysical Year from Site No.1/5, at the 5th Tyuratam range, in Kazakh SSR (now known as the Baikonur Cosmodrome). The satellite traveled at a peak speed of about 8 km/s (18,000 mph), taking 96.20 minutes to complete each orbit. It transmitted on 20.005 and 40.002 MHz, which were monitored by radio operators throughout the world. The signals continued for 21 days until the transmitter batteries ran out on 26 October 1957. On 4 January 1958, after three months in orbit, Sputnik 1 burned up while reentering Earth's atmosphere, having completed 1,440 orbits of the Earth, and travelling a distance of approximately 70,000,000 km (43,000,000 mi). ## Etymology Спутник-1, romanized as Sputnik-Odin (), means 'Satellite-One'. The Russian word for satellite, , was coined in the 18th century by combining the prefix ('fellow') and ('traveler'), thereby meaning 'fellow-traveler', a meaning corresponding to the Latin root satelles ('guard, attendant or companion'), which is the origin of English satellite. In English, 'Sputnik' is widely recognized as a proper name; however, this is not the case in Russian. In the Russian language, sputnik is the general term for the artificial satellites of any country and the natural satellites of any planet. The incorrect attribution of 'Sputnik' as a proper name can be traced back to an article released by The New York Times on October 6, 1957, titled "Soviet 'Sputnik' Means A Traveler’s Traveler". In referenced article, the term 'Sputnik' was portrayed as bearing a poetic connotation arising from its linguistic origins. This connotation incorrectly indicated that it was bestowed with the specific proper name 'Fellow-Traveler-One', rather than being designated by the general term 'Satellite-One'. In Russian-language references, Sputnik 1 is recognized by the technical name of 'Satellite-One'. ## Before the launch ### Satellite construction project On 17 December 1954, chief Soviet rocket scientist Sergei Korolev proposed a developmental plan for an artificial satellite to the Minister of the Defense Industry, Dimitri Ustinov. Korolev forwarded a report by Mikhail Tikhonravov, with an overview of similar projects abroad. Tikhonravov had emphasized that the launch of an orbital satellite was an inevitable stage in the development of rocket technology. On 29 July 1955, U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower announced through his press secretary that, during the International Geophysical Year (IGY), the United States would launch an artificial satellite. Four days later, Leonid Sedov, a leading Soviet physicist, announced that they too would launch an artificial satellite. On 8 August, the Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union approved the proposal to create an artificial satellite. On 30 August Vasily Ryabikov—the head of the State Commission on the R-7 rocket test launches—held a meeting where Korolev presented calculation data for a spaceflight trajectory to the Moon. They decided to develop a three-stage version of the R-7 rocket for satellite launches. On 30 January 1956 the Council of Ministers approved practical work on an artificial Earth-orbiting satellite. This satellite, named Object D, was planned to be completed in 1957–58; it would have a mass of 1,000 to 1,400 kg (2,200 to 3,100 lb) and would carry 200 to 300 kg (440 to 660 lb) of scientific instruments. The first test launch of "Object D" was scheduled for 1957. Work on the satellite was to be divided among institutions as follows: - The USSR Academy of Sciences was responsible for the general scientific leadership and the supply of research instruments. - The Ministry of the Defense Industry and its primary design bureau, OKB-1, were assigned the task of building the satellite. - The Ministry of the Radio technical Industry would develop the control system, radio/technical instruments, and the telemetry system. - The Ministry of the Ship Building Industry would develop gyroscope devices. - The Ministry of the Machine Building would develop ground launching, refueling and transportation means. - The Ministry of the Defense was responsible for conducting launches. Preliminary design work was completed in July 1956 and the scientific tasks to be carried out by the satellite were defined. These included measuring the density of the atmosphere and its ion composition, the solar wind, magnetic fields, and cosmic rays. This data would be valuable in the creation of future artificial satellites; a system of ground stations was to be developed to collect data transmitted by the satellite, observe the satellite's orbit, and transmit commands to the satellite. Because of the limited time frame, observations were planned for only 7 to 10 days and orbit calculations were not expected to be extremely accurate. By the end of 1956 it became clear that the complexity of the ambitious design meant that 'Object D' could not be launched in time because of difficulties creating scientific instruments and the low specific impulse produced by the completed R-7 engines (304 sec instead of the planned 309 to 310 sec). Consequently, the government rescheduled the launch for April 1958. Object D would later fly as Sputnik 3. Fearing the U.S. would launch a satellite before the USSR, OKB-1 suggested the creation and launch of a satellite in April–May 1957, before the IGY began in July 1957. The new satellite would be simple, light (100 kg or 220 lb), and easy to construct, forgoing the complex, heavy scientific equipment in favour of a simple radio transmitter. On 15 February 1957 the Council of Ministers of the USSR approved this simple satellite, designated 'Object PS'. This version allowed the satellite to be tracked visually by Earth-based observers, and it could transmit tracking signals to ground-based receiving stations. The launch of two satellites, PS-1 and PS-2, with two R-7 rockets (8K71), was approved, provided that the R-7 completed at least two successful test flights. ### Launch vehicle preparation and launch site selection The R-7 rocket was initially designed as an intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) by OKB-1. The decision to build it was made by the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and the Council of Ministers of the USSR on 20 May 1954. The rocket was the most powerful in the world; it was designed with excess thrust since they were unsure how heavy the hydrogen bomb payload would be. The R-7 was also known by its GRAU (later GURVO, the Russian abbreviation for "Chief Directorate of the Rocket Forces") designation 8K71. At the time, the R-7 was known to NATO sources as the T-3 or M-104, and Type A. Several modifications were made to the R-7 rocket to adapt it to 'Object D', including upgrades to the main engines, the removal of a 300-kg radio package on the booster, and a new payload fairing that made the booster almost four meters shorter than its ICBM version. Object D would later be launched as Sputnik 3 after the much lighter 'Object PS' (Sputnik 1) was launched first. The trajectory of the launch vehicle and the satellite were initially calculated using arithmometers and six-digit trigonometric tables. More complex calculations were carried out on a newly-installed computer at the Academy of Sciences. A special reconnaissance commission selected Tyuratam for the construction of a rocket proving ground, the 5th Tyuratam range, usually referred to as "NIIP-5", or "GIK-5" in the post-Soviet time. The selection was approved on 12 February 1955 by the Council of Ministers of the USSR, but the site would not be completed until 1958. Actual work on the construction of the site began on 20 July by military building units. The first launch of an R-7 rocket (8K71 No.5L) occurred on 15 May 1957. A fire began in the Blok D strap-on almost immediately at liftoff, but the booster continued flying until 98 seconds after launch when the strap-on broke away and the vehicle crashed some 400 km (250 mi) downrange. Three attempts to launch the second rocket (8K71 No.6) were made on 10–11 June, but an assembly defect prevented launch. The unsuccessful launch of the third R-7 rocket (8K71 No.7) took place on 12 July. An electrical short caused the vernier engines to put the missile into an uncontrolled roll which resulted in all of the strap-ons separating 33 seconds into the launch. The R-7 crashed about 7 km (4.3 mi) from the pad. The launch of the fourth rocket (8K71 No.8), on 21 August at 15:25 Moscow Time, was successful. The rocket's core boosted the dummy warhead to the target altitude and velocity, reentered the atmosphere, and broke apart at a height of 10 km (6.2 mi) after traveling 6,000 km (3,700 mi). On 27 August, the TASS issued a statement on the successful launch of a long-distance multistage ICBM. The launch of the fifth R-7 rocket (8K71 No.9), on 7 September, was also successful, but the dummy was also destroyed on atmospheric re-entry, and hence needed a redesign to completely fulfill its military purpose. The rocket, however, was deemed suitable for satellite launches, and Korolev was able to convince the State Commission to allow the use of the next R-7 to launch PS-1, allowing the delay in the rocket's military exploitation to launch the PS-1 and PS-2 satellites. On 22 September a modified R-7 rocket, named Sputnik and indexed as 8K71PS, arrived at the proving ground and preparations for the launch of PS-1 began. Compared to the military R-7 test vehicles, the mass of 8K71PS was reduced from 280 t to 272 t, its length with PS-1 was 29.167 metres (95 ft 8.3 in) and the thrust at liftoff was 3.90 MN (880,000 lb<sub>f</sub>). ### Observation complex PS-1 was not designed to be controlled; it could only be observed. Initial data at the launch site would be collected at six separate observatories and telegraphed to NII-4. Located back in Moscow (at Bolshevo), NII-4 was a scientific research arm of the Ministry of Defence that was dedicated to missile development. The six observatories were clustered around the launch site, with the closest situated 1 km (0.62 mi) from the launch pad. A second, nationwide observation complex was established to track the satellite after its separation from the rocket. Called the Command-Measurement Complex, it consisted of the coordination center in NII-4 and seven distant stations situated along the line of the satellite's ground track. These tracking stations were located at Tyuratam, Sary-Shagan, Yeniseysk, Klyuchi, Yelizovo, Makat in Guryev Oblast, and Ishkup in Krasnoyarsk Krai. Stations were equipped with radar, optical instruments, and communications systems. Data from stations were transmitted by telegraphs into NII-4 where ballistics specialists calculated orbital parameters. The observatories used a trajectory measurement system called "Tral", developed by OKB MEI (Moscow Energy Institute), by which they received and monitored data from transponders mounted on the R-7 rocket's core stage. The data was useful even after the satellite's separation from the second stage of the rocket; Sputnik's location was calculated from the data on the second stage's location which followed Sputnik at a known distance. Tracking of the booster during launch had to be accomplished through purely passive means such as visual coverage and radar detection. R-7 test launches demonstrated that the tracking cameras were only good up to an altitude of 200 km (120 mi), but radar could track it for almost 500 km (310 mi). Outside the Soviet Union, the satellite was tracked by amateur radio operators in many countries. The booster rocket was located and tracked by the British using the Lovell Telescope at the Jodrell Bank Observatory, the only telescope in the world able to do so by radar. Canada's Newbrook Observatory was the first facility in North America to photograph Sputnik 1. ## Design Sputnik 1 was designed to meet a set of guidelines and objectives such as: - simplicity and reliability that could be adapted to future projects - a spherical body to help determine atmospheric density from its lifetime in orbit - radio equipment to facilitate tracking and to obtain data on radio waves propagation through the atmosphere - verification of the satellite's pressurization scheme The chief constructor of Sputnik 1 at OKB-1 was Mikhail S. Khomyakov. The satellite was a 585-millimetre (23.0 in) diameter sphere, assembled from two hemispheres that were hermetically sealed with O-rings and connected by 36 bolts. It had a mass of 83.6 kilograms (184 lb). The hemispheres were 2 mm thick, and were covered with a highly polished 1 mm-thick heat shield made of an aluminium–magnesium–titanium alloy, AMG6T. The satellite carried two pairs of antennas designed by the Antenna Laboratory of OKB-1, led by Mikhail V. Krayushkin. Each antenna was made up of two whip-like parts, 2.4 and 2.9 metres (7.9 and 9.5 ft) in length, and had an almost spherical radiation pattern. The power supply, with a mass of 51 kg (112 lb), was in the shape of an octagonal nut with the radio transmitter in its hole. It consisted of three silver-zinc batteries, developed at the All-Union Research Institute of Power Sources (VNIIT) under the leadership of Nikolai S. Lidorenko. Two of these batteries powered the radio transmitter and one powered the temperature regulation system. The batteries had an expected lifetime of two weeks, and operated for 22 days. The power supply was turned on automatically at the moment of the satellite's separation from the second stage of the rocket. The satellite had a one-watt, 3.5 kg (7.7 lb) radio transmitting unit inside, developed by Vyacheslav I. Lappo from NII-885, the Moscow Electronics Research Institute, that worked on two frequencies, 20.005 and 40.002 MHz. Signals on the first frequency were transmitted in 0.3 s pulses (near f = 3 Hz) (under normal temperature and pressure conditions on board), with pauses of the same duration filled by pulses on the second frequency. Analysis of the radio signals was used to gather information about the electron density of the ionosphere. Temperature and pressure were encoded in the duration of radio beeps. A temperature regulation system contained a fan, a dual thermal switch, and a control thermal switch. If the temperature inside the satellite exceeded 36 °C (97 °F), the fan was turned on; when it fell below 20 °C (68 °F), the fan was turned off by the dual thermal switch. If the temperature exceeded 50 °C (122 °F) or fell below 0 °C (32 °F), another control thermal switch was activated, changing the duration of the radio signal pulses. Sputnik 1 was filled with dry nitrogen, pressurized to 1.3 atm (130 kPa). The satellite had a barometric switch, activated if the pressure inside the satellite fell below 130 kPa, which would have indicated failure of the pressure vessel or puncture by a meteor, and would have changed the duration of radio signal impulse. While attached to the rocket, Sputnik 1 was protected by a cone-shaped payload fairing, with a height of 80 cm (31.5 in). The fairing separated from both Sputnik and the spent R-7 second stage at the same time as the satellite was ejected. Tests of the satellite were conducted at OKB-1 under the leadership of Oleg G. Ivanovsky. ## Launch and mission The control system of the Sputnik rocket was adjusted to an intended orbit of 223 by 1,450 km (139 by 901 mi), with an orbital period of 101.5 minutes. The trajectory had been calculated earlier by Georgi Grechko, using the USSR Academy of Sciences' mainframe computer. The Sputnik rocket was launched on 4 October 1957 at 19:28:34 UTC (5 October at the launch site) from Site No.1 at NIIP-5. Telemetry indicated that the strap-ons separated 116 seconds into the flight and the core stage engine shut down 295.4 seconds into the flight. At shutdown, the 7.5-tonne core stage (with PS-1 attached) had attained an altitude of 223 km (139 mi) above sea level, a velocity of 7,780 m/s (25,500 ft/s), and a velocity vector inclination to the local horizon of 0 degrees 24 minutes. This resulted in an initial elliptical orbit of 223 km (139 mi) by 950 km (590 mi), with an apogee approximately 500 km (310 mi) lower than intended, and an inclination of 65.10° and a period of 96.20 minutes. Several engines did not fire on time, almost aborting the mission. A fuel regulator in the booster also failed around 16 seconds into launch, which resulted in excessive RP-1 consumption for most of the powered flight and the engine thrust being 4% above nominal. Core stage cutoff was intended for T+296 seconds, but the premature propellant depletion caused thrust termination to occur one second earlier when a sensor detected overspeed of the empty RP-1 turbopump. There were 375 kg (827 lb) of LOX remaining at cutoff. At 19.9 seconds after engine cut-off, PS-1 separated from the second stage and the satellite's transmitter was activated. These signals were detected at the IP-1 station by Junior Engineer-Lieutenant V.G. Borisov, where reception of Sputnik 1's "beep-beep-beep" tones confirmed the satellite's successful deployment. Reception lasted for 2 minutes, until PS-1 fell below the horizon. The Tral telemetry system on the R-7 core stage continued to transmit and was detected on its second orbit. The designers, engineers and technicians who developed the rocket and satellite watched the launch from the range. After the launch they drove to the mobile radio station to listen for signals from the satellite. They waited about 90 minutes to ensure that the satellite had made one orbit and was transmitting before Korolev called Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev. On the first orbit the Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union (TASS) transmitted: "As result of great, intense work of scientific institutes and design bureaus the first artificial Earth satellite has been built". The R-7 core stage, with a mass of 7.5 tonnes and a length of 26 metres, also reached Earth orbit. It was a first magnitude object following behind the satellite and visible at night. Deployable reflective panels were placed on the booster in order to increase its visibility for tracking. A small highly polished sphere, the satellite was barely visible at sixth magnitude, and thus harder to follow optically. The batteries ran out on 26 October 1957, after the satellite completed 326 orbits. The core stage of the R-7 remained in orbit for two months until 2 December 1957, while Sputnik 1 orbited for three months, until 4 January 1958, having completed 1,440 orbits of the Earth. ## Reception > Our movies and television programs in the fifties were full of the idea of going into space. What came as a surprise was that it was the Soviet Union that launched the first satellite. It is hard to recall the atmosphere of the time. The Soviets provided details of Sputnik 1 before the launch, but few outside the Soviet Union noticed. After reviewing information publicly available before the launch, the science writer Willy Ley wrote in 1958: > If somebody tells me that he has the rockets to shoot—which we know from other sources, anyway—and tells me what he will shoot, how he will shoot it, and in general says virtually everything except for the precise date—well, what should I feel like if I'm surprised when the man shoots? Organized through the citizen science project Operation Moonwatch, teams of visual observers at 150 stations in the United States and other countries were alerted during the night to watch for the satellite at dawn and during the evening twilight as it passed overhead. The USSR requested amateur and professional radio operators to tape record the signal being transmitted from the satellite. News reports at the time pointed out that "anyone possessing a short wave receiver can hear the new Russian earth satellite as it hurtles over this area of the globe." Directions, provided by the American Radio Relay League, were to "Tune in 20 megacycles sharply, by the time signals, given on that frequency. Then tune to slightly higher frequencies. The 'beep, beep' sound of the satellite can be heard each time it rounds the globe." The first recording of Sputnik 1's signal was made by RCA engineers near Riverhead, Long Island. They then drove the tape recording into Manhattan for broadcast to the public over NBC radio. However, as Sputnik rose higher over the East Coast, its signal was picked up by W2AEE, the ham radio station of Columbia University. Students working in the university's FM station, WKCR, made a tape of this, and were the first to rebroadcast the Sputnik signal to the American public (or whoever could receive the FM station). The Soviet Union agreed to transmit on frequencies that worked with the United States' existing infrastructure, but later announced the lower frequencies. Asserting that the launch "did not come as a surprise", the White House refused to comment on any military aspects. On 5 October the Naval Research Laboratory captured recordings of Sputnik 1 during four crossings over the United States. The USAF Cambridge Research Center collaborated with Bendix-Friez, Westinghouse Broadcasting, and the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory to obtain a video of Sputnik's rocket body crossing the pre-dawn sky of Baltimore, broadcast on 12 October by WBZ-TV in Boston. The success of Sputnik 1 seemed to have changed minds around the world regarding a shift in power to the Soviets. The USSR's launch of Sputnik 1 spurred the United States to create the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA, later DARPA) in February 1958 to regain a technological lead. In Britain, the media and population initially reacted with a mixture of fear for the future, but also amazement about human progress. Many newspapers and magazines heralded the arrival of the Space Age. However, when the USSR launched Sputnik 2, containing the dog Laika, the media narrative returned to one of anti-Communism and many people sent protests to the Soviet embassy and the RSPCA. ### Propaganda Sputnik 1 was not immediately used for Soviet propaganda. The Soviets had kept quiet about their earlier accomplishments in rocketry, fearing that it would lead to secrets being revealed and failures being exploited by the West. When the Soviets began using Sputnik in their propaganda, they emphasized pride in the achievement of Soviet technology, arguing that it demonstrated the Soviets' superiority over the West. People were encouraged to listen to Sputnik's signals on the radio and to look out for Sputnik in the night sky. While Sputnik itself had been highly polished, its small size made it barely visible to the naked eye. What most watchers actually saw was the much more visible 26-metre core stage of the R-7. Shortly after the launch of PS-1, Khrushchev pressed Korolev to launch another satellite to coincide with the 40th anniversary of the October Revolution, on 7 November 1957. The launch of Sputnik 1 surprised the American public, and shattered the perception created by American propaganda of the United States as the technological superpower, and the Soviet Union as a backward country. Privately, however, the CIA and President Eisenhower were aware of progress being made by the Soviets on Sputnik from secret spy plane imagery. Together with the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), the Army Ballistic Missile Agency built Explorer 1, and launched it on 31 January 1958. Before work was completed, however, the Soviet Union launched a second satellite, Sputnik 2, on 3 November 1957. Meanwhile, the televised failure of Vanguard TV-3 on 6 December 1957 deepened American dismay over the country's position in the Space Race. The Americans took a more aggressive stance in the emerging space race, resulting in an emphasis on science and technological research, and reforms in many areas from the military to education systems. The federal government began investing in science, engineering, and mathematics at all levels of education. An advanced research group was assembled for military purposes. These research groups developed weapons such as ICBMs and missile defense systems, as well as spy satellites for the U.S. ## Legacy > On Friday, 4 October 1957, the Soviets had orbited the world's first artificial satellite. Anyone who doubted its existence could walk into the backyard just after sunset and see it. Initially, U.S. President Dwight Eisenhower was not surprised by Sputnik 1. He had been forewarned of the R-7's capabilities by information derived from U-2 spy plane overflight photos, as well as signals and telemetry intercepts. The Eisenhower administration's first response was low-key and almost dismissive. Eisenhower was even pleased that the USSR, not the U.S., would be the first to test the waters of the still-uncertain legal status of orbital satellite overflights. Eisenhower had suffered the Soviet protests and shoot-downs of Project Genetrix (Moby Dick) balloons and was concerned about the probability of a U-2 being shot down. To set a precedent for "freedom of space" before the launch of America's secret WS-117L spy satellites, the U.S. had launched Project Vanguard as its own "civilian" satellite entry for the International Geophysical Year. Eisenhower greatly underestimated the reaction of the American public, who were shocked by the launch of Sputnik and by the televised failure of the Vanguard Test Vehicle 3 launch attempt. The sense of anxiety was inflamed by Democratic politicians and professional cold warriors, who portrayed the United States as woefully behind. One of the many books that suddenly appeared for the lay-audience noted seven points of "impact" upon the nation: Western leadership, Western strategy and tactics, missile production, applied research, basic research, education, and democratic culture. As public and the government became interested in space and related science and technology, the phenomenon was sometimes dubbed the "Sputnik craze". The U.S. soon had a number of successful satellites, including Explorer 1, Project SCORE, and Courier 1B. However, public reaction to the Sputnik crisis spurred America to action in the Space Race, leading to the creation of both the Advanced Research Projects Agency (renamed the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, or DARPA, in 1972), and NASA (through the National Aeronautics and Space Act), as well as increased U.S. government spending on scientific research and education through the National Defense Education Act. Sputnik also contributed directly to a new emphasis on science and technology in American schools. With a sense of urgency, Congress enacted the 1958 National Defense Education Act, which provided low-interest loans for college tuition to students majoring in mathematics and science. After the launch of Sputnik, a poll conducted and published by the University of Michigan showed that 26% of Americans surveyed thought that Russian sciences and engineering were superior to that of the United States. (A year later, however, that figure had dropped to 10% as the U.S. began launching its own satellites into space.) One consequence of the Sputnik shock was the perception of a "missile gap". This became a dominant issue in the 1960 Presidential campaign. One irony of the Sputnik event was the initially low-key response of the Soviet Union. The Communist Party newspaper Pravda only printed a few paragraphs about Sputnik 1 on 4 October. Sputnik also inspired a generation of engineers and scientists. Harrison Storms, the North American designer who was responsible for the X-15 rocket plane, and went on to head the effort to design the Apollo command and service module and Saturn V launch vehicle's second stage, was moved by the launch of Sputnik to think of space as being the next step for America. Astronauts Alan Shepard (who was the first American in space) and Deke Slayton later wrote of how the sight of Sputnik 1 passing overhead inspired them to their new careers. The launch of Sputnik 1 led to the resurgence of the suffix -nik in the English language. The American writer Herb Caen was inspired to coin the term "beatnik" in an article about the Beat Generation in the San Francisco Chronicle on 2 April 1958. The flag of the Russian city of Kaluga, (which, due to it being Konstantin Tsiolkovsky's place of work and residency, is very dedicated to space and space travel) features a small Sputnik in the canton. ### Satellite navigation The launch of Sputnik also planted the seeds for the development of modern satellite navigation. Two American physicists, William Guier and George Weiffenbach, at Johns Hopkins University's Applied Physics Laboratory (APL) decided to monitor Sputnik's radio transmissions and within hours realized that, because of the Doppler effect, they could pinpoint where the satellite was along its orbit. The Director of the APL gave them access to their UNIVAC computer to do the then heavy calculations required. Early the next year, Frank McClure, the deputy director of the APL, asked Guier and Weiffenbach to investigate the inverse problem: pinpointing the user's location, given the satellite's. At the time, the Navy was developing the submarine-launched Polaris missile, which required them to know the submarine's location. This led them and APL to develop the TRANSIT system, a forerunner of modern Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites. ## Backup units and replicas At least two vintage duplicates of Sputnik 1 exist, built apparently as backup units. One resides just outside Moscow in the corporate museum of Energia, the modern descendant of Korolev's design bureau, where it is on display by appointment only. Another is in the Museum of Flight in Seattle, Washington. Unlike Energia's unit, it has no internal components, but it does have casings and molded fittings inside (as well as evidence of battery wear), which suggests it was built as more than just a model. Authenticated by the Memorial Museum of Cosmonautics in Moscow, the unit was auctioned in 2001 and purchased by an anonymous private buyer, who donated it to the museum. Two more Sputnik backups are said to be in the personal collections of American entrepreneurs Richard Garriott and Jay S. Walker. In 1959, the Soviet Union donated a replica of Sputnik to the United Nations. There are other full-size Sputnik replicas (with varying degrees of accuracy) on display in locations around the world, including the National Air and Space Museum in the United States, the Science Museum in the United Kingdom, the Powerhouse Museum in Australia, and outside the Russian embassy in Spain. Three one-third scale student-built replicas of Sputnik 1 were deployed from the Mir space station between 1997 and 1999. The first, named Sputnik 40 to commemorate the fortieth anniversary of the launch of Sputnik 1, was deployed in November 1997. Sputnik 41 was launched a year later, and Sputnik 99 was deployed in February 1999. A fourth replica was launched, but never deployed, and was destroyed when Mir was deorbited. The Sputnik 1 EMC/EMI is a class of full-scale laboratory models of the satellite. The models, manufactured by OKB-1 and NII-885 (headed by Mikhail Ryazansky), were introduced on February 15, 1957. They were made to test ground electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) and electromagnetic interference (EMI). ## See also - Yuri Gagarin — Soviet cosmonaut and first human to journey into outer space - Donald B. Gillies — one of the first to calculate the Sputnik 1 orbit - Kerim Kerimov — one of the architects behind Sputnik 1 - Valentina Tereshkova — first woman in space - ILLIAC I — first computer to calculate the orbit of Sputnik 1 - Timeline of artificial satellites and space probes - Timeline of Russian innovation
23,757,960	Richard Henry Savage	1,108,652,230	American military officer and writer (1846–1903)	[ "1846 births", "1903 deaths", "American military personnel of the Spanish–American War", "American people in the khedivial Egyptian Army", "Burials at West Point Cemetery", "California National Guard personnel", "Lawyers from New York City", "Lawyers from San Francisco", "Military personnel from California", "Pedestrian road incident deaths", "Road incident deaths in New York City", "United States Army Corps of Engineers personnel", "United States Army officers", "United States Military Academy alumni", "Writers from New York City", "Writers from San Francisco", "Writers from Utica, New York" ]	Richard Henry Savage (June 12, 1846 – October 11, 1903) was an American military officer and author who wrote more than 40 books of adventure and mystery, based loosely on his own experiences. Savage's life may have been the inspiration for the pulp novel character Doc Savage. In his youth in San Francisco, Savage studied engineering and law, and graduated from the United States Military Academy. After a few years of surveying work with the Army Corps of Engineers, Savage went to Rome as an envoy following which he sailed to Egypt to serve a stint with the Egyptian Army. Returning home, Savage was assigned to assess border disputes between the U.S. and Mexico, and he performed railroad survey work in Texas. In Washington D.C., he courted and married a widowed noblewoman from Germany. Savage returned to San Francisco with his wife to stay for ten years, raising a daughter and taking part in a family business. He served at the rank of colonel in the California National Guard, and took part in the social activity of the city. During a period of anti-Chinese race riots, Savage stood up for law and order, and thereby gained the respect of San Francisco's leaders, property holders and middle class residents. Savage traveled to many exotic lands but in 1890 he was struck with jungle fever in Honduras. While recuperating in New York state he wrote his first book: My Official Wife. This very successful action-and-adventure story was followed by more, at the rate of about three per year, written for the general public rather than for literary critics; the latter were charmed by the first book but scathing of many later ones. Savage lived primarily in New York City, and was involved in lawsuits, especially against his New York publisher regarding unpaid royalties. When the Spanish–American War broke out, Savage volunteered to lead men in battle. Instead, he was given command of an engineering unit which then built a complete base in Havana. Returning to New York, he wrote more books and corresponded with his wife who traveled often to the Russian Empire to visit their daughter and her Russian husband. Four years after mustering out of the Army, Savage was knocked down and mortally wounded at the age of 57 by a horse and carriage on the streets of New York. ## Early life and career Savage was born in Utica, New York, the son of Jane Moorhead Ewart and Richard Savage (1817–1903), a lawyer and manufacturer whose family had lived in the Utica area for years. The 1848 finding of gold in California, prompted Savage's father to join the California Gold Rush in 1850. Savage and the rest of his family left New York in 1851 to join his father. They arrived in San Francisco in February 1852. Savage was among the first boys to attend public school in the new city, along with future poet Charles Warren Stoddard and the brothers Gus, Charles and Harry de Young who would found the San Francisco Chronicle. While the younger Savage was in school, his father helped discover the rich silver deposits of the Comstock Lode. Savage finished high school at age 15 and began to study law with U.S. Senator James A. McDougall. Later, he studied with the law firm Halleck, Peachy & Billings, while partner Henry Halleck was back East serving as major general in the Union Army. At the start of the American Civil War Savage joined the Union Army, but his father secured his discharge on the grounds of his extreme youth. Savage's father used his influence to push for California to stay on the Union side, and was rewarded by President Lincoln with the post of Collector of Internal Revenue in which capacity he served between 1861 and 1873. Through government connections, Savage's father gained for Savage an appointment to the United States Military Academy at West Point in 1864. Despite the danger of Confederate privateers, Savage chose to travel east by way of the Pacific Mail Steamship Company to the Isthmus of Panama, followed by the Atlantic leg to New York, but significant wartime delays prevented him from joining the summer plebes at the academy. Rather, he took his place with the September students. In 1868, Savage graduated sixth in his class of 55 at West Point, and was assigned as brevet second lieutenant with the Army Corps of Engineers at Yerba Buena Island in San Francisco Bay. (The "brevet" rank acknowledged that Savage was needed as a second lieutenant despite the US government limiting the number of serving army officers.) Savage took part in survey work on the Indian reservations of Round Valley in Northern California and the Pima and Maricopa reservations in Arizona. ## Government and writing career Savage performed his Army tasks but was unhappy with the narrowly defined role. He tendered his resignation on December 31, 1870. Through President Grant, he went to Marseilles and Rome as an American vice-consul. In 1871, Savage traveled to Egypt to act with the rank of captain for one year as secretary to Charles Pomeroy Stone, a former American general in the Egyptian Army, serving under Khedive Isma'il Pasha. Following an honorable discharge from the Egyptian Army, Savage returned to the U.S. and was tasked by Grant to serve as one of three commissioners investigating a series of border incidents between the U.S. and Mexico 1872–74. At the same time, he worked with Richard King and the nascent Corpus Christi & Rio Grande Railroad as chief surveyor for the route to Laredo. At the German Embassy in Washington, D.C., on January 2, 1873, Savage married the aristocratic Anna Josephine Scheible, a German widow three months older than he who had arrived in war-torn America in 1864 with her first husband, Gustav, to look after family-owned land in Georgia. Gustav Scheible died in 1866 and Anna became a favorite of the Washington social circle. Her marriage to