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2017 Montreal ePrix
| 1,165,637,242 | null |
[
"2010s in Montreal",
"2016–17 Formula E season",
"2017 in Canadian motorsport",
"2017 in Quebec",
"July 2017 sports events in Canada",
"Montreal ePrix"
] |
The 2017 Montreal ePrix (formally the 2017 FIA Formula E Hydro-Québec Montréal ePrix) was a pair of Formula E electric car races held on 29 and 30 July 2017 at the Montreal Street Circuit in Montreal, Quebec before a two-day crowd of 45,000 people. They were the 11th and 12th races of the 2016–17 Formula E Championship and the only running of the event. The first 35-lap race contested on 29 July, was won by Audi Sport ABT driver Lucas di Grassi from pole position. The Techeetah duo of Jean-Éric Vergne and Stéphane Sarrazin finished in second and third places. The longer 37-lap race held on 31 July was won by Vergne from a third place start. Mahindra's Felix Rosenqvist took second with Virgin driver José María López third.
Di Grassi won pole position for the first race by recording the fastest lap in qualifying and held off Sarrazin to maintain the lead at the start and pulled away from the field. Attention focused on Sébastien Buemi, demoted from second to twelfth for changing his battery, who sustained steering arm damage on the first lap but was able to move up the field during the course of the race. It was neutralised with a full course yellow flag when Loïc Duval and Nick Heidfeld collided on the 14th lap. Most drivers made pit stops to switch into a second car and di Grassi kept the lead after this phase. Sarrazin ceded second to teammate Vergne who began to draw closer to di Grassi but his chase was neutralised when López crashed on lap 24, necessitating the safety car's deployment. Di Grassi kept the lead at the restart and held off Vergne for the rest of the race to take his second victory of the season and the sixth of his career. No lead changes occurred, as di Grassi was the only driver to lead laps in the first race.
Rosenqvist was the fastest driver for qualifying for the second race and maintained the lead on the first lap. After Sarrazin spun at the first turn from contact with Daniel Abt and Nelson Piquet Jr., Buemi was hit from behind by António Félix da Costa, damaging his right-rear wheel guard which flailed in the wind before detaching. Buemi was required to make a pit stop, dropping him down the order. With more electrical energy to use, Vergne began attacking Rosenqvist for the lead after ten laps. Vergne took the lead for one lap when the change into second cars began on the 18th lap. After the pit stops, Rosenqvist reclaimed the lead with a five-second lead over Vergne who began regaining the lost time having made his pit stop one lap later than the former. Vergne again had more usable electrical energy and overtook the slower Rosenqvist on the 29th lap. Vergne maintained the lead to claim his first Formula E victory. There were four lead changes among three different drivers during the course of the second race.
Di Grassi overturned Buemi's lead in the Drivers' Championship to become the third champion in Formula E history by 24 points. Rosenqvist finished the season in third place, five points ahead of Sam Bird. Vergne's form in both races consolidated his hold on fifth position. Despite its poor form in the second race, e.Dams-Renault secured their third consecutive Teams' Championship by 20 points over Audi Sport ABT. Mahindra finished the season in third with Virgin a further 25 points behind in fourth. Techeetah's performance in both races allowed the team to consolidate fifth place.
## Background to race weekend
### Preview
Before the race, e.Dams-Renault driver Sébastien Buemi led the Drivers' Championship with 157 points, ten ahead of Lucas di Grassi in second, who in turn, was a further 43 in front of third-placed Felix Rosenqvist. Sam Bird was fourth on 100 points and Nico Prost was fifth with 84 points. e.Dams-Renault led the Teams' Championship with 259 points; Audi Sport ABT were in second place on 194 points and Mahindra with 182 points contended the team for the position. With 153 points, Virgin were in fourth position and Techeetah rounded out the top five with 94 points. A maximum of 59 points were available for the final ePrix which meant di Grassi could still win the title if he won both races and Buemi placed second twice without taking two pole positions.
After reducing Buemi's lead by 22 points in the preceding New York City ePrix, di Grassi stated his team had to improve vastly in finding hope of winning the championship in Montreal and felt more confident than before: "With the experience that I have with Formula E, you know that it can go from hell to heaven any weekend, any race. We just have to do our best, try and win both races and see how it goes." Buemi, the pre-title favourite, missed the New York City races because of a World Endurance Championship commitment at the Nürburgring, but said he would prepare for the Montreal double header in the same way he would with any other event: "We will try to do the best possible. I hope we can finish this season in style and look forward to it." He created controversy when he raised the issue of his crash with di Grassi at the 2016 London ePrix, saying a similar collision would be difficult for di Grassi to explain and not to do it again." Di Grassi responded by noting Buemi lost the first season championship through an error and said Buemi had more pressure and another mistake would prevent him from reclaiming the title: "Everyone feels pressure in a different way of course. He has pressure big time this weekend, much more than me, this is because everyone will be waiting to see if those mistakes come again in Montreal."
### Preparation
In September 2014 Denis Coderre, the Mayor of Montreal, entered into advance talks with Jean Todt, the president of motorsport's governing body, the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA) over holding a motor race in the city. Although it was mooted the Circuit Gilles Villeneuve would host the race, Coderre preferred a city centre track. After flying to Miami to meet with Formula E holding's executive director in March 2015, Corderre said two months later that "informal agreements" had been reached with series promoters, allowing racing to be held in Montreal's streets. Planning for the event began in January 2016, and a six-year contract was signed with an option for a renewal available after half the time had passed. The round was later confirmed as part of Formula E's 2016–17 schedule in September 2016 by the FIA World Motor Sport Council as a double header. They were the 11th and 12th single-seater electric car races of the Championship, and were held on 29 and 30 July 2017 at the Montreal Street Circuit. The city expected 60,000 people to attend the two-day event.
Prior to the double header, Formula One had visited the Circuit Gilles Villeneuve intermittently since 1978 and it was the first time the Formula E title was decided anywhere other than the Battersea Park Street Circuit in London. The first pictures of the 14-turn 2.75 km (1.71 mi) track layout were released to the press on 21 October 2016. Construction of the grandstands and paddock for the race started on 15 July, two weeks before the first ePrix. The circuit foundations were completely dismantled ten days after it had ended. Race ambassador and former driver Patrick Carpentier believed the track's layout would challenge drivers and felt the best place for overtaking would occur into the first turn. Drivers voiced positive feelings about the track. Di Grassi called it possibly "one of the best tracks in Formula E history" and Rosenqvist said it appeared "fantastic" because of its elevation change which is in contrast to most Formula E circuits which are held on flat surfaces. However, local residents complained about the lack of access, and the track's use of public streets and sidewalks for private purposes was questioned.
## Race one
### Practice and qualifying
Two practice sessions—both on Saturday morning—were held before the late afternoon race. The first session ran for 45 minutes and the second for half an hour. Both practice sessions took place in dry and warm weather conditions. Di Grassi recorded the first practice session's fastest lap at 1 minute, 22.451 seconds on 200 kW (270 hp) of power, almost 1.2 seconds faster than Bird in second. Jean-Éric Vergne, Buemi, Nico Prost, Rosenqvist. Stéphane Sarrazin, Mitch Evans, Daniel Abt and Nelson Piquet Jr. were in positions three to ten. The track's surface caught several drivers off guard after locking their tyres, causing them to slide onto the run-off areas, and an oversteer affected multiple cars. Abt broke his car's left-front rim following an collision with a barrier lining the track. In the second practice session, Prost was quickest with a time of 1 minute and 22.180 seconds; Vergne, Rosenqvist, Sarrazin, Heidfeld, Bird, Loïc Duval (Dragon), Robin Frijns (Andretti) and the two NextEV cars of Oliver Turvey and Piquet completed the top ten. Di Grassi and Adam Carroll skidded under braking on dust and slid onto the track's run-off areas. Sarrazin later stopped at the pit lane exit but restarted his car without external aid. Buemi glanced the Bus Stop chicane inside barrier, and speared straight into the exit wall at high speed. Buemi was unhurt and exited his car without external assistance. Because his vehicle was significantly damaged, he drove his second car for qualifying. The crash prompted the session to end prematurely with five minutes left due to extensive damage to the barrier and debris strewn across the circuit. e.Dams-Renault mechanics worked for the next five hours to build a new car around a spare monocoque.
Saturday's afternoon qualifying session ran for an hour and was divided into four groups of five cars. Each group was determined by a lottery system and was permitted six minutes of on-track activity. All drivers were limited to two timed laps with one at maximum power. The fastest five overall competitors in the four groups participated in a "Super Pole" session with one driver on the track at any time going out in reverse order from fifth to first. Each of the five drivers was limited to one timed lap and the starting order was determined by the competitor's fastest lap times (Super Pole from first to fifth, and group qualifying from sixth to twentieth). The driver and team who recorded the fastest time were awarded three points towards their respective championships. Qualifying was held in dry and warm weather conditions, and the track appeared slower than in practice. In the first group of five runners, where drivers waited 31⁄2 minutes before venturing onto the track, Duval was fastest, three-tenths of a seconds quicker than Abt. Bird in third could not use the maximum amount of power available to him due to a mapping issue. Piquet locked his tyres on his maximum power lap, and Jérôme d'Ambrosio was the first group's slowest (and overall) driver as he failed to reach the timing line to start his full power lap. Track conditions improved in the second group which saw the five drivers wait until the final seconds to begin their maximum power laps. Sarrazin recorded the fastest lap; Prost and Frijns followed in second and third. António Félix da Costa attacked but struggled with understeer and slid his car to go half a second slower than Sarrazin. José María López was the second group's slowest participant after a similar mapping error to his teammate Bird slowed him.
In the third group, di Grassi set the fastest overall lap of any driver at 1 minute, 23.026 seconds. He was followed by Buemi and Rosenqvist in second and third. Vergne made an error en route to fourth place and Evans was the third group's slowest competitor. Carroll was fastest in the fourth group with Turvey, Tom Dillmann Heidfeld and Engel in second to fifth. Heidfeld was slow due to an error through the first turn and Engel appeared to have a similar problem to both Virgin cars. After group qualifying ended, the lap times set by di Grassi, Buemi, Sarrazin, Rosenqvist and Prost progressed them to super pole. Di Grassi took his third pole position of the season with a time of 1 minute, 22.869 seconds, despite losing four hundredths of a second in the first sector but regained time in the second sector. He was joined on the grid's front row by Buemi who was 0.196 seconds slower. Sarrazin took third place by judging the first braking point correctly and demonstrated strong rear grip despite losing seven hundredths of a second through a driver error. Although he had a small amount of oversteer which cost him time Prost secured fourth. Rosenqvist locked his rear brakes going into the first corner, losing him one second worth of time and took fifth. After qualifying, Buemi was demoted ten places on the grid because he changed his car's battery after his second practice crash. Following the application of penalties, the rest of the grid lined up as Vergne, Evans, Carroll, Turvey, Dillmann, Duval, Abt, Buemi, Frijns, Heidfeld, Félix da Costa, López, Engel, Bird, Piquet and d'Ambrosio.
### Race
The weather at the start was dry with the air temperature between 24.10 to 24.55 °C (75.38 to 76.19 °F) and a track temperature from 28.90 to 29.45 °C (84.02 to 85.01 °F). A special feature of Formula E is the "Fan Boost" feature, an additional 100 kilowatts (130 hp) of power to use in the driver's second car. The three drivers who were allowed to use the boost were determined by a fan vote. For the first Montreal race, di Grassi, Vergne and Buemi were handed the extra power. When the race began at 16:00 Eastern Daylight Time (UTC−04:00), di Grassi held off Sarrazin to lead the field at the first corner. Buemi drove conservatively resulting in him being delayed in a closely bunched pack of cars in the middle of the field. He sustained handling damage from contact with Frijns's front-left wheel in the second turn and fell to 16th place. Evans and his teammate Carroll made fast getaways and moved to fourth and eighth. Prost struggled at the start and lost two positions to fall to sixth position after making contact with one of the Jaguar cars. Heidfeld gained four positions by the end of the first lap while Buemi lost four places over the same distance.
At the end of the first lap, di Grassi led Sarrazin, Rosenqvist, Evans, Vergne, Prost, Carroll, Turvey, Duval, and Dillmann. Di Grassi began to pull away from the rest of the field. Rosenqvist pressured Sarrazin but the latter defended third place. Attention switched to Buemi who began to move through the field. He put his left hand on his steering wheel against his bent steering arm. Heidfeld and Abt were able to enter the top-ten and both battled for position. Abt passed Heidfeld for ninth place on lap nine. After ten laps Buemi had passed four drivers to be in 12th place. After Buemi had overtaken Duval for tenth position on the 14th lap, Heidfeld attempted to pass Duval on the outside, but Duval defended his position, leaving Heidfeld without any space on some dirt and the two made contact at turn six. Duval resumed but Heidfeld's front-right suspension was bent and drove to the side of the track at turn 12 to retire. Heidfeld's stricken car prompted the activation of the full course yellow procedure to allow marshals to remove it from the circuit and most drivers elected to make pit stops for the mandatory change into their second cars.
Buemi and Abt were the first drivers to enter the pit lane to try and pass drivers through an alternative strategy. Buemi was close behind the rear of Abt's car and made minor contact with the slow-moving Abt, gesticulating angrily. Buemi was released from his pit stall alongside Abt, and passed him. Abt then applied his brakes to avoid hitting Buemi. After Buemi appeared to slow at the pit lane exit, Abt drove into the rear of his car, prompting Buemi to complain furiously over the radio. Rosenqvist's pit stop was two seconds longer than expected and fell behind Vergne. Having opted not to make a pit stop under the full course yellow which concluded on lap 17, Carroll moved into the top ten, and rejoined in 14th after making his pit stop. Sarrazin later allowed Vergne through to take over second place. Duval recorded the race's fastest lap on lap 19. He set a lap of 1 minute, 24.536 seconds, earning him one championship point.
At the front, Vergne began to reduce the time deficit to di Grassi. Buemi overtook Turvey for seventh place on lap 21 and he passed Evans two laps later but could not establish a healthy advantage over Abt. López lost control of his car's rear on lap 24, and spun into the turn eight wall, necessitating the deployment of the safety car, and eliminating the time gaps in the field. The safety car was withdrawn at the end of lap 29, and racing resumed as di Grassi used his FanBoost to pull clear from Vergne whom Sarrazin challenged. Prost allowed his teammate Buemi through to fifth place. Abt aggressively overtook Prost soon after for sixth and continued his goal of drawing closer to Buemi. On the 31st lap, Rosenqvist, who aimed for a podium position, struck the wall exiting the chicane, damaging his left-rear suspension and bending his car's steering arm. This allowed Buemi to take over fourth place as Rosenqvist fell down the order.
Vergne drew close to di Grassi and was close behind him in the final two laps. He attempted to overtake di Grassi but the latter defended the lead. Buemi closed up to Sarrazin on the final lap but a battle that saw wheel-to-wheel contact meant he could not pass Sarrazin in the turn six to eight complex. Vergne continued to push di Grassi for the rest of the race but was not able to draw close enough to mount a serious attempt at passing, and di Grassi took his second victory of the season and the sixth of his career. Vergne finished three-tenths of a second behind in second with teammate Sarrazin third. Buemi was fourth on the road, ahead of Abt in fifth and Bird who gained 12 positions over the course of the event to take sixth. Prost, Evans, Frijns, and the limping Rosenqvist rounded out the top ten. Dillmann, d'Ambrosio, Engel, Piquet and Félix da Costa. Turvey and Carroll were the final finishers. There were no lead changes during the race as di Grassi led every lap contested.
### Post-race
The top three drivers appeared on the podium to collect their trophies and spoke to the media in a later press conference. Di Grassi was delighted with his victory, calling it "the best day in my Formula E career" and reserved praise for his team after they used much of their energy to understand their lack of competitiveness at the preceding New York City double header. He stated his belief the secret was to remain calm and "exercise what the driver could do to motivate everybody that person is surrounded by for the season's remaining races," "Formula E can go from heaven to hell in one lap or one decision or one problem. Today we did the job. Tomorrow is a completely different day, a completely different environment. We're going to try to do the same as we did here." Vergne was happy over his team's growing strength and their double podium finish. He said he was hit from both sides at the race's start, causing him to lose positions, but spoke highly of his car and strategy allowed him to go faster than other drivers. Third-place finisher Sarrazin stated he was slower and became aware of Buemi closing on him by glancing at his rear-view mirrors and the latter challenging for the title.
After the race, the atmosphere in the pit lane became turbulent when a visibly angered Buemi went to Félix da Costa and accused him of breaking his car's steering in the second turn. When Félix da Costa replied he had not made contact, Buemi walked to Frijns and engaged in a heated argument. Frijns argued his choices were either hitting Buemi's rear wing or driving to the outside of him. Buemi countered this by accusing Frijns of being supercilious and swore at him. Buemi confronted Abt soon after and accused the latter of hitting him deliberately. When Buemi walked away, he turned to Abt and branded him "dirty". More than half an hour after the rant, Buemi called Audi Sport Abt "a dirty team" through the press and claimed they violated series regulations. Frijns was perplexed by Buemi's confrontation as he expected to be thanked by him and believed he avoided being caught up in a more serious incident, "I had actually already taken him before I turned in and I felt a small touch on the left rear but nothing much. Then five or six laps later he was behind me and I chose to let him go so I don't know what he is crying about." Ten days after the ePrix, Buemi apologised to his team and both Andretti drivers on Twitter.
Buemi, having risen from twelfth to finish fourth, was disqualified for infringing technical regulations as technical stewards in post-race scrutineering determined his second car was under the minimum weight limit of 880 kg (1,940 lb) and the team were reported to have added an additional 4 kg (8.8 lb) to compensate for any weight variation in his vehicle. This was partly due to the insufficient amount of time to get the car weighed after it was rebuilt from his accident in the second practice session. The team elected not to appeal the penalty. e.Dams-Renault team principal Jean-Paul Driot said he did not understand why the car's weight was not within the limit. He revealed the team attempted to file an appeal for a weighing of the battery but the large amount of difference in the component complicated the situation.
The result moved di Grassi into the lead of the Drivers' Championship with 175 points. Buemi fell to second and was 18 points behind di Grassi. Bird's fifth-place finish promoted him to third place with 110 points but was mathematically excluded from winning the championship. Rosenqvist's poor form dropped him from third to fourth and was also prevented from securing the title. Vergne and Prost were equal on points for fifth place. e.Dams-Renault still led the Teams' Championship on 267 points but their advantage over Audi Sport ABT was reduced to 33 points. Mahindra remained in third position but Virgin moved further towards the team while Techeetah consolidated fifth with one race left in the season. For the second event, Di Grassi only now needed to finish fifth or better to secure the championship regardless of where Buemi finished.
### Standings after the race
- Bold text indicates who still had a theoretical chance of becoming Champion.
Drivers' Championship standings
Teams' Championship standings
- Notes: Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings.
## Race two
### Practice and qualifying
As was the case for 29 July, two practice sessions—both on Sunday morning—were held before the late afternoon race. The first session ran for 45 minutes and the second 30 minutes. Both practice sessions took place in dry and clear weather. In the third practice session, di Grassi used the maximum amount of power available to him to record the fastest time of 1 minute and 21.442 seconds late on, almost four-tenths of a second faster than Prost in second. Buemi, Félix da Costa, Rosenqvist, López, Bird, Evans, d'Ambrosio and Vergne followed in the top ten. Duval was investigated for colliding with Piquet's car heading into the first corner when he overtook him on the inside. Rosenqvist was quickest in the fourth practice session with a 1-minute and 21.183 seconds lap; Buemi, López, Bird, Duval, Abt, Turvey, Vergne, di Grassi and Prost completed the top ten. Abt made minor contact with Prost in the first turn, damaging the latter's front wing, and puncturing Abt's right-rear tyre. The first yellow flag was prompted when Duval locked his tyres and slid onto the chicane's run-off area, and a second was necessitated after Piquet locked his tyres, spun into the barrier at turn eleven and damaged his front wing. Evans narrowly avoided contact with the turn two barrier after locking his tyres driving towards it. After fourth practice ended, Rosenqvist's qualifying car suffered a battery problem, forcing him to use his second vehicle while his team rebuilt his first car's powertrain by disassembling its rear.
Qualifying took place from early Sunday afternoon with four groups of five cars with the fastest five overall participants progressing into super pole. It was held in dry and warm weather. In the first group of five cars, López set a benchmark lap time with Duval close behind in second. On his maximum power lap, Buemi locked his tyres going into the first turn, but despite going quicker in the second sector, was provisional third. Engel and Carroll were the first group's slowest drivers. Rosenqvist paced the second group, followed by Vergne. Dillmann and d'Ambrosio were third and fourth and Evans was the slowest competitor in the second group after heavily locking his tyres entering the first corner and had to regain control of his car to continue driving. Piquet set the third group's quickest time. Sarrazin in second locked his brakes driving into turn one on his maximum power lap. Félix da Costa ran deep heading into the first turn and excessive oversteer throughout his lap left him in third. Frijns, suffering similar problems to his teammate, followed in fourth, and Turvey was the third group's slowest competitor.
Bird set the fastest overall lap in the fourth group at 1 minute, 22.012 seconds, four-tenths of a second faster than the second-placed Heidfeld. Di Grassi, Abt and Prost were the fourth group's three slowest participants. At the end of group qualifying, the lap times set by Bird, Rosenqvist, Vergne, Heidfeld and di Grassi advanced them to super pole. Rosenqvist clinched his third pole position of the season with a 1-minute, 22.344 seconds lap. He was joined on the grid's front row by Bird who appeared to go fastest by improving in the first sector but drifted in turn seven and voiced his disappointment over the radio. Vergne gained most of his time in the first sector and was clean for the rest of his lap for third. Despite complaining about his state of his brakes, Heidfeld took fourth. Di Grassi locked his rear brakes entering the first turn and oversteered through the corner. He did not regain any time and started fifth. After qualifying, Prost was demoted twenty places on the grid because he changed his battery and inverter following a car bay fire after the first race. However, Prost did not take the full penalty, and began from the pit lane with ten seconds added to his race time. After the penalty was applied, the rest of the field lined up as Abt, Dillmann, Piquet, Sarrazin, d'Ambrosio, López, Duval, Buemi, Félix da Costa, Frijns, Turvey, Evans, Engel, Carroll and Prost.
### Race
The weather at the start were dry and warm with an air temperature ranging from 27.05 to 27.75 °C (80.69 to 81.95 °F) and a track temperature between 30.55 and 31.10 °C (86.99 and 87.98 °F). When the second race started at 16:00 local time, Rosenqvist steered left to keep the lead ahead of the battling Bird and Vergne going into the first corner. Di Grassi pressured Heidfeld but a sudden loss in speed fell him behind Dillmann. Sarrazin made contact with Abt and Piquet in the first turn, and spun, creating a small traffic jam in which all cars got through. As the field concertinaed through the first corner, Robin Frijns hit the right-rear corner of Buemi's car, causing Buemi's right rear wheel guard to detach and flail in the wind. Although the loose bodywork piece came off, Buemi was shown a black flag with an orange disc, requiring him to enter the pit lane to mend car damage. López moved from eleventh to seventh by the end of the first lap, while Sarrazin's incident dropped him ten places over the same distance. At the end of the first lap, Rosenqvist led Vergne, Bird, Heidfeld, Dillmann, di Grassi, López, Abt, d'Ambrosio and Duval.
Buemi gained two positions before entering the pit lane, and voiced his anger over the radio. Because the loose bodywork part had fallen off, Buemi was stationary in his pit stall for only a few seconds and rejoined in 19th, ahead of teammate Prost. D'Ambrosio passed Abt for eighth but the latter regained the position after driving through the next few turns. Heidfeld overtook Bird to take over the third position and Dillmann began to battle the latter. At the front, Rosenqvist and Vergne pulled clear from Bird and Heidfeld. With both e.Dams drivers running at the rear of the pack, the team faced a predicament of pushing to secure the Teams' Championship or for Buemi to retake the Drivers' Championship. After ten laps, Vergne duelled Rosenqvist for the lead as the latter had more electrical energy to use than the latter ahead of him but could not find any space to move in front. Heidfeld and Bird backed themselves into Dillmann's path, prompting him to apply his brakes early and allowing López to challenge for third position. Heidfeld then slowed, allowing the Virgin duo of Bird and López to overtake him.
The mandatory change for drivers to switch into their second cars began on lap 18 when Engel and Piquet entered the pit lane. Rosenqvist followed on the next lap with Vergne, López and the Audi Sport ABT duo of di Grassi and Abt opting to remain on track for another lap to allow them to run without aerodynamic turbulence affecting their cars. Di Grassi's strategy of staying out for one extra lap did not work as his pit stop lasted two seconds slower than the agreed minimum pit stop time, and emerged in tenth place, behind his teammate Abt. Piquet duelled with di Grassi and the latter retained tenth position. Abt then ceded ninth position to his teammate di Grassi. Prost led the field for one lap before making his pit stop. After the pit stops, Rosenqvist retook the lead and was five seconds ahead of Vergne. The time gaps in the field had extended significantly and most drivers attempted to again close up to their rivals. Both Audi Sport ABT drivers had been unable to make huge progress through the field, improving e.Dams-Renault's chances of retaining the Teams' Championship. However di Grassi and teammate Abt overtook d'Ambrosio and drew closer to the battling Venturi cars of Engel and Dillmann. Di Grassi passed Dillmann on lap 27 and Buemi used his FanBoost to take 15th from Frijns.
Di Grassi forced Engel into a driving error and passed him for sixth. Vergne had drawn close to race leader Rosenqvist and took advantage of him lifting and coasting to overtake him without trouble for first heading towards turn three on the 29th lap. Vergne's higher top speed allowed him to pull away quickly from Rosenqvist. Prost entered the pit lane with a mechanical problem. However, he recorded the race's fastest lap beforehand, completing a circuit in 1 minute, 23.444 seconds on the previous lap for one championship point. Bird lost third place to his teammate López after a closely contested battle that saw both drivers collide. Both Audi Sport ABT drivers continued to draw closer to Heidfeld. With two laps remaining, Frijns tried to pass Duval but they made contact and Duval ended his race in a barrier. Yellow flags were waved in the area but the safety car was not deployed. López caught Rosenqvist in the race's final laps but could not pass him.
Vergne held the lead for the remainder of the race to take his first Formula E victory after eight podium finishes in the preceding three seasons. It was Vergne's first motor racing victory since the 2011 Formula Renault 3.5 Series round at Circuit Paul Ricard. Rosenqvist took second, eight-tenths of a second behind with López third. Off the podium, Bird took fourth and Heidfeld fifth. Abt moved into sixth on the final lap, and teammate di Grassi finished seventh to secure his first Drivers' Championship. Sarrazin came back through the field to take eighth. D'Ambrosio and Dillmann rounded out the top ten. Buemi, Evans, Frijns, Carroll and Félix da Costa. Piquet, Turvey, Engel and Duval were the final finishers. Di Grassi became the third champion in the history of Formula E and the second Brazilian after Piquet in the 2014–15 season. There were four lead changes in the race; three drivers reached the front of the field. Rosenqvist's total of 25 laps led was the most of any competitor. Vergne led twice for a total of 11 laps.
### Post-race
The top three drivers appeared on the podium to collect their trophies and spoke to the media in a later press conference. Vergne was happy with his maiden victory, calling it "extremely satisfying" as he endured a difficult season and it would improve his team's confidence in the future, "There were mistakes as a team but nevertheless, to get second places, double podiums and then a win today is an amazing feeling." He stated the win would put Techeetah's personnel in a positive state of mind and would return for the following the season as a stronger force in the series. Rosenqvist revealed that Bird was his main rival over the race weekend and his focus was to secure third place in the Drivers' Championship. Nevertheless, he was delighted to finish third in his rookie season because he believed it showed the effort of his team Mahindra. Third-place finisher López spoke of his pleasure finishing there following his first race retirement because he immediately noitced changes to his car and had been frustrated qualifying did not give him the opportunity to demonstrate it.
Newly crowned champion di Grassi said of his title success, "This journey, this day started three years ago when we started season one, and then we got a lot of good results. I arrived in London fighting for the championship, even though I got disqualified from winning a race. Season two, the same situation, even got disqualified from winning a race. Finally I came here as an underdog, 10 points behind and had the nerves to keep calm, I did the job yesterday and today managed to win it also. I'm so happy for my team, so happy for the ABT Schaeffler Audi Sport guys, they really deserve it." He later claimed to have not given up hope in winning the championship despite a competitive field and retiring from the Paris ePrix, but also admitted focusing on Formula E after Audi's withdrawal from the World Endurance Championship at the end of 2016 helped him. While Buemi admitted to being disappointed over losing the championship, he congratulated di Grassi on his title win, and stated him missing the New York City races was not an excuse in his defeat. Regarding his pit stop early in the race, Buemi chose not to judge if the stewards were correct and admitted to not knowing about the regulation requiring him to enter the pit lane if his car was damaged.
The result secured di Grassi the Drivers' Championship with 181 points. Buemi, in second place, was 24 points behind with Rosenqvist the best of the rookie drivers in third on 127 points. Bird took fourth, and Vergne's victory secured him fifth place. e.Dams-Renault became the Teams' Champions for the third consecutive year on 268 points; Audi Sport ABT finished 20 points behind in second, and Mahindra were a further 33 points adrift in third position. Virgin consolidated fourth on 190 points and Techeetah was fifth with 156 points. 45,000 people attended the two-day event. Despite insisting the race could not be held elsewhere in the city, Corderre later conceded the 2018 edition was at risk of being relocated due to nearby construction. Future ePrix in Montreal were cancelled by new mayor Valérie Plante in December, citing rising costs to the tax payer.
### Standings after the race
- Bold text indicates the Champions.
Drivers' Championship standings
Teams' Championship standings
- Notes: Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings.
## Classification
### Qualifying one
Notes:
- — Sébastien Buemi was demoted ten places because of a battery change.
- — Nico Prost was demoted to the rear of the super pole field for an underweight car in Super Pole.
### Race one
Drivers who scored championship points are denoted in bold.
Notes:
- — Three points for pole position.
- — One point for fastest lap.
- — Sébastien Buemi was disqualified for an underweight second car.
### Qualifying two
Notes:
- — Nico Prost was handed a twenty-place grid penalty for changing his inverter and battery.
### Race two
Drivers who scored championship points are denoted in bold.
Notes:
- — Three points for pole position.
- — One point for fastest lap.
- — Nico Prost had ten seconds added to his race time.
|
497,711 |
M-78 (Michigan highway)
| 1,167,108,070 |
State highway in Michigan, United States
|
[
"Interstate 69",
"State highways in Michigan",
"Transportation in Barry County, Michigan",
"Transportation in Calhoun County, Michigan",
"Transportation in Eaton County, Michigan"
] |
M-78 is a state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan. The western terminus is the intersection with M-66 north of Battle Creek in Pennfield Township. The roadway runs 10.744 miles (17.291 km) through rural farmland and the community of Bellevue as it approaches its eastern terminus at an interchange with Interstate 69 (I-69) near Olivet. The highway is used by between 3,100 and 5,300 vehicles on a daily basis.
When the state highway system was signed in 1919, M-78 followed a similar routing. At Bellevue, it turned northeast to terminate at Charlotte. In the 1920s, the highway was extended southerly to the Indiana state line near Sturgis and northeasterly into the Lansing area. In the 1930s, M-78 was extended further on its northern and eastern end to Flint. The highway was converted into a freeway in sections starting in the 1960s. During that decade, the southern extension from the 1920s was removed from M-78 and added to other state highways, and in the 1970s, the northeastern extensions, now mostly freeways, were removed from M-78 as well. Two special routes were created as a result of the various reroutings in the Lansing area, both of which are no longer part of the state highway system.
## Route description
M-78 begins at an intersection with M-66 in Pennfield Township, north of Battle Creek in Calhoun County. The trunkline passes through rural farm lands as it runs due east and northeast. It briefly crosses the southeast corner of Barry County as it enters Eaton County. There M-78 follows Battle Creek Highway past some small ponds and into the town of Bellevue. The trunkline becomes Capitol Avenue in town and turns south onto Main Street in the middle of the central business district. M-78 crosses a branch line of the Canadian National Railway before leaving town. Main Street turns easterly and becomes Butterfield Highway. M-78 crosses the Battle Creek River before terminating at I-69's exit 48 in Bellevue Township.
M-78 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation (MDOT) like other state highways in Michigan. As a part of these maintenance responsibilities, the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadways under its jurisdiction. These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic, which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway. MDOT's surveys in 2010 showed that the highest traffic levels along M-78 were the 5,256 vehicles daily on Capitol Avenue in Bellevue; the lowest counts were the 3,176 vehicles per day in Calhoun County. No part of M-78 has been listed on the National Highway System, a network of roads important to the country's economy, defense, and mobility.
## History
When the original state highway system was designated c. July 1, 1919, M-78 ran along a route similar that of today. It started north of Battle Creek at a junction with then M-79 and cut through the corner of Barry County to Bellevue, but it turned northeasterly to end at Charlotte at a junction with M-29. By 1927, M-78 was extended southward, replacing M-79 to the Indiana state line, connecting with State Road 9 (SR 9) south of Sturgis. At the same time, a northerly addition extended the highway concurrently along US Highway 27 (US 27) to Dewitt and then solo to a junction with M-47 near Pittsburg. The section north of Lansing was changed in 1929. The section from Dewitt Pittsburg was redesignated M-104, and M-78 was extended through East Lansing to Haslett. By 1936, the highway was extended all the way into Flint to end at M-21. Around the same time, a second routing through downtown Lansing for US 27/M-78 was designated along Capitol Avenue; the former route along Main, Kalamazoo and Larch streets and Grand Avenue was given the Truck M-78 designation.
In the latter half of 1941 or the beginning of 1942, a section of the concurrent M-78/M-86 was rerouted west of Colon in St. Joseph County. In 1950, the bridge across the Grand River on Main Street was completed; after completion, the mainline M-78 was routed over the bridge and up Larch Street, replacing Truck M-78 in the process. The former car-only route on Capitol Avenue was removed from the state highway system. By the middle of 1960, the first section of freeway along M-78 was opened in the Lennon area. The next year, the freeway had been extended as far southwest as Durand from the end at Lennon. By the start of 1962, M-78 was a freeway from Perry at the junction with M-47 all the way to Swartz Creek near Flint.
On December 12, 1962, the I-96 freeway was completed around the south and west sides of Lansing, and a year later, the I-496 freeway was completed north into downtown from I-96. M-78 was rerouted from the I-96/US 27 interchange southwest of Lansing east along I-96 and then north on I-496. From there, M-78 followed the one-way pairing of Homer and Howard streets from the northern end of the freeway up to the one-way couplet of Saginaw Street and Grand River Avenue, returning to its previous routing. The former route through downtown along US 27 was redesignated Business M-78 (Bus. M-78) at the same time.
M-66 was extended southerly from Assyria through Battle Creek to the Indiana state line replacing sections of M-78 in 1965. The US 127 freeway was completed from Mason north to Lansing in 1966, adding the US 127 designation along the I-496/M-78 freeway. The next year, M-78's freeway was extended eastward to I-75/US 10/US 23 in Flint. The US 127/M-78 freeway was extended north of I-496 in 1969, and a discontinuous section of M-78 freeway east of Flint was completed around the same time frame. In 1970, the I-496 freeway was completed and the Bus. M-78 designation was removed through Lansing. In 1972, the highway was rerouted to run east of Bellevue to Olivet instead of northeast to Charlotte. The next year, all of M-78 northeast of Olivet was removed when I-69 between Charlotte and I-96 southwest of Lansing was completed; this truncation produced the modern routing of M-78 in the state.
## Major intersections
## Related routes
### Truck route
Truck M-78 was a former truck route through the city of Lansing. It started at the corner of Capitol Avenue and Main Street and ran along Main Street to Grand Avenue. There, it turned north on Grand Avenue to Kalamazoo Street and turned east on Kalamazoo over the Grand River. At Larch Street, Truck M-78 continued north to rejoin the mainline at the corner of Larch and Saginaw streets.
By the middle of 1936, the US 27/M-78 routing through Lansing was split into two. The mainline was restricted to cars only and moved to run along Capitol Avenue. The former routing was restricted to trucks only and designed as a truck route. In 1950, the bridge for Main Street over the Grand River was completed and mainline US 27 was rerouted to use it to connect to Larch Street. From there north, US 27/M-78 followed Larch Street supplanting the truck route, which was decommissioned at that time.
### Business route
Business M-78 (Bus. M-78) was a business loop through the city of Lansing. It ran from an interchange between US 27/M-78 and I-96 on the southwest side of Lansing along US 27 (Lansing Road) into downtown. From there, it ran east on Main Street and north on Larch Street. At Saginaw Street, Bus. M-78 turned east to reconnect to M-78.
The business loop was created in 1963 when M-78 was rerouted along the newly completed sections of the I-96 and I-496 freeways in the Lansing area. The designation was decommissioned in 1970 when I-496 was completed through downtown Lansing.
## See also
|
4,605,776 |
Pueblo speech
| 1,170,860,617 |
1919 speech by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson
|
[
"1919 in Colorado",
"1919 in international relations",
"1919 in politics",
"1919 in the United States",
"1919 speeches",
"League of Nations",
"Speeches by Woodrow Wilson"
] |
The Pueblo speech was an address in favor of the League of Nations, given by US President Woodrow Wilson on the afternoon of September 25, 1919, in Pueblo, Colorado. It was the last of a series of speeches he gave advocating American entry into the League of Nations. In front of a crowd of over 3,000 people, Wilson delivered a speech that was over 6,100 words long. Shortly afterwards, he collapsed and the tour was prematurely ended. The speech is sometimes considered to have been a moving performance, but has also been noted for its attacks on "hyphenated Americans". The historian John Milton Cooper deemed it "the closing lines of one of the greatest speaking careers in American history."
## Background
In the wake of the settlements agreed at the 1919 Paris Peace Conference, Woodrow Wilson, the President of the United States, began an effort to convince the United States Congress to ratify both the treaty and to approve American participation the League of Nations, which Wilson had proposed as part of his Fourteen Points. In 1919, Wilson embarked on a speaking tour of the Western United States, arguing in favor of ratification of the Covenant of the League of Nations and responding to criticisms of it. In a "crusade" that historian Leroy G. Dorsey describes as "one of the most dramatic political events of the twentieth century", Wilson traveled 8,000 miles (13,000 km) over the course of 22 days and gave forty speeches. This seriously strained his health.
As the trip progressed, Wilson became increasingly inflamed and dramatic over the issue as he spoke in locations like Salt Lake City, Utah, and Cheyenne, Wyoming, at one point threatening to kill himself if the treaty was ratified with "reservations".
## Speech
Wilson delivered a speech in Denver on the morning of September 25, which was enthusiastically received by the general public. He left Denver at 11:00 a.m. for Pueblo, Colorado. A contemporary newspaper described the crowd as "a great many", noting that attendance at the Colorado State Fair was much higher as people turned out to hear Wilson speak. Before his speech there had been speculation Wilson would face steel workers who were on strike in Pueblo, but the strikers did not affect his visit. When Wilson arrived, he visited the fairgrounds where an estimated 10,000 people had gathered to see him.
That day, Wilson "could hardly see" because of a bad headache. He told Cary T. Grayson, his aide, that "this will have to be a short speech" shortly before delivering it. Wilson gave his speech inside the Pueblo Memorial Hall, to a crowd of over 3,000 people. He dedicated the hall in memory of soldiers who died during World War I. Former Colorado Governor Alva Adams introduced Wilson.
Wilson began speaking after 3:00 p.m. and was greeted by cheers which reportedly lasted for ten minutes. The speech he gave was 6,152 words long and summarized what he had said across the tour but added little new insight. He urged the audience to "sweep aside all this language of jealousy" and echoed Theodore Roosevelt by saying "we have got to adopt or reject it [the Covenant of the League of Nations]. There is no middle course." He warned the audience of how militarized America might become if it did not join the League and ended by proclaiming that America has seen "the truth of justice and of liberty and peace. We have accepted that truth, and we are going to be led by it, and it is going to lead us, and, through us, the world out into pastures of quietness and peace such as the world has never dreamed of before." Joseph Patrick Tumulty, Wilson's secretary, wrote that he was "like a great organist playing on the heart emotions of the thousands of people who were held spell-bound by what he said." William Allen White, an early biographer of Wilson, described him as crying while he gave the speech. Hogan argues that the speech saw "name-calling and threats" substituted for "reasoned explication of the treaty."
One of the most famous lines from the speech attacked "hyphenated Americans", saying "Any man who carries a hyphen about with him carries a dagger that he is ready to plunge into the vitals of this Republic whenever he gets the chance."
## Legacy and analysis
Although Wilson was scheduled to speak at least five more times on the tour, after delivering his speech in Pueblo he was described as "very tired and suffering". He collapsed at 10 p.m. that night and the remainder of the tour was cancelled upon his doctor's orders. In early October Wilson had a stroke. He was essentially incapacitated for the remaining two years of his presidency, and died in 1924. The Pueblo speech was the last speech Wilson delivered and the last time he publicly spoke to the American people on a large scale. Whitman later said that it "would have been better" if he had died immediately after giving the Pueblo speech. Historian John Milton Cooper notes that the speech represents "the closing lines of one of the greatest speaking careers in American history." The United States never joined the League of Nations.
The speech is generally considered Wilson's "most moving" from the tour, and has developed into what Hogan considers "the legend of Pueblo." For instance, the 1944 film Wilson includes a liberal depiction of the speech, embellishing its circumstances and content. The historian Thomas A. Bailey considered it "the high point of the entire trip". Cooper considered the Pueblo speech to be "one of his best performances of this part of the tour." The politician Daniel Patrick Moynihan wrote that it was "as moving as anything in the language of the American presidency" and "[a] speech from the cross." The scholar J. Michael Hogan, in his book on Wilson's tour, noted that Wilson "lashed out" at critics of his plan and feels that it "betrayed" Wilson's principles, threatened to destroy bipartisan support, and "foreshadowed some of the worst tendencies of the modern rhetorical presidency."
Mark Stein's play Mr. Wilson's Peace of Mind includes a fragment of the speech. In a 1979 review of the play, a critic for The Washington Post described Wilson's vision of world peace that was presented in the Pueblo speech as "highly unpresidential, rather foolish, and yet genuinely moving."
|
1,396,417 |
Interstate 840 (Tennessee)
| 1,171,420,688 |
Highway in Tennessee
|
[
"Auxiliary Interstate Highways",
"Beltways in the United States",
"Interstate 40",
"Interstate Highways in Tennessee",
"Transportation in Dickson County, Tennessee",
"Transportation in Hickman County, Tennessee",
"Transportation in Rutherford County, Tennessee",
"Transportation in Williamson County, Tennessee",
"Transportation in Wilson County, Tennessee"
] |
Interstate 840 (I-840), formerly State Route 840 (SR 840), is a freeway that serves as an outer bypass route around Nashville, Tennessee. Built by the Tennessee Department of Transportation (TDOT), it is also designated as Tennessee National Guard Parkway. At 77.28 miles (124.37 km) long, it is the tenth-longest auxiliary Interstate Highway in the nation. The route serves the cities of Lebanon, Murfreesboro, Franklin, and Dickson, all suburbs of Nashville.
First proposed by former Governor Lamar Alexander as part of a system of Bicentennial Parkways, I-840 was constructed between 1991 and 2012. The highway was originally planned as an Interstate Highway but was constructed entirely with state funds and initially designated as a state route for this reason. In 2015, the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) and the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) approved TDOT's request to redesignate SR 840 as I-840 as part of its integration into the Interstate Highway System. On August 12, 2016, TDOT announced that the route had officially been renamed I-840 and that resigning work would begin.
## Route description
I-840 begins at an interchange with I-40 in Dickson County southeast of Dickson and Burns. It initially runs southeast through a rural area, passing through a mix of farmland and woodlands characterized by a terrain made up of rolling hills, the eastbound lanes briefly gaining a truck climbing lane. The highway crosses into Hickman County about five miles (8.0 km) later. The route remains in Hickman County for less than 1.5 miles (2.4 km) before crossing into Williamson County and reaching an interchange with SR 100 about one mile (1.6 km) later. I-840 continues through a predominantly rural area over the next five miles (8.0 km), alternating between farmland and woodlands before transitioning into a region characterized by dense woodlands, rolling hills with moderate grades, and several streams and creeks. About two miles (3.2 km) beyond this point, I-840 reaches SR 46 at an interchange near the community of Leiper's Fork. About three miles (4.8 km) later, I-840 crosses the Natchez Trace Parkway and gradually turns east, continuing through similar terrain. After about seven miles (11 km), I-840 passes through flat terrain consisting primarily of farmland and woodlands over the next approximately eight miles (13 km) before briefly entering a suburban area south of Franklin and coming to an interchange with U.S. Route 31 (US 31, Columbia Pike). About two miles (3.2 km) beyond this point is an interchange with US 431 (Lewisburg Pike). Less than one mile (1.6 km) later, I-840 comes to an interchange with I-65 that resembles a combination interchange, containing two loop ramps and two underpass ramps that cross I-840 combined.
After this interchange, I-840 crosses a steep hill and continues through terrain consisting of several rolling hills, some with relatively steep grades, and crosses the Harpeth River about eight miles (13 km) later. Three miles (4.8 km) later, I-840 comes to an interchange with U.S. Route 31 Alternate (US 31A) and US 41A near the community of Triune. About three miles (4.8 km) later, I-840 crosses SR 96 at the top of a large hill and begins a steep downgrade; the westbound lanes utilize a truck climbing lane over a short distance to ascend the hill from the east. It then crosses into Rutherford County, entering a more flat terrain and another suburban area, and, about eight miles (13 km) later, I-840 comes to an interchange with I-24 northwest of Murfreesboro. This interchange is almost a complete cloverleaf, containing three loop ramps and one flyover. The route then turns northeast, traveling through a relatively flat region with little elevation change and interchanges with US 41 and US 70S in a combination interchange about two miles (3.2 km) later. About 0.75 miles (1.21 km) later, I-840 crosses the west fork of the Stones River, gradually turning northwest. About four miles (6.4 km) later, the highway turns sharply northeast and crosses the east fork of the Stones River about one mile (1.6 km) beyond this point. About 1.5 miles (2.4 km) later, I-840 shifts north and, another 1.5 miles (2.4 km) later, crosses the Fall Creek impoundment of J. Percy Priest Lake. A short distance later is an interchange with the western terminus of SR 452 (Bill France Boulevard). I-840 then crosses into Wilson County less than one mile (1.6 km) later and has an interchange with SR 109 about six miles (9.7 km) beyond this point. The route then turns northeast and, about 3.8 miles (6.1 km) later, reaches its eastern terminus with I-40 west of Lebanon.
## History
### Planning and construction
The route that is now I-840 had its origins in the 1975 Tennessee Highway System Plan issued by TDOT for the next four years, which first identified the need for an outer beltway around Nashville by 1995. The I-840 project was initiated in 1986 with the passage of the Better Roads Program by the Tennessee General Assembly. This program, which had been proposed and spearheaded by then-governor Lamar Alexander, increased the state's gasoline and diesel taxes to fund six new freeway projects and a backlog of 15 projects that had been labeled as top priorities, as well as other projects. I-840 was the largest of these six freeway projects, dubbed "Bicentennial Parkways", and was initially expected to cost \$351 million (equivalent to \$ in ). While initially referred to as I-840 in the state plan, the highway was constructed entirely with state transportation funds and was officially designated as a state route. The 1986–1987 state budget contained the initial funding for the project. Planning work began in 1988, and the alignment for the first section was announced in December of that year. Survey and design work began in 1989, and the alignment for the remainder of the route was announced in January 1990. Planners considered using SR 396, a short controlled-access connector between US 31 and I-65 in Spring Hill, for part of I-840, but ultimately chose a location about six miles (9.7 km) to the north. The first contract for construction was awarded on August 2, 1991, and work progressed in stages.
The first section of I-840, located between I-40 in Lebanon and Stewart's Ferry Pike, opened on August 2, 1995. The segment between Stewart's Ferry Pike and I-24 near Murfreesboro was completed on November 21, 1996. On November 30, 2000, the section between I-24 and US 31A/US 41A near Triune was opened. The portion between US 31A/US 41A and US 431 (Lewisburg Pike) near Franklin, including the interchange with I-65, opened on October 18, 2001. The section between I-40 near Dickson and SR 100 opened on December 5, 2002. Due to high costs and environmental concerns, the proposed northern half of I-840 was indefinitely placed on hold in 2003. The short segment between US 431 and US 31 (Columbia Pike) opened to traffic on September 9, 2005.
Construction of the majority of I-840 was met with very little controversy. As work moved into predominantly rural southwestern Williamson County, however, a group of landowners opposed to the route began a movement to stop its construction in 1997. Between the late 1990s and mid-2000s, these landowners, spearheaded by singer-songwriter Gene Cotton, filed complaints and eventually lawsuits in an effort to have TDOT address both environmental and aesthetic issues, considerably slowing work on the segment between SR 100 and US 31. A number of criticisms were also made about TDOT's handling of the construction of the route, such as an accusation that they chose to construct I-840 as a state route to avoid federally required environmental studies. TDOT awarded the first contract for the segment between SR 100 and SR 46 on June 14, 2002, but additional litigation forced TDOT to completely cease work on this segment three months later. As a result of these lawsuits, TDOT chose to slightly modify the design and employ new construction methods on the remaining sections the following year. These changes included construction of bridges over streams feeding the South Harpeth River instead of culverts; multiple wildlife underpasses; and designation of the remaining sections as a scenic highway, which prohibits billboards and uses brown powder-coated guardrail. A proposed interchange at Leiper's Creek Road was also canceled. As part of the redesign, TDOT formed a citizen's resource team, made up of nine local residents who worked with TDOT to select the final designs and alignment of these stretches.
On February 9, 2006, TDOT announced that the realignment of the final segment of I-840 had been chosen and that work on the unfinished sections would proceed. The first contract for construction of the segment between SR 100 and SR 46 was reawarded on June 1, 2007, and construction on I-840 resumed the following month. This segment opened on October 27, 2010. The contract for the segment between Leiper's Creek Road and US 31 was awarded on December 12, 2008, and, on February 19, 2010, TDOT awarded the final construction contract for I-840, the segment between SR 46 and Leiper's Creek Road. These two segments, the final 14.2 miles (22.9 km) of I-840, were opened on November 2, 2012. The project took 26 years to complete and cost \$753.4 million (equivalent to \$ in ).
### Northern loop
TDOT was first authorized to begin studies for a northern loop of I-840 north of Nashville and past Dickson, Clarksville, Springfield, and Gallatin by the state legislature in 1993. Environmental studies began in 1994 and a draft environmental impact statement (DEIS) was released in 1995. On July 12, 1996, TDOT announced their first proposal for the northern section's alignment. Many residents in the predominantly rural and agricultural areas where the route was to pass were initially opposed. An entire circular loop would possibly be about 187 miles (301 km) long, with the northern segment ranging from 86 to 116 miles (138 to 187 km). Other important objections against additional extensions of I-840 include the hilly nature of the terrain north of Nashville (the Highland Rim), which would require huge and costly amounts of excavation, soil relocation, and bridge construction. In addition, the state was experiencing budget problems at the time, which would have further complicated the funding for such a project. On October 31, 2003, TDOT placed the northern loop plan on indefinite hold, citing a lack of documented transportation needs and lack of participation from local politicians. The western terminus of I-840 contains a very short unused extension, constructed in anticipation of the northern segment.
### Redesignation
TDOT first submitted a request to the FHWA to redesignate SR 840 as I-840 in November 1991. This was withdrawn two months later after it was chosen to construct the entire route with state funds.
In 2015, TDOT submitted a request to AASHTO to redesignate SR 840 as I-840. Though the application had an error that required TDOT to refile it, AASHTO conditionally approved it and submitted it to the FHWA for their approval. The FHWA approved the change on July 22, 2015, and AASHTO finalized their approval on September 25, 2015. TDOT announced on August 12, 2016, that it would start replacing the signs to change over the designation the week of August 14 and that the project would be completed by the end of the year at a cost of \$230,000 (equivalent to \$ in ).
### Tennessee National Guard Parkway
In 2005, the Tennessee General Assembly passed legislation designating I-840 as the "Tennessee National Guard Parkway". Since 2007, the state has named bridges on I-840 in honor of members of the Tennessee National Guard killed in the global War on Terror.
## Exit list
## See also
|
13,063,926 |
River Don Navigation
| 1,171,012,301 |
Waterway navigation in South Yorkshire, England
|
[
"1751 establishments in Great Britain",
"Canals in Doncaster",
"Canals in Rotherham",
"Canals in Sheffield",
"Canals opened in 1751",
"Former toll bridges in England",
"Ouse catchment",
"River navigations in the United Kingdom",
"Viaducts in England"
] |
The River Don Navigation was the result of early efforts to make the River Don in South Yorkshire, England, navigable between Fishlake and Sheffield. The Dutch engineer Cornelius Vermuyden had re-routed the mouth of the river in 1626, to improve drainage, and the new works included provision for navigation, but the scheme did not solve the problem of flooding, and the Dutch River was cut in 1635 to link the new channel to Goole. The first Act of Parliament to improve navigation on the river was obtained in 1726, by a group of Cutlers based in Sheffield; the Corporation of Doncaster obtained an Act in the following year for improvements to the lower river. Locks and lock cuts were built and by 1751 the river was navigable to Tinsley.
The network was expanded by the opening of the Stainforth and Keadby Canal in 1802, linking to the River Trent, the Dearne and Dove Canal in 1804, linking to Barnsley, and the Sheffield Canal in 1819, which provided better access to Sheffield. All three were bought out by the Don Navigation in the 1840s, after which the canals were owned by a series of railway companies. The Sheffield and South Yorkshire Navigation Company was created in 1889 and eventually succeeded in buying back the canals and the Don Navigation in 1895, but plans for expansion were hampered by a lack of capital. One success was the opening of the New Junction Canal in 1905, jointly funded with the Aire and Calder Navigation.
During the 20th century, there were several plans to upgrade the Don, to handle larger craft. It was eventually upgraded to take 700-tonne barges in 1983, but the scheme was a little too late, as an anticipated rise in commercial traffic did not occur. Most use of the navigation is now by leisure boaters, whose boats are dwarfed by the huge locks. The navigation and river are crossed by a wide variety of bridges, from a medieval bridge complete with a chapel on it, one of only three to have survived in Britain, to a motorway viaduct that pioneered the use of rubber bearings and a new waterproofing system. In between are a number of railway bridges, including two that were built to carry the internal railway system at the Blackburn Meadows sewage treatment plant. The former railway viaduct at Conisbrough now carries cyclists 113 feet (34 m) above the Don, as part of the National Cycle Network.
The final section to Bramwith is known as the River Dun Navigation.
## Early history
Before 1626 the River Don had two outlets, an eastern branch that meandered across Hatfield Chase to enter the River Trent, and a northern branch, which was a Roman navigation channel, and joined the River Aire at Turnbridge, near East Cowick. Cornelius Vermuyden's drainage scheme for Hatfield Chase, begun in 1626 and largely completed by 1628, included the construction of Ashfield Bank, which ran for 2 miles (3.2 km) along the southern bank of the Don from Fishlake to Thorne, cutting off the eastern branch. Navigation to Sandtoft was made possible by the provision of a navigable sluice in the bank, which had lifting gates and a 50-by-15-foot (15.2 by 4.6 m) lock chamber. A further bank some distance to the east of the northern channel ran for 5 miles (8 km) from Thorne to Turnbridge to provide washlands, which would flood when high levels in the Aire prevented the Don discharging into it.
In the winter of 1628, there was flooding at Fishlake and Sykehouse, which was followed by rioting. A navigable sluice was built at Turnbridge in 1629, with a lock 60 by 18 feet (18.3 by 5.5 m), and an outfall sluice called the "Great Sluice" was completed in 1630, probably by Hugo Spiering, who had assisted Vermuyden with the main project. Continued problems with flooding led to the construction of a 5-mile (8 km) channel from Newbridge near Thorne eastwards to Goole, where water levels in the Ouse were between 5 and 10 feet (1.5 and 3.0 m) lower than at Turnbridge. The channel, called the Dutch River, ended in another outfall sluice, and was completed in 1635 at a cost of £33,000. Boats continued to use the lock at Turnbridge. In about 1688 the Goole sluice was washed away by a flood, and was never replaced. The tidal scour widened the channel, and barges of up to 30 tonnes could normally reach Fishlake, and often Wilsick House, in Barnby Dun. Smaller boats could reach Doncaster for most of the year, and large barges could do so when there was a flood tide.
Initial attempts to seek powers to make the River Don navigable were hampered by opposition from local landowners and disunity between the authorities in Sheffield, Rotherham and Doncaster. The first Act of Parliament was presented in 1698 by the MP for Thirsk, Sir Godfrey Copley of Sprotborough, representing the interests of Rotherham. Although there was support from the "gentlemen, traders and inhabitants" of Doncaster, the Corporation opposed the Bill in view of the likely impact on their mills. There was no support from Sheffield either, and the Bill failed at its first reading. In 1704 Doncaster Corporation, with the support of its traders, presented a Bill that received a first reading, but disappeared without a second reading ever happening. By 1722 there was some agreement between Sheffield and Doncaster, with a tacit agreement that Doncaster would be responsible for the river below their town, and Sheffield for the section above Doncaster. There was organised resistance to the scheme from local landowners, and it appears that their influence resulted in the proposed bill being defeated in committee, so it could not be presented to Parliament.
However, in 1726 Sheffield's Company of Cutlers sought parliamentary approval to make the river navigable from Holmstile in Doncaster to Tinsley, on the edge of Sheffield. Terminating at Tinsley placated the Duke of Norfolk, who represented the opposition from Sheffield, and a great deal of work had been done to reduce the opposition from landowners. The Act of Parliament was passed on 6 May 1726 giving the Cutlers powers to make cuts and to make the river deeper and wider so that boats of 20 tons could reach Tinsley. There were a number of restrictions, intended to protect existing water-powered installations. Lord Frederick Howard's mills at Rotherham, Kilnhurst forge, Thrybergh dam and Sprotborough mills and water engine were specifically mentioned.
The Corporation of Doncaster sought powers in 1727 to improve the river below Holmstile, as far as Wilsick House in Barnby Dun. The bill passed through Parliament uneventfully, and again included detailed restrictions on what could and could not be done, designed to protect the landowners. The details were very specific in that they included the permissible heights of dams, the maximum length of cuts, and many other details of the work to be carried out.
Both Acts were unusual in that they gave the bodies powers to borrow money, but did not create the companies to do the work. Nor were the financial arrangements clearly laid down, and both groups resorted to issuing shares to fund the improvements, although they were not actually empowered to do so. In October 1730, the two groups decided to amalgamate, but a 1731 Act to formalise the agreement and legalise the issuing of shares was defeated because it also included powers to make further changes to the river, including the section below Barnby Dun. Finally an Act of 1733 created the Company of the Proprietors of the Navigation of the River Don, with powers to create a new cut from Bromley Sands above Rotherham to Ickles Dam. The problems presented by the river below Wilsick House, including shallows and fords at Bramwith and Stainforth, and bridges on the Dutch River that were difficult to navigate, resulted in the proprietors trying again to obtain powers to improve the lower river in 1737, but again the petition was defeated in a parliamentary committee. Work continued, and it appears that Aldwarke was the head of navigation for some years, but Rotherham was reached in 1740.
A further Bill in 1740 sought powers to improve the river from Barnby Dun to Fishlake Ferry. Despite serious opposition, which included the merchants and traders of Doncaster as well as Doncaster Corporation, the Bill was passed, giving the company new powers to make the river deeper and create a cut to avoid the shallows at Stainforth and Bramwith. Work on this northern section started almost immediately. The southern section to Tinsley was navigable by 1751, although the wharf and warehouse had not been completed by that date, and the towpath from Rotherham was not completed until 1822.
In 1737, the navigation was leased to three of the company shareholders for 14 years, and a new 7-year lease was made in 1751. After 1758, the company managed the navigation itself. Tolls for the next 10 years raised an average of £7006 per annum, indicating healthy traffic levels.
## Expansion
The early 19th century saw the completion of a number of canals which linked to the Don. The first was the Stainforth and Keadby Canal, which had been proposed by the Don Navigation shareholders in 1792. Construction was started in 1793 and completed in 1802, with John Thompson, the engineer to the Don Navigation Company, overseeing the work until his death in 1795. It provided a link from Bramwith Lock to the River Trent, broadly following the old course of the River Don prior to Vermuyden's improvements. Two years later, the Dearne and Dove Canal opened, connecting with the Barnsley Canal near Barnsley. The canal had also been proposed by Don Navigation shareholders in 1792, and again John Thompson had overseen the initial construction. The third opening was in 1819, when the Sheffield Canal connected the Tinsley terminus to the centre of Sheffield. There were several plans to create a link to the Chesterfield Canal, including one in 1793 by Benjamin Outram, and a proposal by Richard Gresley in 1810 for a North East Junction Canal, which would have linked to the Don at Rotherham, broadly following the modern ideas for the Rother Link. Neither of these, nor a revival of the idea in 1832 gained sufficient support to proceed.
The Company bought out the Dearne and Dove Canal in 1846, the Sheffield Canal in 1848, and the Stainforth and Keadby Canal in 1849. They then amalgamated with the South Yorkshire, Doncaster and Goole Railway in 1850, to become the South Yorkshire Railway and River Dun Company. This in turn was leased to the Manchester, Sheffield and Lincolnshire Railway in 1864. In order to allow an extension of the railway from Mexborough to Sheffield to pass under the railway line to Rotherham Westgate railway station, the Holmes cut below Ickles lock was diverted into the river, and the Eastwood cut below Rotherham lock was diverted to the east in 1864. The original bed was then filled in and the railway built along its course. Despite attempts to divert coal traffic to the railway, the canals maintained their traffic levels, carrying 982,000 tonnes in 1878 and 927,254 in 1888. However, there was dissatisfaction among users of the canals that the rates for traffic were higher than on the railways, and the canals were failing to modernise, as steam boats were banned, despite them having been in use for 50 years on the neighbouring Aire and Calder Navigation.
A plan to upgrade the waterways to allow the use of 300 to 500-tonne boats led to the formation of the Sheffield and South Yorkshire Canal Company Limited in November 1888. The cost of the scheme was estimated to be around £1 million, in addition to the cost of acquiring the canals from the railway company. The new company obtained an Act of Parliament on 26 August 1889, creating the Sheffield and South Yorkshire Navigation Company, which was authorised to raise £1.5 million and to purchase the four canals either by negotiation, or by compulsory purchase if negotiations failed. The railway company was unwilling to sell, and it was not until 1895, after protracted negotiation and legal battles that the transfer was agreed. The Navigation Company had only succeeded in raising £625,000, which was less than the purchase price of the canals, and therefore the railway company nominated half of the ten directors, while the Aire and Calder Company declined to buy any shares because of railway influence. Many of the ambitious plans for the modernisation of the system were hindered by a lack of capital, although some further developments took place.
One improvement that was completed was the construction of the New Junction Canal. This had been authorised by an Act of Parliament obtained on 28 July 1891 by the Aire and Calder Navigation, which specified that the Sheffield and South Yorkshire Navigation Company would share the cost of construction and the ownership of the new waterway. No work could start until the company actually owned their canals, and they were required to raise £150,000 at a time when they had just failed to raise the finance for the takeover of the original canals. However, three-quarters of the cost had been raised by 1903. The new canal leaves the original navigation at Bramwith Junction, runs over the River Don on an aqueduct, and continues in a straight line for 5.5 miles (8.9 km), to join the Aire and Calder Navigation upstream from Goole. It provided a much more direct route from Sheffield to Goole, and was opened on 2 January 1905. The company had hoped to run compartment boats for the transport of coal along the canal, as the Aire and Calder did, but although straightening of the navigation was completed at Doncaster in April 1905 and at Sprotborough in late 1907, and Doncaster Town Lock was lengthened in 1909 and 1910, most of the locks could only hold three compartments at a time, and so there was little advantage to using this type of boat.
## Later developments
Towards the end of the First World War, Sheffield City Council proposed a major upgrade of the navigation. They expected the government to nationalise the waterway, and pay for the improvements, to which they would contribute, providing that the railway influence was removed. The scheme involved deepening the channel from 6 feet (1.8 m) to 8 feet (2.4 m), and constructing 18 new locks which would be 270 by 22 feet (82.3 by 6.7 m), to replace the existing 62-by-16-foot (18.9 by 4.9 m) locks. The locks would have multiple gates, and be capable of holding four 110-tonne barges or one 300-tonne barge. The estimated cost was £1,483,426, but the government was unwilling to support the scheme, and Sheffield City Council was not prepared to proceed without government backing.
During the inter-war years the navigation struggled to hold its own against competition from the railways and later the roads, and was affected by miners' strikes in the coal industry. Traffic was spasmodic, rising from 381,727 tonnes in 1926, the year of the general strike, to 815,329 tonnes in 1937, but much of the latter was short-haul traffic, rather than long-haul, and the revenues did not increase correspondingly. In an agreement with Hatfield Main Colliery and the Aire and Calder, Bramwith Lock on the Stainforth and Keadby Canal was lengthened in 1932, to allow compartment boats to be used for the coal traffic, while straightening of a stretch near Doncaster and the construction of a new warehouse and wharf were largely funded by Doncaster Corporation in 1934. Stainforth Side Lock, which allowed boats to access the lower River Don, was closed in 1939.
The major traffic on the navigation had always been coal, but after the Second World War there was a steady increase in oil traffic. By 1946, all of the mortgages that the company had used to fund expansion were repaid, and the financial position of the canal gradually improved. Control of the navigation, as with most British canals, passed to the British Transport Commission on 1 January 1948, under the terms of the Transport Act (1947). Some improvements continued to be made, with two coal wharfs being built at Mexborough in 1954, to serve the new Doncaster power station, and Long Sandall Lock being extended to 215 by 22 feet (65.5 by 6.7 m). The new lock was opened on 10 July 1959, and allowed trains of 17 compartment boats to work through to Doncaster and Hexthorpe, as Doncaster Town Lock above it and Sykehouse Lock below it on the New Junction Canal were already of a similar size.
In 1961, the British Transport Commission, together with the British Iron and Steel Federation and Sheffield Chamber of Commerce considered plans to upgrade the navigation to handle 250-tonne barges, and work started on new wharfs and warehouses at Rotherham. Control of the navigation passed on again in 1963, this time to the British Waterways Board, who submitted a proposal to the government for a £2.5 million upgrade, covering the stretch from Bramwith to Rotherham. This would have involved the construction of ten new locks, each 225 by 25 feet (68.6 by 7.6 m), to replace the existing 12 locks. The new main line would then have been the same size as the Aire and Calder Navigation, although some of the bridges would have had less clearance. In 1972, a further proposal for a £2 million scheme to upgrade the waterway to handle 700-tonne barges up to Mexborough, and 400-tonne barges from there to Rotherham was submitted to the Department of the Environment.
Finally, the navigation was the subject of one of the last major attempts in the UK to attract commercial freight to the waterways. In 1983, it was upgraded to the 700-tonne Eurobarge standard by deepening the channels and enlarging the locks as far as Rotherham. Conisbrough lock was removed altogether, and the two Eastwood locks were combined into one. The new lock was initially named the Sir Frank Price Lock, after the chairman of the British Waterways Board who formally opened it on 1 June 1983. The expected rise in freight traffic did not occur, however. At Kilnhurst and Long Sandall, the new larger locks were built alongside the original locks, and so a comparison of the relative sizes can be made.
The new locks are 198 by 20 feet (60.4 by 6.1 m), and the navigation accommodates boats with a draught of 8.2 feet (2.5 m) and needing headroom of 10.5 feet (3.2 m). Beyond Rotherham, the locks are 70 by 15.1 feet (21.3 by 4.6 m), and so can accommodate a 70 feet (21 m) broad boat, but Rotherham lock is smaller, being only 61.5 feet (18.7 m) long, and so the upper reaches are effectively restricted to 60-foot (18 m) boats.
## Route
The River Don Navigation ended at Tinsley Wharf, but it forms a convenient place to start a description of the route. The wharf was on the river, just upstream from the present junction with the canal to Sheffield. It was close to the site of the Meadowhall Shopping Centre and the Tinsley Viaduct, which carries the M1 motorway over the valley of the River Don. From here there is a towpath along the canal to Victoria Quays (formerly Sheffield Basin) in Sheffield City Centre, or the Five Weirs Walk follows the course of the River Don to the same destination. The towpath extends to Rotherham in the opposite direction, passing the large Jordans Weir and the three locks on the Holmes Cut. Beside Jordans Weir is the outfall from Blackburn Meadows sewage treatment plant. In dry weather, this discharges 30 million gallons (136,000 m<sup>3</sup>) of treated water each day, more than doubling the flow in the river.