Savage produced one daughter, who later married Anatol de Carriere, a minor nobleman and an Imperial Russian Councilor of State. In 1874, Savage began a ten-year stay in San Francisco. He worked with his father and brother on an iron foundry enterprise, and served two years as colonel of the 2nd Regiment California National Guard. Savage took a prominent role in the civic and social life of the city, and was often called upon to make extemporaneous speeches to large crowds, a skill on which politician and economist Henry George complimented him. In January 1878, Savage served as chief military executive officer of the Committee of Safety, a group set up to oppose Denis Kearney and his riotous mob of angry supporters who wanted to get rid of Chinese immigrants. Savage's calm and logical presence was seen by San Franciscans as a rallying point for law and order during the riots. Savage renewed the friendship of his childhood schoolmate, now Bohemian Club poet Charles Warren Stoddard. He made the acquaintance of writer Archibald Clavering Gunter, who would later publish some of Savage's stories. While in San Francisco, Anna Savage began a devoted interest in the fight for women's suffrage. Savage retired from government service in 1884 to practice law with his youngest brother. In 1890, he moved to New York City. In late 1890 at a friend's house on Lake George in upstate New York, while recovering from a near-fatal case of jungle fever contracted in Honduras, Savage wrote a tale loosely based on his life, entitled My Official Wife. The book was a great success, and was translated into many languages. The Times in London called it "a wonderful and clever tour de force, in which improbabilities and impossibilities disappear, under an air that is irresistible." Savage followed his first book with Delilah of Harlem, The Mask of Venus, Our Mysterious Passenger and Other Stories and In the Shadow of the Pyramids. In addition to his fiction prose output, Savage published collections of his speeches and essays, and in 1895 wrote a book of poetry dedicated to his wife: After Many Years. Savage's writing style was fast and precise: he wrote from morning to night and rarely needed to correct his first drafts. He was able to carry on a conversation while writing. He joined the Author's Guild of America in 1894. ### Critical review In 1893, Savage's book The Masked Venus was scathingly reviewed in the Overland Monthly: > Colonel Richard Henry Savage's career as a novelist has been one of unbroken and rapid decline in the grade of work. My Official Wife was a delicious story, novel in situations and treatment, and simply and well told. The Little Lady of Lagunitas also pleased many people. Prince Schamyl's Wooing was markedly inferior to either, both in plot and style, and sadly marred by blood-and-thunderism. The last of the series yet to hand is The Masked Venus, and it is undoubtedly the worst of all. [...] The style is bombastic, the plot impossible, and the tone bad. [...] The fatal Custer campaign is the climax,—if there can be said to be a climax to a story that endeavors to keep the excitement up to the climax pitch through nearly its whole length,—and there is throughout a lack of moderation, of repose, of proportion, that makes the book a dime novel and not literature. Savage's In the Shadow of the Pyramids was reviewed in The Literary World in May 1898. The reviewer said that Savage used "a happy mixture of audacity and ignorance quite untrammeled by facts." The "absurd" main character was criticized as unrealistically exposed to mortal danger almost daily, "just escaping dagger thrusts and pistol shots, with results more favorable to the theatrical progress of the story than to his common sense." The previous month in the same periodical, Savage's 25¢ book For Life and Love was dismissed as "a slap-dash romance". ## Final decade In 1896, Savage sued his publisher for \$12,000 in unpaid royalties. The publisher, Frank Tennyson Neely, who had filed for bankruptcy five years earlier before accepting Savage as a client, argued that he did not owe Savage anything, instead, Savage owed him. Neely's scattered and incomplete accounting books prevented an easy conclusion to the trial. Three years later, Neely once again declared bankruptcy. In 1899, Abraham Lewis of Brooklyn sued Savage for \$10,000 in damages, for stealing away the affections of his wife. Savage's own wife and a friend defended him in court, saying Lewis, an informal supplier of food to soldiers under Savage's command, was retaliating for being stopped from the lucrative but illegal act of selling liquor to the troops at Montauk Point. On January 3, 1898, Savage and his wife celebrated their 25th anniversary, in New York City. On February 16, Savage volunteered for Army duty during the Spanish–American War. Savage would have served as lieutenant colonel of the 1st Tammany Regiment, but New York's Governor Frank S. Black declined the formation. Savage was instead assigned senior major of the 2nd U.S. Volunteer Engineers at the end of May. After stateside training and the building of a complete Army camp at Montauk Point, his unit traveled in November to Havana, Cuba and cleared Marianao to build Camp Columbia for the Army of Occupation. Savage hoisted the first American flag in Havana Province on December 10. He was in command of the battalion at the surrender of Havana on January 1, 1899. Weakened with yellow fever, Savage was mustered out of the Volunteer Engineers in April, 1899, and assigned captain with the 27th Volunteer Infantry. Continuing illness prevented him from traveling with his unit to the Philippines, and he was honorably discharged. In August 1903, Savage's wife and daughter were in Kishinev, Russia, where Savage's son-in-law Anatol de Carriere was serving the Russian government. Savage's wife sent word through Breslau to London that 27 of the Kishinev pogrom rioters had been given prison sentences. The de Carrieres hid some 40 Jews in their house during the rioting. Anna Savage warned that if further bloody riots were encouraged by the Tsar's government, "the wealthy Russian aristocracy will be in danger of their lives." ## Death and legacy Savage died on October 11, 1903, at Roosevelt Hospital after being knocked down and injured in the ribcage on a New York City street by a horse and wagon on October 3. Savage's wife and daughter were still in Europe at the time of his death. He was buried at the West Point Cemetery on October 14, 1903. Anna Josephine Savage died at the age of 67 on July 7, 1910, after a long illness in New York City, with her daughter at her side. For 30 years, she had been a noted supporter of women's right to vote. Author Marilyn Cannaday has suggested that Doc Savage, the pulp hero from the 1930s and 1940s, was based in part on Savage's life, or at least his name. Though he never met Savage, Henry Ralston, one of men who created the pulp character, joined Street and Smith publishers one year after a collection of Savage's short stories were published. ## Selected works - $1891$ My Official Wife, at Google Books - $1891$ My Official Wife, at Internet Archive - $1892$ The Little Lady of Lagunitas: A Franco-Californian Romance, at Project Gutenberg - $1892$ The Little Lady of Lagunitas: A Franco-Californian Romance, at Internet Archive - $1892$ Prince Schamyl's Wooing: A Story of the Caucasus-Russo-Turkish War (1892), at Internet Archive - $1893$ Of Life and Love: A Story of the Rio Grande, at Internet Archive - $1893$ Delilah of Harlem: A Story of the New York City of To-Day, at Internet Archive - $1894$ The Anarchist: A Story of To-Day, at Internet Archive - $1894$ The Princess of Alaska: A Tale of Two Countries, at Internet Archive - $1894$ The Flying Halcyon: a mystery of the Pacific Ocean, at Google Books - $1895$ Miss Devereux of the Mariquita: A Story of Bonanza Days in Nevada, at Internet Archive - $1895$ His Cuban Sweetheart, at Internet Archive - $1895$ After Many Years, at Internet Archive - $1896$ An Exile from London: A Novel, at Internet Archive - $1896$ Lost Contessa Falka: A Story of the Orient, at Internet Archive - $1896$ Checked Through, Missing, Trunk No. 17580: A Story on New York City Life, at Internet Archive - $1897$ An Awkward Meeting, Fighting the Tiger and other Thrilling Adventures, at Internet Archive - $1897$ A Fascinating Traitor, at Project Gutenberg - $1897$ Captain Landon: A Story of Modern Rome, at Internet Archive - $1897$ A Modern Corsair: A Story of the Levant, at Internet Archive - $1898$ In The Swim: A Story of Currents and Under-Currents in Gayest New York, at Internet Archive - $1899$ His Cuban Sweetheart, at Internet Archive - $1899$ The White Lady of Khaminavatka: A Story of the Ukraine, at Google Books - $1900$ The Midnight Passenger, at Project Gutenberg - $1902$ The Mystery of a Shipyard, at Internet Archive - $1904$ The Last Traitor of Long Island: A Story of the Sea, at Internet Archive - $1904$ The Last Traitor of Long Island: A Story of the Sea, at Internet Archive
36,175,794	Robert McLachlan (cinematographer)	1,154,333,001	Canadian cinematographer	[ "Canadian cinematographers", "Living people", "People associated with Greenpeace", "People from Vancouver", "Simon Fraser University alumni", "Year of birth missing (living people)" ]	Robert McLachlan is a Canadian cinematographer. A successful cyclist in his youth, McLachlan quit the sport to take up cinematography, and entered the field after studying at Simon Fraser University, McLachlan was mentored by Richard Leiterman. His professional career began with documentary work for Greenpeace, before he became involved in both television and feature films; his work has subsequently earned him several industry awards and award nominations. McLachlan, who was inspired by both his father's photography and his own appreciation for the films Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid and Walkabout to choose his career path, would go on to find recognition as the chief cinematographer for the television series Millennium, for which he was scouted specifically. McLachlan's style on this series led to several industry awards and briefly became popular in the medium, as well as leading him directly to future work on Game of Thrones. He founded the documentary production company Omni Film Productions in the 1970s, later selling his share of the company. ## Early life and education In his youth, McLachlan was an avid cyclist, accrediting this to the fact that his home town Vancouver was not cold enough for ponds to freeze over to play ice hockey on. During his teenage years, he trained upwards of six hours a day, and won several national championships in the sport. He qualified to represent Canada in the 1976 Summer Olympics, but the lack of funding for cycling in North America at the time would have necessitated him funding his own journey and leaving school to do so; McLachlan opted instead to remain in education and focus on his interest in photography. McLachlan first became interested in cinematography after viewing the 1969 film Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid; Nicolas Roeg's work on the 1971 film Walkabout further cemented his interest in the field. McLachlan was also motivated by his father, who was an avid photographer. An early school assignment to create a Super 8 film project, for which he received an A grade, also proved a formative influence. McLachlan studied fine art at the University of British Columbia for a year, before changing courses to attend classes at Simon Fraser University's film department. McLachlan's education focussed on the documentary style of John Grierson; however, when he began work in 1987, he was mentored by Richard Leiterman. McLachlan also cites influences outside the field of cinematography, drawing influence from the chiaroscuro, Dutch art and pre-Raphaelite movements of visual art, and the works of Andrew Wyeth and Georges de La Tour in particular. ## Career Having graduated, McLachlan and Michael Chechik founded the production company Omni Film Productions in 1979, and began to work with Greenpeace, filming documentary footage on a range of subjects. McLachlan narrowly avoided trouble on several of these shoots, finding himself arrested for filming too close to an Exxon oil tanker and scarcely missing being assaulted by trophy hunters in British Columbia. McLachlan would later sell his stake in Omni, but remains proud of their documentary work. At the time, McLachlan was unsuccessful in joining an industry union, relegating his work to advertising and small-scale productions; his first union-backed project was on the revival of the television series Sea Hunt. McLachlan found success on the Fox television series Millennium, earning several awards for his work on the show. He was head-hunted for the series by its creator Chris Carter, who had seen his work on the series Strange Luck. McLachlan was initially offered a position shooting Carter's other active series, The X-Files, then in its third season, but was unable to start work in time. He developed a distinctive style for the series, shooting it with desaturated colours and lighting scenes as though they were to be filmed in black and white; he also made use of high-intensity strobe lighting usually employed for advertising and macro cinematography. McLachlan has noted that this style briefly became popular after the series' broadcast but that other cinematographers had difficulty adjusting to it. Having worked on Millennium with director David Nutter, McLachlan was able to parley this connection into a role on the HBO fantasy series Game of Thrones. McLachlan has called working on the show's ten-person cinematography team "a major logistical challenge", noting the complexity of its out-of-sequence filming schedules as something unseen on a television series before. McLachlan has also worked on the programme Ray Donovan, and has based that series' cinematography on both film noir aesthetics and those of 1970s cinema, specifically citing The Long Goodbye, The Parallax View and All the President's Men, as well as the work of Gordon Willis. ## Accolades McLachlan has been nominated for, and won, several awards over the course of his career. He has been nominated four times for the American Society of Cinematographers awards, three times for his work on the television series Millennium and once for the television film High Noon. He has also won several Canadian Society of Cinematographers awards, including wins for the films Willard and Impolite, as well as for several episodes of Millennium and The Lone Gunmen. McLachlan's work on Game of Thrones received Emmy Award nominations in 2013 and 2015, and a Canadian Society of Cinematographers award nomination in 2015; he was also nominated by the latter society for his cinematography on the series Ray Donovan. ## Partial filmography ### Film ### Television
1,514,072	Marek Sobieski (1628–1652)	1,127,078,248	17th-century Polish nobleman	[ "1628 births", "1652 deaths", "17th-century Polish people", "Members of the Sejm of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth", "Sobieski family" ]	Marek Sobieski (24 May 1628 – 3 June 1652) was a Polish nobleman, starosta (tenant of the Crown lands) of Krasnystaw and Jaworów, and the older brother of King John III Sobieski of Poland. He graduated from Nowodworek College in Kraków and Kraków Academy, then traveled and studied in Western Europe. After returning to Poland in 1648 he fought against the Cossacks and Tatars at the Siege of Zbaraż and at the Battle of Beresteczko. He was taken captive by Tatars in 1652 and then killed by Cossacks. ## Childhood and studies Sobieski was the oldest child of Jakub Sobieski and his second wife Teofila Zofia Daniłłowicz. He was born on 24 May 1628 in Zolochiv and spent his childhood in Zhovkva. He grew up in a patriotic family, and his mother often took him and his brother to the grave of her grandfather Stanisław Żółkiewski, Grand Hetman of the Crown, who was killed in the battle of Cecora in 1620. Zofia Teofila Daniłłowicz taught her sons the inscription upon their great-grandfather's grave: "O quam dulce et decorum est pro patria mori!" (How sweet and glorious it is to die for one's homeland!). On 29 October 1639 Sobieski became Starosta of Yavoriv. Along with his brother John, beginning in 1640, Sobieski studied at the Nowodworski College in Kraków. On 29 April 1642 Sobieski made a speech on funeral of Jakub Zadzik, bishop of Kraków. The next year, on 2 June 1643, Sobieski made a speech where he thanked absent Władysław IV for everything he had done for Nodworski College. Two months earlier, in April 1643, Marek and John Sobieski began studies at Kraków Academy. In 1644 Sobieski became Starosta of Krasnystaw. In 1645 Jakub Sobieski, father of Marek and John, prepared special instructions and a guidebook for his sons, who were about to go abroad. Jakub Sobieski, who was inspired by Roman authors, emphasized learning foreign languages and physical exercises. He wanted to prepare his sons to be politics and diplomats. After completing their studies in 1646, the brothers started to travel around Europe under the tutelage of Sebastian Gawrecki. They departed Żółkiew on 21 February or 25 March 1646. They visited Berlin, Wittenberg, Leipzig, Halle, Amsterdam and Paris, where they arrived on 9 June 1646. They spent the next 16 months in France. In October 1647 Marek and John Sobieski went to England and subsequently studied mathematics in the Netherlands. The brothers had planned to go to Turkey, but after hearing of the Khmelnytsky uprising they decided to return to Poland. Marek and John Sobieski left Brussels on 24 July 1648. ## Adulthood After returning to Poland, Sobieski and his brother came to Zamość, which at the time was being besieged by Cossacks. In 1648, 1649 and 1650 Sobieski was elected a member of the parliament (sejm walny) of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. In 1649 he was among the electors who voted for John II Casimir as King of Poland. Then, as a head of a chorągiew husarska (military unit formed by Hussars) of 100 horse, the young starosta joined the army of Jeremi Wiśniowiecki. Sobieski was a member of the Polish defense crew besieged by Cossacks at Zbarazh from 10 July to 22 August 1649. In 1650 he fought against the Cossacks at Kamieniec Podilskiy. Marek Sobieski also took part in the Battle of Beresteczko on 28–30 June 1651. After the Polish victory, due his bravery, he received a saber of Tugay Bey, who had been killed during the battle. In September 1651 he fought at the Battle of Biała Cerkiew. When the Poles, Cossacks and Tatars began negotiations, Marek Sobieski was sent to the Cossack camp as a guarantor of safety for the Cossack leader, Bohdan Khmelnytsky, who was in the Polish camp. In 1652 Sobieski fought against the Cossacks near Bracław and during Bila Tserkva campaign. Marching with Jan Odrzywolski, but without his own hussar banner, Sobieski and his retinue came to the field hetman Kalinowski's camp at Batoh on May 31. Marek Sobieski and Odrzywolski were assigned to command cavalry banners during the subsequent battle, and in that capacity they fought on June 1 and 2. On June 2, during the second day of the Battle of Batoh after the defeat of Polish cavalry in the field before the Polish camp, Sobieski commanded a cavalry group, perhaps containing wounded field hetman Kalinowski, that withdrew to the eastern redoubt in Polish camp, where Cossacks destroyed them after bringing artillery. Following Polish soldier Wespazjan Kochowski's writings Sobieski might have been the last Polish commander defending the Polish camp against the Cossack-Tatar army. Young commander was taken prisoner or surrendered, to be ransomed in a future as it was practice of the day, by the Tatars or Cossacks. After the battle, the Cossacks paid the Tatars for possession of the prisoners, and killed the Polish captives in retaliation for Chmielnicki's defeat at Berestechko. Among the 8,000 massacred Polish soldiers was Marek Sobieski. or the number could have been much higher, up to 15,000 killed in action and massacred. Sobieski's mother returned his body home, and to commemorate her fallen son she founded the Church of the Assumption of Mary in Żółkiew, which was built between 1653 and 1655. Sobieski was buried there in 1655 on the day the church was consecrated. His brother, King John III Sobieski, commissioned a gravestone by Andreas Schlüter , which is now in Zhovka. In 1946 Sobieski's body was taken to the Dominican Holy Trinity Church in Kraków. ## Legacy Sobieski was portrayed by Henryk Sienkiewicz in With Fire and Sword (1884), Antoni Euzebiusz Balicki in Z żaka król (1936) and Jacek Komuda in novel Bohun (2006).
38,930,816	Polled Dorset	1,135,959,197	American breed of sheep	[ "Sheep breeds", "Sheep breeds originating in the United States" ]	The Polled Dorset is an American breed of domestic sheep. It is a polled (hornless) variant of the British Dorset Horn. It was developed at the North Carolina State University Small Ruminant Unit in the 1950s after a genetic mutation led to the birth of a polled ram. After some years of breeding work, a true-breeding polled strain was established. It is an all-white sheep of medium size, prolific and able to breed out of season. The carcass is muscular with good conformation, and the fleece is free from dark fiber. The number of Polled Dorsets registered in the United States has grown to exceed the number of Horned Dorsets. ## History In 1949, four hornless lambs were sired by a Horned Dorset on a farm at North Carolina State University in Raleigh. Over the next five years, as part of their normal breeding program, those four ewes and the other ewes on the farm were bred to a Horned Dorset ram. Eventually, a ewe gave birth to twin rams: one was normally horned, but the other, NCSU 402, was polled. From 1956 the Polled Dorset was registered by the Continental Dorset Club (started in 1898), in the same flock book as the Dorset Horn. Livestock scientists, the late Dr. Lemuel Goode and the late Sam Buchanan, are credited with identifying and developing the hornless sheep. The offspring of NCSU 402 were bought by other breeders, and within twenty years seventy percent of all registered Dorsets were polled. The success of the Polled Dorset has made it considered to be the second most popular sheep breed in the United States. A polled strain of Dorsets was also developed in Australia in the 1900s; however, these were not as a result of a genetic mutation but resulted from the introduction of Corriedale and Ryeland blood into the Dorset Horn. ## Conformation The Polled Dorset is a medium-sized sheep, long-lived and prolific, and a heavy milker. It produces hardy lambs with moderate growth and maturity that yield heavily muscled carcasses. Their fleece is very white, strong, close, free from dark fiber and extends down the legs. When shorn, fleece averages between 5 and 9 pounds (2.3 and 4.1 kg) in ewes, and fifty to seventy percent of their fleece can be used. The staple length ranges from 2.5 to 4 inches (6.4 to 10.2 cm) with a numeric count of 46's-58's. The fiber diameter ranges from 27.0 to 33.0 microns. At maturity, ewes weigh between 150 and 200 pounds (68 and 91 kg), some weighing more in show condition. Mature rams range in weight from 225 to 275 pounds (102 to 125 kg). Dorsets are noted for their ability to be bred more than once per year and are commonly used in crossbreeding to produce females for out-of-season breeding. They are one of the few breeds that have this characteristic. Multiple births are common, and they work well in commercial operations, including programs where rams are specifically used to sire lambs for slaughter. These rams are known as terminal sires since their genetics are more suitable for slaughter than breeding purposes. Since the breed first became commercial, it has spread to Canada and become a major contributor in the commercial lamb industry. The breed adapts well to confinement and is readily used in accelerated crossbreeding programs. Polled Dorsets thrive under grass-based and feedlot conditions and are more suitable on small farms that are intensely managed.
7,886,432	Gaviidae Common	1,167,435,045	null	[ "1989 establishments in Minnesota", "Buildings and structures in Minneapolis", "César Pelli buildings", "Shopping malls established in 1989", "Shopping malls in Hennepin County, Minnesota", "Shopping malls in Minnesota", "Tourist attractions in Minneapolis" ]	Gaviidae Common is a mixed-use shopping mall and office complex on Nicollet Mall in Minneapolis, Minnesota. The first phase of the mall, Gaviidae Common I, opened in 1989 and is adjoined to Gaviidae Common II by a series of skyways. Phase II opened in 1991. A joint venture designed by Argentine American architect César Pelli and Chicago-based Lohan Associates, the mall occupies 443,000-square-foot (41,000 m<sup>2</sup>) of retail and office space spread across five floors. Following the closure of the mall's food court and several tenants in 2013, the top three floors of Gaviidae Common II were converted into office and recreational space for the adjoining RBC Plaza. The mall houses the state's largest barrel-vaulted ceiling and contains loon-inspired artwork designed by Deborah Sussman and Paul Prejza. Loons belong to the family Gaviidae, hence the shopping center's namesake. Gaviidae Common is anchored by Walgreens and YMCA, both of which were added to the mall's lineup of stores after an extensive renovation of the shopping center. Saks Fifth Avenue, the mall's original anchor tenant, converted into a discount store in 2005, before closing in 2015. Neiman Marcus opened along with phase II in 1991 but closed in 2013. ## History The first phase of Gaviidae Common opened in 1989 occupying the 5th to 7th Street blocks of Minneapolis' Nicollet Mall. It was developed by Brookfield Asset Management, which managed Gaviidae Common from its opening in 1989 until September 2013. Saks Fifth Avenue was the mall's sole anchor at the time of opening. Gaviidae Common II, containing a Neiman Marcus department store, occupied the first four floors and basement of the RBC Plaza office complex and features an underground parking garage with 700 spaces. The first two levels of Gaviidae Common (referred to as Street Level and Skyway Level) contain the majority of the mall's leasable space, with approximately 349,756-square-foot (32,000 m<sup>2</sup>) of retail space. In total, the center contains 443,000-square-foot (41,000 m<sup>2</sup>) of leasable space over its two blocks. In January 2005, Saks Fifth Avenue vacated its 84,000-square-foot (7,800 m<sup>2</sup>) while retaining a 27,000-square-foot (2,500 m<sup>2</sup>) section for its Saks Off Fifth clearance store. Neiman Marcus announced plans in July 2012 to close its 118,000-square-foot (11,000 m<sup>2</sup>) retail space by 2013 due to "underperforming" and the location's inability to achieve "long-term operational goals" for the chain. After KBS Companies' acquisition of Gaviidae Common II in 2013, other plans were released to renovate and make improvements to both Gaviidae Common II and the neighboring RBC Plaza skyscraper. Following the vacancy left from Neiman Marcus, KBS expressed interest in turning the upper levels of the building into office tenants. The shopping mall's food court – State Fare – was located on the fourth floor of Gaviidae Common II and featured national eateries such as Burger King, McDonald's, Taco Bell, and Taco John's. State Fare was closed and converted into additional office space for RBC Plaza. Costs for the repurposing of the food court were estimated at US\$4 million and construction began after the restaurant tenants closed in October 2013. Other renovations occurred in the basement level, where a fitness center and locker rooms were constructed for RBC Plaza employee usage. Nightingale Properties acquired Gaviidae Common I in 2013 for US\$26.25 million. In October 2014, the company subdivided the building into six parts for resale. In December 2014, the company sold its 450-stall parking garage to Gaviidae Commons LLC, a partnership associated with InterPark from Chicago. Saks Off Fifth closed on January 17, 2015, and relocated across the street to Minneapolis City Center. Shortly after its closure, Walgreens began developing parts of the first and second floors where Saks Off Fifth Avenue once stood. In June 2016, the YMCA purchased three floors of Gaviidae Common I for US\$9.9 million, and resold a 50,000-square-foot (4,600 m<sup>2</sup>) section on the third and fourth floors to United Properties, part of the space previously occupied by Saks. YMCA spent over US\$30 million in developing space at Gaviidae Common, before opening its doors to the public on March 6, 2018. The fitness center held a grand opening event which included a ribbon-cutting ceremony attended by Minneapolis' mayor Jacob Frey. In addition to serving as the new home for the Douglass Dayton YMCA, it includes office space for 400 employees and the local YMCA headquarters. ## Design and layout Gaviidae Common I was designed by Argentine American architect César Pelli in 1989. It serves as Pelli's second of three buildings in Minneapolis, preceded by Wells Fargo Center in 1988 and succeeded by the Minneapolis Central Library in 2006. It encompasses five floors and approximately two-and-a-half levels of underground parking underneath the street level. The retail section surrounds an atrium supported by a "grid of [...] dark blue" pillars. The exterior of Gaviidae Common I uses "fixtures [...] of bronze and dark green metal [and] clear glass bay windows". Other materials commonly found throughout the shopping mall include "Italian marbles, glass block and gold accents". The center atrium, featuring a "celestial design [that] is a graphic representation of Minnesota's Northern sky" is currently the "largest barrel-vaulted ceiling in the state"; additionally, a 600 lb (270 kg) sculpture of a loon, designed by artists Deborah Sussman and Paul Prejza, is hung in the atrium. Loons belong to the family Gaviidae, hence the shopping center's namesake. The mall's northern block, Gaviidae Common II, was designed by Chicago-based Lohan Associates and was completed in 1991, atop where Minneapolis' JCPenney department store formerly stood. In contrast to Gaviidae Common I, the northern block features red-accented columns and railings and once housed the world's only "upward-flowing waterfall". The two skyways adjoining both Gaviidae Common buildings contains Minneapolis' "first fourth-floor skyway". Four other skyways connect Gaviidae Common to 33 South Sixth, 50 South Sixth, IDS Center, and Wells Fargo Center. The skyway adjoining Gaviidae Common I to 33 South Sixth was designed in collaboration between Pelli and Iranian American architect Siah Armajani.
41,515,410	The Dog and Pony Show	1,052,492,781	null	[ "1997 American television episodes", "The Drew Carey Show episodes" ]	"The Dog and Pony Show" is the eighth episode of the third season of the American sitcom The Drew Carey Show, and the 54th overall. The series focuses on the work and home life of a fictionalized version of actor and comedian Drew Carey. The episode first aired on November 12, 1997 on ABC in the United States. The episode's plot sees Mr. Wick (Craig Ferguson) pass off caring for his boss Mrs. Lauder's (Nan Martin) Hungarian Puli to his employee Drew (Drew Carey). When Drew has the prize-winning dog shaved and neutered, he and his friends decide to perform a striptease at the local bar, The Warsaw Tavern, to earn quick cash to buy a replacement. The episode was co-written by producers Robert Borden and Deborah Oppenheimer, while Steve Zuckerman directed. It was inspired by the British comedy film The Full Monty and Carey invited four of the film's cast members to appear in the episode. "The Dog and Pony Show" was shot on October 15, 1997 at the Warner Bros. Television studios in Burbank, California. The set was closed to the usual taping audience while the cast performed their striptease routine. "The Dog and Pony Show" was seen by an estimated 12.4 million viewing households, finishing in 15th place in the ratings for the week it aired. Critical response was mostly positive, with reporters praising the script and the striptease routine. ## Plot When Mr. Wick (Craig Ferguson) is asked to look after Mrs. Lauder's (Nan Martin) prize-winning Hungarian Puli, he decides to pass the task on to his employee Drew (Drew Carey). Kate O'Brien (Christa Miller) offers to take the dog, Lucky, to Drew's house; but she has to leave suddenly to pick up her boyfriend Oswald (Diedrich Bader). Drew does not see Kate's note and assumes Lucky is a stray. He takes it to the vet to get it shaved and neutered. When Kate sees the dog, she fears that she, Drew and Mr. Wick will be fired. She finds an advertisement for a pure bred Hungarian Puli, but it costs \$4,500. Since no one has that kind of money, Oswald suggests they sell their bodies for money. Inspired by The Full Monty, the guys decide to perform a striptease at The Warsaw Tavern to make the money they need. Lewis Kiniski (Ryan Stiles) backs out of the performance at the last minute, but Larry Almada (Ian Gomez) steps in as his replacement. With the bar full, the guys begin their routine, but are soon stopped by the police, who explain that due to zoning regulations, stripping is illegal at The Warsaw. Drew and the guys go before the city council, but their request is denied. Drew questions how the council can deny something without seeing it and the guys, including Lewis, decide to demonstrate their striptease routine before the council members. Their request is then approved. After performing the striptease at the bar, Drew counts out the money and finds that they have \$4,800. Mr. Wick asks what they should do with the extra money and Drew replies that they should give it to the people that earned it. He then walks off stage and into the audience and starts handing out the extra cash, apologizing for them having seen his naked buttocks. ## Production "The Dog and Pony Show" was co-written by producers Robert Borden and Deborah Oppenheimer, and directed by Steve Zuckerman. The episode was inspired by the British comedy film The Full Monty. Following its release in the United States, Drew Carey saw the film three times and loved it so much he invited the cast to appear in the episode, while they were promoting the film. However, Andrew Essex from Entertainment Weekly reported that cast members Mark Addy, Paul Barber, Steve Huison and Hugo Speer were not allowed to perform on the show after being stopped by the American immigration department because they did not have work permits. The cast members were instead billed as "guests of honor" due to Actors Equity rules preventing them from being paid for their cameo. The episode was filmed at the Warner Bros. Television studios in Burbank, California on October 15, 1997. The set was closed to the usual taping audience when Carey, Bader, Ferguson, Gomez and Stiles performed their striptease to The Edgar Winter Group's "Free Ride". The Full Monty cast members came to the set to offer advice and watch the taping. The remainder of the episode was filmed before an audience later that same night. Gomez said that having two guys paint his body in make-up was "more embarrassing" than filming the routine, while Stiles joked that the episode was the first time he had been "totally naked" since he was cast in the show. Carey was grateful that stripping during prime-time had to be PG and apologized that viewers had to see his naked buttocks. He also clarified that the cast wore pouches to protect their modesty. ## Reception In its original broadcast, "The Dog and Pony Show" finished 15th in the ratings for the week of November 10–16, 1997, with a Nielsen rating of 12.8, equivalent to approximately 12.4 million viewing households. It was the fourth highest-rated show on ABC that week, following episodes of Home Improvement, Monday Night Football and 20/20. The episode received mostly positive attention from television critics. A reporter for the Los Angeles Daily News gave the episode a positive review calling it "meatier" than usual. The reporter thought the take on The Full Monty was "sharply silly" and said "Carey's striptease doesn't come till the show's end. The most we see is a full rear view – raw indeed but strategically blocked by microphones. But the bun fun, half-baked as it is, is exuberant and preceded by smarter writing than usual." The reporter called the characters "unlikely Chippendales" and added that Carey had one of the best scripts he had in a while, which mixed "understated humor with unself-conscious undress." Alan Pergament, writing for The Buffalo News, awarded the episode 3 and a half stars out of five and said the episode "offers a delicious take on the surprise theatrical movie hit from England." Pergament thought there were too many penis jokes, especially for the show's time slot, but called the dance scenes "hysterically funny." The Spokesman-Review's John Martin stated that while he usually condemned the "cheap, tawdry use of nudity" to boost ratings, it was different with Carey and he thought the take on The Full Monty was "riotous" and "wild". Martin finished by saying "Carey may be the only comic in prime time who could pull this off, so to speak. You gotta love the big guy." Lon Grahnke from the Chicago Sun-Times gave the episode three stars. The Chicago Tribune's Steve Johnson said the show was "working at its usual level" and called the homage to The Full Monty "uninspired". A reporter for The Age chose "The Dog and Pony Show" as one of the shows Melbourne would be talking about the week it aired in Australia. While The Sun-Herald's Rachel Browne awarded the episode four out of five stars and called it an "hilarious homage to The Full Monty". Browne was thankful that the gang's modesty was protected. James Joyce, writing for The Newcastle Herald, commented that the episode was "a crack-up." Joyce later branded the plot "contrived", but thought the end of the episode was "risque" and "suitably cheeky."