The towpath continues to Rotherham Lock, where the Rotherham cut starts, but from here to Conisbrough, the only way to see the navigation is from a boat or from one of the bridges which cross it. To the north of the cut are the remains of the Greasbrough Canal, now culverted under the embankment of the A633 road. Eastwood lock marks the end of the Rotherham Cut, to be followed by Aldwarke Lock, in the shadow of the A6123 road bridge, and Kilnhurst flood lock, which marks the start of the Kilnhurst Cut. In Swinton, the stub of the Dearne and Dove Canal turns off to the left, and there are three more locks before the cut ends. Immediately following this, the River Dearne flows into the Don, and the towpath resumes, where the Dearne Way footpath ends.
The route continues through a wooded valley, past the site of the Sprotborough Flash Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI), with the towpath forming part of the Trans Pennine Trail. Sprotborough lock and weir are situated just before Sprotborough. Just below the lock on the north bank are the remains of an engine house, built in the 1690s for Sir Godfrey Copley of Sprotborough Hall. A water wheel pumped river water some 100 feet (30 m) upwards to supply a fountain in the grounds of the hall, a swimming pool, and also provided a water supply for the village. The pump was powered by a water wheel which was removed in the 1970s. Soon the edge of Doncaster is reached, where amongst the railway marshalling yards, the River Don leaves the navigation for the final time, as does the towpath. The two weir streams flow either side of Doncaster prison, effectively forming an island on which the building sits. Doncaster Town Lock is situated close to Doncaster railway station, and between here and Long Sandall Lock, some of the changes which have occurred over the years can be visualised, with the river on the left and ox-bow lakes on the right, severed by the course of the Wheatley Cut. The final section to Bramwith is usually called the River Dun Navigation. At Bramwith, the waterway splits, with the New Junction Canal heading north-east for the Aire and Calder Navigation and Goole, and the Stainforth and Keadby Canal heading east to the River Trent at Keadby. The River Don heads northwards too, turning to the east where the Dutch River starts at Newbridge. The original course to the River Aire can be traced across the fields, now little more than a drainage ditch crossed by an oversized Grade II listed bridge on the A1041 at East Cowick, and Vermuyden's embankments are closely followed by the A614 road after it has crossed the M18 motorway.
## Structures
This section provides details of some of the many bridges crossing the Don Navigation, in west-to-east order, starting from Tinsley.
### Tinsley and Rotherham area
#### MS&L railway bridge
This bridge, which is located a little below the junction of the Sheffield Canal and the river, carries the Sheffield to Rotherham freight-only railway line. The railway, which opened in 1868, was originally part of the Manchester, Sheffield & Lincolnshire Railway, which later became part of the Great Central Railway. Between this railway bridge and Jordan Bridge, there are two bridges carrying pipes.
#### Jordan Bridge
Called "Jordan Bridge 21" by British Waterways, this bridge carried a railway that linked Blackburn Meadows Sewage Works to additional filters and contact beds to the east of the navigation. It was constructed by Logan and Hemmingway, who won a contract valued at £41,046 in April 1907, which included six settling tanks, 24 contact beds, and the bridge. The eastern approach consists of three brick arches, which allowed a siding to pass through it. Continued expansion of the works required a second bridge to be constructed in 1922, to carry the railway over the river channel. The steelwork for Holmes bridge was supplied by Charles Ross Ltd, who were based in Sheffield, while piling work was carried out by Yorkshire Hennebique Concreting Co Ltd.
#### Holmes Lock Bridge
This carries Steel Street – a minor road linking the Blackburn Meadows Nature Reserve Car Park with Holmes. The bridge still has railway tracks embedded in part of the cobbled road surface. The tracks were part of a network of sidings which served the Holmes Rolling Mills on the north bank of the navigation, and the bridge provided access to a crushing plant situated on the island formed by the course of the river to the south and the Holmes Cut to the north.
#### Midland Railway bridges
The western of the two railway bridges was built in 1869, but the line it carried was truncated by the building of the Holmes Chord in the 1980s, and it is now unused. The eastern of the two bridges was built in 1840 as part of the North Midland Railway. This carried the "main line" from Derby to York until the diversion via Bradway and Sheffield was opened in 1870. The line is now freight-only.
#### Lockhouse Bridge
Just east of Ickles Lock, this is actually two bridges. The western bridge carries the continuation of Millmoor Lane and the eastern the ex-MS&L freight-only line between Tinsley and Rotherham Central.
#### Centenary Way bridge (south)
This carries the Centenary Way dual carriageway over the navigation, which has now been re-joined by the River Don. The road (A630) is an upgrading of the old Canklow Road and is the main access into Rotherham from the M1. It also forms part of the Rotherham Ring Road which was begun about 1968, actually only goes half way around town, was built in sections and completed in 1995. The towpath of the navigation (part of the Trans-Pennine Trail) is carried on a walkway that is cantilevered over the Don from the retaining wall of the factory site to the north.
#### Corporation Bridge
This single-span metal bridge carries Main Street over the navigation. Slightly upstream of this bridge was a wooden railway bridge with seven arches, built in 1838, that took the Sheffield and Rotherham Railway into Westgate Station. It was demolished in 1952. Prior to the re-routing of the canal in 1864, the Westgate line crossed the Holmes cut a little further to the west by a three-arched bridge, the centre arch of which was 36 feet (11 m) long and was made of iron.
#### Rotherham Lock footbridge
This footbridge provides pedestrian access to the Court House from Forge Island, which was once the site of an iron works but is now occupied by Tesco's. The River Don separates from the navigation above Forge Island, and there is a road and pedestrian bridge across the river into Forge Island.
#### Bridge Street Bridge (Chantry Bridge) and Rotherham Bridge
Bridge Street Bridge (Chantry Bridge) is a single-span metal bridge that carries Bridge Street over the navigation. The street continues eastwards and originally crossed the river at Rotherham Bridge. As originally constructed in 1483 the bridge had four arches and was 15-foot (4.6 m) wide, but it was widened and a fifth arch added in 1768. In 1930 a new bridge was built nearby, a little further upstream, and as part of the work, the fifth arch was removed and the bridge was returned to its Medieval width. Because of improvements to the river made in the 18th and 19th centuries, it is wider than it used to be, and the bridge no longer reaches the west bank. The chapel on the bridge is one of only three complete bridge chapels that still exist in Britain, the other two being at Wakefield, West Yorkshire, and St Ives, Huntingdonshire. Dating from about 1483, it remained in use as a chapel until the reign of King Edward VI (1547–1553). It was put to use as almshouses during the 17th and 18th centuries, and in 1779 it was used as a prison. Later, it became a private dwelling and finally a tobacconist's shop, before being returned to its original use as a chapel; it was formally reconsecrated in 1924 by the Bishop of Sheffield, and restoration of the interior took place in 1980.
#### Centenary Way bridge (north)
This carries the Centenary Way dual carriageway over the navigation.
#### Greasbrough Road Bridge
The Greasbrough Road is no longer a main road and only serves local businesses. Downstream of this bridge are 3 pipe bridges.
#### Rawmarsh Road Bridge
Called “Rotherham Rawmarsh Road Bridge 39” by British Waterways, this bridge carries the A633 Rotherham Road (from Rotherham to Parkgate). The A633 crossing of the River Don is called Grafton Bridge.
#### Eastwood Footbridge
This carries the public footpath from the Eastwood area of Rotherham to the Parkgate Retail Park. When the Rotherham Cut section of the Don Navigation was constructed in 1740, the crossing was by means of a swing bridge. This was replaced by the current footbridge in the late 1900s. To the south of Eastwood Footbridge is a bailey bridge crossing of the River Don.
#### Wash Lane Bridge
This bridge is situated immediately downstream of Aldwarke Weir and upstream of Aldwarke Lock. It was rebuilt in 1834. In more recent times, it has been superseded by the A6123 (Aldwarke Lane) road bridge spanning both river and navigation. The bridge is now gated at both ends to prevent access to pedestrians and traffic.
#### Steelworks access (road) bridge
This provides access to the two steelworks from the A630 road at Dalton.
#### Don (rail) Bridge
This forms part of the internal rail network of the two steelworks. It was constructed in 1901 as part of what was called locally John Brown's Private Railway. This railway connected the Silverwood and Roundwood Collieries of John Brown & Company with wharves on the Don Navigation. The girder bridge crossing the Don Navigation was the main engineering work on this railway line. It was built by Newton, Chambers & Company.
#### Thrybergh (rail) Bridge
This carried the former Great Central and Midland Railways' joint line across the River Don. This line was double track. It was essentially a colliery line and never carried a regular passenger service.
### Kilnhurst and Mexborough area
#### Kilnhurst Station Road Bridge
This is bridge number 46 and conveys the road to Hooton Roberts. The bridge over the Navigation adjoins the bridge over the railway. The bridge over railway is original, but that over the Navigation is a modern replacement. The "Station" in the name Station Road refers to the Kilnhurst Central (Great Central) Station rather than the Kilnhurst West (Midland Railway) Station.
#### Kilnhurst Burton Ings Bridge
This is bridge number 47 and conveys a service road over the Navigation and railway. At this point on the west side of the Navigation, there was a large tar distillation works and it is probable that this road connected that works with a tip or further chemical plant on the east side. The tar distillation works was built by Ellison & Mitchell in 1886 and became part of the Yorkshire Tar Distillers group in 1927.
#### Swinton Talbot Road Bridge
This is bridge number 48 and connects the main road in Swinton (A6022 Bridge Street and Rowms Lane) with an industrial estate whose principal unit is the Morphy Richards distribution centre.
#### Mexborough Double Bridges
This is named "Double Bridges and Footbridge 49A" by the Canal & River Trust. The bridge carries a footway and double-track railway over the Navigation. This section of the Navigation must have represented quite a challenge for full-size barges to negotiate since the bridges are immediately adjacent to a right-angle bend in the canal.
#### Mexborough Station Road Bridge
This is bridge number 52 and carries the access road to Mexborough railway station from the A6023 Greens Way (and the town centre).
#### Mexborough BBCS Flour Mill
This imposing building (and associated wharf) stands on the north side of the Navigation close to the Church of St John the Baptist. It started off as the "Don Roller Mills". It was owned by James White who sold it to the Barnsley British Cooperative Society in 1912.
### Conisbrough and Warmsworth area
#### Conisbrough Earth Centre Bridge
This is named "Cadeby Colliery Bridge 57" by the Canal & River Trust because it once provided a road access to Cadeby Colliery from the south. From 1999 to 2004, the bridge provided the main access to the ill-fated Earth Centre visitor attraction. The bridge now forms part of public access from Conisbrough Station to the main (west-east) section of the Trans Pennine Trail. There are two pipe bridges just upstream of the road bridge.
#### Conisbrough Viaduct
Conisbrough Viaduct was built in the first decade of the 20th century as part of the Dearne Valley Railway. This was a line which essentially served a coalfield, although there was a rudimentary passenger service between 1912 and 1951. The remaining coal traffic on the line ceased in 1966. The viaduct has 21 arches and was built from 12 million Conisbrough blue bricks. The central metal span is 150 feet (46 m) long and crosses the Don at a height of 113 feet (34 m). The viaduct remained out of use until 2001, when ownership was transferred to Railway Paths Ltd, who manage potentially useful railway structures until they can be incorporated into the National Cycle Network. Installation of a new deck surface and safety railings were funded by the Railway Heritage Trust in early 2008, and the viaduct re-opened as part of the Sustrans network in April 2008.
#### Rainbow Bridge
Built in 1849 as part of the South Yorkshire Railway, which later became part of the Great Central Railway, the Rainbow bridge is still in use and carries the Swinton to Doncaster railway line.
#### Sprotbrough Bridge
Sprotbrough Bridge is actually two bridges that carry Mill Lane, the southern one crossing the weir stream and the northern one crossing the lock cut. Replacing a ferry crossing of the river, the first bridge and associated toll house were built in 1849 for Sir Joseph William Copley of Sprotbrough Hall. The designers of the southern bridge were Benjamin Brundell and William Arnold, and the present structure has three segmental arches on each side, which originally formed the approaches to a central arch. The arch was replaced by an above-deck truss in 1897. The ironwork was manufactured by Newton Chambers & Co. Ltd., who were based at Thorncliffe Ironworks in Sheffield, as recorded by plates attached to the bridge. The northern bridge was a single-arched masonry structure, which has been replaced by a plate girder bridge resting on the original piers. The toll house, consisting of a single storey with a half basement, made of dressed sandstone with an asphalt roof, still survives on the northern bank of the lock cut. Tolls collected here for passage over Sprotbrough Bridge were said to have been given by the Copley family to the Doncaster Dispensary.
#### A1 Don Viaduct
The A1 Don Viaduct carries the A1(M) motorway over the river; it was opened by Ernest Marples, the Minister of Transport, on 31 July 1961. It consists of two separate structures, one for each carriageway, each having seven spans. The longest span, formed from two 40-foot (12 m) cantilevers and a suspended central span of 100 feet (30 m), carries the motorway over the river at a height of 70 feet (21 m). The total length of the structure is 760 feet (230 m), and it has a slight horizontal and vertical curve at its southern end. Five riveted steel girders and a 9-inch (23 cm) composite concrete deck support each carriageway. The bridge was one of the first to use rubber bearings, and the first to use bitumen membranes lined with copper to make the decks waterproof. The design includes jacking points to compensate for mining subsidence.
#### Warmsworth railway viaducts
There are two railway viaducts at Warmsworth. The western one was completed in 1914 and formed part of the Hull & Barnsley and Great Central Joint Railway. This was essentially a railway to serve the coalfield and was closed in 1958. For some years after closure, the viaduct was used to carry a conveyor belt over the Don. It became part of the Doncaster spur on the Trans-Pennine Trail, which was officially opened in 2001. The steel pillars supporting the viaduct are filled with limestone. Its construction, which uses an above-deck truss, contrasts with the below-deck truss of the eastern viaduct, which was completed in 1910 and formed part of the Great Central Railway. It still carries a freight-only line that avoids a crossing on the level of the East Coast Main Line at Doncaster Station.
### Doncaster Town area
#### Newtons Farm Footbridge
Two bridges situated side-by side, one made of concrete and the other a wooden bridge, cross one of the two weir channels where the river leaves the navigation before Doncaster Town Lock.
#### Cheswold Hauling Bridge
Cheswold Hauling Bridge, also known as Cheswold High Bridge, is a footbridge on the navigation towpath, which crosses the second of the two weir streams where the river leaves the navigation upstream of Doncaster Town Lock. The small section of river between the footbridge and where it rejoins that part of the River Don that left the navigation at Newtons Farm footbridge is called the River Cheswold, reputedly the shortest river in Great Britain.
#### North Bridge and St Marys Bridge
North Bridge Road is carried over the railway and then the navigation at Doncaster Town Lock by North Bridge, and over the Don by St Mary's Bridge. North Bridge Road was previously part of the Great North Road. Until 1910, this crossed the railway on the level before crossing the Don Navigation. After 1910, a lengthy iron bridge took the road over the railway, navigation and river. This bridge was replaced by the current North Bridge in 2003. Its use was restricted to buses, taxis, cyclists and pedestrians from the time the new St George's Bridge opened, until 2015, when all northbound traffic was allowed to use the bridge again to help with congestion problems on St George's Bridge. South bound traffic still carries the same traffic restrictions. The new bridge was constructed over the top of the old one while it was still in situ. Once the old bridge had been stripped of its surface trimmings the deck was cut up into 25-tonne sections, which were suspended from the new structure. A pulley system was used to transport these sections along the underside of the new bridge, so that they could be lowered onto the towpath, where they were cut up further before removal from the site.
#### Railway bridges
Below the North Bridge, the six railway tracks north of Doncaster Station cross the Don Navigation on three separate bridges. This section of tracks is known as Marshgate Junction and is where the lines to Leeds, York and Thorne diverge.
#### Friars Gate Bridge
This bridge provides access across the navigation from the centre of Doncaster to the small businesses and car parks on the "island" between the river and navigation.
#### St George's Bridge
St George's Bridge is one of the newest bridges over the Don. It carries the dual carriageway New Bridge Road, part of the A19, which is now the main road north out of Doncaster. It was opened on 22 November 2001, and was named St George's Bridge as a result of a public competition. It consists of a 690-yard (630 m) long steel-composite bridge with spans of 49 yards (45 m) over the River Don, the East Coast Main Line, and the Don Navigation. The ladder beam layout, using two main plate girders, cross-girders at 13 feet (4.0 m) centres and precast planks, was chosen both to optimise the deck and to minimise the size and number of the piers.
#### Chappell Drive Bridge
This bridge provides access across the navigation from the centre of Doncaster to the small businesses situated on the "island" between the river and navigation. It is situated immediately north of the Hub campus of Doncaster College. Going downstream, there is a gap of some 5 miles (8 km) before the next public road crossing of the navigation at Barnby Dun.
### Barnby Dun area
#### Kirk Sandall Railway Bridge
This bridge conveys the (ex-Great Central Railway) Doncaster-to-Hull railway over the Navigation. The bridge consists of two single-span decks, both with above deck trusses. The older south deck (pictured here) is no longer used. The north deck accommodates both tracks of what is now a double-track railway. The quadruple track from Thorne Junction on this line now finishes at Kirk Sandall Junction, a few hundred metres to the east. A further bridge to the west conveys the railway over the River Don.
#### Kirk Sandall Pipe Bridge
At this point, the Navigation runs parallel to, and a few metres to the south-east of, the River Don. A pipe bridge high above both the Navigation and the River once carry waste from the glass works which adjoined the towpath (to the south-east) across to a series of settling ponds (to the north-west). The glass works was a major employer in the Kirk Sandall area. The St Helens-based Pilkington Bros established a plate glass works here in the early 1920s. The site was chosen for its proximity to the canal and railway, and for the sandy terrain which was needed for the production of glass. Pilkingtons also funded the building of 400 new houses in the Brecks Lane area, together with associated school and recreational facilities. The glass works closed in the 1990s and its site is now occupied by various units on an industrial estate.
#### Barnby Dun Lift Bridge
This was built in 1983 to replace the original (1900) swing bridge. It is built of steel and powered by electricity. The replacement work cost £0.5 million and was part of a wider upgrade of the Navigation to conform to the 700-tonne Eurobarge standard (see Later Development section of this article). An elevated control house was built for the sole use of operational staff, but in recent years a freestanding low level standard control console has been built for the use of boaters when the bridge is not staffed. Sykehouse Lift Bridge (downstream of Barnby Dun) was built to the same technical specification. The structure is sturdier than might be expected for a bridge that carries an unclassified road linking Barnby Dun and Bentley, but it was the only way for abnormal loads to access the nearby Thorpe Marsh power station, so the bridge was designed for loads of up to 180 tons gross weight. Although Thorpe Marsh Power Station has now been demolished, the bridge is still busy with road traffic. This is because it is one of the few crossings of the Navigation in this area.
## Points of interest
## See also
- Canals of Great Britain
- History of the British canal system
- River Don, South Yorkshire, for information on that (non-navigable) part of the River Don, west of Tinsley.
- Earl Fitzwilliam's private railway
|
4,003,970 |
Kenya at the 2006 Winter Olympics
| 1,054,123,211 | null |
[
"2006 in Kenyan sport",
"Kenya at the Winter Olympics by year",
"Nations at the 2006 Winter Olympics"
] |
Kenya sent a delegation to compete at the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin, Italy, from 10–26 February 2006. This was Kenya's third time participating in a Winter Olympic Games. The Kenyan delegation consisted of one athlete, cross-country skier and three-time Olympian Philip Boit. In his only event, he finished 91st in the men's 15 kilometre classical.
## Background
The National Olympic Committee of Kenya was recognised by the International Olympic Committee on 1 January 1955. They have competed at most Summer Olympic Games since then and through 2016 have won exactly 100 medals at Summer Olympiads. Their first Winter Olympics participation, however, only came in the 1998 Winter Olympics, and Kenya was making its third Winter Olympic appearance in Turin. Kenya has never won a Winter Olympics medal. The Kenyan delegation was the first to check in at the Turin Olympics. The 2006 Winter Olympics were held from 10–26 February; a total of 2,508 athletes representing 80 National Olympic Committees took part. The delegation consisted of a single athlete, cross-country skier Philip Boit. He was the flag bearer for both the opening ceremony and the closing ceremony. Boit was Kenya's only Winter Olympian until Sabrina Simader competed at the 2018 Winter Olympics, a games at which he served as chef de mission.
## Cross-country skiing
Philip Boit, who had gained international recognition after placing last in the 1998 Winter Olympics, competed in his third Olympics as Kenya's sole representative. Boit was a runner in his native Kenya, who had been scouted by American sportswear company Nike, who wished to train runners as cross-country skiers. In 1998, Boit finished the 10 kilometer classical race in a time of 47 minutes and 25.5 seconds, 20 minutes behind Bjørn Dæhlie, the gold medalist; delaying the medal ceremony, Dæhlie remained at the finish line to congratulate Boit. Boit saw snow only two years before his Olympic debut in 1998, and later named his first child after Dæhlie. He was 26 years old at the time of the Turin Olympics. On 17 February, Boit finished the 15 kilometre classical in a time of 53 minutes and 32.4 seconds, which put him in 91st place out of 96 classified finishers. The gold medal was won by Andrus Veerpalu of Estonia in 38 minutes and 1.3 seconds, the silver by Lukáš Bauer of the Czech Republic and bronze was taken by Tobias Angerer of Germany. When Kenya next qualified for a Winter Olympics, in 2018, Boit was one of the coaches and said of the athlete Sabrina Simader, "Being the pioneer of skiing in Kenya, I am glad that my legacy continues as Simader heads to South Korea."
Distance
## See also
- Kenya at the 2006 Commonwealth Games
|
43,996,254 |
Little Catawissa Creek
| 1,138,897,480 |
Tributary of Catawissa Creek, Pennsylvania
|
[
"Rivers of Columbia County, Pennsylvania",
"Rivers of Pennsylvania",
"Rivers of Schuylkill County, Pennsylvania",
"Tributaries of Catawissa Creek"
] |
Little Catawissa Creek is a tributary of Catawissa Creek in Columbia County and Schuylkill County, in Pennsylvania, in the United States. It is approximately 10.8 miles (17.4 km) long and flows through Conyngham Township in Columbia County and Union Township and North Union Township in Schuylkill County. The named tributaries of the creek include Stony Run and Trexler Run. The creek has some alkalinity and is slightly acidic. The main rock formations in the watershed of it are the Mauch Chunk Formation, the Pocono Formation, and the Pottsville Formation. A number of other rock formations occur in small areas of the watershed as well. The main soils in the watershed are the Leck Kill soil and the Hazleton soil.
The watershed of Little Catawissa Creek has an area of 16.70 square miles (43.3 km<sup>2</sup>). A number of bridges cross the creek. There are a number of major roads in the watershed of the creek and most of the creek is within several hundred meters of a road. The creek is a High-Quality Coldwater Fishery and Class A Wild Trout Waters in some places. In other places, it is a Coldwater Fishery and Class D Wild Trout Waters. There are many species of fish inhabiting the creek, including brook trout, brown trout, and others. The creek has been surveyed at least nine times by the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission.
## Course
Little Catawissa Creek begins in a narrow valley in Conyngham Township. It flows east for a few miles in the valley, flowing roughly parallel to Aristes Ringtown Road. The creek eventually exits Conyngham Township and Columbia County.
Upon exiting Columbia County, Little Catawissa Creek enters Union Township, Schuylkill County. It continues east and its valley becomes narrower and shallower. Over the next several miles, the creek turns east-northeast and its valley gets broader again. It then turns abruptly north and passes through a ridge. The creek briefly turns northeast before turning north-northeast after a few hundred feet. Approximately a mile downstream, it receives its first named tributary, Trexler Run. At this point, the creek turns abruptly east-northeast. After some distance, it begins meandering northeast for a few miles, receiving the tributary Stony Run. It then begins meandering east for a few miles, briefly entering North Union Township, Schuylkill County before reentering East Union Township. Shortly afterwards, the creek turns north-northeast, crosses into North Union Township again. A few tenths of a mile downstream, it reaches its confluence with Catawissa Creek.
Little Catawissa Creek joins Catawissa Creek 24.24 miles (39.01 km) upstream of its mouth.
### Tributaries
Little Catawissa Creek has a number of tributaries. These include Stony Run, Trexler Run, and an unnamed tributary known as "Trib 27584 To Little Catawissa Creek". Trexler Run flows through Roaring Creek Township, Columbia County and Union Township, Schuylkill County. Stony Run flows through Union Township, Schuylkill County. Stony Run joins Little Catawissa Creek 1.96 miles (3.15 km) upstream of its mouth. Its watershed has an area of 2.24 square miles (5.8 km<sup>2</sup>). Trexler Run joins Little Catawissa Creek 4.24 miles (6.82 km) upstream of its mouth. Its watershed has an area of 3.81 square miles (9.9 km<sup>2</sup>).
## Hydrology
Little Catawissa Creek is infertile in its upper reaches, from its headwaters to T431, 8.10 miles (13.04 km) upstream of its mouth. The creek is infertile and slightly acidic from T431 to T435 (8.10 miles (13.04 km) upstream of the mouth to 2.90 miles (4.67 km) upstream of the mouth). When the waters of the creek flow into Catawissa Creek, they help offset some of the acidity of the latter creek, contributing to relatively high water quality downstream of the confluence.
At 8.90 miles (14.32 km) above its mouth, the concentration of alkalinity in Little Catawissa Creek is 2 milligrams per liter (7.2×10<sup>−8</sup> lb/cu in) milligrams per liter. The pH of the creek at this location is 6.4. The creek at this location is infertile and acidic, with the potential to be affected by acid precipitation. Between T431 and T435, the creek's concentration of alkalinity ranges from 10 to 13 milligrams per liter (3.6×10<sup>−7</sup> to 4.7×10<sup>−7</sup> lb/cu in) and its pH ranges from 6.8 to 7.0. The concentration of water hardness in the creek's waters 8.90 miles (14.32 km) upstream of its mouth is 16 milligrams per liter (5.8×10<sup>−7</sup> lb/cu in). 5.40 miles (8.69 km) upstream of its mouth, the water hardness is 28 milligrams per liter (1.0×10<sup>−6</sup> lb/cu in) and 3.85 miles (6.20 km) upstream of its mouth it is 22 milligrams per liter (7.9×10<sup>−7</sup> lb/cu in). The water hardness of the creek's waters 2.90 miles (4.67 km) upstream of its mouth is 24 milligrams per liter (8.7×10<sup>−7</sup> lb/cu in).
At 1:00 P.M. on June 26, 1997, the air temperature in the vicinity of Little Catawissa Creek 8.90 miles (14.32 km) upstream of its mouth was 28 °C (82 °F). The water temperature of the creek at this place and time was 19.8 °C (67.6 °F). At 12:40 P.M. on June 27, 1997, the air temperature near the creek was 28 °C (82 °F) and the water temperature was 21.0 °C (69.8 °F). At 3.85 miles (6.20 km) upstream of the creek's mouth, the air temperature was 24 °C (75 °F) and the water temperature was 18.4 °C (65.1 °F) on June 27, 1997 at 11:00 A.M. At 11:10 A.M. on June 30, 1997, the air temperature of the creek 2.90 miles (4.67 km) upstream of its mouth was 27 °C (81 °F) and the water temperature was 17.1 °C (62.8 °F).
The specific conductivity of the waters of Little Catawissa Creek is 80 micro-mhos 8.90 miles (14.32 km) upstream of its mouth. The specific conductivity of the creek's waters 5.40 miles (8.69 km) and 3.85 miles (6.20 km) upstream of its mouth is 86 and 76 micro-mhos respectively. The specific conductivity 2.90 miles (4.67 km) upstream of its mouth is 80 micro-mhos.
## Geography and geology
The elevation near the mouth of Little Catawissa Creek is 833 feet (254 m) above sea level. The elevation of the creek's source is between 1,360 feet (410 m) and 1,380 feet (420 m) above sea level.
Little Catawissa Creek flows over rock of the Mauch Chunk Formation for its entire length. Most of the rest of the watershed is also on this rock formation. However, other rock formations also occur in the watershed. A substantial area of the Pocono Formation can be found in the northwestern part of the watershed and large areas of rock of the Pottsville Formation occupy portions of the southern and western parts of the watershed. Small areas of the Spechty Kopf Formation and the Buddys Run Member of the Catskill Formation are found in the northwestern part of the watershed.
Little Catawissa Creek flows over Leck Kill soil for most of its length. However, its headwaters are on Hazleton soil. Additionally, the westernmost and southernmost parts of the watershed are on Hazleton soil, as is the northwestern part of the watershed.
Little Catawissa Creek is flanked by areas prone to flooding between the point where it enters Schuylkill County and its mouth. The tributary Stony Run also flows through some areas prone to flooding and a few areas near Trexler Run are susceptible to flooding as well. Other small areas prone to flooding are scattered throughout the watershed of the creek.
Between the headwaters of Little Catawissa Creek and T431, the width of the creek is 3.0 meters (9.8 ft) wide. Between T431 and T435, the creek is 5.3 meters (17 ft) wide and between T435 and the creek's mouth, its width is 6.2 metres (20 ft). The gradient of the creek upstream of T431 is 20.8 meters per kilometer (110 ft/mi). The gradient between T431 and T435 is 5.6 meters per kilometer (30 ft/mi) and the gradient between T435 and the mouth of the creek is 7.7 meters per kilometer (41 ft/mi) meters per kilometer.
There is a flooded strip mine in the western part of the watershed of Little Catawissa Creek. The headwaters of the creek are on a mountain known as Big Mountain. The creek is a freestone stream.
## Watershed
The watershed of Little Catawissa Creek has an area of 16.70 square miles (43.3 km<sup>2</sup>). Most of the watershed is in Union Township, Schuylkill County. However, substantial portions are in Conyngham Township, Columbia County and Columbia County. Smaller parts of the watershed are in southern North Union Township, Schuylkill County and western Ringtown, also in Schuylkill County.
Major roads in the watershed of Little Catawissa Creek include Zion Grove Road, Little Mountain Road, and Aristes Road. Additionally, Pennsylvania Route 42 traverses the western edge of the creek's watershed. Between its headwaters and T431, none of the creek's length is within 100 metres (330 ft) of a road, but all of its length is within 300 metres (980 ft) of a road. Between T431 and T435, 29 percent of the creek's length is within 100 metres (330 ft) of a road, 66 percent is within 300 metres (980 ft) and 81 percent is within 500 metres (1,600 ft). Between T435 and the creek's mouth, 21 percent of the creek's length is within 100 metres (330 ft) of a road, 40 percent is within 300 metres (980 ft) of one, and 66 percent is within 500 metres (1,600 ft) of one.
In 1990, the population density of the upper reaches of the watershed of Little Catawissa Creek was 30 people per square kilometer. The population density in the middle reaches of the creek's watershed was 40 people per square kilometer and the density in the lower reaches of the watershed was 31 people per square kilometer. The creek is completely closed to public access between T435 and its mouth.
There are large areas of agricultural land in the middle reaches of the watershed of Little Catawissa Creek, but most of the agricultural operations in the watershed are relatively small. The main areas of residential development in the watershed are the communities of Aristes and Ringtown. The Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection has issued four mining permits in the watershed of the creek. All of these permits are for mining on a ridge on the northern edge of the watershed. There are a number of other land uses in the creek's watershed. These include private forests and rural residences.
Little Catawissa Creek is on the United States Geological Survey quadrangles of Ashland, Shenandoah, and Nuremberg. It is managed by the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission between T431, 8.10 miles (13.04 km) upstream of the mouth and T435, 2.90 miles (4.67 km) upstream of the mouth.
A reservoir known as the Ringtown Reservoir is on an unnamed tributary of Little Catawissa Creek.
## History and etymology
Little Catawissa Creek is named for the fact that it is smaller than Catawissa Creek.
Little Catawissa Creek was historically stocked with trout from near the border between Columbia County and Schuylkill County downstream to the mouth of the creek. The creek was surveyed by the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission nine times between 1939 and 1985. The first survey was performed in 1936. This was the first time that the creek was recommended for trout stocking. The creek was also surveyed by the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission several times in the 1950s, 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s.
A number of bridges have been built over Little Catawissa Creek. A steel stringer bridge was built over the creek in 1914 and restored in 1939. This bridge is 40.0 feet (12.2 m) long. Another bridge was built over the creek in 1930. It is a concrete arch bridge that is 60.0 feet (18.3 m) long. In 1961, a prestressed box beam bridge was built across the creek. This bridge is 47.9 feet (14.6 m) long. A concrete slab bridge was built over the creek in 1973 and a prestressed box beam bridge was built over it in 1990. These bridges are 30.8 feet (9.4 m) and 57.1 feet (17.4 m) long, respectively.
John Mourey constructed a sawmill and gristmill on Little Catawissa Creek 0.5 miles (0.80 km) west of Ringtown in 1853. Little Catawissa Creek was used as an emergency water supply in the early 1900s.
## Biology
Little Catawissa Creek is considered by the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection to be a High-Quality Coldwater Fishery between its headwaters and Reservoir Road. Between Reservoir Road and the mouth of the creek, it is considered to be a Coldwater Fishery. The upper reaches of the creek, between its headwaters and a point slightly downstream of where it enters Schuylkill County are considered by the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission to be Class A Wild Trout Waters and the rest of the creek's length is considered to be Approved Trout Waters. The upper reaches of the creek were Class A Wild Trout Waters in 1976 before becoming Class D Wild Trout Waters in 1984. This change was due to acid mine drainage and sediment buildup. However, the creek rebounded to Class A Wild Trout Waters by 1997. The creek is considered to be Class D Wild Trout Waters between T431 and T435. The tributary Trexler Run is also considered to be Class A Wild Trout Waters throughout its length.
Wild brook trout naturally reproduce in Little Catawissa Creek. However, introducing rainbow trout into the creek is forbidden, although they were historically stocked there by the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission. River chubs were historically present in the creek, but have disappeared. The reason for this disappearance is unknown.
Between the headwaters of Little Catawissa Creek and 8.10 miles (13.04 km) upstream of its mouth, at T431, there are three species of fish: brook trout, creek chub, and eastern blacknose dace. White suckers were also observed in this part of the creek in 1976. There are twelve species of fish in the creek between T431 and T435, including brook trout, brown trout, and green sunfish. Additionally, numerous more have been historically observed in this stretch of the creek, but are not any more. Eight fish species, including brown trout, were observed on the creek between T435 and its mouth during a 1976 survey. The brown trout ranged from 300 to 324 millimeters (11.8 to 12.8 in).
The biomass of wild trout in Little Catawissa Creek upstream of T431 is 30.85 kilograms per hectare (27.52 lb/acre). This includes 24.81 kilograms per hectare (22.13 lb/acre) of brook trout that are less than 175 millimeters (6.9 in) long and 6.04 kilograms per hectare (5.39 lb/acre) of brook trout that are more than 175 millimeters (6.9 in) long. The trout in this part of the creek range from 25 to 224 millimeters (0.98 to 8.82 in). The biomass of wild trout in the creek between T431 and T405 is 5.08 kilograms per hectare (4.53 lb/acre). 4.97 kilograms per hectare (4.43 lb/acre) kilograms per hectare come from brown trout (including 0.98 kilograms per hectare (0.87 lb/acre) from brown trout shorter than 175 millimeters (6.9 in) and 3.99 kilograms per hectare (3.56 lb/acre) from brown trout longer than 175 millimeters) and 0.11 kilograms per hectare (0.098 lb/acre) come from brook trout over 175 millimeters (6.9 in) long. The brown trout range from 50 to 299 millimeters (2.0 to 11.8 in) long and the brook trout range from 50 to 224 millimeters (2.0 to 8.8 in) long.
Between the headwaters of Little Catawissa Creek and T431, there are 799 brook trout per square kilometer that are shorter than 175 millimeters and 23 per kilometer that are longer. There are 2997 brook trout per hectare that are less than 175 millimeters long and 88 that are more than 175 millimeters long. In the creek between T431 and T435, there is one brook trout per kilometer that is less than 175 millimeters long and one per kilometer that is more than 175 millimeters long. On the other hand, there are 197 brown trout per kilometer less than 175 millimeters long and 25 per kilometer that are more than 175 millimeters long. There is one brook trout per hectare that are less than 175 millimeters long and one that is more than 175 millimeters long. There are 230 brook trout per hectare that are less than 175 millimeters long and 31 that are more than 175 millimeters long.
A 1997 report stated that Little Catawissa Creek was a poor site for angling.
Little Catawissa Creek has a diverse population of aquatic macroinvertebrates.
## See also
- Tomhicken Creek, next tributary of Catawissa Creek going downstream
- Dark Run next tributary of Catawissa Creek going upstream
- List of tributaries of Catawissa Creek
|
11,859,077 |
Wallkill Valley Rail Trail
| 1,167,962,332 |
Rail Trail in the Wallkill Valley
|
[
"National Recreation Trails in New York (state)",
"Nature reserves in New York (state)",
"Parks in Ulster County, New York",
"Wallkill Valley Railroad"
] |
The Wallkill Valley Rail Trail is a 23.7-mile (38.1 km) rail trail and linear park that runs along the former Wallkill Valley Railroad rail corridor in Ulster County, New York, United States. It stretches from Gardiner through New Paltz, Rosendale and Ulster to the Kingston city line, just south of a demolished, concrete Conrail railroad bridge that was located on a team-track siding several blocks south of the also-demolished Kingston New York Central Railroad passenger station. The trail is separated from the Walden–Wallkill Rail Trail by two state prisons in Shawangunk, though there have been plans to bypass these facilities and to connect the Wallkill Valley Rail Trail with other regional rail-trails. The northern section of the trail forms part of the Empire State Trail.
Plans to create the rail trail began as early as 1983, when New Paltz considered uses for the then-defunct Wallkill Valley rail corridor; the railroad had ceased regular traffic in 1977 and, by 1983, had begun to remove its tracks. In 1991, a local land trust, the Wallkill Valley Land Trust, purchased the 12-mile (19 km) section of the former rail corridor between New Paltz and Gardiner, and conveyed the New Paltz section to the town and village of New Paltz with permanent land protection agreements, held by the Wallkill Valley Land Trust. The trail was formally opened between New Paltz and Gardiner in 1993, though Gardiner did not purchase its section from the Wallkill Valley Land Trust until 2007: again, with a land protection agreement placed on it. The length of the trail was effectively doubled by an Ulster County unpaid-tax foreclosure land seizure, in 2009. The Wallkill Valley Land Trust, in partnership with Open Space Institute, acquired the additional property from Ulster County and began several capital campaigns to open-up public access. The extension included the Rosendale trestle, a 940-foot (290 m) bridge across Rondout Creek. There are several other bridges that carry the trail, though none are as long.
The trail serves hikers, joggers, bikers, horseback riders and cross-country skiers. It passes through several historic districts, such as Huguenot Street in New Paltz, and the Binnewater Historic District and Snyder Estate in Rosendale. The trail also traverses U.S. Route 44 (concurrent with State Route 55), and state routes 299 and 213. Several natural features are visible from clear points along the trail, such as the Shawangunk Ridge to the west and the Plattekill Creek between New Paltz and Gardiner. The trail passes through dense vegetation, and is frequented by many types of animals and overwintering birds.
## History
Stretching 33 miles (53 km) from Montgomery to Kingston, the Wallkill Valley Railroad operated from 1866 until its last regular freight run on December 31, 1977. During the 1980s, its owner, Conrail, began to salvage the former corridor's steel rails and sell-off sections of the rail bed. State law mandated that, in such sales, offers must be made first to the state; then to the involved counties and municipalities. The state bought a 1.4-mile (2.3 km) portion of rail bed between Shawangunk and Gardiner in November 1985, for the construction of the Shawangunk Correctional Facility in the hamlet of Wallkill.
While Montgomery and Shawangunk purchased their sections of the railroad – 2.0 and 2.3 miles (3.2 and 3.7 km), respectively – in 1985, eventually creating the 3.22-mile (5.18 km) Walden–Wallkill Rail Trail, the towns of New Paltz, Gardiner and Rosendale initially declined to purchase their sections of the rail line. The town of Shawangunk has been evaluating plans to bypass the state prison to connect the Walden–Wallkill and Wallkill Valley trails since 2004, and such a connection was listed as a project in a 2008 county-wide transportation plan. The latest proposal involves diverting the trail along Birch Road. The Wallkill Valley Rail Trail was the seventeenth rail trail created in New York state, and became a National Recreation Trail in 2007.
### New Paltz and Gardiner
Converting the former corridor to a rail trail was first considered in a 1983 environmental report commissioned by the town of New Paltz. The study considered repurposing the corridor as a road for cars, but determined that the right-of-way, "lend[ing] itself to multiple and simultaneous 'people-oriented' transit", was "ideally suited for use as a trail for hiking, strolling, running, cycling and cross-country skiing". In 1988, New Paltz invited a local non-profit, the Wallkill Valley Land Trust, to acquire the portion of the rail line between New Paltz and Gardiner. The Wallkill Valley Land Trust in turn requested assistance from The Trust for Public Land, and the purchase was completed on January 18, 1991.
While the town and village of New Paltz immediately purchased their sections from the Wallkill Valley Land Trust, with conservation easements on them – roughly 4 and 3 miles (6.4 and 4.8 km), respectively – Gardiner did not purchase its 6-mile (9.7 km) section until much later; again, at that time, the Wallkill Valley Land Trust stewards held the conservation easements. Portions of the New Paltz–Gardiner section were informally open since June, 1991, but the formal opening ceremony of the full 12.2-mile (19.6 km) trail between New Paltz and Gardiner took place on October 9, 1993.
The Gardiner section was in such a state of disrepair in 2004 that the Wallkill Valley Land Trust almost closed it. Gardiner received a \$100,000 grant from the New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation in December 2006, and the purchase was completed in 2007. The state provided an additional \$5,000 to maintain the trail.
Purchasing the section allowed Gardiner to fix the drainage problems that had deteriorated the surface of the trail and to ban the use of motor vehicles. Though the section was worth \$307,300, the Wallkill Valley Land Trust sold it to Gardiner for \$70,000.
In 2009 and 2010, the Tea Party movement held protests along the Gardiner section of the trail. In November 2009, New Paltz received grants from the Greenway Conservancy, a state organization, to fund several rail trail–related projects. This included \$17,750 to create a link between the New Paltz section of the trail and the Hudson Valley Rail Trail in nearby Lloyd, which was in turn being extended eastward to the Poughkeepsie Bridge; the connection with the bridge was completed in October 2010. The Wallkill Valley Railroad had considered such a connection after the bridge opened in 1889, but never built one. The grants also included \$7,000 to create 400 feet (120 m) of ADA-accessible trail, to connect the parking area of a local park, named after Sojourner Truth, with the rail trail. The town had intended to connect the parking area with the trail since the late 1990s, but concerns over traffic, as well as state requirements, had added to the time and cost of the path; it was completed by June, 2010. The connections are part of a county-wide plan to create a bicycle path along NY 299, to link regional rail trails.
### Rosendale
The Rosendale portion of the rail bed runs 11.5 miles (18.5 km) from Rosendale through Ulster to Kingston and contains the 940-foot long (290 m) Rosendale trestle. The trestle rises 150 feet (46 m) above Rondout Creek and State Route 213, and also spans the former Delaware and Hudson Canal. At the time of its construction it was the highest span bridge in the United States.
Conrail sold the Rosendale section, including the bridge, in 1986 to a private area businessman, John E. Rahl, for one dollar. Rahl maintained that the purchase granted him the right to "restore rail service on the whole Wallkill line", and to joint ownership of Conrail. Between 1989 and 1991, Rahl installed planking and guard rails on the southern half of the bridge, which was then opened to the public. He intended to allow bungee jumping off the bridge, and did so until a January, 1992 court order held that it violated zoning laws. Douglas Hase, an entrepreneur who had run both bungee jumping and hot air ballooning companies, tried unsuccessfully in 2003 and 2004 to get a variance for such a venture.
After Rahl failed to pay \$13,716 in property taxes over a period of three years, Ulster County foreclosed on the 63.34-acre (25.63 ha) property on April 15, 2009. The Wallkill Valley Land Trust and Open Space Institute placed a bid on the land parcels comprising the Rosendale section on April 22, 2009, and agreed to pay all outstanding taxes before receiving full ownership on July 8, 2009, with the intention of adding it to the Wallkill Valley Rail Trail. Following an engineering survey, the bridge was closed to the public in June 2009, for repairs. Renovations were completed in 2013, allowing for the bridge to be opened to the public.
Canopy Development, a green development company from Northampton, Massachusetts, owns a portion of the former rail bed in Rosendale. It has agreed to establish a right-of-way, rerouting the trail to allow public access. Another obstruction between Rosendale and Ulster is a private swimming pool, which will be bypassed. The Mohonk Preserve and Open Space Conservancy were given a \$20,000 state grant in March 2011, to maintain the portion of the trail by Kingston. By the end of summer, 2013, the last outstanding trail segment along the Rosendale-Kingston extension was opened to the public, completing the entire 23.7-mile rail trail.
A regional business association has proposed a link between the trail, in Rosendale, and a series of regional rail trails. The proposal would create a 35-mile (56 km) network of rail trails across the towns of Marbletown, Rochester, and Wawarsing. Several involved towns have been working toward accomplishing such a connection.
## Route
The trail begins at Denniston Road, in the southern part of the town of Gardiner. Movement farther south is impossible, because the corridor south of Denniston Road is fenced off by barbed wire. After roughly 1+1⁄2 miles (2.4 km), it crosses Sand Hill Road before approaching the hamlet of Gardiner at the 2+1⁄2-mile (4.0 km) mark. Once in the hamlet, the trail intersects U.S. Route 44 (concurrent with State Route 55).
Located within the hamlet are a defunct, former dairy creamery and the site of the former Gardiner railroad station. Built in 1881 and opened the following year, the creamery was one of the dairies that transported its products to New York City by way of the Wallkill Valley Railroad. It was originally the property of the Borden family, but closed in the 1920s, and has since been renovated as an apartment complex. The former Gardiner railroad station ceased operations when the rail line closed. It became a sporting goods store by 1981, a video store by the early 1990s, and an antique store by 1995. The station burned down on October 10, 2002.
The trail crosses Phillies Bridge Road 1 mile (1.6 km) north of the hamlet, with an overpass carrying the trail over Forest Glen Road 3⁄4 mile (1.2 km) farther. The road overlies the Catskill Aqueduct and Delaware Aqueduct. Originally supported by trestles and a stone foundation, the overpass was rebuilt in 1910 during the construction of the Catskill Aqueduct. The reconstruction removed the trestles and added a concrete foundation. Though a local legend holds that the bridge was originally built in response to the death of a prominent woman at the Forest Glen railroad crossing, it is more likely that it was built to maintain the rail line at a consistent grade. A little over 1⁄10 mile (0.16 km) from the bridge is the site of the former Forest Glen station. The trail crosses Bridge Creek Road and Old Ford Road about 1⁄4 and 1 mile (0.40 and 1.61 km) from the Forest Glen bridge, respectively, before entering the town of New Paltz.
Shortly after entering New Paltz, the trail crosses a bridge over Plattekill Creek. The masonry for the bridge was completed by late June 1870, and trestle work was done by July. Originally made of wood, the bridge was accidentally set on fire in 1880 by ashes or sparks from a passing train. This prompted the railroad to coat its rail ties with tin while replacing its wooden bridges with ones made of stone. The bridge's original abutments were made of Shawangunk conglomerate. It was rebuilt in 1912, and crosses the Plattekill Creek at a height of 35 feet (11 m). The Shawangunk Ridge is visible from the bridge.
Plains Road is shortly after the bridge, and the trail continues for 3⁄10 mile (0.48 km) before crossing Cedar Lane. It crosses Plains Road again after another 1+1⁄5 miles (1.9 km), reaching the Sojourner Truth park in the village of New Paltz. The trail is connected to the park via a small footbridge constructed in 2010 by the Alexandria, Minnesota–based construction company Contech. It has a weight limit of 5 short tons (4.5 t) and is able to withstand earthquakes.
At the edge of the park, the trail crosses Water Street and enters the Water Street Market, a "restored area of boutiques, galleries, and cafés". It then crosses State Route 299 and passes La Stazione, the former railroad station. The refurbished depot had been originally built in 1870, rebuilt after a 1907 fire, and sold to private interests in 1959. The building was in a state of disrepair by the early 1980s, but renovated in 1988 and converted to an Italian restaurant in 1999. Over the next 1⁄2 mile (0.80 km), the trail passes North Front Street, Broadhead Avenue, and Mulberry Street. After another 1⁄2 mile (0.80 km) the trail traverses Huguenot Street, a historic district containing colonial-era stone houses. Some of the houses date to the late 1600s.
About 1 mile (1.6 km) from Huguenot Street, the trail reaches the 413-foot (126 m) Springtown bridge spanning the Wallkill River. The bridge was originally made of wood and completed by the middle of December 1870, but was rebuilt between 1880 and 1881, using iron, by Clarke, Reeves & Co. It was rated by the superintendent of the Wallkill Valley Railroad to be safe for rail traffic as fast as 40 miles per hour (64 km/h). The bridge's decking and benches were put in place in 1993 by volunteers and members of the nearby Hutterite community in the hamlet of Rifton. The design of the bridge's railings was influenced by equestrians to better accommodate horses. Immediately after the bridge is Springtown Road.
The trail continues west of the Wallkill River. Roughly 1+1⁄2 miles (2.4 km) from the Springtown bridge, the trail crosses Cragswood Road. Another 3⁄10 mile (0.48 km) farther, it reaches the New Paltz–Rosendale boundary line, continuing another 3 miles (4.8 km) on formerly private property to Mountain Road in the hamlet of Rosendale. Restorations to the Rosendale trestle were completed, and the bridge was opened to the public in June, 2013. This added 11+1⁄2 miles (18.5 km) over the Rondout Creek to Kingston, crossing Interstate 87 and terminating by State Route 32. The extension passes through the town of Ulster and includes four small bridges between Rosendale and Kingston.
## Recreation
The road between the former railroad station and Water Street Market was the first site of a new town crosswalk system that opened on March 29, 2008. Under the new system, pedestrians can use flags placed in roadside containers to signal traffic. The trail connects with the Sojourner Truth park, which has had access to the Wallkill River for kayaking and canoeing since April 27, 2003. The Minnewaska Preserve and Mohonk Preserve, featuring 60 miles (97 km) of combined walkways, can be reached through New Paltz. The trail connects to the Binnewater Historic District in Rosendale. The district was the location of several local quarries which opened throughout the region after the 1825 discovery of rocks capable of producing Rosendale cement in the nearby hamlet of High Falls. At its peak, the district was producing 4,000,000 barrels a year and employed 5,000 people.
Though the Binnewater rail station was once part of the historic district, it was located too close to Binnewater Road and was hit repeatedly by trucks until it fell apart in May 1989. The station was subsequently demolished by the county highway department. Another historic district, the Snyder Estate, runs along the Rosendale section. The Snyder Estate is a former mining site once used by all four major regional cement producers. The Rosendale trestle has been the site of numerous picnics, barbecues, and at least one wedding. One person has tried bungee jumping off the bridge without a restraining cord.
Several shale outcrops are visible along the trail, with views of the Shawangunk Ridge to the west; the skytop tower of the Mohonk Mountain House is visible on one of the cliffs. Parking for the trail is provided at a municipal lot on Farmers Turnpike in Gardiner. In New Paltz, there are parking lots at the Sojourner Truth park, off Springtown Road, at the Huguenot Historical Society, and at a Board of Cooperative Educational Services (BOCES) conference center. The trail runs parallel to state routes 208 and 32; there are two park and rides on Route 32, a 63-spot lot in New Paltz, and a 58-spot lot in Rosendale. There are two bicycle shops along the trail in both Gardiner and New Paltz.
The trail connects to the Binnewater Historic District in Rosendale. The district was the location of several local quarries which opened throughout the region after the 1825 discovery of rocks capable of producing Rosendale cement in the nearby hamlet of High Falls. At its peak, the district was producing 4,000,000 barrels a year and employed 5,000 people.
Though the Binnewater rail station was once part of the historic district, it was located too close to Binnewater Road and was hit repeatedly by trucks until it fell apart in May 1989. The station was subsequently demolished by the county highway department. Another historic district, the Snyder Estate, runs along the Rosendale section. The Snyder Estate is a former mining site once used by all four major regional cement producers. The Rosendale trestle has been the site of numerous picnics, barbecues, and at least one wedding. One person has tried bungee jumping off the bridge without a restraining cord.
Several shale outcrops are visible along the trail, with views of the Shawangunk Ridge to the west; the skytop tower of the Mohonk Mountain House is visible on one of the cliffs. Parking for the trail is provided at a municipal lot on Farmers Turnpike in Gardiner. In New Paltz, there are parking lots at the Sojourner Truth park, off Springtown Road, at the Huguenot Historical Society, and at a Board of Cooperative Educational Services (BOCES) conference center. The trail runs parallel to state routes 208 and 32; there are two park and rides on Route 32, a 63-spot lot in New Paltz, and a 58-spot lot in Rosendale. There are two bicycle shops along the trail in both Gardiner and New Paltz.
## Surface
The surface of the Rail Trail is mostly gravel, while road crossings are paved. Mountain bikes are recommended to traverse to trail by cycle, as the trail is fairly rough. Cars are not allowed on the trail. In the winter, you can do cross-country skiing on the trail.
## Flora and fauna
Flora along the northern end of the trail includes sumac (Rhus) and honeysuckle (Lonicera) shrubs, American elm (Ulmus americana), bigtooth aspen (Populus grandidentata) and quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides). As the trail approaches Gardiner to the south, there are occurrences of sugar maple (Acer saccharum), American beech (Fagus grandifolia), tulip-tree (Liriodendron tulipifera) and black birch (Betula lenta). Other trees common on the trail include red maple (Acer rubrum), shagbark hickory (Carya ovata), northern pin oak (Quercus ellipsoidalis), eastern red cedar (Juniperus virginiana), white ash (Fraxinus americana) and eastern white pine (Pinus strobus).
Many animals pass through the trail unobserved, leaving behind tracks. This includes bears, deer, coyotes, dogs, bobcats, cats, skunks and rabbits. Several bird species overwinter in the region and can be observed from the trail, such as the mourning dove (Zenaida macroura), blue jay (Cyanocitta cristata), bluebird (Sialia), cardinal (Cardinalis cardinalis), starling (Sturnus vulgaris), downy woodpecker (Picoides pubescens), American goldfinch (Spinus tristis), tufted titmouse (Baeolophus bicolor), black-capped chickadee (Poecile atricapillus), sparrow (Passer) and purple finch (Carpodacus purpureus).
## In popular culture
The Springtown Truss Bridge was used as a location for key scenes in the John Krasinski horror film A Quiet Place, as well as its sequel.
## See also
- Walden–Wallkill Rail Trail – the southern continuation of the former rail corridor
|
617,598 |
Enjoy Yourself (Kylie Minogue album)
| 1,171,105,276 | null |
[
"1989 albums",
"Albums produced by Stock Aitken Waterman",
"Kylie Minogue albums",
"Mushroom Records albums"
] |
Enjoy Yourself is the second studio album by Australian recording artist Kylie Minogue, released on 9 October 1989 in the United Kingdom by Pete Waterman Entertainment (PWE), and in Australia on 6 November by Mushroom Records. In the United States, it was released in January 1990 by Geffen Records. Following the success of her self-titled debut album, Minogue reunited with the producers Stock Aitken Waterman, who produced and wrote nine of the album's ten tracks, in London in February 1989. The recording sessions took place there from February until July, coinciding with Minogue filming her first feature film The Delinquents.
Enjoy Yourself is a bubblegum pop, dance-pop, and disco album that mainly discusses romantic relationships. It received mixed reviews from music critics, who criticised its similarity with her debut release. In the United Kingdom, it debuted at number one with pre-sales of over 600,000 copies and became the sixth best-selling album of 1989. The album was certified four times platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) in January 1990. It also peaked in the top ten in Ireland, Australia and New Zealand. It failed to find an audience in the United States, and Minogue was dropped as an act by Geffen Records.
Four singles were released from the album, including UK chart-toppers "Hand on Your Heart" and "Tears on My Pillow". Two other singles, "Wouldn't Change a Thing" and "Never Too Late" peaked in the top five. All four peaked in the top twenty in Australia and Ireland. The album was promoted further through Minogue's first and second concert tours, Disco in Dream (1989) and the Enjoy Yourself Tour (1990), which traveled to Australia, Britain and Asia. The album was re-issued in the United Kingdom for the first time in 2015, when it returned to the UK Albums Chart.
## Background and recording
Kylie Minogue first came to public attention in 1986, when she was cast in the popular soap opera Neighbours as Charlene Robinson, a schoolgirl turned garage mechanic. She signed with Mushroom Records in early 1987 and released her self-titled debut studio album in July 1988. Fueled by hit singles like "I Should Be So Lucky", "The Loco-Motion" and "Got to Be Certain", Kylie peaked at number one and was the best-selling album of 1988 in the United Kingdom. In her native Australia, it peaked at number two and was certified four times platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA). It has sold over five million copies worldwide. The album helped Minogue launch her career as a pop artist at a time when not many established actors in television chose to make a record.
Minogue relocated to London after filming her final scenes for Neighbours in June and July 1988. In November, she lent her voice to "Especially for You", a duet with her then-boyfriend Jason Donovan, who also played her love interest in Neighbours. Written and produced by Stock Aitken Waterman (SAW), it became the fourth highest-selling single of 1988 and the first number-one single of 1989 in the United Kingdom. In February 1989, she reunited with the producers at PWL Studios 1 & 4 in London. The trio, who had served as producers and writers on Kylie, had Minogue record "Hand on Your Heart" and "Wouldn't Change a Thing", while working on her second album. Pete Waterman, one of the producers, felt that they had a remarkable work ethic during the making of Enjoy Yourself, saying "We aren't nervous about following up the first album at all, we were on a treadmill and loving it". The album was licensed by PWL co-owner David Howell.
Two months later, it was announced that Minogue had accepted the lead part of Lola Lovell in the Australian-based film The Delinquents, directed by Chris Thomson. Trying to establish herself as a serious actress, Minogue believed the role as a rebellious and passionate country girl would differentiate her from her girl-next-door image in Neighbours. Principal photography began in Maryborough, Queensland, in May and lasted about two months. She resumed work on her album in London for three weeks until July. The three-week recording sessions were intense since she was still promoting her debut album. For The Delinquents''' soundtrack, Waterman suggested Minogue cover The Teenagers' "I'm Not a Juvenile Delinquent" (1957) or Little Anthony and the Imperials' "Tears on My Pillow" (1958). Minogue picked the latter work, which she had heard it before, and recorded it the next day. She recorded "Never Too Late" during the final sessions in July.
## Music and lyrics
Stock, Aitken and Waterman wrote and produced the entire album apart from "Tears on My Pillow", which was written by Sylvester Bradford and Al Lewis. Minogue and the producers decided that the album would be more diverse than the previous effort, which was mainly dance music. "There are a lot of different songs... Enjoy Yourself has balance and a sort-of fifties orchestra number... I think it has a wider range of appeal [than Kylie]", Minogue said. The album contains many R&B basslines, which Stock felt shows different aspects of pop music and gives "a slightly more soulful, more American angle, a kind of serious feel". He wrote simple lyrics about romantic relationships to give the songs "extra resonance and profundity".
Music critics have described Enjoy Yourself as a bubblegum pop, synth-pop, dance-pop, and disco album, whose theme revolves around romantic relationships. They also noted the similar composition of the songs to those on Minogue's debut album. Nick Levine of Digital Spy said that the album sounded "more perky, plasticky Stock Aitken Waterman pop" than the previous effort. Joe Sweeney of PopMatters felt that Minogue was no longer bridging the gap between pop and dance music, but trying to expand from the "still-Astley-rific SAW house sound" by incorporating ballad and doo-wop tracks. Ian Gormely of Exclaim! compared the bubblegum synth-pop sound to the work of American singers Tiffany and Debbie Gibson. Gary James of Entertainment Focus called it a well-merged complication of her debut and the throwback sound of the 50s and 60s.
## Songs analysis
"Hand on Your Heart" is a beat-heavy song that contains a message about honesty and communication in a relationship. The song was inspired by soul singles "That's the Way Love Is" by Ten City (1989) and "This Old Heart of Mine (Is Weak for You)" by The Isley Brothers (1966). "Wouldn't Change a Thing" deals with believing someone even if no one can understand, while "Never Too Late" follows Minogue's optimistic philosophy. Colin Irwin of Number One felt that both tracks have an easy and mellow pace but still maintain its appeal as dance-pop tracks, and found the yearning lyrics of the latter work similar to the work of Donovan.
The happy and bouncy track "Nothing to Lose" tells a story about taking risks to get what you want. It is followed by "Tell Tale Signs", a jazz-oriented blues and string-laden torch song, in which Minogue realizes the signs of a relationship falling apart. The offbeat baroque pop "My Secret Heart" contains unusual rhythms, key changes, stuttering cello sounds, and jaunty lyricism. Minogue characterized "My Secret Heart" as an innocent and hopeful fantasy song that reminds her of the 1940s romantic Hollywood films. Critics compared both "Tell Tale Signs" and "My Secret Heart" to the work of Paul McCartney. Minogue sings "I'm Over Dreaming (Over You)", the seventh track, in a celebratory and joyous way. Its subject matter centers around finding the courage to face the end of a relationship.
Colin Irwin of Number One felt that Minogue sounds authentic in her version of "Tears on My Pillow", an innocent ballad that differs from Johnny Nash's 1975 reggae hit of the same name. Levine, on the other hand, called it an "odd retro moment". Minogue found her version "smooth and easy to listen to" and fairly true to the original. The melodic "Heaven and Earth" shows Minogue's view on the environmental issues, and encourages people to conserve and protect the environment. It is followed by the title track, which serves as the album closer. Lyrically, it reminds people to be happy and enjoy themselves. Levine described it as a "party [song] with a Seize The Day message" that predicted Minogue's follow-up effort.
## Artwork and release
The album's artwork, shot by photographer Simon Fowler, shows Minogue grinning while wearing a black minidress and a bedazzling golden hat. Minogue was surprised about the final artwork, which she found "quite daring" and "does reveal a bit of flesh". "[The hat] is from London. I'm heavily into sequins at the moment... I don't think I would wear it down the street though," Minogue recalled. Like Kylie, the artwork was meant to show her in a girlie and carefree way that kids and teenagers could relate to, and not as "some icon on a pedestal". Other PWL artists used the same strategy and can be seen posing with hats on the covers of their albums. These include Mandy Smith's Mandy (1988) and Sonia's Everybody Knows (1990). The title, Enjoy Yourself, reflects Minogue's motto of living with a positive attitude in the face of life's difficulties.
Enjoy Yourself was released in the UK on 9 October 1989 by PWL. The album was not released in Australia until 6 November 1989, through Mushroom Records. In Japan, a limited edition was released in November with postcards, stickers and a lyric booklet. The North American edition, released by Geffen Records in 1990, had differing artwork and included "Especially for You" as a bonus track. In 1989, a VHS titled Kylie: The Videos 2 was released in the United Kingdom and Japan by PWL, including an interview with Minogue, as well as music videos for "It's No Secret", "Hand on Your Heart", "Wouldn't Change A Thing", and "Never Too Late". The album was re-released by WEA in Japan in 1993 and 1995, before PWL announced their reissue in 2012 with bonus tracks and mixes. In October 2014, it was announced that Enjoy Yourself was to be re-released by Cherry Red Records and PWL, along with her studio albums Kylie, Rhythm of Love, and Let's Get to It (1991). The release date was later postponed to 9 February 2015. The albums were digitally remastered from the original studio tapes and available on vinyl, CD, and DVD. This was the first time these albums had been released in the United Kingdom since their original release.
## Promotion
During the release week, the album was backed by a £250,000 advertising campaign on television, in teen magazines and music papers. In October 1989, Minogue launched her first concert tour, Disco in Dream, performing several songs from both Kylie and Enjoy Yourself. It began in Japan, where she performed before 38,000 fans at the Tokyo Dome. She later joined other artists from the PWL label on a ten-date theatre tour in the United Kingdom, which attracted 170,000 fans. Its run in the United Kingdom was sponsored by local radio stations and was re-titled The Hitman Roadshow.
### Enjoy Yourself Tour
From February to May 1990, Minogue launched the Enjoy Yourself Tour. She performed three shows in her native Australia in February, grossing \$3 million from the sale of 10,000 tickets per-show. The tour was later extended to Europe and South East Asia in April and May. Her performance in Birmingham, the first city of the European leg, attracted 12,700 fans at the Resorts World Arena. Minogue donated thirteen costume pieces worn in both concert tours to the Arts Centre Melbourne—three of them were given in 1991, two in 2008, and the rest were sent to the Cultural Gifts Program in 2004.
Set list
The set list adapted from Minogue's official website:
1. "The Loco-Motion"
2. "Got to Be Certain"
3. "Hand on Your Heart"
4. "Love at First Sight"
5. "Made in Heaven"
6. "My Girl"
7. "Tears on My Pillow"
8. "I Should Be So Lucky"
9. "I Miss You"
10. "Nothing to Lose"
11. "Blame It on the Boogie"
12. "ABC"
13. "Tell Tale Signs"
14. "Je Ne Sais Pas Pourquoi"
15. "Never Too Late"
16. "Wouldn't Change a Thing"
17. "Dance to the Music"
18. "Better the Devil You Know" (UK & European shows only)
19. "Enjoy Yourself"
Dates
### Singles
"Hand on Your Heart" was released as the first single in April 1989 with "Just Wanna Love You" as the B-side track. A music video, filmed in Melbourne earlier in March, was released featuring Minogue dancing in a studio set. The single received limited promotion as Minogue was busy filming The Delinquents. Nevertheless, the song became her third number one single on the UK Singles Chart, while reaching number four on the Australian Singles Chart. It reached number one in Ireland, and peaked in the top ten in Switzerland and France. The second single "Wouldn't Change a Thing" was released in July, accompanied by Minogue's first music video to be filmed in the UK. It debuted at number two there and reached number six in Australia that September.
The title track was originally planned as the third single but was replaced with "Never Too Late". The decision was made at the last minute before its release on 23 October. The track's B-side was a megamix of her songs from Kylie, titled "Kylie's Smiley Mix". "Never Too Late" became Minogue's fifth number-one single in Ireland and reached number four in the UK. The music video shows Minogue in various costumes: she dresses as a cowgirl, a '70s disco dancer, a Chinese woman with a handheld fan and a 1920s flapper. "Tears on My Pillow" was released as the final single to support both the album and The Delinquents. The single was pushed until January 1990 to meet the film's release schedule. It debuted at number two in the UK on 14 January, Minogue's ninth consecutive top-five single and her fourth to debut at number two. It reached number one the following week, her fourth single to do so. The 12" single was released with the B-side "We Know the Meaning of Love". "Never Too Late" and "Tears on My Pillow" also peaked in the top 20 in Australia and the Netherlands.
## Critical reception
Enjoy Yourself received mixed reviews from music critics, many of whom compared it to Minogue's debut album. Sean Smith and the staff of People magazine described it as an unimaginative extension of Kylie; the result was just "another Charlene album". Richard Lowe of Smash Hits and Nick Levine of Digital Spy opined that despite the lack of strong tunes, the album still had more variety than her first one and Minogue was "at her most ingenuous". Colin Irwin of Number One called the album a departure for Minogue, which shifts away from other traditional SAW-produced tracks. AllMusic's Chris True found it was a good follow-up to her debut, and the producers "knew what they had and they crafted songs that kept [Minogue] in the public eye."
Several critics panned the production and Minogue's lack of input on the album. Arion Berger of Rolling Stone dismissed the singer's woeful vocals, and commented that she had a long way to go to display any artistic innovation. People magazine opined that the producers overpowered Minogue, describing her as "a cog in a gray-noise machine". In a 2015 review, PopMatters' Joe Sweeney deemed it a more ambitious production and Minogue's vocals were particularly stronger than before. He felt the result, however, sounded "like a messy document of artistic maturation". Caitlin O'Connor Creevy of Chicago Tribune and a Billboard's reviewer deemed the album premature and average, while also panning the computer-generated songs.
In a review in 2018, Slant Magazine's Sal Cinquemani wrote that Enjoy Yourself closely repeats Kylie's sonic template and criticized "Hand on Your Heart" as a disjunctive lead single. He described it as Minogue's second-worst studio album. While reviewing the album on its 30th anniversary, Matt Hocter noted a maturity that was missing from Minogue's previous album. He concluded that Minogue had managed to make a pop album that is now recognized as a classic. In the Encyclopedia of Popular Music (2011), British writer Colin Larkin gave it three out of five stars, as he did Minogue's debut album, classifying it as "recommended" and highly listenable. At the ARIA Music Awards of 1990, Minogue was nominated for Best Female Artist for Enjoy Yourself while receiving the Outstanding Achievement Award. The music video for "Never Too Late" won the award for Most Popular Music Video at the 32nd Logie Awards, her second win in the category; she previously won for "The Loco-Motion" in 1988.