38,484,036	Nothing Was the Same	1,169,730,436	2013 studio album by Drake	[ "2013 albums", "Albums produced by Allen Ritter", "Albums produced by Boi-1da", "Albums produced by DJ Dahi", "Albums produced by Detail (record producer)", "Albums produced by Hudson Mohawke", "Albums produced by Jake One", "Albums produced by Key Wane", "Albums produced by Majid Jordan", "Albums produced by Nineteen85", "Albums produced by Noah \"40\" Shebib", "Albums produced by Vinylz", "Albums recorded at Metalworks Studios", "Albums recorded at Noble Street Studios", "Cash Money Records albums", "Drake (musician) albums", "Juno Award for Rap Recording of the Year recordings", "Republic Records albums", "Young Money Entertainment albums" ]	Nothing Was the Same is the third studio album by Canadian rapper Drake. It was released on September 24, 2013, through OVO Sound, Young Money Entertainment, Cash Money Records, and Republic Records. Work on the record began in 2012 and continued through 2013. As an executive producer, Drake enlisted collaborators such as 2 Chainz, Big Sean, Majid Jordan, Jay-Z, Jhené Aiko and Sampha for guest appearances on the album. The album's production was primarily handled by 40 and other OVO Sound producers; including Boi-1da, Mike Zombie, Nineteen85 and Detail. The album was supported by the seven successful singles; "Started from the Bottom", "Hold On, We're Going Home", "All Me", "Pound Cake", "The Language", "Too Much" and "Worst Behavior". "Wu-Tang Forever" was released prior to the album as a promotional single. "Started from the Bottom" and "Hold On, We're Going Home" were both top 10 hits on the US Billboard Hot 100. Drake also toured with Future, Miguel and PartyNextDoor from October through December 2013, on the Would You Like a Tour? concert tour. Nothing Was the Same received generally positive reviews, and was named as one of the best albums of 2013 by multiple publications. The album was a commercial success, debuting at number one on the US Billboard 200 with 658,000 copies sold in its first week of release. Within three months of its release, the album became the seventh best-selling album of 2013 in the United States. It also debuted at number one in Canada and Denmark, and number two in Australia and the United Kingdom. The album was nominated for Best Rap Album at the 2014 Grammy Awards. ## Background While touring the United Kingdom in support of Take Care during March 2012, Drake announced in an interview that he had begun work on his third studio album. In April 2012, Drake had stated that the album will have a different style and tempo than that of Take Care. This is due to his different mindset and his recent move to the Los Angeles area in Hidden Hills, where he is Kanye West's neighbor. He told GQ, "This is my fucking moment to say if I wanted to rap all the time, really rap, I would, but I also love to make music. I'll do this for you right now. But it's for me, too. It's my story...I'm trying to get back to that kid in the basement. To say what he has to say. And I'm trying to make it last." On February 10, 2013, the same night Drake won a Grammy Award for Best Rap Album at the 55th Grammy Awards, he announced the title of his third album would be Nothing Was the Same. During an interview with Ryan Seacrest on the red carpet, Drake told E!, "I think music, it's a process we all go through," he said. "It's an evolution. You're constantly figuring out what works for you." He explained the difference between Nothing Was the Same and Take Care to XXL saying, > Take Care was about connecting with my city and connecting with my past and sort of still feeling guilty that I'm not in love with one of these girls that cared about me from back in the day. Now, I'm 26, I'm with my friends, I'm making jobs for people, I'm making memories for people that will last a lifetime. I don't need to be in love right now. I don't need these things that I maybe once thought that I needed to feel normal and feel righteous about myself. I think for the first time in an album I'm content—not satisfied—but proud of where I'm at as a person. Drake also stated that Marvin Gaye's 1978 double album Here, My Dear had been a big influence on his current musical direction to ballads rather than "straight rap" and he had been doing recording in Gaye's old studio Marvin's Room. He later told MTV, "This album is not some straight rap album, I'll never do a straight rap album. That's not how I came into this and that's never what I'll do. I make songs for the people." He also spoke of Marvin Gaye again saying, "I have aspirations to be Marvin Gaye in the back of my head. So I just want to sing the world's triumphs and problems on one record." In the same interview he explained more about the differences between Nothing Was the Same and Take Care saying; "The music I'm making is more concise, more clear, I've been able to get my thoughts across a lot better on this album. Take Care is a great album but I listened to it and realized where I could do better and I think I've done better on this album." ## Recording and production In March 2012, Drake was reportedly in the studio with rapper 2 Chainz and record producer 40. He has been stating that he was hoping that he could work with Jamie xx, while in the United Kingdom, saying that he wants him to "have a bigger presence on my third record". Jake One produced a song for Drake, originally expected to be released ahead of the third annual OVO Fest. The video, which features Drake previewing the untitled song, while smoking a hookah, was released on June 26, 2012, through Vimeo. In December 2012, Young Chop confirmed that he was working on a song with Drake. He also then released two free songs, which is a collaboration with singer-songwriter James Fauntleroy. In 2013, Drake was also seen in the studio with rapper Jay-Z, working on what has yet to be a song, titled "Pound Cake". On June 3, 2013, Drake revealed the first guest appearance on the album, which is American singer Jhené Aiko and then he also said that he had recently been in the studio with singer Anthony Hamilton. On June 15, 2013, Drake confirmed with Hot 107.9, that he had made the final recording process for the album. On September 3, 2013, Drake confirmed on Twitter, that the album has been mixed and mastered. In July 2013, Complex reported that he was in the studio with artists, such as Future, Rick Ross, Justin Timberlake, Sade, Migos, Saukrates, TLC and Miguel, while working on the album. Complex also reported that he had worked with producers, during the recording process, including Hit-Boy, Just Blaze, Chilly Gonzales, Mike Will Made It, Zaytoven, Bink, Detail, James Blake, Swizz Beatz and Timbaland. On July 27, 2013, Drake posted a picture of him and frequent collaborator The Weeknd in the studio. In August 2013, Drake told Rolling Stone during an interview that the album would contain features by Jay-Z and Lil Wayne, with production from Hudson Mohawke. In a story in the September issue of Rolling Stone, he confirmed that the album was primarily produced by Noah "40" Shebib, with production also coming from Hit-Boy, Boi-1da, Detail and Hudson Mohawke. He also confirmed working with OVO Fest performer, singer and post-dubstep producer James Blake. The final track listing contained guest appearances by Jhené Aiko, Majid Jordan, Detail, Sampha, Jay-Z, Big Sean and 2 Chainz. ## Album artwork On August 21, 2013, Drake revealed the album's cover artwork was an oil painting by Southern California's Kadir Nelson, the designer behind Michael Jackson's posthumous album, Michael. The two versions of the cover feature illustrations of profiles of Drake as a child, while the other shows the rapper as an adult. His younger self is adorned only with an afro comb in his hair, and his older self has a gold chain. Both covers are set against a blissful cloudy blue sky. The cover artwork was compared to iconic hip hop albums Nas' Illmatic, The Notorious B.I.G.'s Ready to Die and Lil Wayne's Tha Carter III. "What that album art is to me, is the fact that this is my most clear, concise thoughts from now, and my best recollection of then," Drake explained. Both covers will be available side by side in stores, so consumers may choose which one they want. The artist, Kadir Nelson told MTV, "Drake wanted a signature painting, he didn't want something that looked like a hip-hop album cover. He wanted something that was a little bit more artsy and had more weight to it, so I did a number of sketches, and when we picked out what he liked, I sculpted it together." He said he listened to Drake's music in the studio to gain inspiration and he also gave Drake a full sized painting of the album cover. The album artwork would end up being named the fourth-best album cover of 2013 by Complex. XXL also listed it among the best album covers of 2013. ## Release On June 22, 2013, Drake announced a release date of September 17, 2013, via Twitter. On the following day, he has released the first trailer for the album, featuring him and his friends drinking alcohol out of his 2012's Grammy Award for Best Rap Album for his previous album Take Care. On August 21, 2013, the album was pushed back one week from its initial release date for September 17, 2013, until September 24, 2013. On September 10, 2013, Drake released the second trailer for the album, featuring "Trophies", which was produced by Hit-Boy. In the video Drake and his entourage drive various luxury cars such as Bentley, Lamborghini and Bugatti's, all sporting small Canadian flags while driving down an empty street. ## Promotion In March 2013, Drake premiered a song, titled "5AM in Toronto", which is a sequel to the Thank Me Later track "9AM in Dallas". In the same month, he filmed a music video for the song and it was released on April 1, 2013. On April 15, 2013, Drake released two more songs, "No New Friends" (which ended up being a track for DJ Khaled's album Suffering from Success) and "Girls Love Beyoncé", which contains samples from Destiny's Child's song "Say My Name", and the song features guest vocals from James Fauntleroy. On June 17, 2013, an unreleased track, titled "On My Way", which was recorded back in 2010, that had been leaked. This song also features guest appearances from Fauntleroy. On June 22, 2013, Drake released four songs for streaming via his official website. This included collaborations with J. Cole, PartyNextDoor, Migos and a song titled "The Motion". It was confirmed that these songs were only released, in promotion for the album, that did not make the album. However, "The Motion" appeared as a Best Buy bonus track on the album. On June 18, 2013, Drake announced that he would be going on tour, in support of Nothing Was the Same, starting September 25, 2013, in Portland, Oregon. The tour, titled Would You Like a Tour?, featured supporting acts by singers Future, Miguel and OVO Sound's PartyNextDoor. In the months leading up to the album's release, Drake was featured on the covers of various magazines, such as Billboard, GQ and the 150th issue special of XXL. On September 20, 2013, Drake revealed that he had rescheduled the Would You Like A Tour? due to "an intense rehearsal schedule and technical production requirements that will be part of the show." The tour was rescheduled to begin on October 19, and the first leg ran until December 16, 2013. ## Singles In January 2013, Drake was seen filming a music video for a new song, titled "Started from the Bottom", which was directed by Director X. Drake later announced that he would release the song as the first single for his third album, which happened on the night of the 55th Grammy Awards. The single premiered instead on February 1, 2013, and was released on iTunes, five days later. On February 10, 2013, the music video for "Started from the Bottom" was released. The song charted in many countries, reaching a peak of number six on the US Billboard Hot 100, and has been certified double platinum in the United States by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). On August 4, 2013, it was revealed that Drake would soon be releasing the second single, titled "Hold On, We're Going Home". The song featuring Majid Jordan, with production by Noah "40" Shebib and Nineteen85, and was released via iTunes on August 7, 2013. On September 24, 2013, the music video was released for "Hold On, We're Going Home". The song peaked at number four on the Billboard Hot 100 and number five on the Canadian Hot 100, respectively. Drake premiered a song from Nothing Was the Same, titled "All Me", via SoundCloud on August 1, 2013. The song features guest appearances from rappers 2 Chainz and Big Sean, and was produced by Key Wane. On the album's US release date of September 24, 2013, Drake sent "All Me" to urban contemporary radio as the album's third single. The song peaked at number 20 on the Billboard Hot 100. On September 12, 2013, Drake released the previously announced track, titled "Wu-Tang Forever", as the album's second promotional single, along with the pre-order of Nothing Was the Same on iTunes. The song is a reference to the Wu-Tang Clan and their critically acclaimed double album Wu-Tang Forever (1997). The track also samples their song, "It's Yourz". After the song's release, Wu-Tang Clan member U-God told Vibe, that Wu-Tang Clan members, including himself and Method Man among others, has recorded a remix to the track. "Pound Cake / Paris Morton Music 2" serves as the album's outro and consists of two songs, "Pound Cake" featuring a guest appearance from Jay-Z and "Paris Morton Music 2" is a sequel to "Paris Morton Music". "Pound Cake" features a significant sample of "C.R.E.A.M.", performed by Wu-Tang Clan and was produced by frequent collaborator Boi-1da. "Pound Cake" was released to radio in the United Kingdom on September 26, 2013, as the album's fourth single, and was subsequently added to the BBC Radio 1Xtra playlist. The song peaked at number 65 on the Billboard Hot 100. "The Language" was released to mainstream urban radio as the album's fifth single on October 29, 2013. It received many positive reviews, one coming from Nick Cutucci of Entertainment Weekly, which named the song, along with "Hold On, We're Going Home" as one of the album's best songs. Erika Ramirez of Billboard also credited Drake with "arrogantly" reinstating his spot in the rap game with the song. The song was said to be "addressed" and "acting passively" towards rapper Kendrick Lamar's recent diss record, but it was later denied by Birdman, whom appeared to be seen on MTV, prior to the album's release and said that it was not directed towards Lamar. The song peaked at number 51 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number 13 on the US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs, respectively. "Too Much" was released to urban contemporary radio in the United Kingdom as the album's sixth single on October 31, 2013. On November 11, 2013, the music video was released for the song, "Worst Behavior", the song was released to urban contemporary radio in the United Kingdom as the album's seventh single on June 9, 2014. ## Critical reception Nothing Was the Same was met with generally positive reviews. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from professional publications, the album received an average score of 79, based on 33 reviews. Aggregator AnyDecentMusic? gave it 7.5 out of 10, based on their assessment of the critical consensus. Nick Catucci of Entertainment Weekly wrote that Nothing Was the Same "bristles with epiphanies, absurdities, and plenty of bluster, but it's all fodder for a hyperrealistic portrait of Aubrey Drake Graham, not some coronation ceremony." Elysa Gardner of USA Today noted that Drake "continues to juggle bravado with brooding, though he sounds more empowered in the latter." Rolling Stone's Simon Vozick-Levinson wrote, "After a while, his confessions start to sound like sneaky boasts about all the beautiful hearts he's broken. And maybe he wants you to see that contradiction. After all, hiding his flaws has never been Drake's style – they're the whole point." Pitchfork writer Jayson Greene praised Nothing Was the Same as "Drake and 40's most audacious experiment yet in how far inward they can push their sound; a lot of the album sounds like a black hole of all 40's previous productions being sucked into the center. Song-to-song transitions, which have always been melty and blurry, are more notional than ever." In the Chicago Tribune, critic Greg Kot noted that "Drake's increasing mastery of not just rhyme, but tone and inflection is readily apparent", while Eric Diep of XXL noted Drake's apparent desire on the album "to hold the spot as an innovator". Bonsu Thompson of Vibe felt that while Nothing Was the Same was not a "classic album", "its accomplishments may end up more pivotal. Hip-hop music hasn't been blurred and stretched this wide since Kanye's 808s & Heartbreak." Evan Rytlewski of The A.V. Club concluded that "if Nothing Was the Same doesn't resonate quite as consistently as Take Care, it's because Drake and his in-house collaborator Noah "40" Shebib sometimes seem content to revisit that album's sonic landscapes instead of carving out new ones." Tim Sendra of AllMusic wrote that the album "doesn't show large amounts of growth, but the small changes to the sound and the slightly wider net his lyrics cast make it worthwhile." Randall Roberts of the Los Angeles Times felt that the album "overwhelms even by Drake's selfie standards, and confirms that just because they're well-marketed and Midwest-palatable doesn't make internal diaries wholly compelling." Aaron Matthews of Exclaim! praised it as a "challenging, uncompromised major label rap album" that is nonetheless "weighed down slightly by the rapper's increasingly solipsistic viewpoint." ### Rankings Closing out the year, Nothing Was the Same was named to multiple "Best Albums of the Year" lists. XXL named it the best album of 2013. They commented saying, "The OVO general is at his highest point of his career, perfecting his formula of singing and rapping that truly carries the album from start to finish. With 40 in his corner, the pair executed tighter levels of their dark, lush sound that became easily identifiable. The compelling cuts—"From Time", "Too Much", "Hold On, We're Going Home"—as well as obvious anthems like "Started From The Bottom" and "Worst Behaviour" display leaps of growth." Complex named it the second best album of 2013 stating, "it was one of the most anticipated albums of the year, and one that actually lived up to the hype. Nothing Was the Same might not have had a legendary producer on hand to "minimalize" its sound, but it has minimized the discussion of who is the most popular rap star in the world right now." Nick Catucci of Entertainment Weekly also named it the second best album of 2013 saying, "When he gets to flexin' – as on "Worst Behavior," with its Rube Goldberg underpinnings; the MC smackdown "The Language"; and the hypnotic "Started From the Bottom" – he's flawlessly confident. But his restless thoughts keep the elegant music here taut." It was ranked at number 14 on Rolling Stone's list of the 50 best albums of 2013. They commented saying, "Drake is the people's rapper, a smart kid conflicted about his fame, heart, family, everything except his mic potency. But what makes his lonely fantastic voyage matter is its emotional weight, which gets crucial amplification from Noah "40" Shebib's whirlpool beats." The Guardian placed it at number 31 on their list of the forty best albums of 2013. Exclaim! named it the third best hip hop album of 2013. It was named the ninth best album of 2013 by Slant Magazine. They commented saying, "Drake, the Canadian master of confession-rap, cuts the usual sharp lines, and his lamentations have never felt so knowing, nor more tuneful. He doesn't need a handful of guest MCs, and he doesn't want our sympathy either—just the chance to give us mellow ear-gasms, which he does on nearly every track." It was ranked at number 19 on Consequence's list of the top 50 albums of 2013. Stereogum ranked it at number 28 on their list of the 50 best albums of the year. Spin positioned it at number 50 on their list. Pitchfork ranked Nothing Was the Same as the 41st best album of the decade "so far"—between 2010 and 2014. ### Industry awards ## Commercial performance Nothing Was the Same debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200, with first-week sales of 658,000 copies. The album has the second highest first week sales of any album in 2013, at the time of its release. It would also be the highest first week sales for a hip hop album since Lil Wayne's Tha Carter IV (2011). In its second week, the album sold 148,000 more copies. In its third week, the album sold 83,000 more copies. In its fourth week, the album continued to remain in the top five on the Billboard 200, selling 58,000 more copies. The album sold 1,344,000 copies in 2013 in the United States, making it the seventh best-selling album of the year. On April 2, 2018, the album was certified quadruple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for combined sales and album-equivalent units of over four million units. As of August 2016, the album has sold 1,783,000 copies in the United States. The album debuted at number two on the UK Albums Chart, selling 61,000 copies in its first week. It would be Drake's highest debut on the chart and was the fastest selling hip hop album of 2013 in the United Kingdom, at the time of its release. The album also debuted at number one on the main album charts in Canada and Denmark, along with peaking in the top five of the main album charts in Australia, New Zealand and Ireland. The album sold 108,000 copies in Canada in 2013. ## Track listing Notes - signifies a co-producer - signifies an additional producer Sample credits - "Tuscan Leather" contains an interpolation of "Serious", written by Warren McGlone and Lawrence Parker; a sample of "I Have Nothing", written by David Foster and Linda Thompson, as performed by Whitney Houston; and a sample of "When Seasons Change" (live), as performed by Curtis Mayfield. - "Started from the Bottom" contains a sample from the composition Ambessence Piano & Drones, written and performed by Bruno Sanfilippo. - "Wu-Tang Forever" contains a sample of "It's Yourz", written by Dennis Coles, Robert Diggs, Lamont Hawkins, Jason Hunter, Corey Woods, Thor Baldursson, Mats Bjoerklyn and Juergen Koduletsch, as performed by Wu-Tang Clan; and a sample of "Loss Config", as performed by Zodiac Beats. - "Own It" contains an interpolation of "Wu-Tang Forever". - "Too Much" contains a sample of "Too Much", written by Sampha and Emile Haynie, as performed by Sampha. - "Pound Cake / Paris Morton Music 2" contains an interpolation of "C.R.E.A.M.", written by Dennis Coles, Robert Diggs, Gary Grice, Lamont Hawkins, Isaac Hayes, Jason Hunter, Russell Jones, David Porter, Clifford Smith and Corey Woods, as performed by Wu-Tang Clan; a sample of "Don't Say a Word", written by Jim Eliot and Ellie Goulding, as performed by Ellie Goulding; and a sample of "Jimmy Smith Rap", as performed by Jimmy Smith. - "All Me" contains a sample of "My Man", written by Jacques Charles, Maurice Yvain and Albert Lucien Willemetz, as performed by Abbey Lincoln. ## Personnel Credits adapted from the album's liner notes. - Jhené Aiko – vocals (track 7) - Chris Athens – mastering - Les Bateman – system engineer - Adrian Bent – replay musician (track 2) - Noel Cadastre – engineer (tracks 1, 2, 5, 6, 10–13), assistant engineer (tracks 3, 4, 8, 9, 14, 15), mixing assistant (track 16) - Noel "Gadget" Campbell – mixing (tracks 1–15) - Cappadonna – background vocals (track 1) - Dwayne "Lil Wayne" Carter – executive producer - Rachel Craig – background vocals (tracks 2, 8) - Jeff Crake – assistant engineer (tracks 1, 8, 11) - Detail – producer and engineer (tracks 5, 11), vocals (track 11) - Adrian "X" Eccleston – guitar (tracks 1, 2) - Oliver El-Khatib – executive producer - Jordan Evans – producer (track 13) - Grace Gayle – background vocals (track 8) - Chris Godbey – engineer (track 13) - Chilly Gonzales – piano (track 7) - G Koop – replay musician (track 2) - Aubrey Drake Graham – vocals, executive producer - Brian Hamilton – background vocals (tracks 2, 8) - Emile Haynie – engineer (track 12) - Donald Hearn – art direction, design - Maximilian Jaeger – assistant engineer (track 15) - Jake One – co-producer and drum programming (track 2) - Jay-Z – vocals (track 13) - Paul "Nineteen85" Jeffries – producer and instrumentation (tracks 8, 12), additional drum programming (track 1) - Michael Kalin – mixing assistant (track 3) - Rob Kinelski – engineer (track 15) - Shawn Lawrence – background vocals (track 9) - Owen Lee – background vocals (track 2) - Luke Leveille – assistant engineer (tracks 1, 3, 4, 9, 14, 16) - Deborah Mannis-Gardner – sample clearance - Majid Al Maskati – producer and vocals (track 8) - Greg Moffett – assistant engineer (tracks 5, 6, 12) - Hudson Mohawke – co-producer and additional instrumentation (track 9) - Dacoury "DJ Dahi" Natche – producer and instrumentation (track 6) - Kadir Nelson – cover art - John Nettlesbey – assistant engineer (track 1) - PartyNextDoor – background vocals (tracks 5, 14) - Christian Plata – vocal engineer (track 7) - Jas Prince – executive producer - Omar Richards – background vocals (tracks 2, 8) - Allen Ritter – additional production (track 10) - Isa Saalabi – art direction, design - Matthew "Boi-1da" Samuels – producer (tracks 10, 13), additional drum programming (track 1) - Travis Savoury Baka AKA "Not Nice" – background vocals (track 7) - Les Schaeffer – assistant engineer (track 13) - Miguel Scott – assistant engineer (track 1) - Big Sean – vocals (track 15) - Travis Sewchan – engineer (track 8), assistant engineer (tracks 5–7, 10–13) - Noah "40" Shebib – producer (tracks 1, 2, 4, 7, 9, 14, 16), engineer (tracks 1–5, 7–11, 13–16), instrumentation (tracks 1, 4, 7, 9, 14), co-producer (track 8), additional production (tracks 3, 5, 15), mixing (tracks 8, 15, 16), pianos (track 2), additional keyboards (tracks 3, 5, 8, 16), additional drums (track 16), executive producer - Patricia Shirley – background vocals (tracks 2, 8) - Sampha Sisay – producer and instrumentation (tracks 12, 16) - David "Gordo" Strickland – assistant engineer (track 10) - Dalton Tennant – replay musician (track 2) - Marvin "Hagler" Thomas – producer and drum programming (track 2) - Trae tha Truth – background vocals (track 9) - Jennifer Tulloch – background vocals (track 2) - 2 Chainz – vocals (track 15) - Jordan Ullman – producer and instrumentation (track 8) - Deborah Vernal – background vocals (tracks 2, 8) - Vinylz – additional production (track 10) - Brian Warfield – vocal engineer (track 7) - Lindsey Warner – mixing assistant (tracks 1, 9) - Dwane "Key Wane" Weir – producer and instrumentation (track 15) - Finis "KY" White – engineer (track 15) - Bryan "Baby Birdman" Williams – executive producer - Ronald "Slim Tha Don" Williams – executive producer - Dionne Wilson – background vocals (track 8) - Mike Zombie – producer and instrumentation (track 3) ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ### Decade-end charts ## Certifications ## Release history
44,468,598	Joseph Jay Pastoriza	1,132,393,832	American entrepreneur, Georgist, and mayor of Houston, Texas	[ "1857 births", "1917 deaths", "20th-century American politicians", "American printers", "Georgist politicians", "Mayors of Houston", "Politicians from New Orleans" ]	Joseph Jay "J. J." Pastoriza (January 8, 1857 – July 9, 1917) was a printer, real estate investor, and politician in Houston, Texas. He served both as Houston's Tax Commissioner and Mayor. Pastoriza was the first Hispanic mayor of the city of Houston. Pastoriza was orphaned and adopted as a young child in Houston. He started working in the printing business at about age twenty before establishing his own stationery and print shop. Pastoriza took an interest in public policy and politics after he retired from the printing business. He joined the Houston Single Tax League, and later traveled to study tax policy. Between 1911 and 1917 he served as Houston Tax Commissioner, establishing the Houston Single Tax Plan in 1912. Houston voters elected him Mayor of Houston in 1917. He served only three months before dying in office. ## Early life and business career Joseph Jay Pastoriza was born in New Orleans, Louisiana, on January 8, 1857, to immigrants from Barcelona, Spain. His father died in 1858 shortly after bringing his infant son to Houston, Texas. Edward Daly and his wife adopted Pastoriza, but Daily died in the Civil War in 1862. Pastoriza attended Fitzgerald's Academy in Houston. As a seventeen-year-old, he apprenticed to a blacksmith by day and worked as a bookkeeper at night. By 1878, he entered the printing business, working as a business manager for a local newspaper. He was proprietor of Pastoriza Printing and Lithographing Company. He also represented some local businesses as Vice-President of the Houston Manufacturers Association. He successfully advocated for downtown Houston businesses to close at 6pm, a measure to control retail employees' work hours. On January 15, 1886, he married Lula Girard of Waxahachie, Texas. ## Political life ### Houston Single Tax League Late in 1901, Pastoriza mounted a petition drive in favor of municipal ownership of utilities, collecting 800–1000 signatures. Pastoriza joined the Houston Single Tax League, a Georgist organization founded in 1890. In 1903, he paid \$350 for a lot at Cleburne and Caroline, south of the developed part of the city. He built a shoddy cabin on the land, which had two purposes. He donated the use of the structure to the league. It was also an object-lesson: he vowed to sell the property only if he were offered at least \$5,000. If development were to reach his block, he predicted, neighboring improvements would augment the value of his property. He waited only eight years to find a buyer to make an offer to exceed Pastoriza's target price. The log cabin object-lesson had been intended to illustrate a Georgist principle supporting the single land tax. First, Pastoriza made the most minimal investment in the lot, and his return on investments had been at least ten-fold. He asserted that he had reaped a windfall without adding significantly to the lot or the neighborhood: growth caused the development frontier to expand, and the improvements to the other lots were creating value. So he reasoned that taxing land at a higher rate (and lowering the tax burden on improvements and personal property) would shift the tax burden to land speculators. These policies would also ease the burden on developers, which in turn, would stimulate construction in the city. Just eight years later, neighboring lots across the street from his \$350 log cabin lot were selling for \$4,750. From 1906 to 1910, Pastoriza visited cities in Europe and the United States with an interest in understanding various municipal reforms. ### Houston government Pastoriza ran a successful campaign to be seated as a Commissioner for the City of Houston. He served as Houston Tax Commissioner from 1911 to 1917. During his first year in office, he promoted a property tax system he called the "Somers System of Equalization," named for William A. Somers, whom he had met in New York City in the late 1890s. The Somers System based the value of land per square foot on the value of the front foot of land on the middle lots of the block. Pastoriza first tested the Somers System on some blocks in downtown Houston. Both city officials and property owners responded favorably. Next Pastoriza traveled to Denver to learn from officials who were implementing the Somers system there. He returned with a report on his experience, and the City Council approved both the Somers System and the broader Houston Plan of Taxation in early 1912. Pastoriza planned for broad implementation of the Somers System. He began creating a map, dividing Houston into thirty-five tax districts. Within each district, he performed a block-by-block valuation. He determined the value, "of a one-foot wide by one-hundred-foot deep segment in the center of every block." Property assessment in Houston by the Somers method increased valuations by \$19 million in 1912, the first year of the program. The Somers method had two distributive effects: it increased the valuations of wealthy land owners and decreased the valuations of many homeowners. It also reduced the tax rates from \$1.70 per \$100 of valuation to \$1.50 per \$100, while increasing total revenue by \$100,000 (total revenue in 1912 was about \$2.2 million). Houston Mayor Horace Baldwin Rice characterized the new method as, "a very efficient system, just and equitable for all." In July 1912, Pastoriza promoted his more general Houston Plan of Taxation. Under the plan, the city assessed land at seventy percent of value, property improvements and merchants' inventories at twenty-five percent of value, and most personal property would be exempt. During the first six months of 1912, Houston added 219 new buildings compared to the first six months of 1911. Many critics of the Houston Plan claimed that it violated a clause of the Texas Constitution that required that all property be taxed in a uniform way. Pastoriza dismissed this by claiming that property had never been taxed uniformly in Texas. In 1913, he ran for re-election as city commissioner based on his tax plan. Despite outgoing mayor Horace Baldwin Rice's advocacy for the Houston Plan, Rice supported Milt Gieselman as his replacement for mayor, who opposed Pastoriza. The other major mayoral candidate, Ben Campbell, voiced public approval of Pastoriza as commissioner, but did not endorse him. Campbell was elected mayor and Pastoriza was re-elected for one of the commissioner positions, leading the field of fourteen candidates. Mayor Campbell tapped Pastoriza to serve as Mayor Pro Tem. An organized opposition to the Houston Plan arose in 1914 in the form of the Harris County Taxpayers Association (HCTA). The group included a defeated candidate for mayor, Milt Gieselman, and counted among its leaders such Houston elites as Joseph F. Baker, Harry F. Cohen, Samuel Rosenberg, and Jules Settegast. On January 11, 1915, HCTA petitioned Houston City Council to modify its tax assessment practices. After the council denied this petition, Joseph F. Baker filed a lawsuit against the City of Houston. Meanwhile, the Houston Tax Plan was the focus of the 1915 municipal elections, with incumbents Mayor Ben Campbell and Tax Commissioner Pastoriza defending their offices against Judge Charles W. Bocock and Thomas DeYoung, respectively. The Bocock campaign emphasized the constitutionality of its position on property taxes, which was consistent with that of the HCTA and the lawsuit filed by Joseph F. Baker. All of the incumbents won in 1915, with Pastoriza winning his race for Tax Commissioner by a margin of 5659 to 1963. However, just a few weeks later, Judge John A. Read struck down the Houston Plan (J.W. Baker v. City of Houston). Single tax advocates campaigned unsuccessfully for a constitutional amendment allowing for unequal valuations and an appeals court affirmed Judge Read's decision. These two rulings against the Houston Plan compelled Mayor Campbell and Commissioner Pastoriza to create a new scheme in order to comply with the law. Coupled with these rulings was a statute mandating that, "each separate parcel of real property shall be valued at its true and full value." At first, Campbell and Pastoriza interpreted the two laws in a most extreme way: if Texas law demanded both equal and full valuation of property, the City of Houston would assess all property at 100 percent of valuation. Even if this was the proper understanding of Read's rulings and the statute, this proved impossible to enforce. The property tax system relied on self-reporting and taxpayers reported only a small percentage of their assets under this new system. For example, bank deposits, which were personal property and subject to local taxation, were radically under reported: Houstonians claimed only \$250,000 of an estimated \$30–S40 million in local bank deposits. Nor did taxpayers report the full value of their buildings. H.F. Ring, one of the plaintiff's in the tax suit, proposed taxing land at 70 percent of assessment and improvements at 50 percent of assessment. These rates are compared to 75 percent of land assessment and 25 percent of improvements in the original Houston Plan. This scheme did not comply with the law, but it satisfied the land speculators enough for them to agree to drop their suit. Pastoriza devised an assessment scheme which followed Ring's proposal. Bank deposits and cash were taxed to comply with Read's order, but the local residents did not abide. Under public pressure, Pastoriza rescinded taxation of personal property. In the end, Pastoriza developed a diminished Houston Plan: owners of developed property took on more tax liability than under the original Houston Plan, yet Houston residents did not pay taxes on personal property, leading one critic to claim that the new scheme "was just as illegal as the former one." Ben Campbell did not run for re-election in 1917 and so Pastoriza entered a crowded mayoral race. Taking on three other candidates, Pastoriza won with fully 44 percent of the vote. Houston's first Hispanic mayor; his parents were natives of Barcelona. ## Death Pastoriza died of heart failure on July 9, 1917, at his home on Austin Street in Houston. At his death, he was not quite three months into his only term as Mayor of Houston. The year he died, he owned real estate valued near \$75,000. ## Other readings [1857 births](Category:1857_births "wikilink") [1917 deaths](Category:1917_deaths "wikilink") [20th-century American politicians](Category:20th-century_American_politicians "wikilink") [American printers](Category:American_printers "wikilink") [Georgist politicians](Category:Georgist_politicians "wikilink") [Mayors of Houston](Category:Mayors_of_Houston "wikilink") [Politicians from New Orleans](Category:Politicians_from_New_Orleans "wikilink")