## Commercial performance
Enjoy Yourself debuted at number one on the UK Albums Chart and remained in the top 10 for sixteen weeks. It was certified double platinum by the British Phonographic Industry two days after its release, powered by pre-sales of over 600,000 copies. It went on to sell over one million copies in the first ten weeks of its release. It was the sixth best-selling album of 1989 in the UK, and was certified four times platinum on 1 January 1990. Enjoy Yourself returned to the UK Albums Chart in 2015, when the reissue peaked at number ninety-four on 15 February. In her native Australia, the album debuted at number fifteen before reaching number nine in the second week. It was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association in January 1990 for selling over 70,000 copies. It debuted at number sixteen in New Zealand and peaked at number six three weeks later. It was certified gold by the Recorded Music NZ in June 1990.
In Japan, Enjoy Yourself was Minogue's first top-ten entry on the Oricon Albums Chart, peaking at number seven. It was certified gold by Recording Industry Association of Japan in November 1989, her second and last certification there, and had sold 49,000 copies as of 2006. The album also peaked in the top 30 in Finland, France, and Switzerland. In North America, the album failed to find an audience and did not appear on any major charts, leading to Minogue being dropped as an act by Geffen Records. Enjoy Yourself was her last album released there until her eighth studio album, Fever'' was picked up by Capitol Records in 2002.
## Track listing
All songs written, produced and arranged by Mike Stock, Matt Aitken and Pete Waterman, except "Tears on My Pillow" by Sylvester Bradford and Al Lewis.
## Personnel
Adapted from the album's liner notes.
- Kylie Minogue – lead vocals, backing vocals
- Jason Donovan – vocals
- Mae McKenna – backing vocals
- Miriam Stockley – backing vocals
- Matt Aitken – keyboards, guitar, production, arrangements
- Pete Waterman – production, arrangements, mixing
- Mike Stock – backing vocals, production, arrangements, keyboards
- Ian Curnow – keyboards
- Roger Linn – drums
- Jason Barron – mixing
- Dave Ford – mixing
- Julian Gingell – mixing
- Peter Hammond – mixing
- Phil Harding – mixing
- Chris McDonnell – mixing
- Barry Stone – mixing
- Peter Day – engineering, mixing
- Karen Hewitt – engineering
- Greg Fulginiti – mastering
- Simon Fowler – photography
- David Howells – design
- Lino Carbosiero – hair
## Charts
### Weekly charts
### Year-end charts
## Certifications and sales
## Release history
## See also
- List of UK Albums Chart number ones of the 1980s
- List of UK top-ten albums in 1989
- List of UK top-ten albums in 1990
|
44,464,909 |
Masrur Temples
| 1,170,780,434 |
8th-century rock cut stone temple and ruins in Himachal Pradesh
|
[
"8th-century Hindu temples",
"8th-century establishments in India",
"Buildings and structures in Kangra district",
"Caves of Himachal Pradesh",
"Hindu cave temples in India",
"Hindu pilgrimage sites in India",
"Hindu temples in Himachal Pradesh",
"Indian architectural history",
"Indian rock-cut architecture",
"Monoliths",
"Shaivism",
"Tourism in Himachal Pradesh",
"Tourist attractions in Himachal Pradesh"
] |
The Masrur Temples, also referred to as Masroor Temples or Rock-cut Temples at Masrur, is an early 8th-century complex of rock-cut Hindu temples in the Kangra Valley of Beas River in Himachal Pradesh, India. The temples face northeast, towards the Dhauladhar range of the Himalayas. They are a version of North Indian Nagara architecture style, dedicated to Shiva, Vishnu, Devi and Saura traditions of Hinduism, with its surviving iconography likely inspired by a henotheistic framework.
Though a major temples complex in the surviving form, the archaeological studies suggest that the artists and architects had a far more ambitious plan and the complex remains incomplete. Much of the Masrur's temple's sculpture and reliefs have been lost. They were also quite damaged, most likely from earthquakes.
The temples were carved out of monolithic rock with a shikhara, and provided with a sacred pool of water as recommended by Hindu texts on temple architecture. The temple has three entrances on its northeast, southeast and northwest side, two of which are incomplete. Evidence suggests that a fourth entrance was planned and started but left mostly incomplete, something acknowledged by the early 20th-century colonial era archaeology teams but ignored leading to misidentification and erroneous reports. The entire complex is symmetrically laid out on a square grid, where the main temple is surrounded by smaller temples in a mandala pattern. The main sanctum of the temples complex has a square plan, as do other shrines and the mandapa. The temples complex features reliefs of major Vedic and Puranic gods and goddesses, and its friezes narrate legends from the Hindu texts.
The temple complex was first reported by Henry Shuttleworth in 1913 bringing it to the attention of archaeologists. They were independently surveyed by Harold Hargreaves of the Archaeological Survey of India in 1915. According to Michael Meister, an art historian and a professor specializing in Indian temple architecture, the Masrur temples are a surviving example of a temple mountain-style Hindu architecture which embodies the earth and mountains around it.
## Location
The Masrur Temples are about 45 kilometres (28 mi) southwest of the Dharamshala-McLeod Ganj and 35 kilometres (22 mi) west from the Kangra town in the mountainous state of Himachal Pradesh in north India. The temple is built in the Beas River valley, in the foothills of the Himalayas, facing the snowy peaks of the Dhauladhar range. The temples are about 225 kilometres (140 mi) northwest from Shimla, about 150 kilometres (93 mi) north of Jalandhar and about 85 kilometres (53 mi) east of Pathankot. The nearest railway station is Nagrota Surian, and the nearest airport is Dharamshala(IATA: DHM). The closest major airports with daily services are Amritsar and Jammu.
The rock-cut temple is located in the valley, on the top of a naturally rocky hill, which Hargreaves in 1915 described as, "standing some 2,500 feet above sea level, and commanding, as they [Hindu temples] do, a magnificent view over a beautiful, well-watered and fertile tract, their situation, though remote, is singularly pleasing".
## Date
The Hindu temples in Masrur show similarities to the Elephanta Caves near Mumbai (1,900 km away), Angkor Wat in Cambodia (4,000 km away), and the rock-cut temples of Mahabalipuram in Tamil Nadu (2,700 km away). The features also suggest the influence of "Gupta classicism", and therefore he places their construction in the 8th century. The area around the temple complex has caves and ruins which, suggests that the Masrur region once had a large human settlement.
According to Meister, the temples are from the first half of the 8th century based on the regional political and art history. The temples follow one version of the Nagara architecture, a style that developed in Central India, particularly during the rule of the Hindu king Yasovarman, an art patron. In Kashmir, a region immediately north and northwest of the site, Hindus built temples with square pyramidal towers by the mid 1st millennium CE, such as the numerous stone temples built by Hindu king Lalitaditya, another art patron. These kingdoms traditionally collaborated as well as competed in their construction projects rivalry, while the guilds of artists moved between the two regions, through the valleys of ancient Himachal Pradesh. The region is in the Himalayan terrain and forested, making conquests difficult and expensive. Historical records from the 6th to 12th centuries do not mention any military rivalries in the Beas river Kangra valley region. There is a mention of a Himalayan kingdom of Bharmour just north of Masrur area in early medieval era texts. The 12th-century text Rajatarangini as well as the 12th-century Kashmir chronicle by Kalhana, both mention political rivalries in the 9th century but these 11th and 12th century authors were too far removed in time from 8th century events, and they weave in so much ancient mythology that their semi-fictional texts are largely ahistorical and unreliable.
The inscriptions and architecture suggest that Yasovarman's influence had reached the Himalayan foothills in north India, and the central Indian influence is illustrated in the architectural style adopted for Masrur temples rather than the styles found in ruined and excavated temples of the northwestern Indian subcontinent. According to Meister, the influence of middle India must have reached the north Indian region earlier than the 8th century and this style was admired by the royal class and the elites, because this style of temple building is now traceable in many more historic sites such as those in Bajaura and many places in Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and Nepal where many of the holy rivers of Hindus emerge. Some of the smaller stone temples that have survived from this region in steep mountain terrain are from the 7th century. Further, these large temple complexes in the second half of the 1st millennium were expensive projects and required substantial patronage, which suggests that the earlier examples must have preceded them for wide social and theological acceptance.
## History
The period between 12th and 19th century was largely of religious wars and geo-political instability across the Indian subcontinent, and the literature of this era do not mention Masrur temples or present any scholarly studies on any Hindu, Jain or Buddhist temples for that matter, rather they mention iconoclasm and temple destruction. After the 12th century, first northwestern Indian subcontinent, then India, in general, witnessed a series of plunder raids and attacks of Turko-Afghan sultans led Muslim armies seeking wealth, geopolitical power and the spread of Islam. Successive Muslim dynasties controlled the Delhi Sultanate as waves of wars, rebellions, secessions, and brutal counter-conquests gripped Indian regions including those in and around Kashmir. The Mughal Empire replaced the Delhi Sultanate in early 16th-century. The Mughal dynasty ruled much of the Indian subcontinent through early 18th-century, and parts of it nominally through the 19th century. The Kangra valley region with Masrur in the Himalayas was ruled by smaller jagirdars and feudatory Hill Rajas who paid tribute to the Mughal administration for many centuries. The arrival of the colonial era marked another seismic shift in the region's politics. By the late 19th century, British India officials had begun archeological surveys and heritage preservation efforts. The first known visits to study the Masrur temples occurred in 1887.
A British empire officer Henry Shuttleworth visited and photographed the temples in 1913, calling it a "Vaishnava temple" and claiming in his report that he was the first European to visit them. He wrote a paper on the temples, which was published by the journal The Indian Antiquary. He shared his findings with Harold Hargreaves, then an officer of the Northern Circle of the Archaeology Survey of India. Hargreaves knew more about Hindu theology, noticed the Shiva linga in the sanctum and he corrected Shuttleworth's report. Hargreaves wrote up his tour and published his photographs and observations in 1915 as a part of the ASI Annual Report Volume 20. Hargreaves acknowledged the discovery that a draftsman in his office had already toured, measured and created temples plans and sections in 1887, and that some other ASI workers and Europeans had visited the temple in 1875 and after 1887. The Hargreaves report described the site as many temples, listed iconography at these temples from different Hindu traditions, mentioned his speculations on links with Mahabalipuram monuments and Gandhara art, and other theories. The Hargreaves text became the introduction to Masrur temples for guides by reporters with little to no background knowledge of Indian temple traditions or Hindu theology. According to Meister, these early 20th century writings became a source of the temple's misidentification and misrepresentations that followed.
### Earthquake damage
The site was already damaged but still in decent condition in the late 19th century. Hargreaves wrote that, "the remote situation and general inaccessibility of the temples have been at once the cause of their neglect and of their fortunate escape from the destroying hands of the various Muhammadan invaders of the valley". In the 1905 Kangra earthquake, the Himachal valley region was devastated. Numerous ancient monuments were destroyed. However, although parts of the Masrur temple cracked and tumbled, the temple remained standing, because of its monolithic nature built out of stone in-situ.
The damage from wars and 1905 earthquake of the region has made comparative studies difficult. However, the careful measurements and drawings made by the unknown draftsperson in 1887, particularly of the roof level and mandapa which were destroyed in 1905, have been a significant source for late 20th-century scholarship. It supports Shuttleworth's early comments that the temple complex has a "perfect symmetry of design".
## Description
The main monument at the Masrur temples site appears, at first sight, to be a complex of shrines, but it is an integrated monument. Its center has a principal shrine which unlike most Hindu temples does not face east, but faces Northeast towards the snowy Himalayan peaks of Dhauladhar range. The main spire is flanked by subsidiary spires of smaller size, all eight symmetrically placed to form an octagon (or two rotated squares). These spires of the temple seem to grow out of the natural rock that makes the mountain. Above the main sanctum, the rock was cut to form the flat roof and the second level of the temple naturally fused with the rising main spire (shikhara) as well as the eight subsidiary shrines.
The main sanctum has four entrances, of which one on the east side is complete, two on the north and south side are partially complete and the fourth can be seen but is largely incomplete. The eastern entrance had a large mandapa and a portico, but this was destroyed in the 1905 earthquake, its existence known from site visit notes prior to the earthquake. Attached to this mandapa were two stairs to take the pilgrims to the upper-level views. The stairs were set inside smaller two rotating stair spires, but much of the structure of this too is gone. Thus, at one time the main temple had 13 spires according to Hargreaves count, and 15 according to Shuttleworth's count, all designed to appear growing naturally out of the rock.
According to Meister, the early descriptions though well-intentioned were based on information then available and clouded by the presumptions of those authors. These presumptions and generally damaged condition of the complex, for example, led Shuttleworth and Hargreaves to describe the temple in terms such as "subsidiary" and "shrines" instead of witnessing the integrated plan and architecture in early Hindu texts on temple design.
### Material of construction
The temple complex was carved out of the natural sandstone rock. In some places, the rock is naturally very hard, which would have been difficult to carve, but is also the reason why the intricate carvings on it have preserved for over 1,000 years. In other places the stone was soft or of medium quality. In some cases, the artists carved with a bit softer stone and this has eroded over time from natural causes. In other cases, the stone's hardness was so low that the artists cut out the stone and substituted it with better stone blocks. Then they added their friezes or sculptures. The substituted blocks have better resisted the effect of nature and time.
### Pool and mandapa
The temple complex has a sacred pool in front on the east side. The construction of the sacred pool is dated to the early 8th century. Its rectangular dimensions are about 25 by 50 metres (82 ft × 164 ft), or two stacked squares. The temple had an outside square mandapa with about 27 feet (8.2 m) side and 20 feet (6.1 m) height. It had a solid 1.5 feet (0.46 m) thick roof supported by four carved massive pillars. The platform had a covered drainage system to allow water anywhere on the mandapa to naturally drain off. This was visible before the 1905 quake, now only remnants of the floor and a pillar remain.
The entrances lead the pilgrim and visitor towards the main sanctum, through a series of mandapas with wall carvings and then an antarala (vestibule). They also connect the created space to a pair of covered stairs, on the north and south side, to the upper floor from where he or she can complete a pradakshina (circumambulation) to view more sculptures and the mountain scenery, all of this space and structure created from the pre-existing monolithic rock.
### Sanctum and ceiling
The garbhagriha, in a square plan with each side of 13 feet (4.0 m). The main sanctum has a four faced Shiva.
The ceiling of various mandapa and the sanctum inside the temple are fully carved, predominantly with open lotus. However, the inside walls remained incomplete. This may be because the artists carving into the rock worked on cutting and finishing the ceiling first, then moved on to cutting, finishing and decorating the inside walls and creating pillars below those ceilings. The wall height is 16 feet (4.9 m), and only the eastern entrance and passage into the sanctum is fully complete, while the side entrances are not and the fourth western entrance being the least complete. The site suggests that the work was completed in parallel by teams of workers. This is a common style of construction found in numerous Hindu temples that have survived, at least in the ruins form, from the 1st millennium. The 8th-century three-entry, four-faced Shiva found at the Masrur temple is not unique as the same plan is found in the Jogesvari Cave temple near Mumbai. The Jogesvari is dated to have been completed between 400 and 450 CE, or several centuries before the Masrur temple's construction, suggesting a common thematic foundation that inspired these temples pre-existed in the Hindu texts.
The art historian Stella Kramrisch identified one of these Hindu architecture texts to be the Visnudharmottara, dated to have existed by the 8th century (floruit), and whose manuscripts have been found with Hindus of the Kashmir valley. This is one of such texts that describe "hundred-and-one [Hindu] temple" designs. According to Meister, the sanctum and spire plan for the Masrur temple fits one of these, where it is called the Kailasa design.
The Kailasa style of Hindu temple is one with a central Shikhara (spire) symmetrically surrounded by four smaller spires set between the four entrances into the temple from the four cardinal directions, a format that matches the Masrur temple plan. Further, the Visnudharmottara text also describes the principles and procedures for image making and painting, the former is also found preserved in the Masrur temple mandapa and sanctum. Further, the Jogesvari and Masrur are not the only surviving temples that correspond to this style, others have been discovered that do, such as the Bajaura Hindu temple in Kulu valley of Himachal Pradesh which is another stone temple.
The multi-spire style, states Meister, is possibly inspired by the Indian Meru mythology shared by Buddhists, Hindus and Jains. Lush mountainous Meru is heaven and the abode of gods, but mountains are not singular but exist in ranges. The highest Mount Kailasha is the abode of Shiva, and the secondary spires symbolize the mountain range. Eight heavenly continents surround the Mount Kailasha in this mythology, where all the Deva (gods) and Devi (goddesses) live together. The Masrur temple symbolically projects this mythical landscape, narrating the Indian cosmology from stone, into stone.
### Spire design
All spires in the Masrur temple are of Nagara style, an architecture that was developed and refined in central India in the centuries before the 8th century. More specifically, these are what Indian texts called the latina sub-style, from lata. These are curvilinear spires composed of a rhythmic series of superimposed shrinking horizontal square slabs with offsets, each offset called lata or grape vine-like, in principle reflecting natural growth on a mountain in stone.
The superstructure towers embed styles that are found in Indian temples from the 7th and 8th-century such as in the Mahua Hindu temple and the Alampur Navabrahma Temples, but these are no longer found in temples that can be firmly dated after the 8th century. This supports dating the Masrur temple to about the mid-8th century. The spires show differences, but all spires that are symmetrically position in the temple mandala show the same design. The stairway spire is based on four turned squares, and features eight rotating lata spines that alternate with eight right-angled projections.
The temple complex also has two free-standing sub-shrines near the sacred pool. These have spires with sixteen lata spines, a style that is uncommon in India and found associated with Shiva temples associated with Hindu monks of the Matamayura matha between the 7th and 12th century CE such as the Bajaura temple in nearby Kulu valley and the Chandrehi temple in central India.
### Sculpture and reliefs
The main sanctum has nine seated deities. The center one is Shiva, and with him are others including Vishnu, Indra, Ganesha, Kartikeya and Durga. The shrines around the central shrine feature five Devis in one case, while other shrines reverentially enshrine Vishnu, Lakshmi, Ganesha, Kartikeya, Surya, Indra and Saraswati. The avatars of Vishnu such as the Varaha and the Narasimha are presented in the niches. In the ruins have been found large sculptures of Varuna, Agni and others Vedic deities. The temple also includes fusion or syncretic ideas revered in Hinduism, such as Ardhanarishvara (half Parvati, half Shiva), Harihara (half Vishnu, half Shiva) and a three faced trinity that shows Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva in one sculpture. The temple also has secular images from the common life of people, of couples in courtship and various levels of intimacy (mithuna), people making music and dancing, apsaras and ornamental scrollwork.
The surviving structures in the Masrur temple lacks any image of Lakulisha, the founder of Pashupata Shaivism, which makes it unlikely that this temple was associated with that tradition. According to Meister, the wide range of Shaiva, Vaishnava, Shakti and Saura (Surya, sun god) themes displayed within the Masrur temple suggest that it was built by those who cherish ecumenism or henotheism, of the style commonly found in Pancharatra literature of Hinduism.
### Pilgrim resthouse
According to Hargreaves, when he visited the temple for the first time in 1913, the temple complex had a dharmashala (pilgrim's resthouse), a kitchen and there was a priest for whom there was a small integrated living quarters. The temple work was priest's part-time work, while his main source of livelihood was from maintaining cattle and working in farms.
### Analysis and interpretation
The Masrur temple and the 8th-century Prasat Ak Yum temple found in Siam Reap, Cambodia have parallels, in that both are temple mountains with a symmetric design.
## Legends
According to a local legend, the Pandavas of Mahabharata fame resided here during their "incognito" exile from their kingdom and built this temple. According to Khan, the identity and location of Pandavas was exposed, so they shifted from here. This is said to be why the temple complex was left unfinished. Sometime in the 20th century, someone introduced three small blackstone statues inside the shrine which faces east. These are of Rama, Lakshmana and Sita of the Ramayana fame.
At least since the time Harold Hargreaves visited the temple in 1913, the central temple has been locally called the Thakurdvara.
## See also
- Lakshana Devi Temple, Bharmour – a wooden temple in Himachal Pradesh dated to about 700 CE
- Martand Sun Temple
|
64,149,943 |
George Brian Sinclair
| 1,164,914,532 |
British Army officer (1928–2020)
|
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"2020 deaths",
"British Army major generals",
"Commanders of the Order of the British Empire",
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Major-General George "Gus" Brian Sinclair CB CBE DL (21 July 1928 – 17 May 2020) was a British Army officer. After the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst Sinclair joined the Royal Engineers in 1948. He served in Korea during the aftermath of the Korean War and was quickly appointed adjutant of his regiment. Sinclair served as adjutant of the British garrison on Kiritimati for the Operation Grapple thermonuclear weapon tests. From 1969 he was Commander Royal Engineers Near East Land Forces, based at the Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia and was responsible for recovering buildings from a British training base abandoned in the aftermath of the 1969 Libyan coup d'état.
Sinclair served as head of the general staff of I Corps, British Army of the Rhine in the late 1970s. He was Engineer in Chief (Army) from 1980 to 1983. During this time Sinclair served on the Falkland Islands in the aftermath of the 1982 war and was responsible for persuading the government to construct a new runway (that became RAF Mount Pleasant) rather than improving the existing Stanley airfield. Sinclair retired in 1983 but retained a connection to the military through honorary appointments with the Corps of Royal Engineers, the Airfield Damage Repair Squadrons, Royal Engineers (Volunteers) and the Engineer and Railway Staff Corps. In civilian life he worked for Tarmac Group on the construction of the Channel Tunnel and was a member of the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers.
## Early life and career
George Brian Sinclair was born in Shirley, Warwickshire, (now in the West Midlands) on 21 July 1928 to Thomas Stoddart Sinclair, a civil engineer and businessman, and his wife Blanche. He attended Christ's College, Finchley and, from 1945, the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst to train as a British Army officer. Whilst there Sinclair acquired the nickname "Gus" in unclear circumstance, but by which he became best known. Sinclair was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Royal Engineers on 21 October 1948 and spent the next two years in a training regiment. He was promoted to lieutenant on 21 October 1950 and given command of a troop of 25 Field Squadron, which was then a sub-unit of 27 Field Engineer Regiment with the British Army of the Rhine. Sinclair afterwards served as intelligence and signals officer of the regiment.
Sinclair was posted to Korea in 1953, though he queried his orders as they had been sent after the Korean War had ended in a ceasefire. Upon reporting to his unit, 28 Field Engineer Regiment, he found his arrival was unexpected and, with no military tasks requiring his attention, he was put to work designing a sewerage system for a civilian village. Sinclair found more conventional military employment after his appointment as adjutant when the previous incumbent was dismissed for unsuitable behaviour. Sinclair was promoted to captain on 21 October 1954 and left Korea the following year.
## Operation Grapple
In 1956 Sinclair was appointed a staff officer to Major-General John Woollett, the chief engineer of Operation Grapple, the first attempted detonation of a British-made thermonuclear weapon (hydrogen bomb). In this role he was responsible for constructing an airfield and air-conditioned bomb-storage facilities at Malden Island in the British colony of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands. The tests in May and June did not reach achieve megaton equivalence and were regarded as failures; a series of additional tests were ordered at Kiritimati, some 400 miles (640 km) to the north. Sinclair was appointed adjutant of the Royal Engineer regiment supporting these tests. He disputed orders from the Ministry of Defence (MoD), requiring him to arrange for the island's entire 100-mile (160 km) coastline to be patrolled against landings by Soviet spies. Sinclair considered that five infantry battalions would be required to achieve this; this was disputed by the MoD who sent out a Royal Air Force group captain to investigate. This officer agreed with Sinclair's assessment and the patrol orders were subsequently rescinded. Operation Grapple successfully delivered a megaton-level explosion in November.
Sinclair directly witnessed a number of nuclear tests during Operation Grapple, and in the late 1970s was asked to provide evidence in the case of a sergeant who died from leukaemia. The sergeant's widow claimed he had contracted the cancer as a result of his official duties of photographing the tests. Sinclair supported the widow and provided evidence that the sergeant had been in close proximity to the test sites, despite pressure from an MoD permanent under-secretary not to become involved in the case.
## Senior roles
Sinclair was promoted to major on 21 October 1961 and to lieutenant colonel 30 June 1967. In 1969 he was appointed Commander Royal Engineers Near East Land Forces, based at the Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia. Following the September 1969 Libyan coup d'état in which King Idris was deposed by Colonel Gaddafi, the MoD issued orders to abandon a base in the Libyan desert, which had been intended for use in training British forces. Sinclair argued that the buildings erected at the site were valuable and could be used at other British bases. He flew to the site with Air Marshal Denis Smallwood, Air Officer Commanding-in-Chief, Near East Air Force, and his subsequent report persuaded the MoD to authorise the recovery of 85 Twynham huts, 2 aircraft hangars and a number of storage sheds. Sinclair returned from Cyprus in 1971.
Sinclair was promoted colonel on 30 June 1972 and by 1 January 1975, when he was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 1975 New Year Honours, held a position at the MoD. He was afterwards appointed as head of the general staff of I Corps, stationed in Germany with the British Army of the Rhine. Sinclair was promoted to brigadier on 30 June 1975 and the following year became commandant of the Royal School of Military Engineering in Chatham. During this posting Sinclair was attacked by a mugger on Chatham Common and fought off his assailant. Sinclair was appointed Engineer in Chief (Army) on 1 July 1980 and granted the acting rank of major general. His rank was confirmed as substantive on 29 November 1980, with seniority backdated to 1 April 1980.
## The Falklands and retirement
Sinclair played an important role in the reconstruction of the Falkland Islands after the 1982 war ended in June and became known among the British forces on the islands as "that Sapper brigadier who solves problems and gets things done". A key task was to get the runway at Stanley airfield repaired and improved for use Phantom fighter jets. These could take over air defence duties from the Royal Navy's Sea Harriers and allow the two aircraft carriers, which had been on active duty since April, to return to home waters. British prime minister Margaret Thatcher was keen for the army to carry out the necessary works so that the money would come from the defence budget. Sinclair found that the necessary work could not take place while the runway was in use for other traffic and recommended instead that a new runway be built elsewhere by civilian contractors from general government funds. The funding issue brought Sinclair into dispute with the defence secretary John Nott, during which Sinclair came close to resigning his commission. In January 1983 Michael Heseltine was appointed as Nott's successor and resolved the matter. Heseltine asked Sinclair to clear the current runway of mines and install metal matting to allow temporary use by Phantoms of No. 23 Squadron RAF and Hercules transport aircraft; work on a permanent replacement (RAF Mount Pleasant) was begun by contractors in 1983. In recognition of his work in the Falklands Sinclair was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath in the 1983 New Year Honours.
Sinclair was appointed to the honorary and ceremonial role of colonel commandant of the Corps of Royal Engineers on 25 March 1983. On 18 April his appointment as engineer in chief ended and he retired from the army on 13 June. After retirement Sinclair worked for the contractor Tarmac Group, including during the construction of the Channel Tunnel (1988–1994). He was appointed honorary colonel of the Airfield Damage Repair Squadrons, Royal Engineers (Volunteers) of the Territorial Army on 1 May 1984. On 23 July 1988 Sinclair was appointed honorary colonel of the Engineer and Railway Staff Corps, a unit of civilian experts that provide engineering and logistics advice to the army. His honorary appointment with the Airfield Damage Repair Squadrons ended on 30 November 1988; with the Corps of Royal Engineers on 26 March 1991 and with the renamed Engineer and Transport Staff Corps on 28 October 1993.
## Personal life and other interests
Sinclair married Margaret Richardson from Armagh, Northern Ireland, in 1953; they had two sons and a daughter together. Margaret died in 2011. In retirement Sinclair lived at St Boswells in the Scottish Borders where he enjoyed walking.
Sinclair was admitted as a member of the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers, a dining and discussion group, in 1985. From 1990 to 2000 he served as a trustee of the Imperial War Museum and contributed to a documentary about Britain's nuclear programme. Sinclair also worked at the Staff College, Camberley where he organised battlefield tours for the students. On 1 March 1996 he was appointed deputy lieutenant for the county of Kent. Sinclair wrote The Staff Corps: The History of the Engineer and Logistic Staff Corps RE which was published by the Royal Engineers Museum in 2001. He collaborated with Colonel D.J. Hindle to produce a second edition in 2015 to mark the 150th anniversary of the corps.
Sinclair died on 17 May 2020.
|
13,222,766 |
Jay Barbree
| 1,156,461,281 |
American journalist (1933–2021)
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"American broadcast news analysts",
"American male journalists",
"American television reporters and correspondents",
"Military personnel from Georgia (U.S. state)",
"NBC News people",
"People from Early County, Georgia",
"People from Merritt Island, Florida"
] |
Jay Barbree (November 26, 1933 – May 14, 2021) was an American correspondent for NBC News, focusing on space travel. He was the only journalist to have covered every non-commercial human space mission in the United States, beginning with the first American in space, Alan Shepard aboard Freedom 7 in 1961, continuing through to the last mission of the Space Shuttle, Atlantis's STS-135 mission in July 2011. He was present for all 135 Space Shuttle launches, and every crewed launch for the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo eras. In all, he witnessed 166 human space launches.
## Early life
Barbree grew up on his family's farm in Early County, Georgia, and entered the United States Air Force in 1950, when he was 16 years of age. Following the Air Force, Barbree began his broadcast journalism career at WALB in Albany, Georgia, where, in 1957, he saw Sputnik's spent booster rocket orbiting in the sky and then wrote radio and television reports about the Soviet Union's launch of the first artificial satellite.
## Career
### Reporting
Barbree was so interested in the space program that he paid for his own ticket to get to Cape Canaveral in Florida in 1957 to watch the attempted Vanguard TV-3 launch. The failed launch was one Barbree did not forget: "There's ignition. We can see the flames", Barbree reported. "Vanguard's engine is lit and it's burning. But wait... wait a moment, there's... there's no liftoff! It appears to be crumbling in its own fire... It's burning on the pad... Vanguard has crumbled into flames. It failed ladies and gentlemen, Vanguard has failed".
Early the next year, he returned and witnessed the successful launch of Explorer 1 on January 31, 1958, all the while calling in his reports to WALB. Eventually, Barbree was hired by radio station WEZY in Cocoa Beach, Florida, and worked as a traffic reporter, covering the space program as well.
Six months later, Barbree joined NBC as a part-time space program reporter, eventually moving up to full-time. Over the years, Barbree had been offered the opportunity to move to Washington, D.C., or New York City, but he turned down every offer, preferring to stay and report on what had quickly become his passion, spaceflight: "This is a job where ... you have to be, whether you like it or not, a certain member of the space family".
In 1958, while in a restroom, Barbree overheard a general and a NASA official talking about an upcoming launch called "Project SCORE", one of the earliest American satellites. This would become one of Barbree's many scoops, when after a bit of digging, he found that President Dwight D. Eisenhower would use the satellite to broadcast a pre-recorded Christmas message from outer space. When SCORE launched in 1958, Barbree broadcast the story, knowing the military would not deny it once the satellite was in space.
In the early days of the space program, astronauts and reporters would often socialize together in Cocoa Beach, and had a very different relationship than they do today. Barbree described his relationship with the astronauts as a friend and confidant, often going out to dinner with them, or socializing together when the astronauts were in town. In his book, Barbree wrote that in 1961 Alan Shepard told him an "off the record" fact: he was going to be the first American astronaut in space. Barbree noted that if he were to report this, it would not only jeopardize the friendships, but possibly his career as well, so he said nothing. Barbree also recounts a conversation with Gus Grissom about the astronaut's concerns regarding Apollo not long before the fatal Apollo 1 fire. Barbree's association with the astronauts had some unexpected bonuses as well: Neil Armstrong carried a gold coin to the Moon on Apollo 11 for Barbree, and Pete Conrad flew several flags and patches on Apollo 12, which Barbree later handed out to friends.
In the early 1980s, when NASA developed the Teacher in Space program, a similar initiative, Journalist in Space, was developed. Barbree was one of forty finalists to be selected as a Journalist in Space.
In 1986, following the Space Shuttle Challenger accident, Barbree placed a telephone call to a friend and retired employee of NASA, who — as a favor to Barbree — went to Kennedy Space Center, looked over the accident information and analysis being done, and reported the early findings to Barbree. Consequently, Barbree was the first journalist to report on the source of the destruction of the Space Shuttle Challenger: faulty O-rings. He was also part of the NBC News Space Unit that won an Emmy award for NBC's coverage of the Apollo 11 Moon landing. Following the 2003 Space Shuttle Columbia accident, Barbree was the first reporter to break the news of an internal NASA memo expressing concerns about foam striking the orbiter's left wing during ascent.
In 1995, NASA awarded him with recognition for being the "only journalist known to have covered all 100 flights". Among those present for the ceremony were several NASA officials, Alan Shepard, and Space Shuttle commander Robert L. Gibson.
In 2011, Barbree was honored by the Space Foundation as a recipient of the Douglas S. Morrow Public Outreach Award in recognition of the role he played in shaping the way the nation views and understands space.
Barbree was one of the longest-serving network correspondents to work continuously on a single subject. He started working for NBC on July 21, 1958, covering the space program, and remained on that beat until his retirement in 2017. He never missed a mission launch, despite suffering a heart attack while jogging along Cocoa Beach in 1987, and being declared clinically dead for several minutes. Following his heart attack, he had bypass surgery, and still did not miss any launches.
In 2018, Barbree received NASA's Chroniclers Award with his name added to The Chroniclers wall at the Kennedy Space Center Press Site. His name, however, was later removed.
### Writing
Barbree was the author or coauthor of eight books, including two memoirs. In 1993, Shepard, fellow Mercury astronaut Deke Slayton, journalist Howard Benedict, and Barbree collaborated to write the book Moon Shot: The Inside Story of America's Race to the Moon. Slayton was a participant in name only and died before the book was completed.
Barbree's book Live from Cape Canaveral: Covering the Space Race, from Sputnik to Today was released on August 28, 2007, to coincide with the 50th anniversary of spaceflight, which began with the Sputnik 1 launch on October 4, 1957. The foreword is written by Tom Brokaw. Barbree's book attempts to illustrate how the media has changed in their coverage of the space programs, from early enthusiasm to relative disinterest. Barbree said he wrote the book because as he looked back over his career, when recalling all the people he had worked with, very few were left. "There are an awful lot of guys ... who were here for the early days, and they're no longer here ... So I thought, well, if that story is going to be told, I've got to do it". He said that he stayed away from sensationalizing the space program, or those associated with it, and commented that he would not put some items that could be considered harmful into his newest book, stating "The whole idea of the book is not to hurt somebody". Barbree attempts to illustrate this in his memoir by telling of a private investigator who approached him with an audio tape which allegedly contained proof of an extramarital affair involving an astronaut. Barbree told the investigator he would speak to his superiors, but then proceeded to erase the tape.
Barbree also collaborated with Martin Caidin on a number of non-fiction works, such as Destination Mars: In Art, Myth and Science (Penguin, 1997, ) and A Journey Through Time: Exploring the Universe with the Hubble Space Telescope (Penguin, 1995, ). Barbree also wrote the novelization of "Pilot Error", an episode of The Six Million Dollar Man, a television series based upon Caidin's novel Cyborg (Warner, 1975, ).
## Personal life
Barbree married Jo Reisinger, whom he met while covering her participation in Florida beauty pageants, in 1960. They lived in Merritt Island. They had three children, Steve, Alicia, and Karla. Their son Scott died in infancy following a premature birth.
Barbree died in Florida aged 87 on May 14, 2021.
|
3,413,126 |
Feologild
| 1,073,026,928 |
9th-century Archbishop of Canterbury
|
[
"832 deaths",
"9th-century English archbishops",
"Archbishops of Canterbury",
"Year of birth unknown"
] |
Feologild (or Feologeld; died 832) was a medieval English clergyman. He was probably elected Archbishop of Canterbury, although controversy surrounds his election. Some modern historians argue that instead of being elected, he was merely an unsuccessful candidate for the office. He died soon after his consecration, if indeed he was consecrated.
## Background
In 803 at the Council of Clovesho, Æthelhard, the Archbishop of Canterbury, succeeded in demoting the Archbishopric of Lichfield back down to a bishopric. It had previously been promoted to a higher status by King Offa of Mercia, partly due to conflicts Offa had with Æthelhard's predecessor Jænberht. This action restored the original episcopal scheme of Pope Gregory the Great, with Canterbury the head of the Church in the southern section of the island with twelve subordinate bishops.
Æthelhard's successor was Wulfred, who fought with a later king of Mercia, Coenwulf, but the cause of contention is unknown. The king and archbishop were reconciled by 823, but by 827 the Kingdom of Wessex had conquered Kent and taken control of Canterbury from the Mercian kings. The archbishopric then lost influence in secular affairs due to the change in rulers. Wulfred died in March 832.
## Life
Feologild attended the Council of Clovesho in 803, and was listed on the acts of that council as an abbot of a Kentish monastery.
According to the editors of the Handbook of British Chronology, he was elected to the see of Canterbury in early 832 and consecrated on 9 June 832, as a successor to Wulfred, although they qualify this statement with a "?" in their lists. The Handbook gives his successor as "Suithred", and note that he may have been a rival to Feologild. The historian Nicholas Brooks instead suggests that there was a disputed election after the death of Wulfred, and Feologild was one of the contenders. The historian Simon Keynes holds that the other contestant was Suithred (Swithred) who the historian William Hunt in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography argues is identical with Feologild. Swithred is listed as archbishop in some early lists of the archbishops of Canterbury. The Anglican Church also considers him to be one of the archbishops of Canterbury, listing him as the 16th archbishop on their website.
While some documentation survives from Canterbury in the ninth century, including a number of charters from Feologild's predecessors and successors, the literary works from later periods that cover the period are prone to fabricating information to fill in gaps in the record.
Feologild died on 30 August 832, soon after his consecration, if in fact he was consecrated. The next archbishop was Ceolnoth, who worked to establish better relations with the monarchs of Wessex, apparently successfully. Another problem for Feologild's immediate successors as archbishop were Viking invasions, as Viking raids are attested in Kent from 835.
|
16,854 |
Kuala Lumpur
| 1,172,907,725 |
Federal territory and capital city of Malaysia
|
[
"1857 establishments in Asia",
"Capital districts and territories",
"Capitals in Asia",
"Cities in Malaysia",
"Enclaves and exclaves",
"Federal Territories in Malaysia",
"Klang Valley",
"Kuala Lumpur",
"Peninsular Malaysia",
"Populated places established in 1857"
] |
Kuala Lumpur (), officially the Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur (Malay: Wilayah Persekutuan Kuala Lumpur) and colloquially referred to as KL, is a federal territory and the capital city of Malaysia. It is one of the fastest-growing cities in Asia and the largest city in Malaysia, covering an area of 243 km<sup>2</sup> (94 sq mi) with a census population of 1,982,112 as of 2020. Greater Kuala Lumpur, also known as the Klang Valley, is an urban agglomeration of 7.564 million people as of 2018. It is among the fastest growing metropolitan regions in Southeast Asia, both in population and economic development.
The city serves as the cultural, financial, and economic centre of Malaysia. It is also home to the Parliament of Malaysia and the Istana Negara, the official residence of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong (monarch of Malaysia). Kuala Lumpur first developed around 1857 as a town serving the tin mines of the region and served as the capital of Selangor from 1880 until 1978. Kuala Lumpur was the founding capital of the Federation of Malaya and its successor, Malaysia. The city remained the seat of the executive and judicial branches of the Malaysian federal government until these were relocated to Putrajaya in early 1999. However, some sections of the political bodies still remain in Kuala Lumpur. The city is one of the three federal territories of Malaysia, enclaved within the state of Selangor, on the central west coast of Peninsular Malaysia.
Since the 1990s, the city has played host to many international sporting, political and cultural events, including the 1998 Commonwealth Games and the 2017 Southeast Asian Games. Kuala Lumpur has undergone rapid development in recent decades and is home to the tallest twin buildings in the world, the Petronas Towers, which have since become an iconic symbol of Malaysian development. Kuala Lumpur is well connected with neighboring urban regions such as Petaling Jaya via the rapidly expanding Klang Valley Integrated Transit System. Residents of the city can also travel to other parts of Malaysia through KL Sentral.
Kuala Lumpur is one of the leading cities in the world for tourism and shopping and was the 6th most-visited city in the world in 2019. The city houses three of the world's ten largest shopping malls. Kuala Lumpur ranks 70th in the world and second in Southeast Asia for the Economist Intelligence Unit's Global Liveability Ranking and ninth in ASPAC and second in Southeast Asia for KPMG's Leading Technology Innovation Hub 2021. Kuala Lumpur was named World Book Capital 2020 by UNESCO.
## Etymology
Kuala Lumpur means "muddy confluence" in Malay; Kuala is the point where two rivers join or an estuary, and lumpur means "mud". One suggestion is that it was named after Sungai Lumpur ("muddy river"); in the 1820s a place named Sungei Lumpoor was said to be the most important tin-producing settlement up the Klang River. However this derivation does not account for this: Kuala Lumpur lies at the confluence of Gombak River and Klang River, and therefore should be named Kuala Gombak, since the kuala is typically named after the river that joins a larger river or the sea. Some have argued that Sungai Lumpur in fact extended down to the confluence and therefore the point where it joined the Klang River would be Kuala Lumpur, although this Sungai Lumpur is said to be another river joining the Klang River 1.5 kilometres (1 mile) upstream from the Gombak confluence, or perhaps located to the north of the Batu Caves area.
It has also been proposed that Kuala Lumpur was originally named Pengkalan Lumpur ("muddy landing place") in the same way that Klang was once called Pengkalan Batu ("stone landing place"), but became corrupted into Kuala Lumpur. Another theory says that it was initially a Cantonese word, lam-pa, meaning 'flooded jungle' or 'decayed jungle'. There is no firm contemporary evidence for these suggestions other than anecdotes. The name may also be a corrupted form of an earlier forgotten name.
## History
### Early years
The Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society states that Raja Abdullah (who was involved in the Klang War) founded Kuala Lumpur, aside from also opening up tin-mines up river and had introduced the Chinese into the region. Chinese miners were involved in tin mining up the Selangor River in the 1840s about 16 kilometres (10 miles) north of present-day Kuala Lumpur, and Mandailing Sumatrans led by and Sutan Puasa were also involved in tin mining and trade in the Ulu Klang region before 1860, and Sumatrans may have settled in the upper reaches of Klang River in the first quarter of the 19th century, or possibly earlier. Kuala Lumpur was originally a small hamlet of just a few houses and shops at the confluence of the Sungai Gombak and Sungai Klang (Klang River). Kuala Lumpur became established as a town c. 1857, when the Malay Chief of Klang, Raja Abdullah bin Raja Jaafar, aided by his brother Raja Juma'at of Lukut, raised funds from Malaccan Chinese businessmen to hire Chinese miners from Lukut to open new tin mines there. The miners landed at Kuala Lumpur and continued on foot to Ampang, where they opened the first mine. Kuala Lumpur was the furthest point up the Klang River to which supplies could conveniently be brought by boat, and therefore became a collection and dispersal point serving the tin mines.
Despite a high death toll from the malarial conditions of the jungle, the Ampang mines succeeded, and exported the first tin in 1859. At that time, Sutan Puasa was already trading near Ampang. Two traders from Lukut, Hiu Siew and Yap Ah Sze, arrived in Kuala Lumpur and set up shops to sell provisions to miners in exchange for tin. The town, spurred on by tin-mining, started to develop around Old Market Square (Medan Pasar), with roads radiating out towards Ampang as well as Pudu and Batu (the destinations became the names of these roads: Ampang Road, Pudu Road, and Batu Road), where miners had also begun to settle in, and Petaling and Damansara. The miners formed gangs and the gangs frequently fought in this period, particularly factions of Kuala Lumpur and Kanching, mainly over control of the best tin mines. Leaders of the Chinese community were conferred the title of Kapitan Cina (Chinese headman) by the Malay chief, and Hiu Siew, the early Chinese trader, became the first Kapitan of Kuala Lumpur. The third Chinese Kapitan of Kuala Lumpur, Yap Ah Loy, was appointed in 1868.
Important Malay figures of early Kuala Lumpur also included Haji Mohamed Tahir, who became the Dato Dagang ("chief of traders"). The Minangkabaus of Sumatra became another important group who traded and established tobacco plantations in the area. Notable Minangkabaus included their headman, Dato' Sati, Utsman Abdullah, and Haji Mohamed Taib, who was involved in the early development of Kampung Baru. The Minangkabaus were also significant socio-religious figures, for example Utsman bin Abdullah was the first kadi of Kuala Lumpur, as well as Muhammad Nur bin Ismail.
### Beginning of modern Kuala Lumpur
Early Kuala Lumpur was a small town that suffered from many social and political problems – the buildings were made of wood and 'atap' (palm frond thatching). The buildings were prone to catching fire, and due to a lack of proper sanitation the town was plagued with diseases. It also suffered from a constant threat of flooding due to its location. The town became embroiled in the Selangor Civil War in part over control of revenue from the tin mines. Yap Ah Loy allied himself with and the Hai San secret society, they fought against a rival secret society, Ghee Hin, whom allied themselves with Raja Mahdi. Raja Asal and Sutan Puasa switched sides to Raja Mahdi, and Kuala Lumpur was captured in 1872 and burnt to the ground. Yap escaped to Klang where he assembled another fighting force and recaptured Kuala Lumpur in March 1873, defeating Raja Mahdi's forces with the help of fighters from Pahang. The war and other setbacks, such as dropping tin prices, led to a slump. A major outbreak of cholera caused many to flee. The slump lasted until late 1879, when rising prices for tin allowed the town to recover. In late 1881, the town was severely flooded, after a fire that had destroyed the entire town in January. With the town being rebuilt a few times and having thrived, this was due in large to Yap Ah Loy. Yap, together with Frank Swettenham who was appointed the Resident in 1882, were the two most important figures of early Kuala Lumpur with Swettenham credited with its rapid growth and development and its transformation into a major urban centre.
The early Chinese and Malay settled along the east bank of the Klang River. The Chinese mainly settled around the commercial centre of Market Square. The Malays, and later Indian Chettiars and Muslims, resided in the Java Street area, now Jalan Tun Perak. In 1880, the colonial administration moved the state capital of Selangor from Klang to the more strategically advantageous Kuala Lumpur, and British Resident William Bloomfield Douglas decided to locate the government buildings and living quarters to the west of the river. Government offices and a new police headquarters were built on Bukit Aman, and the Padang initially created for police training. The Padang, now known as Merdeka Square, would later become the centre of the British administrative offices when the colonial government offices moved to the Sultan Abdul Samad Building in 1897.
Frank Swettenham, on becoming the British Resident, began improving the town by cleaning up the streets. He also stipulated in 1884 that buildings should be constructed of brick and tile so that they would be less flammable, and that the town be rebuilt with wider streets to reduce fire risk. Kapitan Yap Ah Loy bought a sprawling piece of real estate to set up a brick factory for the rebuilding of Kuala Lumpur, the eponymous Brickfields. Demolished atap buildings were replaced with brick and tile buildings, and many of the new brick buildings had "five-foot ways" and Chinese carpentry work. This resulted in a distinct eclectic shop house architecture typical to this region. Kapitan Yap Ah Loy expanded road access, linking tin mines with the city with the main arterial routes of the present Ampang Road, Pudu Road and Petaling Street. As Chinese Kapitan, he held wide powers on a par with Malay community leaders. Law reforms were implemented and new legal measures introduced to the assembly. Yap also presided over a small claims court. With a police force of six, he was able to uphold the rule of law, constructing a prison that could accommodate sixty prisoners at a time. Yap Ah Loy also built Kuala Lumpur's first school and a major tapioca mill in Petaling Street, in which the Selangor's Sultan Abdul Samad held an interest.
A railway line between Kuala Lumpur and Klang, initiated by Swettenham and completed in 1886, increased access and resulted in rapid growth. The population grew from 4,500 in 1884 to 20,000 in 1890. As development intensified in the 1880s, putting pressure on sanitation, waste disposal and other health measures. A Sanitary Board created on 14 May 1890 was responsible for sanitation, road upkeep, street lighting, and other functions. This would eventually become the Kuala Lumpur Municipal Council. In 1896, Kuala Lumpur was chosen as the capital of the newly formed Federated Malay States.
### 20th century–present
Kuala Lumpur expanded considerably in the 20th century. It was 0.65 km<sup>2</sup> (0.25 sq mi) in 1895, but was extended to encompass 20 km<sup>2</sup> (7.7 sq mi) in 1903. By the time it became a municipality in 1948 it had expanded to 93 km<sup>2</sup> (36 sq mi), and then to 243 km<sup>2</sup> (94 sq mi) in 1974 as a Federal Territory.
The development of a rubber industry in Selangor fueled by the demand for car tyres in the early 20th century led to a boom, and the population of Kuala Lumpur increased from 30,000 in 1900 to 80,000 in 1920. The commercial activities of Kuala Lumpur had been run to a large extent by Chinese businessmen such as Loke Yew, who was then the richest and most influential Chinese in Kuala Lumpur. The growth of the rubber industry led to an influx of foreign capital and planters, with new companies and industries becoming established in Kuala Lumpur, and other companies previously based elsewhere also found a presence here.
During World War II, Kuala Lumpur was captured by the Imperial Japanese Army on 11 January 1942. Despite suffering little damage during the course of the battle, the wartime occupation of the city resulted in significant loss of lives; at least 5,000 Chinese were killed in Kuala Lumpur in just a few weeks of occupation by Japanese forces, and thousands of Indians were sent as forced labour to work on the Burma Railway where many died. They occupied the city until 15 August 1945, when the commander in chief of the Japanese Seventh Area Army in Singapore and Malaysia, Seishirō Itagaki, surrendered to the British administration following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Kuala Lumpur grew during the war, and continued after the war during the Malayan Emergency (1948–1960), during which Malaya was preoccupied with a communist insurgency and New Villages were established on the outskirts of the city.
The first municipal election in Kuala Lumpur was held on 16 February 1952. An ad hoc alliance between the Malay UMNO and Chinese MCA party candidates won a majority of the seats, and this led to the formation of the Alliance Party (later the Barisan Nasional). On 31 August 1957, the Federation of Malaya gained its independence from British rule. The British flag was lowered and the Malayan flag raised for the first time at the Padang at midnight on 30 August 1957, and on the morning of 31 August, the ceremony for the Declaration of Independence was held at the Merdeka Stadium by the first Prime Minister of Malaya, Tunku Abdul Rahman. Kuala Lumpur remained the capital after the formation of Malaysia on 16 September 1963. The Malaysian Houses of Parliament were completed at the edge of the Lake Gardens in 1963.
Kuala Lumpur had seen a number of civil disturbances over the years. A riot in 1897 was a relatively minor affair that began with the confiscation of faulty dacing (a scale used by traders), and in 1912, a more serious disturbance called the tauchang riot began during the Chinese New Year with the cutting of pigtails and ended with rioting and factional fighting lasting a number of days. The worst rioting on record in Malaysia, however, occurred on 13 May 1969, when race riots broke out in Kuala Lumpur. The so-called 13 May Incident included violent conflicts between members of the Malay and the Chinese communities, the result of Malaysian dissatisfaction with their socio-political status. The riots caused the deaths of 196 people, according to official figures, and led to major changes in the country's economic policy to promote and prioritise Malay economic development over that of other ethnicities.
#### City, Federal Territory, Greater Kuala Lumpur
Kuala Lumpur achieved city status on 1 February 1972, becoming the first settlement in Malaysia to be granted the status after independence. Later, on 1 February 1974, Kuala Lumpur became a federal territory. The territory of Kuala Lumpur expanded to 96 square miles by absorbing the surrounding areas. Kuala Lumpur was ceded by Selangor to be directly controlled by the central government, and it ceased to be capital of Selangor in 1978 after the city of Shah Alam was declared the new state capital.
On 14 May 1990, Kuala Lumpur celebrated the centennial of the local council. The new federal territory Kuala Lumpur flag and anthem were introduced. Putrajaya was declared a Federal Territory on 1 February 2001, as well as the seat of the federal government. The administrative and judicial functions of the government were shifted from Kuala Lumpur to Putrajaya. Kuala Lumpur however still retained its legislative function, and remained the home of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong (Constitutional King).
From the 1990s onwards, major urban developments in the Klang Valley extended the Kuala Lumpur metropolitan area. This area, known as Greater Kuala Lumpur, extends from the Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur westward to Port Klang, east to the edge of the Titiwangsa Mountains as well as to the north and south. The area covers other administratively separate towns and cities such as Klang, Shah Alam, Putrajaya and others, and is served by the Klang Valley Integrated Transit System. Notable projects undertaken within Kuala Lumpur itself include the development of a new Kuala Lumpur City Centre around Jalan Ampang and the Petronas Towers.
## Geography
The geography of Kuala Lumpur is characterised by the huge Klang Valley, bordered by the Titiwangsa Mountains in the east, several minor ranges in the north and the south, and the Strait of Malacca in the west. Kuala Lumpur is a Malay term that translates to "muddy confluence" and is located at the confluence of the Klang and Gombak rivers which flow into the Selangor River.
Located in the centre of Selangor state, Kuala Lumpur was a territory of Selangor State Government. In 1974, Kuala Lumpur was split off from Selangor to form the first Federal Territory governed directly by the Malaysian federal government. Its location in the most developed state on the west coast of peninsular Malaysia, which has a wider stretch of flat land than the east coast, has helped it develop faster than other cities in Malaysia. The municipality covers an area of 243 km<sup>2</sup> (94 sq mi), with an average elevation of 81.95 m (268 ft 10 in) highest point being Bukit Nanas at 94 meters above sea level.
### Climate and weather
Protected by the Titiwangsa Range in the east and Indonesia's Sumatra Island in the west, Kuala Lumpur is sheltered from strong winds and has a tropical rainforest climate (Köppen climate classification Af), hot, humid and sunny, with abundant rainfall, especially during the northeast monsoon season from October to March. Temperatures tend to remain constant. Maximums hover between 32 and 35 °C (90 and 95 °F) and sometimes topping 38 °C (100.4 °F), while minimums hover between 23.4 and 24.6 °C (74.1 and 76.3 °F) and have never fallen below 17.8 °C (64.0 °F). Kuala Lumpur typically receives at least 2,600 mm (100 in) of rain annually; June to August are relatively dry, but even then rainfall typically exceeds 131 millimetres (5.2 in) a month.
Floods are frequent in Kuala Lumpur after heavy downpours, especially in the city centre, because irrigation structure lags behind the intense development in the city. Smoke from forest fires in nearby Sumatra and Kalimantan sometimes casts a haze over the region, and is a major source of pollution, along with open burning, motor vehicle emissions, and construction.
## Governance
Kuala Lumpur was administered by a corporation sole called the Federal Capital Commissioner from April 1, 1961, until it was awarded city status in 1972, after which executive power transferred to the Lord Mayor (Datuk Bandar). 14 mayors have been appointed since then. The current mayor is Kamarulzaman Mat Salleh, who has been in office since 17 April 2023.
### Local government
The local administration is carried out by the Kuala Lumpur City Hall, an agency under the Federal Territories Ministry of Malaysia. It is responsible for public health and sanitation, waste removal and management, town planning, environmental protection and building control, social and economic development, and general maintenance functions of urban infrastructure. Executive power lies with the mayor in the city hall, who is appointed for three years by the Federal Territories Minister. This system of appointing the mayor has been in place ever since the local government elections were suspended in 1970.
### Districts
Kuala Lumpur's eleven parliamentary constituencies, with 2020 population, area, density and percentage of the total are congruent with administrative subdivisions under the authority of the Kuala Lumpur City Hall authority.
### Politics
Kuala Lumpur is home to the Parliament of Malaysia. The federal Constitution stipulates the three branches of the Malaysian government: the Executive, Judiciary and Legislative branches. The Parliament consists of the Dewan Negara (Upper House / House of Senate) and Dewan Rakyat (Lower House / House of Representatives).
List of Kuala Lumpur representatives in the Federal Parliament (Dewan Rakyat)
## Economy
Kuala Lumpur and its surrounding urban areas form the most industrialised and economically, the fastest-growing region in Malaysia. Despite the relocation of federal government administration to Putrajaya, certain government institutions such as Bank Negara Malaysia (National Bank of Malaysia), Companies Commission of Malaysia and Securities Commission as well as most embassies and diplomatic missions have remained in the city. The city remains the economic and business hub of the country. Kuala Lumpur is a centre for finance, insurance, real estate, media and the arts of Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur is rated the only global city in Malaysia, according to the Globalization and World Cities Study Group and Network (GaWC).
Bursa Malaysia, or the Malaysia Exchange, is based in the city and forms one of its core economic activities. As of 5 July 2013, the market capitalisation stood at US\$505.67 billion. The gross domestic product (GDP) for Kuala Lumpur is estimated at RM73,536 million in 2008 with an average annual growth rate of 5.9 percent. By 2015, the GDP had reached RM160,388 million, representing 15.1% of the total GDP of Malaysia. The per capita GDP for Kuala Lumpur in 2013 was RM79,752 with an average annual growth rate of 5.6 percent, and RM94,722 in 2015. Average monthly household income is RM9,073 (\~\$2,200) as of 2016, growing at a pace of approximately 6% a year. The service sector, comprising finance, insurance, real estate, business services, wholesale and retail trade, restaurants and hotels, transport, storage and communication, utilities, personal services and government services form the largest component of employment, representing about 83.0 percent of the total. The remaining 17 percent comes from manufacturing and construction.
The large service sector is evident in the number of local and foreign banks and insurance companies operating in the city. Kuala Lumpur is poised to become the global Islamic financing hub with an increasing number of financial institutions providing Islamic financing and the strong presence of Gulf financial institutions such as the world's largest Islamic bank, the Al-Rajhi Bank and Kuwait Finance House. Apart from that, the Dow Jones & Company is keen to work with Bursa Malaysia to set up Islamic Exchange Trade Funds (ETFs), which would help raise Malaysia's profile in the Gulf. The city has a large number of foreign corporations and is also host to many multi national companies' regional offices or support centres, particularly for finance and accounting, and information technology functions. Most of the country's largest companies have their headquarters here, and as of December 2007 and excluding Petronas, there are 14 companies that are listed in Forbes 2000 based in Kuala Lumpur.
There has been growing emphasis on expanding the economic scope of the city in other service activities, such as research and development, which support the rest of the economy of Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur has been home for years to important research centres such as the Rubber Research Institute of Malaysia, the Forest Research Institute Malaysia and the Institute of Medical Research. A new financial district for Kuala Lumpur is currently under construction: the Tun Razak Exchange (TRX), formerly known as Kuala Lumpur International Financial District (KLIFD). The TRX's landmark and prominent building is The Exchange 106 tower. The 70-acre development will be situated in the heart of Kuala Lumpur and will serve international finance and business opportunities. The new financial hub is a strategic enabler of the Malaysian government's Economic Transformation Programme (ETP), an initiative by the Malaysian government to turn Malaysia into a high income economy nation.
### Tourism
Tourism plays an important role in the city's service-driven economy. Many large worldwide hotel chains have a presence in the city. One of the oldest hotels is the Hotel Majestic. Kuala Lumpur is the sixth most visited city in the world, with 8.9 million tourists per year. Tourism here is driven by the city's cultural diversity, relatively low costs, and wide gastronomic and shopping variety. MICE tourism, which mainly encompasses conventions— has expanded in recent years to become a vital component of the industry, and is expected to grow further once the Malaysian government's Economic Transformation Programme kicks in, and with the completion of a new 93,000 square meter-size MATRADE Centre in 2014. The MATRADE agency is also the owner of the Malaysia International Trade And Exhibition Centre (MITEC), the largest trade and exhibition centre of Malaysia, which is a component of the larger KL Metropolis development situated in the suburb of Segambut. Another notable trend is the increased presence of budget hotels in the city.The major tourist destinations in Kuala Lumpur include the Petronas Twin Towers, the Bukit Bintang shopping district, the Kuala Lumpur Tower, Petaling Street (Chinatown), the Merdeka Square, the Kuala Lumpur railway station, the House of Parliament building, the National Palace (Istana Negara), the National Planetarium, the National Science Centre, the National Art Gallery (Balai Seni Negara), the National Theatre (Istana Budaya), the National Museum, the Royal Museum, the National Textile Museum, Islamic Arts Museum, Telekom Museum, Royal Malaysian Police Museum, the National Mosque of Malaysia (Masjid Negara), Federal Territory Mosque (Masjid Wilayah), Sultan Abdul Samad Building, DBKL City Theatre (Panggung Bandaraya), Medan Pasar, Central Market, KL Bird Park, KL Butterfly Park, Aquaria KLCC, Saloma Link (Pintasan Saloma), the National Monument, and religious sites such as the Sultan Abdul Samad Jamek Mosque, Thean Hou Temple and Buddhist Maha Vihara in Brickfields.
Kuala Lumpur plays host to many cultural festivals such as the Thaipusam procession at the Sri Mahamariamman Temple. Every year during the Thaipusam celebration, a silver chariot carrying the statue of Lord Muruga together with his consort Valli and Teivayanni would be paraded through the city beginning at the temple all the way to Batu Caves in the neighboring Gombak, Selangor. The primary entertainment and shopping district of the city is mainly centred in the Golden Triangle encompassing Jalan P. Ramlee, Jalan Sultan Ismail, Jalan Bukit Bintang, Ampang Road and Bintang Walk.
### Retail
Kuala Lumpur alone has 66 shopping malls and is the retail and fashion hub of both Malaysia and Southeast Asia. Shopping in Malaysia contributed RM7.7 billion (US\$2.26 billion) or 20.8 percent of the RM31.9 billion tourism receipts in 2006.
Suria KLCC is one of Malaysia's premier upscale shopping destinations due to its location beneath the Petronas Twin Towers. Apart from Suria KLCC, the Bukit Bintang district has the highest concentration of shopping malls in Kuala Lumpur. It includes: Pavilion KL, Fahrenheit 88, Plaza Low Yat, Berjaya Times Square, Lot 10, Sungei Wang Plaza, Starhill Gallery, Lalaport BBCC, Quill City Mall and Avenue K. Changkat area of Bukit Bintang hosts various cafes, alfresco dining outlets, illegal activities such as prostitution and more. It is best known as one of the red-light districts in Kuala Lumpur. Bangsar district also has a few shopping complexes, including Bangsar Village, Bangsar Shopping Centre, KL Gateway Mall, Bangsar South, KL Eco City Mall, The Gardens and Mid Valley Megamall.
Apart from shopping complexes, Kuala Lumpur has designated numerous zones in the city to market locally manufactured products such as textiles, fabrics and handicrafts especially at Jalan Tuanku Abdul Rahman. Colourful baju kurung and baju kebaya, the traditional clothing of ethnic Malays- can be found here. The Chinatown of Kuala Lumpur, commonly known as Petaling Street, is one of them. Chinatown features many pre-independence buildings with Straits Chinese and colonial architectural influences.
Since 2000, the Malaysian Ministry of Tourism introduced a mega sale event for shopping in Malaysia. The mega sale event is held three times a year – in March, May and December – in which all shopping malls are encouraged to participate to boost Kuala Lumpur as a leading shopping destination in Asia which has been maintained until present with new mega sales.
## Demographics
Kuala Lumpur is the most populous city in Malaysia, with a population of 1.98 million in the city proper as of 2020. It has a population density of 8,157 inhabitants per square kilometre (21,130/sq mi), and is the most densely populated administrative district in Malaysia. Residents of the city are colloquially known as KLites. Kuala Lumpur is also the centre of the wider Klang Valley metropolitan area covering Petaling Jaya, Klang, Subang Jaya, Puchong, Shah Alam, and Gombak, with an estimated metropolitan population of 7.25 million as of 2017.
Kuala Lumpur's heterogeneous populace includes the country's three major ethnic groups: the Malays, the Chinese and the Indians, although the city also has a mix of different cultures including Eurasians, Kadazans, Ibans and other indigenous races from around Malaysia.
### Historical demographics
Historically Kuala Lumpur was a predominantly Chinese city, although more recently the Bumiputera component of the city has grown substantially and they are now the dominant group. The Kuala Lumpur of 1872 beside the Klang River was described by Frank Swettenham as a "purely Chinese village", although a Malay stockade already existed at Bukit Nanas at that time. By 1875, after participation in the Selangor Civil War by Pahang Malays had ended, Swettenham noted Malay quarters near the Chinese area in a sketch map he had drawn. There were said to be 1,000 Chinese and 700 Malays in the town in this period. Many of the Malays may have settled in Kuala Lumpur after the war. The population of Kuala Lumpur had increased to around three thousand in 1880 when it was made the capital of Selangor. A significant component of the Malay population in Kuala Lumpur of this period consisted of Malays recruited by the British in 1880, mostly from rural Malacca, to establish a police force of 2–300, many of whom brought their families. Many of the Malays were originally from the other islands of Malay Archipelago i.e. Sumatra and Java. The Mandailings, the Minangkabaus, Javanese, and Buginese began arriving in Kuala Lumpur in the 19th century, while the Acehnese arrived in the late 20th century. In the following decades that saw the rebuilding of the town, it grew considerably with a large influx of immigrants, due in large part to the construction of a railway line in 1886 connecting Kuala Lumpur and Klang.
A census in 1891 of uncertain accuracy gave a figure of 43,796 inhabitants, 79% of whom were Chinese (71% of the Chinese were Hakka, but possibly over-counted), 14% Malay, and 6% Indian. Another perhaps more accurate estimate put the population of Kuala Lumpur in 1890 at 20,000. The rubber boom in the early 20th century led to a further increase in population, from 30,000 in 1900 to 80,000 in 1920. In 1931, 61% of Kuala Lumpur's 111,418 inhabitants were Chinese, and in 1947 63.5%. The Malays however began to settle in Kuala Lumpur in significant numbers, in part due to government employment, as well as the expansion of the city that absorbed the surrounding rural areas where many Malays lived. Between 1947 and 1957 the population of Malays in Kuala Lumpur increased from 12.5 to 15%, while the proportion of Chinese dropped. The process continued after Malayan independence with the growth of a largely Malay civil service, and later the implementation of the New Economic Policy which encouraged Malay participation in urban industries and business. In 1980 the population of Kuala Lumpur had reached over a million, with 52% Chinese, 33% Malay, and 15% Indian. From 1980 to 2000 the number of Bumiputeras increased by 77%, but the Chinese still outnumbered the Bumiputeras in Kuala Lumpur in the 2000 census at 43% compared to 38%. By the 2010 census, according to the Department of Statistics and excluding non-citizens, the Malay population in Kuala Lumpur had increased to 44.7% (45.9% Bumiputera), exceeding the Chinese population of 43.2%. In the 2020 census, the percentage of the Bumiputera population in Kuala Lumpur had reached around 47.7%, with the Chinese population at 41.6% and Indians 10.0%.
A notable phenomenon in recent times has been the increased portion of foreign residents in Kuala Lumpur, which rose from 1% of the city's population in 1980 to about 8% in the 2000 census, 9.4% in 2010, and 10.5% in the 2020 census. These figures also do not include a significant number of illegal immigrants. Kuala Lumpur's rapid development has triggered a huge influx of low-skilled foreign workers from Indonesia, Nepal, Myanmar, Thailand, Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Philippines, Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia into Malaysia, many of whom enter the country illegally or without proper permits.
Birth rates in Kuala Lumpur have declined and resulted in a lower proportion of young people – the proportion of those below 15 years old fell from 33% in 1980 to slightly less than 27% in 2000. On the other hand, the working age group of 15–59 increased from 63% in 1980 to 67% in 2000. The elderly age group, 60 years old and above has increased from 4% in 1980 and 1991 to 6% in 2000.
### Languages and religions
Kuala Lumpur is pluralistic and religiously diverse. The city has many places of worship catering to the multi-religious population. Islam is practised primarily by the Malays, the Indian Muslim communities and a small number of Chinese Muslims. Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism are practised mainly among the Chinese. Indians traditionally adhere to Hinduism. Some Chinese and Indians also subscribe to Christianity. Kuala Lumpur is one of the three states where less than 50% of the population are self-identified Muslims, the other two being Penang and Sarawak. As of the 2020 Census, the population of Kuala Lumpur was 45.3% Muslim, 32.3% Buddhist, 8.2% Hindu, 6.4% Christian, 1.8% of other religions, and 6.0% non-religious.
Statistics from the 2010 Census indicate that 87.4% of the Chinese population identify as Buddhists, with significant minorities of adherents identifying as Christians (7.9%), Chinese folk religions (2.7%) and Muslims (0.6%). The majority of the Indian population identify as Hindus (81.1%), with a significant minorities of identifying as Christians (7.8%), Muslims (4.9%) and Buddhists (2.1%). The non-Malay bumiputera community are predominantly Christians (44.9%), with significant minorities identifying as Muslims (31.2%) and Buddhists (13.5%). All bumiputera Malays are Muslim due to the criterion in the definition of a Malay in the Malaysian constitution that they should adhere to Islam.
Bahasa Malaysia is the principal language in Kuala Lumpur. Majority of local Malays speak Selangor dialect but Malays from other parts of the state such as Kelantan, Kedah and Terengganu also use their own respective varieties of Malay. Kuala Lumpur residents are generally literate in English, with a large proportion adopting it as their first language. Malaysian English is widely used. It has a strong presence, especially in business, and is taught as a compulsory language in schools. Cantonese, Hokkien and Mandarin are prominent, as they are spoken by the local majority Chinese population. Another major Chinese dialect spoken is Hakka. While Tamil is dominant amongst the local Indian population, other Indian languages spoken by minorities include Telugu, Malayalam, Punjabi, and Hindi. Besides Malay, there are a variety of languages spoken by people of Indonesian descent, such as Minangkabau and Javanese. There are also speakers of Arabic, Iban, Kadazandusun, Bidayuh and other languages.
## Cityscape
### Architecture
The architecture of Kuala Lumpur is a mixture of old colonial influences, Asian traditions, Malay Islamic inspirations, modern, and postmodern architecture. A relatively young city compared with other Southeast Asian capitals such as Bangkok, Jakarta and Manila, most of Kuala Lumpur's notable colonial-era buildings were built toward the end of the 19th and early 20th centuries. These buildings were designed in a number of styles – Mughal/Moorish Revival, Mock Tudor, Neo-Gothic or Grecian-Spanish style or architecture. Most of the styling has been modified to use local resources and adapted to the local climate, which is hot and humid all year around. A significant architect of the early period is Arthur Benison Hubback who designed a number of the colonial-era buildings including the Kuala Lumpur Railway Station and Jamek Mosque.
Prior to the Second World War, many shophouses, usually two stories with functional shops on the ground floor and separate residential spaces upstairs, were built around the old city centre. These shop-houses drew inspiration from Straits Chinese and European traditions. Some of these shophouses have made way for new developments but there are still many standing today in the Medan Pasar Besar (Old Market Square), Chinatown, Jalan Tuanku Abdul Rahman, Jalan Doraisamy, Bukit Bintang and Tengkat Tong Shin areas.
Independence coupled with rapid economic growth from the 1970s to the 1990s and with Islam being the official religion in the country, has resulted in the construction of buildings with a more local and Islamic flavour arise around the city. Many of these buildings derive their design from traditional Malay items such as the songkok and the keris. Some of these buildings have Islamic geometric motifs integrated into the designs of the building, due to Islamic restrictions on imitating nature through drawings. Examples of these buildings are Telekom Tower, Maybank Tower, Dayabumi Complex, and the Islamic Centre. Some buildings such as the Islamic Arts Museum Malaysia and National Planetarium have been built to masquerade as a place of worship, complete with dome and minaret, when in fact they are places of science and knowledge. The 452-metre (1,483 ft) Petronas Towers are the tallest twin buildings in the world and the tallest buildings in the country. They were designed to resemble motifs found in Islamic art.
Late modern and postmodern architecture began to appear in the late-1990s and early-2000s. With economic development, old buildings such as Bok House have been razed to make way for new ones. Buildings with all-glass shells exist throughout the city, with the most prominent examples being the Petronas Towers and Kuala Lumpur Convention Centre. Kuala Lumpur's central business district today has shifted to the Kuala Lumpur city centre (KLCC) where many new and tall buildings with modern and postmodern architecture fill the skyline. According to the World Tallest 50 Urban Agglomeration 2010 Projection by the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat, Kuala Lumpur ranks 10th among cities that have most buildings above 100 metres with a combined height of 34,035 metres from its 244 high rise buildings.
### Parks
The Perdana Botanical Garden or Lake Gardens, a 92-hectare (230-acre) botanical garden, was the first recreational park created in Kuala Lumpur. The Malaysian Parliament building is located close by, and Carcosa Seri Negara, which was once the official residence of British colonial administration, is also sited here. The park includes a butterfly park, deer park, orchid garden, a hibiscus garden, and the Kuala Lumpur Bird Park, which is the world's largest aviary bird park. Other parks in the city include the ASEAN Sculpture Garden, KLCC Park, Titiwangsa Lake Gardens, Metropolitan Lake Gardens in Kepong, Taman Tasik Permaisuri (Queen's Lake Gardens), Bukit Kiara Botanical Gardens, the equestrian park and West Valley Park near Taman Tun Dr Ismail (TTDI), and Bukit Jalil International Park.
There are three forest reserves within the city, the Bukit Nanas Forest Reserve in the city centre, the oldest gazetted forest reserve in the country 10.52 ha or 26.0 acres, Bukit Sungai Putih Forest Reserve (7.41 ha or 18.3 acres) and Bukit Sungai Besi Forest Reserve (42.11 ha or 104.1 acres). Bukit Nanas, in the heart of the city centre, is one of the oldest virgin forests in the world within a city. These residual forest areas are home to a number of fauna species, particularly monkeys, treeshrews, pygmy goats, budgerigars, squirrels and birds.
## Education
According to government statistics, Kuala Lumpur has a literacy rate of 97.5% in 2000, the highest rate in any state or territory in Malaysia. In Malaysia, Malay is the language of instruction for most subjects while English is a compulsory subject, but as of 2012, English was still the language of instruction for mathematics and the natural sciences for certain schools. Some schools provide instruction in Mandarin and Tamil for certain subjects.
Kuala Lumpur contains 14 tertiary education institutions, 79 high schools, 155 elementary schools and 136 kindergartens.
Kuala Lumpur is home to the University of Malaya (UM). Established in 1949, it is the oldest university in Malaysia, and one of the oldest in the region. It was ranked the best university in Malaysia, the 22nd-best in Asia, and third in Southeast Asia in QS World University Rankings 2019. In recent years, the number of international students at the University of Malaya has risen, as a result of increasing efforts made to attract them.
Other universities located in Kuala Lumpur include Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman (UTAR), International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM), Tunku Abdul Rahman University College (TARUC), UCSI University (UCSI), Taylor's University (TULC), International Medical University (IMU), Open University Malaysia (OUM), Kuala Lumpur University (UniKL), Perdana University (PU), Wawasan Open University (WOU), HELP University and the branch campus of the National University of Malaysia (UKM) and University of Technology Malaysia (UTM). The National Defence University of Malaysia is located at Sungai Besi Army Base, at the southern part of central Kuala Lumpur. It was established to be a major centre for military and defence technology studies. This institution covers studies for the army, navy, and air force.
Greater Kuala Lumpur covers an even more extensive selection of universities including several international branches such as Monash University Malaysia Campus, University of Nottingham Malaysia Campus and Xiamen University Malaysia.
## Culture
### Arts
Kuala Lumpur is a hub for cultural activities and events in Malaysia. Among the centres is the National Museum, which is situated along the Mahameru Highway. Its collection comprises artefacts and paintings collected throughout the country. The Islamic Arts Museum, which houses more than seven thousand Islamic artefacts including rare exhibits and a library of Islamic art books, is the largest Islamic arts collection in Southeast Asia. The museum's collection not only concentrates on works from the Middle East, but also includes work from elsewhere in Asia, such as China and Southeast Asia. Kuala Lumpur has a craft complex coupled with a museum that displays a variety of textile, ceramic, metal craft and weaved products. Information on the production process is portrayed in diorama format complete with historical facts, technique and traditionally engineered equipment. Among the processes shown are pottery making, intricate wood carving, silver-smithing, weaving songket cloth, stamping batik patterns on cloth, and boat-making.
The premier performing arts venue is the Petronas Philharmonic Hall located underneath the Petronas Towers. The resident orchestra is the Malaysian Philharmonic Orchestra (MPO), consisting of musicians from all over the world, and features regular concerts, chamber concerts and traditional cultural performances. The Kuala Lumpur Performing Arts Centre (KLPac) in Sentul West and Damansara Performing Arts Centre (DPac) in Damansara Perdana are two of the most established centres in the country for the performing arts, notably theatre, plays, music, and film screening. It has housed many local productions and has been a supporter of local and regional independent performance artists. The Future Music Festival Asia has been held in the city since 2012, featuring local and international artists.
The National Art Gallery of Malaysia is located on Jalan Temerloh, off Jalan Tun Razak on a 5.67-hectare (14.0-acre) site neighbouring the National Theatre (Istana Budaya) and National Library. The architecture of the gallery incorporates elements of traditional Malay architecture, as well as contemporary modern architecture. The National Art Gallery serves as a centre of excellence and is a trustee of the national art heritage. The Ilham Tower Gallery near Ampang Park houses exhibitions of works by local and foreign artists.
Kuala Lumpur holds the Malaysia International Gourmet Festival annually. Another event hosted annually by the city is the Kuala Lumpur Fashion Week, which includes international brands and local designers. Also, Kuala Lumpur was designated as the World Book Capital for 2020 by UNESCO.
### Sports and recreation
Kuala Lumpur has numerous parks, gardens and open spaces for recreational purposes. Total open space for recreational and sport facilities land use in the city has increased significantly by 169.6 percent from 5.86 square kilometres (1,450 acres) in 1984 to 15.8 square kilometres (3,900 acres) in 2000.
Kuala Lumpur was touted as one of the host cities for the Formula One World Championship from 1999 to 2017. The open-wheel auto racing A1 Grand Prix was held until the series folded in 2009. The Motorcycle Grand Prix races are held at the Sepang International Circuit in Sepang in the neighbouring state of Selangor. The Formula One event contributed significantly to tourist arrivals and tourism income to Kuala Lumpur. This was evident during the Asian financial crisis in 1998. Despite cities around Asia suffering declining tourist arrivals, in Kuala Lumpur tourist arrivals increased from 6,210,900 in 1997 to 10,221,600 in 2000, or 64.6%. In 2015, the Kuala Lumpur Street Circuit was constructed to host the Kuala Lumpur City Grand Prix motor racing event.
Football is one of the most popular sports in Kuala Lumpur. The Merdeka Tournament is mainly held at Stadium Merdeka. The Stadium Negara is also located right next to it which is also one of the oldest indoor stadiums in the country. The city is also the home of Kuala Lumpur City, which plays in the Malaysia Super League. Kuala Lumpur hosted the official Asian Basketball Championship in 1965, 1977 and 1985. The city's basketball supporters cheered Malaysia's national basketball team to a Final Four finish in 1985, the team's best performance to date. Further, the city is home to the Kuala Lumpur Dragons, 2016 Champions of the ASEAN Basketball League. The team plays its home games in the MABA Stadium.
KL Grand Prix CSI 5\*, a five-star international showjumping equestrian event, is held annually in the city. Other annual sport events hosted by the city include the KL Tower Run, the KL Tower International BASE Jump Merdeka Circuit and the Kuala Lumpur International Marathon. Kuala Lumpur is also one of the stages of the Tour de Langkawi cycling race. The annual Malaysia Open Super Series badminton tournament is held in Kuala Lumpur.
Kuala Lumpur is also the birthplace of Hashing, which began in December 1938 when a group of British colonial officers and expatriates, some from the Selangor Club, began meeting on Monday evenings to run, in a fashion patterned after the traditional British Paper Chase or "Hare and Hounds".
Kuala Lumpur hosted the 128th IOC Session in 2015 where the IOC elected Beijing as the host city of the 2022 Winter Olympics and Lausanne as the host city of the 2020 Winter Youth Olympics.
## Transportation
As in most other Asian cities, driving is the main commuting choice in Kuala Lumpur. Every part of the city is well connected with highways. Kuala Lumpur has a comprehensive road network with more transportation development planned. Public transportation covers a variety of transport modes such as bus, rail and taxi. Despite efforts to promote public transport, utilisation rates are low, 16 percent of the population in 2006. However, public transport utilisation will increase with the expansion of the rail network, operated by Prasarana Malaysia in Kuala Lumpur and the Klang Valley via its subsidiaries Rapid Rail and Rapid Bus, using the Rapid KL brand name. Since the take over from Intrakota Komposit Sdn Bhd, Prasarana Malaysia has redrawn the entire bus network of Kuala Lumpur and the Klang Valley metropolitan area to increase passenger numbers and improve Kuala Lumpur's public transport system. Prasarana Malaysia has adopted the hub and spoke system to provide greater connectivity, and reduce the need for more buses. KL Sentral was added on 16 April 2001 and served as the new transport hub of the Klang Valley Integrated Transit System.
### Urban rail
The KTM Komuter, a commuter rail service, was introduced in 1995 as the first rail transit system to provide local rail services in Kuala Lumpur and the surrounding Klang Valley suburban areas. Services were later expanded to other parts of Malaysia with the introduction of the Northern and Southern sectors. KTM Komuter's 175 km (109 mi) network in the Central Sector has 53 stations. It consists of two cross-city routes, namely the Port Klang Line (Tanjung Malim to Port Klang) and Seremban Line (Batu Caves to Pulau Sebang/Tampin). Transfers between the two main lines can be made at any of the four stations on the central core: KL Sentral, Kuala Lumpur, Bank Negara and Putra.
Light Rapid Transit (LRT) Malaysia is the medium-capacity rail lines in the Klang Valley, Malaysia. The first LRT line was opened in 1996 and the system has since expanded to three lines, which opened in 1998 and 1999. Along with the MRT, the LRT is constructed and owned by the Prasarana, with operating concessions currently run by Rapid KL and Rapid Rail. In 2006, the government announced the Sri Petaling Line and Kelana Jaya line extension projects. Unlike the original line, which used the fixed-block signalling block system, the extension uses the communications-based train control (CBTC) signaling system.
Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) Malaysia is a heavy rail rapid transit system that constitutes the bulk of the railway network in Kuala Lumpur and the rest of the Klang Valley. The first section of the MRT opened on 16 December 2016, and the network has since grown rapidly in accordance with Malaysia's aim of developing a comprehensive rail network as the backbone of the country's public transportation system. The network consists of three lines – the MRT Circle Line, looping around Kuala Lumpur, the MRT Kajang Line and the MRT Putrajaya Line, covering a 20 km radius in the southeast–northwest direction from the city centre, will integrate the current rapid transit system and serve high-density areas which are currently not serviced by any rapid transit system. About 90 new stations are planned in this "wheel and spoke" concept, out of which 26 in the city centre will be underground. Ridership capacity will be 2 million passengers per day.
The KL Monorail opened on 31 August 2003 with 11 stations running 8.6 km (5 mi) on two parallel elevated tracks. The line is numbered and coloured light green on official transit maps. It connects the KL Sentral transport hub in the south and Titiwangsa in the north with the "Golden Triangle", a commercial, shopping, and entertainment area comprising Bukit Bintang, Imbi, Sultan Ismail, and Raja Chulan.
Kuala Lumpur is served by two airports. The main airport, Kuala Lumpur International Airport (KLIA) at Sepang, Selangor, which is also the aviation hub of Malaysia, is located about 50 kilometres (31 mi) south of city. The other airport is Sultan Abdul Aziz Shah Airport, also known as Subang Skypark and served as the main international gateway to Kuala Lumpur from 1965 until KLIA opened in 1998.
KLIA connects the city with direct flights to destinations on four continents around the world, and is the main hub for the national carrier, Malaysia Airlines and low-cost carrier, AirAsia. KLIA can be reached using the KLIA Ekspres, an airport rail link service from KL Sentral, which takes twenty-eight minutes and costs RM 55 (roughly US\$13.50), while travelling by car or bus via highway will take about an hour but cost a lot less. Direct buses from KLIA to the city centre are plentiful (every 10 to 15 minutes during peak hours), air-conditioned and comfortable with fares ranging from RM 11 (roughly US\$2.70) to RM 15 (roughly US\$3.70). Air Asia and other low-cost carrier flights do not fly out of KLIA main terminal, but from KLIA2, which is two kilometres from KLIA. KLIA2 is served by an extension of the KLIA Ekspres and by a free shuttle bus service from KLIA. As of 2018, Sultan Abdul Aziz Shah Airport is only used for chartered and turboprop flights by airlines such as Firefly and Malindo Air.
### Buses
Bas Mini KL or Kuala Lumpur Mini-Bus Service was one of the oldest and popular Malaysia public bus service, having served Kuala Lumpur and the Klang Valley region. The buses were primarily painted pink with a white stripe on the sides, and had a capacity of only 20–30 passengers, due to their smaller size. The buses operated on a commission basis, with service operators paid according to the fares they collected. The mini-bus service was from 23 September 1975 and discontinued on 1 July 1998, to be replaced by the Intrakota bus service and later, Rapid Bus in 2005.
Rapid Bus began the first phase of the revamp of its bus network in January 2006, introducing 15 City Shuttle bus routes which serve major areas in the Central Business District (CBD) of Kuala Lumpur. In 2008, Rapid Bus operated 167 routes with 1,400 buses covering 980 residential areas with a ridership of about 400,000 per day. The buses run between four hubs at the edge of the central business district, namely KL Sentral, Titiwangsa, Kuala Lumpur City Centre, Maluri, and Medan Pasar in the city centre. These bus hubs also serve as rail interchanges, with the exception of Medan Pasar, although it is at a walking distance from Masjid Jamek LRT station. On June 18, 2020, Rapid Bus released a new feature: real-time location of bus in Google Maps, via collaboration with Google Transit.
Effective 10 April 2019, all RapidKL buses are implementing fully cashless journey for all routes by stages, in which the bus accepts Touch n Go cards only for user convenience. These systems were fully implemented by May 27, 2019. Almost 170 RapidKL bus routes are covered with the real time feature, which was expanded to the MRT feeder bus service. Rapid Bus is however not the only bus operator in Kuala Lumpur and the Klang Valley. Other bus operators are Selangor Omnibus, Setara Jaya bus, and Causeway Link.
### Taxis
In Kuala Lumpur, most taxis have distinctive white and red liveries. Many companies operate and maintain pools of different model of cars in their own brands. Before local car production began, the Mercedes-Benz 200, Mazda 323/Ford Laser, Toyota Mark II X80 series and the Opel Kadett were used. Most were scrapped and replaced by Protons, but there are still a large number of these models running the roads. Kuala Lumpur is one of the major ASEAN cities with taxis extensively running on natural gas. Taxis can be hailed from taxi stands or from the streets. Taxis may be flagged down at any time of the day along any public road outside of the Central Business District (CBD). However, increased usage of ridesharing services like Grab, MyCar and JomRides has resulted in a decrease in taxi use.
Nevertheless, the London-based website, LondonCabs.co.uk has claimed that taxis in the city charge passengers high rates, refusing to turn on their meters and offering instead over-priced flat-rate fares, although other passengers contradict such claims. The heads of some taxi associations came out and distanced themselves from taxi drivers who had given the taxi industry a bad name, promising the public that not all taxi drivers were like that.
## Twin towns – sister cities
Kuala Lumpur is twinned with:
- Ankara, Turkey
- Casablanca, Morocco
- Chennai, India
- Dubai, United Arab Emirates
- Isfahan, Iran
- Karachi, Pakistan
- London, United Kingdom
- Malacca City, Malaysia
- Mashhad, Iran
## See also
- Greater Kuala Lumpur
- Selangor
- Klang Valley
- Putrajaya
- Cyberjaya
|
44,444,253 |
The Boat Race 1946
| 1,102,990,484 | null |
[
"1946 in English sport",
"1946 sports events in London",
"March 1946 sports events in the United Kingdom",
"The Boat Race"
] |
The 92nd Boat Race took place on 30 March 1946. Held annually, the Boat Race is a side-by-side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames in London. In a race umpired by former Cambridge rower Kenneth Payne, Oxford won by three lengths in a time of 19 minutes 54 seconds. The victory took the overall record in the event to 48–43 in Cambridge's favour.
## Background
The Boat Race is a side-by-side rowing competition between the University of Oxford (sometimes referred to as the "Dark Blues") and the University of Cambridge (sometimes referred to as the "Light Blues"). The race was first held in 1829, and since 1845 has taken place on the 4.2-mile (6.8 km) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London. The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and, as of 2014, broadcast worldwide. Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions, having won the 1939 race by four lengths, and led overall with 48 victories to Oxford's 42 (excluding the "dead heat" of 1877). No official races were conducted between 1940 and 1945 as a result of the Second World War.
Oxford were coached by R. E. Eason (who rowed for the Dark Blues in the 1924 race), D. T. Raikes (who represented Oxford in the 1920, 1921 and 1922 races), Peter Haig Thomas (a four-time Light Blue between 1902 and 1905, who had also coached Cambridge nine times between 1924 and 1934) and G. L. Thomson. Cambridge's coaches were B. C. Johnstone, Sidney Swann (who had rowed for the Light Blues in the four races from 1911 to 1914, and coached them in the 1920, 1921 and 1922 races) and Claude Waterhouse Hearn Taylor (who rowed for Cambridge three times between 1901 and 1903, and coached them in the 1904 race). The race was umpired by the former British Olympian Kenneth Payne, who had rowed for Cambridge in the 1932 and 1934 races.
During the build-up to the race, Cambridge suffered misfortune in particular with regard to their number four. M. A. Nicholson, the first choice, was taken ill and was replaced by P. A. G. Dewar. Just two days later Dewar was forced to leave the boat suffering with blood poisoning from a septic boil. D. J. D. Perrins was Cambridge's third and final choice. With a week to go, the Light Blue coach Thomson stated "we took a day off yesterday because some of the crew were feeling off-colour ... they appear to be suffering from some internal trouble". The rowing correspondent for The Manchester Guardian noted that the Light Blues were "not quite fast enough and are not particularly well together" yet showed promise. He also noted that while Oxford had improved considerably, Cambridge would most likely start as favourites.
## Crews
The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 12 st 7 lb (79.2 kg), 8.75 pounds (4.0 kg) per rower more than their opponents. As the event was forced to take a hiatus between 1940 and 1945 as a result of the Second World War, none of the rowers had participated in the Boat Race prior this year. Three of the Cambridge crew were registered as non-British: J. G. Gosse was Australian, P. L. P. Mcdonnell was Canadian and stroke J. H. Neame was American.
## Race
Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station, handing the Middlesex side of the river to Oxford. Umpire Payne started the race "in perfect conditions of a south-easterly breeze and with sun shining through a light mist" at 11 a.m in front of "a vast crowd, fully up to pre-war standards". Followed by six launches and a helicopter overhead, Oxford led from the start, and were half a length clear of the Light Blues by the time they passed Craven Steps. Marginally out-rating Cambridge, Oxford passed the Mile Post two and a half lengths ahead and allowed their stroke rate to drop, still maintaining their lead at Hammersmith Bridge. Cambridge spurted at The Doves pub and reduced the deficit marginally but by HMS Stork, the Light Blues were visibly tired and allowed Oxford to draw away once more.
Leading by three lengths at Chiswick Steps, Oxford reduced their stroke rate to "little more than a paddle", yet still passed below Barnes Bridge with the same advantage. The Dark Blues passed the finishing post three lengths ahead in a time of 19 minutes 54 seconds. The victory, Oxford's third in the last four races, took the overall record in the event to 48–43 in Cambridge's favour. The special correspondent writing in The Times stated that Oxford won "in faultless style and without ever looking anything but an assured winning crew." It was reported in the Dundee Evening Telegraph that Oxford's win was "a triumph of team-work over individualism". Hugh Dalton, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, announced that the race had made £700 from Purchase Tax.
|
2,621,431 |
Borodino-class battleship
| 1,133,021,381 |
Russian pre-dreadnought battleship class
|
[
"Battleship classes",
"Borodino-class battleships",
"Russo-Japanese War battleships of Russia",
"World War I battleships of Russia"
] |
The Borodino-class battleships were a group of five pre-dreadnought battleships built for the Imperial Russian Navy around the end of the 19th century. Their design was based on that of the French-built Tsesarevich modified to use Russian equipment. The first four ships were finished after the start of the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905 and were among the ships ordered to sail from the Baltic Sea to the Far East to relieve the Pacific Squadron besieged by the Japanese in Port Arthur. Three of these ships were sunk and one was captured by the Imperial Japanese Navy at the Battle of Tsushima in 1905. The fifth and final ship, Slava, was not completed in time to participate in the war and served with the Baltic Fleet through World War I.
## Design and description
Tsar Nicholas II had desired a warm-water port on the Pacific since his accession to the throne in 1894. He achieved this ambition in March 1898 when Russia signed a 25-year lease for Port Arthur and the Liaotung Peninsula with China. Japan had previously forced China to sign over the port and its surrounding territory as part of the treaty that concluded the First Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895, but the Triple Intervention of France, Russia, and Germany forced them to return the port in exchange for a sizeable increase in the indemnity paid by the Chinese. Japan invested much of the indemnity money in expanding its fleet, while Russia began a major building programme ("For the Needs of the Far East") to defend its newly acquired port that included the Borodino-class battleships.
The Borodinos were the most numerous class of battleships ever built by Russia. Although they were intended to be near duplicates of Tsesarevich, as soon as the contracts were signed, it became clear that they would be quite different from the French-built ship. The basic problem facing the navy was that the Borodinos would have heavier engines and larger turrets which would require a designer to build a ship which had the same speed, draft, guns and armor as Tsesarevich, but a greater displacement. The new design was drawn up by D. V. Skvortsov of the Naval Technical Committee (NTC). He completed his new design in July/August 1898, one month after the original contract had been signed. The new concept was roughly 1,000 long tons (1,000 t) tons heavier and slightly larger and wider than the Tsesarevich.
As might be expected, the Borodinos greatly resembled Tsesarevich, although Skvortsov added two more casemates, each containing four 75-millimeter (3.0 in) guns, one at the bow and the other aft. These guns were added to the already existing dozen 75 mm guns emplaced along the sides above the armor belt. This caused the tumblehome used on the rest of the hull to be deleted over the twelve guns and flat-sided armor was used in its place. Thus the five Borodino-class battleships had tumblehome hulls only fore and aft of their 75 mm guns emplaced along their sides. The centreline bulkhead between the engine and boiler rooms caused a danger of capsizing if one side flooded and the narrow belt armor became submerged when overloaded. As such, naval historian Antony Preston regarded these as some of the worst battleships ever built.
The ships were 389 feet 5 inches (118.7 m) long at the waterline and 397 feet 3 inches (121.1 m) long overall, with a beam of 76 feet 1 inch (23.2 m) and a draft of 29 feet 2 inches (8.9 m), 38 inches (965 mm) more than designed. Their normal displacement ranged from 14,091 to 14,145 long tons (14,317 to 14,372 t), 500–900 long tons (508–914 t) more than their designed displacement of 13,516 long tons (13,733 t). They were designed for a crew of 28 officers and 754 enlisted men, although Knyaz Suvorov carried 928 crewmen during the Battle of Tsushima.
The Borodino-class ships were powered by two 4-cylinder triple-expansion steam engines, each driving one propeller shaft, using steam generated by 20 Belleville boilers. The engines were designed to reach a top speed of 18 knots (33 km/h; 21 mph). The lead ship, Borodino, was fitted with a copy of the La Seyne machinery installed in Tsesarvich and built by the Franco-Russian Works. The remaining four Borodinos were supplied with machinery designed and built by the Baltic Works. Borodino's engines were rated at 16,300 indicated horsepower (12,200 kW) and its boilers had a working pressure of 19 atm (1,925 kPa; 20 kgf/cm<sup>2</sup>); the machinery of her sisters was rated at 15,800 ihp (11,800 kW) and their boilers had a working pressure of 21 atm (2,128 kPa; 22 kgf/cm<sup>2</sup>). Other differences were that Borodino was equipped with economisers for her boilers as well as three-bladed screws, while her sisters lacked economisers and had four-bladed propellers.
Because the ships were being prepared to go to the Far East shortly after completion, they conducted only abbreviated sea trials. Only Oryol reached her designed speed during these trails, despite her engines producing only 14,176 ihp (10,571 kW). The engines of her sisters produced more power, but they were slower during their trials. At deep load they carried 1,350 long tons (1,372 t) of coal that provided them a range of 2,590 nautical miles (4,800 km; 2,980 mi) at a speed of 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph). The ships were fitted with six steam-driven generators with a total capacity of 738 kilowatts (990 hp).
### Armament and fire control
The main armament of the Borodino class consisted of two pairs of 40-caliber 12-inch guns mounted in French-style, electrically powered, twin-gun turrets fore and aft. The turrets had a maximum elevation of +15° and 60 rounds per gun were carried. The guns fired one shell every 90–132 seconds. They fired a 731-pound (332 kg) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2,598 ft/s (792 m/s) to a range of 16,010 yards (14,640 m) at maximum elevation.\`
The secondary armament of the ships consisted of a dozen 45-caliber Canet Model 1891 6-inch (152 mm) (QF) guns mounted in six electrically powered twin-gun turrets on the upper deck. The turrets had a maximum elevation of +15° arc of fire and the center turrets could cover 180°. Each six-inch gun was provided with 180 rounds. Their rate of fire was about 2–4 rounds per minute. They fired shells that weighed 91 lb (41.4 kg) with a muzzle velocity of 2,600 ft/s (792.5 m/s). They had a maximum range of approximately 12,600 yards (11,500 m).
A number of smaller guns were carried for defense against torpedo boats. These included twenty 50-calibre Canet QF 75-millimetre (3 in) guns mounted in hull embrasures. The ships carried 300 shells for each gun. They fired a 11-pound (4.9 kg) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2,700 ft/s (820 m/s) to a maximum range of 7,005 yards (6,405 m) at an elevation of +13°. The Borodino-class ships also mounted sixteen or eighteen 47-millimetre (1.9 in) Hotchkiss guns in the superstructure. They fired a 2.2-pound (1.00 kg) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1,400 ft/s (430 m/s) at a rate of around 15 rounds per minute.
The ships carried four 381-millimetre (15 in) torpedo tubes, two of which were mounted above water in the bow and stern while the two broadside underwater tubes were located near the forward 12-inch magazine. Four torpedoes were carried for the above-water tubes and six for the submerged tubes. They also carried 50 mines to be laid to protect their anchorage in remote areas.
The Borodino class were originally fitted with Liuzhol stadiametric rangefinders that used the angle between two vertical points on an enemy ship, usually the waterline and the crow's nest, to estimate the range. The gunnery officer consulted his references to get the range and calculated the proper elevation and deflection required to hit the target. He then transmitted his commands via a Geisler electro-mechanical fire-control transmission system to each gun or turret. While fitting out, these rangefinders were replaced on the first four ships by two Barr and Stroud coincidence rangefinders that used two images that had to be superimposed to derive the range. Perepelkin telescopic sights were also installed for their guns, but their crews were not trained in how to use them.
The waterline armor belt of the Borodinos consisted of Krupp armor and was 5.7–7.64 inches (145–194 mm) thick. The armor of their gun turrets had a maximum thickness of 10 in (254 mm) and their deck ranged from 1 to 2 inches (25 to 51 mm) in thickness. The 1.5-inch (38 mm) armored lower deck curved downwards and formed an anti-torpedo bulkhead.
## Ships
## Service history
On 15 October 1904, Knyaz Suvorov, flagship of Vice Admiral Zinovy Rozhestvensky, commander of the 2nd Pacific Squadron, and the other three Borodino-class battleships set sail for Port Arthur from Libau along with the other vessels of the squadron. Rozhestvensky had received numerous reports of Japanese agents and torpedo boats disguised as fishing vessels before sailing and he ordered maximum alertness after coaling at Skagen, Denmark on 7 October. Early on the evening of the following day, when the squadron was near the Dogger Bank, the auxiliary repair ship Kamchatka reported that she was under attack by torpedo boats in the rain. About four hours later, the squadron encountered British fishing trawlers working the Dogger Bank in the fog and opened fire on them at very short range. One trawler was sunk and at least three others were damaged; several fishermen were killed and others wounded. The battleships also fired upon and damaged the cruisers Aurora and Dmitrii Donskoi in the confusion. The incident enraged the British population and caused a diplomatic incident with the British that nearly led to war until Russia apologized and agreed to pay reparations on 29 October.
Rozhestvensky led his ships down the Atlantic coast of Africa, rounding the Cape of Good Hope, and reached the island of Nosy Be off the north-west coast of Madagascar on 9 January 1905 where they remained for two months while Rozhestvensky finalized his coaling arrangements. During this time, he learned of the capture of Port Arthur and changed his destination to Vladivostok, the only other port controlled by the Russians in the Far East. The squadron sailed for Camranh Bay, French Indochina, on 16 March and reached it almost a month later to await the obsolete ships of the 3rd Pacific Squadron, commanded by Rear Admiral Nikolai Nebogatov. The latter ships reached Camranh Bay on 9 May and the combined force sailed for Vladivostok on 14 May. While exact figures are not available, it is probable that the ships were approximately 1,700 long tons (1,700 t) overweight as they were overloaded with coal and other supplies; all of which was stored high in the ships and reduced their stability. The extra weight also submerged their waterline armor belt and left only about 4 feet 6 inches (1.4 m) of the upper armor belt above the waterline.
### Battle of Tsushima
Before the battle Rozhestvensky grouped the four Borodinos into one division and retained personal command of the division. Oryol, the last ship in the division, fired the first shots of the Battle of Tsushima when the ship's captain, Nikolay Yung, ordered her to open fire at 11:42 at a Japanese cruiser that was shadowing the Russian formation at a range of 9,000 meters (9,800 yd). Rozhestvensky had not given any pre-battle instructions to the fleet covering this situation, but he ordered Yung to cease fire after 30 rounds had been fired without effect. Knyaz Suvorov was the lead ship in the Russian battle line and she opened fire at the Japanese battleship Mikasa, flagship of Admiral Tōgō Heihachirō at 14:05. Mikasa and the other Japanese ships began to return fire about five minutes later. Their high-explosive shells quickly set all four of the Borodinos on fire; at 14:35, Rozhestvensky and the Knyaz Suvorov's captain were wounded by splinters that entered the ship's conning tower. Around 14:52, another hit jammed Knyaz Suvorov's steering gear after a four point turn to starboard had been ordered and caused the ship to make nearly a full circle before she could be steered by her engines. By this time Knyaz Suvorov's aft 12-inch gun turret had been destroyed by an explosion that blew its roof off onto the quarterdeck, her forward funnel had fallen down and her mainmast had been shot away.
Imperator Aleksandr III and the other ships of the division briefly followed Knyaz Suvorov until it became clear that the latter ship was out of control and then turned north in an effort to get behind Tōgō's ships. Knyaz Suvorov never regained her position in the battle line and became the primary target of the Japanese for a time. Around 16:00 the captain of Imperator Alexandr III, Nikolai Bukhvostov, decided to duplicate Retvizan's maneuver at the Battle of the Yellow Sea by charging straight for the Japanese battleline in an attempt to focus their attention on his ship rather than Knyaz Suvorov. He was successful, but Imperator Aleksandr III was badly damaged in the process. Borodino now assumed the lead position and turned the fleet to the south where they temporarily managed to disengage in the mist and fog.
Knyaz Suvorov was badly damaged by repeated attacks after she separated from the main body although she was initially in no danger of sinking. The Russian destroyer Buinyi came alongside around 17:30 and evacuated Rozhestvensky and other wounded officers. Torpedoes fired by a number of torpedo boats ultimately caused a magazine to explode around 19:20 and Knyaz Suvorov capsized at about 19:30. Other than the 20 officers taken off by Buinyi, there were no survivors of the 928 crew aboard.
When the shooting between the battle lines resumed around 18:00, the Japanese concentrated their fire upon Imperator Aleksandr III and Borodino. Imperator Alexandr III sheered out of line to port around 18:30 and capsized, but did not sink until 19:07; there were no survivors. Borodino lasted a little while longer under concentrated Japanese fire. Two 12-inch hits by the battleship Shikishima at 19:18 started a massive fire and both the ship's 12-inch gun turrets were knocked out. Ten minutes later, after Tōgō ordered his ships to cease fire and disengage, the battleship Fuji fired her already-loaded 12-inch guns before turning away. One of these hit Borodino beneath her starboard forward six-inch turret and ignited the ready-use ammunition in the turret. The fire spread and caused a catastrophic detonation in several magazines that blew open her hull. Borodino quickly capsized and sank with only one crewman from her crew of 855 being rescued.
Oryol took the lead after Borodino was sunk; she was joined by Nebogatov's Second Division after Tōgō ordered the Japanese battleships to disengage in the gathering darkness. Nebogatov assumed command of the remains of the fleet and they continued towards Vladivostok. The ships were discovered by the Japanese early the following morning and attacked by Tōgō's battleships around 10:00. The faster Japanese ships stayed beyond the range at which Nebogatov's ships could effectively reply and he decided to surrender his ships at 10:30 as he could neither return fire nor close the range.
### Post-Tsushima careers
The Japanese substantially rebuilt Oryol and recommissioned her in June 1907 with the name of Iwami. To reduce her top weight, they cut down her superstructure and repositioned her guns. In addition, her boilers were replaced by an unknown number of Japanese-built Miyabara boilers and she was rearmed with Japanese-made guns. These changes reduced her displacement to approximately 13,500 long tons (13,700 t) and her crew now totaled 750 officers and crewmen.
During World War I, the ship participated in the Siege of Tsingtao in August–November 1914 and served as the flagship of the Japanese Intervention Squadron in Vladivostok in 1918 when Japan intervened in the Russian Civil War. She was used as a training ship in 1921 and disarmed in 1922 in accordance with the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty. Sources differ as to her ultimate fate; she was either sunk as a target by aircraft near Miura in July 1924 or scrapped at Kobe in 1924–1925.
Serving in the Baltic Sea during World War I, Slava was the largest ship of the Russian Gulf of Riga Squadron that fought the German High Seas Fleet in the Battle of the Gulf of Riga in August 1915. She was lightly damaged by three hits during the battle. She repeatedly bombarded German positions and troops for the rest of 1915 and during 1916. During the Battle of Moon Sound in 1917, Slava was badly damaged by the German dreadnought SMS König and the flooding significantly increased her draft. The shallow channel made it impossible to escape and she was scuttled in the Moon Sound Strait between the island of Muhu (Moon) and the mainland. The Estonians scrapped her in 1935.
|
30,332,168 |
Cairanoolithus
| 1,134,161,656 |
Oogenus of dinosaur egg
|
[
"Cretaceous France",
"Cretaceous Spain",
"Dinosaur reproduction",
"Egg fossils",
"Fossil parataxa described in 1994",
"Fossils of France",
"Fossils of Spain",
"Late Cretaceous dinosaurs of Europe",
"Maastrichtian life",
"Ornithischians",
"Tremp Formation"
] |
Cairanoolithus is an oogenus of dinosaur egg which is found in Southwestern Europe. The eggs are large (15–19 centimetres or 6–7+1⁄2 inches in diameter) and spherical. Their outer surface is either smooth, or covered with a subdued pattern of ridges interspersed with pits and grooves. Multiple fossil egg clutches are known but the nest structure is unclear.
The parent of Cairanoolithus is probably some kind of non-ornithopod ornithischian, possibly the nodosaurid Struthiosaurus.
The eggs were first named in 1994, when the two oospecies were classified in distinct oogenera as Cairanoolithus dughii and Dughioolithus roussetensis. They are now considered to belong in a single oogenus, possibly even a single oospecies. Though it has been classified as a megaloolithid, Cairanoolithus is now placed in its own oofamily, Cairanoolithidae.
## Description
Cairanoolithus eggs are spherical and fairly large, measuring 15–19 cm (6–7+1⁄2 in) in diameter. The outer surface is smooth or covered with a subdued netlike pattern of ridges, interspersed with pits and grooves (sagenotuberculate ornamentation). The eggshells are made up of partially interlocking column-shaped shell units and range from 1.10 to 2.65 mm (3⁄64 to 13⁄128 in) thick.
Several egg clutches of C. dughii are known, containing as many as 25 fossilized eggs. Unfortunately, taphonomical alterations (changes during the fossilization process) make it difficult to determine the original structure of the nest. Cousin (2002) hypothesized that Cairanoolithus eggs were laid on the surface of the ground, possibly buried beneath a mound of plant matter. Tanaka et al. (2015) noted that the shell had a high rate of water vapor conductance. Therefore, they concluded that Cairanoolithus nests were covered by organic or inorganic material, similar to modern eggs with high vapor conductance.
### Oospecies
Two oospecies of Cairanoolithus have been described:
- Cairanoolithus dughii is the type oospecies. At 1.57–2.41 mm (1⁄16–3⁄32 in), its eggshell is slightly thicker than that of C. roussetensis. It has slender, partially fused columnar eggshell units. Their outer surface is almost without ornamentation, and the inner surface is covered with hollows once filled by organic cores. C. dughii'''s eggshell exhibits an angusticanaliculate pore system, i.e. its pores are long, narrow, and straight.
- Cairanoolithus roussetensis, which was formerly classified in its own oogenus, Dughioolithus, can be distinguished from C. dughii by its thinner eggshell (measuring 1.11–1.77 mm or 3⁄64–9⁄128 in thick), its broader eggshell units, and the relative prominence of its ornamentation. Like C. dughii, C. roussetensis typically has an angusticanaliculate pore system, though some specimens have prolatocanaliculate pores, meaning they have variable diameter across their length.
Some authors consider the two oospecies to be synonymous. Cousin (2002) argued that the differences between them were due to intraspecific variation or due to taphonomy. He also described several eggshell fragments that possibly belong to an additional distinct oospecies of Cairanoolithus; however these specimens were referred to C. roussetensis by Selles and Galobart (2015).
## Classification
While it was formerly considered a megaloolithid, Cairanoolithus is now considered to belong its own monotypic oofamily, Cairanoolithidae. It belongs to the dinosauroid-spherulitic basic type, a group including sauropod eggs and ornithischian eggs, but paraphyletically excluding theropod eggs.
The cladistic analysis done by Selles and Galobart in 2015 recovered Cairanoolithus as a sister taxon to the clade of ornithopod eggs Guegoolithus, Spheroolithus, and Ovaloolithus. Therefore, they considered it likely that Cairanoolithus belongs to a non-ornithopod ornithischian dinosaur.
### Parentage
Since embryos are unknown in cairanoolithid eggs, the identity of their parent is uncertain. They have long been considered to be eggs of titanosaurs or ornithopods (like Rhabdodon). However, numerous characteristics distinguish Cairanoolithus from sauropod eggs (oofamilies Megaloolithidae and Faveoloolithidae), even though they bear superficial similarities in size and shape. Cairanoolithus's columnar eggshell units are quite unlike the fan-shaped ones seen in Megaloolithus, Faveoloolithus, or Fusioolithus. Also, its subdued ornamentation contrasts strongly with the heavily sculpted eggshells of sauropod eggs, and it has a different pore system. Eggs of ornithopods (Spheroolithidae and Ovaloolithidae), on the other hand, show much closer similarity to cairanoolithids in ornamentation and pore system. However, ornithopod eggs are typically much smaller, and the crystal structure of their eggshell units is distinct.
The cladistic analysis by Sellés and Galobart in 2015 supported an ornithischian parentage. Late Campanian to early Maastrichtian ornithischians from Southwestern Europe are restricted to rhabdodontids and the nodosaurid Struthiosaurus. When Sellés and Galobart analyzed the pelvises of Rhabdodon (the largest known rhabdodontid) and Struthiosaurus, they found that Rhabdodon could not have laid eggs as big as Cairanoolithus. On the other hand, even though Struthiosaurus was relatively small, the unique orientation of its ischia would have easily allowed it to lay eggs as large as a 19 cm (7+1⁄2 in) cairanoolithid egg. However, interpreting Cairanoolithus as the eggs of a nodosaur does raise the question of why Cairanoolithus or similar eggs have not been found in areas with a greater nodosaur abundance.
## Distribution
Cairanoolithus is native to Southwestern Europe, including southern France and northern Iberia. Its fossils date to the late Campanian to early Maastrichtian. They are usually found in the Aix-en-Provence Basin below the Rognac Limestone. C. dughii is from the La Cairanne site in Bouches du Rhône, France, from Roquehautes-Grand Creux and from the Villeveyrac Basin. C. roussetensis is found in the northern part of Iberia (Tremp Group of Spain), and from southern France (in Rousset Village, Roquehautes-Crete du Marbre, the Villeveyrac Basin, and Argelliers-Montamaud).
## Paleoecology
The Late Cretaceous ecosystems of Europe (which was then an island archipelago) show complex mixing of taxa originating from Africa, Asia, and North America. In Southwestern Europe, Cairanoolithus co-occurs with numerous other types of fossil eggs; Megaloolithus is particularly common, but theropod eggs such as Prismatoolithus and the ornithopod egg Guegoolithus are also present. Dinosaur body fossils are also common, including nodosaurids, rhabdodontids, titanosaurs, dromaeosaurids, basal iguanodontians, hadrosaurids, neoceratosaurians, and coelurosaurs. Other vertebrates include bony fish, squamates, cryptodiran turtles, alligatorids, and mammals.
## History
The Aix Basin was first excavated for fossils in 1869 by French paleontologist Philippe Matheron. In the 1950s, Raymond Dughi and Francois Sirugue, a pair of French paleontologists working for the Museum d'Histoire Naturelle Aix-en-Provence, extensively studied the basin's fossil eggshells. They divided the eggs they had found into ten different types, but they did not describe them in detail. In the 1970s and 1980s, further work was done by the French paleontologist P. Kerourio and the German paleontologist H. K. Erben.
In his 1983 doctoral thesis, M. M. Penner devised one of the early classification schemes for egg fossils. He was the first to recognize the eggs now named Cairanoolithus as a distinct type; under his classification scheme, they were called "Group 2". In 1994, French paleontologists M. Vianey-Liaud, P. Mallan, O. Buscail and C. Montgelard described them under the modern parataxonomic system as Cairanoolithus dughii and "Dughioolithus" roussetensis. They did not assign either of them to any oofamily, but both oogenera were classified in the oofamily Megaloolithidae by the Russian paleontologist Konstantin Mikhailov in 1996. Following further discoveries in 2001, Géraldine Garcia and Monique Vianey-Liaud synomized the two oogenera. In 2002, French paleontologist R. Cousin took a step further and synonymized the two oospecies.
In 2012, the first Cairanoolithus fossils discovered outside of France were first reported by Albert G. Selles in his PhD thesis at Universitat de Barcelona, in which he also proposed that Cairanoolithus be moved into its own oofamily. Three years later, Selles and Angel Galobart published a comprehensive reanalysis of Cairanoolithus, in which they formally named the new oofamily, Cairanoolithidae, to contain Cairanaoolithus. Contrary to Cousin's conclusions, Selles and Galobart separated the oospecies C. dughii and C. roussetensis. Also, they demonstrated that Cairanoolithus'' was not the eggs of an ornithopod or sauropod and conjectured that it could be the eggs of a nodosaur.
|
56,883,215 |
Marlon Bundo's A Day in the Life of the Vice President
| 1,156,267,969 |
Children's book by Charlotte Pence
|
[
"2018 children's books",
"American children's books",
"American picture books",
"Books about American politicians",
"Children's books about rabbits and hares",
"Mike Pence",
"Regnery Publishing books",
"White House in fiction"
] |
Marlon Bundo's A Day in the Life of the Vice President is a 2018 children's book by Charlotte Pence as author and Karen Pence as illustrator. It details a fictional day in the life of Marlon Bundo, pet rabbit of Vice President of the United States Mike Pence, father of Charlotte and husband of Karen. It received lukewarm reviews from professional critics, who praised the illustrations but found fault with the prose.
## Concept
The book is an educational story explaining to children what the job of Vice President of the United States entails as seen through the eyes of the Pence family pet rabbit Marlon Bundo. The book was announced on the Instagram account dedicated to Marlon Bundo on September 15, 2017. Second Lady Karen Pence, a former teacher and a watercolor artist, painted the book's illustrations over a period of about four months. The book was released on March 19, 2018, by the children's arm of Regnery Publishing, a conservative book publisher. A book tour stopped at military bases, the Nixon and Reagan presidential libraries, and the conservative nonprofit organization Focus on the Family.
Proceeds from the book's sales were to be donated to Tracy's Kids – an art therapy program Karen Pence brought to the Riley Hospital for Children in Indianapolis – and The A21 Campaign, a nonprofit organization working to end human trafficking. Two of Karen Pence's original watercolors for the book illustrations were also auctioned to raise money for Tracy's Kids.
### The rabbit
Charlotte Pence acquired the rabbit that became the book's lead character when she was a film school student at Chicago's DePaul University in 2013. The rabbit was later named Marlon Bundo after the seller asked Pence to make an offer on the rabbit. This was taken as a reference to Marlon Brando's Don Vito Corleone saying "I'm gonna make him an offer he can't refuse." in the 1972 film The Godfather. Pence featured the rabbit in a short film project and then kept him as a family pet. He is said to be well-behaved and is the first rabbit to have flown on Air Force Two, when the Pences moved to Washington, D.C. The Pences planned to take Marlon Bundo on the book's press tour.
## Plot
The story details the experiences of Marlon Bundo, the Pence family pet rabbit and BOTUS (Bunny of the United States), as he follows Grampa (vice president Mike Pence) around for a day. Included are visits to the Oval Office, the Senate, the vice president's office, and the telescope at their home at the Naval Observatory. At the end of the day, Marlon joins the vice president in reading the Bible and praying before bed.
## Reception
### Commercial performance
One week after the book's launch date, Regnery Publishing reported that Marlon Bundo's A Day in the Life of the Vice President was in its third printing, totaling more than 100,000 copies. Publishers Weekly estimated the book had sold 26,000 copies as of May 11, 2018.
### Critical reception
On its launch date, a number of one-star reviews with negative comments were left on the book's Amazon page by non-buyers who favored the parody book, A Day in the Life of Marlon Bundo. Later that day, it was no longer possible to review the Pences' book without purchasing it and one-star ratings from non-buyers had been removed.
Kirkus Reviews called the book's illustrations "competent", the author's verse "execrable" and the publication as a whole "[a]nodyne at best", noting the absence of 'people of color' throughout the book and giving it a "skip it" rating. Similarly, Susie Wilde of The News & Observer praised the illustrations and criticized the writing, "Pence shows her skill at realistic watercolors and captures the cuteness factor of the real BOTUS.... The book fails when it comes to the text, though." Esquire mentioned the strained verse as well and called the book mediocre. Katy Waldman in The New Yorker also criticized the book's verse as "mostly embarrassing."
### Parody
Charlotte Pence's book and Mike Pence's staunch opposition to same-sex marriage inspired Last Week Tonight with John Oliver writer Jill Twiss to author A Day in the Life of Marlon Bundo. The story details the same-sex romance of rabbits Marlon Bundo and Wesley, who face opposition from a stink bug who is against same-sex marriage. A Day in the Life of Marlon Bundo is billed as an actual children's story about marriage equality and democracy, rather than as a straight-up parody of Charlotte Pence's book, yet it includes some "definite digs" at the vice president.
Charlotte Pence supported A Day in the Life of Marlon Bundo, posting on Twitter a picture of herself and the real-life Marlon Bundo wearing a bow tie identical to the one in Jill Twiss' book, and saying on Mornings with Maria: "His book is contributing to charities that I think we can all get behind... I'm all for it." The official Marlon Bundo Instagram account also referred to Twiss' book in a positive light, stating "Not gonna lie, I do look pretty fly in a bow tie. The only thing better than one bunny book for charity is...TWO bunny books for charity." The Twiss book's profits were also given to charities, namely The Trevor Project and AIDS United.
Conversely, Regnery Publishing initially criticized the release of A Day in the Life of Marlon Bundo, saying that it was "unfortunate that anyone would feel the need to ridicule an educational children's book and turn it into something controversial and partisan." When the success of both books became apparent, Regnery complimented John Oliver and Chronicle Books for their sales figures, adding: "There's plenty to go around for everyone and, like Charlotte [Pence] said, we can all be happy the proceeds are going to a good cause."
|
3,183,713 |
Battle of Stillman's Run
| 1,146,695,510 |
1832, Black Hawk War, Illinois
|
[
"1832 in Illinois",
"Battles and skirmishes of the Black Hawk War in Illinois",
"May 1832 events",
"Stillman Valley, Illinois"
] |
The Battle of Stillman's Run, also known as the Battle of Sycamore Creek or the Battle of Old Man's Creek, occurred in Illinois on May 14, 1832. The battle was named for the panicked retreat by Major Isaiah Stillman and his detachment of 275 Illinois militia after being attacked by an unknown number of Sauk warriors of Black Hawk's British Band. The numbers of warriors has been estimated at as few as fifty but as many as two hundred participated in the attack. However, reports found in Whitney's Black Hawk War (Letters and reports compiled by the Illinois State Library) indicated that large numbers of Indians were on the move throughout the region, and it appeared that widespread frontier warfare was underway. The engagement was the first battle of the Black Hawk War (1832), which developed after Black Hawk crossed the Mississippi River from Iowa into Illinois with his band of Sauk and Fox warriors along with women, children, and elders to try to resettle in Illinois. The militia had pursued a small group of Sauk scouts to the main British Band camp following a failed attempt by Black Hawk's emissaries to negotiate a truce.
During the engagement, 12 militiamen were killed by Band warriors while making a stand on a small hill. The remainder of the militia fled back to Dixon's Ferry. Citizens erected a monument in 1901 in Stillman Valley, Illinois commemorating the battle. A 2006 article corroborates that militia volunteer Abraham Lincoln was present at the battleground's burials; sources agree about little else. Investigation continues in the early 21st century about facts of the skirmish.
## Background
Black Hawk, a Sauk chief, believed that the Treaty of St. Louis (1804) was invalid. It ceded Sauk territory to the US that included his birthplace. He led a number of incursions across the Mississippi River from Iowa to Illinois beginning in 1830. Each time, he was persuaded to return west without bloodshed. In April 1832, encouraged by promises of alliances with other tribes and the British authorities in British North America, he again moved his "British Band" into Illinois. Finding no allies, he attempted to return to Iowa, but ensuing events led to the Battle of Stillman's Run. A number of other engagements followed, and the state militias of Wisconsin and Illinois were mobilized to hunt down Black Hawk's band. The conflict became known as the Black Hawk War.
On April 5, 1832, Black Hawk and around 1,000 warriors and civilians recrossed the Mississippi River into Illinois. About half of Black Hawk's band were combatants and the rest were a combination of women, children, and elderly. The band consisted of Sauk, Fox, some Potawatomi, and some Kickapoo; in addition some members of the Ho-Chunk nation were sympathetic to Black Hawk. Black Hawk's reason for crossing into Illinois is disputed. It has long been believed that he wanted to reclaim lost territory and, perhaps, create a confederacy of Native Americans to stand against white settlement. However, modern historians have questioned this and indicated that Black Hawk may have been trying to resettle among the Ho-Chunk and point to the large number of non-combatants that accompanied Black Hawk's supposed war party. Other Illinois tribes promised aid to the British Band and Black Hawk believed that he had been promised assistance by the British in Canada.
Black Hawk led the march of the group along the Rock River into Illinois. Illinois Governor John Reynolds perceived the return of Black Hawk as an invasion, and he immediately called up the militia. General Henry Atkinson, whom Black Hawk addressed as "White Beaver," commanded the military expedition.
## Prelude
Atkinson was not told about Governor Reynolds' decision to order Major Isaiah Stillman's militia to march on Old Man's Creek, despite being in overall command. Reynolds' orders, issued on his behalf by General Samuel Whiteside to Stillman, were for Stillman to find Black Hawk and coerce him into submission. Following these orders, Stillman moved on Old Mans Creek. Whiteside had refused to accept Stillman's battalion under his command, thus leaving it "orphaned" and under the direct command of Governor Reynolds. The militia commanded by Whiteside grew restless as they awaited the arrival of Atkinson and his Army regulars; many of the volunteer militia wanted to quit the war and head back home. When diplomacy failed to persuade Black Hawk to take his band back west to Iowa, Stillman and Bailey's battalions of Illinois Militia were marched up the Rock River.
Prior to the battle at Stillman's Run, Black Hawk's grand vision of British support and a Native American confederacy had collapsed. No significant parties aided him and his followers. The British Band started to weaken with hunger, and Black Hawk soon realized that the only option was to return across the Mississippi River. When he detected the U.S. militia camp eight miles (13 km) away, Black Hawk sent out peace envoys in order to negotiate a truce. They were told to wave a white flag at the militia.
## Battle
On May 14, 1832, a detachment of 275 militia under the command of Majors Isaiah Stillman and David Bailey, under orders from Illinois Governor Reynolds, were encamped near Old Man's Creek, not far from its confluence with the Rock River. The militia camp was located about three miles (5 km) east of the Rock River near present-day Stillman Valley, Illinois, and seven miles (11 km) south of the Sauk encampment. It is believed that the militia and its commanders were unaware of their proximity to Black Hawk's British Band.
In conference with the local Potawatomi, Black Hawk learned of Stillman's presence and sent three emissaries to the militia camp under a flag of parley in order to negotiate a peace with the soldiers. The already suspicious soldiers took the three emissaries to their camp, and during the proceedings the militia became aware of several of Black Hawk's scouts in the surrounding hills, watching the proceedings. Once the scouts were spotted, soldiers shot at the three emissaries, killing one. The other two fled back toward their camp, located near the confluence of the Rock and Kishwaukee rivers.
The scouts were pursued by the disorganized militia and several were killed. The surviving scouts arrived at Black Hawk's camp ahead of the militia and reported the events. At the camp, the warriors set up a skirmish line in order to fend off the pending militia attack. The militia soldiers, intent on pursuing the scouts, chased them back toward the main force of Black Hawk's warriors and their skirmish line. Black Hawk and his force concealed themselves and ambushed the pursuers. Believing that thousands of Sauk and Fox were attacking them, the militia panicked and fled back to the main force camped at Dixon's Ferry. Stillman's exact whereabouts are unknown during this point in the battle. His later account published in a newspaper did not mention his location and noted his only order was to retreat. Stillman's account, published in the Missouri Republican, has been called fanciful.
Twelve of Stillman's militia were killed in the melee. A band of volunteers under the leadership of Captain John Giles Adams made a stand on a hill south of the main militia camp. The men fought by moonlight as the main body of the militia fled back to Dixon. The entire 12-man detachment, including Adams, was killed in the fight. Dyer has said that Adams may have been killed by his own men as he attempted to muster them to battle. The number of Sauk and Fox killed in the engagement is largely unknown; the militia party that was sent to locate the "missing" 53 militia men found no dead Sauk. Black Hawk is quoted as saying at least three and maybe as many as five of his warriors were killed.
## Lincoln's role
The facts about Abraham Lincoln's service during the Black Hawk War have been disputed. Lincoln was associated with two major battle sites, including Stillman's Run, in the aftermath of combat. A number of sources assert that on June 26, 1832, the morning after the Second Battle of Kellogg's Grove, members of the company of Captain Jacob M. Early arrived at the grove to help bury the dead. One of these soldiers was Lincoln, who assisted with the burial. His later statement about the events has been linked to both the battle at Kellogg's Grove and the fight at Stillman's Run.
> I remember just how those men looked as we rode up the little hill where their camp was. The red light of the morning sun was streaming upon them as they lay head towards us on the ground. And every man had a round red spot on top of his head, about as big as a dollar where the redskins had taken his scalp. It was frightful, but it was grotesque, and the red sunlight seemed to paint everything all over. I remember one man had on buckskin breeches.
The Lincoln quote was featured in both William H. Herndon and Jesse W. Wiek's Life of Lincoln and Carl Sandburg's Lincoln biography, Abraham Lincoln The Prairie Years. Lincoln's presence at Stillman's Run has been under investigation in the early 21st century, but his presence at Kellogg's Grove has been corroborated by several sources. In a 2006 article, author Scott Dyer asserted that Whiteside's men, including Captain Lincoln, "paraded" the area the morning after, and buried the dead from Stillman's Run. Their movements were an unsuccessful effort to draw out the Sauk, after which they returned to Dixon's Ferry.
During an 1848 speech before the U.S. Congress in which he referred to his Black Hawk War service, Lincoln noted Stillman's Run by name:
> By the way Mr. Speaker, did you know that I am a military hero? Yes sir, in the days of the Black Hawk War I fought, bled and came away . . . I was not at Stillman's defeat, but I was about as near it as Cass was Hull's surrender, and, like him, I saw the place very soon afterwards.
The marble facade on the Stillman Valley monument, erected in 1901 to commemorate the battle, refers to Lincoln's presence at Stillman's Run, "The presence of soldier, statesman, martyr, Abraham Lincoln assisting in the burial of these honored dead has made this spot more sacred." Other sources assert that General Whiteside originally buried the dead in a common grave on a ridge south of the battlefield, marked with a rudimentary wooden memorial. These sources make no mention of Lincoln.
## Aftermath
Following the first confrontation with Black Hawk at Stillman Valley, the press reported that 2,000 "bloodthirsty warriors were sweeping all Northern Illinois with the bosom of destruction," sending shock waves of terror through the region. Past midnight on May 15, soldiers from Stillman's ill-fated detachment began streaming back into Dixon's Ferry, wide-eyed and panic-stricken, telling tales of a horrible slaughter that had ensued during the battle. In the immediate aftermath of the battle, 53 militia men were missing. Later officials determined that the majority of these men had simply bypassed Dixon's Ferry on their way home.
After this initial skirmish, Black Hawk led many of the civilians in his band to the Michigan Territory. On May 19, the militia traveled up the Rock River trailing and searching for Black Hawk and his band. Several small skirmishes and massacres ensued over the next month in northern Illinois and southern Wisconsin before the militia regained public confidence in battles at Bloody Lake and Waddams Grove.
Critics of the Illinois Militia, mostly members of the Regular Army, attacked their behavior at the debacle at Stillman' Run. They began to refer to the battle at Old Man's Creek as the Battle of Stillman's Run, because Stillman had apparently fled with the panicked militia.
Armed hostilities during the Black Hawk War began at Stillman's Run, and the victory was unexpected for Black Hawk and his British Band. Black Hawk feared that the white militia and its allies would seek revenge through his total defeat. Leading his starving band, Black Hawk fled from Atkinson's pursuing army. The chase would take them as far as present day Madison, Wisconsin. It ended at the Battle of Bad Axe, where the militia and its allies massacred a weakened foe, by then made up of mostly women and children.
The remains of the soldiers at Stillman's Run were originally buried in a common grave, but who buried them remains an open question. A memorial, erected in 1901, stands near their marked graves. The monument and battle site are listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places. They are near Illinois Route 72 a block west of present-day Stillman Creek.
## See also
- Stillman's Run Battle Site
- List of battles fought in Illinois
|
197,445 |
USS Georgia (BB-15)
| 1,166,110,365 |
Pre-dreadnought battleship of the United States Navy
|
[
"1904 ships",
"Ships built in Bath, Maine",
"Virginia-class battleships",
"World War I battleships of the United States"
] |
USS Georgia (BB-15) was a United States Navy Virginia-class battleship, the third of five ships of the class. She was built by the Bath Iron Works in Maine, with her keel laid in August 1901 and her launching in October 1904. The completed battleship was commissioned into the fleet in September 1906. The ship was armed with an offensive battery of four 12-inch (305 mm) guns and eight 8-inch (203 mm) guns, and she was capable of a top speed of 19 knots (35 km/h; 22 mph).
Georgia spent the majority of her career in the Atlantic Fleet. In 1907, she took part in the Jamestown Exposition and suffered an explosion in her aft 8-inch gun turret that killed or wounded 21 men. At the end of the year, she joined the Great White Fleet on its circumnavigation of the globe, which ended in early 1909. Peacetime training followed for the next five years, and in 1914 she cruised in Mexican waters to protect American interests during the Mexican Revolution. In early 1916, the ship was temporarily decommissioned.
When the United States entered World War I in April 1917, the ship was tasked with training naval recruits for the expanding wartime fleet. Starting in September 1918, she was used as a convoy escort. Her only casualties during the war were due to disease, the result of poor conditions and severe overcrowding aboard the ship. Georgia was used to transport American soldiers back from France in 1918–1919, and the following year she was transferred to the Pacific Fleet, where she served as the flagship of the 2nd Division, 1st Squadron. The Washington Naval Treaty, signed in 1922, cut short the ship's career, as it mandated severe draw-downs in naval strength. Georgia was accordingly sold for scrap in November 1923.
## Design
Design work on the Virginia class began in 1899, after the United States' victory in the Spanish–American War, which had demonstrated the need for sea-going battleships suitable for operations abroad, finally resolving the debate between proponents of that type and those who favored low-freeboard types useful for coastal defense. The designers included a superposed arrangement of the main and some of the secondary guns, which proved to be a significant disappointment in service, as firing either set of guns interfered with the others, slowing the rate of fire.
Georgia was 441 feet 3 inches (134.49 m) long overall and had a beam of 76 ft 3 in (23.24 m) and a draft of 23 ft 9 in (7.24 m). She displaced 14,948 long tons (15,188 t) as designed and up to 16,094 long tons (16,352 t) at full load. The ship was powered by two-shaft triple-expansion steam engines rated at 19,000 indicated horsepower (14,000 kW), with steam provided by twenty-four coal-fired Niclausse boilers. The propulsion system generated a top speed of 19 knots (35 km/h; 22 mph). As built, she was fitted with heavy military masts, but these were quickly replaced by cage masts in 1909. She had a crew of 812 officers and enlisted men.
The ship was armed with a main battery of four 12 in (305 mm) /40 caliber Mark 4 guns in two twin gun turrets on the centerline, one forward and aft. The secondary battery consisted of eight 8 in (203 mm) /45 guns and twelve 6 in (152 mm) /50 caliber guns. The 8-inch guns were mounted in four twin turrets; two of these were superposed atop the main battery turrets, with the other two turrets abreast the forward funnel. The 6-inch guns were placed in casemates in the hull. For close-range defense against torpedo boats, she carried twelve 3-inch /50 guns mounted in casemates along the side of the hull and twelve 3-pounder guns. As was standard for capital ships of the period, Georgia carried four 21 inch (533 mm) torpedo tubes, submerged in her hull on the broadside.
Georgia's main armored belt was 11 in (279 mm) thick over the magazines and the machinery spaces and 6 in (152 mm) elsewhere. The faces of the main battery gun turrets (and the secondary turrets on top of them) were 12-inch (305 mm) thick. Each turret rested on a supporting barbettes that had 10 in (254 mm) of armor plating. The conning tower had 9 in (229 mm) thick sides.
## Service history
### Early career and the Great White Fleet
Georgia was laid down on 31 August 1901 at the Bath Iron Works in Maine. Her completed hull was launched on 11 October 1904, after which fitting-out work commenced. The ship was commissioned into the fleet on 24 September 1906. Georgia conducted a shakedown cruise after fitting-out work was completed, before joining the 2nd Division, 1 Squadron of the Atlantic Fleet. She steamed out of Hampton Roads on 26 March 1907 to join the rest of the fleet in Guantanamo Bay, Cuba; there, the ships conducted gunnery training. Georgia then steamed to the Boston Navy Yard for repairs before attending the Jamestown Exposition, which commemorated the 300th anniversary of the founding of the Jamestown colony. An international fleet that included British, French, German, Japanese, and Austro-Hungarian warships joined the US Navy at the event.
On 10 June, the ship took part in a naval review for President Theodore Roosevelt. Two days later, she departed for target practice in Cape Cod Bay, arriving on 15 June. A propellant charge exploded in her aft 8-inch turret on 15 July, killing ten officers and men and wounding another eleven. Later that year, the ship took part in fleet maneuvers in the Atlantic, and on 24 September she went into dry dock at the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard for an overhaul.
Georgia joined the Great White Fleet on 16 December 1907, when they departed Hampton Roads to begin their circumnavigation of the globe. The cruise of the Great White Fleet was conceived as a way to demonstrate American military power, particularly to Japan. Tensions had begun to rise between the United States and Japan after the latter's victory in the Russo-Japanese War in 1905, particularly over racist opposition to Japanese immigration to the United States. The press in both countries began to call for war, and Roosevelt hoped to use the demonstration of naval might to deter Japanese aggression. The fleet cruised south to the Caribbean and then to South America, making stops in Port of Spain, Rio de Janeiro, Punta Arenas, and Valparaíso, among other cities. After arriving in Mexico in March 1908, the fleet spent three weeks conducting gunnery practice. The fleet then resumed its voyage up the Pacific coast of the Americas, stopping in San Francisco and Seattle before crossing the Pacific to Australia, stopping in Hawaii on the way. Stops in the South Pacific included Melbourne, Sydney, and Auckland.
After leaving Australia, the fleet turned north for the Philippines, stopping in Manila, before continuing on to Japan where a welcoming ceremony was held in Yokohama. Three weeks of exercises followed in Subic Bay in the Philippines in November. The ships passed Singapore on 6 December and entered the Indian Ocean; they coaled in Colombo before proceeding to the Suez Canal and coaling again at Port Said, Egypt. The fleet called in several Mediterranean ports before stopping in Gibraltar, where an international fleet of British, Russian, French, and Dutch warships greeted the Americans. The ships then crossed the Atlantic to return to Hampton Roads on 22 February 1909, having traveled 46,729 nautical miles (86,542 km; 53,775 mi). There, they conducted a naval review for Theodore Roosevelt.
### 1910–1923
Over the course of the following year and a half, Georgia conducted a peacetime routine of training maneuvers and gunnery drills. On 2 November 1910, she took part in a naval review for President William Howard Taft in preparation for a cruise to western Europe with the Atlantic Fleet. The ships stopped in France and Britain, and conducted extensive maneuvers while on the cruise. Georgia and the rest of the fleet arrived back in Guantanamo Bay on 13 March 1911. She returned to her peacetime training routine for the next two years. On 5 June 1913, she conducted a training cruise for midshipmen from the United States Naval Academy, followed by an overhaul in the Boston Navy Yard. In early January, she was deployed to Mexican waters to protect American interests in the country during the Mexican Revolution. She remained there from 14 January 1914 to March, when she returned to Norfolk briefly. The ship was back cruising off Mexico during the summer, and from August to October she operated in Haitian waters to protect Americans in the country, which was also experiencing internal unrest.