47,854,972	Spencer Stone	1,172,071,377	American former U.S. staff sergeant (born 1992)	[ "1992 births", "2015 Thalys train attack", "21st-century American male actors", "American male non-fiction writers", "Christians from California", "Knights of the Legion of Honour", "Living people", "Male actors from Sacramento, California", "Military personnel from Sacramento, California", "Naturalized citizens of France", "Participants in American reality television series", "People from Carmichael, California", "People from Fair Oaks, California", "People with multiple nationality", "Recipients of the Airman's Medal", "United States Air Force non-commissioned officers" ]	Spencer John Stone (born August 13, 1992) is an American former United States Air Force staff sergeant. In August 2015, Stone, along with friends Alek Skarlatos and Anthony Sadler and three other passengers, as well as an off-duty conductor, while travelling from Amsterdam on a high speed, Paris-bound train, disarmed and subdued a solitary, heavily armed Moroccan terrorist. Three days later, French President François Hollande awarded Stone, Sadler, and Skarlatos, as well as British citizen Chris Norman, the Legion of Honour. Stone was recognized by U.S. Ambassador to France Jane D. Hartley for "his actions in saving countless lives" and by U.S. President Barack Obama, with a ceremony held at The Pentagon to honor the trio. For his bravery, Stone was awarded the Airman's Medal and a Purple Heart. On October 8, 2015, Stone was stabbed during a fight in Sacramento and was released from the hospital on October 15. He was promoted to senior airman in late October and then staff sergeant in November 2015. In 2018, he portrayed himself in the Clint Eastwood-directed film The 15:17 to Paris which was based on the 2016 book of the same name detailing his experiences with Skarlatos and Sadler. ## Early life Spencer John Stone was born on August 13, 1992, in Sacramento, California, to Brian Stone and Joyce Eskel. Stone has two siblings; an older brother Everett, who is a California Highway Patrolman in Redwood City, California and an older sister, Kelly. Growing up in Carmichael, California, Stone met his now-best friends Alek Skarlatos and Anthony Sadler while attending the small K-12 Freedom Christian School in Fair Oaks, California, continuing their friendship into adulthood. All three men are described as sharing "a deeply religious background and a belief in service to their community" and identify themselves as Christians. His mom stated that he wanted to become a soldier, watching countless Navy SEAL videos with him. Stone later attended Del Campo High School where he played football, basketball, and other contact sports. Stone played basketball in junior year through to senior year. A teacher and coach said Stone was always looking out for family and friends: "His blue-collar attitude and how he cared about others, he would have been the one to step up rather than curl into a ball," and that, "He was always trying to pick up his teammates, giving them a high five." ## 2015 Thalys train attack On August 21, 2015, Stone and his childhood friends Alek Skarlatos and Anthony Sadler were traveling together during a sightseeing vacation in Europe when they boarded Thalys train 9364 from Amsterdam bound for Paris via Brussels. Stone had been serving at the United States Air Force 65th Air Base Group and was on leave before returning home. A 25-year-old Moroccan man, Ayoub El-Khazzani, was in train car No. 12, armed with a fully automatic Draco short barrel carbine and carrying an additional nine 30-round magazines of ammunition. Several people tried to stop the gunman, but failed to do so. Sadler reported that they heard a gunshot and breaking glass behind them, seeing an employee sprint down the aisle away from a shirtless man bearing a carbine. Stone had been awakened by the sound of the shot and of the breaking glass, with Skarlatos telling Stone to go. Armenian-American teacher and musician Mark Moogalian had wrested the carbine from Ayoub El-Khazzani, the terrorist, but was grievously wounded, shot by a Luger pistol his assailant had retained, who then retrieved his carbine from the floor. After the Draco misfired, Stone rushed El-Khazzani, tackling the terrorist. While holding him on the floor, Stone was stabbed up in the neck and eyebrow and had his thumb nearly severed. Skarlatos picked up the assailant's rifle, beating him in the head with its muzzle. Skarlatos stated that "I was thinking about survival," and "[i]t was to survive and for everybody else on the train to make it." After the gunman was disarmed and subdued, and until he was relieved by French EMT's at the next stop, Stone provided continuing life-saving first aid to Moogalian, who had received a bullet through his back, chest and neck. Moogalian's wife, Isabelle Risacher-Moogalian, credited Stone for saving her husband's life. Stone was transferred to the central hospital in Lille, France, and underwent treatment in Germany, before returning home to California on September 3, 2015. ### International recognition After the event, Stone, Skarlatos and Sadler received international attention for their actions in preventing the attack. French president François Hollande awarded Stone, his friends Alek Skarlatos and Anthony Sadler, as well as British businessman Chris Norman, France's highest decoration, Knights of the Legion of Honour (Chevaliers de la Légion d'honneur). Hollande said the men "faced [off] with terror" and that they "gave us a lesson in courage, in will, and therefore in hope". French Interior Minister Bernard Cazeneuve praised them for their bravery, as did then-British Prime Minister David Cameron. The White House expressed gratitude for "courage and quick thinking of several passengers, including U.S. service members, who selflessly subdued the attacker..." U.S. President Barack Obama telephoned the three Americans, thanking them for their heroic actions. General Philip M. Breedlove of the U.S. European Command in Stuttgart, added his voice, calling the three Americans heroes for their actions which "clearly illustrate the courage and commitment our young men and women have all the time, whether they are on duty or on leave." Kevin Johnson, mayor of Sacramento, California, held a parade to honor Skarlatos, Sadler, Stone, and the victims of the September 11 attacks. Stone was awarded a United States Air Force Airman's Medal and a Purple Heart at a ceremony held at The Pentagon. The Airman's Medal is infrequently awarded, and is only given for marked heroism outside of combat. The trial of the terrorist and his three alleged accomplices went forward in November 2020. Spencer Stone and Alek Skarlatos were scheduled to testify, but Stone was hospitalized in France for undisclosed reasons and his testimony was delayed. Despite that, the prosecutors got the sentences they sought: El Khazzani, for attempted murders and conspiracy to commit an act of terrorism, received a life sentence, while the three accomplices who helped him to travel from Syria to France and armed him, Bilal Chatra, Rédouane El Amrani Ezzerrifi, and Mohamed Bakkali, received 27 years, 7 years, and 25 years, respectively. El Khazzani admitted that Abdelhamid Abaaoud, who was killed by French police in 2015, had masterminded the attack. ## Career ### 2012–2016 After high school, he enlisted in the United States Air Force and went on to become an aerospace medical services technician. Stone was initially assigned to the 60th Medical Operations Squadron pediatrics flight at Travis Air Force Base in Fairfield, California, as a medical technician responsible for screening children who needed to be treated, and trained at United States Forces Azores. João Santos, a trainer of Stone, said that he is "a really nice guy, polite, well-educated and very keen on learning." In October 2015, Stone was promoted to the rank of senior airman at Travis Air Force Base in California, due to the bold acts in France. Following this promotion, Stone was promoted to the rank of staff sergeant, effective November 1, 2016, by the order of United States Air Force Chief of Staff Gen. Mark A. Welsh III. Stone commented, saying "It is an honor to be promoted to staff sergeant, and I am extremely thankful for the opportunity to lead my fellow airmen," and that "I am ready for the growth and challenges that are ahead of me." In January 2015, Stone attended the Airman Leadership School to become a non-commissioned officer. Stone announced he would be leaving the United States Air Force in November 2016 after having met with U.S. Ambassador to France Jane D. Hartley. He further piqued his interest in international relations. He plans on pursuing a degree in international relations at the University of California, Los Angeles or the University of Southern California. ### 2016–present Since his departure from the United States Air Force, Stone has made several public appearances. Honored at the Spike's annual 2016 Guys' Choice Awards, Stone and his friends Alek Skarlatos and Anthony Sadler accepted the hero award on June 4, 2016, from actor Clint Eastwood, sharing a conversation with him backstage. "People try and ask us what's the coolest things we've done, but I can name 100. It's hard to categorize them," Stone said. It was announced in January 2016 that Stone, Skarlatos and Sadler were working with international correspondent and author Jeffrey E. Stern on a memoir entitled The 15:17 to Paris. It would feature the events of the 2015 Thalys train attack. A publicist for Perseus Books Group sensationalized their forthcoming memoir as "the gripping true story of a terrorist attack that would have killed more than 500 people if not for their actions, but it is also the story of three American boys, their friendship, and the values we hold dear." David Steinberger, president and chief executive officer of Perseus, said that he was "confident that this is going to be a film. It's extremely cinematic, and there's a lot of interest in the movie." He continued, "based on the material, that this was going to be an important book and one that readers were really going to respond to." The memoir was made available to the public on August 23, 2016, almost a year after the 2015 Thalys train attack. In the acknowledgements, Stone stated that he "give[s] all the credit to God" and made further acknowledgement of his family, friends, the United States Air Force, the citizens of Sacramento and the United States Armed Forces. Stone, Skarlatos, and Sadler appeared on Who Wants to Be a Millionaire in October 2016 as a part of a special "Hometown Heroes" week. Playing as a team, they won \$250,000. In July 2017, it was announced that Clint Eastwood would direct the upcoming biographical film titled after Stone, Skarlatos and Sadler's memoir, starring them, along with actresses Jenna Fischer and Judy Greer. Filming began on July 11, 2017. The film was released in the United States on February 9, 2018. The film received a generally negative reception from critics, who were largely critical of the acting by the three leads, though critic Matt Zoller Seitz of RogerEbert.com expressed that "[the film]'s affable nothingness [was] redeemed only by the laid-back charisma of three men". ## Stabbing On October 8, 2015, during an altercation, Stone was stabbed by Californian James Tran, 28, in downtown Sacramento. He was rushed to UC Davis Medical Center and was released from the hospital on October 15. There was an argument which subsided and the groups left separately. Tran stabbed him multiple times in the back with a knife. After the stabbing, Tran and his group fled the scene in a vehicle. Stone's companions and bystanders summoned emergency services. Medical staff determined that Stone had sustained multiple life-threatening injuries, and he underwent emergency open heart surgery to repair wounds to his lungs, liver, and heart. Sacramento Police detectives were assigned to the case shortly after the stabbing. Along with video obtained of the assault, eyewitness statements, and tips from the public, detectives determined the identity of the assailant. An arrest warrant was issued for Tran. On November 4, 2015, Tran was arrested without incident, after law enforcement conducted a traffic stop near Tran's home in Elk Grove, California. Officials involved in the case said that it did not appear Tran or anyone in his group had been aware of Stone's heroism and stated that the crime did not appear to be a retaliatory strike by a terrorist organization (either directly or indirectly) against Stone for his part in foiling the terror attack. Tran had previous felony convictions, and he was likely intoxicated at the time of the assault. Tran made his first appearance in Sacramento County Superior Court on November 6, 2015, charged of the attempted murder of Stone with an allegation of using a dangerous weapon, the knife. He was ordered to be held without bail. Tran pleaded guilty. On May 12, 2017, he was sentenced to nine years in state prison. He is currently incarcerated at Folsom State Prison with a scheduled release date of May 2022. That could be sooner with good time credit, or later, if he was to be found guilty of behavioral problems while incarcerated. ## Personal life In January 2016, Stone accepted First Lady Michelle Obama's invitation to attend Barack Obama's 2016 State of the Union Address. Stone "had a heartbreaking moment" when a daughter of one of the victims of the 2015 San Bernardino attack in San Bernardino, California, thanked him for his role in stopping the Thalys train attack; Stone giving her a hug in response. Stone, in response to the State of the Union Address, said "What I will walk away with ... is how the president said we are still a strong country ... he made it clear that we aren't dealing with a giant war, but with low-grade thugs," and finished by commenting "In the grand scheme, they can't bring us down." When asked which presidential candidate he supported in the 2016 United States presidential election, Stone declined to comment, wanting to maintain the public non-partisan stand of the military. Stone currently lives in Sacramento as of 2018. On January 31, 2019, Stone became a naturalized French citizen, along with Skarlatos and Sadler. Stone competed with Sadler on the 33rd season of The Amazing Race. They completed three legs of the race before filming was shut down on February 28, 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic. When production resumed 19 months later in September 2021, Sadler and Stone, along with 3 other teams from their season, were unable to return to the race due to extenuating circumstances; in their case, a recent promotion at Sadler's work left him unable to take the required time off for filming. ## Filmography ## Awards and decorations ### Awards ### Decorations
2,520,053	Kimberley Joseph	1,173,593,754	Canadian Australian actress	[ "1973 births", "Actresses from Vancouver", "Australian film directors", "Australian game show hosts", "Australian photographers", "Australian television actresses", "Australian women film directors", "Canadian emigrants to Australia", "Film directors from Vancouver", "Living people" ]	Kimberley Joseph (born August 30, 1973) is a Canadian Australian actress who is based in the United States. Joseph was born in Canada, brought up on the Gold Coast in Australia and educated in Switzerland. After returning to Australia, she began a degree at Bond University but dropped out at the age of 19 when she was cast in the soap opera Paradise Beach. She had no formal acting training but appeared in the soap for the 18 months it was produced. After Paradise Beach ended, she had casual work on Hey Hey It's Saturday before co-hosting the popular Seven Network series Gladiators. After three series of Gladiators, Joseph was eager to return to acting, so took the role of villain Joanne Brennan in Home and Away from 1995 to 1996. In 1999, she moved to the United States to study acting at the Atlantic Theater Company in New York City, then spent 18 months unsuccessfully auditioning for roles in Los Angeles. In 2001, she was cast as Jo Ellison in the British television series Cold Feet. She appeared in the fourth and fifth series and returned to Australia two days after filming the final episode in 2002. In 2004, she appeared in a major recurring role as Dr. Grace Connelly in six episodes of the Australian soap opera All Saints. She returned to America after filming All Saints, where she got a small role as flight attendant Cindy Chandler in the pilot episode of Lost. The role was supposed to be a one-off in the pilot but a producer liked Joseph and the character, so brought her back for a recurring role in the second, third and sixth seasons. Away from acting, Joseph has been involved in efforts to highlight the effects of Soviet nuclear testing in Kazakhstan, including directing a short film. ## Early life Kimberley Joseph was born on August 30, 1973, in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, to Joe and Wendy. Joe, a Canadian businessman, met Wendy, an Australian air hostess, while she was in Canada. When Kimberley was three years old, the family moved to Australia's Gold Coast, where she attended St Hilda's School for the next nine years. The family travelled extensively in Europe, and Kimberley attended a private school in Montreux, Switzerland, for four years. While there, she learned to speak French and Spanish. When she returned to Australia, she started a degree in arts and commerce at Bond University, though did not complete it. ## Career At the age of 19, Joseph dropped out of University after getting the part of Cassie Barsby in the soap opera Paradise Beach. Like many of the cast, she had no formal acting training, though she turned this to her advantage with "exuberance and energy". Joseph gained acting experience and friendships with Raelee Hill, Megan Connolly, and Isla Fisher, though the series was cancelled after only 18 months. After Paradise Beach ended, she began appearing in the Nine Network variety show Hey Hey It's Saturday. Joseph had no contract with Nine, and was making the appearances as a favour to her friend, host Daryl Somers. Nine Network executives wanted to make her a regular on the show and began using her in publicity material. However, rival network Seven offered her a contract to co-host Gladiators before Nine could make her Hey Hey contract permanent. Her defection to Seven in 1995 caused a small scandal. She described hosting Gladiators as "tough and scary" on account of the live audience. She appeared for three seasons and some international specials before taking the role of Joanne Brennan in Home and Away in an effort to get away from presenting. The character, a secretary who dealt drugs to school children, appeared from 1995 to 1996. She left the soap with the possibility of returning to the character later. Alongside her role in Home and Away, she appeared in a play with Geoffrey Hughes. Until 1999, she continued working as a "jobbing actress", making appearances in Hercules: The Legendary Journeys and Sale of the Century, and Tales of the South Seas. Eager to move away from soap opera acting, Joseph moved to the United States to study acting with the Atlantic Theater Company in New York City. She then moved to Los Angeles, where she spent 18 months living off her savings trying to get auditions. In those 18 months, her only jobs were a single commercial and a job interviewing LA-based film actors for Australian television. In 2001, her lawyer informed her that she would have to travel to Sydney to be interviewed for her green card. On the day she was due to fly back to Australia, her agent informed her of an audition for the British television series Cold Feet, whose producer was looking for an Australian actress to become a new main cast member. Two weeks later she had moved to Manchester, England and was doing script read-throughs with the rest of the cast. Her character, Jo Ellison, appeared in all episodes of the fourth and fifth series. Two days after filming the final episode in 2002, Joseph left Britain and returned to Australia. In 2004, she appeared on Australian television for the first time since 1999, playing Dr. Grace Connelly in six episodes of All Saints. The day after she completed filming of her scenes, she returned to Los Angeles for the pilot season. She got a small part as a flight attendant in the pilot episode of Lost. Joseph's scenes, on an airplane set, were filmed over two and a half days in Los Angeles. An early script draft of the pilot called for her character to be seen dead on a beach, though subsequent rewrites removed the scene. A producer liked Joseph and her character, and planned to bring both back to the series at a later date. She returned at the beginning of the second season, when it was revealed that her character, given the name Cindy Chandler, had survived the plane crash in the pilot episode along with other passengers from the tail section of the plane. Despite being asked not to change her appearance too much after the pilot, Joseph had her hair cut, so in her first few episodes of the second season she had to "go through the whole debacle of putting a Rambo scarf around [her] head, which just looked ridiculous." Her episodes for season two were filmed over five weeks and were broadcast in 2005. Her character was abducted in the middle of an episode and was not seen again until in the third season, when Joseph reprised the role for two episodes and the whereabouts of her character are revealed. Joseph resumed the role for the sixth and final season in 2010. Joseph also filmed minor roles in two Ron Howard films; in Frost/Nixon (2008), she portrayed tennis champion Evonne Goolagong, and she had a minor role in Angels & Demons (2009). Although of a different ethnicity to Goolagong, she was cast in Frost/Nixon because she had the "right look". Both of her scenes were cut from the films before release. In 2011, Joseph appeared in television commercials for HughesNet, the satellite-based Internet Service Provider. In 2013, Joseph appeared in Linkin Park's music video for their single Castle of Glass. Joseph played the bereaved wife of a deceased Navy SEAL. In 2016 Kimberley ‘Hawryluk’ appears on Series 1 Episode 4 of “Restored” as Decorator to Restoration Expert Brett Waterman, who restores an 1895 Victorian farmhouse in Redlands, CA, USA ## Personal life Joseph lives in Los Angeles, where she is based for acting. She has been involved in Aid International projects highlighting the effects of Soviet nuclear testing in Semey, Kazakhstan. In 2003 she visited the area with Scottish MEP Struan Stevenson, where she photographed victims of radiation poisoning. The photographs were displayed in the Scottish Parliament building in 2004 and published in Stevenson's book Crying Forever in 2006. She returned to the area with Stevenson in July 2008 and has developing a documentary film to attract international attention to the area. The 13-minute film, entitled When the Dust Settles, premiered on 12 November 2009 at the Birch Carroll & Coyle cinema in Southport, Queensland. Joseph and partner Scott Chrisman have a son, Gabriel, born in 2013. ## Filmography As host - Gladiators (1995–1996) - Gladiators: The Ashes 1 (1995–1996) - International Gladiators 2 (1996) As director - When the Dust Settles (2009; documentary short)
53,458,061	Connor Maloney	1,164,426,406	American soccer player	[ "1995 births", "American men's soccer players", "Columbus Crew draft picks", "Columbus Crew players", "Living people", "Major League Soccer players", "Men's association football fullbacks", "Penn State Nittany Lions men's soccer players", "Pittsburgh Riverhounds SC players", "Reading United AC players", "San Antonio FC players", "Soccer players from Pennsylvania", "Sportspeople from Harrisburg, Pennsylvania", "USL Championship players", "USL League Two players" ]	Connor Austin Maloney (born May 18, 1995) is an American soccer player who plays as a full-back for USL Championship club San Antonio FC. His senior career includes stints with four different American clubs and experience in Major League Soccer. Playing collegiately at Penn State, Maloney was the 2014 Big Ten Offensive Player of the Year. A native of Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, Maloney graduated from Bishop McDevitt High School, where he was a two-sport athlete and set multiple school and state records. He played collegiately at Pennsylvania State University, where he was a two-time captain for the Nittany Lions and a three-time All-Big Ten First Team honoree. Maloney was drafted in the 2017 MLS SuperDraft by Columbus Crew. He played his first three professional seasons as a backup in Columbus, spending time on loan during two of those years with Pittsburgh Riverhounds. Maloney signed for USL Championship club San Antonio FC in 2020. ## Early life Born in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, Maloney attended Bishop McDevitt High School, where he played soccer and American football. He was a three-year captain of the varsity soccer team, twice earning all-PIAA honors. As a senior, Maloney was named as an NSCAA High School All-American after scoring 45 goals, including nine hat tricks. He scored 110 goals with the Crusaders, a school and conference record, and set a school record with 68 assists. He was also the Bishop McDevitt placekicker for four years, debatably setting a state record by scoring 328 points. At club level, Maloney played for Pennsylvania Classics in the U.S. Soccer Development Academy. While in high school, he spent two summers with the Philadelphia Union Academy, winning the Generation Adidas Cup in 2012. He was ranked as the no. 21 recruit in the country, and the third-best player in Pennsylvania, by TopDrawerSoccer.com and committed to play collegiately for the Penn State Nittany Lions and coach Bob Warming. ## College and amateur Maloney was officially announced as a member of the Nittany Lions on April 5, 2013, one of ten recruits that Penn State brought in ahead of the season. He went on to start every game he played across his four years in University Park. Maloney scored his first collegiate goal in a 2–1 loss to Akron on November 6 and scored his first postseason goal in a 1–0 victory over UC Santa Barbara in the 2013 NCAA Tournament. He finished the season with two goals and a team-high seven assists from 21 appearances, good enough to earn a spot on the All-Big Ten Freshman team as a unanimous selection. Maloney put up his best statistical season as a sophomore: a career-high ten goals, as well as three assists, from 20 appearances. Five of his goals were match-winners, including in each of the first two games on the year. He was named as the 2014 Big Ten Offensive Player of the Year and was a unanimous selection to the All-Big Ten First Team. Prior to his junior season, Maloney was called up to the United States U23 national team, taking part in a college identification training camp ahead of the 2015 CONCACAF Men's Olympic Qualifying Championship. After returning to Penn State, he was named as a team captain for the Nittany Lions; Maloney responded by leading the team in shots, shots on goal, and goals. He tallied seven goals and two assists on the year, including a pair of two-goal performances in midseason. Although Penn State failed to qualify for the NCAA Tournament for the first time in three years, Maloney was named to the All-Big Ten First Team for the second consecutive season. As a senior, he was again named as a captain and led the team with eight goals, five assists, and 25 shots on goal. Maloney capped the season by being named to the All-Big Ten First Team, the third consecutive year he was honored as such, and was named to the All-Great Lakes Region Second Team by the NSCAA. He finished his Penn State career with 27 goals from 75 appearances. ### Reading United Following his freshman season with the Nittany Lions, Maloney spent time with Reading United of the Premier Development League. He made just one appearance, playing for six minutes, during his brief stint with the club. ## Club career ### Columbus Crew #### 2017–2018: Loans to Pittsburgh Maloney was selected 49th overall in the 2017 MLS SuperDraft by Columbus Crew. Although he played as a forward in college, he changed positions as a professional to become a defender, capable of playing at either outside back position. After taking part in preseason camp, Maloney officially signed with the club on February 20. He made his professional debut less than a month later, in a match against Houston Dynamo on March 11. With Columbus trailing at halftime, he entered in place of Harrison Afful and played the final 45 minutes of a 3–1 defeat for the Crew. On May 19, Maloney was sent on loan to Pittsburgh Riverhounds, the Crew's United Soccer League affiliate. The loan was on a match-by-match basis, with Maloney able to be recalled by Columbus at any time. He made his debut for the Hounds the next day, starting and playing 61 minutes in a 1–0 defeat to Louisville City. Maloney played just once more while on loan and returned to Columbus after those two appearances. He appeared in one more game after being recalled by the Crew, making his first professional start and tallying an assist against Real Salt Lake in late July. His season ended after undergoing a meniscectomy on his left knee on October 24, just two days before the club's first playoff game. On December 1, Maloney had his contract option picked up by the Crew. After being unable to find the field in Columbus in early 2018, Maloney was again sent on loan to Pittsburgh on May 25, 2018. He made his second debut for the Riverhounds the next day, starting and playing 86 minutes of a scoreless draw against Penn FC. After again making just one more appearance for Pittsburgh, Maloney was recalled by the Crew. He went on to make two appearances in Columbus over the remainder of the season. In his one league appearance, he replaced Milton Valenzuela in the 62nd minute of a game against Portland Timbers on September 19 and provided his second career assist on a Niko Hansen goal three minutes into stoppage time. On November 19, Maloney was named as the recipient of the Kirk Urso Heart Award as "the player that best exemplified the qualities in a teammate and became 'the heart'" in the club's locker room. The club exercised the option on Maloney's contract on November 26. #### 2019: Playing time in Columbus Under new head coach Caleb Porter, Maloney began the 2019 season as the fourth-choice outside back, sitting behind Harrison Afful, Waylon Francis, and Hector Jiménez on the depth chart. He played just 15 minutes in one substitute appearance through the first five months of the season, but jumped into the lineup in August with multiple players out injured. Playing as a left back for the first time in his career, Maloney went on to start the Crew's final nine matches of the season. He was praised by Porter for his work rate and for "punching above his weight". Maloney finished the year with 11 appearances in all competitions, after he had played just eight total professional matches across his first two pro seasons. At the roster decision deadline ahead of the 2020 season, the Crew declined the option on Maloney's contract, ending his time with the club after three seasons. He went unselected in the 2019 MLS Re-Entry Draft. ### San Antonio FC Following his release from Columbus, Maloney joined USL Championship club San Antonio FC on January 6, 2020. He scored a goal in a preseason loss against FC Dallas before making his club debut in a 1–0 victory over Real Monarchs on March 7. Maloney appeared in 16 matches on the year, keeping his starting spot after the season was paused due to the COVID-19 pandemic and then resumed in July. He tallied two assists, both coming in September, in victories against Rio Grande Valley FC Toros and OKC Energy. Although San Antonio qualified for the 2020 USL Championship Playoffs, they were eliminated in the conference quarterfinals by New Mexico United. Maloney was substituted in the 68th minute. His contract with the club expired at the end of the season, but Maloney re-signed with San Antonio on January 7, 2021. As he returned for his second season in San Antonio, Maloney was "projected to reprise [a] prominent role" by the San Antonio Express-News. However, he suffered a lower body injury, missed the first 12 games of the year, and did not return to the field until mid-July. Maloney then settled into a utility player role, appearing at five different positions while starting all but one of his 23 total games played. During the 2021 USL Championship Playoffs, he provided two assists and, in the conference final against Orange County SC, scored his attempt during the penalty shoot-out. Maloney re-signed with San Antonio for a third season on January 21, 2022. During the 2022 USL Championship Playoffs, Maloney scored the game-winner in the Western Conference final against Colorado Springs Switchbacks on November 6. ## Personal life Maloney graduated from Penn State with a degree in kinesiology. His older sister, Kelsie, played four years of college soccer at West Virginia; one brother, Austin, also played soccer at Penn State; and another brother, Ryan, played soccer at Bishop McDevitt. All three of the brothers were coached by their father, Terence, while in high school. ## Career statistics ## Honors Philadelphia Union - Generation Adidas Cup: 2012 Penn State - Big Ten Conference (regular season): 2013 San Antonio FC - USL Championship (regular season): 2022 - USL Championship Final: 2022 Individual - All-Big Ten Freshman Team: 2013 - Big Ten Offensive Player of the Year: 2014 - All-Big Ten First Team: 2014, 2015, 2016 - NSCAA All-Great Lakes Region Second Team: 2016 - Kirk Urso Heart Award: 2018 ## See also - All-time Columbus Crew roster - All-time Reading United A.C. roster - List of people from Pennsylvania
21,855,590	Mauser Model 1893	1,164,590,893	null	[ "7×57mm Mauser rifles", "Bolt-action rifles", "Mauser rifles", "Rifles of Spain", "Weapons of the Ottoman Empire" ]	The Mauser Model 1893 is a bolt-action rifle commonly referred to as the Spanish Mauser, though the model was adopted by other countries in other calibers, most notably the Ottoman Empire. The M1893 was based on the experimental M1892 rifle, which Paul Mauser developed for the Spanish Army as part of a program to correct deficiencies in the earlier 1889, 1890, and 1891 series of Mauser rifles. The M1893 introduced a short staggered-column box magazine that fit flush with the bottom of the stock; the magazine held five smokeless 7×57mm Mauser rounds, which could be reloaded quickly by pushing a stripper clip from the top of the open bolt. The M1893 was developed into several variants, including a shortened carbine adopted by the Spanish as the M1895, and as the M1913 and M1916 short rifles. All versions of the rifle saw extensive service in the Spanish Army, beginning in the Spanish–American War in 1898, the Rif War of 1920–1927, and the Spanish Civil War of 1936–1939. The M1916 short rifles remained in production in Spain until 1951, and many of these later rifles were converted to shoot either 7.92×57mm Mauser or 7.62×51mm NATO, including some that were extensively modified as the FR7. The converted rifles were used for training and for the Guardia Civil through the 1950s. In Ottoman service, M1893 rifles saw limited action during the Greco-Turkish War of 1897, the Balkan Wars of 1912–1913, and World War I in 1914–1918. The M1893 proved to be a major success for Mauser, as it provided the basis for later developments, including the Models 1894 and 1896—commonly referred to as Swedish Mausers—the Model 1895, and ultimately the Gewehr 98, one of the most successful bolt-action rifle designs ever produced. For his work, Mauser received the Grand Cross of the Order of Military Merit from Spain. The marked superiority of the M1893 over its American opponent in the Spanish–American War, the Krag–Jørgensens, led the US Army to develop the M1903 Springfield, which itself heavily copied Mauser's designs. ## Development In 1887, the Spanish Army began trials of the Turkish Model 1887 Mauser rifles, which utilized black powder cartridges. These rifles did not satisfy the Spanish Army, and so on 2 December 1891, the Army ordered 1,200 Model 1891 Mausers that used new smokeless powder ammunition. The impetus for the change was a series of defeats of Spanish forces around the enclave at Melilla in North Africa. Trials with these guns provided a series of improvement suggestions for Mauser; in addition to Spanish experiences, by that time, the 1889, 1890, and 1891 series of Mauser rifles had been in service with various armies long enough to highlight deficiencies in the designs. Among the issues that had been identified were an unreliable extractor, a detachable box magazine that was frequently lost and extended below the bottom of the stock, which caused problems with carrying the rifle slung. The stripper clip guide and the clips themselves were also unreliable and the bolt design allowed the rifle to double-feed rounds of ammunition. As a result, Paul Mauser decided to design a new rifle that would correct the problems with the earlier rifles, and allow the company to secure more arms contracts. Mauser's design work produced the Model 1892, a transitional design that was manufactured in limited numbers for the Spanish Army. Between 5,000 and 8,000 of the rifles were built for Spain. At the same time, Mauser developed the 7×57mm Mauser cartridge for the Spanish Army, which adopted the round the following year for the M1892 rifles. The M1892 rifle introduced a number of innovations to remedy the problems of the earlier rifles, including the large non-rotating claw extractor on the bolt, which prevented double-feeds. The magazine box and trigger guard were machined as a single piece, preventing the box from being removed and lost, though the magazine was still a single-stack design that extended below the bottom of the stock. The stripper clips and the clip guides were improved to make them easier to use. Other internal changes were made to simplify the action and increase its reliability and safety, including alterations to the sear to prevent it from releasing the firing pin if the bolt was not fully in battery. Spain placed an order for 20,000 of the M1892 rifles on 21 July 1893, with a further 10,000 added on 27 August, but the design quickly led to an improved version, the Model 1893, which replaced the M1892s ordered. The new M1893 version incorporated a staggered 5-round magazine that did not extend below the bottom of the stock. This was the first time a Mauser rifle included a fully contained magazine. Apart from a redesigned receiver to fit the wider magazine, the action of the M1893 was essentially identical to the M1892. The Spanish Army adopted the M1893 on 7 December 1893. For his work in developing such an effective rifle, Mauser received the Grand Cross of the Order of Military Merit from the Spanish government. ## Description The M1893 was manufactured in two variants for Spain, a standard rifle with a 29.06-inch (738 mm) barrel and a short carbine with a 21.75-inch (552 mm) barrel. According to historian John Walter, however, the short version might have been an experimental design only. Both of these variants were chambered in the 7 mm caliber developed by Mauser, and the barrel had 4-groove rifling with a right-hand twist. The rifling twist rate was 1 revolution in 8.68 inches (220 mm). The 7 mm ammunition was fired at a muzzle velocity of 2,330 feet per second (710 m/s) from the standard rifle-length barrel. The rifle weighed 8.8 pounds (4.0 kg), while the carbine weighed about 8.3 pounds (3.8 kg). Another variant, built for the Ottoman Army, had the same 29.06-inch barrel as the Spanish rifle, but it was chambered in the slightly larger 7.65×53mm Mauser round. The Ottoman variant weighed about 9 pounds (4.1 kg). The receiver for all versions of the rifle and the one-piece bolt were forged steel. The receivers had guides for stripper clips milled into the bridge for increased reliability, though the rifles could also be loaded individually. Most bolts featured a straight handle with a rounded grasping knob, though the short rifles were fitted with bolts that had turned down handles. As was standard for Mauser rifles, the M1893 was configured with a three-position safety that locked the action or allowed the bolt to be worked but with a disabled firing pin, in addition to the fire setting. The safety could only be applied while the action was cocked. The bolt was a cock on close design, and locked with a pair of forward locking lugs; unlike later Mauser designs, it did not include a third, rear locking lug, which was introduced with the Model 1895. The forward receiver ring diameter were the two forward locking lugs achieved lockup is 33 millimetres (1.30 in). As a result, the bolt was not as strong as later designs. The M1893 magazine included a bolt stop, which prevented the bolt from being closed on an empty magazine, thus indicating to the soldier that the rifle was empty. To close the bolt with an empty magazine, the follower had to be depressed to clear the bolt stop. The iron sights included a tangent V-notch rear sight that was graduated from 400 meters (1,300 ft) to 2,000 m (6,600 ft). Later rifles, manufactured from May 1906 onward, received a modernized rear sight, and a third version of the rear sight was adopted in 1913 after an improved 7 mm round, which had the significantly higher muzzle velocity of 2,790 feet per second (850 m/s), was adopted. The barreled receiver was fitted with a wood stock with a straight grip. The stock was attached to the barrel with two barrel bands, the forward-most of which also included a bayonet lug for the rifle variant, while the short carbine did not receive the bayonet lug. Each rifle was issued with an M1893 sword bayonet. ### Derivatives In 1894, Mauser designed a new version of the rifle, designated the Model 1894, chambered in 6.5×55mm for the Swedish Army. Further alterations of the basic M1893 design produced the Model 1895, which was chambered in 7 mm and sold in large quantities to Central and South American countries, including Chile, El Salvador, Honduras, Uruguay, and Mexico. The M1895 was also sold to China, Luxembourg, and Persia. Spain also acquired a variant of the M1895 that was essentially identical to the M1893 series with the exception of its 17.5-inch (440 mm) barrel. The design was refined further into the Model 1896, which was sold to Sweden and the Boer states, the latter placed into very effective use during the Second Boer War of 1899–1902. The Mauser action was further refined in 1898 with the version that was adopted in Germany as the Gewehr 98, which proved to be the most influential of all bolt-action rifles of its time, leading to various military rifles like the German Karabiner 98k, Czech vz. 24, and the Yugoslav M24 series. The Mauser M98 action is still copied in modern, commercial hunting rifle designs. ## History In addition to Mauser, the Spanish 1893 rifles were manufactured under license by a variety of other firms, including Ludwig Loewe & Company (and its successor, Deutsche Waffen und Munitionsfabriken) of Germany, Fabrique Nationale of Belgium, and Fábrica de Armas and Industrias de Guerra de Cataluna of Spain. A total of 206,830 rifles were manufactured in Germany for Spain by 1899, and from 1896 to 1943, Spanish arsenals manufactured more than 2 million of the rifles including all variants. Over the course of Spanish Mauser production, Fábrica de Armas built some 500,000 M1893 rifles at its factory in Oviedo, along with 850,000 M1895s and 325,000 of the modernized Model 1916 rifles. The 1893 Mauser was used by the Spanish Army in Cuba against US and Cuban insurrectionist forces and in the Philippines against the Philippine Revolutionary Army and US forces during the Spanish–American War in 1898. It gained a deadly reputation particularly from the Battle of San Juan Hill, where only 750 Spanish regulars significantly delayed the advance of 8,500 US troops armed with a mix of outclassed .30–40 Krag–Jørgensen bolt-action rifles and older single-shot, breech-loading Trapdoor Springfield rifles, inflicting 1,400 American casualties. The use of smokeless powder gave the Spanish a major advantage over the single-shot, black powder Springfield that was issued to many United States troops. The Mauser's 7mm cartridge gave some 300 ft/s (91 m/s) higher velocity and a resultant flatter trajectory over the .30 Army cartridge used in the Krag–Jørgensen rifle. This extended the effective range of Spanish defensive fire. In addition, the higher velocity gave the 7 mm Mauser significantly greater penetrating capability than the .30-40. The M93's stripper clip system allowed the Spaniards to reload far more quickly than could be done with the Krag, whose magazine had to be loaded one round at a time. A United States Army board of investigation was commissioned as a direct result of this battle. They recommended replacement of the Krag. By 1903, American authorities had adopted the M1903 Springfield, which copied the 1898 Mauser's bolt and magazine systems, along with a higher-velocity .30 caliber cartridge, the .30-03 (which was later replaced by the more potent .30-06 Springfield). Spain remained neutral during World War I, but Model 1893 Mausers saw extensive service with both regular troops and the Spanish Legion during the Rif War of 1920–1927 against Moroccan rebels. The rifles were still in service during the Spanish Civil War of 1936–1939 on both sides of the conflict. Many of the Model 1893 rifles were modernized during the war. The 7 mm chambered Mausers were replaced in Spanish service in 1943 by the Spanish M43, a derivative of the German Karabiner 98k, chambered in the more powerful 7.92×57mm Mauser cartridge, though the M1893 and M1916 versions of the rifles remained in service in various capacities into the 1950s. They were still the standard rifle of some Spanish units during the Ifni War, the rifle being also used by their opponents of the Moroccan Army of Liberation. Some of the M1916 guns were modernized in the 1950s and served even longer, though the widespread development of semi-automatic rifles after World War II quickly rendered the Mausers suitable only for second-line duties. Between 1894 and 1899, Mauser manufactured approximately 201,100 of the M1893 rifles for the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Army did not widely issue the rifle to its troops, or indeed train those who were equipped with it. During the Greco-Turkish War of 1897, only about a tenth of Ottoman soldiers were equipped with the rifle, with the remainder carrying obsolescent Snider–Enfields and Martini–Henrys. Many of the M1893s (and other models of modern rifles) acquired by the Ottoman Army were kept in government arsenals rather than issued to soldiers. The same remained true in the Balkan Wars of 1912–1913. Ottoman soldiers, who were typically familiar with old muzzle-loading rifles, frequently had trouble operating the rifle. The rifles continued on in Ottoman service through World War I. A slightly modified M1893 rifle were also sold to Brazil, chambered in 7 mm and designated M1894. Produced in long rifle and carbine version, it was used during the War of Canudos in 1897 and later during the Contestado War alongside the Mauser Model 1908. Moreover, some M1893 long rifles and cavalry carbines in 7.65 mm were made at Fabrique Nationale for the Belgian Gendarmerie, the Garde Civique and the Congo Free State after 1894. ## Variants ### Ottoman variant When the Ottoman Army learned about the new Spanish model of 1893, it ordered some 200,000 rifles in the same configuration. Their rifles were chambered for the 7.65×53mm Mauser cartridge and were identical to the Spanish model, except for a magazine cut-off, which when engaged permitted the feeding and extraction of single cartridges only while keeping the cartridges in the magazine in reserve, and a cylindrical bolt. The bayonet lug fit the M1890 Bayonet, which the Ottomans had already acquired in large numbers. Most of these rifles still in Turkish hands were later re-barreled and converted to fire the far more common and powerful 7.92×57mm Mauser after the Turkish Army adopted that caliber. ### Spanish Model 1895 carbine The Spanish Army adopted the Model 1895 carbine on 7 May 1895; the rifle was essentially a shortened M1893, with a full-length stock that ran to the muzzle. Though the carbine bears the 1895 designation, it did not include the improvements made in the M1895, and was essentially just a shortened M1893. It received the 1895 designation as the Spanish Army did not approve the carbine for service until that year. Ludwig Loewe manufactured around 22,500 of the M1895 carbines between 1896 and 1897 before licensing production to Fábrica de Armas, which built an unknown number of the rifles between 1898 and 1915, when production changed over to the Model 1916 short rifle. The carbine had an overall length of 37.4 inches (950 mm), with a 17.55-inch (446 mm) barrel and a stock that extended to the end of the barrel. The carbine weighed 7 to 7.5 pounds (3.2 to 3.4 kg) empty. The M1895 carbine also differed in some minor details, including the rear sight, which was graduated only to 1,400 meters (4,600 ft), and the bolt handle, which was turned down. Since the carbine was intended to be used by cavalry, it used a single, large lanyard loop on the bottom of the wrist instead of traditional sling loops. In 1896, the design was modified slightly, to add a sling ring to the barrel band and a sling bracket in the left side of the butt. Unlike on the longer rifles, the upper barrel band did not include a bayonet lug. The left side of the rear of the receiver was cut down to facilitate the use of stripper clips. ### Spanish Model 1913 short rifle The Model 1913 short rifle was an experimental development to replace the M1895, though it was identical to the M1895 in most respects. The short rifle was slightly shorter than the carbine, at 37.2 in (940 mm) overall, though it was slightly heavier, at 7.12 pounds (3.23 kg) empty. It retained the same length barrel and the same action, but unlike the M1895, the forward barrel band incorporated a bayonet lug for the M1893 sword bayonet. The rifle was issued in small numbers for field trials beginning in 1914, but they were soon superseded by the Model 1916 short rifle. Surviving M1913s were issued to buglers in cavalry squadrons beginning on 2 April 1918. ### Spanish Model 1916 short rifle The Model 1916 rifle was adopted on 14 November 1916 to replace the M1895 carbine, the short barrels of which were not optimized to take advantage of the higher velocity of the M1913 cartridge. Like the M1913, the left rear of the receiver was cut to facilitate stripper clip loading, though it was cut fully flush with the stock. Gas escape holes were added to the bolt and to the receiver to vent excess gas in the event of a case failure. Also like the M1913, the M1916 rifle had a bent bolt handle, a full-length stock with a lug for an M1913 sword bayonet. Beginning in 1913, large sight protectors were added to the front sight. These rifles featured a 21.75-inch (552 mm) barrel, though a carbine version was also manufactured with a 17.7-inch (450 mm) barrel, though this may have been an experimental version. The M1916 was manufactured by Fábrica de Armas from 1916 to 1951 and Industrias de Guerra de Cataluna from 1936 to 1939. Starting in 1943, many of the M1916 rifles were converted to fire the larger and more powerful 7.92×57mm Mauser cartridge, which Spain had adopted that year with the M43 rifle. Some of these guns received new stocks with pistol grips and finger grooves in the fore end. In the 1950s, many of the M1893 and M1916 rifles were converted to accept the 7.62×51mm NATO round. These rifles retained their original furniture and fittings, though some were converted further to the FR7 standard, which received cut down stocks, a shorter 18.5-inch (470 mm) barrel, and more modern aperture sights. Both versions of the re-barreled rifles were employed for military training and Guardia Civil use, along with the similarly converted FR8, which was based on the M43 action. ## Users - Spain - Ottoman Empire - First Philippine Republic - First Brazilian Republic - Congo Free State - Belgium - Honduras:A number were bought at the beginning of the 20th century, possibly those were captured rifles from the Spanish-American War sold by Bannerman