The ship then went into drydock for an overhaul, before returning to Cuban waters for maneuvers with the fleet. She arrived there on 25 February 1915. The rest of the year was spent with training exercises with the Atlantic Fleet. Another overhaul, at the Boston Navy Yard, from 20 January to January 1916. On 27 January, Georgia was decommissioned temporarily. The same day as the United States' declaration of war against Germany on 6 April 1917, the ship was reactivated for service during World War I. She was assigned to the 3rd Division, Battleship Force, based in the York River, Virginia. She spent most of the war training gunners for the rapidly expanding wartime Navy and conducting tactical training exercises. During this period, the ship frequently had more than a thousand men aboard the ship, despite the fact that she had sleeping accommodations for only 750. The ship's commander at the time, Captain Sumner Kittelle, raised concerns about the over-crowded conditions aboard the ship.
From September 1918 to the end of the conflict, Georgia was assigned to the Cruiser Force Atlantic as a convoy escort. The ship's first operation was with troop ship convoy 67, which departed New York on 23 September; the rest of the escort consisted of the armored cruisers North Carolina and Montana and the destroyer Rathburne. Georgia had to take on 525 long tons (533 t) of coal in addition to her normal stocks, which significantly degraded her seakeeping characteristics. The ship accordingly had to be battened down to reduce flooding from heavy seas, which had the effect of hastening the spread of disease. During the cruise, the crew suffered from 120 cases of influenza and 14 cases of pneumonia; 7 men died from disease. Even with the additional coal, the ship did not have sufficient fuel to reach the hand off point and she had to break off from the convoy to return to port. Germany signed an Armistice with the Allied powers, ending the war on 11 November. On 10 December, the ship was equipped to serve as a transport to carry American soldiers back from France. This duty saw the ship transferred to the Cruiser and Transport Force. She made five trips between December 1918 and June 1919, carrying almost 6,000 soldiers in total. The first trip, made in company with the battleship Kansas, arrived in Brest, France on 22 December 1918.
Georgia was transferred to the Pacific Fleet shortly thereafter, departing from Boston on 16 July 1919. She transited the Panama Canal and arrived in San Diego, where she became the flagship of the 2nd Division, 1st Squadron. The ship went to the Mare Island Navy Yard for periodic maintenance on 20 September. The ship remained there until 15 July 1920 when she was decommissioned. Under the terms of the 1922 Washington Naval Treaty, the ship was sold for scrapping on 1 November 1923 and subsequently was broken up. The ship was formally stricken from the naval register on 10 November. The ship's bell and an eagle figurehead are preserved at the Reserve Officers Training Corps at the Georgia Institute of Technology.
|
17,124,409 |
Parasakthi (film)
| 1,166,257,905 |
1952 film by Krishnan–Panju
|
[
"1950s Tamil-language films",
"1952 drama films",
"1952 films",
"Films about poverty in India",
"Films about rape in India",
"Films directed by Krishnan–Panju",
"Films scored by R. Sudarsanam",
"Films with screenplays by M. Karunanidhi",
"Indian World War II films",
"Indian black-and-white films",
"Indian courtroom films",
"Indian drama films",
"Indian films based on plays",
"Indian propaganda films",
"Indian satirical films"
] |
Parasakthi (; ) is a 1952 Indian Tamil-language drama film directed by Krishnan–Panju and written by M. Karunanidhi. The film stars Sivaji Ganesan, S. V. Sahasranamam, S. S. Rajendran, Sriranjani Jr., and Pandari Bai. It is the cinematic acting debut of Ganesan and Rajendran. Based on Pavalar Balasundaram's play of the same name, Parasakthi narrates the misfortunes that befall the members of a Tamil family during World War II.
Central Studios initially planned on creating a film based on the Parasakthi play and T. S. Natarajan's play En Thangai; however, the idea was dropped after Natarajan objected. The film rights of Parasakthi were later bought by P. A. Perumal of National Pictures, with the patronage of A. V. Meiyappan. The soundtrack was composed by R. Sudarsanam, cinematography was handled by S. Maruti Rao, and Panju edited the film under the alias "Panjabi". Filming began in mid-1950, but took over two years to complete
Parasakthi was released on 17 October 1952, during the festive occasion of Diwali, and faced controversies because of its portrayal of Brahmins and Hindu customs and practices in a negative light. The elitarian society including the then ruling State government even demanded the film to be banned. Despite these protests, the film was praised for its dialogues and the actors' performances, and became a commercial success with a theatrical run of over 175 days. Parasakthi acquired cult status in Tamil cinema and became a trendsetter for dialogues and acting for later Tamil films.
## Plot
Chandrasekaran, Gnanasekaran and Gunasekaran are three Indian immigrant brothers living in Rangoon, Burma with Chandrasekaran's wife Saraswati. Their younger sister Kalyani was raised in their home town Madurai, Tamil Nadu by their father Manickampillai. In 1942, during World War II, the three brothers and Saraswati plan to visit Madurai to attend the impending wedding of Kalyani to a writer named Thangappan. Due to war conditions and bombardment of Burmese ports by Japan, the shipping company offers only one ticket; Gunasekaran, the youngest brother, takes it and leaves for Tamil Nadu. The ship fails to reach on time due to the dangers of the war, and Kalyani's marriage takes place without any of her brothers present.
Kalyani becomes pregnant. But on the day she delivers her child, Thangappan dies in an accident and Manickampillai dies of shock, leaving Kalyani and her child destitute. Her house gets auctioned off, and she makes her living by selling food on the streets. Gunasekaran, after being stranded at sea for several months, finally arrives in Tamil Nadu at Madras. However, while watching a dance performance, he is robbed of all his belongings after being intoxicated. Impoverished, he becomes enraged at the status of the once glorious Tamil Nadu, and fakes insanity by indulging in numerous tricks to make a living. Gunasekaran finally comes across his destitute sister at Madurai, having learned of their father's death and her poverty. He continues to play insane and does not reveal his true identity to her due to his poverty, but hovers around her. Kalyani is irritated by the stranger's behaviour, unaware that he is her brother.
Kalyani is nearly molested by a vagabond named Venu, but is saved by Gunasekaran. She later leaves Madurai and arrives at Tiruchi, where she obtains work as a maid of blackmarketeer Narayana Pillai, who also tries to molest her. She is saved by his wife, and leaves the job. While searching for his sister, Gunasekaran reaches Tiruchi and comes across Vimala, a wealthy woman, to whom he explains the miserable status of him and his sister in the society. After resting in her house for a while, he silently leaves to continue searching for Kalyani.
As Japanese shelling intensifies in Burma, Chandrasekaran and Gnanasekaran decide to return to India. Chandrasekaran, accompanied by Saraswati, reaches Tiruchi safely and becomes a judge, but Gnanasekaran is lost in the journey and loses a leg in the shelling before arriving in India. He begs for a living, forms an association for beggars and tries to reform them. Kalyani reaches Chandrasekaran's palatial house seeking food, but Chandrasekaran throws her out without recognising her. She later arrives at a temple seeking help, but the pujari also tries to molest her. Frustrated with life and unable to feed her child, Kalyani throws it into a river and attempts suicide, but is soon arrested for killing the child and brought for trial.
At the court, Kalyani defends her act of infanticide with the judge being Chandrasekaran, who after hearing her story realises she is his sister, and faints. Gunasekaran is also brought to the court for having attacked the pujari who tried to molest his sister. During his trial, Gunasekaran explains the misfortunes which have befallen him and his family, and justifies his actions. Gunasekaran's valiant defence in the court awakens everyone on the ills of the society. As the trial proceeds, Vimala arrives and produces Kalyani's child, which was revealed to have safely fallen in her boat instead of the river. Kalyani and Gunasekaran are pardoned and acquitted by the court, and reunite with Chandrasekaran. Gnanasekaran, while collecting donations for his association of beggars, also joins them unexpectedly. With Vimala and Gunasekaran deciding to get married, the family subsequently inaugurates a welfare home for orphans.
## Cast
Male cast
- Sivaji Ganesan as Gunasekaran
- S. V. Sahasranamam as Chandrasekaran
- S. S. Rajendran as Gnanasekaran
- Duraisami as Manikkam Pillai
- T. K. Ramachandran as Venu
- K. M. Nambirajan as Vellai Sami
- Venkatraman as Thangappan
- V. K. Ramasamy as Narayana Pillai
- K. P. Kamakshi as the pujari
- M. N. Krishnan as Kuppan
- Sakthivel as the Servant
- D. V. Narayanasami as Thambidurai
- V. K. Karthikeyan as Tamil Pandit
Female cast
- Sriranjani as Kalyani
- Pandari Bai as Vimala
- Susheela as Saraswathi
- Kannamma as Jolly
- Angamuthu as the fruit seller
- Muthulakshmi as Kantha
- A. S. Jaya as Parvathi
Dance
- Kumari Kamala
- Kusalakumari
Additionally, Kannadasan makes an uncredited appearance as a judge.
## Production
### Development
Parasakthi was a popular 1950s Tamil play written by Pavalar Balasundaram, a Tamil scholar. Around the same time, En Thangai (My Sister), written by T. S. Natarajan, became popular. Sivaji Ganesan, at that time a struggling stage actor, acted in En Thangai as "a brother sacrificing his love for the sake of his sightless kid sister." The pre-production crew at Central Studios, Coimbatore, initially planned to merge these two plays to make a film. However, Natarajan disagreed with the idea, and sold the rights of the play to another producer. En Thangai was made into a film with the same name.
Later, film distributor P. A. Perumal of National Pictures, with the patronage of A. V. Meiyappan of AVM Productions, bought the film rights of Parasakthi. The duo Krishnan–Panju were signed on to direct at Meiyappan's suggestion, and M. Karunanidhi, who would later become the Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu, was signed to write the script. The cinematography was handled by S. Maruti Rao, while the songs were choreographed by Heeralal. Panju edited the film under the alias "Panjabi".
### Casting and filming
Ganesan, the stage actor of En Thangai was chosen to play the male lead, making his cinematic acting debut. Perumal cast Ganesan after being impressed with his performance as Nur Jahan in the Sakthi Nadaga Sabha play of the same name. It was he who, in 1950, gave Ganesan a flight ticket to Madras for the screen test for Parasakthi. Ganesan had simultaneously shot for the Telugu-Tamil bilingual film Paradesi / Poongothai, which was supposed to be his actual film to release first, but released much later after Perumal requested its co-producer Anjali Devi to let Parasakthi release first. Ganesan had earlier dubbed for actor Mukkamala in the 1951 Tamil film Niraparadhi.
Parasakthi did not begin well for Ganesan. When shooting began and 2000 feet of the film was shot, Meiyappan was dissatisfied with Ganesan's "thin" physique, and wanted him replaced with K. R. Ramasamy. Perumal refused, and Ganesan was retained. Meiyappan was also satisfied with the final results of the film. The initial scenes of Ganesan which he earlier disliked were reshot. Karunanidhi later recalled that Ramasamy was unable to accept the film due to other commitments. Ganesan was paid a monthly salary of ₹250 (about US\$52.5 in 1952) for acting in the film. S. S. Rajendran, another successful stage artist, also debuted in Parasakthi after the advice of politician C. N. Annadurai. According to historian Film News Anandan, Parasakthi was one of the few films at that time to be "completely driven" by stage artists.
Rajasulochana was initially cast as the female lead, but opted out due to her pregnancy, and was eventually replaced by Sriranjani Jr. Pandari Bai was added to the film, after Meiyappan was impressed with her performance in Raja Vikrama (1950). Poet Kannadasan declined to work as one of the film's lyricists, and instead acted in a minor role as a judge, as he was "determined to take part in the Parasakthi movie". A portrait of lawyer P. Theagaraya Chetty was used to portray the father-in-law of S. V. Sahasranamam's character Chandrasekaran. The film's climax song "Ellorum Vazha Vendum" featured stock footage of the politicians C. Rajagopalachari, E. V. Ramasamy, M. Bhaktavatsalam, Annadurai, and Karunanidhi. Although Ganesan began working on the film in mid-1950, it took over two years to complete.
## Themes
Panju stated that Parasakthi was designed to "create havoc. Of course, it did. We were challenging the social law itself, the basic Constitution itself". The title song of the film was composed by Bharathidasan, keeping with the demand of the DMK party seeking a sovereign Dravidian nation. The poem glorifies the utopian nature of the Dravidian nation and ends with a long monologue that grieves the present India's reality. When the female lead Kalyani becomes pregnant, she and her husband Thangappan decide to name the child "Pannirselvam" if it is a boy, and "Nagammai" if it is a girl. The names are references to A. T. Pannirselvam, a prominent and respected leader of the Justice Party and Nagammai, a leading activist in the Self-Respect Movement and the wife of E. V. Ramasamy. According to film historian Selvaraj Velayutham, Parasakthi was basically oriented to social reform. United News of India (UNI), Malini Nair of The Times of India and K. S. Sivakumaran of the Sri Lankan newspaper Daily News have referred to the film as a satire, with UNI describing it as a "sociological satire".
The film deploys Kalyani's vulnerability as a widow in a hostile society, with consequent threats to her chastity, especially during the court trial scenes. The name Kalyani was chosen by the screenwriter to emphasise the contradiction between the meaning of her name indicating auspiciousness and her contrasting penury. The theme is expressed through Gunasekaran's arguments in the court : "[My] sister's name is Kalyani. An auspicious name [indeed]. But there is no 'mangalyam' around [her] neck". Also, Vimala, who becomes Gunasekaran's bride, compares herself to Kannagi, a popular symbol of chastity in Tamil culture. Ganesan, who enacted the role of Gunasekaran in Parasakthi, was a DMK activist in real life in 1952 and helped in propagating the theme of Dravida Nadu. The film attempted to bring to light the alleged fraud in the name of religion and presented agnostic views, displaying a powerful critique of the Congress rule in the Madras Presidency. Film historian Mohan Raman compared Parasakthi to Velaikari (1949), as both films featured a "court scene where the hero rids society of irrational beliefs and practices".
## Music
The music of Parasakthi was composed by R. Sudarsanam. The lyrics were written by Bharathidasan, Subramania Bharati, M. Karunanidhi, Annal Thango, Udumalai Narayana Kavi and K. P. Kamatchisundaram. The background score was composed by the Chennai-based Saraswathi Stores Orchestra. Relatively higher importance was given to the film's dialogues over its music, so the dialogues were sold separately on audio cassettes. Some of the numbers from Parasakthi were based on songs from Hindi films; one was a rehash from the Urdu film Akeli (1952). The number "O Rasikkum Seemane" inspired "Itai Tazhukikkolla" from Periyar (2007). The 2010 film Rasikkum Seemane borrows its title from the song of the same name, and the original song was remixed for the 2010 film. A cryptic reference 'Annave' appears in the number "Kaa Kaa Kaa", in the line "Kaakai Annave neengal azhagaana vaayaal pannaga paadureenga", which translates to "Crow elder, you are singing so melodiously with your beautiful mouth". It was written by Narayana Kavi. "Poomalai" is based on the Urdu song "Sanwariya, Tohe Koi Pukare" from the Pakistani film Dupatta (1952). An album containing remixed versions of the songs of Parasakthi was released in on 3 June 2009, to commemorate Karunanidhi's 86th birthday.
## Release
Parasakthi was released on 17 October 1952, on Diwali day. It was regarded as a "propaganda vehicle for a new political party" and marked the start of cinema's "starring role in Tamil politics". Ganesan's performance in the film's court scene was also very well received by audience, and was considered to have propelled him to stardom. The film became an instant commercial success, running for over 175 days in several theatres, and was one of the first films to be screened at the Madurai-based Thangam theatre, which was noted as Asia's largest theatre at the time. It ran for over 50 days in all the 62 centres it was released, and at the Sri Lanka-based Mailan Theatre, it ran for nearly 40 weeks. Parasakthi's Telugu-dubbed version of the same name was released on 11 January 1957.
## Reception
Parasakthi received critical acclaim. P. Balasubramania Mudaliar of Sunday Observer wrote, "The story is simple but it has been made powerful by Mr. Karunanidhi by his beautiful dialogues. Mr. Shivaji Ganesan, who plays the main role dominates from the beginning to the end" and concluded, "If an Academy award were to be given to any picture, I have little doubt that this picture would be entitled on its merits to such an award." Dinamani Kadir, a Tamil weekly owned by Indian Express Limited (then known as The Indian Express Group), carried an unusually long review of Parasakthi running into three closely printed pages. The review was given a cynical title, "Kandarva Mandalam" ("The Abode of Kandarvas") and it began with a small box-item which read, "Parasakthi: This goddess is abused in a Tamil film with her name". The reviewer opined, "The main aim of the film is to attach gods. Along with that, the government and society are overtly and covertly attacked. The embittered and agitated reviewer further claimed, "He [the hero of the film], acting as a mad man, threatens and beats the people on the street and grabs whatever they have and eats it. Then he goes to give repeatedly all those economics lectures, rationalist lectures and anti-god lectures. When we see the hero doing all that, it seems as if he is portraying the lives of those who are trying to force such ideas in the ...film." For the reviewer, thus, the DMK men were living on others' sweat and preaching unacceptable subversive ideas. The magazine Sivaji praised the dialogues by Karunanidhi, and the performances of Ganesan and Sahasranamam.
## Controversies
Post release, Parasakthi was marred by numerous controversies, and was defined as "one of the most controversial films in the history of Tamil cinema" by historian S. Theodore Baskaran. It was accused of trying to portray Brahmins in poor light. Abuse of Hindu customs and religious practices evoked strong protests from the Hindu orthodoxy. Scenes like a priest attempting to rape a woman in a temple were found to be very provocative. The social elite and members of the then ruling Congress party demanded the film to be banned. The-then Chief Minister of Madras, C. Rajagopalachari was unhappy with the extremely provocative nature of the film, but allowed it to be screened. One of the reasons stated by them was the dialogue spoken by Ganesan's character, "Just because you came around chanting names and offered flowers to the stone, would it become a god?", which was accused of "mocking the audiences." His reference to Goddess Parasakthi as a stone created a stir, and the word "stone" was eventually censored from the soundtrack. However, the given message was still "clear and the impact viral." The State Government requested the Union Government to reconsider the film certification, but they declined, due to a previous examination by a Madras intelligence officer, who stated:
> The dialogues for the film have been specially written in a forceful manner by Sri M Karunanidhi, the well known leader of the Dravidian Progression Federation ... The film graphically describes the sufferings and hardships that a young widow with her baby in arms has to face due to poverty and how cruelly society treats her, or illtreats her. The substance of the story by itself is not objectionable. The plot is interesting and the story has a powerful moral appeal, namely that there will be ups and downs in a man's life and that chastity is the most precious jewel of womanhood.
## Legacy
Parasakthi acquired cult status and changed the character of Tamil cinema. Dialogue writing was given more importance than ever before. Speeches of the film replaced traditional music of artists like M. S. Subbulakshmi, K. B. Sundarambal and others at festivities. The film also had its share in giving the DMK the necessary stimulus to overthrow the Congress party in Tamil Nadu. The dialogues became so popular that "roadside entertainers used to recite long passages from the film in market area of Madras and collect money from bystanders", and memorising the film's dialogues became a "must for aspirant political orators". They were even released separately on gramophone records.
K. Hariharan, the director of L. V. Prasad Film Academy in Chennai, included the film in his 2013 list, "Movies that stirred, moved & shook us". According to Film News Anandan, after Parasakthi, Ganesan "became the dominant icon of the DMK", replacing K. R. Ramasamy. Historian S. Muthiah said that Parasakthi "showed Karunanidhi as the master of meaningful screen dialogue that carried forceful messages to the masses". In 2017, Kamal Haasan included the film in his list of 70 favourite movies, stating "This film changed the texture of society. A star was born – the ease with which Sivaji Ganesan walked through the film! His peers paled into insignificance. The writer was Karunanidhi. It was a film about social anger. I saw it much later; I understood it only then."
In celebration of the film's 50th year, Ganesan's autobiography, entitled Enathu Suya Sarithai () was released on 1 October 2002 in Tamil, exactly a year after the actor's death in 2001. The English version, titled Autobiography of an Actor: Sivaji Ganesan, October 1928-July 2001, was released exactly five years later in 2007. To commemorate 50 years since the release of Parasakthi, a memorial was inaugurated in AVM Studios on 17 October 2002 by Kamal Haasan in the presence of Ganesan's sons Prabhu and Ramkumar. The memorial stands at the same place where Ganesan first faced the camera. A slab of black granite, the memorial has on its top a brass medallion that bears a close-up of Ganesan uttering his popular opening line "Success". At its bottom is a rectangular plaque that gives details about the memorial's inauguration. At the base of the rectangular plaque are two other plaques resembling the pages of an open book and contains the names of the technical crew and all those involved in the making of the film. The visage of Ganesan wearing a hat was designed by Thota Tharani. The 2003 film Success, starring Ganesan's grandson Dushyanth Ramkumar, was named after Ganesan's popular line.
Parasakthi is included with other Ganesan films in Yettavathu Ulaga Athisayam Sivaji (Sivaji, the Eighth Wonder of the World), a compilation DVD featuring Ganesan's "iconic performances in the form of scenes, songs and stunts" which was released in May 2012. During the film's diamond jubilee year celebrations in January 2013, K. Chandrasekaran, then the president of Nadigar Thilagam Sivaji Social Welfare Association said, "Six decades down the line Parasakthi is remembered because it is not just a film, but an epic". On the centenary of Indian cinema in April 2013, Forbes India included Ganesan's performance in the film in its list, "25 Greatest Acting Performances of Indian Cinema". Actor Sivakumar stated, "You can’t reproduce movies like Parasakthi, Pasamalar, Devadas, Veerapandiya Kattabomman or Ratha Kanneer [...] By remaking such films, you are lowering yourself, while it enhances the original artists’ image."
Ganesan's in-film dialogue "Ambāḷ entak kālattilaṭā pēciṉāḷ, aṟivu keṭṭavaṉē?" ("When did the goddess ever speak, dimwit?) was parodied by Vadivelu's character in the film Ilaignar Ani (1994). Vivek parodied the film's climax in Palayathu Amman (2000). Karthi's performance in his debut film Paruthi Veeran (2007) was compared by critics with Parasakthi. Malathi Rangarajan, in her review of Citizen (2001) at The Hindu, mentioned that the court scene during the climax was reminiscent of Parasakthi'''s climax. In Sivaji (2007), the eponymous character (Rajinikanth) who shares his first name with Sivaji Ganesan, utters the dialogue, "Parasakthi hero da" ("The hero of Parasakthi, man") when referring to himself.
Film Heritage Foundation announced in March 2015 that they would be restoring Parasakthi along with a few other Indian films from 1931 to 1965 as a part of their restoration projects carried out in India and abroad in accordance to international parameters. The foundation, however, stated that they would not colourise any of the films as they "believe in the original repair as the way the master or the creator had seen it." In July 2016, Ganesan's other grandson Vikram Prabhu launched a production house named "First Artist" with a still of Ganesan from Parasakthi'' as part of its logo.
## See also
- Portrayal of Tamil Brahmins in popular media
- Tamil cinema and Dravidian politics
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Strontium
| 1,172,952,201 | null |
[
"Alkaline earth metals",
"Chemical elements",
"Chemical elements with face-centered cubic structure",
"Lochaber",
"Reducing agents",
"Strontium"
] |
Strontium is the chemical element with the symbol Sr and atomic number 38. An alkaline earth metal, strontium is a soft silver-white yellowish metallic element that is highly chemically reactive. The metal forms a dark oxide layer when it is exposed to air. Strontium has physical and chemical properties similar to those of its two vertical neighbors in the periodic table, calcium and barium. It occurs naturally mainly in the minerals celestine and strontianite, and is mostly mined from these.
Both strontium and strontianite are named after Strontian, a village in Scotland near which the mineral was discovered in 1790 by Adair Crawford and William Cruickshank; it was identified as a new element the next year from its crimson-red flame test color. Strontium was first isolated as a metal in 1808 by Humphry Davy using the then newly discovered process of electrolysis. During the 19th century, strontium was mostly used in the production of sugar from sugar beets (see strontian process). At the peak of production of television cathode-ray tubes, as much as 75% of strontium consumption in the United States was used for the faceplate glass. With the replacement of cathode-ray tubes with other display methods, consumption of strontium has dramatically declined.
While natural strontium (which is mostly the isotope strontium-88) is stable, the synthetic strontium-90 is radioactive and is one of the most dangerous components of nuclear fallout, as strontium is absorbed by the body in a similar manner to calcium. Natural stable strontium, on the other hand, is not hazardous to health.
## Characteristics
Strontium is a divalent silvery metal with a pale yellow tint whose properties are mostly intermediate between and similar to those of its group neighbors calcium and barium. It is softer than calcium and harder than barium. Its melting (777 °C) and boiling (1377 °C) points are lower than those of calcium (842 °C and 1484 °C respectively); barium continues this downward trend in the melting point (727 °C), but not in the boiling point (1900 °C). The density of strontium (2.64 g/cm<sup>3</sup>) is similarly intermediate between those of calcium (1.54 g/cm<sup>3</sup>) and barium (3.594 g/cm<sup>3</sup>). Three allotropes of metallic strontium exist, with transition points at 235 and 540 °C.
The standard electrode potential for the Sr<sup>2+</sup>/Sr couple is −2.89 V, approximately midway between those of the Ca<sup>2+</sup>/Ca (−2.84 V) and Ba<sup>2+</sup>/Ba (−2.92 V) couples, and close to those of the neighboring alkali metals. Strontium is intermediate between calcium and barium in its reactivity toward water, with which it reacts on contact to produce strontium hydroxide and hydrogen gas. Strontium metal burns in air to produce both strontium oxide and strontium nitride, but since it does not react with nitrogen below 380 °C, at room temperature it forms only the oxide spontaneously. Besides the simple oxide SrO, the peroxide SrO<sub>2</sub> can be made by direct oxidation of strontium metal under a high pressure of oxygen, and there is some evidence for a yellow superoxide Sr(O<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>. Strontium hydroxide, Sr(OH)<sub>2</sub>, is a strong base, though it is not as strong as the hydroxides of barium or the alkali metals. All four dihalides of strontium are known.
Due to the large size of the heavy s-block elements, including strontium, a vast range of coordination numbers is known, from 2, 3, or 4 all the way to 22 or 24 in SrCd<sub>11</sub> and SrZn<sub>13</sub>. The Sr<sup>2+</sup> ion is quite large, so that high coordination numbers are the rule. The large size of strontium and barium plays a significant part in stabilising strontium complexes with polydentate macrocyclic ligands such as crown ethers: for example, while 18-crown-6 forms relatively weak complexes with calcium and the alkali metals, its strontium and barium complexes are much stronger.
Organostrontium compounds contain one or more strontium–carbon bonds. They have been reported as intermediates in Barbier-type reactions. Although strontium is in the same group as magnesium, and organomagnesium compounds are very commonly used throughout chemistry, organostrontium compounds are not similarly widespread because they are more difficult to make and more reactive. Organostrontium compounds tend to be more similar to organoeuropium or organosamarium compounds due to the similar ionic radii of these elements (Sr<sup>2+</sup> 118 pm; Eu<sup>2+</sup> 117 pm; Sm<sup>2+</sup> 122 pm). Most of these compounds can only be prepared at low temperatures; bulky ligands tend to favor stability. For example, strontium dicyclopentadienyl, Sr(C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>5</sub>)<sub>2</sub>, must be made by directly reacting strontium metal with mercurocene or cyclopentadiene itself; replacing the C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>5</sub> ligand with the bulkier C<sub>5</sub>(CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>5</sub> ligand on the other hand increases the compound's solubility, volatility, and kinetic stability.
Because of its extreme reactivity with oxygen and water, strontium occurs naturally only in compounds with other elements, such as in the minerals strontianite and celestine. It is kept under a liquid hydrocarbon such as mineral oil or kerosene to prevent oxidation; freshly exposed strontium metal rapidly turns a yellowish color with the formation of the oxide. Finely powdered strontium metal is pyrophoric, meaning that it will ignite spontaneously in air at room temperature. Volatile strontium salts impart a bright red color to flames, and these salts are used in pyrotechnics and in the production of flares. Like calcium and barium, as well as the alkali metals and the divalent lanthanides europium and ytterbium, strontium metal dissolves directly in liquid ammonia to give a dark blue solution of solvated electrons.
### Isotopes
Natural strontium is a mixture of four stable isotopes: <sup>84</sup>Sr, <sup>86</sup>Sr, <sup>87</sup>Sr, and <sup>88</sup>Sr. On these isotopes, <sup>88</sup>Sr is the most abundant, makes up about 82.6% of all natural strontium, though the abundance varies due to the production of radiogenic <sup>87</sup>Sr as the daughter of long-lived beta-decaying <sup>87</sup>Rb. This is the basis of rubidium–strontium dating. Of the unstable isotopes, the primary decay mode of the isotopes lighter than <sup>85</sup>Sr is electron capture or positron emission to isotopes of rubidium, and that of the isotopes heavier than <sup>88</sup>Sr is electron emission to isotopes of yttrium. Of special note are <sup>89</sup>Sr and <sup>90</sup>Sr. The former has a half-life of 50.6 days and is used to treat bone cancer due to strontium's chemical similarity and hence ability to replace calcium. While <sup>90</sup>Sr (half-life 28.90 years) has been used similarly, it is also an isotope of concern in fallout from nuclear weapons and nuclear accidents due to its production as a fission product. Its presence in bones can cause bone cancer, cancer of nearby tissues, and leukemia. The 1986 Chernobyl nuclear accident contaminated about 30,000 km<sup>2</sup> with greater than 10 kBq/m<sup>2</sup> with <sup>90</sup>Sr, which accounts for about 5% of the <sup>90</sup>Sr which was in the reactor core.
## History
Strontium is named after the Scottish village of Strontian (Gaelic Sròn an t-Sìthein), where it was discovered in the ores of the lead mines.
In 1790, Adair Crawford, a physician engaged in the preparation of barium, and his colleague William Cruickshank, recognised that the Strontian ores exhibited properties that differed from those in other "heavy spars" sources. This allowed Crawford to conclude on page 355 "... it is probable indeed, that the scotch mineral is a new species of earth which has not hitherto been sufficiently examined." The physician and mineral collector Friedrich Gabriel Sulzer analysed together with Johann Friedrich Blumenbach the mineral from Strontian and named it strontianite. He also came to the conclusion that it was distinct from the witherite and contained a new earth (neue Grunderde). In 1793 Thomas Charles Hope, a professor of chemistry at the University of Glasgow studied the mineral and proposed the name strontites. He confirmed the earlier work of Crawford and recounted: "... Considering it a peculiar earth I thought it necessary to give it an name. I have called it Strontites, from the place it was found; a mode of derivation in my opinion, fully as proper as any quality it may possess, which is the present fashion." The element was eventually isolated by Sir Humphry Davy in 1808 by the electrolysis of a mixture containing strontium chloride and mercuric oxide, and announced by him in a lecture to the Royal Society on 30 June 1808. In keeping with the naming of the other alkaline earths, he changed the name to strontium.
The first large-scale application of strontium was in the production of sugar from sugar beet. Although a crystallisation process using strontium hydroxide was patented by Augustin-Pierre Dubrunfaut in 1849 the large scale introduction came with the improvement of the process in the early 1870s. The German sugar industry used the process well into the 20th century. Before World War I the beet sugar industry used 100,000 to 150,000 tons of strontium hydroxide for this process per year. The strontium hydroxide was recycled in the process, but the demand to substitute losses during production was high enough to create a significant demand initiating mining of strontianite in the Münsterland. The mining of strontianite in Germany ended when mining of the celestine deposits in Gloucestershire started. These mines supplied most of the world strontium supply from 1884 to 1941. Although the celestine deposits in the Granada basin were known for some time the large scale mining did not start before the 1950s.
During atmospheric nuclear weapons testing, it was observed that strontium-90 is one of the nuclear fission products with a relatively high yield. The similarity to calcium and the chance that the strontium-90 might become enriched in bones made research on the metabolism of strontium an important topic.
## Occurrence
Strontium commonly occurs in nature, being the 15th most abundant element on Earth (its heavier congener barium being the 14th), estimated to average approximately 360 parts per million in the Earth's crust and is found chiefly as the sulfate mineral celestine (SrSO<sub>4</sub>) and the carbonate strontianite (SrCO<sub>3</sub>). Of the two, celestine occurs much more frequently in deposits of sufficient size for mining. Because strontium is used most often in the carbonate form, strontianite would be the more useful of the two common minerals, but few deposits have been discovered that are suitable for development. Because of the way it reacts with air and water, strontium only exists in nature when combined to form minerals. Naturally occurring strontium is stable, but its synthetic isotope Sr-90 is only produced by nuclear fallout.
In groundwater strontium behaves chemically much like calcium. At intermediate to acidic pH Sr<sup>2+</sup> is the dominant strontium species. In the presence of calcium ions, strontium commonly forms coprecipitates with calcium minerals such as calcite and anhydrite at an increased pH. At intermediate to acidic pH, dissolved strontium is bound to soil particles by cation exchange.
The mean strontium content of ocean water is 8 mg/L. At a concentration between 82 and 90 μmol/L of strontium, the concentration is considerably lower than the calcium concentration, which is normally between 9.6 and 11.6 mmol/L. It is nevertheless much higher than that of barium, 13 μg/L.
## Production
The three major producers of strontium as celestine as of 2015 are China (150,000 t), Spain (90,000 t), and Mexico (70,000 t); Argentina (10,000 t) and Morocco (2,500 t) are smaller producers. Although strontium deposits occur widely in the United States, they have not been mined since 1959.
A large proportion of mined celestine (SrSO<sub>4</sub>) is converted to the carbonate by two processes. Either the celestine is directly leached with sodium carbonate solution or the celestine is roasted with coal to form the sulfide. The second stage produces a dark-coloured material containing mostly strontium sulfide. This so-called "black ash" is dissolved in water and filtered. Strontium carbonate is precipitated from the strontium sulfide solution by introduction of carbon dioxide. The sulfate is reduced to the sulfide by the carbothermic reduction:
SrSO<sub>4</sub> + 2 C → SrS + 2 CO<sub>2</sub>
About 300,000 tons are processed in this way annually.
The metal is produced commercially by reducing strontium oxide with aluminium. The strontium is distilled from the mixture. Strontium metal can also be prepared on a small scale by electrolysis of a solution of strontium chloride in molten potassium chloride:
Sr<sup>2+</sup> + 2 → Sr
2 Cl<sup>−</sup> → Cl<sub>2</sub> + 2
## Applications
Consuming 75% of production, the primary use for strontium was in glass for colour television cathode-ray tubes, where it prevented X-ray emission. This application for strontium has been declining because CRTs are being replaced by other display methods. This decline has a significant influence on the mining and refining of strontium. All parts of the CRT must absorb X-rays. In the neck and the funnel of the tube, lead glass is used for this purpose, but this type of glass shows a browning effect due to the interaction of the X-rays with the glass. Therefore, the front panel is made from a different glass mixture with strontium and barium to absorb the X-rays. The average values for the glass mixture determined for a recycling study in 2005 is 8.5% strontium oxide and 10% barium oxide.
Because strontium is so similar to calcium, it is incorporated in the bone. All four stable isotopes are incorporated, in roughly the same proportions they are found in nature. However, the actual distribution of the isotopes tends to vary greatly from one geographical location to another. Thus, analyzing the bone of an individual can help determine the region it came from. This approach helps to identify the ancient migration patterns and the origin of commingled human remains in battlefield burial sites.
<sup>87</sup>Sr/<sup>86</sup>Sr ratios are commonly used to determine the likely provenance areas of sediment in natural systems, especially in marine and fluvial environments. Dasch (1969) showed that surface sediments of Atlantic displayed <sup>87</sup>Sr/<sup>86</sup>Sr ratios that could be regarded as bulk averages of the <sup>87</sup>Sr/<sup>86</sup>Sr ratios of geological terrains from adjacent landmasses. A good example of a fluvial-marine system to which Sr isotope provenance studies have been successfully employed is the River Nile-Mediterranean system. Due to the differing ages of the rocks that constitute the majority of the Blue and White Nile, catchment areas of the changing provenance of sediment reaching the River Nile Delta and East Mediterranean Sea can be discerned through strontium isotopic studies. Such changes are climatically controlled in the Late Quaternary.
More recently, <sup>87</sup>Sr/<sup>86</sup>Sr ratios have also been used to determine the source of ancient archaeological materials such as timbers and corn in Chaco Canyon, New Mexico. <sup>87</sup>Sr/<sup>86</sup>Sr ratios in teeth may also be used to track animal migrations.
Strontium aluminate is frequently used in glow in the dark toys, as it is chemically and biologically inert.
Strontium carbonate and other strontium salts are added to fireworks to give a deep red colour. This same effect identifies strontium cations in the flame test. Fireworks consume about 5% of the world's production. Strontium carbonate is used in the manufacturing of hard ferrite magnets.
Strontium chloride is sometimes used in toothpastes for sensitive teeth. One popular brand includes 10% total strontium chloride hexahydrate by weight. Small amounts are used in the refining of zinc to remove small amounts of lead impurities. The metal itself has a limited use as a getter, to remove unwanted gases in vacuums by reacting with them, although barium may also be used for this purpose.
The ultra-narrow optical transition between the [Kr]5s<sub>2</sub> <sup>1</sup>S<sub>0</sub> electronic ground state and the metastable [Kr]5s5p <sup>3</sup>P<sub>0</sub> excited state of <sup>87</sup>Sr is one of the leading candidates for the future re-definition of the second in terms of an optical transition as opposed to the current definition derived from a microwave transition between different hyperfine ground states of <sup>133</sup>Cs. Current optical atomic clocks operating on this transition already surpass the precision and accuracy of the current definition of the second.
### Radioactive strontium
<sup>89</sup>Sr is the active ingredient in Metastron, a radiopharmaceutical used for bone pain secondary to metastatic bone cancer. The strontium is processed like calcium by the body, preferentially incorporating it into bone at sites of increased osteogenesis. This localization focuses the radiation exposure on the cancerous lesion.
<sup>90</sup>Sr has been used as a power source for radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs). <sup>90</sup>Sr produces approximately 0.93 watts of heat per gram (it is lower for the form of <sup>90</sup>Sr used in RTGs, which is strontium fluoride). However, <sup>90</sup>Sr has one third the lifetime and a lower density than <sup>238</sup>Pu, another RTG fuel. The main advantage of <sup>90</sup>Sr is that it is cheaper than <sup>238</sup>Pu and is found in nuclear waste. The Soviet Union deployed nearly 1000 of these RTGs on its northern coast as a power source for lighthouses and meteorology stations.
## Biological role
Acantharea, a relatively large group of marine radiolarian protozoa, produce intricate mineral skeletons composed of strontium sulfate. In biological systems, calcium is substituted to a small extent by strontium. In the human body, most of the absorbed strontium is deposited in the bones. The ratio of strontium to calcium in human bones is between 1:1000 and 1:2000, roughly in the same range as in the blood serum.
### Effect on the human body
The human body absorbs strontium as if it were its lighter congener calcium. Because the elements are chemically very similar, stable strontium isotopes do not pose a significant health threat. The average human has an intake of about two milligrams of strontium a day. In adults, strontium consumed tends to attach only to the surface of bones, but in children, strontium can replace calcium in the mineral of the growing bones and thus lead to bone growth problems.
The biological half-life of strontium in humans has variously been reported as from 14 to 600 days, 1,000 days, 18 years, 30 years and, at an upper limit, 49 years. The wide-ranging published biological half-life figures are explained by strontium's complex metabolism within the body. However, by averaging all excretion paths, the overall biological half-life is estimated to be about 18 years. The elimination rate of strontium is strongly affected by age and sex, due to differences in bone metabolism.
The drug strontium ranelate aids bone growth, increases bone density, and lessens the incidence of vertebral, peripheral, and hip fractures. However, strontium ranelate also increases the risk of venous thromboembolism, pulmonary embolism, and serious cardiovascular disorders, including myocardial infarction. Its use is therefore now restricted. Its beneficial effects are also questionable, since the increased bone density is partially caused by the increased density of strontium over the calcium which it replaces. Strontium also bioaccumulates in the body. Despite restrictions on strontium ranelate, strontium is still contained in some supplements. There is not much scientific evidence on risks of strontium chloride when taken by mouth. Those with a personal or family history of blood clotting disorders are advised to avoid strontium.
Strontium has been shown to inhibit sensory irritation when applied topically to the skin. Topically applied, strontium has been shown to accelerate the recovery rate of the epidermal permeability barrier (skin barrier).
## Nuclear waste
Strontium-90 is a radioactive fission product produced by nuclear reactors used in nuclear power. It is a major component of high level radioactivity of nuclear waste and spent nuclear fuel. Its 29-year half life is short enough that its decay heat has been used to power arctic lighthouses, but long enough that it can take hundreds of years to decay to safe levels. Exposure from contaminated water and food may increase the risk of leukemia, bone cancer and primary hyperparathyroidism.
### Remediation
Algae has shown selectivity for strontium in studies, where most plants used in bioremediation have not shown selectivity between calcium and strontium, often becoming saturated with calcium, which is greater in quantity and also present in nuclear waste.
Researchers have looked at the bioaccumulation of strontium by Scenedesmus spinosus (algae) in simulated wastewater. The study claims a highly selective biosorption capacity for strontium of S. spinosus, suggesting that it may be appropriate for use in treating nuclear wastewater.
A study of the pond alga Closterium moniliferum using non-radioactive strontium found that varying the ratio of barium to strontium in water improved strontium selectivity.
## See also
|
2,235,482 |
Moses Hardy
| 1,160,013,465 |
American supercentenarian (1894–2006)
|
[
"1894 births",
"2006 deaths",
"African Americans in World War I",
"African-American Christians",
"African-American United States Army personnel",
"African-American centenarians",
"American centenarians",
"American supercentenarians",
"Men supercentenarians",
"People from Aberdeen, Mississippi",
"Recipients of the Legion of Honour",
"United States Army personnel of World War I",
"United States Army soldiers"
] |
Moses Hardy (January 6, 1894 – December 7, 2006) was, at age 112, the last surviving black veteran of World War I and one of the last surviving American veterans of that war. The son of former slaves, Hardy was born in 1894 and lived a religious and farming life until he signed up to serve overseas in World War I in July 1918. As an African American during the Jim Crow era, he served in the segregated 805th Pioneer Infantry, which was assigned a variety of manual labor and support tasks. Hardy himself served as a scout, supplying the front line troops when necessary. Though Hardy did experience combat, he was never seriously injured and rarely discussed his experiences concerning the fighting. Instead, he preferred to recount stories about the food, the bravery of the soldiers and the weather in France.
After the war, he took on a variety of jobs including school bus driver, farmer, deacon and cosmetics salesman, the latter of which he performed well past his 100th birthday. He received the Victory Medal, a special medal from the Mississippi National Guard and the French Légion d'honneur. In 1999, the Mississippi Legislature adopted a resolution recognizing him as an outstanding citizen of Mississippi. At the time of his death, aged 112, he was recognized as the oldest combat veteran ever, the oldest male ever recorded in Mississippi and the second-oldest man and World War I veteran in the world.
## Early life
Hardy was born in Aberdeen, Mississippi in 1894. Although he claimed to have been born in 1893, census records show he was born in 1894. Hardy's parents, Morris Hardy—born in the 1840s—and Nancy Hardy, were former slaves who after the Civil War had purchased 265 acres (1.07 km<sup>2</sup>) of land in Mississippi from a Chickasaw Native American for a dollar. The Hardy family was a deeply religious one, and Moses would later recount that Exodus 20:12, which instructed one to honor their parents, was his favorite Bible passage and one which he lived by. Hardy was married once, to a woman by the name of Fannie Marshall, with whom he would end up having eight children.
## Military career
Hardy's service in France lasted from July 1918 to July 1919, and included thirty-nine combat days. As an African American, he served in a segregated army unit, the 805th Pioneer Infantry, which was commanded by white officers. Although the unit's purpose was to provide support for engineer regiments, it was also an infantry unit that was equipped to fight if necessary. The unit focused mainly of the tasks of stevedores, such as unloading cargo from ships, but also performed other manual labor tasks, such as cooking and organizing burials. Hardy's outfit was armed solely with rifles, instead of standard-issue machine guns. After the war, Hardy's division was responsible for cleaning up the battlefields and removing the dead.
Hardy himself admitted to his family that he was "scared to death" when he first arrived overseas, but believed that the soldiers were fed something to make them brave, which he referred to as "brave pills". After a short time in the military, he claimed that he was not afraid of anything that he experienced from then on. Even in the heat of battle, Hardy professed that he would get "wound up" at times, but never frightened. He recalled many strange experiences with food and drink, such as getting used to drinking green water from canteens and eating hardtacks, which he found to be surprisingly filling. To go with this, there was often little more than small tins of ham or chicken and occasionally coffee to drink and pudding or pie for dessert. Hardy also witnessed many of his friends get killed in action, and relied on his faith in God to get him through the toughest times.
Hardy often acted as a scout who would help bring supplies to troops on the front line. On September 25, 1918, he was present at the Meuse River during a mustard gas attack and, at some point during the war, he received an injury to his knee. Hardy rarely spoke about the fighting itself, and preferred to talk about France's weather when asked about his experiences overseas.
## Post-World War I
Throughout the years, he received the Victory Medal, the Occupational Medal from the Mississippi Army National Guard, an honourable discharge (which he had not received upon leaving the army) and the French Légion d'honneur. In 1999, when he was 105 years old, the Mississippi Legislature adopted a resolution recognizing him as an outstanding citizen of Mississippi. At the time, he was known as the oldest living World War I veteran, as Emiliano Mercado del Toro had not yet been discovered. He was interviewed by Treehouse Productions in 2006 as part of their Living History Project, a radio tribute to the last surviving World War I veterans that was hosted by Walter Cronkite. Though he could not speak coherently, his son Haywood Hardy, himself 80 years old at the time, recalled some of the stories that his father had told him.
Hardy did not serve in World War II and instead drove a school bus, farmed and sold liniments and wigs for "Lucky Heart" cosmetics until his retirement. He reportedly continued to go door-to-door for several years past his centenary, even resorting to phone sales when his children hid the keys of his 1972 Chevrolet Caprice. The youngest of his eight children, Jean Dukes, was born in the late 1940s. He also served as a deacon and superintendent of a Sunday School class at Mount Olive Church for over 75 years. His son claimed that, until about four years before he died, his father was healthy enough to drive his car into town every day. Hardy's longevity was also credited to a daily meal that consisted of cabbage, corn bread, butter milk, potatoes and Dr Pepper, and the fact that he never drank alcohol or smoked in his life. Until a few years before his death, it was claimed that Hardy had never had a seriously ill day in his life and that he never took medicine, as it only made him sick. Hardy lived on his own until 2004 when his legs weakened and he found it almost impossible to walk. He was placed in a rest home, but was still able to feed himself and pass the days watching The Oprah Winfrey Show and The Price Is Right.
At the time of his death, he was the oldest United States combat veteran ever, the oldest male ever recorded in Mississippi and had outlived at least three of his eight children. It was reported that he had several dozen grandchildren and great-grandchildren. He was also ranked as the sixth-oldest living verified person in the world, the second-oldest man and World War I veteran behind only del Toro and the last African American one. Although he suffered from mild dementia in his later years and had trouble speaking coherently, he was reported to have been completely lucid through his final days and his death was attributed to natural causes.
## See also
- List of the verified oldest people
- Longevity
- Supercentenarian
|
45,519,240 |
Suffer in Peace
| 1,132,519,795 | null |
[
"2015 albums",
"Albums produced by Julian King (recording engineer)",
"Columbia Records albums",
"Tyler Farr albums"
] |
Suffer in Peace is the second studio album by American country music artist Tyler Farr, released on April 28, 2015, through Columbia Nashville. Following the success of his 2013 debut effort Redneck Crazy, Farr reteamed with producers Jim Catino and Julian King to work on new material for his next country album, carrying traditional content that spoke about his life while telling relatable stories. Reviews for the record were positive to mixed, with critics divided over the production and lyrical content. Suffer in Peace debuted at numbers two and four on the Top Country Albums and Billboard 200 charts, respectively. It spawned three singles: "A Guy Walks Into a Bar" (his first number-one country hit), "Withdrawals" and "Better in Boots" (both of which charted lower). After performing at NBC's Today on the album's release date and holding a concert the next day in Manhattan's Irving Plaza, Farr was set to tour with Lee Brice in February 2016 but had to go through surgery and be put on vocal rest. This would be Farr's last record for the label before leaving in September 2018 and signing with Jason Aldean's Night Train Records (a division of BBR Music Group) in March 2019.
## Background and development
While touring with Brantley Gilbert and Jason Aldean on their respective tours for promotion of his debut album Redneck Crazy (2013), Farr started performing material that would be part of his next country album. He expressed wanting to move into a more traditional direction, following the critical reception of both the album's title track and "Whiskey in My Water", both released in 2013, and the positive reviews given to "A Guy Walks Into a Bar" (2014). This gave him the mindset to work on material that was more than just typical country radio singles. Farr enlisted the same producers of his debut album, Jim Catino and Julian King. He chose the title Suffer in Peace because it had a dark underpinning to it and that there were two opposites in the words that make up the title. For the album's track listing, Farr co-wrote three songs and chose the rest based on what he felt represented his life and spoke to him as an artist. Suffer in Peace was released on April 28, 2015, by Columbia Nashville. It was also Farr's last album for Columbia Nashville, as in 2019 he signed to Night Train Records, a division of BBR Music Group owned by Jason Aldean.
## Music and lyrics
Opening track "C.O.U.N.T.R.Y." was described by Farr as a "rural country anthem" that he could picture being played at a party in his hometown of Missouri. The song utilizes a "swampy groove" that's described as sounding like "Hank Williams Jr. backed by ZZ Top." "A Guy Walks Into a Bar" uses the "old joke" as a setting for a brokenhearted man in a bar. Farr discovered the song while attending a writers' round, a popular Nashville setup for songwriters to share and perform new tracks, in a bar. One of the co-writers, Jonathan Singleton, was playing the song and was asked by him if he could record it. "Withdrawals" is a break-up song about relating that kind of pain to addiction. Farr said this was the last song to be added to the album and he was fascinated by the demo consisting of a piano and drum loop as its overall sound. His vocal delivery over the production was something he chose that made it transition from a country song to full-on storytelling. "Damn Good Friends" is a duet with fellow country singer Jason Aldean about genuine bonding with a true friend reminiscent of Tracy Lawrence's "Find Out Who Your Friends Are". Farr got the idea to have Aldean on the track when he was working on it and thought that it rang true about his camaraderie with him over the past year.
The title track is about a man who finds seclusion in the wilderness after being heartbroken by his ex-girlfriend. Farr explained that it represented what he felt was the entire theme of the album, saying it played out like an intriguing book and he didn't care that it wouldn't be played on the radio. "Raised to Pray" is about a teenager reveling in late night antics while attempting to flirt with a girl. "Better in Boots" is about telling a woman that her cowboy boots look much better on her than anything else she's wearing. The track uses a mixture of drum snaps and pop riffs to break up the album's overall country sound. "Poor Boy" revolves around a man with rural roots "getting the girl at the end of the day." "I Don't Even Want This Beer" is about dealing with your problems by hesitantly drinking alcohol. The album closer, "Why We Live Here", is a tribute to the troops song. Farr said that he wrote the track while on tour with the Navy in the Persian Gulf and that he wanted it to show "gratitude, respect and to honor the troops."
## Singles and promotion
The album's first single, "A Guy Walks Into a Bar", was released to country radio on August 18, 2014. It gave Farr his first number-one country hit on the Billboard Country Airplay chart. Its 42-week climb to that peak was the fifth longest climb to number one in the chart's 25-year history. It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) on April 17, 2015. Its music video was directed by Jeff Venable and released on Farr's YouTube page on October 17, 2014. A second single, "Withdrawals", was released on June 15, 2015, but was only able to peak at numbers 47 and 52 on both the Billboard Hot Country Songs and Country Airplay charts, respectively. The single's music video was directed by Eric Welch and premiered on June 15, 2015. The third and final single, "Better in Boots", was released on August 17, 2015, following the studio's decision to remove "Withdrawals" from country radio and change for a more upbeat and female-friendly single. It peaked at number 26 on both the Country Airplay and Hot Country Songs charts respectively. A music video for the single, directed by Eric Welch, premiered in November 2015. While not released as a single, "Damn Good Friends" managed to reach number 46 on the Hot Country Songs chart.
On the album's release date, Farr promoted it by performing "A Guy Walks Into a Bar" live on NBC's Today. A day later, he held a concert at the Irving Plaza in Manhattan. Jon Caramanica of The New York Times described Farr's performance as "a hatless guy working the stage with an athletic, mildly menacing prowl, singing scratched-up country songs that weren’t coy about their arena-rock ambition." On November 18, 2015, Farr announced that he would co-headline a tour with Lee Brice called the Life Off My Years Tour, beginning on February 4, 2016, in Salisbury, Maryland and ending on April 3 in Toledo, Ohio. A week before the start of the tour, Farr revealed that he required surgery to remove a polyp from his vocal cords and be put on vocal rest, leaving Brice to fill his spot with Maddie & Tae, Clare Dunn and Jerrod Niemann. On June 16, Farr performed at the 2016 Country Jam in Grand Junction, Colorado. Taste of Country writer Annie Reuter praised him for performing an "energetic set" to the crowd, saying "his intensity made its way into the audience, no doubt much to the singer's appreciation."
## Reception
Suffer in Peace received positive to mixed reviews from music critics. Jewly Hight of Billboard gave the album high praise for Farr's vocal performance on tracks like "A Guy Walks Into a Bar" and "I Don't Even Want This Beer" that show both grit and grain while also revealing a bit of vulnerability in places, concluding that "[A]long with moments devoted to sentimentality and rural pride, it all adds up to one of country's richer portraits of masculinity in recent memory." Jason Scott of One Country praised Farr's storytelling abilities for taking "typical bro-country tropes" and create tales "netted together with pain, loss, love and hope", saying that "Suffer in Peace is a fearlessly bold sample of humanity, slicing the heart open and revealing far more depth than critics could have expected." Jamie Parmenter of Renowned for Sound commended Farr for bringing his "distinct edge of country" throughout the record like his debut effort while delivering the traditional country ballads, calling it "a triumph in what it sets out to achieve. It raises the heart rate when necessary, melts it when needed and lifts it at the right time; country runs through this album’s veins, from the old sounds to the new." Michael Rampa of Country Standard Time gave Farr credit for polishing the "full throttle swagger" from his debut record, pointing out "the melancholy ballads shine and redneck clichés are deftly finessed", but felt the material didn't make for a departure in Farr's overall artistry, saying it "neither [overly] impresses nor disappoints."
AllMusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine found the album's pace to be slow without any party songs, however, he lauded ballads like "Criminal" and the title track for their respective charms, saying "these would've been placed in sharper relief if there were a fast tune or two as contrast." Anthony Easton of Spin felt the album contained nondescript country instrumentation and character portrayals, but found tracks like "Poor Boy" and "I Don't Even Want This Beer" as highlights, concluding that "When Farr gets introspective, he's worth hearing, but he doesn't do shallow well, and it's a shame that's his norm with only a couple exceptions per full-length."
Rolling Stone ranked Suffer in Peace number 31 on their list of the 40 Best Country Albums of 2015. The magazine's writer Jon Freeman said that Farr "proved he was much more versatile than his detractors thought" he'd turned out to be, saying he explores various aspects of love effortlessly. Freeman concluded that the title track shows that Farr "stakes his claim as one of country's most gifted stylists." In 2017, Billboard contributor Chuck Dauphin placed four tracks from the album on his top 10 list of Farr's best songs: "A Guy Walks Into a Bar" at number three, "Withdrawals" at number four, "Better in Boots" at number eight and "I Don't Even Want This Beer" at number nine.
Suffer in Peace debuted on the Billboard 200 at number four, and the Top Country Albums chart at number two, with first-week earnings of 41,629 equivalent album units (36,300 in traditional album sales). On the Billboard 200, it left the top 100 on the week of June 20, 2015, spending nine weeks on the chart. The album has sold 100,500 copies in the US as of November 2015. In Canada, it debuted and peaked at number 11 on the Canadian Albums chart for the week of May 16.
## Track listing
## Personnel
Adapted from the album's liner notes.
Vocals
- Jason Aldean – duet vocals on "Damn Good Friends"
- Tyler Farr – lead vocals, background vocals
- Wes Hightower – background vocals
Production
- Jake Burns – assistant engineer
- Jim Catino – producer
- Julian King – producer, mixing
- Hank Williams – mastering
Instruments
- Dan Dugmore – electric guitar, steel guitar
- Julian King – keyboards, percussion
- David LaBruyere – bass guitar
- Troy Lancaster – electric guitar
- B. James Lowry – acoustic guitar, electric guitar, resonator guitar
- Miles McPherson – drums, percussion
- Jeff Roach – Hammond B-3 organ, keyboards, piano
- Adam Shoenfeld – electric guitar
- Derek Wells – acoustic guitar, electric guitar
## Charts
### Weekly charts
### Year-end charts
## Release history
|
1,123,404 |
2000 Belgian Grand Prix
| 1,173,091,205 |
2000 Formula One motor race in Belgium
|
[
"2000 Formula One races",
"2000 in Belgian motorsport",
"August 2000 sports events in Europe",
"Belgian Grand Prix"
] |
The 2000 Belgian Grand Prix (formally, the LVIII Foster's Belgian Grand Prix) was a Formula One motor race held on 27 August 2000 at the Circuit de Spa-Francorchamps, Francorchamps, Wallonia, Belgium with a crowd of 83,000 spectators. It was the 13th race of the 2000 Formula One World Championship, and the 58th Belgian Grand Prix. McLaren driver Mika Häkkinen won the 44-lap race from pole position. Michael Schumacher finished second in a Ferrari, and Williams driver Ralf Schumacher was third.
Häkkinen went into the event as the World Drivers' Championship leader with his team McLaren leading the World Constructors' Championship. The race began behind the safety car due to overnight rainfall making the track wet and reducing visibility. When the safety car returned to the pit lane Häkkinen built a significant lead over Jarno Trulli. As the track dried and other drivers made pit stops, Häkkinen maintained his lead until a lap-13 spin gave Michael Schumacher the lead for most of the remainder of the race. By the 34th lap Schumacher's tyres began to degrade; he drove off the racing line to cool them, which allowed Häkkinen to close the gap. On lap 41 Häkkinen overtook Michael Schumacher for the lead while lapping BAR driver Ricardo Zonta and maintaining the lead to win. Although Rubens Barrichello set the fastest lap time in the other Ferrari, he was hampered by a poor qualifying performance and retired with a fuel-pressure problem thirteen laps from the finish.
Häkkinen's victory extended his lead in the World Drivers' Championship to six points over Michael Schumacher, with Coulthard a further seven points behind. Barrichello's retirement dropped him to twenty-five points behind Häkkinen. In the World Constructors' Championship, McLaren extended their lead to eight points over Ferrari with four races remaining in the season.
## Background
The 2000 Belgian Grand Prix was the 13th of 17 races in the 2000 Formula One World Championship and took place at the 6.968 km (4.330 mi) Circuit de Spa-Francorchamps in Francorchamps, Wallonia, Belgium on 27 August 2000. Sole tyre supplier Bridgestone brought the soft and medium dry compounds as well as the hard and soft wet-weather compounds to the event; the intermediate had a curvy pattern and the full wet was designed for the track's common rainy conditions. The wet-weather tyres were introduced for the race in response to prospective new tyre supplier Michelin beginning their tyre-development program during the year, resulting in Bridgestone increasing their development rate to research advances.
Following his victory at the , McLaren driver Mika Häkkinen led the World Drivers' Championship with 64 points, ahead of Ferrari's Michael Schumacher (62 points) and McLaren's David Coulthard (58). Schumacher's teammate Rubens Barrichello was fourth with 49 points, and Benetton's Giancarlo Fisichella was fifth with 18. McLaren led the World Constructors' Championship with 112 points, one point ahead of second-placed Ferrari. Williams were third with 24 points, while Benetton (18 points) and Jordan (12) were fourth and fifth respectively.
After the race in Hungary, five teams conducted mid-season testing at the Silverstone Circuit from 15 to 17 August. McLaren test driver Olivier Panis was fastest on the first day, ahead of Jordan's Heinz-Harald Frentzen. Williams test driver Bruno Junqueira's car had a water leak, resulting in repairs which limited his team's testing time. Panis remained the fastest on the second day. Jos Verstappen's Arrows car had a sensor failure, limiting his team's testing time; the car's floor had to be removed to install a new sensor. Panis was again fastest on the final day of testing. Ferrari opted to test the suspension and tyres of Michael Schumacher's car at the Fiorano Circuit. Schumacher later moved to the Mugello Circuit, with Barrichello conducting engine and setup tests, and Ferrari test driver Luca Badoer remained at Fiorano for development work on new car components. Prost opted to test at the Autodromo Nazionale Monza on 17–18 August with driver Jean Alesi. Benetton conducted a five-day, one-car test at the Danielson Circuit, with test driver Mark Webber on aerodynamic development for the first four days and Alexander Wurz concentrating on practice starts the last day.
In September 1999 the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA) released a provisional calendar for the 2000 season, dropping the Circuit de Spa-Francorchamps from the Formula One World Championship due to Belgian tobacco-advertising laws which threatened to cancel the race; several teams had tobacco sponsorship. The FIA had the revived Dutch Grand Prix at the Circuit Park Zandvoort and the Portuguese Grand Prix at the Autódromo do Estoril as alternatives if the Belgian Grand Prix was cancelled. The dispute was resolved when the Belgian government exempted the race from the advertising law, and it was reinstated at the FIA World Motor Sport Council meeting in Paris on 6 October.
The event featured eleven teams (each represented by a different constructor) and two drivers, with no changes from the season entry list. Ferrari arrived at the circuit with a lighter, more-powerful version of its Tipo 049 V10 engine for Saturday's qualifying session, returning to the development power plant used at the Hungarian Grand Prix. They also had a bespoke revised low downforce aerodynamic package for the high-speed circuit. Williams brought new exhausts and an extractor profile, while the other teams only introduced minor car refinements.
## Practice
There were four practice sessions preceding Sunday's race, two one-hour sessions Friday and two 45-minute sessions on Saturday. Conditions were dry for the Friday morning and afternoon practice sessions. A dense layer of dust was gradually cleared from the track. Coulthard set the first session's fastest time with a lap of 1 minute, 53.398 seconds, eight-tenths of a second quicker than Michael Schumacher. Häkkinen had the third-fastest time, with Jarno Trulli for Jordan, Barrichello and BAR's Jacques Villeneuve in the next three positions. The two Benetton drivers were seventh and eighth (with Wurz ahead of Fisichella), and the Williams cars of Ralf Schumacher and Button completed the top ten. Alesi's Prost had a fuel-pressure problem which prevented him from completing a timed lap, and he was the slowest overall. Button almost hit the tyre wall at La Source and avoided losing control of the rear of his car under braking for the Bus Stop chicane. Ferrari limited their running during the session to limit their tyre usage.
In the second practice session, due to a slow rear puncture Coulthard's first-session lap was still the fastest; Häkkinen had the second-fastest time. Jaguar driver Johnny Herbert changed his car's balance, improving its performance and finishing third-fastest. Villeneuve moved into fourth after changes to his car's setup; Michael Schumacher slipped to fifth, and Wurz finished sixth. Verstappen was seventh-fastest, ahead of Fisichella, Barrichello and Trulli in positions eight through ten.
The weather remained dry for the Saturday-morning practice sessions. Häkkinen set the fastest lap of the third session at 1 minute, 51.043 seconds, quicker than his best on Friday and ahead of Frentzen, Trulli and Ralf Schumacher. Coulthard, who had an engine problem early in the session, was fifth-fastest (ahead of Button and Michael Schumacher). Alesi, Villeneuve and Sauber driver Nick Heidfeld rounded out the top ten. During the final practice session Häkkinen could not improve his time, although he remained the fastest. Button, much happier with his car's handling, set the second-fastest time. The Jordan drivers were third and fourth, with Trulli ahead of Frentzen. Ralf Schumacher and Coulthard completed the top six. Of the slower drivers, Marc Gené's Minardi car shed its engine cover but he was able to return to his garage.
## Qualifying
During Saturday's one-hour qualifying session, each driver was limited to twelve laps, with the starting order determined by their fastest laps. The 107% rule was in force during this session, requiring each driver to remain within 107% of the quickest lap time in order to qualify for the race. The session was held in clear, sunny weather. Häkkinen was unhindered by slower traffic, clinched his fifth pole position of the season and the 26th of his career with a time of 1 minute, 50.646 seconds; although he was optimistic about his race prospects, he was concerned about the start. Häkkinen was joined on the grid's front row by Trulli, who equalled his best qualifying performance of the season (at the ). Trulli was also optimistic about his chances because of the Jordan team's strong record at the circuit. Button's car had a new qualifying engine installed in the rear, which was the same as his teammate's. Despite a power steering issue, he chose to fine-tune his setup and qualify third, his highest qualifying place of the season. He said he was happy with his starting position. Michael Schumacher, whose fastest lap had been hampered by traffic and a yellow flag for an incident, secured fourth, nine-tenths of a second behind Häkkinen, setting a lap which demoted Häkkinen's teammate Coulthard into fifth. Coulthard, who had problems with grip, believed that he could have lapped faster due to slower cars impeding his final two runs and a requirement to slow for the Bus Stop chicane following an incident.
Ralf Schumacher secured sixth position after being caught in traffic during his final run, keeping the Williams driver from a quicker lap time. Villeneuve, in seventh, reported oversteering, and was upset he could not go through Eau Rouge corner at high speed. Frentzen qualified eighth; his best lap time was disqualified after Coulthard blocked him at the Bus Stop chicane, which caused Frentzen to run onto the grass. He retaliated by slowing Coulthard into La Source corner at the start of his following lap. Herbert and Barrichello were ninth and tenth; Barrichello spun at the chicane during his third run after locking his brakes. Fisichella, eleventh, missed the top ten by three-tenths of a second on his only quick qualifying run. Herbert's teammate, Eddie Irvine, qualified twelfth with tyre-grip problems. He was ahead of Zonta in the slower of the two BARs (which lost a half-second through Eau Rouge), Heidfeld in the faster Prost, Sauber's Pedro Diniz and Arrows driver Pedro de la Rosa. Alesi qualified 17th, despite spinning at the Bus Stop chicane and triggering a yellow flag, preventing several drivers from lapping quicker. Salo qualified 18th due to car issues caused by a lack of grip, ahead of Wurz (who suffered engine troubles, causing smoke to billow from it on the entry to the Bus Stop chicane on his outlap, and shared the spare Benetton monocoque with Fisichella). Verstappen, after a braking error at La Source, and the two Minardi drivers of Gené and Mazzacane qualified at the back of the grid, in positions 20 to 22.
### Qualifying classification
## Warm-up
The drivers took the track at 09:30 Central European Summer Time (UTC+2) for a 30-minute warm-up in wet weather, with lap times 13 seconds slower than the previous days' practice and qualifying sessions. Heavy rain fell early in the morning from 5:00 am and it increased incrementally before stopping; a rising mist formed low on the track by dawn. Drivers used full-wet tyres on the slippery track, then intermediate rain tyres when it began drying. Häkkinen set the fastest lap time of the session at 2:03.392. Michael Schumacher was the second-fastest driver; Button was third, two-thousands of a second slower than Schumacher. Barrichello was fourth and Coulthard completed the five fastest drivers.
After spinning sideways because his left-rear wheel touched a damp white line, Fisichella struck the tyre barrier at Stavelot corner with enough force to launch him into the air. He landed upside-down on the vehicle's roll-hoop; the session was suspended for approximately 20 minutes while marshals cleared the track of debris and repaired the wall. Fisichella sustained a bruised left knee, and had to start the race with his team's spare car. Villeneuve damaged his car's rear in a crash against the tyre barrier at Les Fagnes turn later in the session, but was able to continue.
## Race
The 44 lap 306.592 km (190.507 mi) race, commenced before 83,000 spectators at 14:00 local time, with air and track temperatures at 15 °C (59 °F); clouds, but no rain, were predicted for the race. The rain had stopped approximately an hour before the race began, but there was standing water on the track, causing heavy spray and poor visibility, the race would begin behind the safety car after consultation between the drivers and FIA race director Charlie Whiting on the track's state.; all cars except Pedro Diniz' had wet tyres. The intermediate and full wet tyres were reported to be suitable for short stints, thus the normal wet or grooved tyres were the tyre selection for the event. Every driver had a car setup with compromises made for wet-weather conditions and additions to downforce as well as setup changes for dry weather racing.
Instead of a two-by-two standing start, the race began with an American-style single file rolling start with no formation lap. During the safety car period, Diniz spun off; he was passed by Pedro de la Rosa, who received a ten-second stop-go penalty which he served on lap 13. The safety car entered the pit lane after one lap, and the cars were allowed to overtake after crossing the start-finish line. Häkkinen maintained his lead going into the first corner, followed by Trulli, Button, Michael Schumacher and Coulthard. Barrichello overtook Herbert for ninth place at the first turn. At the end of the first racing lap, Diniz dropped to the rear of the field. De la Rosa lost 16th position on lap three after running wide at turn 18, losing two places to Alesi and Verstappen.