40,182,226	O'Brien Brewing and Malting Company	1,041,117,248	Canadian brewery and malting company	[ "1919 disestablishments in Canada", "Beer brewing companies based in Yukon", "Canadian companies established in 1904" ]	The O'Brien Brewing and Malting Company, also known as the Klondike Brewery, was a brewery founded by Thomas O'Brien in Klondike City, an adjoining settlement to Dawson City, Yukon Territory, Canada from 1904 to 1919. It was established during a period in which Dawson City was expected to become an important regional city, and used modern techniques and equipment imported from California. It was initially successful, selling 68,748 gallons of beer in 1905, but Dawson's population declined and growing temperance attitudes threatened the business. O'Brien sold the company in 1915, and in 1919 prohibition forced its closure. The brewery was abandoned, and the remains of the site are now owned by the Tr'ondek Hwech'in First Nation. ## Background Dawson City was founded in 1896 in the early days of the Klondike Gold Rush, alongside the Yukon River in north-western Canada. Swelled by would-be gold-miners and adventurers, Dawson's population soared to 30,000 at the height of the rush in 1898. Dawson declined in size again as many of the immigrants left, but it was appointed the Territorial Capital of the new Yukon Territory in 1900, and by the following year it had a stable population of around 10,000. Imported beer had been very expensive during the initial gold rush, costing around \$100 a barrel, or approximately \$1 a bottle. The Dawson City Brewery had been established in the city by a businessman called T. Krozner in 1898 to manufacture a local alternative, but this had closed by 1902 as the city's population declined and prices fell. Thomas O'Brien was a Canadian miner and businessman who had prospered considerably during the rush, investing widely in businesses across the city to become one of the wealthiest of the local hotel and saloon owners. O'Brien had considerable confidence that Dawson would continue to grow as an economic powerhouse in the region, both because of its remaining gold deposits and the presence of Canadian government institutions. O'Brien believed that transportation costs would inevitably keep the prices for imported beer high in Dawson and make a local brewery a profitable venture, with the potential to export its product into the neighbouring U.S. district of Alaska. ## Creation The legal paperwork for the O'Brien Brewing and Malting Company was completed in late 1903 and the company was formally created in February 1904 by O'Brien as the majority shareholder with 77 percent of the stock, and six other investors. The company had an initial capital of \$200,000 and owned \$53,000 of land in Klondike City, just across the river from Dawson, which O'Brien had sold to the new company. George Mero was employed to build the new brewery at considerable speed - 15 days were allowed for the work's completion - converting O'Brien's old building for its new use. The brewery was situated alongside the Klondike Mines Railway terminal, also owned by O'Brien. It opened for business in April. O'Brien intended the brewery to be a modern facility similar to those in California, and brought in Charles Bolbrugge, a brewer from San Francisco, to run the operation. The facility probably took the form of a tower brewery, which minimised the requirements for power supplies, and had a cooperage built adjacent to it. Some of the equipment was probably reused from the local Eldorado Bottling works, which had closed three years before, and possibly the old Dawson City Brewery, which was then combined with up-to-date steam pumps, bottling machines and an artificial refrigeration plant. A variety of second-hand bottles were probably collected from around Dawson City, many of which were then reused at the new brewery, the remainder being discarded along the nearby river shore. The malt and hops for the brewing process were imported from California. A variety of products were manufactured over the lifetime of the brewery, including lager, "Blue Label" and "Special Brew" branded lagers, "Red Label" steam beer, "Bohemiam" bock, porter, "Champagne" cider, ginger beer and various non-alcoholic sodas and drinks. Newspaper reports suggested that between 1,200 and 1,500 gallons of beer could be produced a day and, by September, the brewery's lager was selling at \$3.50 for a dozen bottles. The brewery quickly dominated the local market in its first year of operation, producing 68,748 gallons in 1905 and pushing sales of imported beer down by almost half. O'Brien became the leader of the Yukon Independent Party and held political meetings in the brewery, leading to his faction becoming known as the "steam beers". He used his political connections to support the imposition of a 50 cent per gallon tax on foreign beer in the Yukon in 1907. ## Decline O'Brien's company soon encountered problems. Despite expectations, Dawson City's population began to decline again: one resident, Laura Berton, later described how people were "trickling from it like water from a leaky barrel". By 1909 the population had fallen to 2,000, driving down demand for the brewery's products. Export sales in the highly competitive Alaskan marketplace failed to materialise. The temperance movement also gained ground, almost managing to pass a law introducing prohibition across the territory in 1916. The number of licensed saloons dropped sharply, from 21 in 1902 to only 6 in 1906, and other sales outlets were curtailed. Despite the company's efforts to advertise their product - promoting the health benefits of beer and the company's role in championing a local, pioneering industry - sales dropped considerably after 1908, falling to 31,305 gallons by 1910. ## Closure In 1915, O'Brien, by now in poor health as a consequence of alcohol abuse, sold his shares in the brewery to Joseph Segber, who appointed F. Vinnicomb to manage the company day-to-day. The sale of alcohol in the territory was suspended in the autumn of 1919, full prohibition followed the next year, and the company ceased trading. Initially the premises were kept maintained, probably in case the company was able to reopen, but most of the equipment was sold off to a new brewery in Fairbanks in 1933. The buildings were soon dismantled, probably for firewood, and vegetation reclaimed the site. The rusting brewery steam boiler remained on the site, surrounded by mounds of used bottles, many of which were dug up and removed by collectors over subsequent years, leaving perhaps over 3,000 intact bottles still in place. The remains of a Perfection Bottling Machine and a Crown capping device were left buried beneath the debris. In 1977 the site was threatened with destruction as part of wider plans to dredge the Klondike City site for gold. The land was instead purchased by the Government of Canada, and the site is now owned by the Tr'ondek Hwech'in First Nation. An archaeological investigation of the site took place in 1998, documenting the structure of the building and analysing the industrial remains.
14,137,353	Simplifly Deccan	1,172,808,173	Defunct Indian airline	[ "2003 establishments in Karnataka", "Airlines disestablished in 2008", "Airlines established in 2003", "Companies based in Bangalore", "Defunct airlines of India", "Defunct low-cost airlines", "Indian companies disestablished in 2008", "Indian companies established in 2003" ]	Simplifly Deccan, formerly known as Air Deccan, was the first Indian low-cost carrier. Headquartered in Bengaluru, it operated domestic flights from seven base airports using a fleet of Airbus A320, ATR 42 and ATR 72 aircraft. The airline appealed to middle class travellers with low fares and a large route network. It employed several innovative methods to ensure the profitability of its business model. Nevertheless, Simplifly Deccan merged with Kingfisher Airlines in April 2008. Kingfisher replaced the Deccan brand with Kingfisher Red in August 2008. ## History ### Air Deccan (2003–2007) Simplifly Deccan was founded as Air Deccan by G. R. Gopinath, a retired Indian Army captain who had gained experience in the aviation industry through his Deccan Aviation venture. Air Deccan became a wholly owned subsidiary of Deccan Aviation. The airline launched operations on 25 August 2003 with a flight from Bengaluru to Hubbali. At that time, its fleet consisted of two ATR 42-320 aircraft. In order to increase capacity on its trunk routes, Air Deccan purchased two Airbus A320-200s and leased five in 2004. In December of that year, the airline purchased an additional 30 A320s in a US\$1.8 billion order. It ordered 30 ATR 72-500s in February 2005. The airline underwent rapid growth, witnessing 30% growth in its passenger numbers in 2005–2006. In 2006 it was the third largest airline in India with a 19% market share, flying to 55 destinations with 30 aircraft. It placed an order for 30 more Airbus A320s in December 2006. The airline experienced 42% growth in passenger traffic in 2006–2007, becoming the nation's second largest carrier in 2007. As it grew, other low-cost carriers emerged in the Indian market; SpiceJet, GoAir, IndiGo and JetLite were all launched between 2005 and 2007. #### Low-cost strategy Air Deccan was the first low-cost carrier in India. Launched amid a booming Indian economy and a growing middle class, the airline targeted middle class travellers with its low fares and extensive route network. Tickets cost around 30% less than those of full-service airlines and cost about the same as or less than first class rail tickets. Air Deccan focused on providing air service to underserved airports across the country, where competition was low and the airline could acquire a loyal customer base. G. R. Gopinath claimed he wanted to make air travel accessible to every Indian. > It is not the elite that I consider as my customers. It is the humble cleaning women of my office, the auto-rickshaw driver and other such people that we would like to cater to. We want them to dream that they too can fly, and we want to make that dream happen. The airline operated a single cabin class, economy, allowing it to pack more seats into its aircraft. Following its no-frills approach, it charged for all food and beverages served on board. Payment was also required for cancellations, and no refunds or accommodations were provided to passengers who had missed their flights. Air Deccan operated a point-to-point route network from seven base airports. It maintained low turnaround times and often outsourced work to local airport employees, especially at airports that saw few Air Deccan flights and did not require dedicated employees throughout the day. Air Deccan also gained advertising revenue by allowing advertisements both inside and outside its aircraft. For reservations, the airline utilised multiple channels. Passengers could book tickets through travel agents, on the Internet or through call centres. Each of these channels was connected to a fully web-enabled reservation system, making Air Deccan the first in India to use such a system. Air Deccan also avoided the cost of printing tickets; passengers or travel agents were required to do so off the Internet. ### Simplifly Deccan (2007–2008) In early May 2007, rumours began to circulate that Vijay Mallya, founder of Kingfisher Airlines, was interested in buying Air Deccan. Dispelled the rumours, claiming "[Mallya and I] are from different planets; he is from Venus, I am from Mars". Gopinath believed it was impossible to merge the airlines' separate business models; Kingfisher was a full-service carrier. Nevertheless, negotiations began at the end of the month, and Kingfisher parent United Breweries Group purchased a controlling 26% stake in Deccan Aviation on 31 May. Gopinath had changed his mind upon understanding that the two airlines would continue to function independently. In addition, he needed to raise funds; Air Deccan had lost ₹213 crore (US\$27 million) during the quarter ending 31 March 2007. Air Deccan was rebranded Simplifly Deccan in October 2007 and adopted Kingfisher's livery and flight attendant uniform. In December 2007, the airlines announced that they would merge into a single corporate entity while maintaining separate brands. The airline business of Kingfisher Airlines Ltd was merged into Deccan Aviation Ltd on 1 April 2008. The charter business of Deccan Aviation Ltd was spun off into a separate company known as Deccan Charters Ltd. The combined company utilized Simplifly Deccan's operating permit, allowing it to launch international flights in 2008; Simplifly Deccan would complete five years of operation that year. Mallya introduced major changes to the Simplifly Deccan brand in order to reduce losses and improve the airline's reputation, which had declined because of poor on-time performance. He also wanted to give the airline a premium touch while it remained a low-cost carrier. Simplifly Deccan ended the practice of outsourcing check-in staff, lengthened turnaround times and stopped selling tickets at promotional fares. Simplifly Deccan and Kingfisher continued to operate domestically with their own airline codes. Unless the airlines consolidated under a single set of codes, the Ministry of Civil Aviation required Kingfisher to use Deccan's codes on international routes; Mallya, on the other hand, wanted to use Kingfisher's codes. On 29 August 2008, both airlines started using Kingfisher's codes. Simplifly Deccan also migrated to Kingfisher's reservation system and was renamed Kingfisher Red. ## Corporate affairs and identity Through the merger with Kingfisher Airlines, Simplifly Deccan became a subsidiary of United Breweries Group. Headquarters were located on Cunningham Road in Bengaluru, the capital of Karnataka. ### Livery Simplifly Deccan adopted the livery of Kingfisher Airlines following the merger. The tail, engines and underside were painted red, and the kingfisher bird logo was applied to the tail. The former livery consisted of a fading blue cheatline and, on the tail, a blue circle with two yellow hands joined at the thumb like the wings of a bird. The airline's mascot, R. K. Laxman's The Common Man, was often incorporated into the old livery. It was chosen in May 2005 to emphasise Simplifly Deccan's goal of making air travel more accessible. ## Destinations At the time it ceased operations, Simplifly Deccan flew to 52 destinations across India. It had bases at seven Indian cities: Ahmedabad, Bengaluru, Chennai, Delhi, Hyderabad, Kolkata, Mumbai. The airline opened a base at Thiruvananthapuram in April 2006; however, it ended flights to the airport in early 2008. ## Fleet Simplifly Deccan operated a fleet of ATR 42, ATR 72 and Airbus A320 aircraft. For routes of higher demand between major cities, Simplifly Deccan used its larger Airbus A320s. Simplifly Deccan was operating the following aircraft in September 2007: ## Incidents In 2003, on the planned launch flight from Begumpet airport, Hyderabad to Vijayawada, having onboard guests including Pratap Reddy, M Venkaiah Naidu and other political leaders, one of the engines caught fire while taxiing for takeoff and the flight was aborted. All passengers survived the incident. On 11 March 2006, Air Deccan Flight 108 made a hard landing and skidded off runway 27 at HAL Airport in Bengaluru. The aircraft was an ATR 72-500 registered VT-DKC flying between Coimbatore and Bengaluru. Five passengers received minor injuries, and the aircraft suffered major damage to its undercarriage. The airport was closed for almost five hours following the incident. In the end, the aircraft was sold to be used for spares. ## In popular culture Soorarai Pottru, a Tamil-language film starring Suriya, was inspired by the initial events of Air Deccan and its founder Cpt. G. R. Gopinath.
31,708,904	Jesse Levan	1,167,104,612	American baseball player	[ "1926 births", "1998 deaths", "Atlanta Crackers players", "Baseball players from Reading, Pennsylvania", "Bluefield Blue-Grays players", "Charlotte Hornets (baseball) players", "Chattanooga Lookouts players", "Fort Lauderdale Lions players", "Hagerstown Braves players", "Hartford Chiefs players", "Major League Baseball outfielders", "Major League Baseball third basemen", "Miami Beach Flamingos players", "Milwaukee Brewers (minor league) players", "Philadelphia Phillies players", "Raleigh Capitals players", "Sportspeople involved in betting scandals", "St. Hyacinthe Saints players", "Sunbury Reds players", "Toronto Maple Leafs (International League) players", "United States Army personnel of World War II", "Washington Senators (1901–1960) players", "Wilmington Blue Rocks (1940–1952) players" ]	Jesse Roy Levan (July 15, 1926 – November 30, 1998) was an American professional baseball player. In a 14-season pro career, he appeared in Major League Baseball in 1947 with the Philadelphia Phillies of the National League and in 1954 and 1955 with the American League's Washington Senators. He was officially listed as standing 6 feet (180 cm) and weighing 172 pounds (78 kg). In 25 career major league games, Levan had a .286 batting average with a home run and five runs batted in (RBI). Levan originally signed with the Phillies organization in 1944, then served in World War II after one season. He returned in 1947 and spent two games on the major league roster before returning to the minor leagues, where he won multiple minor league batting titles. He bounced around in various minor league organizations until 1954, when the Washington Senators picked him up. Levan spent the next two seasons with Washington before spending four years with the Chattanooga Lookouts. While in Chattanooga, Levan became the last person banned by baseball's governing organizations for conspiring to fix games, which ended his professional career. ## Early life Levan was born on July 15, 1926, in Reading, Pennsylvania. Playing in youth leagues, he won his first amateur batting titles, and he led the Reading High School baseball team to their league championship behind his .443 batting average and a three home run performance in one of the Knights' thirteen games. Cy Morgan, a scout for the Philadelphia Phillies, signed Levan to a \$1,000 contract (\$ today) in 1944, prior to his graduation from high school. A reporter for the Reading Eagle-Times called Levan one of "the best natural hitters in Berks County history". ## Early career ### Wilmington, the Army, and Philadelphia After signing with the Phillies, Levan was assigned to the Wilmington Blue Rocks of the Interstate League. He played in 136 games for the class-B club, hitting four home runs and batting .316. In October, he was drafted into the Army, serving the remainder of the year, as well as 1945 and 1946, with the 94th Infantry Division and winning the European Armed Forces batting championship with a .343 average. Levan was reassigned to Wilmington after returning to the United States. He combined his earlier speed (his 100-yard dash in uniform had been clocked at 10 seconds) with newfound power, hitting 19 home runs, 19 doubles, and a team-leading 20 triples. At the close of the Interstate League season, Levan was called up to the Phillies. He made his major league debut against the New York Giants, collecting his first hit in his second official at bat. Batting second in the lineup, he finished his first game 2-for-5, notching his first major league run batted in (RBI). The following day, he helped pitcher Curt Simmons, a former teammate in American Legion Baseball, earn his first victory over Andy Hansen of the Giants by hitting safely twice in four times at bat and scoring one run. ### Six teams in two seasons After offseason medical treatment at Johns Hopkins University, Levan opened the 1948 season with the Toronto Maple Leafs of the International League. He hit three doubles and three home runs, but was demoted to Wilmington after 31 contests. He batted .344 for the Blue Rocks, the best mark among the team's players who appeared in more than 30 games, collecting 49 extra-base hits. The Phillies sold Levan's rights to the Boston Braves-affiliated Milwaukee Brewers, where he batted only .103 before being demoted to the Hartford Chiefs. He batted .291 in 223 at-bats with the class-A Sunbury Reds, amassing twelve doubles, three triples, and five home runs, but by the end of the year had been demoted to the class-D Bluefield Blue-Grays. ## Later years ### Two batting titles During the 1950 season, Levan played for the Hagerstown Braves, Boston's B-level affiliate. Second on the club with 512 at-bats, the 23-year-old lefthander led the Braves in hits (177) and doubles (34), finishing second to Joe Tedesco with 13 home runs and 7 triples. His .344 batting average was the best in that year's Interstate League, Levan's first professional batting championship. For his efforts, he was named to the league's postseason all-star team. The Braves sold Levan to the unaffiliated Class-B Raleigh Capitals, where he hit .222 in 18 at-bats. He was released by the Carolina club and signed with the Provincial League's Saints of St. Hyacinthe, a town in Quebec. In 120 games in Canada, Levan batted .347 and led the team with 17 home runs and 36 doubles. The following season, Levan moved south to the Florida- and Cuba-based Florida International League, winning a second batting title by hitting .337 for the Miami Beach Flamingos and leading the team in times at bat (574) and doubles (35). In 1953, he played a short period with the Atlanta Crackers, but spent most of the season back in the Florida International League, batting .323 for the Fort Lauderdale Lions. He notched a .502 slugging percentage while collecting 31 doubles and 6 home runs. ### Second chance at the majors In 1954, the Lions transferred their franchise back to Miami, becoming the Flamingos once again. Levan led the team with 23 home runs—the only player to exceed a single-digit total—as well as having the club's best hit (130) and doubles (21) totals. Despite leading the team in these categories by season's end, Levan actually left the Miami franchise in August to report to the Single-A level affiliate of the Washington Senators, based in Charlotte, North Carolina. He batted .412 for the Hornets for the remainder of the South Atlantic League season, notching 21 extra-base hits. The Senators called him up for seven games in September; he made his American League debut on the sixth of that month, collecting no hits in four at-bats as Washington's first baseman. His first hit with the Senators came on September 18, when he had a pinch-hit single in the 8th frame of a 15-inning contest against the Boston Red Sox. Levan raised his average to .286 in his next game, leading off against the New York Yankees and singling in his only at bat. He appeared in three consecutive contests to complete his first term with the Senators, going hitless on September 24 and 25 and singling on September 26 to fix his yearly batting average in the majors at .300. Levan began the 1955 season on the Senators' bench, playing exclusively as a pinch-hitter during this major league campaign. He opened the year auspiciously, notching an RBI single in his first at-bat of the season, pinch-hitting on April 11. He collected another hit on April 22, but then remained hitless until mid-May, when he appeared in both games of a doubleheader against the Baltimore Orioles. In the nightcap, he hit his first and only major league home run, scoring himself and plating two runs (Bruce Edwards, who doubled leading off the inning; and Bobby Kline, who hit into a fielder's choice). After hitless performances against the Detroit Tigers and the Chicago White Sox, manager Chuck Dressen demoted Levan to Charlotte, ending his brief major league career. For the remainder of the year, he played primarily first base and the outfield for the Hornets, batting .280 with seven home runs. ### Chattanooga and the ban Levan was promoted to the double-A Chattanooga Lookouts of the Southern Association for the 1956 season, where he would finish his career. He led the Looks with 25 home runs that year, batting .311 and slugging .512. The following season, Levan partnered with Harmon Killebrew to set a Southern Association record for most home runs and RBI by a pair of hitters for the same team, as he contributed 26 home runs and 118 RBI to the tandem total. That year, he won the Southern Association batting crown by hitting .345, including a six-game period in which he went 18-for-25 with 11 extra-base hits; the Chattanooga News – Free Press called it 'the greatest batting spree in minor league history.'" In 1958, the Arkansas Democrat named Levan a "hitting machine" after he went 7-for-8 over a two-game span; for the season, he batted .292 with 26 home runs, the largest single-season total that he hit for a single team, and added 15 doubles and 4 triples to those totals in 558 at-bats, the team's second highest mark. Levan was leading the 1959 Lookouts with a .337 batting average in July 1959 when his teammates were summoned to a meeting with the Southern Association president, Charles Hurth. The Southern Association alleged that Levan, in combination with Waldo Gonzalez, conspired to fix games by tipping pitches to opposing players. Gonzalez was accused of relaying pitches to players and coaches for the Mobile Bears, and Levan was allegedly the arranger of the scheme, "acting as a liaison agent for betting interests and offering fellow club members money to throw games". Another gambling scandal involved players intentionally fouling off balls in order for gamblers in the stands to take advantage of patrons; the latter scandal, also involving Levan, caused Joe Tipton to earn a life ban from the SA. After interrogating both Gonzalez and Levan, the players were suspended indefinitely (Gonzalez' ban was later reduced to a one-year suspension) for "failure to report a bribery attempt by a gambler"; Levan was also placed on the permanently ineligible list, barring him from participating in any baseball events sponsored by the National Association, minor league baseball's governing body. ## After baseball After leaving baseball, Levan returned to his hometown of Reading with his wife, Geraldine. He worked for the Berks Meat Packing Company as a truck driver and coached softball teams. He retired from Berks in 1988 and was honored as a baseball legend in a ceremony at Municipal Stadium in Reading in 1996. He was also inducted into the Pennsylvania Sports Hall of Fame. Levan died at age 72 on November 30, 1998, and was interred in Charles Evans Cemetery. ## See also - List of people banned from Major League Baseball
1,507,593	HMS Neptune (1797)	1,169,176,279	1797 ship of the line	[ "1797 ships", "Neptune-class ships of the line", "Ships built in Deptford", "Ships of the line of the Royal Navy" ]	HMS Neptune was a 98-gun second-rate ship of the line of the Royal Navy. She served on a number of stations during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars and was present at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805. Neptune was built during the early years of the war with Revolutionary France and was launched in 1797. She almost immediately became caught up in the events of the mutiny at the Nore, and was one of a few loyal ships tasked with attacking mutinous vessels if they could not be brought to order. The mutiny died out before this became necessary and Neptune joined the Channel Fleet. She moved to the Mediterranean in 1799, spending the rest of the French Revolutionary Wars in operations with Vice-Admiral Lord Keith's fleet. After refitting, and spending time on blockades, she formed part of Lord Nelson's fleet at the Battle of Trafalgar, and was heavily involved in the fighting, sustaining casualties of 10 killed and 34 wounded. She was not fully repaired and returned to service until 1807, when she went out to the Caribbean. In 1809 she participated in the successful invasion of Martinique, and the subsequent battle with Troude's squadron. Returning to Britain towards the end of the wars, she was laid up in ordinary, and in 1813 became a temporary prison ship. She was finally broken up in 1818. ## Construction and commissioning Neptune was ordered from Deptford Dockyard on 15 February 1790, to a design developed by Surveyor of the Navy Sir John Henslow. She was one of three ships of the Neptune class, alongside her sisters HMS Temeraire and HMS Dreadnought. Neptune was laid down at Deptford in April 1791, receiving her name on 24 July 1790. The initial stages of her construction were overseen by Master Shipwright Martin Ware, though he was succeeded by Thomas Pollard in June 1795, and Pollard oversaw her completion. Neptune was launched on 28 January 1797 and sailed to Woolwich to be fitted for sea. Arriving at Woolwich on 12 February, she was immediately docked to have her copper sheathing fitted, a process that was completed by 1 March. Launched again, she finished fitting out, and received her masts and yards. Her final costs came to £77,053, and included £61,172 spent on the hull, masts and yards, and a further £15,881 on rigging and stores. She was commissioned on 25 March 1797 under Captain Henry Edwyn Stanhope, becoming the third ship of the Royal Navy to bear the name Neptune. Her predecessors had been two 90-gun ships, the first launched in 1683, renamed HMS Torbay in 1750 and sold in 1784. The second had been launched in 1757, was used as a sheer hulk from 1784, and was broken up in 1816. Stanhope sailed from Woolwich on 11 June 1797, flying the broad pendant of Commodore Sir Erasmus Gower, and made for the Nore. ## Mutiny at the Nore Shortly after her arrival at the Nore, Neptune became caught up in the mutiny that had broken out there. While lying at Gravesend, Neptune and the 64-gun ships HMS Agincourt and HMS Lancaster, together with a fleet of gunboats, were ordered to intercept and attack the mutinous ships at the Nore. Before they could proceed word came that the mutineers had entered negotiations with the Earl of Northesk, captain of the 64-gun HMS Monmouth, and by 9 June the mutiny was on the verge of collapse. The attack was called off, and on 21 September Stanhope was superseded by Gower as captain of Neptune. The crisis over, Neptune joined the Channel Fleet. A further small-scale mutiny would take place in 1798, with some of her crew court-martialed. ## Mediterranean Gower remained in command of Neptune until his promotion to rear-admiral of the white, at which point Herbert Sawyer became her acting-captain. Sawyer was in command until 22 January 1799, and Gower left her on 28 February 1799. Command of the ship formally passed to Captain James Vashon on 5 March 1799. The first half of 1799 was spent with the Channel Fleet, and in June Neptune was one of 15 ships of the line assigned to join Vice-Admiral Lord Keith's fleet in the Mediterranean. The squadron, commanded by Rear-Admiral Sir Charles Cotton, rendezvoused with Keith's force at Menorca on 7 July, bringing the British fleet in the Mediterranean up to 31 ships. Keith intended to intercept a large Franco-Spanish force of 42 ships under Admirals Étienne Eustache Bruix and Jose Mazarredo, and set out to sea on 10 July. Bruix' expedition evaded Keith, and reached the safety of Brest on 9 August. Neptune went on to spend the rest of the French Revolutionary Wars in the Mediterranean. Vashon was superseded on 26 March 1801, and the following day Captain Edward Brace arrived to take command. Neptune became the flagship of Vice-Admiral James Gambier during this period. Brace's period of command was brief, he was superseded by Captain Francis Austen on 12 September. With the draw down in hostilities prior to the signing of the Treaty of Amiens in March 1802, Neptune was one of the many ships of the Mediterranean fleet to be ordered home, arriving at Portsmouth on 24 February. Austen paid her off on 29 April, but recommissioned her the next day. Neptune then underwent a brief refit, during which £5,728 was expended, £2,895 of which was spent on her hull, masts and yards. Austen was superseded on 30 September 1802 and the following day Captain William O'Bryen Drury took command. With Neptune fully refitted and stored, she sailed from the dockyard and joined the Channel Fleet at Spithead on 29 October. ## Blockade, and approach to Trafalgar Drury commanded Neptune for the next two years, until his promotion to rear-admiral in 1804. He departed the ship on 13 May 1804, and the following day Captain Sir Thomas Williams took over. Neptune spent the rest of 1804 deployed with the Channel Fleet, blockading the French Atlantic ports. During this time Captain Williams' health progressively worsened, and he was invalided back to Britain on 7 May 1805. He was replaced by Captain Thomas Fremantle on 8 May, and was sent to join Robert Calder's force blockading Ferrol, after the Franco-Spanish fleet had arrived there after the Battle of Cape Finisterre. Calder decided that his eight ships were not sufficient to resist Villeneuve's fleet were it to come out of harbour, and instead went north to join Admiral William Cornwallis's fleet off Brest. Shortly afterwards Nelson's fleet returned from the West Indies, bringing 12 more ships, and Calder was given 18 ships, including Neptune, and sent back to Ferrol to search for Villeneuve. By now Villeneuve had put into Cadiz and Calder's force was ordered to join the hastily assembled British fleet under Vice-Admiral Cuthbert Collingwood, that was blockading the Franco-Spanish fleet at Cadiz. As the British fleet settled in for a long blockade Fremantle commented on Neptune's sailing qualities. She had the reputation of being slow, and Fremantle complained that he did not like being in 'a large ship that don't sail and must continually be late in action.' During the battle however, Midshipman William Baddock commented that 'The old Neptune, which never was a good sailer, took it into her head that morning to sail better than I ever remember to have seen her do before.' Neptune went into the battle 18 men short of her complement. ## Trafalgar Neptune formed part of the weather column in the Battle of Trafalgar on 21 October, and was the third ship from the lead, situated between her sister HMS Temeraire, and the 74-gun HMS Leviathan. Fremantle had been promised a position second to Nelson aboard HMS Victory, and by 10 o'clock was sailing fast enough to threaten to overtake her. Fremantle hoped to pass her, and lead the line into battle, but Nelson ordered 'Neptune, take in your studding-sails and drop astern. I shall break the line myself.' Neptune went into action with her band playing, and everyone except the officers and the band lying down on the deck to protect them from enemy fire. Ahead of her Fremantle saw Eliab Harvey's Temeraire turn to pass astern of the French Redoutable, but resolved to follow Nelson and HMS Victory to pass astern of the French flagship Bucentaure. As she passed under Bucentaure's stern, Neptune discharged a double-shotted broadside from her larboard (port) guns, with devastating consequences on Villeneuve's already disabled flagship. Fremantle then had the helm swung hard to starboard, bringing his ship abeam of the Bucentaure. He fired two more triple-shotted broadsides from nearly 50 guns at a range of less than 100 yards into the beleaguered French ship. Fremantle then spotted the towering mass of the Spanish four-decker Santísima Trinidad sailing away from him, and steered towards her starboard quarter in the hope of raking her stern. Opening fire with his larboard battery, he positioned Neptune off the Spanish vessel's starboard beam and the two exchanged heavy fire for the next hour as more British ships poured through the gap astern of Neptune. Neptune took fire from other ships of the combined fleet as they sailed past. Santísima Trinidad, heavily battered by Neptune's guns, as well as those from the 74-gun ships HMS Leviathan and HMS Conqueror, became completely dismasted and covered in debris. She fought on until 5.30 pm, when she struck her colours, having sustained casualties of 205 dead and 103 wounded. Neptune left the 98-gun HMS Prince to take possession and headed north to cut off the remains of the enemy fleet, briefly becoming engaged with the French 74-gun Intrépide. During the battle Neptune suffered considerable damage to her masts, although they did not fall. Most of her rigging was cut to pieces and she sustained nine shot holes in her hull. She sustained casualties of ten killed and 34 wounded. A remarkably small proportion of her officers became casualties, with only the captain's clerk, Richard Hurrell, being wounded. After the battle Collingwood transferred his flag from the damaged HMS Royal Sovereign to the frigate HMS Euryalus, and on 22 October Neptune took the Royal Sovereign in tow. On 23 October, as the Franco-Spanish forces that had escaped into Cadiz sortied under Commodore Julien Cosmao, Neptune cast off the tow, surrendering the duty to HMS Mars, and took on board Villeneuve and several captured flag captains, who had originally been aboard Mars. As the weather continued to deteriorate Neptune sent her boats to assist in the evacuation of the Santísima Trinidad before she foundered. After riding out the storm she took the battered Victory, carrying Lord Nelson's body, in tow on 26 October and brought her into Gibraltar on 28 October. ## West Indies After undergoing some repairs at Gibraltar Neptune sailed to Britain, arriving at Portsmouth on 6 December 1805, where she was paid off. She was moved to Spithead in 1806, but was back in Portsmouth on 23 November, and was moved into a dock on 24 March 1807 to undergo a refit. The refit lasted until November 1807 and involved having her copper sheathing removed and her hull refitted. She was then recoppered, having had a sum of £29,053 expended on her. She was recommissioned on 18 August 1807 under her old commander, Captain Sir Thomas Williams, and was relaunched three days later on 21 August to complete her refit. She was initially assigned to serve in the English Channel, but was moved to the West Indies in 1808. On 9 November Williams was superseded by Captain Thomas Pinto, who only spent six weeks in command before being succeeded by Captain Charles Dilkes on 20 December. In January 1809 an attack on the French colony of Martinique, governed by Admiral Louis Thomas Villaret de Joyeuse, was planned. Neptune became the flagship of the expedition's commander, Rear-Admiral Alexander Cochrane, and the invasion force, consisting of 44 vessels and transports for 10,000 troops under Lieutenant-General George Beckwith, sailed on 28 January. The force arrived at Martinique on 30 January, and 3,000 troops were landed under Major-General Frederick Maitland without resistance. 600 troops were put ashore at Cape Solomon under Major Henderson, both landings supervised by Captain William Charles Fahie aboard the 74-gun HMS Belleisle. An additional force of 6,500 men were landed in the north of the island under Major-General Sir George Prévost, and the French were driven into several fortified positions, the last of which surrendered on 24 February 1809. ## Battle with Troude Cochrane's squadron remained in the area blockading the island, and in March a French squadron consisting of three 74-gun ships, D'Hautpoul, Courageux and Polonais, and two frigates, Félicité and Furieuse, under the overall command of Commodore Amable Troude, arrived in the Caribbean. Finding Martinique in British hands, Troude anchored near Îles des Saintes. There they were blockaded until 14 April, when Cochrane removed this threat. A British force under Major-General Frederick Maitland and Captain Philip Beaver in Acasta, landed troops on the islands capturing them. The British then installed heavy guns on vantage points. Threatened, Troude put to sea, chased by Cochrane's squadron. After a running battle over several days the D'Hautpoul was brought to action and captured. Neptune's captain, Charles Dilkes, was given command of her, while Captain James Athol Wood succeeded him in command of Neptune on 2 August. Neptune was among the naval vessels that shared in the proceeds of the capture of the islands. ## Final years Dilkes resumed command of Neptune on 2 March 1810, while Wood was exchanged into HMS Pompee. Dilkes had apparently been suffering poor health, and Captain N Ballard took command in an acting capacity on 22 July. Neptune returned to Plymouth on 26 October and entered the dock on 9 November to be fitted for the ordinary. The process cost £713, and after undocking on 8 December she was laid up in the Hamoaze until late autumn 1813. Her hull appears to have quickly deteriorated, and after a survey she was deemed unfit for further service at sea. The Navy Board proposed that she be converted into a prison ship, a recommendation the Admiralty accepted, and she was taken in hand for fitting out on 22 November. On the completion of the work in December she was commissioned under Lieutenant George Lawrence. Neptune spent three years in this role, and was finally taken to pieces in October 1818.
40,460,179	Shangguan Yunzhu	1,145,526,257	Chinese actress active from the 1940s to the 1960s	[ "1920 births", "1968 deaths", "1968 suicides", "20th-century Chinese actresses", "Actresses from Wuxi", "Chinese film actresses", "People from Jiangyin", "Second Sino-Japanese War refugees", "Suicides by jumping in China", "Suicides during the Cultural Revolution" ]	Shangguan Yunzhu (Chinese: 上官雲珠; Wade–Giles: Shang-kuan Yün-chu; 2 March 1920 – 23 November 1968) was a Chinese actress active from the 1940s to the 1960s. She was considered one of the most talented and versatile actresses in China, and was named one of the 100 best actors of the 100 years of Chinese cinema in 2005. Born Wei Junluo, she fled to Shanghai when her hometown Jiangyin was attacked by the Japanese during the Second Sino-Japanese War. In Shanghai she became a drama and film actress, and her career took off after the end of the war. She starred in several prominent leftist films such as Spring River Flows East, Crows and Sparrows, and Women Side by Side. After the Communist victory in mainland China in 1949, her career was set back when her husband was embroiled in the anti-capitalist Five-anti Campaign, but she later portrayed a wide variety of characters in many films. Shangguan was married three times and had three children, but all her marriages ended in divorce. She was said to have had an affair with Mao Zedong, for which she was severely persecuted by the followers of Mao's wife Jiang Qing during the Cultural Revolution, leading to her suicide in November 1968. ## Early life Wei Junluo (Chinese: 韋均犖) was born in 1920 in the town of Changjing (长泾) in Jiangyin, Jiangsu, Republic of China. She also used the name Wei Yajun (韋亞君). She was the fifth and youngest child of her parents. In 1936 she married Zhang Dayan (张大炎), an art teacher and a friend of her brother's, and soon gave birth to a son named Zhang Qijian (张其坚) at the age of 17. After the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War, the invading Japanese army attacked Jiangyin in November 1937, killing one of Wei's sisters in a bombing raid. She fled to Shanghai with her family. ## 1940s In Shanghai Wei found work at a photo studio owned by He Zuomin, a photographer for the Mingxing Film Company. Influenced by the studio's many customers from the film industry, she became fascinated with acting. In 1940 she enrolled in a drama school and was employed by the Xinhua Film Company after graduation. She adopted the name Shangguan Yunzhu suggested by the influential director Bu Wancang. After successfully playing the female lead in Cao Yu's stage play Thunderstorm, Shangguan joined the Yihua Company and made her film debut in Fallen Rose in 1941. In 1942 Shangguan joined the Tianfeng Drama Society, where she met the playwright Yao Ke (姚克). The next year Shangguan divorced Zhang Dayan and married Yao. In August 1944 she gave birth to a daughter named Yao Yao (姚姚). However, her new marriage was short-lived due to Yao's infidelity, and the couple divorced before their daughter turned two. Shangguan subsequently had a brief relationship with the actor Lan Ma (蓝马). In the post-war period, Shangguan Yunzhu played her first lead roles in Dream in Paradise directed by Tang Xiaodan and Long Live the Missus! directed by Sang Hu. She then starred in several leftist films including Spring River Flows East (1947, directors Cai Chusheng and Zheng Junli), Myriad of Lights (1948, director Shen Fu), Crows and Sparrows (1949, director Zheng Junli), and Women Side by Side (1949, director Chen Liting). Her masterful performances in these popular films brought her great fame and critical acclaim. ## After 1949 After Mao Zedong's communists won the Chinese Civil War and established the People's Republic of China in 1949, Shangguan Yunzhu continued her acting career under the new government. In 1951 she married her third husband Cheng Shuyao (程述尧), manager of Shanghai's Lyceum Theatre. She gave birth to a son named Wei Ran (韦然). However, Cheng Shuyao was soon embroiled in the Five-anti Campaign, a political campaign launched by Mao against the capitalist class in 1952. He was accused of embezzlement and confessed to the charges under pressure. Shangguan decided to divorce Cheng; their marriage lasted less than two years. She later had another relationship with the director He Lu (贺路). Affected by her association with Cheng Shuyao, Shangguan did not play any major role for several years. This changed in 1955, when she starred in the film Storm on the Southern Island. Director Bai Chen (白沉) chose her to play the leading role as a heroic nurse, a far cry from her traditional roles of socialites and rich wives. She adjusted to her new role well, and portrayed a wide variety of characters in many films including It's My Day Off (1959), Spring Comes to the Withered Tree (1961, director Zheng Junli), Early Spring in February (1963, director Xie Tieli), and Stage Sisters (1965, director Xie Jin). She was recognized as one of the most talented and versatile actresses in China. ## Relationship with Mao Shangguan was said to have had an intimate relationship with Mao Zedong. On 10 January 1956, Shangguan and Mao had a private meeting set up by Shanghai mayor Chen Yi, at which Mao said he was a fan of hers. Mao was said to have requested to meet her "in private" many times. ## Death In 1966 Shangguan was diagnosed with breast cancer and had a successful surgery. However, only two months later it was found that she also had cancer in her brain and had to undergo another major operation. At the same time, the Cultural Revolution was underway. Two films Shangguan had appeared in, Early Spring in February and Two Stage Sisters, had been denounced as "huge poisonous weeds". She was also under severe persecution for her alleged affair with Mao. She was badly beaten by followers of Mao's wife Jiang Qing, who gave her an ultimatum to confess her relationship with Mao. At 3 a.m. on 23 November 1968, Shangguan Yunzhu jumped to her death from her apartment. ## Biographies and museum Several biographies have been published in Chinese about Shangguan Yunzhu's life: - Chen Danyan, Shanghai Beauty (上海的红颜遗事) (2000) – Biographical account of Shangguan and her daughter Yao Yao, who was killed in a traffic accident in 1975. - Wei Xiangtao, Grieving for a movie star: a biography of Shangguan Yunzhu (1986). - Chen Fuguan (陈复官), Shangguan Yunzhu. In 2007, her childhood home in Changjing, Jiangyin was opened to the public as the Shangguan Yunzhu Museum. ## Selected filmography - 1941 Fallen Rose (dirs. Wu Wenchao and Wen Yimin) - 1947 Dream in Paradise (dir. Tang Xiaodan) - 1947 Long Live the Missus! (dir. Sang Hu) - 1947 Spring River Flows East (dirs. Cai Chusheng and Zheng Junli) - 1948 Myriad of Lights (dir. Shen Fu) - 1949 Hope in the World (dir. Shen Fu) - 1949 Crows and Sparrows (dir. Zheng Junli) - 1949 Women Side by Side (dir. Chen Liting) - 1955 Storm on the Southern Island (dir. Bai Chen) - 1959 It's My Day Off (dir. Lu Ren) - 1961 Spring Comes to the Withered Tree (dir. Zheng Junli) - 1963 Early Spring in February (dir. Xie Tieli) - 1965 Stage Sisters (dir. Xie Jin) ## See also - Xu Lai (actress) - Wang Ying (actress) - Sun Weishi
5,294,670	Silvertip shark	1,121,355,478	Species of shark	[ "Carcharhinus", "Fish described in 1837", "Pantropical fish", "Taxa named by Eduard Rüppell" ]	The silvertip shark (Carcharhinus albimarginatus) is a large species of requiem shark, in the family Carcharhinidae, with a fragmented distribution throughout the tropical Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is often encountered around offshore islands and coral reefs, and has been known to dive to a depth of 800 m (2,600 ft). The silvertip shark resembles a larger and bulkier grey reef shark (C. amblyrhynchos), but can be easily identified by the prominent white margins on its fins. It attains a maximum length of 3 m (10 ft). An aggressive, powerful apex predator, the silvertip shark feeds on a wide variety of bony fishes, as well as eagle rays, smaller sharks, and cephalopods. This species dominates other requiem sharks of equal size when competing for food, and larger individuals are often heavily scarred from conflicts with others of its species. As with other members of its family, the silvertip shark is viviparous, with females giving birth to one to 11 pups in the summer. Silvertip sharks are regarded as potentially dangerous to humans, as they often approach divers quite closely. This slow-reproducing species is taken by commercial fisheries for its meat, fins, skin, cartilage, and jaws and teeth, which has apparently led to local population declines or extirpations. ## Taxonomy and phylogeny The silvertip shark was originally described as Carcharias albimarginatus by German naturalist Eduard Rüppell, in the 1837 Fische des Rothen Meeres (Fishes of the Red Sea). The name was later changed to the currently valid Carcharhinus albimarginatus. The specific epithet is derived from the Latin albi meaning "white", and marginatus meaning "to enclose with a border", in reference to the distinct white fin margins. In 1960, a 103 cm (3.38 ft)-long immature male caught off Ras Muhammad in the Red Sea was designated as the type specimen. Based on similarities in morphology, tooth shape, and vertebral characters, Garrick (1982) proposed the grey reef shark as the closest relative of the silvertip shark. This interpretation was corroborated by Lavery (1992), based on allozyme data. ## Distribution and habitat The silvertip shark is widely but not continuously distributed in the tropical Indian and Pacific Oceans. In the western Indian Ocean, this species occurs from the Red Sea to South Africa, including Madagascar, the Seychelles, the Aldabra Group, Mauritius and the Chagos Archipelago. In the western Pacific, it is known from off southern Japan to northern Australia, including Taiwan, the Philippines, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, New Caledonia, Guam, Palau, the Solomon Islands, the Marshall Islands, the Phoenix Islands and Tahiti. In the eastern Pacific, it occurs from southern Baja California to Colombia, including the Cocos, Galapagos, and Revillagigedo Islands. Its presence in the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea is unconfirmed. Silvertip sharks are found over continental and insular shelves at a depth of 30–800 m (98–2,625 ft), occupying all levels of the water column. They are most common around isolated islands, coral banks, and reef drop-offs. Juveniles frequent coastal shallows or lagoons, while adults occur in deeper water, with little overlap between the two age groups. ## Description The silvertip shark is a robust and streamlined species with a moderately long, broad snout and large, round eyes. The five pairs of gill slits are short. It has 12–14 tooth rows on each side of both jaws, with one or two small teeth at the symphysis (middle of the jaws). The upper teeth are broad with oblique triangular cusps and coarse serrations near the base; the lower teeth have erect cusps with fine serrations. The first dorsal fin is large and triangular, originating above or slightly forward of the free pectoral fin tips. A ridge occurs between the first and second dorsal fins. The pectoral fins are proportionately longer than in most requiem sharks and falcate (sickle-like) in shape, with pointed tips. The coloration is blue-gray above with a bronze sheen, and white below. A subtle white band runs along the sides, with distinctive white tips and borders on all fins. Silvertip sharks can grow up to 3 m (9.8 ft) long, but typically measure 2.0–2.5 m (6.6–8.2 ft) in length. The maximum reported weight is 162.2 kg (358 lb). Females are larger than males. ## Biology and ecology Though silvertip sharks are quite mobile, they exhibit fidelity to certain areas, with reports of territorial behavior. They are usually encountered alone or in pairs. Small groups of adult females have been seen in deep water. Individual silvertip sharks behave very aggressively towards one another, and many are heavily scarred. They are also reported to dominate Galapagos sharks (C. galapagensis) and blacktip sharks (C. limbatus) of equal size when competing for food. This shark sometimes forms mixed-species aggregations with grey reef sharks. Rainbow runners (Elagatis bipinnulata) have been observed rubbing against silvertip sharks, using the sharks' rough skin to scrape off parasites. They sometimes follow marine mammals such as bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops sp.) in open water, and are themselves followed by pilot fish (Naucrates ductor). Like the grey reef shark, the silvertip shark sometimes perform a stereotypical threat display if pursued by divers, warning that it is prepared to attack. The display begins with the shark accelerating away to a distance of 15 m (49 ft), before turning and charging towards the perceived threat. At a distance of two body lengths, the shark brakes, turns broadside, drops its pectoral fins, gapes its jaws, lowers the posterior two-thirds of its body, and "shivers". The last two elements of this display are unique to this species; the "shivering" may serve to emphasize its white fin markings. If the diver persists, the shark may rapidly close in and slash with its upper teeth. ### Feeding The diet of the silvertip shark consists primarily of bony fishes, such as grouper, mackerel, tuna, escolars, lanternfish, flyingfish, wrasses, and soles. Eagle rays, smaller sharks, and octopus are occasionally taken. Larger sharks tend to be more sluggish and take more benthic prey. The differently shaped dentition in their upper and lower jaws allows them to tackle large prey, gripping and sawing off chunks of flesh with violent twists and turns. Silvertip sharks have been observed swimming around the periphery of groups of feeding sharks of other species, occasionally dashing in to steal food. This species often approaches ships, as they are attracted to certain artificial, low-frequency sounds. ### Life history Like other requiem sharks, the silvertip shark is viviparous; once the embryos exhaust their supply of yolk, the depleted yolk sac develops into a placental connection through which the mother delivers nourishment. In the Southern Hemisphere, mating and parturition both occur in summer. Courtship involves the male biting the female to hold her for copulation; one female observed had the tip of her first dorsal fin bitten off from such activity. Females bear litters of one to 11 (usually five or six) young after a gestation period of about one year, on a biennial cycle. The newborns have been reported to measure 63–68 cm (25–27 in) and 73–81 cm (29–32 in) long by different authors, and are found in shallower water than adults. The growth rate is highly variable in the wild: Kato and Hernandez (1967) reported juvenile silvertip sharks grow an average of 3.8 cm (1.5 in), or 5.3% of their body length, per year, with some individuals growing as much as 20.8 cm (8.2 in), 30.1% of their body length) per year and others showing negative "growth". Males have been reported to be sexually mature at 1.6–1.8 m (5.2–5.9 ft) or 1.9–2.0 m (6.2–6.6 ft) long, and females at 1.6–2.0 m (5.2–6.6 ft) long. ## Human interactions Inquisitive and bold, especially in the presence of food, the silvertip shark is regarded as potentially dangerous to humans. Often, several sharks will rush up from deep water to inspect divers when they first enter the water, which can be a very intimidating experience, as they may approach quite close. This species has also been known to circle or pursue divers. In one experiment involving bait, a large silvertip shark tore the leg off a dummy dressed in SCUBA gear, demonstrating that this species is capable of inflicting lethal injuries. As of 2008, the International Shark Attack File listed four provoked attacks attributable to this species, none of them fatal. The silvertip shark is caught by commercial and artisan fisheries across its range using longlines, gillnets, and trawls, both intentionally and as bycatch. The fins are highly valued for shark fin soup and are sold on the export market, along with the skin and cartilage. The meat is marketed locally, fresh or dried and salted, as are the jaws and teeth. Silvertip sharks are known to be taken by fisheries in Indonesia, Myanmar, and the Philippines, as well as by various Indian Ocean nations with coral reef fisheries; it is also an increasingly important catch of pelagic fisheries, where it is often finned at sea. This species is susceptible to overfishing, due to its slow reproductive rate and tendency to stay in a certain area. It is believed to have been extirpated by Indonesian artisan fishers at Scott Reef off northern Australia, and is likely becoming rare in many other parts of its range. As a result, the International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed the silvertip shark as vulnerable.