Häkkinen began to pull away from Trulli. Attention switched to Button, who tried to pass Trulli, whom he felt was baulking him and noticed Michael Schumacher approaching him, On the fourth lap Button slipstreamed Trulli on the approach to the Bus Stop chicane, but he ran wide and left the inside open for Michael Schumacher to take third position. On that lap, Alesi was the first driver to pit for dry tyres after informing his team over the radio of his intent to do so when the track began to dry. By the beginning of the fifth lap Häkkinen increased his lead over Trulli to 9.1 seconds, ahead of Michael Schumacher, Button and Coulthard. Schumacher then took second place from Trulli at La Source. Button was anxious to recover from his error and attempted to follow Schumacher down the inside at the same corner, but Button and Trulli collided. Trulli was sent into a spin, becoming the first retirement of the race after he stalled the engine. Button lost two positions to Coulthard and Ralf Schumacher into the Eau Rouge corner and he spent the next three laps inspecting his car for damage. He sustained front wing and minor steering damage.
As the dry line continued to appear on the circuit, Alesi's dry tyre performance saw him lap quicker than the race leaders, encouraging other teams to bring their drivers into the pit lane for dry tyres. Michael and Ralf Schumacher were the first leaders to pit for dry tyres on lap six. Häkkinen made a pit stop from the lead on lap seven, followed by Button, and re-emerged ahead of Coulthard to retain the lead. Coulthard was required to stay on the track on deteriorating wet-weather tyres while his team tended to Häkkinen. He made his pit stop on the eighth lap, re-emerging in ninth position. All drivers made pit stops by the end of lap nine. The race order at the time was Häkkinen, Michael Schumacher, Ralf Schumacher, Alesi, Button, and Villeneuve. During that lap Barrichello overtook Frentzen for seventh, whilst Verstappen and Fisichella collided after Verstappen tried to pass the slowing Benetton at the Bus Stop chicane. Verstappen sustained damage to his front wing, and Fisichella later retired with an electrical problem caused by a loss of power.
By the beginning of lap 13, Michael Schumacher closed the gap from Häkkinen to about 4.6 seconds after setting four consecutive fastest laps. Later in the lap, one of Häkkinen's wheels touched a damp kerb at Stavelot corner, sending him high-speed spinning sideways for hundreds of yards into the grass; Michael Schumacher took the lead, as a result of Häkkinen's error, which cost the McLaren driver ten seconds. Heidfeld was the race's third retirement when his car developed an engine failure caused by a broken gearbox that affected the common oil circuit. Alesi, the first front-runner to make a scheduled pit stop on lap 18, rejoined in tenth. During the next two laps Salo passed Irvine for twelfth, whilst Barrichello made a pit stop from sixth position and came out in eleventh.
By lap 21, Michael Schumacher had increased his lead over Häkkinen to eleven-and-a-half seconds. Ralf Schumacher, ten seconds behind Häkkinen, led teammate Button by six seconds. Michael Schumacher made a pit stop on that lap that took 11.1 seconds to complete and took on enough fuel to complete the race, emerging in third position. On lap 23 Barrichello passed Herbert for ninth position, and during the next two laps Villeneuve and Ralf Schumacher made pit stops. Button made a pit stop from fourth position on lap 26. Häkkinen entered the pit lane one lap later after holding five more laps of fuel than Michael Schumacher and an adjustment to his car made it faster; Häkkinen was told by his team (on pit boards) to speed up to gain on Michael Schumacher, who had a heavier fuel load. Button dropped to eighth position, and Häkkinen came out behind Michael Schumacher. Frentzen and Coulthard made their pit stops together on lap 28, with Coulthard emerging ahead of Frentzen. On that lap, Barrichello passed Alesi for sixth position.
Barrichello, setting the race's fastest lap (1 minute, 53.803 seconds on lap 30), had consecutive fastest laps before making his second pit stop on lap 31. However, his car's fuel pressure dropped which caused him to run out of fuel and he was pushed by marshals into the pit lane. Barrichello and Alesi (who had a similar problem caused by a fractured fuel system) retired, and Button inherited fourth place. Salo was the final scheduled driver to make a pit stop, on lap 33. At the end of lap 34, after all scheduled pit stops, the running order was Michael Schumacher, Häkkinen, Ralf Schumacher, Button, Coulthard, and Frentzen. During that lap Michael Schumacher's soft compound tyres began to degrade on the drying track, and he ran off the racing line to cool them by driving through water; Häkkinen gradually closed the gap, due to his McLaren having a straightline speed advantage on the straights. He began duelling Michael Schumacher for the race lead as the track had become completely dry. Coulthard, fifth, passed Button on the outside entering Les Combes corner for fourth on lap 37.
Häkkinen tried to pass Michael Schumacher on the inside for the lead on the 40th lap on the approach to Les Combes turn, (after drafting behind him on the straightaway), Schumacher blocked him late in the manoevure to defend his position. The drivers made contact, with Häkkinen sustaining minor damage to his front wing from contact with Schumacher's right-rear wheel and being forced to slow. During the following lap, Häkkinen was quicker through Eau Rouge turn and drew closer to Michael Schumacher. While they were lapping Zonta's slower car who was on the centre of the circuit, Häkkinen steered right onto a damp patch to pass Schumacher for the lead after Schumacher turned left believing there was insufficient space on the right. Zonta had slowed to allow Schumacher through and Häkkinen turned left with the extra momentum gained from the slipstream from both Schumacher and Zonta's cars to be ahead into the right-hand Les Combes corner at 328 km/h (204 mph).
Häkkinen kept the lead for the rest of the race, crossing the finish line on lap 44 for his fourth victory of the season and his 18th in Formula One in a time of 1'28:14.494—an average speed of 208.467 km/h (129.535 mph). Michael Schumacher finished second, 1.1 seconds behind Häkkinen. Ralf Schumacher was third but became worried about a possible engine failure in the final six laps (a throttle fault nearly forced him to retire). Coulthard finished fourth after being on the track longer than teammate Häkkinen before his pit stop for dry tyres. Button followed in fifth and Frentzen completed the points scorers in sixth. Villeneuve (who reported race-long handling issues), Herbert, Salo, Irvine and Diniz filled the next five positions. Zonta, Wurz, Gené and Verstappen finished a lap behind the leader, and de la Rosa and Mazzacane were the final finishers. 17 of the 22 starters finished the Grand Prix.
### After the race
The top three drivers appeared on the podium to collect their trophies and at a later press conference. Häkkinen was delighted with his victory, saying: "This was an incredible win. It was a very difficult and unusual situation including my spin which of course was not planned. The kerbs here are very slippery and once you go over one there is not much you can do. I was lucky to keep going and I was able to chase Michael. But the car got better and better." The driver added that he wanted to review his overtaking manoeuvre to see if Michael Schumacher performed an illegal move. Schumacher said that despite improvements to his car, he was unable to match Häkkinen's overall pace. He added that he experienced no problems running off-line to cool his tyres, and was happy to run behind slower cars for straight-line speed assistance during the race's closing stages.
Ralf Schumacher said, "I'm more than happy; we have been strong here the whole weekend and my car behaved perfectly. I had a little moment of worry about six laps from the end when the throttle didn't seem to pick up properly and I thought the engine was going to stop, but it came back and all was well." Schumacher added that his team was confident of remaining third in the Constructors' Championship; although he could not match Häkkinen's pace, he praised the team for his car's set-up. Coulthard was disappointed with his fourth-place finish, and thought his team's decision to call him into the pit lane after his competitors put him at a disadvantage; however, he remained confident about his championship chances. Button was also disappointed to finish fifth, stating: "It was a bad race for me, if not the worst. The car was working well at the start, but when I tried to pass Jarno I went in a bit late." Trulli refused to criticise Button after the race, believing that Button made a mistake. Fisichella and Verstappen felt similarly about their lap-nine collision, with Fisichella saying that he "felt sorry" for Verstappen and describing his weekend as "disastrous". Verstappen said that he struggled with his car's balance, which resulted in oversteer. He was "happy to go home" because "it's not been a good weekend". Frentzen said that although he was happy to score points, he had hoped for a better finish.
The media focused on Häkkinen overtaking Michael Schumacher for the lead on lap 41. After the race, Häkkinen went to Schumacher in parc fermé and told him not to make such a manoeuvre with at high speed that he deemed "a life and death situation" and not to make a move like that again. Zonta later said that although he was unaware of Häkkinen's presence, he saw Schumacher in his mirrors. Schumacher would go on to be complimentary of the manoeuvre. Derick Allsop of The Independent described the impact the move might have on Häkkinen's career, commenting: "Perhaps, he [Mika Häkkinen] will be recognised as a driver worthy of a place in the pantheon of the sport's heroes." McLaren team principal Ron Dennis said: "His overtaking manoeuvre I'm sure will go down as one of the greatest in Formula One history." In February 2001, Häkkinen's move was chosen by more than 60 Formula One historians as the MasterCard Priceless Moment of the 2000 F1 season.
The use of a safety car to start the race had a mixed response within the sport. Coulthard agreed with the FIA's decision, saying: "I know there will be a debate over it but the fact is I was asked beforehand and I said that, based on the previous years we've had here, the safest thing is to have a safety-car start." He added that although the safety-car start eliminated overtaking, it also prevented a major accident. Ralf Schumacher also agreed with the decision to start under safety-car conditions. ITV-F1 commentator and former driver Martin Brundle felt that the track was not wet enough for a safety car. Journalist Nigel Roebuck said that the length of time under safety-car conditions was inadequate, and raised the possibility of abandoning standing starts. Whiting consulted Coulthard, the drivers' representative, before making his decision.
After the race, Häkkinen remained in the World Drivers' Championship lead with 74 points. Michael Schumacher was second with 68 points, seven points ahead of Coulthard and nineteen ahead of Barrichello. Ralf Schumacher passed Fisichella for fifth place with 20 points, and Frentzen moved ahead of teammate Trulli and Salo. In the World Constructors' Championship, McLaren maintained their lead with 125 points and Ferrari remained in second with 117 points. Williams increased their lead over Benetton to twelve points, and Jordan remained fifth with 13 points. Given Häkkinen's increased lead, Michael Schumacher acknowledged that his team lacked speed against McLaren in the season's four remaining races but remained confident of winning the world championship.
### Race classification
Drivers who scored championship points are denoted in bold.
## Championship standings after the race
Drivers' Championship standings
Constructors' Championship standings
- Note: Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings.
|
5,155,287 |
Khalid ibn Barmak
| 1,141,877,508 |
8th-century Abbasid-era official and governor
|
[
"709 births",
"782 deaths",
"8th-century Iranian people",
"8th-century people from the Abbasid Caliphate",
"Abbasid governors of Fars",
"Abbasid governors of Mosul",
"Abbasid governors of Tabaristan",
"Abbasid people of the Arab–Byzantine wars",
"Barmakids",
"City founders",
"Converts to Islam from Buddhism",
"People from Balkh",
"People of the Abbasid Revolution",
"Year of birth uncertain"
] |
Khalid ibn Barmak (709–781/82; Arabic: خالد بن برمك) was the first prominent member of the Barmakids, an important Buddhist family from Balkh, which converted to Islam and became prominent members of the Abbasid court in the second half of the 8th century. Khalid himself converted to Islam at the Umayyad court in the 720s, but joined the nascent Abbasid revolutionary movement in Khurasan, and played a significant role in the Abbasid Revolution that toppled the Umayyads. He enjoyed close relations with the first Abbasid caliph, al-Saffah, functioning as his chief minister and introducing innovations in record-keeping. Under al-Saffah's successor, al-Mansur, Khalid's influence decreased, but he still occupied significant provincial governorships in Fars, Tabaristan, and Mosul. As an administrator, he distinguished himself for his fairness, especially in matters of taxation, and was a popular governor. He appears to have briefly fallen into disgrace around 775, but he managed to recover, helped by the rapid rise of his son, Yahya. Khalid's ties to the Abbasid dynasty were soon strengthened when his grandson, al-Fadl ibn Yahya, became the foster-brother of the future caliph Harun al-Rashid, while Yahya became the prince's tutor. Khalid died in 781/2, shortly after returning from an expedition against the Byzantine Empire.
## Origin
The Barmakid family hailed from Balkh, the capital of Tokharistan in Khurasan. The people of Tokharistan had a distinct identity: ruled by Hephthalite and later Turkic dynasties, they spoke the eastern Iranian Bactrian language, and were mostly Buddhist. The Barmakids hailed from the family of guardians of the great and extremely wealthy Buddhist monastery, the Nawbahar, which controlled most of the Balkh oasis, and may have been the de facto rulers of the area. These guardians were known by a title that was rendered into Arabic as Barmak. Modern scholars consider that it originated from Sanskrit, either from pramukha ("chief") or from paramaka ("supreme"). Historical traditions that assign the Barmakids a Zoroastrian origin, and even make them descendants of the chief ministers of the Sassanid dynasty, are later fabrications invented during the family's zenith.
Tokharistan was attacked by the Muslims during their eastern expansion as early as about 663/4, but was not definitely conquered until the reign of the Umayyad caliph Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik (r. 724–743). Balkh was occupied and garrisoned in 725, and the Nawbahar abandoned, though its structure remained in place for three more centuries. The incumbent Barmak was brought with his son to the Umayyad court, where both converted to Islam; the Barmak's son adopted the name Khalid ibn Barmak, and became a mawla (client) of the Banu Khuza'a tribe, while his two brothers received the names Sulayman and al-Hasan. He probably had another brother, Abu Ubayd Mu'awiya, who is mentioned as living in Baghdad in later years.
During his stay in the Umayyad court, Khalid is known to have befriended the caliph's son, Maslama ibn Hisham, a notable military commander.
## Career under the Abbasids
### Abbasid Revolution
Their stay at the Umayyad court was not long, and both Barmak and Khalid soon returned to Khurasan. At some point, Barmak went to Gurgan, where he arranged Khalid's marriage to a daughter of Yazid ibn Bara. Barmak disappears from the record after 725/6, but it is implied that he was responsible for Khalid's joining the Hashimiyya movement in Khurasan.
Khalid had joined the Hashimiyya by 742, and, as one of the few non-Arabs, was appointed one of the twenty nuẓarāʾ, the second tier of the inner leadership. In the guise of a cattle merchant, he engaged in missionary activity (daʿwa) in Gurgan, Tabaristan, and Rayy. During the Abbasid Revolution, he played an active role, gathering funds from Shi'a sympathizers, leading troops in the field, and being entrusted by the Abbasid commander Qahtaba ibn Shabib al-Ta'i with distributing the plunder to his army. According to the 10th-century historian al-Jahshiyari, Khalid was placed in charge of redistributing the land tax (kharaj) of Khurasan by Abu Muslim, and did so with such fairness that he earned the gratitude of the Khurasanis.
### Under al-Saffah
After the establishment of the Abbasid Caliphate, Khalid won the favour of Caliph al-Saffah (r. 749–754). Khalid was soon placed in charge of the fiscal departments of the land tax (diwan al-kharaj) and of the army (diwan al-jund), posts that he kept for the duration of al-Saffah's caliphate. In short order, he reportedly assumed the supervision of all fiscal departments, thus becoming a kind of chief minister; although often given the title of 'vizier' in historical sources, he never actually held it. He is credited with introducing the practice of keeping records in codices, rather than loose sheets as was the custom until then.
Khalid apparently benefited from a substantial education, and some previous administrative experience, although the origin of the latter is unknown; he may have acquired it at the Umayyad court, or alongside his father at Balkh. His eloquence was such that al-Saffah initially mistook him for an Arab. His relationship with the caliph was very close: his daughter Umm Yahya was suckled by al-Saffah's wife, while in turn his own wife was made the foster-mother to al-Saffah's daughter, Raytah.
### Under al-Mansur
Khalid remained head of the land tax department for at least a year into the reign of al-Mansur (r. 754–775), but court intrigues instigated by the vizier Abu Ayyub al-Muryani meant that he was soon relegated to the provincial government of Fars, which he headed for about two years. His tenure there was successful, restoring order by expelling rebellious Kurds from the province, and governing with wisdom and generosity. According to a well-known, but likely fabricated, story, he persuaded the caliph to not destroy the Sassanid-era palace of Taq Kasra at Ctesiphon, arguing that its ruined state was a testament to the superiority of Islam. In 764/65, he was involved in the intrigues that resulted in Isa ibn Musa's renunciation of succession to the caliphate.
Khalid then spent about seven years as governor of Tabaristan; coins with his name, in the Arab–Sassanid style, are known from 766/67–772. Succeeding the tyrannical Rawh ibn Hatim, his tenure was successful: he maintained friendly relations with the local autonomous ruler, Wandad Hurmuzd, captured the fortress of Ustunavand near Damavand, founded the town of al-Mansura, and was well liked by the local inhabitants. However, his attempts to spread Islam were quickly undone after his departure, and the settlements he founded were destroyed by the Bavandid ruler Sharwin I. Around the same time, Khalid's grandson, al-Fadl ibn Yahya, was made foster-brother of one of the sons of Caliph al-Mahdi (r. 775–785), the future Harun al-Rashid (r. 786–809).
In 775, shortly before al-Mansur died, Khalid fell out of favour for some unknown reason, and was obliged to pay a heavy fine of three million dirhams, within a short notice. He was saved only by his network of friends at court, who were visited by his son, Yahya ibn Khalid, and surreptitiously forwarded him the necessary sums. But following Kurdish uprisings in Mosul, Khalid was pardoned and appointed governor of the city. His restoration to favour probably was also the result of the rapidly rising fortunes of Yahya, who was by then one of the chief figures of the Abbasid government.
### Under al-Mahdi
When al-Mahdi came to the throne, Khalid was appointed again to govern Fars, where he distinguished himself for redistributing the land tax and abolishing an onerous tax on orchards. At the same time, he was given the area of Shammasiya in East Baghdad as his fief. There the Barmakids built their palaces, and Khalid's name survived for centuries in the 'Market of Khalid the Barmakid'.
Around 778, Yahya was appointed as tutor to the prince Harun. In 780, Khalid and his son Yahya distinguished themselves at the siege of the Byzantine fortress Samalu, an expedition which was led by Harun under the auspices of Yahya. He died shortly after, in 781/82, at about 75 years of age.
Of his sons, Yahya became an all-powerful vizier under Harun al-Rashid, while Muhammad became Harun al-Rashid's chamberlain and served as a provincial governor. Likewise, Yahya's sons enjoyed high offices, until the abrupt, and still poorly understood, fall of the family in 803.
## Family tree
|
64,270,174 |
Effect and Cause
| 1,161,299,157 |
Level from 2016 video game Titanfall 2
|
[
"Titanfall",
"Video game levels"
] |
"Effect and Cause" is the fifth level in the 2016 video game Titanfall 2. It features a unique gameplay mechanic which allows the player to shift back and forth in time between the level's dilapidated present-day state and its functioning past state. It was created by the senior designer of Titanfall 2, Jake Keating, who was inspired to implement the time travel mechanic in part after watching the History Channel series Life After People. Keating originally intended to use the concept for the first Titanfall, but the designers did not have the time to implement it.
The level uses one map for each of the time periods. The two maps are perfectly aligned with one another, as any misalignment would make the mechanic not function properly. It was the most labor and time-intensive level in the game, going through several revisions in order to make it play well and not confuse players, while still trying to avoid guiding them too much. Environmental art director Todd Sue found the design Keating originally presented to be an artistic mess, though was able to work with it and commended Keating on his game design skills.
The level was highly praised by critics as an excellent example of level design, both in the first-person shooter genre and in general. Eurogamer discussed how it defied its shooter genre, comparing its gameplay and storytelling to Super Mario 3D World and 30 Flights of Loving, respectively, while Game Informer meanwhile praised it for its use of classic gameplay to convey something new.
## Summary
At the beginning of the level, Jack Cooper and BT-7274, the protagonists of the game, arrive at ARES Division, an abandoned Interstellar Manufacturing Corporation (IMC) research facility, planning to reconvene with Major Eli Anderson, a Frontier Militia pilot. Jack leaves BT to search the facility for Anderson. As Jack explores the compound, he experiences time anomalies, which cause him to shift to the past when the facility was operational, before suddenly snapping back to the present. Jack discovers the body of Anderson, which is stuck in the ceiling. Jack retrieves a handheld device from Anderson's body that gives him the ability to transport between time periods, doing combat with the IMC military in the past, and malfunctioning robots and wildlife in the present. By exploring the facility and watching Anderson's memory logs, Jack finds out that the time skips he is experiencing are the result of "The Fold", a prototype doomsday weapon that uses temporal distortions to destroy planets. Jack fights his way out of both versions of the facility and reunites with BT. The two of them time travel to just before The Fold is tested to scan the weapon's core. When The Fold detonates, BT and the IMC soldiers defending the weapon are frozen in time, with Jack's time travel device allowing him to move freely and scan the core. Jack loses consciousness and wakes up near BT in the present, although his time-travel device no longer functions. Jack climbs aboard BT, and the pair hurriedly disembark to share their discovery to the rest of the Militia.
## Concept and creation
"Effect and Cause" was created by senior designer of Titanfall 2, Jake Keating. The idea for a time travel mechanic and level came from Keating leaving Infinity Ward after a dispute with Activision, where he would then be employed by Respawn Entertainment. At this time, Keating had more creative freedom, focusing on science fiction ideas after working exclusively on Call of Duty for a long time. He was inspired to implement the idea of shifting times by the History Channel series, Life After People, which depicts what the world would look like if humanity suddenly disappeared and would swap between the present and future. He was drawn to this contrast, and pitched the idea of players entering a facility after a space-time accident, using a time travel device to save a scientist. The premise was originally intended to be used for the game's predecessor, but a lack of time led to them not being able to implement a single-player campaign until its sequel. When development of Titanfall 2 began, Keating used a multi-player map from the first game to create a mock-up of what the level would look like, and created a time swapping mechanic. This level was the most labor- and time-intensive one in the game. As a result, Keating had to work extra hard to convince his co-workers of its potential.
The level went through two major revisions during development. When designing the map, Keating and other staff put the past and present areas stacked on top of one another, and the process caused some difficulties, with playtesting finding players warped out of bounds. When players utilize the time travel mechanic, Keating had to make sure that the maps were perfectly vertically aligned so that they would appear in the exact same location between the two maps. The level went through focus testing, with Keating feeling stressed about testers being too confused by this level for years, with his anxiety making him want to "handhold" the players, though he resisted this. Initially, players were meant to go alone to the location of "Effect and Cause," with BT having sacrificed his life to save Jack, but this was scrapped after the story began developing further.
The level remained "in flux" during development for a long time due to Keating making both big and small changes, which he felt would bother sound and art designers, but avoid them having to scrap their work if any changes required they do so. Keating originally intended to have a mall setting, envisioning the overall campus as much larger than it was in the end. The mall setting was later changed to be a cryogenic prison. He cited this as an example of a level designer giving the art designer "incomprehensible" level geometry, praising the art designers for their work. Environmental art director Todd Sue discussed how the concept Keating gave was an "atrocity to art," noting that Keating is known for this kind of thing, though he praises his game design work overall. In an earlier version of the level, enemies would continue to move when players were in a different time period. This was later changed in order to make it more entertaining.
## Reception
Gamasutra writer Bryant Francis called it an "interesting sample" of Titanfall 2's strengths. They suggested that designers could learn a lot from this level while making their own. Mic writer Alex Perry found it mindblowing in a way first-person shooters usually are not. Push Square writer Liam Croft identified it as one of the best levels in a first-person shooter of its generation. RPG Site writer Josh Torres praised the level as an "impressive technical feat on a structural level and a gameplay level." PCGamesN writer Matt Purslow felt that "Effect and Cause" is what demonstrated Respawn's "understanding of what makes their game unique." On December 15, 2016, GamesRadar+ writer Leon Hurley recommended the level as something players should experience before the year ends. They discussed how this level would give players "disbelief" when they realize how extensive the level's hook is. They felt that it was one of the best video game levels of all time, a sentiment that The Telegraph staff shared. Vice writers Patrick Klepek and Sayem Ahmed both regarded it as a highlight of Titanfall 2, with the former wishing that he had more time to utilize the time travel mechanic. GameSpot writer Robert Handlery called it the most memorable part of the game.
Game Informer writer Brian Shea felt that it was among the best-designed levels in a video game. Fellow Game Informer writer Javy Gwaltney talked about how "Effect and Cause" demonstrates a "subtle kind of ambition"; as opposed to other games which may focus on the size of the world or number of the quests, Gwaltney argues that the designers used classic game design to make something "bold and exhilarating." PC Gamer Tom Senior called it one of the best levels of 2016, stating that its ideas are "brilliant" and "flawlessly executed." Fellow PC Gamer writer Chris Thurston called it a "standout" level, saying that it would not be "out of place" in the first-person shooter series Half-Life. USgamer Doc Burford disputed the notion that "Effect and Cause" was the best level in Titanfall 2, instead giving that title to The Beacon. They praised "Effect and Cause" as a great and "clever" level, though argued that "Effect and Cause" is "cerebral," whereas The Beacon focuses on "heart." Eurogamer writer Christian Donlan suggested that it would be "heavily quoted" for years, and discussed how its gameplay defies genre; while it is a shooter, Donlan felt similarities between it and the platform game Super Mario 3D World and the cinematic story game 30 Flights of Loving.
|
34,258 |
Yoga
| 1,172,688,022 |
Spiritual practices from ancient India
|
[
"Bodyweight exercises",
"Hindu philosophical concepts",
"Hindu philosophy",
"Indian inventions",
"Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity",
"Meditation",
"Nonduality",
"Physical exercise",
"Spiritual practice",
"Yoga",
"Āstika"
] |
Yoga (/ˈjoʊɡə/ ; Sanskrit: योग, lit. 'yoke' or 'union' ) is a group of physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines which originated in ancient India and aim to control (yoke) and still the mind, recognizing a detached witness-consciousness untouched by the mind (Chitta) and mundane suffering (Duḥkha). There is a wide variety of schools of yoga, practices, and goals in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, and traditional and modern yoga is practiced worldwide.
Yoga-like practices were first mentioned in the ancient Hindu text known as Rigveda. Yoga is referred to in a number of the Upanishads. The first known appearance of the word "yoga" with the same meaning as the modern term is in the Katha Upanishad, which was probably composed between the fifth and third centuries BCE. Yoga continued to develop as a systematic study and practice during the fifth and sixth centuries BCE in ancient India's ascetic and Śramaṇa movements. The most comprehensive text on Yoga, the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, date to the early centuries of the Common Era; Yoga philosophy became known as one of the six orthodox philosophical schools (Darśanas) of Hinduism in the second half of the first millennium CE. Hatha yoga texts began to emerge between the ninth and 11th centuries, originating in tantra.
Two general theories exist on the origins of yoga. The linear model holds that yoga originated in the Vedic period, as reflected in the Vedic textual corpus, and influenced Buddhism; according to author Edward Fitzpatrick Crangle, this model is mainly supported by Hindu scholars. According to the synthesis model, yoga is a synthesis of non-Vedic and Vedic elements; this model is favoured in Western scholarship.
The term "yoga" in the Western world often denotes a modern form of Hatha yoga and a posture-based physical fitness, stress-relief and relaxation technique, consisting largely of asanas; this differs from traditional yoga, which focuses on meditation and release from worldly attachments. It was introduced by gurus from India after the success of Swami Vivekananda's adaptation of yoga without asanas in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Vivekananda introduced the Yoga Sutras to the West, and they became prominent after the 20th-century success of hatha yoga.
## Etymology
The Sanskrit noun योग ' is derived from the root ' (युज्) "to attach, join, harness, yoke". Yoga is a cognate of the English word "yoke". According to Mikel Burley, the first use of the root of the word "yoga" is in hymn 5.81.1 of the Rigveda, a dedication to the rising Sun-god, where it has been interpreted as "yoke" or "control".
Pāṇini (4th c. BCE) wrote that the term yoga can be derived from either of two roots: yujir yoga (to yoke) or yuj samādhau ("to concentrate"). In the context of the Yoga Sutras, the root yuj samādhau (to concentrate) is considered the correct etymology by traditional commentators.
In accordance with Pāṇini, Vyasa (who wrote the first commentary on the Yoga Sutras) says that yoga means samadhi (concentration). In the Yoga Sutras (2.1), kriyāyoga is yoga's "practical" aspect: the "union with the supreme" in the performance of everyday duties. A person who practices yoga, or follows the yoga philosophy with a high level of commitment, is called a yogi; a female yogi may also be known as a yogini.
## Definitions in classical texts
The term "yoga" has been defined in different ways in Indian philosophical and religious traditions.
<table>
<thead>
<tr class="header">
<th><p>Source Text</p></th>
<th><p>Approx. Date</p></th>
<th><p>Definition of Yoga</p></th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>Vaisesika sutra</p></td>
<td><p>c. 4th century BCE</p></td>
<td><p>"Pleasure and suffering arise as a result of the drawing together of the sense organs, the mind and objects. When that does not happen because the mind is in the self, there is no pleasure or suffering for one who is embodied. That is yoga" (5.2.15–16)</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>Katha Upanishad</p></td>
<td><p>last centuries BCE</p></td>
<td><p>"When the five senses, along with the mind, remain still and the intellect is not active, that is known as the highest state. They consider yoga to be firm restraint of the senses. Then one becomes un-distracted for yoga is the arising and the passing away" (6.10–11)</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>Bhagavad Gita</p></td>
<td><p>c. 2nd century BCE</p></td>
<td><p>"Be equal minded in both success and failure. Such equanimity is called Yoga" (2.48) "Yoga is skill in action" (2.50) "Know that which is called yoga to be separation from contact with suffering" (6.23)</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>Yoga Sutras of Patanjali</p></td>
<td><p>c. first centuries CE</p></td>
<td><p>1.2. yogas chitta vritti nirodhah – "Yoga is the calming down the fluctuations/patterns of mind"<br />
1.3. Then the Seer is established in his own essential and fundamental nature.<br />
1.4. In other states there is assimilation (of the Seer) with the modifications (of the mind).</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>Yogācārabhūmi-Śāstra (Sravakabhumi), a Mahayana Buddhist Yogacara work</p></td>
<td><p>4th century CE</p></td>
<td><p>"Yoga is fourfold: faith, aspiration, perseverance and means" (2.152)</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>Kaundinya's Pancarthabhasya on the Pashupata-sutra</p></td>
<td><p>4th century CE</p></td>
<td><p>"In this system, yoga is the union of the self and the Lord" (I.I.43)</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>Yogaśataka a Jain work by Haribhadra Suri</p></td>
<td><p>6th century CE</p></td>
<td><p>"With conviction, the lords of Yogins have in our doctrine defined yoga as the concurrence (sambandhah) of the three [correct knowledge (sajjñana), correct doctrine (saddarsana) and correct conduct (saccaritra)] beginning with correct knowledge, since [thereby arises] conjunction with liberation....In common usage this [term] yoga also [denotes the Self's] contact with the causes of these [three], due to the common usage of the cause for the effect." (2, 4).</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>Linga Purana</p></td>
<td><p>7th–10th century CE</p></td>
<td><p>"By the word 'yoga' is meant nirvana, the condition of Shiva." (I.8.5a)</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>Brahmasutra-bhasya of Adi Shankara</p></td>
<td><p>c. 8th century CE</p></td>
<td><p>"It is said in the treatises on yoga: 'Yoga is the means of perceiving reality' (atha tattvadarsanabhyupāyo yogah)" (2.1.3)<a href="#fn1" class="footnote-ref" id="fnref1" role="doc-noteref"><sup>1</sup></a></p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>Mālinīvijayottara Tantra, one of the primary authorities in non-dual Kashmir Shaivism</p></td>
<td><p>6th–10th century CE</p></td>
<td><p>"Yoga is said to be the oneness of one entity with another." (4.4–8)</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>Mrgendratantravrtti, of the Shaiva Siddhanta scholar Narayanakantha</p></td>
<td><p>6th–10th century CE</p></td>
<td><p>"To have self-mastery is to be a Yogin. The term Yogin means "one who is necessarily "conjoined with" the manifestation of his nature...the Siva-state (sivatvam)" (yp 2a)</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>Śaradatilaka of Lakshmanadesikendra, a Shakta Tantra work</p></td>
<td><p>11th century CE</p></td>
<td><p>"Yogic experts state that yoga is the oneness of the individual Self (jiva) with the atman. Others understand it to be the ascertainment of Siva and the Self as non-different. The scholars of the Agamas say that it is a Knowledge which is of the nature of Siva's Power. Other scholars say it is the knowledge of the primordial Self." (25.1–3b)</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>Yogabija, a Hatha yoga work</p></td>
<td><p>14th century CE</p></td>
<td><p>"The union of apana and prana, one's own rajas and semen, the sun and moon, the individual Self and the supreme Self, and in the same way the union of all dualities, is called yoga. " (89)</p></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<section id="footnotes" class="footnotes footnotes-end-of-document" role="doc-endnotes">
<hr />
<ol>
<li id="fn1">'Brahmasutra-bhasya, 2.1.3<a href="#fnref1" class="footnote-back" role="doc-backlink">↩︎</a></li>
</ol>
</section>
## Goals
The ultimate goals of yoga are stilling the mind and gaining insight, resting in detached awareness, and liberation (Moksha) from saṃsāra and duḥkha: a process (or discipline) leading to unity (Aikyam) with the divine (Brahman) or with one's self (Ātman). This goal varies by philosophical or theological system. In the classical Astanga yoga system, the ultimate goal of yoga is to achieve samadhi and remain in that state as pure awareness.
According to Knut A. Jacobsen, yoga has five principal meanings:
1. A disciplined method for attaining a goal
2. Techniques of controlling the body and mind
3. A name of a school or system of philosophy (')
4. With prefixes such as "hatha-, mantra-, and laya-, traditions specialising in particular yoga techniques
5. The goal of Yoga practice
David Gordon White writes that yoga's core principles were more or less in place in the 5th century CE, and variations of the principles developed over time:
1. A meditative means of discovering dysfunctional perception and cognition, as well as overcoming it to release any suffering, find inner peace, and salvation. Illustration of this principle is found in Hindu texts such as the Bhagavad Gita and Yogasutras, in a number of Buddhist Mahāyāna works, as well as Jain texts.
2. The raising and expansion of consciousness from oneself to being coextensive with everyone and everything. These are discussed in sources such as in Hinduism Vedic literature and its epic Mahābhārata, the Jain Praśamaratiprakarana, and Buddhist Nikaya texts.
3. A path to omniscience and enlightened consciousness enabling one to comprehend the impermanent (illusive, delusive) and permanent (true, transcendent) reality. Examples of this are found in Hinduism Nyaya and Vaisesika school texts as well as Buddhism Mādhyamaka texts, but in different ways.
4. A technique for entering into other bodies, generating multiple bodies, and the attainment of other supernatural accomplishments. These are, states White, described in Tantric literature of Hinduism and Buddhism, as well as the Buddhist Sāmaññaphalasutta. James Mallinson, however, disagrees and suggests that such fringe practices are far removed from the mainstream Yoga's goal as meditation-driven means to liberation in Indian religions.
According to White, the last principle relates to legendary goals of yoga practice; it differs from yoga's practical goals in South Asian thought and practice since the beginning of the Common Era in Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain philosophical schools.
## History
There is no consensus on yoga's chronology or origins other than its development in ancient India. There are two broad theories explaining the origins of yoga. The linear model holds that yoga has Vedic origins (as reflected in Vedic texts), and influenced Buddhism. This model is mainly supported by Hindu scholars. According to the synthesis model, yoga is a synthesis of indigenous, non-Vedic practices with Vedic elements. This model is favoured in Western scholarship.
Speculations about yoga began to emerge in the early Upanishads of the first half of the first millennium BCE, with expositions also appearing in Jain and Buddhist texts c. 500 – c. 200 BCE. Between 200 BCE and 500 CE, traditions of Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain philosophy were taking shape; teachings were collected as sutras, and a philosophical system of Patanjaliyogasastra began to emerge. The Middle Ages saw the development of a number of yoga satellite traditions. It and other aspects of Indian philosophy came to the attention of the educated Western public during the mid-19th century.
### Origins
#### Linear model
According to Edward Fitzpatrick Crangle, Hindu researchers have favoured a linear theory which attempts "to interpret the origin and early development of Indian contemplative practices as a sequential growth from an Aryan genesis"; traditional Hinduism regards the Vedas as the source of all spiritual knowledge. Edwin Bryant wrote that authors who support Indigenous Aryanism also tend to support the linear model.
#### Synthesis model
Heinrich Zimmer was an exponent of the synthesis model, arguing for non-Vedic eastern states of India. According to Zimmer, Yoga is part of a non-Vedic system which includes the Samkhya school of Hindu philosophy, Jainism and Buddhism: "[Jainism] does not derive from Brahman-Aryan sources, but reflects the cosmology and anthropology of a much older pre-Aryan upper class of northeastern India [Bihar] – being rooted in the same subsoil of archaic metaphysical speculation as Yoga, Sankhya, and Buddhism, the other non-Vedic Indian systems." Richard Gombrich and Geoffrey Samuel believe that the śramaṇa movement originated in non-Vedic Greater Magadha.
Thomas McEvilley favors a composite model in which a pre-Aryan yoga prototype existed in the pre-Vedic period and was refined during the Vedic period. According to Gavin D. Flood, the Upanishads differ fundamentally from the Vedic ritual tradition and indicate non-Vedic influences. However, the traditions may be connected:
> [T]his dichotomization is too simplistic, for continuities can undoubtedly be found between renunciation and vedic Brahmanism, while elements from non-Brahmanical, Sramana traditions also played an important part in the formation of the renunciate ideal.
The ascetic traditions of the eastern Ganges plain are thought to drew from a common body of practices and philosophies, with proto-samkhya concepts of purusha and prakriti as a common denominator.
#### Indus Valley Civilisation
The twentieth-century scholars Karel Werner, Thomas McEvilley, and Mircea Eliade believe that the central figure of the Pashupati seal is in a Mulabandhasana posture, and the roots of yoga are in the Indus Valley civilisation. This is rejected by more recent scholarship; for example, Geoffrey Samuel, Andrea R. Jain, and Wendy Doniger describe the identification as speculative; the meaning of the figure will remain unknown until Harappan script is deciphered, and the roots of yoga cannot be linked to the IVC.
### Earliest references (1000–500 BCE)
The Vedas, the only texts preserved from the early Vedic period and codified between c. 1200 and 900 BCE, contain references to yogic practices primarily related to ascetics outside, or on the fringes of Brahmanism. The Rigveda's Nasadiya Sukta suggests an early Brahmanic contemplative tradition. Techniques for controlling breath and vital energies are mentioned in the Atharvaveda and in the Brahmanas (the second layer of the Vedas, composed c. 1000–800 BCE).
According to Flood, "The Samhitas [the mantras of the Vedas] contain some references ... to ascetics, namely the Munis or Keśins and the Vratyas." Werner wrote in 1977 that the Rigveda does not describe yoga, and there is little evidence of practices. The earliest description of "an outsider who does not belong to the Brahminic establishment" is found in the Keśin hymn 10.136, the Rigveda's youngest book, which was codified around 1000 BCE. Werner wrote that there were
> ... individuals who were active outside the trend of Vedic mythological creativity and the Brahminic religious orthodoxy and therefore little evidence of their existence, practices and achievements has survived. And such evidence as is available in the Vedas themselves is scanty and indirect. Nevertheless the indirect evidence is strong enough not to allow any doubt about the existence of spiritually highly advanced wanderers.
According to Whicher (1998), scholarship frequently fails to see the connection between the contemplative practices of the rishis and later yoga practices: "The proto-Yoga of the Vedic rishis is an early form of sacrificial mysticism and contains many elements characteristic of later Yoga that include: concentration, meditative observation, ascetic forms of practice (tapas), breath control practiced in conjunction with the recitation of sacred hymns during the ritual, the notion of self-sacrifice, impeccably accurate recitation of sacred words (prefiguring mantra-yoga), mystical experience, and the engagement with a reality far greater than our psychological identity or the ego." Jacobsen wrote in 2018, "Bodily postures are closely related to the tradition of (tapas), ascetic practices in the Vedic tradition"; ascetic practices used by Vedic priests "in their preparations for the performance of the sacrifice" may be precursors of yoga. "The ecstatic practice of enigmatic longhaired muni in Rgveda 10.136 and the ascetic performance of the vratya-s in the Atharvaveda outside of or on the fringe of the Brahmanical ritual order, have probably contributed more to the ascetic practices of yoga."
According to Bryant, practices recognizable as classical yoga first appear in the Upanishads (composed during the late Vedic period). Alexander Wynne agrees that formless, elemental meditation might have originated in the Upanishadic tradition. An early reference to meditation is made in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (c. 900 BCE), one of the Principal Upanishads. The Chandogya Upanishad (c. 800–700 BCE) describes the five vital energies (prana), and concepts of later yoga traditions (such as blood vessels and an internal sound) are also described in this upanishad. The practice of pranayama (focusing on the breath) is mentioned in hymn 1.5.23 of the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, and pratyahara (withdrawal of the senses) is mentioned in hymn 8.15 of Chandogya Upanishad. The Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana (probably before the 6th c. BCE) teaches breath control and repetition of a mantra. The 6th-c. BCE Taittiriya Upanishad defines yoga as the mastery of body and senses. According to Flood, "[T]he actual term yoga first appears in the Katha Upanishad, dated to the fifth to first centuries BCE.
### Second urbanisation (500–200 BCE)
Systematic yoga concepts begin to emerge in texts dating to c. 500–200 BCE, such as the early Buddhist texts, the middle Upanishads, and the Mahabharata's Bhagavad Gita and Shanti Parva.
#### Buddhism and the śramaṇa movement
According to Geoffrey Samuel, the "best evidence to date" suggests that yogic practices "developed in the same ascetic circles as the early śramaṇa movements (Buddhists, Jainas and Ajivikas), probably in around the sixth and fifth centuries BCE." This occurred during India's second urbanisation period. According to Mallinson and Singleton, these traditions were the first to use mind-body techniques (known as Dhyāna and tapas) but later described as yoga, to strive for liberation from the round of rebirth.
Werner writes, "The Buddha was the founder of his [Yoga] system, even though, admittedly, he made use of some of the experiences he had previously gained under various Yoga teachers of his time." He notes:
> But it is only with Buddhism itself as expounded in the Pali Canon that we can speak about a systematic and comprehensive or even integral school of Yoga practice, which is thus the first and oldest to have been preserved for us in its entirety.
Early Buddhist texts describe yogic and meditative practices, some of which the Buddha borrowed from the śramaṇa tradition. The Pāli Canon contains three passages in which the Buddha describes pressing the tongue against the palate to control hunger or the mind, depending on the passage. There is no mention of the tongue inserted into the nasopharynx, as in khecarī mudrā. The Buddha used a posture in which pressure is put on the perineum with the heel, similar to modern postures used to evoke Kundalini. Suttas which discuss yogic practice include the Satipatthana Sutta (the four foundations of mindfulness sutta) and the Anapanasati Sutta (the mindfulness of breathing sutta).
The chronology of these yoga-related early Buddhist texts, like the ancient Hindu texts, is unclear. Early Buddhist sources such as the Majjhima Nikāya mention meditation; the Aṅguttara Nikāya describes jhāyins (meditators) who resemble early Hindu descriptions of muni, the Kesin and meditating ascetics, but the meditation practices are not called "yoga" in these texts. The earliest known discussions of yoga in Buddhist literature, as understood in a modern context, are from the later Buddhist Yogācāra and Theravada schools.
Jain meditation is a yoga system which predated the Buddhist school. Since Jain sources are later than Buddhist ones, however, it is difficult to distinguish between the early Jain school and elements derived from other schools. Most of the other contemporary yoga systems alluded to in the Upanishads and some Buddhist texts have been lost.
#### Upanishads
The Upanishads, composed in the late Vedic period, contain the first references to practices recognizable as classical yoga. The first known appearance of the word "yoga" in the modern sense is in the Katha Upanishad (probably composed between the fifth and third centuries BCE), where it is defined as steady control of the senses which – with cessation of mental activity – leads to a supreme state. The Katha Upanishad integrates the monism of the early Upanishads with concepts of samkhya and yoga. It defines levels of existence by their proximity to one's innermost being. Yoga is viewed as a process of interiorization, or ascent of consciousness. The upanishad is the earliest literary work which highlights the fundamentals of yoga. According to White,
> The earliest extant systematic account of yoga and a bridge from the earlier Vedic uses of the term is found in the Hindu Katha Upanisad (Ku), a scripture dating from about the third century BCE ... [I]t describes the hierarchy of mind-body constituents—the senses, mind, intellect, etc.—that comprise the foundational categories of Sāmkhya philosophy, whose metaphysical system grounds the yoga of the Yogasutras, Bhagavad Gita, and other texts and schools (Ku3.10–11; 6.7–8).
The hymns in book two of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad (another late-first-millennium BCE text) describe a procedure in which the body is upright, the breath is restrained and the mind is meditatively focused, preferably in a cave or a place that is simple and quiet.
The Maitrayaniya Upanishad, probably composed later than the Katha and Shvetashvatara Upanishads but before the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, mentions a sixfold yoga method: breath control, introspective withdrawal of the senses, meditation (dhyana), mental concentration, logic and reasoning, and spiritual union. In addition to discussions in the Principal Upanishads, the twenty Yoga Upanishads and related texts (such as Yoga Vasistha, composed between the sixth and 14th centuries CE) discuss yoga methods.
#### Macedonian texts
Alexander the Great reached India in the 4th century BCE. In addition to his army, he brought Greek academics who wrote memoirs about its geography, people, and customs. One of Alexander's companions was Onesicritus (quoted in Book 15, Sections 63–65 by Strabo in his Geography), who describes yogis. Onesicritus says that the yogis were aloof and adopted "different postures – standing or sitting or lying naked – and motionless".
Onesicritus also mentions attempts by his colleague, Calanus, to meet them. Initially denied an audience, he was later invited because he was sent by a "king curious of wisdom and philosophy". Onesicritus and Calanus learn that the yogis consider life's best doctrines to "rid the spirit of not only pain, but also pleasure", that "man trains the body for toil in order that his opinions may be strengthened", that "there is no shame in life on frugal fare", and that "the best place to inhabit is one with scantiest equipment or outfit". According to Charles Rockwell Lanman, these principles are significant in the history of yoga's spiritual side and may reflect the roots of "undisturbed calmness" and "mindfulness through balance" in the later works of Patanjali and Buddhaghosa.
#### Mahabharata and Bhagavad Gita
Nirodhayoga (yoga of cessation), an early form of yoga, is described in the Mokshadharma section of the 12th chapter (Shanti Parva) of the third-century BCE Mahabharata. Nirodhayoga emphasizes progressive withdrawal from empirical consciousness, including thoughts and sensations, until purusha (self) is realized. Terms such as vichara (subtle reflection) and viveka (discrimination) similar to Patanjali's terminology are used, but not described. Although the Mahabharata contains no uniform yogic goal, the separation of self from matter and perception of Brahman everywhere are described as goals of yoga. Samkhya and yoga are conflated, and some verses describe them as identical. Mokshadharma also describes an early practice of elemental meditation. The Mahabharata defines the purpose of yoga as uniting the individual ātman with the universal Brahman pervading all things.
The Bhagavad Gita (Song of the Lord), part of the Mahabharata, contains extensive teachings about yoga. According to Mallinson and Singleton, the Gita "seeks to appropriate yoga from the renunciate milieu in which it originated, teaching that it is compatible with worldly activity carried out according to one's caste and life stage; it is only the fruits of one's actions that are to be renounced." In addition to a chapter (chapter six) dedicated to traditional yoga practice (including meditation), it introduces three significant types of yoga:
- Karma yoga: yoga of action
- Bhakti yoga: yoga of devotion
- Jnana yoga: yoga of knowledge
The Gita consists of 18 chapters and 700 shlokas (verses); each chapter is named for a different form of yoga. Some scholars divide the Gita into three sections; the first six chapters (280 shlokas) deal with karma yoga, the middle six (209 shlokas) with bhakti yoga, and the last six (211 shlokas with jnana yoga. However, elements of all three are found throughout the work.
#### Philosophical sutras
Yoga is discussed in the foundational sutras of Hindu philosophy. The Vaiśeṣika Sūtra of the Vaisheshika school of Hinduism, composed between the sixth and second centuries BCE, discusses yoga. According to Johannes Bronkhorst, the Vaiśeṣika Sūtra describes yoga as "a state where the mind resides only in the Self and therefore not in the senses". This is equivalent to pratyahara (withdrawal of the senses). The sutra asserts that yoga leads to an absence of sukha (happiness) and dukkha (suffering), describing meditative steps in the journey towards spiritual liberation.
The Brahma Sutras, the foundation text of the Vedanta school of Hinduism, also discusses yoga. Estimated as completed in its surviving form between 450 BCE and 200 CE, its sutras assert that yoga is a means to attain "subtlety of body". The Nyaya Sutras—the foundation text of the Nyaya school, estimated as composed between the sixth century BCE and the secondcentury CE—discusses yoga in sutras 4.2.38–50. It includes a discussion of yogic ethics, dhyana (meditation) and samadhi, noting that debate and philosophy are also forms of yoga.
### Classical era (200 BCE – 500 CE)
The Indic traditions of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism were taking shape during the period between the Mauryan and the Gupta eras (c. 200 BCE – 500 CE), and systems of yoga began to emerge; a number of texts from these traditions discussed and compiled yoga methods and practices. Key works of the era include the Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali, the Yoga-Yājñavalkya, the Yogācārabhūmi-Śāstra, and the Visuddhimagga.
#### Yoga Sutras of Patanjali
One of the best-known early expressions of Brahminical yoga thought is the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali (early centuries CE, the original name of which may have been the Pātañjalayogaśāstra-sāṃkhya-pravacana (c. 325–425 CE); some scholars believe that it included the sutras and a commentary. As the name suggests, the metaphysical basis of the text is samkhya; the school is mentioned in Kauṭilya's Arthashastra as one of the three categories of anviksikis (philosophies), with yoga and Cārvāka. Yoga and samkhya have some differences; yoga accepted the concept of a personal god, and Samkhya was a rational, non-theistic system of Hindu philosophy. Patanjali's system is sometimes called "Seshvara Samkhya", distinguishing it from Kapila's Nirivara Samkhya. The parallels between yoga and samkhya were so close that Max Müller says, "The two philosophies were in popular parlance distinguished from each other as Samkhya with and Samkhya without a Lord." Karel Werner wrote that the systematization of yoga which began in the middle and early Yoga Upanishads culminated in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali.
The Yoga Sutras are also influenced by the Sramana traditions of Buddhism and Jainism, and may be a further Brahmanical attempt to adopt yoga from those traditions. Larson noted a number of parallels in ancient samkhya, yoga and Abhidharma Buddhism, particularly from the second century BCE to the first century AD. Patanjali's Yoga Sutras are a synthesis of the three traditions. From Samkhya, they adopt the "reflective discernment" (adhyavasaya) of prakrti and purusa (dualism), their metaphysical rationalism, and their three epistemological methods of obtaining knowledge. Larson says that the Yoga Sutras pursue an altered state of awareness from Abhidharma Buddhism's nirodhasamadhi; unlike Buddhism's "no self or soul", however, yoga (like Samkhya) believes that each individual has a self. The third concept which the Yoga Sutras synthesize is the ascetic tradition of meditation and introspection.
Patanjali's Yoga Sutras are considered the first compilation of yoga philosophy. The verses of the Yoga Sutras are terse. Many later Indian scholars studied them and published their commentaries, such as the Vyasa Bhashya (c. 350–450 CE). Patanjali defines the word "yoga" in his second sutra, and his terse definition hinges on the meaning of three Sanskrit terms. I. K. Taimni translates it as "Yoga is the inhibition (') of the modifications (') of the mind (')". Swami Vivekananda translates the sutra as "Yoga is restraining the mind-stuff (Citta) from taking various forms (Vrittis)." Edwin Bryant writes that to Patanjali, "Yoga essentially consists of meditative practices culminating in attaining a state of consciousness free from all modes of active or discursive thought, and of eventually attaining a state where consciousness is unaware of any object external to itself, that is, is only aware of its own nature as consciousness unmixed with any other object."
Baba Hari Dass writes that if yoga is understood as nirodha (mental control), its goal is "the unqualified state of niruddha (the perfection of that process)". "Yoga (union) implies duality (as in joining of two things or principles); the result of yoga is the nondual state ... as the union of the lower self and higher Self. The nondual state is characterized by the absence of individuality; it can be described as eternal peace, pure love, Self-realization, or liberation."
Patanjali defined an eight-limbed yoga in Yoga Sutras 2.29:
1. Yama (The five abstentions): Ahimsa (Non-violence, non-harming other living beings), Satya (truthfulness, non-falsehood), Asteya (non-stealing), Brahmacharya (celibacy, fidelity to one's partner), and Aparigraha (non-avarice, non-possessiveness).
2. Niyama (The five "observances"): Śauca (purity, clearness of mind, speech and body), Santosha (contentment, acceptance of others and of one's circumstances), Tapas (persistent meditation, perseverance, austerity), Svādhyāya (study of self, self-reflection, study of Vedas), and Ishvara-Pranidhana (contemplation of God/Supreme Being/True Self).
3. Asana: Literally means "seat", and in Patanjali's Sutras refers to the seated position used for meditation.
4. Pranayama ("Breath exercises"): Prāna, breath, "āyāma", to "stretch, extend, restrain, stop".
5. Pratyahara ("Abstraction"): Withdrawal of the sense organs from external objects.
6. Dharana ("Concentration"): Fixing the attention on a single object.
7. Dhyana ("Meditation"): Intense contemplation of the nature of the object of meditation.
8. Samadhi ("Liberation"): merging consciousness with the object of meditation.
In Hindu scholasticism since the 12th century, yoga has been one of the six orthodox philosophical schools (darsanas): traditions which accept the Vedas.
#### Yoga and Vedanta
Yoga and Vedanta are the two largest surviving schools of Hindu traditions. Although they share many principles, concepts, and the belief in Self, they differ in degree, style, and methods; yoga accepts three means to obtain knowledge, and Advaita Vedanta accepts. Yoga disputes Advaita Vedanta's monism. It believes that in the state of moksha, each individual discovers the blissful, liberating sense of himself or herself as an independent identity; Advaita Vedanta teaches that in the state of moksha, each individual discovers the blissful, liberating sense of himself or herself as part of oneness with everything, everyone and the Universal Self. They both hold that the free conscience is transcendent, liberated and self-aware. Advaita Vedanta also encourages the use of Patanjali's yoga practices and the Upanishads for those seeking the supreme good and ultimate freedom.
#### Yoga Yajnavalkya
The Yoga Yajnavalkya is a classical treatise on yoga, attributed to the Vedic sage Yajnavalkya, in the form of a dialogue between Yajnavalkya and the renowned philosopher Gargi Vachaknavi. The origin of the 12-chapter text has been traced to the second century BCE and the fourth century CE. A number of yoga texts, such as the Hatha Yoga Pradipika, the Yoga Kundalini and the Yoga Tattva Upanishads, have borrowed from (or frequently refer to) the Yoga Yajnavalkya. It discusses eight yoga asanas (Swastika, Gomukha, Padma, Vira, Simha, Bhadra, Mukta and Mayura), a number of breathing exercises for body cleansing, and meditation.
#### Abhidharma and Yogachara
The Buddhist tradition of Abhidharma spawned treatises which expanded teachings on Buddhist theory and yoga techniques which influenced Mahayana and Theravada Buddhism. At the height of the Gupta period (fourth to fifth centuries CE), a northern Mahayana movement known as Yogācāra began to be systematized with the writings of Buddhist scholars Asanga and Vasubandhu. Yogācāra Buddhism provided a systematic framework for practices which lead a bodhisattva towards awakening and full Buddhahood. Its teachings are found in the encyclopedic Yogācārabhūmi-Śāstra (Treatise for Yoga Practitioners), which was also translated into Tibetan and Chinese and influenced East Asian and Tibetan Buddhist traditions. Mallinson and Singleton write that the study of Yogācāra Buddhism is essential to understand yoga's early history, and its teachings influenced the Pātañjalayogaśāstra. The South India and Sri Lankan-based Theravada school also developed manuals for yogic and meditative training, primarily the Vimuttimagga and the Visuddhimagga.
#### Jainism
According to Tattvarthasutra, a second-to-fifth century Jain text, yoga is the sum of all activities of mind, speech and body. Umasvati calls yoga the generator of karma, and essential to the path to liberation. In his Niyamasara, Kundakunda describes yoga bhakti—devotion to the path to liberation—as the highest form of devotion. Haribhadra and Hemacandra note the five major vows of ascetics and 12 minor vows of laity in yoga. According to Robert J. Zydenbos, Jainism is a system of yogic thinking which became a religion. The five yamas (constraints) of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali are similar to Jainism's five major vows, indicating cross-fertilization between these traditions. Hinduism's influence on Jain yoga may be seen in Haribhadra's Yogadṛṣṭisamuccaya, which outlines an eightfold yoga influenced by Patanjali's eightfold yoga.
### Middle Ages (500–1500 CE)
The Middle Ages saw the development of satellite yoga traditions. Hatha yoga emerged during this period.
#### Bhakti movement
In medieval Hinduism, the Bhakti movement advocated the concept of a personal god or Supreme Personality. The movement, begun by the Alvars of South India during the 6th to 9th centuries, became influential throughout India by the 12th to 15th centuries. Shaiva and Vaishnava bhakti traditions integrated aspects of the Yoga Sutras (such as meditative exercises) with devotion. The Bhagavata Purana elucidates a form of yoga known as viraha (separation) bhakti, which emphasizes concentration on Krishna.
#### Tantra
Tantra is a range of esoteric traditions which had begun to arise in India by the 5th century CE. Its use suggests that the word tantra in the Rigveda means "technique". George Samuel wrote that tantra is a contested term, but may be considered a school whose practices appeared in nearly-complete form in Buddhist and Hindu texts by about the 10th century CE. Tantric yoga developed complex visualizations, which included meditation on the body as a microcosm of the cosmos. It included mantras, breath control, and body manipulation (including its nadis and chakras. Teachings about chakras and Kundalini became central to later forms of Indian yoga.
Tantric concepts influenced Hindu, Bon, Buddhist, and Jain traditions. Elements of Tantric rituals were adopted by, and influenced, state functions in medieval Buddhist and Hindu kingdoms in East and Southeast Asia. By the turn of the first millennium, hatha yoga emerged from tantra.
##### Vajrayana and Tibetan Buddhism
Vajrayana is also known as Tantric Buddhism and Tantrayāna. Its texts began to be compiled during the seventh century CE, and Tibetan translations were completed the following century. These tantra texts were the main source of Buddhist knowledge imported into Tibet, and were later translated into Chinese and other Asian languages. The Buddhist text Hevajra Tantra and caryāgiti introduced hierarchies of chakras. Yoga is a significant practice in Tantric Buddhism.
Tantra yoga practices include postures and breathing exercises. The Nyingma school practices yantra yoga, a discipline which includes breath work, meditation and other exercises. Nyingma meditation is divided into stages, such as Kriya Yoga, Upa yoga, Yoga yana, mahā yoga, Anu yoga and atiyoga. The Sarma traditions also include Kriya, Upa (called "Charya"), and yoga, with anuttara yoga replacing mahayoga and atiyoga.
#### Zen Buddhism
Zen, whose name derives from the Sanskrit dhyāna via the Chinese ch'an, is a form of Mahayana Buddhism in which yoga is an integral part.
#### Medieval hatha yoga
The first references to hatha yoga are in eighth-century Buddhist works. The earliest definition of hatha yoga is in the 11th-century Buddhist text Vimalaprabha. Hatha yoga blends elements of Patanjali's Yoga Sutras with posture and breathing exercises. It marks the development of asanas into the full-body postures in current popular use and, with its modern variations, is the style presently associated with the word "yoga".
#### Sikhism
Yogic groups became prominent in Punjab during the 15th and 16th centuries, when Sikhism was beginning. Compositions by Guru Nanak (the founder of Sikhism) describe dialogues he had with Jogis, a Hindu community which practiced yoga. Guru Nanak rejected the austerities, rites and rituals associated with hatha yoga, advocating sahaja yoga or nama yoga instead. According to the Guru Granth Sahib,
> O Yogi, Nanak tells nothing but the truth. You must discipline your mind. The devotee must meditate on the Word Divine. It is His grace which brings about the union. He understands, he also sees. Good deeds help one merge into Divination.
### Modern revival
#### Introduction in the West
Yoga and other aspects of Indian philosophy came to the attention of the educated Western public during the mid-19th century, and N. C. Paul published his Treatise on Yoga Philosophy in 1851. Swami Vivekananda, the first Hindu teacher to advocate and disseminate elements of yoga to a Western audience, toured Europe and the United States in the 1890s. His reception built on the interest of intellectuals who included the New England Transcendentalists; among them were Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803–1882), who drew on German Romanticism and philosophers and scholars such as Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831), the brothers August Wilhelm Schlegel (1767–1845) and Friedrich Schlegel (1772–1829), Max Mueller (1823–1900), and Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860).
Theosophists, including Helena Blavatsky, also influenced the Western public's view of yoga. Esoteric views at the end of the 19th century encouraged the reception of Vedanta and yoga, with their correspondence between the spiritual and the physical. The reception of yoga and Vedanta entwined with the (primarily neoplatonic) currents of religious and philosophical reform and transformation during the 19th and early 20th centuries. Mircea Eliade brought a new element to yoga, emphasizing tantric yoga in his Yoga: Immortality and Freedom. With the introduction of tantra traditions and philosophy, the conception of the "transcendent" attained by yogic practice shifted from the mind to the body.
#### Yoga as exercise
The postural yoga of the Western world is a physical activity consisting of asanas (often connected by smooth transitions, sometimes accompanied by breathing exercises and usually ending with a period of relaxation or meditation. It is often known simply as "yoga", despite older Hindu traditions (some dating to the Yoga Sutras) in which asanas played little or no part; asanas were not central to any tradition.
Yoga as exercise is part of a modern yoga renaissance, a 20th-century blend of Western gymnastics and haṭha yoga pioneered by Shri Yogendra and Swami Kuvalayananda. Before 1900, hatha yoga had few standing poses; the Sun Salutation was pioneered by Bhawanrao Shrinivasrao Pant Pratinidhi, the Rajah of Aundh, during the 1920s. Many standing poses used in gymnastics were incorporated into yoga by Krishnamacharya in Mysore between the 1930s and the 1950s. Several of his students founded schools of yoga. Pattabhi Jois created ashtanga vinyasa yoga, which led to Power Yoga; B. K. S. Iyengar created Iyengar Yoga and systematised asanas in his 1966 book, Light on Yoga; Indra Devi taught yoga to Hollywood actors; and Krishnamacharya's son, T. K. V. Desikachar, founded the Krishnamacharya Yoga Mandalam in Chennai. Other schools founded during the 20th century include Bikram Choudhury's Bikram Yoga and Swami Sivananda of Rishikesh's Sivananda yoga. Modern yoga has spread around the world.
The number of asanas used in yoga has increased from 84 in 1830 (as illustrated in Joga Pradipika) to about 200 in Light on Yoga and over 900 performed by Dharma Mittra by 1984. The goal of haṭha yoga (spiritual liberation through energy) was largely replaced by the goals of fitness and relaxation, and many of its more esoteric components were reduced or removed. The term "hatha yoga" also refers to gentle yoga, often for women.
Yoga has developed into a worldwide, multi-billion-dollar business involving classes, teacher certification, clothing, books, videos, equipment, and holidays. The ancient, cross-legged lotus position and Siddhasana are widely-recognised symbols of yoga. The United Nations General Assembly established 21 June as the International Day of Yoga, and it has been celebrated annually around the world since 2015. On 1 December 2016, yoga was listed by UNESCO as an intangible cultural heritage.
The effect of postural yoga on physical and mental health has been a subject of study, with evidence that regular yoga practice is beneficial for low back pain and stress. In 2017, a Cochrane review found that yoga interventions designed for chronic low back pain increased function at the six month mark, and modestly decreased pain after 3–4 months. The decrease in pain was found to be similar to other exercise programs designed for low-back pain, but the decrease is not large enough to be deemed clinically significant. Theories of the mechanism underlying these changes include the increase in strength and flexibility, physical and mental relaxation and increased body awareness.
## Traditions
Yoga is practised with a variety of methods by all Indian religions. In Hinduism, practices include jnana yoga, bhakti yoga, karma yoga, kundalini yoga, and hatha yoga.
### Jain yoga
Yoga has been a central practice in Jainism. Jain spirituality is based on a strict code of nonviolence, or ahimsa (which includes vegetarianism), almsgiving (dāna), faith in the three jewels, austerities (tapas) such as fasting, and yoga. Jain yoga aims at the liberation and purification of the self from the forces of karma, which binds the self to the cycle of reincarnation. Like yoga and Sankhya, Jainism believes in a number of individual selves bound by their individual karma. Only through the reduction of karmic influences and the exhaustion of collected karma can one become purified and released. Early Jain yoga seems to have been divided into several types, including meditation, abandonment of the body (kāyotsarga), contemplation, and reflection (bhāvanā).
### Buddhist yoga
Buddhist yoga encompasses a variety of methods which aim to develop the 37 aids to awakening. Its ultimate goal is bodhi (awakening) or nirvana (cessation), traditionally seen as the permanent end of suffering (dukkha) and rebirth. Buddhist texts use a number of terms for spiritual praxis in addition to yoga, such as bhāvanā ("development") and jhāna/dhyāna.
In early Buddhism, yoga practices included:
- the four dhyānas (four meditations or mental absorptions),
- the four satipatthanas (foundations or establishments of mindfulness),
- anapanasati (mindfulness of breath),
- the four immaterial dwellings (supranormal states of mind),
- the brahmavihārās (divine abodes).
- Anussati (contemplations, recollections)
These meditations were seen as supported by the other elements of the Noble Eightfold Path, such as ethics, right exertion, sense restraint and right view. Two mental qualities are said to be indispensable for yoga practice in Buddhism: samatha (calm, stability) and vipassanā (insight, clear seeing). Samatha is a stable, relaxed mind, associated with samadhi (mental unification, focus) and dhyana (a state of meditative absorption). Vipassanā is insight or penetrative understanding into the true nature of phenomena, also defined as "seeing things as they truly are" (yathābhūtaṃ darśanam). A unique feature of classical Buddhism is its understanding of all phenomena (dhammas) as being empty of a self.
Later developments in Buddhist traditions led to innovations in yoga practice. The conservative Theravada school developed new ideas on meditation and yoga in its later works, the most influential of which is the Visuddhimagga. Mahayana meditation teachings may be seen in the Yogācārabhūmi-Śāstra, compiled c. 4th century. Mahayana also developed and adopted yoga methods such as the use of mantras and dharani, pure land practices aiming at rebirth in a pure land or buddhafield, and visualization. Chinese Buddhism developed the Chan practice of Koan introspection and Hua Tou. Tantric Buddhism developed and adopted tantric methods which are the basis of the Tibetan Buddhist yoga systems, including deity yoga, guru yoga, the six yogas of Naropa, Kalacakra, Mahamudra and Dzogchen.
### Classical yoga
What is often referred to as classical yoga, ashtanga yoga, or rāja yoga is primarily the yoga outlined in the dualistic Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. The origins of classical yoga are unclear, although early discussions of the term appear in the Upanishads. Rāja yoga (yoga of kings) originally denoted the ultimate goal of yoga; samadhi, but was popularised by Vivekananda as a common name for ashtanga yoga, the eight limbs attain samadhi as described in the Yoga Sutras. Yoga philosophy came to be regarded as a distinct orthodox school (darsanas) of Hinduism in the second half of the first millennium CE.
Classical yoga incorporates epistemology, metaphysics, ethical practices, systematic exercises and self-development for body, mind and spirit. Its epistemology (pramana) and metaphysics are similar to the Sāṅkhya school. The Classical yoga's metaphysics, like Sāṅkhya's, primarily posits two distinct realities: prakriti (nature, the eternal and active unconscious source of the material world composed of three Gunas) and puruṣa (consciousness), the plural consciousnesses which are the intelligent principles of the world. Moksha (liberation) results from the isolation (kaivalya) of puruṣa from prakirti, and is achieved through meditation, stilling one's thought waves (citta vritti) and resting in pure awareness of puruṣa. Unlike Sāṅkhya, which takes a non-theistic approach, the yoga school of Hinduism accepts a "personal, yet essentially inactive, deity" or "personal god" (Ishvara).
### In Advaita Vedanta
Vedanta is a varied tradition, with a number of sub-schools and philosophical views. It focuses on the study of the Upanishads and the Brahma Sutras (one of its early texts), about gaining spiritual knowledge of Brahman: the unchanging, absolute reality.
One of the earliest and most influential sub-traditions of Vedanta is Advaita Vedanta, which posits non-dualistic monism. It emphasizes jñāna yoga (yoga of knowledge), which aims at realizing the identity of one's atman (individual consciousness) with Brahman (the Absolute consciousness). The most influential thinker of this school is Adi Shankara (8th century), who wrote commentaries and other works on jñāna yoga. In Advaita Vedanta, jñāna is attained from scripture, one's guru, and through a process of listening to (and meditating on) teachings. Qualities such as discrimination, renunciation, tranquility, temperance, dispassion, endurance, faith, attention, and a longing for knowledge and freedom are also desirable. Yoga in Advaita is a "meditative exercise of withdrawal from the particular and identification with the universal, leading to contemplation of oneself as the most universal, namely, Consciousness".
Yoga Vasistha is an influential Advaita text which uses short stories and anecdotes to illustrate its ideas. Teaching seven stages of yoga practice, it was a major reference for medieval Advaita Vedanta yoga scholars and one of the most popular texts on Hindu yoga before the 12th century. Another text which teaches yoga from an Advaita point of view is the Yoga Yajnavalkya.
### Tantric yoga
According to Samuel, Tantra is a contested concept. Tantra yoga may be described as practices in 9th to 10th century Buddhist and Hindu (Saiva, Shakti) texts which included yogic practices with elaborate deity visualizations using geometric arrays and drawings (mandalas), male and (particularly) female deities, life-stage-related rituals, the use of chakras and mantras, and sexual techniques aimed at aiding one's health, longevity and liberation.
### Hatha yoga
Hatha yoga focuses on physical and mental strength-building exercises and postures described primarily in three Hindu texts:
1. Hatha Yoga Pradipika by Svātmārāma (15th century)
2. Shiva Samhita, author unknown (1500 or late 17th century)
3. Gheranda Samhita by Gheranda (late 17th century)
Some scholars include Gorakshanath's 11th-century Goraksha Samhita on the list, since Gorakshanath is considered responsible for popularizing present-day hatha yoga. Vajrayana Buddhism, founded by the Indian Mahasiddhas, has a series of asanas and pranayamas (such as tummo) which resemble hatha yoga.
### Laya and kundalini yoga
Laya and kundalini yoga, closely associated with hatha yoga, are often presented as independent approaches. According to Georg Feuerstein, laya yoga (yoga of dissolution or merging) "makes meditative absorption (laya) its focus. The laya-yogin seeks to transcend all memory traces and sensory experiences by dissolving the microcosm, the mind, in the transcendental Self-Consciousness." Laya yoga has a number of techniques which include listening to the "inner sound" (nada), mudras such as Khechari and Shambhavi mudra, and awakening kundalini (body energy).
Kundalini yoga aims to awaken bodily and cosmic energy with breath and body techniques, uniting them with universal consciousness. A common teaching method awakens kundalini in the lowest chakra and guides it through the central channel to unite with the absolute consciousness in the highest chakra, at the top of the head.
## Reception by other religions
### Christianity
Some Christians integrate physical aspects of yoga, stripped from the spiritual roots of Hinduism, and other aspects of Eastern spirituality with prayer, meditation and Jesus-centric affirmations. The practice also includes renaming poses in English (rather than using the original Sanskrit terms), and abandoning involved Hindu mantras as well as the philosophy of Yoga; Yoga is associated and reframed into Christianity. This has drawn charges of cultural appropriation from various Hindu groups; scholars remain skeptical. Previously, the Roman Catholic Church, and some other Christian organizations have expressed concerns and disapproval with respect to some eastern and New Age practices that include yoga and meditation.
In 1989 and 2003, the Vatican issued two documents: Aspects of Christian meditation and "A Christian reflection on the New Age," that were mostly critical of eastern and New Age practices. The 2003 document was published as a 90-page handbook detailing the Vatican's position. The Vatican warned that concentration on the physical aspects of meditation "can degenerate into a cult of the body" and that equating bodily states with mysticism "could also lead to psychic disturbance and, at times, to moral deviations." Such has been compared to the early days of Christianity, when the church opposed the gnostics' belief that salvation came not through faith but through mystical inner knowledge. The letter also says, "one can see if and how [prayer] might be enriched by meditation methods developed in other religions and cultures" but maintains the idea that "there must be some fit between the nature of [other approaches to] prayer and Christian beliefs about ultimate reality." Some fundamentalist Christian organizations consider yoga to be incompatible with their religious background, considering it a part of the New Age movement inconsistent with Christianity.
### Islam
Early-11th-century Persian scholar Al-Biruni visited India, lived with Hindus for 16 years, and (with their help) translated several Sanskrit works into Arabic and Persian; one of these was Patanjali's Yoga Sutras. Although Al-Biruni's translation preserved many core themes of Patañjali's yoga philosophy, some sutras and commentaries were restated for consistency with monotheistic Islamic theology. Al-Biruni's version of the Yoga Sutras reached Persia and the Arabian Peninsula by about 1050. During the 16th century, the hatha yoga text Amritakunda'' was translated into Arabic and Persian. Yoga was, however, not accepted by mainstream Sunni and Shia Islam. Minority Islamic sects such as the mystic Sufi movement, particularly in South Asia, adopted Indian yoga postures and breath control. Muhammad Ghawth, a 16th-century Shattari Sufi and translator of yoga text, was criticized for his interest in yoga and persecuted for his Sufi beliefs.
Malaysia's top Islamic body imposed a legally-enforceable 2008 fatwa prohibiting Muslims from practicing yoga, saying that it had elements of Hinduism and its practice was haram as blasphemy. Malaysian Muslims who had been practicing yoga for years called the decision "insulting." Sisters in Islam, a Malaysian women's-rights group, expressed disappointment and said that yoga was a form of exercise. Malaysia's prime minister clarified that yoga as exercise is permissible, but the chanting of religious mantras is not.
The Indonesian Ulema Council (MUI) imposed a 2009 fatwa banning yoga because it contains Hindu elements. These fatwas have been criticized by Darul Uloom Deoband, a Deobandi Islamic seminary in India. Similar fatwas banning yoga for its link to Hinduism were imposed by Grand Mufti Ali Gomaa in Egypt in 2004, and by Islamic clerics in Singapore earlier.
According to Iran's yoga association, the country had about 200 yoga centres in May 2014. One-quarter were in the capital, Tehran, where groups could be seen practising in parks; conservatives were opposed. In May 2009, Turkish Directorate of Religious Affairs head Ali Bardakoğlu discounted personal-development techniques such as reiki and yoga as commercial ventures which could lead to extremism. According to Bardakoğlu, reiki and yoga could be a form of proselytizing at the expense of Islam. Nouf Marwaai brought yoga to Saudi Arabia in 2017, contributing to making it legal and recognized despite being allegedly threatened by her community who asserts yoga as "un-Islamic".
## See also
- List of asanas
- Modern yoga gurus
- List of yoga schools
- Sun Salutation
- Yoga tourism
- Yogis
|
8,378,133 |
Look at Your Game, Girl
| 1,170,048,859 |
1970 song by Charles Manson
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[
"1970 songs",
"1970s ballads",
"1993 songs",
"American folk rock songs",
"Folk ballads",
"Guns N' Roses songs",
"Lounge music",
"Obscenity controversies in music",
"Psychedelic folk songs",
"Rock ballads",
"Songs about mental health",
"Songs involved in royalties controversies",
"Songs written by Charles Manson"
] |
"Look at Your Game, Girl" is a song written by Charles Manson. It was first released under the artist name "Silverhorn" (backed with another Manson song "Eyes Of A Dreamer") as a private press 45 rpm single on the "Insane Train" label. It was later included on his album Lie: The Love and Terror Cult (1970). A folk rock and psychedelic folk ballad about a confused young woman, the song was included on a tape that Manson sent to record companies. His version of the song received mostly positive reviews from critics, who felt that the track had musical merit and drew connections between its lyrics and the ways in which Manson manipulated his followers.
After Axl Rose was introduced to Lie: The Love and Terror Cult, Guns N' Roses released a cover of "Look at Your Game, Girl" on their album "The Spaghetti Incident?" (1993). The Guns N' Roses version of the song is a lounge music ballad with acoustic guitar and congas in its instrumentation that features elements of Brazilian and Caribbean music. The band's cover of the track was negatively reviewed by critics, who felt it was in poor taste. Guns N' Roses' decision to cover the song sparked considerable controversy, as some worried that Manson could profit off the song. Ultimately, Manson's royalties from the cover were assigned to Bartek Frykowski, the son of Manson victim Voytek Frykowski, and the controversy did not hurt sales of "The Spaghetti Incident?".
## Background and composition
"Look at Your Game, Girl" was written in 1968 in the hopes that it would help Manson to get a record contract. The song is a folk rock and psychedelic folk song with a length of two minutes. It is a mid-tempo ballad, and, like all of the songs on Lie: The Love and Terror Cult, a demo. Manson sings: "Think you're loving baby, but all you're doing is crying... Are those feelings real?"; the track is about an insane woman who is playing a "mad game" and, in searching for love, has only found sadness.
According to Alex Henderson of AllMusic, "Look at Your Game, Girl" "embodies Manson's fundamental approach to influencing young women by targeting their socially imposed hang-ups and implying that his way is better and more liberating. This is problematic considering his remarkable knack for mind control." Manson generally took influence from figures such as The Beatles, Robert A. Heinlein, and L. Ron Hubbard. Discussing Manson's music, Mark Savage of BBC News deemed his guitar playing "basic" and his lyrics "disorganized".
Manson recorded a still-unreleased runthrough of "Look at Your Game, Girl" on the same eight-track tape that The Beach Boys used for the 20/20 outtake "Well You Know I Knew". A different recording of the song was included on a tape that Manson sent to record companies, after he was jailed for committing the Tate murders in 1969, that tape was commercially released as Lie in 1970 by Manson's former roommate Phil Kaufman, and copyrighted by Awareness Records.
## Critical reception
Alexis Petridis of The Guardian wrote that "If you could make a vague and far from watertight claim for a couple of the songs Manson recorded prior to the murders having some musical value – not least Look at Your Game, Girl – there is absolutely nothing worth hearing in [Manson's] subsequent recordings." All About Jazz's Raul D'Gama Rose deemed "Look at Your Game, Girl" an "iconic" song which has "stood up to the test of time." Chris Yates of Noisey said that "The song is a semi-interesting folk rock anomaly, although obviously one that would have disappeared into oblivion if not for its author." Yates found it superior to the music made by cult leaders David Koresh and Jim Jones. Writing for GQ, Jeff Vrabel called the track a "Manson-penned banger" while TeamRock's Howard Johnson viewed the song as "surprisingly tender". Mark Savage of BBC News said that Manson's music is "not very good" but that the lyrics of "Look at Your Game, Girl" "[paint] an eerily accurate picture of the methods he used to manipulate the members of his cult." Eduardo Rivadavia of Ultimate Classic Rock viewed the song as a "psychedelic relic".
## Guns N' Roses version
### Background and composition
There are conflicting accounts of how Axl Rose was first exposed to "Look at Your Game, Girl". Rose himself claimed that he was introduced to the track by his brother during a game of musical trivia. Marilyn Manson discussed meeting Rose in his autobiography, The Long Hard Road Out of Hell (1998). According to the autobiography, Trent Reznor of Nine Inch Nails took Manson to a U2 concert where he met Rose backstage; there, Manson mentioned his song "My Monkey", which incorporates lyrics from Lie: The Love and Terror Cult. Rose commented that he had never heard of Lie, and Manson encouraged him to listen to it. Six months later, Rose's band Guns N' Roses released a cover of "Look at Your Game, Girl" on "The Spaghetti Incident?" (1993), a cover album of punk rock songs. Marilyn Manson later expressed anger that it had become "trendy" for musicians to reference Charles Manson in their music. Around the same time that Guns N' Roses covered "Look at Your Game, Girl", Rose wore a shirt depicting Charles Manson alongside the words "Charlie don't surf".
Rose said that upon hearing "Look at Your Game, Girl" "I liked the lyrics and the melody. Hearing it shocked me, and I thought there might be other people who would like to hear it." Rose also "felt that it was ironic that such a song [about insanity] was recorded by Charles Manson, someone who should know the inner intricacies of madness." The song was released upon Rose's demand, despite protest from his bandmates. Rose along with Dizzy Reed (on percussion) are the only members of Guns N' Roses to perform on the track, with the acoustic guitar played by Carlos Booy. Guns N' Roses' cover is a lounge music ballad with elements of Brazilian music and Caribbean music, as well as congas in its instrumentation. Geoffrey Himes of Paste deemed the song "breezy" while Bryan Rolli of Billboard called it "sprightly".
Rose's vocals on the track are nasal. According to Himes of Paste, Guns N' Roses' version does not substantially alter Charles Manson's original. The cover ends with Rose saying "Thanks, Chas". The song was released as a hidden track on the album and Manson is never mentioned on the album's packaging. On the album, "Look at Your Game, Girl" begins after twelve seconds of silence following the preceding track, "I Don't Care About You". The band's publicist Bryn Bridenthal claimed that the band's decision to cover a Manson track was not meant to be a publicity stunt, while Slash said the cover was done in a spirit of "naive and innocent black humour". Nick Kent of The Guardian reported that the track was intended as a message to Rose's ex-girlfriend Stephanie Seymour.
### Critical reception and controversy
Rolling Stone's Elisabeth Garber-Paul wrote that the "straightforward cover" is "a rather unimpressive track on first listen", adding that it sounds like "a half-assed attempt at seducing a woman...until you realize that the guy who wrote it led a female-heavy cult." In his review of "The Spaghetti Incident?", Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic said that "the tacked-on Charles Manson song leaves a bad aftertaste, but not because of the song itself; the inclusion of the song seems like a publicity-seeking stunt, a way to increase their sales while trying to regain their street credibility. And as The Spaghetti Incident? proves, they didn't need to stoop so low."
Alexis Petridis of The Guardian wrote that Guns N' Roses' cover and other references to Manson by musicians are "an exercise in button-pushing, an increasingly hackneyed, cliched shortcut to suggest the artist involved is dangerous and unbiddable, an outlaw who defies conventional mores" and "frequently seem to be done without any real thought as to what exactly the artist is aligning themselves with". Eduardo Rivadavia of Ultimate Classic Rock deemed the cover the single worst song of the band's career, dismissing it as "a forced attempt to underscore their 'most dangerous band in the world' reputation." Conversely, the staff of Spin called the song "Legitimately Kind of Good" and superior to "Paradise City" (1987), though they were sickened by the track's origins.
According to Christopher R. Weingarten of Rolling Stone, "Covering a notorious murder-conspirator would be one of the last big controversies in the band's original run." J. D. Considine wrote in The Baltimore Sun that "the album had barely been in record stores a week before law-enforcement and victims-rights groups began expressing outrage." Patti Tate, daughter of Doris Tate and sister of Sharon Tate, responded to the cover by saying "Doesn't Axl Rose realize what this man did to my family? It really hurts and angers me that Guns N' Roses would exploit the murders of my sister and others for capital gain." Jesse McKinley of The New York Times reported that Manson could earn up to \$60,000 for every million copies of "The Spaghetti Incident?" that were sold, while the California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation said the figure was \$62,000 for every million copies of the album sold. David Geffen, the head of Geffen Records, the label which released "The Spaghetti Incident?", commented: "The fact that Charles Manson would be earning money from the fame he derived committing one of the most horrific crimes of the 20th century is unthinkable to me"; Geffen had been acquainted with two of the Manson Family's victims.
To counter claims that he was glorifying Manson, Rose said that "I'm by no means a Manson expert or anything, but the things he's done are something I don't believe in. He's a sick individual." Rose also claimed that he initially believed that Dennis Wilson, a Beach Boy and former acquaintance of Manson's, authored the song. McKinley of The New York Times found Roses' claim dubious, as Rose thanks "Chas" on the cover. The band considered removing the track from subsequent copies of "The Spaghetti Incident?". Manson's share of the royalties was assigned to Bartek Frykowski, the son of Manson victim Voytek Frykowski. Bartek Frykowski, whose children were fans of the band, commented that "Even though this new situation cannot change the past, my hope is that something positive will emerge for the future." He viewed the band's decision to cover a Manson track and the fallout from it as "a bizarre chain of events". J. D. Considine of The Baltimore Sun noted that the controversy did not hinder the sales of "The Spaghetti Incident?". The controversy led representatives of Nothing Records to tell Marilyn Manson that the label would not release "My Monkey", though they later changed their minds and released the song.
## See also
- "Never Learn Not to Love"
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Personal relationships of Paul McCartney
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Engagements and marriages of the English musician
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The relationships of the English musician Paul McCartney include engagements to Dot Rhone and actress Jane Asher, and marriages to Linda Eastman, Heather Mills, and Nancy Shevell.
McCartney had a three-year relationship with Dot Rhone in Liverpool, and bought her a gold ring in Hamburg after she became pregnant in 1960 and they were to be married. However, she miscarried and they did not marry, but stayed together until the autumn of 1962. In London, McCartney had a five-year relationship with Asher after they met in April 1963 and lived in her parents' house for three years. He wrote several songs at the Ashers' house, including "Yesterday". Asher inspired other songs, such as "And I Love Her", "You Won't See Me", and "I'm Looking Through You". On 25 December 1967, they announced their engagement, but they separated in July 1968.
McCartney met the American photographer Linda Eastman in The Bag O’ Nails club in London on 15 May 1967, while still with Asher. They met again at the launch party for the Beatles' Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band on 19 May 1967. In May 1968, McCartney met Eastman again in New York, and they were married on 12 March 1969. They had three children together and remained married until her death from breast cancer in 1998.
McCartney appeared publicly beside Heather Mills at a party in January 2000 to celebrate her 32nd birthday. On 11 June 2002, they were married at Castle Leslie in Glaslough, Ireland. They had one child, Beatrice, in 2003 but were living apart by May 2006. In July 2006, British newspapers announced that McCartney had petitioned for divorce. On 17 March 2008, the financial terms of the divorce were finalised, which awarded Mills £24.3 million (\$38.5 million). In November 2007, McCartney started dating Nancy Shevell, who was a member of the board of the New York Metropolitan Transportation Authority and is vice president of the family-owned New England Motor Freight. It was announced on 6 May 2011, that the two had become engaged, and they married in London on 9 October 2011.
## Jim and Mary McCartney
With encouragement from his father, Jim, Paul started playing the family piano and wrote "When I'm Sixty-Four" on it. Jim advised Paul to take some music lessons, which he did, but soon realised that he preferred to learn 'by ear' (as his father had done) and because he never paid attention in music classes. After Paul and brother Michael (stage name Mike McGear) became interested in music, Jim connected the radio in the living room to extension cords connected to two pairs of Bakelite headphones so that they could listen to Radio Luxembourg at night when they were in bed.
After first meeting John Lennon, Jim warned Paul that John would get him "into trouble", although he later allowed The Quarrymen to rehearse in the dining room at Forthlin Road in the evenings. Jim was reluctant to let the teenage Paul go to Hamburg with the Beatles until Paul said the group would earn £15 per week each (). As this was more than he earned himself, Jim finally agreed, but only after a visit from the group's then-manager, Allan Williams, who said that Jim should not worry. Bill Harry recalled that Jim was probably "the Beatles' biggest fan", and was extremely proud of Paul's success. Shelagh Johnson—later to become director of the Beatles' Museum in Liverpool—said that Jim's outward show of pride embarrassed his son. Jim enlisted Michael's help when sorting through the ever-increasing sacks of fan letters that were delivered to Forthlin Road, with both composing "personal" responses that were supposedly from Paul. Michael later succeeded on his own with the group the Scaffold.
## Jim, Angie and Ruth McCartney
In 1963, a family friend introduced Jim to a young widow, Angie, and her infant daughter Ruth. He soon proposed marriage and Angie readily accepted. Paul, who was in London at the time, was informed by telephone of her acceptance and a few hours later he arrived at the Cheshire home he had gifted to his father. He and his brother Michael both approved of their future stepmother and they soon got married over the border in Wales in 1964. Jim went on to adopt Ruth.
Twelve years later on 18 March 1976, Jim (whose health had recently deteriorated) died while Paul and Linda were performing abroad with Wings; they decided not to attend the family funeral, which kept Jim's death and funeral away from the media. Relations with Angie were to cool. Angie moved to London and, after a failed business attempt, moved with Ruth to Playa del Rey, Los Angeles in 1990, where they started a successful website design venture and Tea and Wine companies.
### Songs
Paul wrote "I Lost My Little Girl" just after Mary had died, and explained that it was a subconscious reference to his late mother. He has speculated that he subconsciously wrote the song "Yesterday" about his mother as well. He also wrote "Golden Slumbers" at his father's house in Heswall, and said the lyrics were taken from Ruth McCartney's sheet-music copy of Thomas Dekker's lullaby—also called "Golden Slumbers"—that Ruth had left on the piano at Rembrandt. Hunter Davies, who was at Jim's house at the time doing an interview for his Beatles' biography, remembered Jim listening to an acetate disc of "When I'm Sixty-Four". Davies wrote that Paul originally wrote the song specifically for his younger father and then recorded it, as Jim was by then 64 years old and had remarried two years previously. Paul wrote "Let It Be", because of a dream he had in 1968. He said that he had dreamt of his mother, and the "Mother Mary" lyric was about her. He later said, "It was great to visit with her again. I felt very blessed to have that dream. So that got me writing 'Let It Be'."
In 1974, Paul recorded a song his father had previously written, entitled "Walking in the Park with Eloise", which was released by Wings under the pseudonym, "The Country Hams". The Country Hams' single was backed with a tune entitled "Bridge on the River Suite". Both songs can be found on the CD Venus and Mars from The Paul McCartney Collection.
## Early relationships
One of McCartney's first girlfriends, in 1957, was called Layla, a name he remembered as being unusual in Liverpool at the time. She was slightly older than McCartney and used to ask him to baby-sit with her. Julie Arthur, another girlfriend, was Ted Ray's niece.
McCartney's first serious girlfriend in Liverpool was seventeen-year-old Dorothy "Dot" Rhone (a bank clerk or a cashier at a chemist's, according to varying accounts), whom he had met at The Casbah Club in 1959. McCartney picked out the clothes he liked Rhone to wear and told her which make-up to use, also paying for her to have her blonde hair done in the style of Brigitte Bardot, whom both he and John Lennon idolised. He disliked Rhone seeing her friends, and stopped her from smoking, even though he did so himself. When McCartney first went to Hamburg with The Beatles, he wrote regular letters to Rhone, and she accompanied Lennon's girlfriend, Cynthia Powell, to Hamburg when the group played there again in 1962. According to Rhone, McCartney bought her a gold ring in Hamburg, a leather skirt, took her sightseeing, and was very attentive and caring. For the time Rhone was there, the couple lived in a bungalow by the Hamburg docks that belonged to Rosa, a former cleaner at the Indra club. McCartney admitted that he had other girlfriends in Hamburg when Rhone was in Liverpool, admitting that they were usually strippers, who knew a lot more about sex than Liverpool girls.
Rhone later rented a room in the same house as Cynthia Lennon was living, with McCartney contributing to the rent. According to Mark Lewisohn's biography Tune In, Dot became pregnant in 1960, and Paul's father, Jim, while being shocked, was nonetheless rather pleased at the prospect of becoming a grandfather. They were to be married soon, but Dot had a miscarriage. She still wore the ring he gave her, and they stayed together until the autumn of 1962 when Paul broke up with her, knowing she'd eventually want to get married (John & Cynthia had recently married in August 1962 due to her pregnancy), and he didn't want to marry anyone at the time because was still only 20 years old.
He then had a brief relationship with Thelma Pickles, who had previously dated Lennon. She later married Liverpool poet Roger McGough, but she remembered McCartney as growing from a "plump young schoolboy into someone very much his own person" during their time together. McCartney also had a fiery on–off relationship with Iris Caldwell, the younger sister of singer Rory Storm, who refused to bow to McCartney's demands. After one argument, Caldwell poured a bowl of sugar over his head, but when McCartney turned up the next day, she had to phone her new boyfriend, George Harrison, to cancel their date.
Rhone later emigrated to Toronto, Canada, and McCartney met her again when the Beatles played there, and then again with Wings. Rhone later said that "Love of the Loved" and "P.S. I Love You" were written about her. Years later, Cynthia Lennon gave Rhone the gold ring that McCartney had bought Rhone, having once tried it on while Rhone was washing dishes, and forgotten to take it off. Rhone is now a grandmother and lives in Mississauga, Ontario.
## Asher and Eastman
McCartney first met British actress Jane Asher on 18 April 1963 when the Beatles performed at the Royal Albert Hall, in London, after a photographer asked them to pose with her. They were then interviewed by Asher for the BBC, with Asher being photographed screaming at them like a fan. McCartney soon met Asher's family: Margaret, her mother was a music teacher, and Asher's father Richard was a physician. Her brother, Peter, was a member of Peter and Gordon, and her younger sister, Clare, was also an actress. McCartney later gave "A World Without Love" to Peter and Gordon, as well as "Nobody I Know". Both songs were hits for the duo. McCartney took up residence at the Ashers' house at 57 Wimpole Street, London, and lived there for nearly three years. During his time there McCartney met writers such as Bertrand Russell, Harold Pinter, and Len Deighton. He wrote several songs at the Ashers', including "Yesterday", and worked on songs with Lennon in the basement music room. Asher inspired many songs, such as "And I Love Her", "You Won't See Me", and "I'm Looking Through You".
On 13 April 1965, McCartney bought a £40,000 three-storey Regency house at 7 Cavendish Avenue, St John's Wood, London, and spent a further £20,000 renovating it. He thanked the Ashers by paying for the decoration of the front of their house. On 15 May 1967, McCartney met American photographer Linda Eastman at a Georgie Fame concert at The Bag O'Nails in London. Eastman was in the UK on an assignment to take photographs of "swinging sixties" musicians in London. They met again four days later at the launch party for the Sgt. Pepper album at Beatles' manager Brian Epstein's house in Belgravia, but after her assignment was completed, she flew back to New York. On 25 December 1967, McCartney and Asher announced their engagement, and she accompanied McCartney to India in February and March 1968.
Asher broke off the engagement in the summer of 1968, apparently because of an alleged affair Paul was having. McCartney and Asher later attempted to mend their relationship, but finally broke up in July 1968. Asher has consistently refused to publicly discuss that part of her life.
## Marriage to Linda Eastman
In May 1968, McCartney met Linda Eastman again in New York when Lennon and McCartney were there to announce the formation of Apple Corps. In September, McCartney phoned her and asked her to fly over to London. Six months later they were married at a small civil ceremony, when Eastman was four months pregnant with their child, Mary McCartney, at Marylebone Town Hall on 12 March 1969. He later said that his wife was the woman who "gave me the strength and courage to work again", after the break-up of the Beatles. McCartney adopted her daughter from her first marriage, Heather, and had three children together: Mary, Stella, and James. McCartney taught Linda to play keyboards, and permanently included her in the line-up of Wings.
Linda died of breast cancer at age 56 in Tucson, Arizona on 17 April 1998; McCartney denied rumours that her death was an assisted suicide. Along with eight other British composers, he contributed to the choral album A Garland for Linda, and dedicated his classical album Ecce Cor Meum to his late wife. McCartney has said that he and Linda spent less than a week apart during their entire marriage, excluding McCartney's incarceration in Tokyo on drug charges in January 1980.
## Marriage to Heather Mills
After having sparked the interest of the tabloids about his appearances at events with former model, amputee, and campaigner against landmines Heather Mills, McCartney appeared publicly beside her at a party in January 2000 to celebrate her 32nd birthday. On 11 June 2002, McCartney married Mills in an elaborate ceremony at Castle Leslie in Glaslough, County Monaghan, Ireland, where more than 300 guests were invited; the reception included a vegetarian banquet. On 28 October 2003, Mills gave birth to Beatrice Milly McCartney. She was reportedly named after Mills' mother Beatrice, and McCartney's Aunt Milly.
On 29 July 2006, British newspapers announced that McCartney had petitioned for divorce, which sparked a media furore. On 17 March 2008, the financial terms of the divorce were finalised, with a settlement awarding Mills £24.3 million. The settlement stated that McCartney pay their four-year-old daughter Beatrice's nanny school fees as well as pay Beatrice £35,000 a year until she is 17, or when she ends her secondary education. After the divorce ruling, Justice Hugh Bennett said that, throughout the case, Mills was "inconsistent, inaccurate and less than candid" while McCartney was "honest." On 12 May 2008, Justice Bennett issued a decree nisi, which would become final after a period of six weeks.
## Marriage to Nancy Shevell
McCartney started dating Nancy Shevell in November 2007. Shevell is a cousin of the late journalist Barbara Walters. She was born in Edison, New Jersey, on 20 November 1959, and grew up there with her family.
She was a graduate of J. P. Stevens High School and Arizona State University, was a member of the board of the New York Metropolitan Transportation Authority as well as vice president of a family-owned transportation conglomerate that includes New England Motor Freight. She resigned from the MTA board in January 2012. It was announced on 6 May 2011 that the two had become engaged. On 9 October 2011, McCartney and Shevell were married at Marylebone Town Hall, where his first wedding took place in 1969. The couple attended Yom Kippur synagogue services prior to the wedding, with respect for Shevell's Jewish faith, but did not seek a religious blessing for their union. Upon their marriage, Shevell became Lady McCartney. McCartney wrote the song "My Valentine", from his 2012 album Kisses on the Bottom, about Shevell.
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Bill Clinton
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President of the United States from 1993 to 2001
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William Jefferson Clinton (né William Jefferson Blythe III; born August 19, 1946) is an American politician who served as the 42nd president of the United States from 1993 to 2001. A member of the Democratic Party, he previously served as governor of Arkansas from 1979 to 1981 and again from 1983 to 1992. Clinton, whose policies reflected a centrist "Third Way" political philosophy, became known as a New Democrat. He is the husband of Hillary Clinton, who was a U.S. senator from New York from 2001 to 2009, secretary of state from 2009 to 2013 and the Democratic nominee for president in 2016.
Clinton was born and raised in Arkansas and attended Georgetown University. He received a Rhodes Scholarship to study at University College, Oxford, and later graduated from Yale Law School. He met Hillary Rodham at Yale; they married in 1975. After graduating from law school, Clinton returned to Arkansas and won election as state attorney general, followed by two non-consecutive tenures as Arkansas governor. As governor, he overhauled the state's education system and served as chairman of the National Governors Association. Clinton was elected president in the 1992 presidential election, defeating incumbent Republican president George H. W. Bush and independent businessman Ross Perot. At 46 years old, he became the third-youngest president of the United States and the first president to be born in the Baby Boomer generation.
Clinton presided over the longest period of peacetime economic expansion in American history. He signed into law the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act, but failed to pass his plan for national health care reform. The Republican Party won unified control of Congress for the first time in 40 years in the 1994 elections, but Clinton was still comfortably re-elected president in 1996 against both Republican Bob Dole and Perot—now the Reform Party nominee—becoming the first Democrat since Franklin D. Roosevelt to win a second full term. Starting in the mid-1990s, he began an ideological evolution as he became much more conservative in his domestic policy, advocating for and signing the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act, the State Children's Health Insurance Program and financial deregulation measures. He appointed Ruth Bader Ginsburg and Stephen Breyer to the U.S. Supreme Court. During the last three years of Clinton's presidency, the Congressional Budget Office reported a budget surplus—the first such surplus since 1969. In foreign policy, Clinton ordered U.S. military intervention in the Bosnian and Kosovo wars, eventually signing the Dayton Peace agreement. He also called for the expansion of NATO in Eastern Europe and many former Warsaw Pact members joined NATO during his presidency. Clinton's foreign policy in the Middle East saw him sign the Iraq Liberation Act which gave aid to groups against Saddam Hussein. He also participated in the Oslo I Accord and Camp David Summit to advance the Israeli–Palestinian peace process, and assisted the Northern Ireland peace process.
Clinton's second term was dominated by the Clinton–Lewinsky scandal, which began in 1995, when he had a sexual relationship with 22-year-old White House intern Monica Lewinsky. In January 1998, news of the affair made tabloid headlines. This scandal escalated throughout the year, culminating on December 19 when Clinton was impeached by the House of Representatives, becoming the second U.S. president—the first since Andrew Johnson—to be impeached. The two impeachment articles that the House passed were centered around him using the powers of the presidency to obstruct the investigation and lying under oath. In 1999, Clinton's impeachment trial began in the Senate. He was acquitted on both charges as the Senate failed to cast 67 votes against him, which was necessary to meet the two-thirds conviction threshold prescribed by the U.S. Constitution.
Clinton left office in 2001 with the joint-highest approval rating of any U.S. president in the modern era, alongside Franklin D. Roosevelt and Ronald Reagan. His presidency ranks among the middle to upper tier in historical rankings of U.S. presidents. However, his personal conduct and allegations of sexual assault have made him the subject of substantial scrutiny. Since leaving office, Clinton has been involved in public speaking and humanitarian work. He created the Clinton Foundation to address international causes such as the prevention of HIV/AIDS and global warming. In 2009, he was named the United Nations Special Envoy to Haiti. After the 2010 Haiti earthquake, Clinton and George W. Bush formed the Clinton Bush Haiti Fund. He has remained active in Democratic Party politics, campaigning for his wife's 2008 and 2016 presidential campaigns.
## Early life and career
Clinton was born William Jefferson Blythe III on August 19, 1946, at Julia Chester Hospital in Hope, Arkansas. He is the son of William Jefferson Blythe Jr., a traveling salesman who died in an automobile accident three months before his birth, and Virginia Dell Cassidy (later Virginia Kelley). His parents had married on September 4, 1943, but this union later proved to be bigamous, as Blythe was still married to his fourth wife. Virginia traveled to New Orleans to study nursing soon after Bill was born, leaving him in Hope with her parents Eldridge and Edith Cassidy, who owned and ran a small grocery store. At a time when the southern United States was racially segregated, Clinton's grandparents sold goods on credit to people of all races. In 1950, Bill's mother returned from nursing school and married Roger Clinton Sr., who co-owned an automobile dealership in Hot Springs, Arkansas, with his brother and Earl T. Ricks. The family moved to Hot Springs in 1950.
Although he immediately assumed use of his stepfather's surname, it was not until Clinton turned 15 that he formally adopted the surname Clinton as a gesture toward him. Clinton has described his stepfather as a gambler and an alcoholic who regularly abused his mother and half-brother, Roger Clinton Jr. The physical abuse only ceased after a then-14-year-old Bill challenged his stepfather to "stand and face" him, though the verbal/emotional abuse continued. Bill would eventually forgive Roger Sr. for his abusive actions near the latter's death.
In Hot Springs, Clinton attended St. John's Catholic Elementary School, Ramble Elementary School, and the segregated Hot Springs High School, where he was an active student leader, avid reader, and musician. Clinton was in the chorus and played the tenor saxophone, winning first chair in the state band's saxophone section. In 1961, Clinton became a member of the Hot Springs Chapter of the Order of DeMolay, a youth group affiliated with Freemasonry, but he never became a Freemason. He briefly considered dedicating his life to music, but as he noted in his autobiography My Life:
Clinton began an interest in law at Hot Springs High, when he took up the challenge to argue the defense of the ancient Roman senator Catiline in a mock trial in his Latin class. After a vigorous defense that made use of his "budding rhetorical and political skills", he told the Latin teacher Elizabeth Buck it "made him realize that someday he would study law".
Clinton has identified two influential moments in his life, both occurring in 1963, that contributed to his decision to become a public figure. One was his visit as a Boys Nation senator to the White House to meet President John F. Kennedy. The other was watching Martin Luther King Jr.'s 1963 "I Have a Dream" speech on TV, which impressed him so much that he later memorized it.
## College and law school years
### Georgetown University
With the aid of scholarships, Clinton attended the School of Foreign Service at Georgetown University in Washington, D.C., receiving a bachelor of science in foreign service degree in 1968. Georgetown was the only school where Clinton applied.
In 1964 and 1965, Clinton won elections for class president. From 1964 to 1967, he was an intern and then a clerk in the office of Arkansas Senator J. William Fulbright. While in college, he became a brother of service fraternity Alpha Phi Omega and was elected to Phi Beta Kappa. He is a member of Kappa Kappa Psi honorary band fraternity.
### Oxford
Upon graduating from Georgetown in 1968, Clinton won a Rhodes Scholarship to University College, Oxford, where he initially read for a B.Phil. in philosophy, politics, and economics but transferred to a B.Litt. in politics and, ultimately, a B.Phil. in politics. Clinton did not expect to return for the second year because of the draft and so he switched programs; this type of activity was common among other Rhodes Scholars from his cohort. He had received an offer to study at Yale Law School, and so he left early to return to the United States and did not receive a degree from Oxford.
During his time at Oxford, Clinton befriended fellow American Rhodes Scholar Frank Aller. In 1969, Aller received a draft letter that mandated deployment to the Vietnam War. Aller's 1971 suicide had an influential impact on Clinton. British writer and feminist Sara Maitland said of Clinton, "I remember Bill and Frank Aller taking me to a pub in Walton Street in the summer term of 1969 and talking to me about the Vietnam War. I knew nothing about it, and when Frank began to describe the napalming of civilians I began to cry. Bill said that feeling bad wasn't good enough. That was the first time I encountered the idea that liberal sensitivities weren't enough and you had to do something about such things". Clinton was a member of the Oxford University Basketball Club and also played for Oxford University's rugby union team.
While Clinton was president in 1994, he received an honorary degree and a fellowship from the University of Oxford, specifically for being "a doughty and tireless champion of the cause of world peace", having "a powerful collaborator in his wife," and for winning "general applause for his achievement of resolving the gridlock that prevented an agreed budget".
### Vietnam War opposition and draft controversy
During the Vietnam War, Clinton received educational draft deferments while he was in England in 1968 and 1969. While at Oxford, he participated in Vietnam War protests and organized a Moratorium to End the War in Vietnam event in October 1969. He was planning to attend law school in the U.S. and knew he might lose his deferment. Clinton tried unsuccessfully to obtain positions in the National Guard and the Air Force officer candidate school, and he then made arrangements to join the Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC) program at the University of Arkansas.
He subsequently decided not to join the ROTC, saying in a letter to the officer in charge of the program that he opposed the war, but did not think it was honorable to use ROTC, National Guard, or Reserve service to avoid serving in Vietnam. He further stated that because he opposed the war, he would not volunteer to serve in uniform, but would subject himself to the draft, and would serve if selected only as a way "to maintain my political viability within the system". Clinton registered for the draft and received a high number (311), meaning that those whose birthdays had been drawn as numbers 1 to 310 would be drafted before him, making it unlikely he would be called up. (In fact, the highest number drafted was 195.)
Colonel Eugene Holmes, the Army officer who had been involved with Clinton's ROTC application, suspected that Clinton attempted to manipulate the situation to avoid the draft and avoid serving in uniform. He issued a notarized statement during the 1992 presidential campaign:
During the 1992 campaign, it was revealed that Clinton's uncle had attempted to secure him a position in the Navy Reserve, which would have prevented him from being deployed to Vietnam. This effort was unsuccessful and Clinton said in 1992 that he had been unaware of it until then. Although legal, Clinton's actions with respect to the draft and deciding whether to serve in the military were criticized during his first presidential campaign by conservatives and some Vietnam veterans, some of whom charged that he had used Fulbright's influence to avoid military service. Clinton's 1992 campaign manager, James Carville, successfully argued that Clinton's letter in which he declined to join the ROTC should be made public, insisting that voters, many of whom had also opposed the Vietnam War, would understand and appreciate his position.
### Law school
After Oxford, Clinton attended Yale Law School and earned a Juris Doctor (J.D.) degree in 1973. In 1971, he met his future wife, Hillary Rodham, in the Yale Law Library; she was a class year ahead of him. They began dating and were soon inseparable. After only about a month, Clinton postponed his summer plans to be a coordinator for the George McGovern campaign for the 1972 United States presidential election in order to move in with her in California. The couple continued living together in New Haven when they returned to law school.
Clinton eventually moved to Texas with Rodham in 1972 to take a job leading McGovern's effort there. He spent considerable time in Dallas, at the campaign's local headquarters on Lemmon Avenue, where he had an office. Clinton worked with future two-term mayor of Dallas Ron Kirk, future governor of Texas Ann Richards, and then unknown television director and filmmaker Steven Spielberg.
## Failed congressional campaign and tenure as Attorney General of Arkansas
After graduating from Yale Law School, Clinton returned to Arkansas and became a law professor (teacher) at the University of Arkansas. In 1974, he ran for the House of Representatives. Running in the conservative 3rd district against incumbent Republican John Paul Hammerschmidt, Clinton's campaign was bolstered by the anti-Republican and anti-incumbent mood resulting from the Watergate scandal. Hammerschmidt, who had received 77 percent of the vote in 1972, defeated Clinton by only a 52 percent to 48 percent margin. In 1976, Clinton ran for Arkansas attorney general. Defeating the secretary of state and the deputy attorney general in the Democratic primary, Clinton was elected with no opposition at all in the general election, as no Republican had run for the office.
## Governor of Arkansas (1979–1981, 1983–1992)
In 1978, Clinton entered the Arkansas gubernatorial primary. At just 31 years old, he was one of the youngest gubernatorial candidates in the state's history. Clinton was elected governor of Arkansas in 1978, having defeated the Republican candidate Lynn Lowe, a farmer from Texarkana. Clinton was only 32 years old when he took office, the youngest governor in the country at the time and the second youngest governor in the history of Arkansas. Due to his youthful appearance, Clinton was often called the "Boy Governor". He worked on educational reform and directed the maintenance of Arkansas's roads, with wife Hillary leading a successful committee on urban health care reform. However, his term included an unpopular motor vehicle tax and citizens' anger over the escape of Cuban refugees (from the Mariel boatlift) detained in Fort Chaffee in 1980. Monroe Schwarzlose, of Kingsland in Cleveland County, polled 31 percent of the vote against Clinton in the Democratic gubernatorial primary of 1980. Some suggested Schwarzlose's unexpected voter turnout foreshadowed Clinton's defeat by Republican challenger Frank D. White in the general election that year. As Clinton once joked, he was the youngest ex-governor in the nation's history.
Clinton joined friend Bruce Lindsey's Little Rock law firm of Wright, Lindsey and Jennings. In 1982, he was elected governor a second time and kept the office for ten years. Effective with the 1986 election, Arkansas had changed its gubernatorial term of office from two to four years. During his term, he helped transform Arkansas's economy and improved the state's educational system. For senior citizens, he removed the sales tax from medications and increased the home property-tax exemption. He became a leading figure among the New Democrats, a group of Democrats who advocated welfare reform, smaller government, and other policies not supported by liberals. Formally organized as the Democratic Leadership Council (DLC), the New Democrats argued that in light of President Ronald Reagan's landslide victory in 1984, the Democratic Party needed to adopt a more centrist political stance in order to succeed at the national level. Clinton delivered the Democratic response to Reagan's 1985 State of the Union Address and served as chair of the National Governors Association from 1986 to 1987, bringing him to an audience beyond Arkansas.
In the early 1980s, Clinton made reform of the Arkansas education system a top priority of his gubernatorial administration. The Arkansas Education Standards Committee was chaired by Clinton's wife Hillary, who was also an attorney as well as the chair of the Legal Services Corporation. The committee transformed Arkansas's education system. Proposed reforms included more spending for schools (supported by a sales-tax increase), better opportunities for gifted children, vocational education, higher teachers' salaries, more course variety, and compulsory teacher competency exams. The reforms passed in September 1983 after Clinton called a special legislative session—the longest in Arkansas history. Many have considered this the greatest achievement of the Clinton governorship. He defeated four Republican candidates for governor: Lowe (1978), White (1982 and 1986), Jonesboro businessmen Woody Freeman (1984), and Sheffield Nelson of Little Rock (1990).
Also in the 1980s, the Clintons' personal and business affairs included transactions that became the basis of the Whitewater controversy investigation, which later dogged his presidential administration. After extensive investigation over several years, no indictments were made against the Clintons related to the years in Arkansas.
According to some sources, Clinton was a death penalty opponent in his early years, but he eventually switched positions. However he might have felt previously, by 1992, Clinton was insisting that Democrats "should no longer feel guilty about protecting the innocent". During Clinton's final term as governor, Arkansas performed its first executions since 1964 (the death penalty had been reinstated in 1976). As Governor, he oversaw the first four executions carried out by the state of Arkansas since the death penalty was reinstated there in 1976: one by electric chair and three by lethal injection. To draw attention to his stance on capital punishment, Clinton flew home to Arkansas mid-campaign in 1992, in order to affirm in person that the controversial execution of Ricky Ray Rector, would go forward as scheduled.
### 1988 Democratic presidential primaries
In 1987, the media speculated that Clinton would enter the presidential race after incumbent New York governor Mario Cuomo declined to run and Democratic front-runner Gary Hart withdrew owing to revelations of multiple marital infidelities. Clinton decided to remain as Arkansas governor (following consideration for the potential candidacy of Hillary for governor, initially favored—but ultimately vetoed—by the First Lady). For the nomination, Clinton endorsed Massachusetts governor Michael Dukakis. He gave the nationally televised opening night address at the 1988 Democratic National Convention, but his speech, which was 33 minutes long and twice the length it was expected to be, was criticized for being too long and poorly delivered. Clinton presented himself both as a moderate and as a member of the New Democrat wing of the Democratic Party, and he headed the moderate Democratic Leadership Council in 1990 and 1991.
### 1992 United States presidential election
In the first primary contest, the Iowa Caucus, Clinton finished a distant third to Iowa senator Tom Harkin. During the campaign for the New Hampshire primary, reports surfaced that Clinton had engaged in an extramarital affair with Gennifer Flowers. Clinton fell far behind former Massachusetts senator Paul Tsongas in the New Hampshire polls. Following Super Bowl XXVI, Clinton and his wife Hillary went on 60 Minutes to rebuff the charges. Their television appearance was a calculated risk, but Clinton regained several delegates. He finished second to Tsongas in the New Hampshire primary, but after trailing badly in the polls and coming within single digits of winning, the media viewed it as a victory. News outlets labeled him "The Comeback Kid" for earning a firm second-place finish.
Winning the big prizes of Florida and Texas and many of the Southern primaries on Super Tuesday gave Clinton a sizable delegate lead. However, former California governor Jerry Brown was scoring victories and Clinton had yet to win a significant contest outside his native South. With no major Southern state remaining, Clinton targeted New York, which had many delegates. He scored a resounding victory in New York City, shedding his image as a regional candidate. Having been transformed into the consensus candidate, he secured the Democratic Party nomination, finishing with a victory in Jerry Brown's home state of California.
During the campaign, questions of conflict of interest regarding state business and the politically powerful Rose Law Firm, at which Hillary Rodham Clinton was a partner, arose. Clinton argued the questions were moot because all transactions with the state had been deducted before determining Hillary's firm pay. Further concern arose when Bill Clinton announced that, with Hillary, voters would be getting two presidents "for the price of one".
Clinton was still the governor of Arkansas while campaigning for U.S. president, and he returned to his home state to see that Ricky Ray Rector would be executed. After killing a police officer and a civilian, Rector shot himself in the head, leading to what his lawyers said was a state where he could still talk but did not understand the idea of death. According to both Arkansas state law and federal law, a seriously mentally impaired inmate cannot be executed. The courts disagreed with the allegation of grave mental impairment and allowed the execution. Clinton's return to Arkansas for the execution was framed in an article for The New York Times as a possible political move to counter "soft on crime" accusations.
Bush's approval ratings were around 80 percent during the Gulf War, and he was described as unbeatable. When Bush compromised with Democrats to try to lower federal deficits, he reneged on his promise not to raise taxes, which hurt his approval rating. Clinton repeatedly condemned Bush for making a promise he failed to keep. By election time, the economy was souring and Bush saw his approval rating plummet to just slightly over 40 percent. Finally, conservatives were previously united by anti-communism, but with the end of the Cold War, the party lacked a uniting issue. When Pat Buchanan and Pat Robertson addressed Christian themes at the Republican National Convention—with Bush criticizing Democrats for omitting God from their platform—many moderates were alienated. Clinton then pointed to his moderate, "New Democrat" record as governor of Arkansas, though some on the more liberal side of the party remained suspicious. Many Democrats who had supported Ronald Reagan and Bush in previous elections switched their support to Clinton. Clinton and his running mate, Al Gore, toured the country during the final weeks of the campaign, shoring up support and pledging a "new beginning".
On March 26, 1992, during a Democratic fund raiser of the presidential campaign, Robert Rafsky confronted then Gov. Bill Clinton of Arkansas and asked what he was going to do about AIDS, to which Clinton replied, "I feel your pain". The televised exchange led to AIDS becoming an issue in the 1992 presidential election. On April 4, then candidate Clinton met with members of ACT UP and other leading AIDS advocates to discuss his AIDS agenda and agreed to make a major AIDS policy speech, to have people with HIV speak to the Democratic Convention, and to sign onto the AIDS United Action five point plan.
Clinton won the 1992 presidential election (370 electoral votes) against Republican incumbent George H. W. Bush (168 electoral votes) and billionaire populist Ross Perot (zero electoral votes), who ran as an independent on a platform that focused on domestic issues. Bush's steep decline in public approval was a significant part of Clinton's success. Clinton's victory in the election ended twelve years of Republican rule of the White House and twenty of the previous twenty-four years. The election gave Democrats full control of the United States Congress, the first time one party controlled both the executive and legislative branches since Democrats held the 96th United States Congress during the presidency of Jimmy Carter.
According to Seymour Martin Lipset, the 1992 election had several unique characteristics. Voters felt that economic conditions were worse than they actually were, which harmed Bush. A rare event was the presence of a strong third-party candidate. Liberals launched a backlash against 12 years of a conservative White House. The chief factor was Clinton's uniting his party, and winning over a number of heterogeneous groups.
## Presidency (1993–2001)
Clinton's "third way" of moderate liberalism built up the nation's fiscal health and put the nation on a firm footing abroad amid globalization and the development of anti-American terrorist organizations.
During his presidency, Clinton advocated for a wide variety of legislation and programs, most of which were enacted into law or implemented by the executive branch. His policies, particularly the North American Free Trade Agreement and welfare reform, have been attributed to a centrist Third Way philosophy of governance. His policy of fiscal conservatism helped to reduce deficits on budgetary matters. Clinton presided over the longest period of peacetime economic expansion in American history.
The Congressional Budget Office reported budget surpluses of \$69 billion in 1998, \$126 billion in 1999, and \$236 billion in 2000, during the last three years of Clinton's presidency. Over the years of the recorded surplus, the gross national debt rose each year. At the end of the fiscal year (September 30) for each of the years a surplus was recorded, The U.S. treasury reported a gross debt of \$5.413 trillion in 1997, \$5.526 trillion in 1998, \$5.656 trillion in 1999, and \$5.674 trillion in 2000. Over the same period, the Office of Management and Budget reported an end of year (December 31) gross debt of \$5.369 trillion in 1997, \$5.478 trillion in 1998, \$5.606 in 1999, and \$5.629 trillion in 2000. At the end of his presidency, the Clintons moved to 15 Old House Lane in Chappaqua, New York, in order to quell political worries about his wife's residency for election as a U.S. Senator from New York.
### First term (1993–1997)
After his presidential transition, Clinton was inaugurated as the 42nd president of the United States on January 20, 1993. Clinton was physically exhausted at the time, and had an inexperienced staff. His high levels of public support dropped in the first few weeks, as he made a series of mistakes. His first choice for attorney general had not paid her taxes on babysitters and was forced to withdraw. The second appointee also withdrew for the same reason. Clinton had repeatedly promised to encourage gays in the military service, despite what he knew to be the strong opposition of the military leadership. He tried anyway, and was publicly opposed by the top generals, and forced by Congress to a compromise position of "Don't ask, don't tell" whereby gays could serve if and only if they kept it secret. He devised a \$16-billion stimulus package primarily to aid inner-city programs desired by liberals, but it was defeated by a Republican filibuster in the Senate. His popularity at the 100 day mark of his term was the lowest of any president at that point.
Public opinion did support one liberal program, and Clinton signed the Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993, which required large employers to allow employees to take unpaid leave for pregnancy or a serious medical condition. This action had bipartisan support, and was popular with the public.
Two days after taking office, on January 22, 1993—the 20th anniversary of the U.S. Supreme Court decision in Roe v. Wade—Clinton reversed restrictions on domestic and international family planning programs that had been imposed by Reagan and Bush. Clinton said abortion should be kept "safe, legal, and rare"—a slogan that had been suggested by political scientist Samuel L. Popkin and first used by Clinton in December 1991, while campaigning. During the eight years of the Clinton administration, the abortion rate declined by 18 percent.
On February 15, 1993, Clinton made his first address to the nation, announcing his plan to raise taxes to close a budget deficit. Two days later, in a nationally televised address to a joint session of Congress, Clinton unveiled his economic plan. The plan focused on reducing the deficit rather than on cutting taxes for the middle class, which had been high on his campaign agenda. Clinton's advisers pressured him to raise taxes, based on the theory that a smaller federal budget deficit would reduce bond interest rates.
President Clinton's attorney general Janet Reno authorized the FBI's use of armored vehicles to deploy tear gas into the buildings of the Branch Davidian community near Waco, Texas, in hopes of ending a 51 day siege. During the operation on April 19, 1993, the buildings caught fire and 75 of the residents died, including 24 children. The raid had originally been planned by the Bush administration; Clinton had played no role.
In August, Clinton signed the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1993, which passed Congress without a Republican vote. It cut taxes for 15 million low-income families, made tax cuts available to 90 percent of small businesses, and raised taxes on the wealthiest 1.2 percent of taxpayers. Additionally, it mandated that the budget be balanced over many years through the implementation of spending restraints.
On September 22, 1993, Clinton made a major speech to Congress regarding a health care reform plan; the program aimed at achieving universal coverage through a national health care plan. This was one of the most prominent items on Clinton's legislative agenda and resulted from a task force headed by Hillary Clinton. The plan was well received in political circles, but it was eventually doomed by well-organized lobby opposition from conservatives, the American Medical Association, and the health insurance industry. However, Clinton biographer John F. Harris said the program failed because of a lack of coordination within the White House. Despite the Democratic majority in Congress, the effort to create a national health care system ultimately died when compromise legislation by George J. Mitchell failed to gain a majority of support in August 1994. The failure of the bill was the first major legislative defeat of the Clinton administration.
On November 30, 1993, Clinton signed into law the Brady Bill, which mandated federal background checks on people who purchase firearms in the United States. The law also imposed a five-day waiting period on purchases, until the NICS system was implemented in 1998. He also expanded the Earned Income Tax Credit, a subsidy for low-income workers.
In December of the same year, allegations by Arkansas state troopers Larry Patterson and Roger Perry were first reported by David Brock in The American Spectator. In the affair later known as "Troopergate", the officers alleged that they had arranged sexual liaisons for Clinton back when he was governor of Arkansas. The story mentioned a woman named Paula, a reference to Paula Jones. Brock later apologized to Clinton, saying the article was politically motivated "bad journalism", and that "the troopers were greedy and had slimy motives".
That month, Clinton implemented a Department of Defense directive known as "Don't Ask, Don't Tell", which allowed gay men and women to serve in the armed services provided they kept their sexual preferences a secret. The Act forbade the military from inquiring about an individual's sexual orientation. The policy was developed as a compromise after Clinton's proposal to allow gays to serve openly in the military met staunch opposition from prominent Congressional Republicans and Democrats, including senators John McCain (R-AZ) and Sam Nunn (D-GA). According to David Mixner, Clinton's support for the compromise led to a heated dispute with Vice President Al Gore, who felt that "the President should lift the ban ... even though [his executive order] was sure to be overridden by the Congress". Some gay-rights advocates criticized Clinton for not going far enough and accused him of making his campaign promise to get votes and contributions. Their position was that Clinton should have integrated the military by executive order, noting that President Harry S. Truman used executive order to racially desegregate the armed forces. Clinton's defenders argued that an executive order might have prompted the Senate to write the exclusion of gays into law, potentially making it harder to integrate the military in the future. Later in his presidency, in 1999, Clinton criticized the way the policy was implemented, saying he did not think any serious person could say it was not "out of whack". The policy remained controversial, and was finally repealed in 2011, removing open sexual orientation as a reason for dismissal from the armed forces.
On January 1, 1994, Clinton signed the North American Free Trade Agreement into law. Throughout his first year in office, Clinton consistently supported ratification of the treaty by the U.S. Senate. Clinton and most of his allies in the Democratic Leadership Committee strongly supported free trade measures; there remained, however, strong disagreement within the party. Opposition came chiefly from anti-trade Republicans, protectionist Democrats and supporters of Ross Perot. The bill passed the house with 234 votes in favor and 200 votes opposed (132 Republicans and 102 Democrats in favor; 156 Democrats, 43 Republicans, and one independent opposed). The treaty was then ratified by the Senate and signed into law by the president.
On July 29, 1994, the Clinton administration launched the first official White House website, whitehouse.gov. The site was followed with three more versions, with the final version being launched on July 21, 2000. The White House website was part of a wider movement of the Clinton administration toward web-based communication. According to Robert Longley, "Clinton and Gore were responsible for pressing almost all federal agencies, the U.S. court system and the U.S. military onto the Internet, thus opening up America's government to more of America's citizens than ever before. On July 17, 1996, Clinton issued Executive Order 13011—Federal Information Technology, ordering the heads of all federal agencies to utilize information technology fully to make the information of the agency easily accessible to the public."
The Omnibus Crime Bill, which Clinton signed into law in September 1994, made many changes to U.S. crime and law enforcement legislation including the expansion of the death penalty to include crimes not resulting in death, such as running a large-scale drug enterprise. During Clinton's re-election campaign he said, "My 1994 crime bill expanded the death penalty for drug kingpins, murderers of federal law enforcement officers, and nearly 60 additional categories of violent felons." It also included a subsection of assault weapons ban for a ten-year period.
After two years of Democratic Party control, the Democrats lost control of Congress to the Republicans in the mid-term elections in 1994, for the first time in forty years.
A speech delivered by President Bill Clinton at the December 6, 1995 White House Conference on HIV/AIDS projected that a cure for AIDS and a vaccine to prevent further infection would be developed. The President focused on his administration's accomplishments and efforts related to the epidemic, including an accelerated drug-approval process. He also condemned homophobia and discrimination against people with HIV. Clinton announced three new initiatives: creating a special working group to coordinate AIDS research throughout the federal government; convening public health experts to develop an action plan that integrates HIV prevention with substance abuse prevention; and launching a new effort by the Department of Justice to ensure that health care facilities provide equal access to people with HIV and AIDS.
On September 21, 1996, Clinton signed into law the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA), which defined marriage for federal purposes as the legal union of one man and one woman; the legislation allowed individual states to refuse to recognize gay marriages that were performed in other states. Paul Yandura, speaking for the White House gay and lesbian liaison office, said Clinton's signing DOMA "was a political decision that they made at the time of a re-election". In defense of his actions, Clinton has said that DOMA was intended to "head off an attempt to send a constitutional amendment banning gay marriage to the states", a possibility he described as highly likely in the context of a "very reactionary Congress". Administration spokesman Richard Socarides said, "the alternatives we knew were going to be far worse, and it was time to move on and get the president re-elected." Clinton himself said DOMA was something "which the Republicans put on the ballot to try to get the base vote for Bush up, I think it's obvious that something had to be done to try to keep the Republican Congress from presenting that"; Others were more critical. The veteran gay rights and gay marriage activist Evan Wolfson has called these claims "historic revisionism". Despite this, it has been noted that other than a brief written response to a Reader's Digest that questioned whether he agreed with it, Clinton had made no documented reference to the issue of gay marriage until May 1996. In a July 2, 2011, editorial The New York Times opined, "The Defense of Marriage Act was enacted in 1996 as an election-year wedge issue, signed by President Bill Clinton in one of his worst policy moments." Ultimately, in United States v. Windsor, the U.S. Supreme Court struck down DOMA in June 2013.
Despite DOMA, Clinton was the first president to select openly gay persons for administrative positions, and he is generally credited as being the first president to publicly champion gay rights. During his presidency, Clinton issued two substantially controversial executive orders on behalf of gay rights, the first lifting the ban on security clearances for LGBT federal employees and the second outlawing discrimination based on sexual orientation in the federal civilian workforce. Under Clinton's leadership, federal funding for HIV/AIDS research, prevention and treatment more than doubled. Clinton also pushed for passing hate crimes laws for gays and for the private sector Employment Non-Discrimination Act, which, buoyed by his lobbying, failed to pass the Senate by a single vote in 1996. Advocacy for these issues, paired with the politically unpopular nature of the gay rights movement at the time, led to enthusiastic support for Clinton's election and reelection by the Human Rights Campaign. Clinton came out for gay marriage in July 2009 and urged the Supreme Court to overturn DOMA in 2013. He was later honored by GLAAD for his prior pro-gay stances and his reversal on DOMA.
The 1996 United States campaign finance controversy was an alleged effort by China to influence the domestic policies of the United States, before and during the Clinton administration, and involved the fundraising practices of the administration itself. Despite the evidence, the Chinese government denied all accusations.
As part of a 1996 initiative to curb illegal immigration, Clinton signed the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act (IIRIRA) on September 30, 1996. Appointed by Clinton, the U.S. Commission on Immigration Reform recommended reducing legal immigration from about 800,000 people a year to about 550,000.
In November 1996, Clinton narrowly escaped possible assassination in the Philippines, which was a bridge bomb planted by al-Qaeda and was masterminded by Osama bin Laden. During Clinton's presidency, the attempt remained top secret.
#### 1996 presidential campaign
In the 1996 presidential election, Clinton was re-elected, receiving 49.2 percent of the popular vote over Republican Bob Dole (40.7 percent of the popular vote) and Reform candidate Ross Perot (8.4 percent of the popular vote). Clinton received 379 of the Electoral College votes, with Dole receiving 159 electoral votes. With his victory, he became the first Democrat to win two consecutive presidential elections since Franklin D. Roosevelt.
### Second term (1997–2001)
In the January 1997, State of the Union address, Clinton proposed a new initiative to provide health coverage to up to five million children. Senators Ted Kennedy—a Democrat—and Orrin Hatch—a Republican—teamed up with Hillary Rodham Clinton and her staff in 1997, and succeeded in passing legislation forming the State Children's Health Insurance Program (SCHIP), the largest (successful) health care reform in the years of the Clinton Presidency. That year, Hillary Clinton shepherded through Congress the Adoption and Safe Families Act and two years later she succeeded in helping pass the Foster Care Independence Act. Bill Clinton negotiated the passage of the Balanced Budget Act of 1997 by the Republican Congress. In October 1997, he announced he was getting hearing aids, due to hearing loss attributed to his age, and his time spent as a musician in his youth. In 1999, he signed into law the Financial Services Modernization Act also known as the Gramm–Leach–Bliley Act, which repealed the part of the Glass–Steagall Act that had prohibited a bank from offering a full range of investment, commercial banking, and insurance services since its enactment in 1933.
#### Investigations
In November 1993, David Hale—the source of criminal allegations against Bill Clinton in the Whitewater controversy—alleged that while governor of Arkansas, Clinton pressured Hale to provide an illegal \$300,000 loan to Susan McDougal, the Clintons' partner in the Whitewater land deal. A U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission investigation resulted in convictions against the McDougals for their role in the Whitewater project, but the Clintons themselves were never charged, and Clinton maintains his and his wife's innocence in the affair. Investigations Robert B. Fiske and Ken Starr found insufficient to evidence to prosecute the Clintons.
The White House FBI files controversy of June 1996 arose concerning improper access by the White House to FBI security-clearance documents. Craig Livingstone, head of the White House Office of Personnel Security, improperly requested, and received from the FBI, background report files without asking permission of the subject individuals; many of these were employees of former Republican administrations. In March 2000, Independent Counsel Robert Ray determined there was no credible evidence of any crime. Ray's report further stated, "there was no substantial and credible evidence that any senior White House official was involved" in seeking the files.
On May 19, 1993, Clinton fired seven employees of the White House Travel Office. This caused the White House travel office controversy even though the travel office staff served at the pleasure of the president and could be dismissed without cause. The White House responded to the controversy by claiming that the firings were done in response to financial improprieties that had been revealed by a brief FBI investigation. Critics contended that the firings had been done to allow friends of the Clintons to take over the travel business and the involvement of the FBI was unwarranted. The House Government Reform and Oversight Committee issued a report which accused the Clinton administration of having obstructed their efforts to investigate the affair. Special counsel Robert Fiske said that Hillary Clinton was involved in the firing and gave "factually false" testimony to the GAO, congress, and the independent counsel. However Fiske said there was not enough evidence to prosecute.
#### Impeachment and acquittal
After a House inquiry, Clinton was impeached on December 19, 1998, by the House of Representatives. The House voted 228–206 to impeach him for perjury to a grand jury and voted 221–212 to impeach him for obstruction of justice. Clinton was only the second U.S. president (the first being Andrew Johnson) to be impeached. Impeachment proceedings were based on allegations that Clinton had illegally lied about and covered up his relationship with 22-year-old White House (and later Department of Defense) employee Monica Lewinsky. After the Starr Report was submitted to the House providing what it termed "substantial and credible information that President Clinton Committed Acts that May Constitute Grounds for an Impeachment", the House began impeachment hearings against Clinton before the mid-term elections. To hold impeachment proceedings, Republican leadership called a lame-duck session in December 1998.
While the House Judiciary Committee hearings ended in a straight party-line vote, there was lively debate on the House floor. The two charges passed in the House (largely with Republican support, but with a handful of Democratic votes as well) were for perjury and obstruction of justice. The perjury charge arose from Clinton's testimony before a grand jury that had been convened to investigate perjury he may have committed in his sworn deposition during Jones v. Clinton, Paula Jones's sexual harassment lawsuit. The obstruction charge was based on his actions to conceal his relationship with Lewinsky before and after that deposition.
The Senate later acquitted Clinton of both charges. The Senate refused to meet to hold an impeachment trial before the end of the old term, so the trial was held over until the next Congress. Clinton was represented by Washington law firm Williams & Connolly. The Senate finished a twenty-one-day trial on February 12, 1999, with the vote of 55 not guilty/45 guilty on the perjury charge and 50 not guilty/50 guilty on the obstruction of justice charge. Both votes fell short of the constitutional two-thirds majority requirement to convict and remove an officeholder. The final vote was generally along party lines, with no Democrats voting guilty, and only a handful of Republicans voting not guilty.
On January 19, 2001, Clinton's law license was suspended for five years after he acknowledged to an Arkansas circuit court he had engaged in conduct prejudicial to the administration of justice in the Jones case.
#### Pardons and commutations
Clinton issued 141 pardons and 36 commutations on his last day in office on January 20, 2001. Controversy surrounded Marc Rich and allegations that Hillary Clinton's brother, Hugh Rodham, accepted payments in return for influencing the president's decision-making regarding the pardons. Federal prosecutor Mary Jo White was appointed to investigate the pardon of Rich. She was later replaced by then-Republican James Comey. The investigation found no wrongdoing on Clinton's part. Clinton also pardoned 4 defendants in the Whitewater Scandal, Chris Wade, Susan McDougal, Stephen Smith, and Robert W. Palmer, all of whom had ties to Clinton when he was governor of Arkansas. Former Clinton HUD Secretary Henry Cisneros, who pleaded guilty to lying to the FBI, was also among Clinton's pardons.
#### Campaign finance controversies
In February 1997 it was discovered upon documents being released by the Clinton Administration that 938 people had stayed at the White House and that 821 of them had made donations to the Democratic Party and got the opportunity to stay in the Lincoln bedroom as a result of the donations. Some donors included Steven Spielberg, Tom Hanks, Jane Fonda, and Judy Collins. Top donors also got golf games and morning jogs with Clinton as a result of the contributions. Janet Reno was called on to investigate the matter by Trent Lott, but she refused.
In 1996, it was found that several Chinese foreigners made contributions to Clinton's reelection campaign and the Democratic National Committee with the backing of the People's Republic of China. Some of them also attempted to donate to Clinton's defense fund. This violated United States law forbidding non-American citizens from making campaign contributions. Clinton and Al Gore also allegedly met with the foreign donors. A Republican investigation led by Fred Thompson found that Clinton was targeted by the Chinese government. However, Democratic senators Joe Lieberman and John Glenn said that the evidence showed that China only targeted congressional elections and not presidential elections.
### Military and foreign affairs
#### Somalia
American troops had first entered Somalia during the Bush administration in response to a humanitarian crisis and civil war. Though initially involved to assist humanitarian efforts, the Clinton administration shifted the objectives set out in the mission and began pursuing a policy of attempting to neutralize Somali warlords. In 1993, during the Battle of Mogadishu, two U.S. helicopters were shot down by rocket-propelled grenade attacks to their tail rotors, trapping soldiers behind enemy lines. This resulted in an urban battle that killed 18 American soldiers, wounded 73 others, and resulted in one being taken prisoner. Television news programs depicted the supporters of warlord Mohammed Aidid desecrating the corpses of troops. The backlash resulting from the incident prompted in a drop in support for American intervention in the country and coincided with a more cautious use of troops throughout the rest of the Clinton administration. Following a subsequent national security policy review, U.S. forces were withdrawn from Somalia and later conflicts were approached with fewer soldiers on the ground.