8,800,352	Lowry War	1,145,508,297	Post-American Civil War conflict in North Carolina	[ "1860s in North Carolina", "1870s in North Carolina", "Aftermath of the American Civil War", "Feuds in the United States", "Gangs in North Carolina", "History of racism in North Carolina", "Lumbee", "Native American history of North Carolina", "Native Americans in the American Civil War", "North Carolina folklore", "Riots and civil disorder during the Reconstruction Era", "Riots and civil disorder in North Carolina", "Robeson County, North Carolina" ]	The Lowry War or Lowrie War was a conflict that took place in and around Robeson County, North Carolina, United States from 1864 to 1874 between a group of mostly Native American outlaws and civil local, state, and federal authorities. The conflict is named for Henry Berry Lowry, a Lumbee who led a gang of Native American, white and black men which robbed area farms and killed public officials who pursued them. Banditry in Robeson County emerged during the later stages of the American Civil War, as free persons of color hid in local swamps to avoid being conscripted for labor to support the war effort and stole food to survive. In 1864 and 1865 local Confederate officials came into conflict with the prominent Lumbee Lowry family, and two of the former were murdered. A Confederate Home Guard detachment subsequently executed two Lowrys for alleged possession of stolen goods and arrested Henry Berry Lowry on murder charges. He later broke out of jail and avoided the authorities by hiding in swamps with a group of associates which became known as the Lowry Gang. The gang was a somewhat fluid group of American Indian, white and black men, but many of its predominant members had kinship ties to Lowry. New public officials brought in during Reconstruction initially sought a peaceful solution to the problem, but this ended after the gang killed a former sheriff during a robbery in 1868. Over the following years the gang committed various robberies, often targeting plantations. Declared outlaws by the state government, they were pursued by posses and county militiamen, typically eluding them in swamps and killing some of their pursuers. Some gang members were captured but successfully escaped detention. The state of North Carolina ultimately placed large bounties on the core gang members, with a reward of \$12,000 being offered for the capture or killing of Lowry. Elements of the 4th Regiment U.S. Artillery were dispatched on several occasions to assist the local authorities. Following a major robbery in Lumberton in February 1872, Lowry disappeared, and over the next two years bounty hunters tracked down the remaining active gang members. Over the course of the conflict, the Lowry Gang was implicated in the deaths of 22 people, while one of its members was arrested and executed and several others killed. The affair attracted significant regional and national media attention. His fate still unknown, Lowry became a folk hero for the Lumbee people and his exploits have a prominent place in Lumbee folklore. ## Background ### Robeson County Native Americans The Lumbee people in southeastern North Carolina originated from various Native American/Indian groups which were greatly impacted by conflicts and infectious diseases dating back to the period of European colonization. Those who survived these disruptions grouped together as homogenous communities. In 1830, the United States government began a policy of Indian removal, forcibly relocating Native American populations in the American South further west. Native Americans in Robeson County, North Carolina, were not subject to removal. Culturally, this group was not particularly distinct from proximate European Americans; they were mostly agrarian, and shared similar styles of dress, homes, and music. They also spoke English and were mostly Protestants. Their identity was rooted in kinship and shared location. Through intermarriage, they acquired some white and black ancestry. Not viewed as Native Americans by the state of North Carolina until the 1880s, these people were generally dubbed "mulattos" by locals and in federal documents throughout the mid-1800s to distinguish them from blacks. They were recognized under the name "Lumbee" in the 1950s. ### Discrimination and racial tensions In 1835 the Constitution of North Carolina classified the eastern Carolina Native Americans as "free persons of color". While having previously enjoyed the same political rights as white people, the Lumbees were disenfranchised by the new constitution. In 1840 the North Carolina General Assembly passed a law prohibiting free nonwhites from bearing arms without a license from the Court of Pleas and Quarter Sessions in their county. In 1853 the North Carolina Supreme Court affirmed the legality of the law in its ruling for State v. Noel Locklear, involving the case of a man convicted of unlawful possession of a firearm. White farmers in Robeson County also sought ways to obtain Lumbees' land or labor. According to Lumbee oral tradition, the "tied mule" incidents were emblematic of this. In these scenarios, a farmer would tie his mule on a Lumbee's land and release some of his cattle there, before bringing local authorities to the scene to accuse the Lumbee landowner of theft. Doubtful of a fair trial in the courts, a Lumbee would settle with the farmer by either offering him a portion of land or free labor. The legal discrimination and exploitative practices heightened racial tensions in the area. ### American Civil War The Lumbee people were initially ambivalent about the outbreak of the American Civil War. Some men enlisted in the Confederate States Army, though it unknown whether they were accepted as recognised Native Americans or passed as white. In 1863, Confederate authorities began conscripting the Lumbees for labor along the coast, especially at Fort Fisher. The Lumbees were usually tasked to either construct batteries or grind salt. Most found the work dangerous and monotonous, and the conditions at the labor camps poor. Many consequently fled into the swamps of Robeson County to avoid conscription. Though some Lumbee still sought to serve in the army during this time, by late 1863 most had concluded that the Confederacy was an oppressive regime. This change in attitudes was brought on by their contact with Union prisoner-of-war escapees from the Florence Stockade, 60 miles (97 km) away in South Carolina. Lumbees became increasingly willing to help the Union soldiers escape and avoid recapture. As time progressed some of the swamp deserters—including Lumbees, blacks, and Union soldiers—formed bands to raid and steal from area farms, though this was mostly out of a desire to survive and had little to do with challenging the Confederacy. After Union troops led by General William Tecumseh Sherman entered North Carolina, the Union escapees left to join them, and the bands became predominantly Native American. ## The Lowry family and the Home Guard ### Murders of James P. Barnes and James Brantly Harris Allen Lowry was a respected, successful Lumbee farmer whose ancestral roots in Robeson County traced to the 1700s. He and his wife, Mary, had twelve children, four of whom hid as a band in the swamps to avoid labor conscription. On at least one occasion they assisted Union escapees. In 1864 wealthy planter and Confederate postmaster James P. Barnes accused some of Lowry's sons of stealing two of his hogs and butchering them to feed Union escapees. He ordered the Lowry family to stay off his land under threat of being shot. It remains unknown whether some of the Lowry sons actually stole the hogs or whether Barnes falsely accused them with ulterior motives. On December 21, 1864, Barnes was ambushed and shot as he made his way to the Clay Valley Post Office. His screams drew the attention of several neighbors and slaves, and shortly before he died he accused William and Henry Berry Lowry, two sons of Allen, of committing the attack. The Native Americans' aid to the Union escapees, their attempts to dodge labor conscription, and the murder of Barnes drew the attention of the Confederate Home Guard, a paramilitary force tasked with maintaining law and order in the South during the war. One prominent officer of the Home Guard in Robeson County was James Brantly Harris. He was a white man who had sold liquor to Native Americans before the war but upon its outbreak was tasked by the Home Guard with tracking down deserters, escapees, and maintaining order in Scuffletown, the center of the Native American community in Robeson County. Lumbee oral histories portray him as hot-tempered and brutal. During the war he became attracted to a young Lumbee woman, provoking the ire of her boyfriend. The boyfriend stated he would kill Harris if he interacted with his girlfriend again, leading Harris to try to kill the man in a night ambush. He ended up shooting and killing the man's brother, Jarman, a nephew of Allen Lowry. Though local authorities ignored the killing, Harris became fearful that members of the Lowry family might attempt to attack him in revenge for the death of Jarman. Two of Jarman's brothers were working at Fort Fisher (Harris had earlier conscripted them) but, several weeks after the killing, they were granted leave and returned to Robeson County to visit their parents. To preempt any attempts at vengeance, Harris led a Home Guard unit in arresting the brothers on charges of desertion and said he would transport them to the Moss Neck rail depot where they could be taken by train back to Fort Fisher. On the way he dismissed his fellow guardsmen, telling them he could manage the two handcuffed prisoners by himself. Once they were alone, Harris beat them to death, later claiming that they had attacked him and that he acted in self-defense. An inquest was conducted and a warrant for Harris' arrest was issued. On January 15, 1865 he was shot and killed while riding his buggy, and his body disposed of either in a nearby well or an unmarked grave. Henry Berry Lowry and some of his associates were suspected of the killing. ### Executions of Allen and William Lowry Fearing Harris' death would lead to retaliation from the Home Guard, local Lumbees began preparing for violence. Short on food and weapons, they began stealing from white-owned farms and plantations. Firearms and ammunition intended for the guard was stolen from the courthouse in Lumberton. White citizens were infuriated by the decline in law and order, and the Home Guard suspected that the Lowry family was largely responsible. On March 3, a detachment of the Home Guard under Captain Hugh McGreggor arrested Allen and Mary Lowry, three of their sons—William, Calvin, and Sinclair—some female relatives, and their Lumbee neighbor, George Dial. They also seized some of Allen's belongings. They brought them to the property of Robert McKenzie. The women were locked in the smokehouse while the men were interrogated outside facing accusations of "highway robbery", aiding Confederate deserters and Union escapees, stockpiling weapons, and having dodged labor conscription. The men denied the accusations and Williams was wounded after trying to escape. The guardsmen then moved them into the smokehouse and held a kangaroo court to determine their culpability in the alleged crimes, selecting a jury from among their own ranks. The tribunal found Allen and William guilty of possessing stolen goods on their farm (Lumbee oral tradition holds that these goods were planted to frame them) and ruled that William had been positively identified during a robbery. They were taken back to their farm and executed by firing squad. According to one account, Henry Berry hid in the woods nearby and witnessed this execution. The next day the guardsmen forced Calvin Lowry and Dial to show them where Union soldiers were hiding. Dial led them to a small cave, but, to the guardsmen's frustration, the two men largely did not know where to find escapees. Dial and the Lowry family members were released the following day under the threat that they would be punished for any "mischief" that occurred in the area. On March 9 Union troops entered Robeson County and looted, but quickly moved on. The Home Guard was briefly disrupted by this incursion, but thereafter resumed investigating the Lowry family. In April a Home Guard detachment searched Sinclair's farm for an alleged stockpile of weapons and interrogated Mary Lowry, but found nothing. The situation in Robeson County calmed with the Union victory at the end of the Civil War, as locals focused on rebuilding their livelihoods. Local government in Robeson mostly continued as it had during the war, with rich white men of prominence dominating public offices, especially the justices of the peace who constituted the county court. The Home Guard was formally dissolved but was replaced by a similar institution, the Police Guard. An investigation into the executions of Allen and William was later conducted in 1867 at the impetus of Freedmen's Bureau agent William Birnie, but no charges were brought against the Home Guard. ### Arrest of Henry Berry Lowry On December 7, 1865 Henry Berry Lowry married his cousin, Rhoda Strong. During the wedding reception, a company of the Police Guard under Lieutenant A. J. McNair arrived and arrested Lowry. The following day a warrant was crafted accusing him of murdering James Barnes. He was initially held in the Lumberton jail but, since it had been damaged by Union troops, the authorities decided to move him to the Columbus County jail, approximately 30 miles (48 km) away in Whiteville. Lowry later escaped from the Whiteville jail, the first person to ever do so. How he achieved this is not clear, though Lumbee oral tradition maintains that he cut his way through prison bars with a file smuggled in by his wife in a cake. He then returned to Scuffletown and reunited with his wife. ## Period of outlawry ### The Lowry Gang Following the jailbreak, the Robeson County Court issued at least 35 capias warrants against Lowry for sheriffs in the North Carolina-South Carolina border region. North Carolina Governor Jonathan Worth also offered a \$300 reward for Lowry's capture. He avoided the authorities by hiding in swamps with a group of associates which became known as the Lowry Gang or Lowry Band. Although a somewhat fluid band at times numbering 20–30 men, the gang usually operated with six to eight men. Its most consistent members included Henry Berry; Steve and Tom Lowry, his two older brothers; two of his cousins, Calvin and Henderson Oxendine; two of his brothers-in-law, Andrew and Boss Strong; and two other Indians, John Dial (son of George Dial) and William Chavis. There were also two black men, George Applewhite and Eli Ewin (sometimes called Shoemaker John), and a white man, Zachariah T. McLauchlin. They joined at different times for various reasons, but all bore resentment against the local authorities. They usually stayed in improvised shelters in Back Swamp, a ten-mile long stretch of sparsely-traveled land near Allen Lowry's homestead. Throughout 1866 and 1867 the gang conducted raids "in retaliation" for previous wrongs inflicted upon them, but no people were killed. In response to their activities, the General Assembly amended the state outlawry statutes, requiring all magistrates to issue a proclamation of outlawry against any accused felon if an affidavit presented to them demonstrated that the accused had evaded arrest. The statute allowed any citizen to kill the accused felon if the individual refused to surrender after being so ordered. ### Attempted truce Following the passage of federal Reconstruction Acts in 1867, nonwhites in the South, both black freedmen and Robeson's Indians, were re-enfranchised. The following year the Republican Party won a majority of the vote in elections in Robeson, displacing Conservative planter families who had dominated county affairs. The party relied on the electoral support of black freedmen, Indians, and poor "Buckskin" whites. Republicans generally favored equal citizenship and civil rights for all persons regardless of race. The opposing Conservative faction encompassed a range of opinion but generally advocated for the withholding of certain rights from nonwhites and forcing blacks to work menial jobs. The renewal of democratic institutions coincided with a relaxation of violence in the county, as many impoverished people hoped that their interests could be addressed through them. No armed robberies were reported in the county for nearly six months, and the members of the Lowry Gang kept a low profile. John Dial found work in a blacksmith shop while most others lived off of resources provided to them by family and friends. Henry Berry Lowry was reported to have shown some public support for the Republican Party. Republican officials were reluctant to take any action concerning the previous lawlessness in Robeson, since prosecuting former Home Guardsmen would harm their law and order campaign, while targeting the Lowry Gang would split their local base of support. In October 1868, a group of about 30 armed men robbed a company store and several plantations in South Carolina. Several days later, the group robbed three plantations in Robeson County. These men were never positively identified, though historian William McKee Evans wrote, "it appears they were led by Henry Berry's men, who had grown restive at the ambiguous attitude of the government and the uncertainty of their own position." Soon thereafter, the new Republican Governor of North Carolina, William Woods Holden, received a written petition from over 50 Robesonians asking for him to declare Henry Berry Lowry and his gang outlaws. Holden issued a declaration of outlawry against Lowry and some of his associates on November 30. The proclamation divided the local Republican Party and threatened their hold on county politics. In attempt to broker a peaceful and less politically risky solution, two prominent local Republicans, Freedmens' Bureau agent Alfred Thomas and Robeson Sheriff Benjamin A. Howell, met with Lowry at his home to convince him to surrender. Thomas and Howell argued that he had a chance at a fair trial in the new Reconstruction court system. Lowry agreed to stand trial on the condition that he be given quality treatment and be assured of his safety. Being promised of these things, Lowry was willfully taken to Lumberton and housed in the rebuilt jail. Some white Robesonians were angered by his privileged treatment, and there were rumors of threats to remove him from his cell and drown him in the Lumber River. Hearing of these threats, Lowry decided to escape. On the evening of December 12, 1868 he menaced the jailer with a knife and revolver as the latter served dinner. After threatening to kill the jailer if he left to call for help, Lowry walked out of the building down to the river. He moved along the bank and stole some crackers from a house before crossing a bridge out of the city. ### Murders of Reuben King and Owen Clinton Norment Shortly after the second jailbreak, the Lowry Gang decided to target Reuben King. King was the former sheriff of Robeson who had been displaced in an 1868 election by Howell, but many white locals considered the contest fraudulent and still accorded King authority. The Lowry Gang decided to rob him since he was reportedly wealthy and had a reputation for discriminating against racial minorities. He had also made threats against the band. On the night of January 23, 1869, the gang entered King's home while he spoke with a neighbor, S. E. Ward. Henry Lowry confronted King and demanded money, leading the former sheriff to lunge for his gun. In the ensuing scuffle Lowry's weapon fired into the floor. Applewhite then shot King in the back with a revolver, mortally wounding him, while Dial shot and wounded Ward. The gang recovered \$155 in cash and \$20 in gold from the house. King's murder ended all efforts by Republican officials to negotiate with Lowry and renewed the resolve of the authorities to stop his gang. Owen Clinton Norment, a member of a prominent Robeson family, decided to cooperate with the Republican Reconstruction government to regain influence and was appointed captain of the Police Guard. He pursued the Lowry Gang, but was sometimes hampered by a lack of intelligence. In one instance he was reported to have attended a religious service at Black Swamp Church and to have found Lowry there. Lowry had expected this and was armed, while Norment was not; the two reportedly exchanged some antagonistic conversation but Lowry left without incident. Also in 1869, John Saunders, a detective from Boston, came to Robeson County at the behest of the Sheriff of New Hanover County, J. W. Schenck, with the intent of disguising himself as a Radical Republican carpetbagger who wanted to teach the children in Scuffletown how to read and write. After gaining the Indians' trust, he would try and gather intelligence from them about the Lowry Gang, so he could turn them over to the authorities and secure a reward for himself and Schenck. He later reported to the authorities that some gang members would stop at their relatives' homes on short visits between forays. By the autumn of 1869, Norment's men had captured eight members of the Lowry Gang—six Indians and two blacks. Among those captured were George Applewhite, Steve Lowry, John Dial, and Eli Ewin. The latter two agreed to turn state's evidence. The trial of those captured for the murder of King was scheduled for the 1870 spring term in the Robeson County Superior Court. The gang's leader and Boss Strong, as well as some other less prominent members, remained at large. Raids continued throughout the winter, despite the intensified efforts of local authorities. Norment also arrested Zachariah T. McLauchlin on suspicion of robbery, but he escaped custody. Lowry decided to attack Norment in revenge for his crackdown. On the evening of March 19, 1870, he and his band went to the Norment Plantation. Norment was sitting with his wife when he heard a strange noise and decided to step outside. He was shot, and his wife pulled him inside, locked the door, and handed him his rifle. Other members of the family sent for help and contacted a doctor, who rode to the plantation in his buggy. A mile away from his destination, the doctor's mule was shot, and he jumped from the buggy and proceeded to the house on foot, leaving his medical supplies behind. Norment died the following day. Three other raids were reported in the county that night. The murder of Norment provoked the ire of his brothers-in-law, John and A. C. Bridgers, so the gang resolved to kill them as well. They went to their plantation one evening and attempted to coax them outside by making loud noises. This failed, and with the outlaws unable to enter the home, they shot some of the Bridgers' dairy cattle and departed. ### King murder trial and escape from Lumberton and Wilmington jails On April 1, 1870 Applewhite and Steve Lowry were tried for the murder of King. Due to tensions in Lumberton, proceedings were conducted in Whiteville. Statements made by Dial were used as evidence against them, though when testifying in court he said been coerced into confessing. Regardless, Applewhite and Lowry were found guilty and sentenced to be hanged. In the meantime, some of the gang members detained in Lumberton escaped from the jail there after a woman, probably Rhoda Strong, smuggled them an auger. Ewin was among those who broke out, and thereafter he disappeared. Those who remained in the possession of the authorities were transferred to the more secure brick jail in Wilmington, where Calvin and Henderson Oxendine were already being held. The gang members were held together in a maximum security cell, but managed to escape early on the morning of June 13. Lumbee oral tradition maintains that Rhoda Strong walked to Wilmington from Scuffletown and distracted the guards with "womanly charms" while an accomplice slipped the gang members tools to break out. A white prisoner later testified that a woman had some days before distracted the guards with an inquiry of another prisoner while Steve Lowry hauled tools tied by a string through a window. By his account, the gang members fashioned a lock pick out of one of the tools, allowing them to leave their cell at will, and this let Applewhite find an exterior wall which he chiseled through when the guards were not around. On the morning of their escape, the outlaws left their cell when the guard on duty went downstairs to speak with a colleague, climbed through the hole Applewhite had carved, and descended to the ground with a rope fashioned out of blankets. All of the members fled except Calvin, who declared that he was innocent of any crime and sought to be cleared in court. The other gang members slowly made their way back to Robeson County over the course of a month, hiding in the wilderness to avoid detection. Once they returned they restarted their raids. Meanwhile, elections were held in 1870, resulting in many Republican losses across North Carolina. In Robeson County, Howell won re-election to the office of sheriff but was unable to raise the money to post his official bond. The courts thus awarded the office to a Conservative and former member of the Home Guard, Roderick McMillan. To incentivize capture of the gang members, the now Conservative-dominated General Assembly voted during its 1870/1871 session to offer \$2,000 each for the "delivery, dead or alive" of Henry, Tom and Steve Lowry; Henderson Oxendine, George Applewhite, and Boss Strong to the authorities. The Robeson County commissioners also offered several hundred additional dollars in bounties. The high amounts of money attracted many bounty hunters to Robeson, drawing interest from people as far away as New York City. In turn, the gang offered \$1,000 for the body of county commissioner Angus McLean. ### Guerilla war On October 3, 1870, the Lowry Gang, including a dozen white members, stole large quantities of brandy from Angus Leach's still and destroyed what they could not cart away. Leach protested and was struck with the butt of a gun. A black man who attempted to help him was whipped with a trace and had his ears cut with a knife. The following day, Leach's neighbors formed a posse to track down the gang. The posse found 15 gang members at Applewhite's home between Plummer's Station and Red Banks, leading to a firefight and pursuit. Applewhite, Boss Strong, and Henderson Oxendine were wounded in the fighting, while one member of the posse, Steve Davis, was killed while confronting the gang at the edge of a field. The band retreated into Long Swamp, which was subsequently surrounded by over 150 armed men. Sheriff McMillan was wary of pursuing the outlaws into the thicket and requested that artillery be sent to flush them out, but in the meantime the gang had escaped and was reported 10 miles (16 km) away from the swamp. Frustrated by their lack of success, the Police Guard decided to target some of the Indians they believed were helping the gang. On October 5, a detachment of guardsmen under Captain Murdock McLean arrested Andrew Strong and Malcolm Sanderson, accusing them of spying for the band. The guardsmen took them to the mill pond of William C. McNeil where an execution by firing squad was prepared at the direction of John Taylor, a wealthy planter, former member of the Home Guard, and a known racist. Strong managed to work himself free of the rope tying him and ran into Bear Swamp. The guardsmen then shot Sanderson and dumped his body in the mill race. Strong subsequently joined the Lowry Gang, while word spread among the Indian community that Taylor had ordered Sanderson's death. A justice of the peace indicted Taylor for murder, but he was released on bond. Fearing his life was in danger, he offered Sanderson's family money as compensation for the death. After they indicated their lack of interest, he made preparations to leave Robeson County, but remained to oversee the selling of his property. Meanwhile, the Lowry Gang grew suspicious of John Saunders. Saunders had established contact with Henry Berry Lowry and told him he would help the gang escape westward, reportedly with the secret intention of having them arrested in South Carolina or Georgia, far away from their homeland. The gang surveilled Saunders and realized he had made connections with the family of William C. McNeil, in which John Taylor had married. Fearing that he was a spy, they elected to not show up at a rendezvous he planned at a camp near Moss Neck on November 19 for their "migration" out of the state. With their failure to appear, Saunders requested that some of the McNeil sons meet him at the camp. The gang kept watch on the camp and captured the McNeils and Saunders. They released the former and took Saunders to their own camp in Back Swamp. Once there they debated his fate, though Henry and Steve Lowry were in favor of killing him and eventually won their argument. The gang allowed Saunders to pen a letter to his wife before Steve shot him. Andrew Strong buried him and mailed his letter. In early November county authorities searched the farm belonging to the mother of Zachariah T. McLauchlin and found some property believed to have been stolen by the Lowry Gang. As a result, he was declared an outlaw and a \$400 bounty was offered for his capture, dead or alive. On December 16 McLauchlin spent the evening drinking in the company of another young white man, Henry Biggs. Over the course of the night he drunkenly demanded Biggs join the gang or he would kill him. Fearful of McLauchlin, Biggs waited until he had fallen asleep, and then shot him with his own pistol. Biggs proceeded to Lumberton to report the killing, led authorities to the body, collected a \$400 bounty, and left the county. The Lowry Gang later learned that Biggs had found work at a lumber mill in Abbottsburg, Bladen County. To avenge McLauchlin's death, they attempted a raid, but were spotted near the county line. A posse was raised to stop the gang and Biggs escaped. ### Deployment of federal troops Governor Holden decided that there was a state of war in Robeson, and at his request federal troops under Captain Evan Thomas were dispatched to "aid the civil authority". Company A of the 4th Regiment U.S. Artillery arrived in Lumberton on November 22, 1870. Thomas immediately headed for Scuffletown to find the Lowry Gang. He reported searching "the whole country for 30 miles" but found nothing. Thomas wrote to General Irvin McDowell to ask for permission to declare martial law to arrest Lowry family members, but the general declined and ordered him to serve "under the direction of the civil authority, and as a part of its posse." Thus denied, Thomas posted his men at various stations along the Wilmington, Charlotte and Rutherford Railroad and the situation in the county calmed, the Lowry Band seemingly wary of engaging the troops. The Wilmington, Charlotte and Rutherford Railroad Company, though it shuttled federal troops, tried to keep armed bounty hunters off of its trains and strived for neutrality in the overall conflict, not seeking to become a target of the outlaws. Some of its black crew members were reported to have warned Scuffletown when troops were on board. Violence resumed on January 14, 1871. Several hundred yards away from the federal encampment at the Moss Neck rail depot, Henry Berry Lowry, accompanied by Boss Strong, rose from an embankment on the side of a road and shot John Taylor through the head. Lowry then ran to the body, took \$50 and ran with Strong into a nearby swamp. A sergeant and several enlisted men gave chase but quickly lost sight of him. Thomas' company, accompanied by Sheriff McMillan and a posse, resumed the pursuit but were unsuccessful. Also that month, a group of bounty hunters stopped a buggy on Old Stage Road, 12 miles (19 km) south of Fayetteville, heading towards Lumberton. They asked the two Indian occupants to identify themselves and state their business. One declared that he was Sinclair Locklear and the other was his brother John, and that they were heading to South Carolina to do farm work. The bounty hunters initially let the buggy proceed before asking them to stop again. This time, Locklear jumped out armed, but was quickly subdued. The other man lashed the horse and sped away in the buggy. The bounty hunters later found it abandoned on the side of the road, with the man having taken the horse and going into the woods. On Locklear's person and in the buggy the bounty hunters found \$83 and "3 double-barreled guns and 4 repeating pistols". Locklear was jailed on a robbery charge and "being suspicioned as one of the [...] outlaws." A local newspaper reported that the escaped man was believed to have been Henry Berry Lowry. On February 17, McMillan raised a posse to search for the Lowry Gang. The sheriff led one large group to the swamps near Scuffletown. A reported sighting of the band four miles (6.5 km) from Lumberton led them to return to the town, though by then the outlaws had disappeared. Another detachment, led by county coroner Robert Chaffin, entered Scuffletown and went to the home of a freedman and active Republican, Benjamin Bethea. Once there, the men debated executing him and some opposed to the idea left the scene. The rest took Bethea away on horseback. Members of the Lowry Gang later recovered his body, beaten and shot, from a swamp four miles away. The body was later turned over to Chaffin. Justice of the Peace James Sinclair issued arrest warrants for nine men believed to have been involved. A grand jury subsequently dismissed the charges, but Judge Daniel Lindsay Russell disagreed with the jury's findings and issued a bench warrant for the men. Surprised by this turn of events, the men fled the state, and Russell declared them outlaws. On February 26, a posse captured Henderson Oxendine at Applewhite's home, and he was subsequently indicted for the murder of Steve Davis. He was placed under constant guard in the Lumberton jail by U.S. soldiers. The authorities quickly tried him and found him guilty; he was publicly hanged on March 17, the only Lowry Gang member to be formally executed. Henderson's brother, Calvin, was tried for the murder of King. After providing an alibi to demonstrate he was working outside of Robeson when King was killed, the jury acquitted him and he was freed. Major Charles H. Morgan, commander of the Post of Raleigh, held jurisdiction over Thomas and the troops in Robeson County. He oversaw a brief investigation into the murder of Taylor before concluding that the army's priority should be to protect friends and family of the Lowry Gang from revenge inflicted by posses. He instructed Thomas to place himself in Scuffletown every time Sheriff McMillan formed a posse to pursue the gang and remain there until the posse had disbanded. He also sent 10 soldiers to Harper's Ferry, near where the gang members reportedly lived. This angered the local authorities, who considered the federal troops an impediment to their progress, and McMillan scaled down his pursuit of the band. Thomas' troops did little other than routine activities over the following months. Some soldiers searched Henry Berry Lowry's cabin and discovered a trap door in the floor which opened into a tunnel that led about 60 yards (55 m) away into a swamp. They subsequently dug it up. Two of the men named in Russel's indictment, Faulk Floyde and Malcolm McNeill, unbothered by the proclamation of outlawry against them, quickly returned to Robeson County and joined with nine others in a "compact" to kill the Lowry Gang. Aware that the authorities' tactics of using large parties for short-term searches were deficient, they decided to stake out a home of one of the outlaw's families to catch them on a visit. On April 15, five members of the compact met at a store and decided to ambush Applewhite, believing he would return to his family home the following morning, a Sunday. They proceeded to the homestead and hid themselves in thicket. Applewhite approached his cabin in the afternoon of April 16 but, seeing the armed men, turned away to run. They shot him in the back and neck, but he returned fire and crawled into a nearby swamp for cover. Satisfied that Applewhite was mortally wounded and fearing the presence of other outlaws, the group departed and notified McMillan of the incident. He returned the following morning with a posse and the coroner, but Applewhite could not be located, and his children told the sheriff that he had survived. The posse then arrested Applewhite's brother-in-law, Forney Oxendine, on the accusation of possessing stolen property. On April 26, McMillan led nine men to Henry Berry Lowry's cabin. Covertly advancing to the location, they found Boss Strong acting as a lookout, while Applewhite, still recovering from his wounds, was sitting in front of the house. Lowry was with his wife and three children inside. The posse fired a single shot at Strong, but it missed, and he dove for cover. He and Applewhite then crawled into the cabin and began firing at the posse through cracks in the walls. Feeling that they had the outlaws cornered but were not strong enough to flush them out of the building, McMillan took Frank McKay to go recruit others for their posse. Traveling up to the Buie's Store/Red Banks area, they enlisted four men to their cause. The sheriff sent them with McKay to the Lowry homestead while he took the train to Shoe Heel to gather more men. At Lowry's cabin, the outlaws and the posse exchanged fire for some time until the former went silent. The posse figured that they had either run low on ammunition or were trying to bait a trap and continued to fire at the home. In reality, the outlaws and the Lowry family slipped out of a secret door on the south wall of the house (unguarded by the posse since it had no obvious exits) and went into Back Swamp. About 30 minutes later they encountered McKay's group and fired upon them, wounding two and killing one, Giles Inman. The outlaws escaped and later Lowry sent his apologies to Inman's father for killing his son. On April 29 the outlaws raided a plantation in Richmond County, stealing a cart full of corn and driving it to Scuffletown, where its contents were distributed to the locals. They then returned the cart and mules to the plantation. They acted similarly when they robbed the Argyle plantation, returning the wagon they used to cart away their goods. They also attempted to rob John McNair, who was reportedly rich, but upon finding that he only had \$15 dollars in his possession they returned his money. Shortly after midnight on May 10, the Lowry Gang entered Lumberton and broke Tom Lowry and Forney Oxendine out of the county jail. The next morning Thomas conducted a fruitless search for the gang members. Feeling the troops would be more useful elsewhere, on May 17 Morgan ordered Thomas' men out of the county. The authorities were greatly demoralised by this point, and in June the "compact" of men who had ambushed Applewhite declared they were too exhausted to continue searching for the outlaws. ### Wishart's campaign With the attempts to suppress the Lowry Band failing, and the Conservative-led local posses frightening nonwhites in their searches, state authorities sought new leadership for their efforts. They ultimately recruited Francis M. Wishart to lead the locals. Wishart was a Buckskin Republican of modest origins who had served in the Confederate Army as an officer. Unlike most of his local Republican colleagues, he held little sympathy for the Lowry Gang and had worked with the earlier "compact". The governor granted him the rank of captain, later colonel, and tasked him with forming a new militia to suppress the outlaws. Like his more Conservative-leaning predecessors, he believed an effective campaign against the gang required the authorities' intervention in Scuffletown and suppression of their supporters there, not just direct action against the outlaws. However, he generally sought warrants for searches and arrests of suspects and attempted to instill discipline in the militia. Wishart planned a campaign to suppress the Lowry Gang for July, the largest-ever concerted effort to capture them. He called upon Robeson's 15 townships to provide 10 men each, ultimately raising a militia of 117 men. The force was divided into smaller detachments ranging from 3–25 men, known as "township companies". Wishart sent scouts into the Scuffletown area to gather intelligence and drew a detailed map of the region, labeling small footpaths in the swamps and appending the names of the local inhabitants to their residences. He also studied Saunders' reports on the gang's behaviors. Despite this refined strategy, the gang continued to elude their pursuers. Wishart eventually settled on arresting the outlaws' wives, who up to that point had been largely ignored by the authorities and had lived their lives publicly. Evans speculated that the purpose of this was to try to bait the gang into mounting a rescue attempt, like the May jailbreak, except that the militia could confront them in an open fight in which they would be destroyed. On 10 July, Wishart dispatched the township detachments to simultaneously arrest the wives and some other prominent Indians before they could be warned. He accompanied the Smith's Township company as it arrested Rhoda Strong and Applewhite's wife. As the unit returned to Wishart's headquarters at the village of Buie's Store, the Lowry Gang ambushed it from a blind. One militiaman was immediately killed, two others were mortally wounded, and three more were injured. Surprised by the attack, the militia did not mount an assault on the gang's position. The gang then moved out of the woods a few hundred yards down the railway and began cheering and firing their long range guns. Fearing that they were trying to provoke the militia into a pursuit that would give the hostages an opportunity to escape, Wishart refused to attack them and moved the women into his headquarters under heavy guard. The gang later retreated to the Lumber River. Meanwhile, the combined Alfordsville and Thompson's Township detachments under Captain Charles McRae captured Flora Strong (Andrew's wife) and handed her over to other militiamen to be taken to Buie's Store. That evening, McRae's men stopped to rest at Wire Grass Landing on the banks of the Lumber River. While they were there, Henry Berry Lowry paddled by in a canoe. The militiamen recognized him and opened fire. Lowry jumped into the river and retrieved his rifle from the boat. Using it as a shield, he swam towards the landing while resting his gun over top of the craft, firing as he approached. He wounded two men before McRae ordered the militia to retreat. By the end of the day, Wishart's militia had captured the wives of Henry Berry Lowry, Steve Lowry, Andrew Strong, and George Applewhite. They also captured Aaron Revels, Andre McMillan, and McMillan's wife. They were detained under warrants accusing them of "aiding and abetting the outlaws" and incarcerated in the Lumberton jail. The next few days remained quiet as the militia gathered its strength. On the morning of July 14, Henry Berry and Steve Lowry and Andrew and Boss Strong went to the plantation of John McNair and demanded to be served breakfast. The family complied, and when they were finished eating Henry Berry Lowry told McNair to tell the sheriff and county commissioners to release his wife from jail or he would "retaliate on the white women of Burnt Swamp Township". He then dictated a note he wanted delivered to Sheriff McMillan and the local leader of the Republican Party, demanding the release of the wives by Monday morning or else "the Bloodiest times will be here that ever was before—the life of every man will be in Jeopardy". McMillan rebuffed the ultimatum but asked for assistance from the militias in Bladen and Columbus counties. He also wrote to Governor Tod Robinson Caldwell to ask for supplies and to appeal to the President of the United States for a "strong detachment" of federal troops. Major Morgan, writing to General McDowell, advised against this, saying he had tried to convince the county authorities to have one 20-man group continuously search for the Lowry Gang, but instead the Police Guard would search for the outlaws in three-day stints after a raid before dissolving, allowing them to escape. Morgan thought this showed the local authorities' lack of determination and believed they expected federal troops to do all the necessary work for them. Lowry's threat concerning the white women in Burnt Swamp generated panic throughout Robeson County. The white community was worried that Wishart's recruitment for his militia would deprive the white women of protection; many men avoided his summons. As a result, Wishart struggled to maintain a cohesive force. On the Monday of July 17, the day the gang's ultimatum expired, the outlaw band ambushed Police Guardsman Murdoch McLean as he rode with his younger brother Hugh and a third associate, Archy McCallum, in a buggy towards Shoe Heel. Both McLeans were killed, while McCallum was wounded and managed to run way. The gang tied up the horse and sent a child to inform the McLean family of their sons' deaths. Sheriff McMillan gathered a posse of 150 men at the McLean home and set out after the outlaws, tracing them to the W. A. Sellers Plantation, but losing their trail after ascertaining that the group had crossed the Lumber River. Concerned about the situation, a group of elderly citizens went into Lumberton and met with McMillan and the county commissioners. The group agreed that it would be best to release the wives. Wishart was not consulted and was outraged by their decision. On July 18, the wives were sent aboard a train and released at the village of Red Banks. A small federal force was sent to Robeson County during local elections to contain political violence in early August but left at the contests' conclusion. Governor Caldwell then requested that McDowell send troops to explicitly "assist" local authorities and on August 24 the general dispatched two companies of the 4th Regiment U.S. Artillery to Robeson. By the end of the summer many Robesonians had concluded that it was not worth the effort to suppress the gang and sought a truce. The Lowry Gang contacted Wishart and asked him to connect them with North Carolina Adjutant-General John C. Gorman, who was accompanying the federal soldiers, to negotiate a deal. Gorman met them alone in a swamp, where they maintained they were not guilty of some of the crimes ascribed to them, and claimed they had always acted in self-defense. They assured Gorman that they would not attack any U.S. troops, but told him that since they were unable to find work they would continue taking food and supplies from local farmers. They also indicated to him that they would leave the country if permitted. Gorman told them that he lacked the power to settle to their terms, but had several more meetings with the gang. The North Carolina General Assembly refused to offer terms to the outlaws. The federal troops were withdrawn by October 15. Over the next few months little gang activity was reported in Robeson, aside from the theft of some meat from a plantation in December. Evans wrote, "Perhaps they felt that more extravagant foraging would spoil efforts that were being made to obtain for them pardons or safe conduct beyond the borders of the United States." In early February 1872, the General Assembly appropriated more money to increase the bounties on the outlaws, raising the total state bounty on Henry Berry Lowry to \$12,000. Tom and Steve Lowry, Henderson Oxendine, George Applewhite, and Boss Strong were all accorded cumulative \$6,000 bounties. Andrew Strong, being a newer member to the group and not the subject of any previous appropriations, was only worth \$5,000. ### Lumberton raid and disappearance of Henry Berry Lowry Early in the morning on February 16, 1872, the Lowry Gang broke the apparent peace in the county by staging a raid on Lumberton. They stole a horse and wagon from a livery before breaking into the Pope and McLeod store and stealing the iron safe inside. The safe contained \$22,000, much of it reportedly belonging to various citizens, as the town had no bank. They also seized about \$1,000 worth of merchandise from the establishment. The gang then stole the safe from the sheriff's office, but, finding it too heavy to cart away with the other box, left it in the street. Soon thereafter, Henry Berry Lowry disappeared. No bounty on him was ever collected, and there are competing stories in Lumbee oral tradition which state that he either fled the state or that he died in an accident. Rhoda Strong remained guarded about her husband's fate for the remainder of her life. D. F. Lowry, a nephew of Henry Berry, maintained that Henry had befriended Adjutant-General Gorman over the course of their meetings, who agreed to help him escape the county. By this account, Gorman had Lowry disguised as a soldier and sent him on numerous searches with other troops for the gang, which were intentionally fruitless. Once it was decided that the troops would be withdrawn, Lowry's face was obscured with bandages and he traveled out of Robeson via train. D. F.'s son, Earl, maintained that Lowry faked his own death and disguised himself as a soldier, leaving with the other troops from a train station in Pates. He then served in the United States Army for four years before being discharged in Virginia. Another Lumbee tradition held that Lowry was smuggled out of the county in a specially-constructed coffin via train. Orlin Hayes Lowry, son of Tom Lowry, recounted that he had witnessed Henry Berry's death. According to him, after the Lumberton robbery the gang went to Tom's home, where Tom's wife prepared them breakfast. All of the gang members went inside, except for Henry, who stood outside with his shotgun standing up between his feet. The gun then fired, and the shot went through Henry's head, killing him. Tom had his body wrapped in a sheet and instructed other gang members to give it a secret burial, so that no one could collect a bounty on it. Variations of this story are found in other accounts. Adjutant-General Gorman's memoirs stated that Henry had placed the gun against a corn crib at Tom's home and was sitting down when it slipped and fired into his head. A contemporaneous account from the New York Herald stated he shot himself while hiding in a blind shortly before the Lumberton raid. The strain of Lumbee oral tradition which contains Lowry's death agrees that his body was placed in a coffin built by Jesse Oxendine and taken by other gang members into Back Swamp. There they diverted a stream, buried the coffin in its bed, and then allowed the stream to flow again. ### Demise of the Lowry Gang From Henry Berry's disappearance on, the Lowry War was characterized by bounty hunters tracking down straggler members of the gang. In early March 1872, bounty hunter James McQueen set about killing the Strong brothers. On March 7, he staked out Andrew Strong's cabin in Back Swamp. The two brothers arrived and ate dinner inside with their family. McQueen fired a shot through a hole in the door at Boss' head, causing him to collapse. He waited outside for Andrew to exit, but when this did not occur, he left for Shoe Heel. Wishart arrived with a posse the next day to recover the body, and found Flora and Rhoda Strong cleaning blood off of the floor. The women told the men that Andrew and Steve Lowry had taken Boss away. The lack of a body made the General Assembly reluctant to award McQueen the \$6,000 bounty, though the legislature eventually gave him the money the following year. Boss Strong's body was never located. By May, the only active Lowry Gang members were Andrew Strong and Tom and Steve Lowry, the rest having either died or disappeared. On May 2, Wishart agreed to meet Steve and Andrew in attempt to broker a compromise involving the outlaws' departure from the area. According to historians Adolph L. Dial and David K. Eliades, the meeting ended with both parties agreeing to meet again near Lebanon Presbyterian Church several days later, and Wishart was shot dead then. According to Evans, Wishart was killed at the meeting on May 2. Lumbee oral history maintains that Wishart was killed by Andrew after he attempted to shoot Steve, but the actual circumstances of his death remain unclear. Wishart's death led to renewed efforts to suppress the outlaws. On May 13, Governor Caldwell requested another detachment of federal troops be sent to Robeson to combat the gang. Major Morgan belatedly responded on July 5 by sending a company of the 4th Regiment U.S. Artillery from Fort Johnston. During their stay the troops were not called upon by the local authorities to help them, and they withdrew at the end of the month. Morgan concluded that federal intervention was unhelpful and federal forces were never sent again to suppress the gang. Meanwhile, Aladon Strong Wishart and Robert Evander Wishart—the late colonel's respective younger brother and half-brother—reorganized the remnants of the county militia to launch a new search for the outlaws. After spying on the residents of Scuffletown, they learned Tom Lowry planned to attend a political meeting at Union Chapel on the morning of July 20. The militiamen erected a blind along the trail they expected Lowry to travel and lay in wait. Lowry came down the path as expected, accompanied by a friend. The militiamen opened fire, striking Lowry. He ran 100 yards away into a swamp before collapsing dead. The men took his body to Lumberton and collected a combined \$6,200 in state and county bounties. Steve Lowry and Andrew Strong no longer presented a great threat to county authorities, but continued to avoid capture. They still enjoyed the sympathies of the residents of Scuffletown and made public appearances in the community. In September they issued a "proclamation of outlawry" against several bounty hunters pursuing them, offering \$200 reward for each. On December 25, they went to a store in Pates to confront a clerk, William Wilson, who had spoken ill of them. Strong threatened to kill Wilson if he did not leave the county the following day. The two outlaws left to partake in Christmas festivities, and Wilson loaded his shotgun in case they returned. Strong came back in the afternoon to make some purchases, and when he stepped out onto the porch Wilson shot him in the back of the neck, killing him instantly. Wilson took the body to Lumberton, collected the relevant bounties, and left the area. Throughout 1873 bounty hunters continued to search for Lowry. He eluded them but avoided public gatherings, staying close to swamps. He grew unhealthy and began drinking heavily. That year the General Assembly passed the Amnesty Act, which pardoned persons found responsible for political violence in the preceding years. The Conservative-backed measure was designed to protect members of the Ku Klux Klan, and the last section of the law read, "the provisions of this act shall not be construed to extend amnesty to [...] Steve Lowry." Lowry was the only person mentioned by name in the statute. Some of his friends petitioned the governor to pardon him, but their request was ignored. In late February 1874, Lowry came out of hiding to join in a party at the John McNair planation. He laid down his rifle to play a banjo, but as he was about to start three bounty hunters who had been tracking him attacked; two shot him while the third struck him with an axe. The following day they took his body to Lumberton and collected the bounty, and the Lowry War ended. ## Contemporary media coverage The Lowry War was frequently reported on by The Robesonian, a Lumberton-based weekly newspaper founded in 1870, and the Wilmington Morning Star, North Carolina's largest paper. The Robesonian's reports were reprinted in other state newspapers before being covered in other publications across the country. The Lowry Gang reportedly paid close attention to how it was portrayed in the media, seeking out editions of papers and expressing knowledge of certain articles. The Robesonian's editor stated that he was once threatened by Lowry about his style of coverage and briefly fled the county. Most of the local coverage was simply listings of reported crimes and gang sightings, often repeating official statements of the authorities. Press coverage of the gang's racial makeup was often confused and contradictory, with papers describing Lowry and his followers variously as negro, mulatto, or "Indian-like". Southern Conservative and Democratic newspapers favored portraying them as dark-skinned as part of a wider effort to blame lawlessness in the South on black freedmen and Republicans. The Raleigh News criticized Harper's Weekly for publishing drawings of the gang that showed them as light-skinned. North Carolina's Democratic and Conservative papers generally used their comment on the Lowry War to attack the state's Republican government for ineffectiveness, and especially in contrast to Republicans' aggressive suppression of the Klan. The Greensboro Patriot derisively suggested that Lowry should be "the next Radical candidate for Gov. of N.C." Republicans' comments in the press, though condemning the gang's activities, usually accused the Conservative papers of exaggerating the violence and significance of the conflict for political gain. The Lowry War garnered national attention after The New York Times began reporting on it in October 1870. By the following year, the Associated Press wire was syndicating stories of the Lowry Gang around the country. The trial of Henderson Oxendine led the New York Herald to dispatch a reporter down to Robeson County to cover the proceedings, and two more were later sent to report on the Lowry Gang. In March 1872 Herald reporter A. Boyd Henderson arrived in Shoe Heel and established contact with some of the gang members. Hoping to portray themselves in a positive and sympathetic manner, they provided for his accommodation and he extensively interviewed them and their families. Henderson's stories were published by the Herald in a series, "The Swamp Angels". The Northern press coverage of the Lowry conflict, especially that of the New York Herald, generally fit into the local color genre, portraying Robeson County and the larger South as exotic and picturesque but also poor and backwards. One Herald reporter, George Alfred Townsend, compiled these reports into an 1872 dime novel, The Swamp Outlaws. ## Aftermath Over the course of its activity, the Lowry Gang was implicated in the deaths of 22 people. As for the gang members, Henderson Oxendine had been executed; McLauchlin, Boss and Andrew Strong, and Steve and Tom Lowry had been killed; and Henry Berry Lowry went missing. John Dial was released from jail and lived quietly in Robeson County. George Applewhite was eventually captured by authorities in 1875. The following year the North Carolina Supreme Court ruled that he qualified for relief under the provisions of the Amnesty Act and he was released, returning to work as a bricklayer. Following the end of the Lowry War and Reconstruction in North Carolina, the Lumbee Indians lacked state recognition as a unique group, and the Democrats now in control of the state created Jim Crow segregation laws. Republicans made up the majority of registered voters in Robeson County, but disagreements caused by the war prevented them from solidifying local control. The Lumbees resisted being treated the same as blacks under the new social order, and in 1885 the General Assembly voted to recognize them as Croatan Indians. The Lumbees refused to attend black schools and the General Assembly, partly hoping to avoid a reprisal of the Lowry War, created a state-supported normal school for them in 1887. The establishment of additional Lumbee institutions, such as churches and other schools led the state and local government to recognize a tripartite system of segregation in Robeson County. ## Legacy ### Political significance Evans wrote that the actions of the Lowry Gang "seemed aimed at the very foundations of the social order that the Conservatives were erecting to replace the Reconstruction experiment." He also asserted that despite being officially deemed "local bandits" by the government, the Lowry Gang was given "special treatment" by the authorities, namely in large bounties being placed on its members relative to other contemporary groups of outlaws in the United States. Reflecting on the conflict, historian Malinda Maynor Lowery wrote, "For Robeson County Indians, the end of the Lowry War was their Wounded Knee massacre. Their nation didn't die, but it did become subject to state, local, and federal authority in many ways. The Lowry War left Robeson County Indians a separate social identity, but they spent the next seventy years, through the 1950s, gaining acknowledgement of their political autonomy." Evans concluded, "The Lowrys clearly made an impact [...] With the triumph of a frankly racist party during Reconstruction, it appeared that nothing could stop the winners from putting the Lumbee River Indians into the same half-free 'place' in which they generally succeeded in putting the blacks. But this effort failed. It appears to have failed, furthermore, to a great extent because of the bold deeds of the Lowrys, which filled the Lumber River Indians with a new pride of race, and a new confidence that despite generations of defeat, revitalized their will to survive as a people." ### Commemoration and remembrance The release of The Swamp Outlaws spurred numerous retrospective features on the Lowry War in books and newspapers throughout the late 1800s. Lowry is remembered by many Lumbee people as a folk hero and a Robin Hood-like figure, and his exploits have a prominent place in Lumbee folklore. As late as the 1930s, some Lumbees claimed he was living far away in Florida, Arizona, or Oklahoma but would occasionally visit Robeson County. Communications scholar Lorraine Ahearn wrote that the portrayal of the Lowry War in the confines of the "outlaw tropes" of the 1870s by the media helped establish its modern "mythic narrative" in the Lumbee community as a story of "Native American resistance to white supremacy". The Lumbee Tribe annually accords a person with the Henry Berry Lowry Award for distinguished community service. The life of Henry Berry Lowry and the events of the war have been subject to fictional portrayal in several books and plays. In 1976 the Robeson County Historical Drama, Inc. produced a play dramatizing the life of Lowry, Strike At The Wind. Performances were conducted annually throughout the 1970s and 1980s in Pembroke as well as at the 1982 World's Fair in Knoxville, Tennessee. In the late 1990s and early 2000s shows became more sporadic due to financial costs. In 2007, North Carolina erected a highway historical marker in Pembroke to commemorate Lowry.
21,776,720	Providence (The X-Files)	1,167,596,830	null	[ "2002 American television episodes", "Television episodes set in Canada", "Television episodes set in Iraq", "Television episodes set in Pennsylvania", "Television episodes written by Chris Carter (screenwriter)", "Television episodes written by Frank Spotnitz", "The X-Files (season 9) episodes" ]	"Providence" is the tenth episode of the ninth season of the American science fiction television series The X-Files. It premiered on the Fox network on March 10, 2002, and later aired in the United Kingdom on BBC One on January 19, 2003. The episode was written by series creator Chris Carter and executive producer Frank Spotnitz, and directed by Carter. "Providence" helps to explore the series' overarching mythology. The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 5.2 and was viewed by 8.4 million viewers. The episode received mixed reviews from critics; some reviewers enjoyed the story and the show's way of integrating an absent Fox Mulder (David Duchovny) into the storyline, whereas others felt the plot was ludicrous. The show centers on FBI special agents who work on cases linked to the paranormal, called X-Files; this season focuses on the investigations of John Doggett (Robert Patrick), Monica Reyes (Annabeth Gish), and Dana Scully (Gillian Anderson). In this episode, Scully, distrustful of both Walter Skinner (Mitch Pileggi) and Brad Follmer (Cary Elwes), circumvents the FBI's investigation into William's kidnapping and performs her own, assisted by Reyes and The Lone Gunmen. Scully discovers that William has been taken by a UFO cult that believes William is destined to become the savior of mankind, but only if Fox Mulder is still alive. If Mulder is dead, William will lead the forces of evil: the alien invaders. Co-written and directed by Carter, the episode opens with a shot of a fire fight during the Gulf War and the Super Soldiers' involvement therein. Many of the cast and crew were pleased with Carter's directing, including Anderson and Gish. The episode makes reference to rubbings from an alien wreck, a direct continuation from the plots of the sixth season finale "Biogenesis" and the seventh season opener "The Sixth Extinction". ## Plot Retired Lieutenant Colonel Zeke Josepho recounts a strange experience during the Persian Gulf War and how he claims it brought him to God: as his squad was ambushed during the Battle of Al Busayyah and on the verge of defeat, four mysterious men showed up and defeated the enemy with astonishing ease. While Josepho thinks of them as guardian angels, they are revealed to be the almost-indestructible Super Soldiers. In the present, Josepho stands above the wreckage of a spacecraft in Canada. At the FBI, Brad Follmer (Cary Elwes) discloses to a room of agents that Dana Scully’s (Gillian Anderson) son William has been abducted. Follmer notes that The Lone Gunmen are identifying the woman who took the child and ran over John Doggett (Robert Patrick). However, Follmer leaves out any potential motive for these crimes, which causes a frustrated Scully to leave the room. Byers (Bruce Harwood) reveals that he put a cell phone in the baby's belongings so they can track the Overcoat Woman; Monica Reyes (Annabeth Gish) and Scully head out to find William. The two eventually find William's car seat along with the cell phone in an abandoned SUV. Meanwhile, the Overcoat Woman reports to Josepho that she has William. Scully meets Agent Robert Comer, whom she was forced to shoot after his attempt on William's life, and uses the alien artifact to heal him. Comer explains that Josepho believes a physical manifestation of God exists inside the spacecraft. According to an ancient prophecy, William is destined to become the savior of humanity, but only if Fox Mulder (David Duchovny) is still alive. If he dies, William will instead lead the Colonists. Comer claims that Mulder was supposedly killed by the cult in order for the aliens to successfully invade; he tried to kill William to prevent him from causing humanity's destruction. Suddenly, a nurse and the Toothpick Man (Alan Dale) arrive and ask Reyes and Scully to leave. Comer ends up alone with the Toothpick Man. Walter Skinner (Mitch Pileggi) later reports to Reyes and Scully that Comer has died. Reyes accuses Toothpick Man and others in the room of killing Comer. Meanwhile, Scully visits Doggett, who warns her not to trust the cultists. However, Scully goes to meet Josepho near Calgary. Josepho claims to be protecting William, but demands Mulder's head as collateral in exchange for the baby's release. When Josepho returns to the wreck site, the Overcoat Woman relates that the aperture of the craft began to glow when William started crying. The craft soon rises up out of the ground. Looking on the site from a distance, Scully and Reyes see the craft burst out of an enclosure and into space, lighting the ground beneath it on fire as it goes. The two find an unharmed William among the charred bodies of the cultists. At FBI headquarters, Follmer asks Kersh to remove his name from the final report. Instead, Kersh rebukes him and goes in to see the Toothpick Man, who is revealed to be a Super Soldier. ## Production "Providence" was written by series creator Chris Carter and executive producer Frank Spotnitz. A large portion of the episode, as well as the previous entry, was based on the ancient astronaut theory; a theory that proposes intelligent extraterrestrial beings have visited Earth in antiquity or prehistory and made contact with humans. The themes had previously been visited in the "Biogenesis"/"The Sixth Extinction"/"Amor Fati" story arc. This episode, as well as the one that proceeds it, plays around with questions concerning traditional religion and faith. About the plot, series co-star Robert Patrick later joked: "The baby's the Messiah. I don't understand any of it. I'm Episcopalian; I don't get it." Carter also directed the episode; initially, the episode was supposed to have been helmed by another individual, but no one was ever selected. At the last minute, Carter took on the role. Due to time constraints, Carter was writing whole parts of the script while the episode was being filmed. Many of the cast and crew were pleased with Carter's directing. Gillian Anderson said that she thought "Chris has directed some of our best episodes. He's very even tempered, and he's quiet and gentle and quite nice to have as a director, because that energy can't help but pervade the rest of the set [...] He's got a clear vision, and he's good at communicating that." Annabeth Gish noted that Carter's directing was "very meticulous" and that he "knows exactly what he wants". The episode's opening scene depicts a firefight during the Gulf War. This sequence, which took two days to film, was shot on a dry expanse of land located an hour outside of Los Angeles. This area had been selected due to its resemblance to an Iraqi desert. Series' co-executive producer Michelle MacLaren said: "We [MacLaren and location manager Ilt Jones] were way out in the desert and we drove around this corner of these hills and I felt like we had entered another country. It was so desolate, and there were these stone buildings that looked like a bomb had gone off in them. It was perfect." To add authenticity to the shoot, several of the extras used during this scene were former U.S. military personnel. Unlike many of the sets featured on the show, which were filmed on a Fox soundstage, the shot of the buried alien space craft was actually filmed in the hills near Simi Valley, California. Carter wanted a full-scale mock-up of the alien ship to be buried in the ground. This was unusual for the show; usually, a small portion of the ship would have been buried in the ground and the rest would have been filled in either via digital graphics, or with a scale model. In this episode, however, all the shots of the alien ship, sans the takeoff, were done practically. To create the otherworldly glow of the ship, over 100 lamps were hidden within the craft. The ship was also covered in fictional characters that had been programmed into a computer, printed off as stickers, and then applied to the ship's hull. ## Broadcast and reception ### Ratings "Providence" first premiered on the Fox network in the United States on March 10, 2002. The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 5.2, meaning that it was seen by 5.2% of the nation's estimated households and was viewed by 5.49 million households, and 8.4 million viewers. "Providence" was the 56th most watched episode of television that aired during the week ending March 10. The episode eventually aired on BBC Two on January 19, 2003. "Providence" was later included on The X-Files Mythology, Volume 4 – Super Soldiers, a DVD collection that contains episodes involved with the alien super soldiers arc. ### Reviews "Providence" received mixed reviews from television critics. Jessica Morgan from Television Without Pity awarded the episode a B+ rating. Jeffrey Robinson from DVD Talk concluded that "Providence", along with the previous episode "Provenance", "does a fairly good job without including Duchovny" due to its adherence to "the series' main storyline [about] the government conspiracies." Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson, in their book Wanting to Believe: A Critical Guide to The X-Files, Millennium & The Lone Gunmen, rated the episode one star out of five. They called the entry "shallow and pretentious, and internally inconsistent" and derided its plot. They wrote that "at the centre of [the show's] mythology [is] a situation dependent on Mulder and a baby. One of them is absent, and one of them can't talk." Furthermore, Shearman and Pearson criticized the line asking for Mulder's head, but praised the episode's teaser. M.A. Crang, in his book Denying the Truth: Revisiting The X-Files after 9/11, also complimented the teaser sequence, calling it "glorious", but was heavily critical of the rest of the episode's "confused and impenetrable" story. Tom Kessenich, in his book Examinations, wrote a largely negative review of the episode and derided its plot. He wrote that "as this series winds down, you would think Carter and Spotnitz would be in a hurry to resolve some of the myriad of questions they've posed. Instead, 'Providence' was just more of what we've come to expect the past two seasons." ## Explanatory notes
27,485,692	Sonic Colors	1,170,764,769	2010 video game	[ "2010 video games", "3D platform games", "Dimps games", "Games about extraterrestrial life", "Multiplayer and single-player video games", "Nintendo DS games", "Nintendo Switch games", "Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection games", "Platform games", "PlayStation 4 games", "Sega video games", "Side-scrolling video games", "Sonic Team games", "Sonic the Hedgehog video games", "Video games developed in Japan", "Video games scored by Fumie Kumatani", "Video games scored by Hideaki Kobayashi", "Video games scored by Kenichi Tokoi", "Video games scored by Mariko Nanba", "Video games scored by Naofumi Hataya", "Video games scored by Tomoya Ohtani", "Video games set in amusement parks", "Video games set in outer space", "Video games set on fictional planets", "Video games with 2.5D graphics", "Video games with alternative versions", "Wii Wi-Fi games", "Wii games", "Windows games", "Xbox One games" ]	(known as Sonic Colours in the PAL region) is a 2010 platform game published by Sega. It follows Sonic's quest to stop his nemesis Doctor Eggman from enslaving an alien race and taking over the world. The gameplay is similar to prior Sonic games, with players collecting rings and defeating enemies; the camera perspective often switches from third-person to side-scrolling perspectives. The game also introduces Wisps, power-ups the player can use to increase attack power and reach new areas. Development of Sonic Colors began in 2008, following the completion of Sonic Unleashed. Examining criticisms of past games, the developers made Sonic the only playable character and worked to balance speed and platforming; the Wisps were introduced to diversify the gameplay without slowing it down. Two versions of the game were developed: one for the Wii by Sonic Team, and one for the Nintendo DS by Dimps. The game was designed for a wider demographic than previous games, specifically children and fans of the Super Mario series. In anticipation of the game's release, Sega delisted several Sonic games with sub-average Metacritic scores to increase the value of the brand. Sonic Colors received generally positive reviews from critics, who praised its graphics, audio, soundtrack, gameplay and replay value, with many considering it a return to form for the series. However, some criticized its difficulty and multiplayer mode. It was a commercial success, selling four million copies. The Wisp power-ups introduced in Sonic Colors became a staple of the Sonic series. A remastered edition of the Wii version, was released on September 7, 2021, for Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, Windows, and Xbox One as part of the Sonic series' 30th anniversary. ## Gameplay ### Premise and setting Sonic Colors is a platform game set in outer space. Players control Sonic the Hedgehog, whose goal is to save the Wisps, an alien race that has been enslaved by Doctor Eggman. The game's main hub is Doctor Eggman's Incredible Interstellar Amusement Park, an interplanetary amusement park that consists of five small planets chained to each other. Sonic must be guided through these planets to destroy the power source at their center. Each planet is split into seven parts: six main levels called acts and a boss level. In each act, players must guide Sonic to the goal, whilst defeating enemies and dodging obstacles. In boss levels, players face one of Eggman's large robots, and must defeat it. Gameplay seamlessly shifts between side-scrolling and third-person perspectives. Upon completion of a level, players are given a grade dependent on their performance, with an "S" being the best and a "D" being the worst. As the player progresses through the game, more planets become available to select. Once each planet has been completed, a bonus seventh, which concludes the story, is unlocked. Players control Sonic using the Wii Remote (with or without the Nunchuck), the Classic Controller, or the Nintendo GameCube Controller. Sonic retains most of his abilities from Sonic Unleashed: he can perform a "Sonic Boost" which greatly increases his speed and allows him to smash through various objects; a homing attack that allows him to destroy enemies from long distances; and a stomp that enables him to quickly destroy objects below him. In certain levels, players are sent at high speeds and must perform a quick step maneuver to dodge walls and other hazards; others see Sonic using a drift mechanic in order to make sharp turns. Sonic is also given a double-jump ability, which allows him to perform an additional jump in mid-air. A major aspect of Sonic Colors is the ability to activate Wisp power-ups. There are eight different types of Wisps, each with their own unique advantage dependent on their color. Normal white-colored Wisps allow the player to get a speed boost at any time. The "Cyan Laser" turns Sonic into a laser that can bounce off solid surfaces to change the laser's path and to travel through power lines, while the "Yellow Drill" allows Sonic to drill through soft ground and water. The "Orange Rocket" allows Sonic to blast upward to tremendous heights; the "Pink Spikes" allows Sonic to bond to walls and ceilings and to perform a spin dash to gain velocity and to destroy objects; the "Green Hover" enables Sonic to hover and to perform dashes across lines of rings; the "Blue Cube" gives Sonic the ability to turn blue blocks into blue rings and vice versa; and the "Purple Frenzy" turns Sonic into a berserker that chomps through anything in its path, increasing in size as it continues to eat. Like previous games, Sonic collects golden rings, which protect him from a single hit by an enemy or obstacle, though they will scatter and blink before disappearing. Sonic starts the game with a limited number of lives; if he is hit with no rings in his possession, he will lose a life. If a player exhausts their lives, they will receive a game over. ### Multiplayer Sonic Colors features a co-operative two-player mode, Eggman's Sonic Simulator, in which players control Sonic-modeled robots or their Mii characters through a series of levels. These levels can be unlocked by collecting special Red Star Rings hidden throughout each act. Completing Sonic Simulator levels rewards the player Chaos Emeralds, and once all seven are collected, Sonic can transform into Super Sonic after collecting 50 rings in normal levels. As Super Sonic, players are invincible and can boost infinitely, though they cannot use Wisps and lose one ring per second, de-transforming when the ring counter hits zero. The game also features online leaderboards, allowing players to upload their scores via Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection. ### Nintendo DS Unlike the Wii version, the Nintendo DS version of Sonic Colors is a side-scroller reminiscent of the original Sega Genesis/Mega Drive games (similar to the style of Sonic Rush and Rush Adventure) that takes advantage of the system's dual-screen. Exclusive to the DS version are touchscreen-controlled special stages similar to the ones seen in Sonic the Hedgehog 2, missions featuring various characters from throughout the franchise, a competitive multiplayer mode, and an extra final boss. The game features two additional Wisp types: "Red Burst", which allows Sonic to burst in midair and can activate certain objects such as a hot air balloon, Ferris wheel, and popcorn cannons; and "Violet Void", which gives Sonic the ability to float and to suck up nearby objects, growing bigger in the process. Unlockable concept art is also included. ## Plot In both versions, Doctor Eggman opens an amusement park in space called "Dr. Eggman's Incredible Interstellar Amusement Park", allegedly turning over a new leaf and making up for past transgressions. The park is made up of several planet-sized attractions. Suspicious, Sonic the Hedgehog and his best friend Tails investigate. They meet Yacker, who comes from a species of aliens known as Wisps. After Tails invents a translator to communicate with him, they learn that other Wisps have been enslaved by Eggman, who plans to harness their energy for a mind-control laser that will allow him to take over Earth. Sonic proceeds to visit the planets, liberating the Wisps and shutting down the generators linked to the amusement park. He meets many of his friends along the way, who are also exploring the park in an attempt to disrupt Eggman's plans. After Sonic frees the Wisps, Eggman tries to fire the cannon at the world, but a piece of wreckage causes it to malfunction. As the amusement park begins to explode, Sonic confronts Eggman. Eggman uses the Nega-Wisps to power his final contraption, a robot that uses the powers of all the Wisps that Sonic has met against him. As the machine gets weaker, the Wisps escape and help Sonic defeat Eggman, sending him hurtling off into space. The Wisps carry Sonic out of the exploding amusement park. Returning safely to Earth, Yacker thanks Sonic and Tails. In the DS version, however, Sonic and Tails soon learn that the leading Mother Wisp had been infected by the negative energy and transformed into the Nega-Mother Wisp. Using the power of the Chaos Emeralds, Sonic transforms into Super Sonic and fights her. Following her defeat, the Mother Wisp returns to normal and the Wisps part ways with the two heroes. In a post-credits scene, Eggman is seen stranded in space with his henchmen Orbot and Cubot. ## Development Development of Sonic Colors began in 2008, following the completion of Sonic Unleashed. While they kept most of Unleashed's core gameplay elements, developers Sonic Team and Dimps decided to create an equal balance between speed and platforming similar to that of the games released for the Sega Genesis, in comparison to the straightforward gameplay of Unleashed. Following requests by fans, the team also made the decision to make Sonic the only playable character, and to omit "gimmick" themes such as the swordplay mechanic used in the 2009 spin-off Sonic and the Black Knight. The team chose to develop Sonic Colors on Nintendo's Wii and DS consoles, hoping to expand upon the audience attracted by the successful Mario & Sonic at the Olympic Games crossover games. One of the first ideas was the setting should be an amusement park; Sonic Team then realized that "any sort of terrestrial amusement park would be too small to contain Sonic's adventures." From this came the idea of an interplanetary park, which would allow for more creativity and variance in the game. The developers used Disneyland as visual inspiration for the levels. Sonic Team also desired something that would diversify the gameplay, but did not slow it down. Thus, the Wisps were added to the game to expand and strengthen the gameplay without forcing the player to switch to other playable characters. Another goal was to encourage players to revisit completed levels; Sonic Team accomplished this by adding segments requiring certain types of Wisps to levels preceding their first appearances. The Wii version makes use of the PhysX physics engine, previously used with 2007's Sonic and the Secret Rings, while the DS version uses the same engine used in the 2005 entry Sonic Rush and its sequel. According to producer Takashi Iizuka, Sonic Colors was designed to appeal to a casual audience, particularly children and fans of the Super Mario series. Iizuka's statement that it was impossible to please all Sonic fans initially alienated those who had enjoyed prior entries such as Unleashed and Sonic the Hedgehog 4: Episode I, though Sega brand manager Judy Gilbertson later clarified that "we’re also looking to create a game that is accessible to younger gamers as well as our ‘core’ fans." The script was written by MadWorld and Happy Tree Friends contributors Ken Pontac and Warren Graff. Sonic Colors is also one of the first games in the series not to use the English voice cast from the Sonic X anime series following a major re-casting of the franchise in 2010, with Roger Craig Smith assuming the role of Sonic. Of the Sonic X cast, only Mike Pollock reprises his role as Dr. Eggman. Sega first announced Sonic Colors in a blog post on May 26, 2010. Demo versions of the game were playable at the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2010, Gamescom, the Penny Arcade Expo, and the Tokyo Game Show. On November 4, 2010, Sega held a Sonic Colors-themed ice-skating event at Bryant Park in New York City. BradyGames also published an official strategy guide, which launched alongside the game. In anticipation of the game's release, Sega delisted multiple Sonic games with sub-average Metacritic scores to increase the value of the brand. Sonic Colors was first released in PAL regions on November 11, 2010, followed by a North American release on November 16, 2010, and in Japan on November 18, 2010. People who pre-ordered the Japanese version of the game received a special card compatible with the arcade game Rekishi Taisen Gettenka, allowing Sonic to appear in the game. Those who pre-ordered the game through GameStop in North America received a Sonic shaped hat. A special edition was also sold in Europe, featuring figurines of Sonic and the Wisps. ### Music The game's score was composed by Tomoya Ohtani, Kenichi Tokoi, Fumie Kumatani, Hideaki Kobayashi, Mariko Nanba, and Naofumi Hataya, and was written to be more energetic than previous entries' scores. The in-game music is performed by the Amsterdam Session Orchestra. Jean Paul Makhlouf from the American electronic band Cash Cash performed the game's opening song, "Reach for the Stars" (remixed as "Reach for the Stars (Re-Colors)"), and his brother Alex joined him in singing the ending song, "Speak With Your Heart" (remixed as "Speak With Your Heart (Rainbow Mix)"). A three-CD soundtrack, Sonic Colors Original Soundtrack: Vivid Sounds × Hybrid Colors, featuring music from the game was released on CD in Japan on December 22, 2010, with a digital version released via iTunes in January 2011. ## Reception Both versions of Sonic Colors received "generally favorable" reviews, according to review aggregator Metacritic. The game was also successful commercially; as of March 2011, it has sold 2.18 million copies. In a Famitsu interview dated June 2021, Sonic Team director Takashi lizuka mentioned in response to a question that the game had sold 4 million copies across the Nintendo Wii and the Nintendo DS. The game's presentation was well received. Pedro Hernandez of Nintendo World Report described the graphics and animations as "beautiful" and "gorgeous". Arthur Gies of IGN considered them to be among the best available on the Wii, praising the lighting, detail, and variety they offered. Both Hernandez and Jane Douglas of GameSpot both praised the audio for incorporating familiar aspects of past Sonic games, and Douglas admired the "jazzy, high-energy" soundtrack as fitting for all levels. The new voice casting was also appreciated; Gies elaborated that the cast was "much less annoying" than the previous voice actors, and Hernandez considered their voices to be fitting for the characters. The gameplay was praised, particularly for the Wisps and its replay value. Al Bickham of Eurogamer considered the game's intertwining of platforming and speed to be successful, and also praised its use of the Wii Remote. Gies, Douglas, and John Meyer of Wired praised the shift from third-person to side-scrolling, which Meyer described as "elegant and cohesive". Matthew Keast of GamesRadar called the Wisps the game's best feature, describing the element of backtracking to previously completed levels after unlocking more types as clever. Tim Turi of Game Informer praised the Wisps for adding "an interesting new gameplay mechanic without succumbing to Werehog-itis", and Gies compared the Wisps to power-ups from the Super Mario franchise, though he felt that Colors still felt distinctive and fresh. Douglas, however, preferred basic platforming over using the Wisps. Some aspects of the game were criticized, however. Writing for Destructoid, Jim Sterling described Sonic Colors as "terribly designed". They criticized the controls and physics, and felt the developers had not addressed problems present in previous games and concluded that the game was poor. Gies, Hernandez, Meyer, Turi, and Keast criticized the game's high difficulty level, with Keast going as far to describe it as "hardcore". Both Gies and Douglas spoke negatively of the co-op Eggman's Sonic Simulator; Gies described it as not fun, and Douglas called it "ugly" and ultimately concluded that the multiplayer was weak. Douglas also made note of the boss fights as being repetitive. Regarding the game as a whole, critics felt that Sonic Colors was one of the best entries in the Sonic series. IGN declared it one of the best games available for the Wii, and awarded it their "Quick Fix" award of 2010. Douglas concluded that "Wii owners shouldn't miss an opportunity to play with Sonic at his best". Empire considered Colors a return to form for the series, whose popularity had declined in recent years following a number of poorly received games such as the 2006 reboot. ## Legacy Sonic Colors introduced the Wisp power-ups, which would go on to become a staple of the Sonic franchise. Games featuring the Wisps include Sonic Generations (2011), Sonic Lost World (2013), and Sonic Forces (2017). The story of Sonic Colors was adapted in Archie Comics' Sonic the Hedgehog comic book series. Sonic Generations was released in commemoration of the series' twentieth anniversary, and remade various aspects from past entries. The version of the game released for the Xbox 360, PlayStation 3, and Microsoft Windows features a reimagined version of Sonic Colors's Planet Wisp level. The version of the game released for the Nintendo 3DS contains a remake of the Tropical Resort level. ## Sonic Colors: Ultimate In May 2021, a remastered version, was announced for release on Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, Windows (via the Epic Games Store), and Xbox One. Developed by Blind Squirrel Games as part of the Sonic series' 30th anniversary, it was released worldwide on September 7, 2021, and in Japan and East Asia on September 9 of that year. A version for Amazon Luna was also made available on April 21, 2022. On February 6, 2023, Sonic Colors: Ultimate was also released on Steam. Along with enhanced visuals, an improved frame rate, and a newly recorded soundtrack, the remaster, which is based on the Wii version, features new additions including assistance by Tails, which replaces the traditional lives mechanic from the original game, allowing Tails to rescue Sonic from dangerous falls for a limited amount of uses, the "Jade Ghost" Wisp power-up from Team Sonic Racing, which lets Sonic pass through solid objects and access new routes; a Rival Rush mode in which players race against Metal Sonic; unlockable cosmetic options with a new currency called "Park Tokens", including some based on the 2020 film; new voice lines from Kate Higgins, who reprises her role as the voice of Tails from the original game in English (Ryō Hirohashi in Japanese); and voiceovers in French, German, Italian and Spanish. To coincide with the release of the game, a two-episode animated miniseries, Sonic Colors: Rise of the Wisps, was released in August 2021. ### Reception Shortly after its early access on September 3, several Twitter users started reporting several bugs and glitches not present in the original, with the Switch version in particular being derided due to having far more technical issues than the other releases, such as an inferior frame-rate compared to the other versions, significantly longer load times and flashing lights that could induce a potential photosensitive epileptic seizure. Some of these issues have since been patched, and the others are planned to be patched in the future. Reception for the remixed music has also been mixed. In addition, people data mining through the PC version found that it had used Godot Engine without proper credit, which Blind Squirrel stated would be addressed in a patch. Sonic Colors: Ultimate received "mixed or average" reviews according to review aggregator Metacritic.

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