#### Rwanda
In April 1994, genocide broke out in Rwanda. Intelligence reports indicate that Clinton was aware a "final solution to eliminate all Tutsis" was underway, long before the administration publicly used the word "genocide." Fearing a reprisal of the events in Somalia the previous year, Clinton chose not to intervene. Clinton has called his failure to intervene one of his main foreign policy failings, saying "I don't think we could have ended the violence, but I think we could have cut it down. And I regret it."
#### Bosnia and Herzegovina
In 1993 and 1994, Clinton pressured Western European leaders to adopt a strong military policy against Bosnian Serbs during the Bosnian War. This strategy faced staunch opposition from the United Nations, NATO allies, and Congressional Republicans, leading Clinton to adopt a more diplomatic approach. In 1995, U.S. and NATO aircraft bombed Bosnian Serb targets to halt attacks on UN safe zones and pressure them into a peace accord that would end the Bosnian war. Clinton deployed U.S. peacekeepers to Bosnia in late 1995, to uphold the subsequent Dayton Agreement.
#### Irish peace talks
In 1992, before his presidency, Clinton proposed sending a peace envoy to Northern Ireland, but this was dropped to avoid tensions with the British government. In November 1995, in a ceasefire during the Troubles, Clinton became the first president to visit Northern Ireland, examining both of the two divided communities of Belfast. Despite unionist criticism, Clinton used his visit as a way to negotiate an end to the violent conflict, playing a key role in the peace talks that produced the Good Friday Agreement in 1998.
#### Iran
Clinton sought to continue the Bush administration's policy of limiting Iranian influence in the Middle East, which he laid out in the dual containment strategy. In 1994, Clinton declared that Iran was a "state sponsor of terrorism" and a "rogue state," marking the first time that an American President used that term. Subsequent executive orders heavily sanctioned Iran's oil industry and banned almost all trade between U.S. companies and the Iranian government. In February 1996, the Clinton administration agreed to pay Iran US\$131.8 million (equivalent to \$ million in ) in settlement to discontinue a case brought by Iran in 1989 against the U.S. in the International Court of Justice after the shooting down of Iran Air Flight 655 by the U.S. Navy guided missile cruiser. Following the 1997 election of reformist president Mohammad Khatami, the administration eased sanctions.
#### Iraq
In Clinton's 1998 State of the Union Address, he warned Congress that Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein was building an arsenal of chemical, biological and nuclear weapons.
Clinton signed the Iraq Liberation Act of 1998 on October 31, 1998, which instituted a policy of "regime change" against Iraq, though it explicitly stated it did not provide for direct intervention on the part of American military forces. The administration then launched a four-day bombing campaign named Operation Desert Fox, lasting from December 16 to 19, 1998. At the end of this operation Clinton announced that "So long as Saddam remains in power, he will remain a threat to his people, his region, and the world. With our allies, we must pursue a strategy to contain him and to constrain his weapons of mass destruction program, while working toward the day Iraq has a government willing to live at peace with its people and with its neighbors." American and British aircraft in the Iraq no-fly zones attacked hostile Iraqi air defenses 166 times in 1999 and 78 times in 2000.
#### Osama bin Laden
Capturing Osama bin Laden was an objective of the U.S. government during the Clinton presidency (and continued to be until bin Laden's death in 2011). Despite claims by Mansoor Ijaz and Sudanese officials that the Sudanese government had offered to arrest and extradite bin Laden, and that U.S. authorities rejected each offer, the 9/11 Commission Report stated that "we have not found any reliable evidence to support the Sudanese claim".
In response to a 1996 State Department warning about bin Laden and the 1998 bombings of U.S. embassies in East Africa by al-Qaeda (which killed 224 people, including 12 Americans), Clinton ordered several military missions to capture or kill bin Laden, all of which were unsuccessful. In August 1998, Clinton ordered cruise missile strikes on terrorist targets in Afghanistan and Sudan, targeting the Al-Shifa pharmaceutical factory in Sudan, which was suspected of assisting bin Laden in making chemical weapons, and bin Laden's terrorist training camps in Afghanistan. The factory was destroyed by the attack, resulting in the death of one employee and the wounding of 11 other people. After the destruction of the factory, there was a medicine shortage in Sudan due to the plant providing 50 percent of Sudan's medicine, and the destruction of the plant led to a shortage of chloroquine, a drug which is used to treat malaria. US officials later acknowledged that there was no evidence the plant was acknowledging manufacturing or storing nerve gas. The attack provoked criticism of Clinton from journalists and academics including Christopher Hitchens, Seymour Hersh, Max Taylor, and others.
#### Kosovo
In the midst of a brutal crackdown on ethnic Albanian separatists in the province of Kosovo by the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Clinton authorized the use of U.S. Armed Forces in a NATO bombing campaign against Yugoslavia in 1999, named Operation Allied Force. The stated reasoning behind the intervention was to stop the ethnic cleansing (and what the Clinton administration labeled genocide) of Albanians by Yugoslav anti-guerilla military units. General Wesley Clark was Supreme Allied Commander of NATO and oversaw the mission. With United Nations Security Council Resolution 1244, the bombing campaign ended on June 10, 1999. The resolution placed Kosovo under UN administration and authorized a peacekeeping force to be deployed to the region. NATO announced its soldiers all survived combat, though two died in an Apache helicopter crash. Journalists in the popular press criticized genocide statements by the Clinton administration as false and greatly exaggerated. Prior to the bombing campaign on March 24, 1999, estimates showed that the number of civilians killed in the over year long conflict in Kosovo had been approximately 1,800, with critics asserting that little or no evidence existed of genocide. In a post-war inquiry, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe noted "the patterns of the expulsions and the vast increase in lootings, killings, rape, kidnappings and pillage once the NATO air war began on March 24." In 2001, the UN-supervised Supreme Court of Kosovo ruled that genocide (the intent to destroy a people) did not take place, but recognized "a systematic campaign of terror, including murders, rapes, arsons and severe maltreatments" with the intention being the forceful departure of the Albanian population. The term "ethnic cleansing" was used as an alternative to "genocide" to denote not just ethnically motivated murder but also displacement, though critics charge there is little difference. Slobodan Milošević, the president of Yugoslavia at the time of the atrocities, was eventually brought to trial before the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia in the Hague on charges including crimes against humanity and war crimes for his role in the war. He died in 2006, before the completion of the trial.
#### China
Clinton aimed to increase trade with China, minimizing import tariffs and offering the country most favoured nation status in 1993, his administration minimized tariff levels in Chinese imports. Clinton initially conditioned extension of this status on human rights reforms, but ultimately decided to extend the status despite a lack of reform in the specified areas, including free emigration, treatment of prisoners in terms of international human rights, and observation of human rights specified by UN resolutions, among others.
Relations were damaged briefly by the American bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade in May 1999. Clinton apologized for the bombing, stating it was accidental.
On October 10, 2000, Clinton signed into law the United States–China Relations Act of 2000, which granted permanent normal trade relations (PNTR) trade status to China. The president asserted that free trade would gradually open China to democratic reform.
In encouraging Congress to approve the agreement and China's accession to the World Trade Organization (WTO), Clinton stated that more trade with China would advance America's economic interests, saying that "economically, this agreement is the equivalent of a one-way street. It requires China to open its markets—with a fifth of the world's population, potentially the biggest markets in the world—to both our products and services in unprecedented new ways."
#### Israeli-Palestinian conflict
Clinton attempted to end the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. Secret negotiations mediated by Clinton between Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin and Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) Chairman Yasser Arafat led to a historic declaration of peace in September 1993, called the Oslo Accords, which were signed at the White House on September 13. The agreement led to the Israel–Jordan peace treaty in 1994 and the Wye River Memorandum in October 1998, however, this did not end the conflict. He brought Israeli prime minister Ehud Barak and Palestinian Authority chairman Yasser Arafat together at Camp David for the 2000 Camp David Summit, which lasted 14 days in July. Following the failure of the peace talks, Clinton said Arafat had "missed the opportunity" to facilitate a "just and lasting peace". In his autobiography, Clinton blames Arafat for the collapse of the summit. Following another attempt in December 2000 at Bolling Air Force Base, in which the president offered the Clinton Parameters, the situation broke down completely after the end of the Taba Summit and with the start of the Second Intifada.
### Judicial appointments
Clinton appointed two justices to the Supreme Court: Ruth Bader Ginsburg in 1993 and Stephen Breyer in 1994. Both justices went on to serve until the 2020s, leaving a lasting judicial legacy for President Clinton.
Clinton was the first president in history to appoint more women and minority judges than white male judges to the federal courts. In his eight years in office, 11.6% of Clinton's court of appeals nominees and 17.4% of his district court nominees were black; 32.8% of his court of appeals nominees and 28.5% of his district court nominees were women.
## Public opinion
Throughout Clinton's first term, his job approval rating fluctuated in the 40s and 50s. In his second term, his rating consistently ranged from the high-50s to the high-60s. After his impeachment proceedings in 1998 and 1999, Clinton's rating reached its highest point. According to a CBS News/New York Times poll, Clinton left office with an approval rating of 68 percent, which matched those of Ronald Reagan and Franklin D. Roosevelt as the highest ratings for departing presidents in the modern era. Clinton's average Gallup poll approval rating for his last quarter in office was 61 percent, the highest final quarter rating any president has received for fifty years. Forty-seven percent of the respondents identified themselves as being Clinton supporters.
As he was leaving office, a CNN/USA Today/Gallup poll revealed that 45 percent of Americans said they would miss him; 55 percent thought he "would have something worthwhile to contribute and should remain active in public life"; 68 percent thought he would be remembered more for his "involvement in personal scandal" than for "his accomplishments"; and 58 percent answered "No" to the question "Do you generally think Bill Clinton is honest and trustworthy?" The same percentage said he would be remembered as either "outstanding" or "above average" as a president, while 22 percent said he would be remembered as "below average" or "poor". ABC News characterized public consensus on Clinton as, "You can't trust him, he's got weak morals and ethics—and he's done a heck of a good job."
In May 2006, a CNN poll comparing Clinton's job performance with that of his successor, George W. Bush, found that a strong majority of respondents said Clinton outperformed Bush in six different areas questioned. Gallup polls in 2007 and 2011 showed that Clinton was regarded by 13 percent of Americans as the greatest president in U.S. history.
In 2014, 18 percent of respondents in a Quinnipiac University Polling Institute poll of American voters regarded Clinton as the best president since World War II, making him the third most popular among postwar presidents, behind John F. Kennedy and Ronald Reagan. The same poll showed that just 3 percent of American voters regarded Clinton as the worst president since World War II.
A 2015 poll by The Washington Post asked 162 scholars of the American Political Science Association to rank all the U.S. presidents in order of greatness. According to their findings, Clinton ranked eighth overall, with a rating of 70 percent.
## Public image
Clinton was the first baby boomer president. Authors Martin Walker and Bob Woodward stated that Clinton's innovative use of sound bite-ready dialogue, personal charisma, and public perception-oriented campaigning were a major factor in his high public approval ratings. When Clinton played the saxophone on The Arsenio Hall Show, he was described by some religious conservatives as "the MTV president". Opponents sometimes referred to him as "Slick Willie", a nickname which was first applied to him in 1980 by Pine Bluff Commercial journalist Paul Greenberg; Greenberg believed that Clinton was abandoning the progressive policies of previous Arkansas Governors such as Winthrop Rockefeller, Dale Bumpers and David Pryor. The claim "Slick Willie" would last throughout his presidency. His folksy manner led him to be nicknamed Bubba, especially in the South. Since 2000, he has frequently been referred to as "The Big Dog" or "Big Dog". His prominent role in campaigning for President Obama during the 2012 presidential election and his widely publicized speech at the 2012 Democratic National Convention, where he officially nominated Obama and criticized Republican nominee Mitt Romney and Republican policies in detail, earned him the nickname "Explainer-in-Chief".
Clinton drew strong support from the African American community and insisted that the improvement of race relations would be a major theme of his presidency. In 1998, Nobel laureate Toni Morrison called Clinton "the first black president", saying, "Clinton displays almost every trope of blackness: single-parent household, born poor, working-class, saxophone-playing, McDonald's-and-junk-food-loving boy from Arkansas". Morrison noted that Clinton's sex life was scrutinized more than his career accomplishments, and she compared this to the stereotyping and double standards that, she said, blacks typically endure. Many viewed this comparison as unfair and disparaging both to Clinton and to the African-American community. Clinton, a Baptist, has been open about his faith.
## Sexual assault and misconduct allegations
Several women have publicly accused Bill Clinton of sexual misconduct, including rape, harassment, and sexual assault. Additionally, some commentators have characterized Clinton's sexual relationship with former White House intern Monica Lewinsky as predatory or non-consensual, despite the fact that Lewinsky called the relationship consensual at the time. These allegations have been revisited and lent more credence in 2018, in light of the \#MeToo movement, with many commentators and Democratic leaders now saying Clinton should have been compelled to resign after the Lewinsky affair.
In 1994, Paula Jones initiated a sexual harassment lawsuit against Clinton, claiming he had made unwanted advances towards her in 1991; Clinton denied the allegations. In April 1998, the case was initially dismissed by Judge Susan Webber Wright on the grounds that it lacked legal merit. Jones appealed Webber Wright's ruling, and her suit gained traction following Clinton's admission to having an affair with Monica Lewinsky in August 1998. In 1998, lawyers for Paula Jones released court documents that alleged a pattern of sexual harassment by Clinton when he was Governor of Arkansas. Robert S. Bennett, Clinton's main lawyer for the case, called the filing "a pack of lies" and "an organized campaign to smear the President of the United States" funded by Clinton's political enemies. Clinton later agreed to an out-of-court settlement and paid Jones \$850,000. Bennett said the president made the settlement only so he could end the lawsuit for good and move on with his life. During the deposition for the Jones lawsuit, which was held at the White House, Clinton denied having sexual relations with Monica Lewinsky—a denial that became the basis for an impeachment charge of perjury.
In 1998, Kathleen Willey alleged that Clinton had groped her in a hallway in 1993. An independent counsel determined Willey gave "false information" to the FBI, inconsistent with sworn testimony related to the Jones allegation. On March 19, 1998, Julie Hiatt Steele, a friend of Willey, released an affidavit, accusing the former White House aide of asking her to lie to corroborate Ms. Willey's account of being sexually groped by Clinton in the Oval Office. An attempt by Kenneth Starr to prosecute Steele for making false statements and obstructing justice ended in a mistrial and Starr declined to seek a retrial after Steele sought an investigation against the former independent counsel for prosecutorial misconduct. Linda Tripp's grand jury testimony also differed from Willey's claims regarding inappropriate sexual advances.
Also in 1998, Juanita Broaddrick alleged that Clinton had raped her in the spring of 1978, although she said she did not remember the exact date. To support her charge, Broaddrick notes that she told multiple witnesses in 1978 she had been raped by Clinton, something these witnesses also state in interviews to the press. Broaddrick had earlier filed an affidavit denying any "unwelcome sexual advances" and later repeated the denial in a sworn deposition. In a 1998 NBC interview wherein she detailed the alleged rape, Broaddrick said she had denied (under oath) being raped only to avoid testifying about the ordeal publicly.
The Lewinsky scandal has had an enduring impact on Clinton's legacy, beyond his impeachment in 1998. In the wake of the \#MeToo movement (which shed light on the widespread prevalence of sexual assault and harassment, especially in the workplace), various commentators and Democratic political leaders, as well as Lewinsky herself, have revisited their view that the Lewinsky affair was consensual, and instead characterized it as an abuse of power or harassment, in light of the power differential between a president and a 22-year old intern. In 2018, Clinton was asked in several interviews about whether he should have resigned, and he said he had made the right decision in not resigning. During the 2018 Congressional elections, The New York Times alleged that having no Democratic candidate for office asking Clinton to campaign with them was a change that attributed to the revised understanding of the Lewinsky scandal. However, former DNC interim chair Donna Brazile previously urged Clinton in November 2017 to campaign during the 2018 midterm elections, in spite of New York U.S. senator Kirsten Gillibrand's recent criticism of the Lewinsky scandal.
### Alleged affairs
Clinton admitted to having extramarital affairs with singer Gennifer Flowers and Monica Lewinsky. Actress Elizabeth Gracen, Miss Arkansas winner Sally Perdue, and Dolly Kyle Browning all claimed that they had affairs with Clinton during his time as governor of Arkansas. Browning later sued Clinton, Bruce Lindsey, Robert S. Bennett, and Jane Mayer, alleging they engaged in a conspiracy to attempt to block her from publishing a book loosely based on her relationship with Clinton and tried to defame him. However, Browning's lawsuit was dismissed.
## Post-presidency (2001–present)
Bill Clinton has continued to be active in public life since leaving office in 2001, giving speeches, fundraising, and founding charitable organizations, and has spoken in prime time at every Democratic National Convention.
### Activities until 2008 campaign
In 2002, Clinton warned that pre-emptive military action against Iraq would have unwelcome consequences, and later claimed to have opposed the Iraq War from the start (though some dispute this). In 2005, Clinton criticized the Bush administration for its handling of emissions control, while speaking at the United Nations Climate Change conference in Montreal.
The William J. Clinton Presidential Center and Park in Little Rock, Arkansas, was dedicated in 2004. Clinton released a best-selling autobiography, My Life, in 2004. In 2007, he released Giving: How Each of Us Can Change the World, which also became a New York Times Best Seller and garnered positive reviews.
In the aftermath of the 2004 Asian tsunami, U.N. secretary-general Kofi Annan appointed Clinton to head a relief effort. After Hurricane Katrina, Clinton joined with fellow former president George H. W. Bush to establish the Bush-Clinton Tsunami Fund in January 2005, and the Bush-Clinton Katrina Fund in October of that year. As part of the tsunami effort, these two ex-presidents appeared in a Super Bowl XXXIX pre-game show, and traveled to the affected areas. They also spoke together at the funeral of Boris Yeltsin in April 2007.
Based on his philanthropic worldview, Clinton created the William J. Clinton Foundation to address issues of global importance. This foundation includes the Clinton Foundation HIV and AIDS Initiative (CHAI), which strives to combat that disease, and has worked with the Australian government toward that end. The Clinton Global Initiative (CGI), begun by the Clinton Foundation in 2005, attempts to address world problems such as global public health, poverty alleviation and religious and ethnic conflict. In 2005, Clinton announced through his foundation an agreement with manufacturers to stop selling sugary drinks in schools. Clinton's foundation joined with the Large Cities Climate Leadership Group in 2006 to improve cooperation among those cities, and he met with foreign leaders to promote this initiative. The foundation has received donations from many governments all over the world, including Asia and the Middle East. In 2008, Foundation director Inder Singh announced deals to reduce the price of anti-malaria drugs by 30 percent in developing nations. Clinton also spoke in favor of California Proposition 87 on alternative energy, which was voted down.
### 2008 presidential election
During the 2008 Democratic presidential primary campaign, Clinton vigorously advocated on behalf of his wife, Hillary. Through speaking engagements and fundraisers, he was able to raise \$10 million toward her campaign. Some worried that as an ex-president, he was too active on the trail, too negative to Clinton rival Barack Obama, and alienating his supporters at home and abroad. Many were especially critical of him following his remarks in the South Carolina primary, which Obama won. Later in the 2008 primaries, there was some infighting between Bill and Hillary's staffs, especially in Pennsylvania. Considering Bill's remarks, many thought he could not rally Hillary supporters behind Obama after Obama won the primary. Such remarks led to apprehension that the party would be split to the detriment of Obama's election. Fears were allayed August 27, 2008, when Clinton enthusiastically endorsed Obama at the 2008 Democratic National Convention, saying all his experience as president assures him that Obama is "ready to lead". After Hillary Clinton's presidential campaign was over, Bill Clinton continued to raise funds to help pay off her campaign debt.
### After the 2008 election
In 2009, Clinton travelled to North Korea on behalf of two American journalists imprisoned there. Euna Lee and Laura Ling had been imprisoned for illegally entering the country from China. Jimmy Carter had made a similar visit in 1994. After Clinton met with North Korean leader Kim Jong-il, Kim issued a pardon.
Since then, Clinton has been assigned many other diplomatic missions. He was named United Nations Special Envoy to Haiti in 2009 following a series of hurricanes which caused \$1 billion in damages. Clinton organized a conference with the Inter-American Development Bank, where a new industrial park was discussed in an effort to "build back better". In response to the 2010 Haiti earthquake, U.S. president Barack Obama announced that Clinton and George W. Bush would coordinate efforts to raise funds for Haiti's recovery. Funds began pouring into Haiti, which led to funding becoming available for Caracol Industrial Park in a part of the country unaffected by the earthquake. While Hillary Clinton was in South Korea, she and Cheryl Mills worked to convince SAE-A, a large apparel subcontractor, to invest in Haiti despite the company's deep concerns about plans to raise the minimum wage. In the summer of 2010, the South Korean company signed a contract at the U.S. State Department, ensuring that the new industrial park would have a key tenant. In 2010, Clinton announced support of, and delivered the keynote address for, the inauguration of NTR, Ireland's first environmental foundation. At the 2012 Democratic National Convention, Clinton gave a widely praised speech nominating Barack Obama.
### 2016 presidential election and after
During the 2016 presidential election, Clinton again encouraged voters to support Hillary, and made appearances speaking on the campaign trail. In a series of tweets, then-President-elect Donald Trump criticized his ability to get people out to vote. Clinton served as a member of the electoral college for the state of New York. He voted for the Democratic ticket consisting of his wife Hillary and her running-mate Tim Kaine.
On September 7, 2017, Clinton partnered with former presidents Jimmy Carter, George H. W. Bush, George W. Bush, and Barack Obama to work with One America Appeal to help the victims of Hurricane Harvey and Hurricane Irma in the Gulf Coast and Texas communities.
In 2020, Clinton again served as a member of the United States Electoral College from New York, casting his vote for the successful Democratic ticket of Joe Biden and Kamala Harris.
### Post-presidential health concerns
In September 2004, Clinton underwent quadruple bypass surgery. In March 2005, he again underwent surgery, this time for a partially collapsed lung. On February 11, 2010, he was rushed to New York-Presbyterian/Columbia Hospital in Manhattan after complaining of chest pains, and he had two coronary stents implanted in his heart. After this procedure, Clinton adopted a plant-based whole foods (vegan) diet, which had been recommended by doctors Dean Ornish and Caldwell Esselstyn. However, he has since incorporated fish and lean proteins at the suggestion of Mark Hyman, a proponent of the pseudoscientific ethos of functional medicine. As a result, he is no longer a strict vegan.
In October 2021, Clinton was treated for sepsis at the University of California, Irvine Medical Center.
In December 2022, Clinton tested positive for COVID-19.
### Wealth
The Clintons incurred several million dollars in legal bills during his presidency, which were paid off four years after he left office. Bill and Hillary Clinton have each earned millions of dollars from book publishing. In 2016, Forbes reported Bill and Hillary Clinton made about \$240 million in the 15 years from January 2001, to December 2015, (mostly from paid speeches, business consulting and book-writing). Also in 2016, CNN reported the Clintons combined to receive more than \$153 million in paid speeches from 2001 until spring 2015. In May 2015, The Hill reported that Bill and Hillary Clinton have made more than \$25 million in speaking fees since the start of 2014, and that Hillary Clinton also made \$5 million or more from her book, Hard Choices, during the same time period. In July 2014, The Wall Street Journal reported that at the end of 2012, the Clintons were worth between \$5 million and \$25.5 million, and that in 2012 (the last year they were required to disclose the information) the Clintons made between \$16 and \$17 million, mostly from speaking fees earned by the former president. Clinton earned more than \$104 million from paid speeches between 2001 and 2012. In June 2014, ABC News and The Washington Post reported that Bill Clinton has made more than \$100 million giving paid speeches since leaving public office, and in 2008, The New York Times reported that the Clintons' income tax returns show they made \$109 million in the eight years from January 1, 2000, to December 31, 2007, including almost \$92 million from his speaking and book-writing.
Bill Clinton has given dozens of paid speeches each year since leaving office in 2001, mostly to corporations and philanthropic groups in North America and Europe; he often earned \$100,000 to \$300,000 per speech. Russian investment bank with ties to the Kremlin paid Clinton \$500,000 for a speech in Moscow. Hillary Clinton said she and Bill came out of the White House financially "broke" and in debt, especially due to large legal fees incurred during their years in the White House. "We had no money when we got there, and we struggled to, you know, piece together the resources for mortgages, for houses, for Chelsea's education". She added, "Bill has worked really hard ... we had to pay off all our debts ... he had to make double the money because of, obviously, taxes; and then pay off the debts, and get us houses, and take care of family members".
### Relationship with Jeffrey Epstein
In the early 2000s, Clinton took flights on Jeffrey Epstein's private jet in connection with Clinton Foundation work. According to Epstein's attorney Gerald B. Lefcourt, Epstein was "part of the original group that conceived of the Clinton Global Initiative". In 2002, a spokesperson for Clinton praised Epstein as "a committed philanthropist" with "insights and generosity". While Clinton was president Epstein visited the White House at least 17 times. Years later, Epstein was convicted on sex trafficking charges. Clinton's office released a statement in 2019 saying, "President Clinton knows nothing about the terrible crimes Jeffrey Epstein pleaded guilty to in Florida some years ago, or those with which he has been recently charged in New York. In 2002 and 2003, President Clinton took four trips on Jeffrey Epstein's airplane: one to Europe, one to Asia, and two to Africa, which included stops in connection with the work of the Clinton Foundation. Staff, supporters of the Foundation, and his Secret Service detail traveled on every leg of every trip. [...] He's not spoken to Epstein in well over a decade."
However, later reports showed that Clinton had flown on Epstein's plane 26 times. In another statement Clinton said "one meeting with Epstein in his Harlem office in 2002, and around the same time made one brief visit to Epstein’s New York apartment with a staff member and his security detail". In July 2019 it was reported that Clinton attended a dinner with Epstein in 1995, a meeting with Epstein that Clinton had not previously disclosed.
Clinton reportedly used Epstein's private jet to visit Little St. James Island, where Epstein resided. on multiple occasions between 2002 and 2005. Virginia Roberts, later known as Virginia Giuffre, says in a lawsuit that while working at Donald Trump's Mar-a-Lago resort she was lured into a sex-trafficking ring run by Epstein and while traveling with Epstein she saw Clinton on the island. In a 2011 conversation with her lawyers, Roberts stated that Clinton traveled to Epstein's retreat on Little St. James in 2002. A Freedom of Information Act request for United States Secret Service records of visits Clinton may have made to Little St. James produced no such evidence. According to Epstein's flight logs, Clinton never flew near the U.S. Virgin Islands. In July 2019, a Clinton spokesperson issued a statement saying Clinton never visited the island.
## Personal life
At the age of 10, he was baptized at Park Place Baptist Church in Hot Springs, Arkansas and remained a member of a Baptist church. In 2007, he promoted the New Baptist Covenant organization for Social Justice, founded by Baptist Deacon Jimmy Carter.
On October 11, 1975, in Fayetteville, Arkansas, he married Hillary Rodham, whom he met while studying at Yale University. They had Chelsea Clinton, their only child, on February 27, 1980. He is the maternal grandfather to Chelsea's three children.
## Honors and recognition
Various colleges and universities have awarded Clinton honorary degrees, including Doctorate of Law degrees and Doctor of Humane Letters degrees. He received an honorary degree from Georgetown University, his alma mater, and was the commencement speaker in 1980. He is an honorary fellow of University College, Oxford, which he attended as a Rhodes Scholar, although he did not complete his studies there. Schools have been named for Clinton, and statues have been built to pay him homage. U.S. states where he has been honored include Missouri, Arkansas, Kentucky, and New York. He was presented with the Medal for Distinguished Public Service by Secretary of Defense William Cohen in 2001. The Clinton Presidential Center was opened in Little Rock, Arkansas, in his honor on December 5, 2001.
He has been honored in various other ways, in countries that include the Czech Republic, Papua New Guinea, Germany, and Kosovo. The Republic of Kosovo, in gratitude for his help during the Kosovo War, renamed a major street in the capital city of Pristina as Bill Clinton Boulevard and added a monumental Clinton statue.
Clinton was selected as Time's "Man of the Year" in 1992, and again in 1998, along with Ken Starr. From a poll conducted of the American people in December 1999, Clinton was among eighteen included in Gallup's List of Most Widely Admired People of the 20th Century. In 2001, Clinton received the NAACP's President's Award. He has also been honored with a Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album for Children, a J. William Fulbright Prize for International Understanding, a TED Prize (named for the confluence of technology, entertainment and design), and was named as an Honorary GLAAD Media Award recipient for his work as an advocate for the LGBT community.
In 2011, President Michel Martelly of Haiti awarded Clinton with the National Order of Honour and Merit to the rank of Grand Cross "for his various initiatives in Haiti and especially his high contribution to the reconstruction of the country after the earthquake of January 12, 2010". Clinton declared at the ceremony that "in the United States of America, I really don't believe former American presidents need awards anymore, but I am very honored by this one, I love Haiti, and I believe in its promise".
U.S. president Barack Obama awarded Clinton the Presidential Medal of Freedom on November 20, 2013.
## Authored books
## Recordings
Bill Clinton is one of the narrators on Wolf Tracks and Peter and the Wolf, a 2003 recording of Sergei Prokofiev's Peter and the Wolf performed by the Russian National Orchestra, on Pentatone, together with Mikhail Gorbachev and Sophia Loren. This garnered Clinton the 2003 Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album for Children.
The audiobook edition of his autobiography, My Life, read by Clinton himself, won the 2005 Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album as well as the Audie Award as the Audiobook of the Year.
Clinton has two more Grammy nominations for his audiobooks: Giving: How Each of Us Can Change the World in 2007 and Back to Work in 2012.
## See also
- 1996 United States campaign finance controversy
- Clinton family
- Clinton School of Public Service
- Efforts to impeach Bill Clinton
- Electoral history of Bill Clinton
- Gun control policy of the Clinton Administration
- List of presidents of the United States
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Via Giulia
| 1,172,298,009 |
Thoroughfare in Rome, Italy
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[
"1508 establishments in the Papal States",
"Baroque architecture in Rome",
"Renaissance architecture in Rome",
"Streets in Rome R. V Ponte",
"Streets in Rome R. VII Regola"
] |
The Via Giulia is a street of historical and architectural importance in Rome, Italy, which runs along the left (east) bank of the Tiber from Piazza San Vincenzo Pallotti, near Ponte Sisto, to Piazza dell'Oro. It is about 1 kilometre long and connects the Regola and Ponte Rioni.
The road's design was commissioned in 1508 to Donato Bramante by Pope Julius II (r. 1503–1513), of the powerful della Rovere family, and was one of the first important urban planning projects in papal Rome during the Renaissance.
The road, named after its patron, had been also called Via Magistralis (lit. "master road") because of its importance, and Via Recta (lit. "straight road") because of its layout.
The project had three aims: the creation of a major roadway inserted in a new system of streets superimposed on the maze of alleys of medieval Rome; the construction of a large avenue surrounded by sumptuous buildings to testify to the renewed grandeur of the Catholic Church; and finally, the foundation of a new administrative and banking centre near the Vatican, the seat of the popes, and far from the traditional city centre on the Capitoline Hill, dominated by the Roman baronial families opposed to the pontiffs.
Despite the interruption of the project due to the pax romana of 1511 and the death of the pope two years later, the new road immediately became one of the main centres of the Renaissance in Rome. Many palaces and churches were built by the most important architects of the time, such as Raffaello Sanzio and Antonio da Sangallo the Younger, who often chose to move into the street. Several noble families joined them, while European nations and Italian city-states chose to build their churches in the street or in the immediate vicinity.
In the Baroque period the building activity, directed by the most important architects of the time such as Francesco Borromini, Carlo Maderno and Giacomo della Porta, continued unabated, while the street, favorite location of the Roman nobles, became the theatre of tournaments, parties and carnival parades. During this period the popes and private patrons continued to take care of the road by founding charitable institutions and providing the area with drinking water.
From the middle of the 18th century, the shift of the city centre towards the Campo Marzio plain caused the cessation of building activity and the abandonment of the road by the nobles. An artisan population with its workshops replaced these, and Via Giulia took on the solitary and solemn aspect that would have characterized it for two centuries. During the Fascist period some construction projects broke the unity of the road in its central section, and the damage has not yet been repaired. Despite this, Via Giulia remains one of Rome's richest roads in art and history, and after a two-century decline, from the 1950s onwards the road's fame was renewed to be one of the city's most prestigious locations.
## History
In Rome, since the early Middle Ages, while the political and representative heart of the city seemed to have remained on the Capitoline Hill, the area of the ancient Campus Martius developed into one of the most densely populated districts (abitato). The maze of narrow alleys was criss-crossed by three narrow thoroughfares: the Via Papalis (lit. "papal road"), inhabited by curial employees; the Via Peregrinorum (lit. "pilgrims' road") artisan and business road; and the Via Recta (lit. "straight road", a name common to many roads in medieval Rome). This was used above all by pilgrims coming from the north and was home to small businesses. The three roads converged to the north towards the Angels' Bridge, which was therefore the bottleneck of the city's traffic. As Dante Alighieri described in the Divine Comedy, in 1300 Pope Boniface VIII (r. 1294–1303) ordered a two-way traffic system to be set up to avoid traffic jams or panic as a response to the dense crowds on Angels' Bridge.
After Pope Martin V (r. 1417–1431) returned to Rome in 1420 at the end of the Western Schism, the influx of pilgrims increased significantly again, especially in the Jubilee years. On 29 December 1450, the last day of the Holy Year, a stampede broke out on the bridge that killed more than 300 people. As a result of the catastrophe, Pope Nicholas V (r. 1447–1455), the first Renaissance pope who systematically dealt with Roman town planning, ordered the Angels' Bridge to be cleared of stalls and shops; the first urban planning measures in the area were initiated, defining in his programme the abovementioned three streets as the city's main ones. Starting with Nicholas, the policy of the popes was to leave the control of the Capitoline Hill area to the Roman nobility, concentrating urban development on the Tiber bend and the Vatican, made important by the pilgrimage to Saint Peter and the jubilees.
In 1475, Pope Sixtus IV (r. 1471–1484) ordered the Ponte Sisto, named after him, to be built across the Tiber in order to relieve the pilgrimage route across the Angels' Bridge and to connect the rioni of Regola and Trastevere. At the same time he ordered the restoration of Via Pelegrinorum and the area around the Campo de' Fiori. According to the chronicler Stefano Infessura, however, strategic reasons aside from reducing traffic were also important for these projects. Until then it had been very difficult for the pope to carry out urban interventions within the Aurelian walls, mainly because of the power of the noble families of folk background, but Sixtus could use the revenues of the jubilee to carry out the works in the city. When the holy year was over, he changed the responsibilities of the Conservatori (the chief magistrates of Rome's commune), who until then had the power to curb papal initiatives in Rome, and reinforced the possibility of expropriating land and buildings for public utility. Aim of the pope was the reduction of the property income of the local nobility, and the redevelopment of the three main streets of the city.
The successors of Sixtus IV, Innocent VIII (r. 1484–1492); Alexander VI (r. 1492–1503); and Pius III (r. 1503), continued the Sistine urban planning policy, often completing the works begun by Pope della Rovere. Among them, in 1497 Alexander VI ordered the widening of the Via Peregrinorum and the opening of the Porta Settimiana through the Aurelian Walls. The latter work was a precondition for the future construction of Via della Lungara on the right bank of the Tiber from Ponte Sisto to St. Peter's Basilica.
### The project of Pope Julius II
In addition to reconstructing St. Peter's Basilica, Julius II implemented multiple projects in the framework of Rome's urban renewal (Renovatio Romae) in the Ponte, Parione, Sant'Eustachio and Colonna rioni, a task which was started forty years before by his uncle, Pope Sixtus IV. One of the most important projects was the creation of two new straight streets on the left and right banks of the Tiber: the Via Giulia on the left bank, a new grand avenue through the most densely populated quarter of Rome, from the Ponte Sisto to the Florentine merchant quarter on the Tiber bend, and the Via della Lungara along the right bank, a straight road from the Porta Settimiana in Trastevere to the Hospital of Santo Spirito in the Borgo. Both roads–designed by the pope's favourite architect Donato Bramante– flanked the Tiber and were closely connected to it. The Lungara had the dual aim to relieve the pilgrimage route to Saint Peter and transport goods coming from the Via Aurelia and the Via Portuense roads towards the centre of the city. Moreover, the street, overlooking the river, was going to represent the place of the cultured and refined leisure time of the Roman upper class, who built there some of the most luxurious suburban residences in the city. The two streets, surrounded by palaces, including that of the pope's banker, Agostino Chigi, would have formed "a kind of city within the city, a garden city along the Tiber".
The main goal behind these plans was to superimpose to medieval Rome's disorderly building mesh a regular road network having the Tiber as focus; together with the new Via Alessandrina that Alexander VI opened in the Borgo and the Via dei Pettinari that connected the Trastevere on one bank and the Campidoglio on the other, the Lungara and Via Giulia created a quadrilateral network of modern roads in the city's chaotic web of narrow streets. In the original project Via Giulia was supposed to reach the Hospital of Santo Spirito in Borgo through the rebuilt Nero's Bridge.
This project had a secondary, celebrative goal to promote the Pontiff as the unifier of Italy and the renewer of Rome; in 1506, after the end of the plague, Julius overthrew the powerful Baglioni and Bentivoglio families, conquering their strongholds of Perugia and Bologna as testified in an inscription along the Via dei Banchi Nuovi.
Aside from serving as a means of communication and representation for the Church, the road was supposed to host the city's new layman's administrative centre. A drawing by Donato Bramante discovered by Luitpold Frommel in the Uffizi shows a new huge administrative complex, the Palazzo dei Tribunali. All the notaries and courts operating in Rome had to be centralised in this building: among them, the tribunal of the Conservatori, for centuries located on the Capitoline Hill and traditionally controlled by the Roman nobility. This decision would therefore put an end to the chaos caused by various jurisdictions subject to ecclesiastical and secular authority, putting the justice under the pope's control.
Bramante's sketch shows also a representative square (the Foro Iulio) opened along the new street and facing the Palazzo dei Tribunali and the old Cancelleria (today's Palazzo Sforza-Cesarini). The square was not far from the Apostolic Camera (the pope's treasury) in Palazzo Riario and the new Palazzo della Zecca (lit. "papal mint") erected by Bramante at the edge of Via dei Banchi Nuovi (also named Canale di Ponte). By this road lay the merchants' and bankers' houses and offices, like the Altoviti, Ghinucci, Acciaiuoli, Chigi and Fugger. Close economic ties with Tuscan bankers like Agostino Chigi were sought and promoted.
As a resulting consequence of the project, the area around the Vatican and Trastevere would have been enhanced at the detriment of the Capitoline Hill, symbol of the Roman nobility's power. The plan was thus intended to separate the papacy from the city's powerful noble families (the baroni), particularly the Orsini and Colonna families, who until then had been the Pontiff's most trusted allies, replacing them with a new organisation formed by Papal legates.
Around 1508 the executive phase of the project started: the pope ordered Bramante to start expropriating and demolishing properties in the densely populated Campo Marzio to create the new street.
Giorgio Vasari wrote:
> Si risolvé il Papa di mettere in strada Giulia, da Bramante indrizzata, tutti gli uffici e le ragioni di Roma in un luogo, per la commoditá ch'a i negoziatori averia recato nelle faccende, essendo continuamente fino allora state molto scomode.
> The pope decided to consolidate all the offices and financial centres of Rome in one place in the Via Giulia designed by Bramante. This would have made it easier for businessmen to conduct their business, which until then had been a cumbersome process.
In August 1511 the life of Julius II was seriously threatened by an illness. Due to that, the feuding Orsini and Colonna families and the other Barons reached an agreement (known as the Pax Romana), in order to ask at the upcoming conclave the restoration of the commune authority and the abolition of various taxes. The pope's prompt recovery made the possibility of conclave fade away; Julius, under pressure from abroad, came to terms with the nobles, propagandizing the anti-papal pact as an agreement in his favour and revoking several decisions taken against the comune. Among these, he granted the Capitoline court jurisdiction over all cases between Roman citizens, except those pending before the Sacra Rota. This decision caused the interruption of the works for the new road and the Palazzo dei Tribunali, whose project was definitively abandoned when the pope died, while the planned square in front of it was forgotten. Apart from a few rusticated blocks between the Via del Gonfalone and the Vicolo del Cefalo, today nothing remains of the palazzo.
### Via Giulia in the 16th century
After the death of Julius II in 1513, the demographic situation in Rome had changed: because of the wars in Italy, a large number of Lombards had emigrated to the city, settling in the northern area of the Campo Marzio, where their national church already existed. This caused a shift in the centre of gravity of the city's development, which excluded Via Giulia. Despite that, Julius' successor, Pope Leo X (r. 1513–1521) from the House of Medici, continued the work, favoring the northern end of the road, that is the stretch between the unfinished Palazzo dei Tribunali and the banking district, where his Florentine countrymen lived and the Florentine merchant community worked. With the bull of 29 January 1519, the pope granted the Florentine Compagnia della Pietà the construction of the church of San Giovanni, located also at the northern edge of the road and destined to be the parish of all Florentines living in Rome. The church was to become the symbol of Florentine economic and financial dominance in Rome, being at the centre of the area occupied by the banks, the fondachi and the residences of the Tuscan bourgeoisie and nobility living in the pope's capital. Here, important artists, such as Raphael and Antonio da Sangallo the Younger, acquired plots of land or built palaces.
In spite of these activities, the urban planning project that was at the base of the road was left unfinished. The decision to relinquish the reconstruction of Nero's bridge, the lack of connection with the Angels' Bridge and the Borgo and the abandonment of the plan for the centralisation of the courts meant that the road became an unused fragment of an abandoned project. The central and southern parts of the street suffered most for this situation. The area south of the church of San Biagio–the central part of the Via Giulia around the Monte dei Planca Incoronati, cut in half by the new road with an act of force of the pope against one of the most powerful families of the city nobility– became a slum filled with inns, brothels, and infamous locations like Piazza Padella, a venue known for duels and stabbings up to the end of the 19th century and demolished in the 1930s. This area, lying between Via del Gonfalone, Via delle Carceri, Via di Monserrato and the Tiber, was a major district of ill-repute since the Middle Ages; a manuscript from 1556 reports about the quarter around the eventually demolished church of San Niccolò degli Incoronati hosted "... 150 houses of very simple people, whores and dubious persons ...". The degradation of this part of the road is to be attributed to a decision of the Planca themselves, who, in contrast to the popes' objective of creating a prestigious road, preferred to rent their properties to prostitutes and malefactors, subjects who paid higher rents than the artisans.
South of the Planca's monte lay the Castrum Senense; this quarter (its name castrum–"fort"–came from the numerous towers that dotted the area at the time), stretching from the church of Santa Aurea, today Santo Spirito dei Napoletani towards south, got this name in the Middle Ages because it was mainly inhabited by people from Siena. At this end of the Via Giulia, the Farnese family drew up a well-defined architectural development plan, started with the erection of the their residence between 1517 and 1520. The Farnese decided to turn their back against the street, orienting the main façade of their gigantic palace towards Campo de' Fiori and the centre of the city, and using the road only as a service route. Under Pope Paul III (r. 1534–1549), Cardinal Girolamo Capodiferro decided to build his palace near the Farnese palace, but he too chose to turn his palazzo'''s gardens towards Via Giulia. The decision to avoid the overlooking of the noble residences along the street was probably due to the degraded state of the area, which housed several brothels.
Starting with the middle of the sixteenth century there was an attempt to rehabilitate this area by building welfare facilities. The church and the hospitals of the brotherhood of the Trinity of the Pilgrims (Italian: Confraternita della Santissima Trinità dei Pellegrini) were erected in a place named Postribolo di Ponte Sisto ("Ponte Sisto's Brothel"). In 1586, architect Domenico Fontana built on the orders of Pope Sixtus V (r. 1585–1590) the Ospizio dei Mendicanti (lit. "Beggar's Hospice") thus marking the southern end of the Via Giulia. The hospice was established to solve the begging problem in the city and was given a yearly endowment of 150,000 scudi, enough to employ 2,000 people.
At the beginning of the 16th century it had become fashionable for the various nations and city-states to have their own churches built in Rome: these were known as the chiese nazionali. The rioni of Regola and Ponte, along the processional and pilgrim roads, were the preferred locations, and Via Giulia, because of its proximity to Saint Peter and the commercial area, became a favourite place to erect the shrines with the annexed hospitals and inns for the pilgrims. The Florentines, the Sienese, and the Neapolitans had their churches built along the road (the San Giovanni, the Santa Caterina, and Santo Spirito respectively), while the Bolognese (San Giovanni e Petronio), Spanish (Santa Maria in Monserrato), English (San Tommaso di Canterbury) and Swedish (Santa Brigida) churches were built in the nearby zones of the Regola rione.
Despite all these construction activities, the character of the street did not change: brotherhoods, nobility, thieves, upper middle class and prostitutes lived next to each other in the street, which remained an axis of service. The poet Annibal Caro in his comedy Gli Straccioni ("The Rags") describes the street as an ill-famed place.
At the end of the 16th century, Via Giulia's path was defined for good; it ended by the Florentine quarter to the north and the Ospizio dei Mendicanti to the south. It became less of a major commercial street and more a busy promenade and a place for celebrations, processions (such as that of the ammantate, poor girls which were dowried by the goldsmiths of Sant'Eligio degli Orefici) and races.
### Via Giulia in the 17th century
In the baroque period three major works changed the face of the street: to the north, the completion (except for the façade) of San Giovanni dei Fiorentini, a work by Carlo Maderno; in the centre, the construction of the Carceri Nuove (lit. "New Prisons") based on a project by Antonio Del Grande; to the south, the reconstruction of Palazzo Falconieri, by Francesco Borromini. San Giovanni, thanks to its slender dome, gave the street a vanishing point; the prisons, erected near the never-built palace of the courts of the Bramante, revived Julius II's idea of bringing the Justitia Papalis into the street; Palazzo Falconieri, finally, added value to the street in an area characterised until then only by Palazzo Farnese, which turns its back on Via Giulia. Beside these works are worth of mention the churches of Sant'Anna dei Bresciani and Santa Maria del Suffragio, and various renovations and mergers, such as that of Palazzo Varese, by Maderno, and Palazzo Ricci. In the same period two colleges were established in Via Giulia: the Collegio Ghislieri, another work by Carlo Maderno, and the Collegio Bandinelli, near San Giovanni dei Fiorentini, by Del Grande.
In order to supply the quarter with sufficient drinking water, Pope Paul V (r. 1605–1621) had the Aqua Paola extend over the Tiber, reaching the Regola rione and the Ghetto. In 1613, the Fontanone di Ponte Sisto (lit. "The Big Fountain of the Sistine Bridge") was built on the façade of the beggars' hospice on Via Giulia.
Despite these interventions the meaning of the street in the city structure did not change. The expansion of the city towards the Campo Marzio plain, begun by Leo X with the construction of Via di Ripetta, and the urban planning initiatives of Gregory XIII (r. 1572–1585) and Sixtus V had already irreparably relegated Via Giulia to a peripheral position with respect to the new city centre.
At the end of the 17th century the road took on a triple face, which it would maintain for another 150 years: an area of building speculation in the north, a detention centre in the middle, and an elegant location in the south, theater of feasts and games.
Among the latter, a tournament held in 1603 by Tiberio Ceuli at Palazzo Sacchetti, and a Saracen tournament organised in 1617 by Cardinal Odoardo Farnese at the Oratorio della Compagnia della Morte, for which he invited eight cardinals. During the summer months the street was sometimes flooded for the pleasure of the common people and the nobility. One of the most glamorous celebrations was held by the Farnese in 1638 to celebrate the birth of the French dauphin, the future king Louis XIV. Via Giulia hosted buffalo races, parades of carnival floats, and in 1663 the organisation of a horse race with naked hunchbacks during Carnival is handed down. During the carnival, Via Giulia hosted several feasts promoted by the Florentines.
On 20 August 1662, the road was the scene of an episode that had important consequences: a brawl near the Ponte Sisto bridge between soldiers of the Corsican Guard and French soldiers belonging to the retinue of Louis XIV's ambassador Charles III de Créquy resulted in the withdrawal of the ambassador from Rome and the French invasion of Avignon. In order to avoid worse consequences, the pope was forced to humiliate himself, disbanding the Corsican Guard and erecting a "pyramid of infamy" at the Corsicans' barracks near the street.
### Development in the 18th and 19th centuries
From an architectural point of view in the 18th century there were only minor interventions in the street: the development of the city was now defined in the Tridente and Quirinale areas, both far away from the Tiber bend, and Via Giulia remained cut off. The only works of some importance were the façade of San Giovanni dei Fiorentini, by Alessandro Galilei, the church of Santa Maria dell'Orazione e Morte, by Ferdinando Fuga, and the two small churches of San Filippo Neri and San Biagio della Pagnotta, rebuilt respectively by Filippo Raguzzini and Giovanni Antonio Perfetti.
In this period too the Via Giulia was famous as a venue for parties and entertainment for the common people: in 1720 the Sienese held a festival to celebrate the promotion of Marc'Antonio Zondadari to Grand Master of the Order of Malta; Fireworks were set off near the Fontanone di Ponte Sisto; two triumphal arches were raised above the street, one near Santo Spirito and the other near Palazzo Farnese; and the Fountain of the Mascherone poured wine for the people instead of water.
Under Pope Clement XI's (r. 1720–1721) rule, the beggars housed in the Ospizio dei Mendicanti were transferred to the San Michele a Ripa. The building was afterwards occupied by both poor unmarried girls (zitelle in the Romanesco dialect) and a congregation made up of 100 priests and 20 clerics; the latter prayed for the souls of deceased priests. As such, the building was nicknamed the Ospizio dei cento preti ("Hospice of the Hundred Priests").
In the nineteenth century, in accordance with the process of degradation of the building heritage that affected the whole city, Via Giulia underwent a myriad of interventions of superfetation, superelevation, and occupation of the free spaces. In this period only a few new buildings or restoration projects were realised: among them were the youth prison (Palazzo del Gonfalone) (1825–27), the renovation of the Armenian Hospice next to the church of San Biagio (1830), the new façade of the Santo Spirito dei Napoletani (1853), and the Collegio Spagnuolo (1853) by Pietro Camporese and Antonio Sarti, which is the only building of architectonic quality among them. However, this did not stop the general decline of the street that started in the middle of the 18th century. The nobility abandoned the palaces on the street to move to the new centre of urban life in the Campo Marzio plain, and in their place the road hosted artisans, assuming an aspect of abandonment and survival.
### Via Giulia since 1870
After Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy in 1870, the Tiber (known for flooding, particularly in Campus Martius plain) had its banks worked on in 1873 by constructing Lungoteveres, which since 1888 were erected along the road and required the church of Sant'Anna dei Bresciani to be torn down. The Lungoteveres completely cut off Via Giulia from the Tiber and prevented the loggias and gardens of the palaces facing the river, such as the Palazzi Medici-Clarelli, Sacchetti, Varese, and Falconieri from having a view of the river. Moreover, the Fontanone of Ponte Sisto was demolished together with the Beggars' Hospice in 1879 and rebuilt in 1898 on the opposite side of the Ponte Sisto in what is now Piazza Trilussa.
During the fascist period, in 1938 Benito Mussolini ordered the construction of a wide avenue between Ponte Mazzini and the Chiesa Nuova. Because of that, significant building demolitions (including that of the palazzi Ruggia and Planca Incoronati and of Piazza Padella) took place in the central section of Via Giulia between Via della Barchetta and Vicolo delle Prigioni. The project was stopped because of the beginning of World War II, and to this day the resulting empty plot has only been partially filled by the new building of the Liceo Classico Virgilio.
Starting with the post-war years, the street regained gradually its status as one of the most prestigious streets in the city. Numerous events took place in 2008 during its 500th anniversary; some churches and palaces were restored and opened to visitors.
## Landmarks on Via Giulia
Via Giulia extends northwest for about one kilometre from the Piazza San Vincenzo Pallotti on the Ponte Sisto to the Piazza dell'Oro in front of the church of San Giovanni dei Fiorentini.
### 1 Palazzina Pateras Pescara (Via Giulia 251)
This last building in Via Giulia was built in 1924 by Marcello Piacentini on behalf of the Avvocato Pateras. Today it houses the Consulate of the French Republic in Rome.
### 2 Fontana del Mascherone
The fountain diagonally opposite Palazzo Farnese was built around 1626 by Carlo Rainaldi and paid for by the Farnese. It was planned in 1570 to be a public fountain fed by the Aqua Virgo aqueduct to supply people with clean drinking water. However, installation was only possible after Paul V ordered the water pipe to be extended over the Ponte Sisto in 1612. The fountain consists of an ancient large marble mascaron ("Mascherone") on a background with volutes in marble, crowned by the symbol of the Farnese, a metal Fleur-de-lis. The fountain was moved against the wall in 1903, losing most of its charm. The poet Wilhelm Waiblinger died in 1830 in the house opposite to it.
### 3 Palazzo Farnese (Via Giulia 186)
The garden façade of this palace building is oriented towards the Via Giulia. In 1549 it was designed according to Vignola's drawings and completed by Giacomo della Porta in 1589. The garden between the façade and the Via Giulia was once adorned by the Farnese bull (now in the National Archaeological Museum in Naples). The palace is now the French Embassy in Italy.
### 3a Camerini Farnesiani (Via Giulia 253-260)
Behind the row of lower buildings ("Camerini Farnesiani"), which today belong to the French Embassy, lay a small palace with garden, the Palazzetto Farnese, built around 1603 by Cardinal Odoardo Farnese as his hermitage, also known as Eremo del Cardinale ("Cardinal's hermitage"). This private retreat of the Cardinal, decorated with frescoes by Giovanni Lanfranco, was accessible from Palazzo Farnese through a terrace and the Arco Farnese. The building still stands along Via Giulia, but its original internal disposition has been changed through several interventions, while its giardino segreto ("secret garden") with its loggia with three arches open on the river has been destroyed.
### 4 Arco Farnese
The bridge connects Via Giulia to the Palazzo Farnese. It was erected in 1603, and was used to observe festive processions, games, and horse races in Via Giulia, particularly during Carnival. The arch was part of a project conceived by Pope Paul III and never realised, which foresaw the connection of Palazzo Farnese with the Villa Farnesina in Trastevere by means of a private bridge over the river.
### 5 Santa Maria dell'Orazione e Morte (Via Giulia ad. 262)
The church, built in 1575–76, is located in the immediate vicinity of Palazzo Farnese and belonged to the Compagnia della Morte ("Death's Brotherhood") founded in 1538. The fraternity was tasked with burying the dead that – having been recovered from the river or found in the area surrounding Rome – were not claimed by anyone. The building was demolished in 1733 and rebuilt by Ferdinando Fuga in 1737. Its cemetery on the banks of the Tiber was demolished when the river was regulated in 1886.
### 6 Palazzo Falconieri also Palazzo Odescalchi Falconieri (Via Giulia 1)
The original building was built in the 16th century for the Roman noble family of the Ceci and directly adjoins the church of Santa Maria dell'Orazione e Morte. It was sold by the Ceci in 1574 to the Odescalchi family before being passed to the Farnese in 1606. Eventually the Florentine nobleman Orazio Falconieri bought it in 1638 for 16,000 scudi. From 1646 to 1649 he commissioned the architect Francesco Borromini to extend the palace. The sides of the façade on Via Giulia are decorated with two pilasters in the shape of large hermas with female breasts and falcon heads. The façade on the Tiber side features a three-arched loggia dating back to 1649. From 1814 Cardinal Joseph Fesch, uncle of Napoleon Bonaparte lived there, and from 1815 to 1818 he hosted his stepsister Laetitia Ramolino, the emperor's mother. In 1927 the Kingdom of Italy ceded the palace to the Hungarian State, which established it as the seat of the Hungarian Academy ("Accademia d'Ungheria"). Today, in addition to the academy, the palace is home to the Pontificium Institutum Ecclesiasticum Hungaricum in Urbe.
### 7 Palazzo Baldoca-Muccioli (Via Giulia 167)
The history of the palace is closely linked to the neighbouring Palazzo Cisterna. Both properties were acquired and rebuilt by the sculptor Guglielmo della Porta. Guglielmo began to work around 1546 in the service of Pope Paul III who at the death of Sebastiano del Piombo entrusted him with the lucrative office of Keeper of the Seals (Italian: Custode del Piombo). it is possible that della Porta considered the building only an investment, since he rented it in 1574 to the florentine knight Nicolò de Gaddis. The palazzo was owner later by the Baldoca and Muccioli families. At the beginning of the 20th century the palace served as the residence of the English ambassador in Rome, Sir Rennell Rodd, who bought and had it badly restored in 1928.
### 8 Palazzo Cisterna (Via Giulia 163)
The Palazzo Cisterna was built by Guglielmo della Porta and served as his residence. Above the architrave of the windows on the first floor the inscription "FRANCISCVS TANCREDA ET GVILELMVS D(ella) P(orta) ME(ediolanensis) – S(culptor) CI(vis) RO(manus)" can be read. From a letter to a friend, it appears that the palace was completed in 1575. In 1600 Spanish missionaries acquired the palace and sold it to the Cisterna family at the beginning of the 20th century. It was partially sold to the Ducci family in the second half of the 20th century.
### 9 Santa Caterina da Siena in Via Giulia (Via Giulia ad. 151)
The history of this church is closely linked to the Sienese Brotherhood. A community of merchants, bankers and craftsmen from Siena had been living in what was to be Via Giulia, where at that time stood the castrum Senense since the 14th century. In 1519 the Brotherhood was canonically erected by Leo X. In 1526 they commissioned Baldassare Peruzzi to build the church in honour of their saints, an oratory, and a house for the clerics. The funds were provided by the Sienese nobility in Rome, particularly by the Dean of the College of Cardinals Giovanni Piccolomini and the banker Agostino Chigi, who alone donated 4,000 scudi. Since it was in a dilapidated state, it was rebuilt between 1766 and 1768 according to Paolo Posi's designs, while the interior decor was completed in 1775. The Archconfraternity of the Sienese still owns the building today. During Via Giulia's 500th anniversary of the street in 2008 the altarpiece by Girolamo Genga has been restored.
### 10 Palazzo Varese (Via Giulia 14-21)
The palace opposite Santa Caterina da Siena was built between 1617 and 1618 by Carlo Maderno on behalf of Monsignor Diomede Varese. In 1788 Monsignor Giuseppe degli Atti Varese gave the building to the Congregation Propaganda Fide when his family line died out. After exchanging owners several times the palace finally came into the possession of the Mancini family. The front consists of two upper floors and a mezzanine, and is divided by several axes of irregularly spaced windows, which testify how the building was born by merging several pre-existing edifices. On the ground floor is the main portal and above it is a balcony on consoles, flanked by three windows each. The portal opens into the yard with three loggie, the first on arches, while the others have their entablature that rests directly on the columns. The yard originally opened to a garden by the river, now lost because of the closing of the Tiber side.
### 11 Sant'Eligio degli Orefici (Via di Sant'Eligio 9)
The small church is off the Via Giulia and serves as the guild church of the Roman gold- and silversmiths. Its construction is attributed to Raphael, although it is possible that after the death of the artist it was finished by Baldassare Peruzzi.
### 12 Palazzo del Collegio Spagnolo (Via Giulia 151)
The Palacio de Monserrat by Antonio Sarti and Pietro Camporese was built in 1862 by the will of Queen of Spain Isabella II and today is the Spanish High Centre for Ecclesiastical Studies. The centre is attached to the Spanish National Church of Santa Maria in Monserrato on the Via di Monserrato behind it, and its history is closely connected with that of the church. The erection of the college was the only major intervention in the construction of the road in the 19th century.
### 13 Liceo Statale Virgilio (Via Giulia No 35 ff.)
One of the most important state school complexes in Rome was built between 1936 and 1939 by Marcello Piacentini. The building complex between Via Giulia and the Lungotevere dei Tebaldi includes the façade of the Collegio Ghislieri, designed by Carlo Maderno (16th century) and the church of the Santo Spirito dei Napoletani.
### 14 Palazzo Ricci (Via Giulia 146)
The present building was originally a cluster of unconnected buildings, built at different times, opposite the Collegio Ghislieri. The building complex was merged in 1634 and 1684. The main façade facing Piazza de'Ricci shows strongly faded remains of a graffito by Polidoro da Caravaggio and Maturino da Firenze (16th century). On the side facing Via Giulia, a continuous façade gave the complex its present uniform appearance.
### 15 Santo Spirito dei Napoletani (Via Giulia ad. 34)
In the Pius V church catalogue this church is listed under the name of Santa Aura in strada Iulia. It was dedicated to Saint Aurea, the patron saint of Ostia. A nunnery was attached to the church. In 1439 the church was restored at the expense of Cardinal Guillaume d'Estouteville. In 1572 Cardinal Innico d'Avalos d'Aragona founded in the dilapidated building the Confraternita dello Spirito Santo dei Napoletani ("Brotherhood of the Holy Spirit of the Neapolitans"), who bought it from the nuns in 1574. Between 1619 and 1650 a new building was erected, with a project of Ottavio Mascherino and a façade by Cosimo Fanzago. It was dedicated to the Holy Spirit. In the following centuries it was renovated several times, at the beginning of the 18th century by Carlo Fontana and in 1853 the façade was renovated by Antonio Cipolla. It was the National Church of the Kingdom of Naples. The last King of Naples Francis II and his wife Marie Sophie Amalie, Duchess in Bavaria, were buried in the church in 1942. After extensive restoration work carried out in 1986, the church is open for worship.
### 16 San Filippo Neri in Via Giulia (Via Giulia 134 bis)
Construction of the small church opposite the Carceri Nuove was sponsored by Rutilio Brandi, a glove-maker from Florence, and given to the Compagnia delle santissime piaghe after 1617, the year in which the confraternity got the permission to organize itself. The church was originally dedicated to Saint Trophimus. It was connected to a residence for unmarried girls (zitelle) and a hospital for sick priests. Since the residence was dedicated to San Filippo Neri, after some years the church too changed its dedication to him. In 1728 Filippo Raguzzini restored the church on behalf of Pope Benedict XIII (r. 1724–1730). The church barely escaped destruction in the early 1940s due to the construction of a large road that should have joined Ponte Mazzini and the Chiesa Nuova. This road was never built due to the World War II. The edifice was abandoned after the war before being restored in 2000 for non-religious purposes.
### 17 Carceri Nuove (Via Giulia 52)
Since 1430 the Savelli family owned the title of Maresciallo di Santa Romana Chiesa ("Marshall of the Church"), with their own tribunal whose jurisdiction could reach the family of the pontiff. Due to that, the family run the infamous Corte Savella, a prison which lay along Via di Monserrato near the Collegio Inglese. The inhumane penal system in the Corte Savella gave to Pope Innocent X (r. 1644–1655) the excuse to withdraw the Savelli's monopoly on the penal system in Rome.
As a sign of new Justitia Papalis, he had the new penal institution, the Carceri Nuove, built in Via Giulia. This new prison was built between 1652 and 1655 by the architect Antonio del Grande. The Carceri Nuove were considered a model of a humane penitentiary system in their time. The building and its purpose had a rather negative influence on the image of the magnificent street, which led to the suspension of construction in the following years and the Renaissance character of the street being preserved. The building acted as a prison until the opening of Regina Coeli in Trastevere in 1883, further on until 1931 as a youth prison. From 1931 the palace housed the headquarters of the Centro di Studi Penitenziari ("Research Institute for Criminal Justice") and a specialized library. Today the building houses the Direzione Nazionale Antimafia e Antiterrorismo ("National Directorate for Anti-Mafia and Anti-Terrorism").
### 17a Palazzo del Gonfalone (Via del Gonfalone 29)
The building between the Vicolo della Scimia and Via del Gonfalone has no entrance from Via Giulia. It was built between 1825 and 1827 under Pope Leo XII (r. 1823–1829) according to plans by Giuseppe Valadier as a prison for the youth. Today the building houses the Museo Criminologico (lit. "Criminological Museum").
### 18 Santa Maria del Suffragio (Via Giulia ad. 59)
In 1592 the Confraternita del Suffragio ("Brotherhood of Intercession") was founded next to the church of San Biagio della Pagnotta to implore the intercession for the souls of the purgatory. The Brotherhood was approved by Pope Clement VIII (r. 1592–1605) in 1594 and was elevated to the status of Arciconfaternita ("Archbishopric Brotherhood") by Paul V. Thanks to several donations, in 1662 the erection of the church began as a project of architect Carlo Rainaldi. The building was consecrated in 1669, and the façade was finished in 1680. The church's interior was renovated in 1869; the frescoes inside the church are by Cesare Mariani (Coronation of the Virgin) and Giuseppe Chiari (Nativity of Mary and Adoration of the Magi).
### 19 Palazzo dei Tribunali
Julius II's most important planned project in the new street was a central administration building, in which a large part of the city's important offices and courts ("tribunali") were to be grouped together. The pope's commission to Donato Bramante (at the time main architect of the new St. Peter's Basilica) was issued around 1506, and construction in the area between Vicolo del Cefalo and Via del Gonfalone began before 1508, but was interrupted as in 1511 by the Pax Romana. With Julius II's death in 1513, construction completely stopped. Giorgio Vasari wrote:
> Onde Bramante diede principio al palazzo ch'a San Biagio su 'l Tevere si vede, nel quale è ancora un tempio corinzio non finito, cosa molto rara, et il resto del principio di opera rustica bellissimo che è stato gran danno che una sì onorata et utile e magnifica opra non si sia finita, ché da quelli della professione è tenuto il più bello ordine che si sia visto mai in quel genere.
> Bramante therefore began the construction of the palace, which can be seen near San Biagio on the Tiber. In it there is still an unfinished Corinthian temple, something very rare and the remains of the beginning in beautiful Opera Rustica. It is a great pity that such an important, useful and great project has remained unfinished. Experts considered it to be the most beautiful building of its kind ever seen.
Some remains of the mighty rusticated walls, called i sofà di Via Giulia (English: Via Giulia's couches) by the Roman population, between Via del Gonfalone and Vicolo del Cefalo along Via Giulia, can be seen today.
### 20 San Biagio della Pagnotta (San Biagio degli Armeni) (Via Giulia ad. 63)
This church was dedicated to Saint Blaise of Sebaste and is mentioned in the church catalogues of the Middle Ages under the name of San Biagio de Cantu Secuta. The name "della pagnotta" is derived from the Roman word pagnotta ("bread roll"), which was distributed to the faithful on the 3 February (feast of St. Blaise) and thought to protect against throat illnesses. The church was attached to one of the first abbeys in Rome. An inscription on the interior commemorates the construction of the church by an abbot Dominicus in 1072. According to the Bramante's plans, this church was to be included in the yard of the Palazzo dei Tribunali. From 1539 to 1835 it was a parish church. In 1826 Pope Gregory XVI (r. 1831–1846) assigned the church to the Armenian community of Santa Maria Egiziaca. Since then it has been called officially San Biagio degli Armeni.
### 21 Palazzo Ricci-Donarelli (Via Giulia no. 99-105)
The palace is opposite to the Palazzo Sacchetti and was originally a group of residential buildings that first belonged to the Ricci and later to the Donarelli family. The complex was restructured in 1663, possibly by Carlo Rainaldi.
### 22 Palazzo Sacchetti (Via Giulia 66)
Antonio da Sangallo the Younger built the palace on land bought in 1542 by the Vatican Chapter. The façade still bears the chipped coat of arms of Paul III. His son Orazio inherited the building and sold it in 1552 to Cardinal Giovanni Ricci di Montepulciano, who had the palace extended to its current dimensions by the architect Nanni di Baccio Bigio. An inscription in the Vicolo del Cefalo's side wall states that the palace was exempted from paying the census tax in 1555. The building changed hands several times. In 1649 it was bought by the Florentine Sacchetti family, whose name it still bears. The entrance to Via Giulia is made of marble and flanked on both sides by three large windows with grilles, thresholds, and cornices. In the left corner of the palazzo there is a small fountain flanked by caryatides with two dolphins embedded in the wall; this refers to the later owners, the Ceuli family, whose coat of arms was chipped. Notable features inside include the Salone dei Mappamondi ("Hall of World Maps"), designed by Francesco Salviati, and the dining room with two frescoes painted by Pietro da Cortona. The writer Ingeborg Bachmann lived in this palazzo in 1973 dying at Sant'Eugenio Hospital on 17 October 1973.
### 23 Palace with the Farnese coats of arms (Via Giulia 93)
The building's first owner could have been Durante Duranti, lover of Costanza Farnese, or Guglielmo della Porta, which in this case would have been also the architect. The palazzo takes its name from the three coats of arms of the Farnese family, which were added to the façade under Paul III. In the centre of the upper floor there is the coat of arms of Paul III with the papal tiara and the keys between two unicorns. On the left is the coat of arms of Cardinal Alessandro Farnese and on the right the coat of arms of his brother Ottavio Farnese or of Pierluigi Farnese, both Dukes of Parma and Piacenza.
### 24 Palazzo Medici Clarelli (Via Giulia 79)
Antonio da Sangallo the Younger built this palace as a private residence around 1535–1536. After Sangallo's death in 1546 the building was owned by the Florentine Migliore Cresci. An inscription above the main portal immortalizes Duke Cosimo I de' Medici. The palace for some time belonged to the Tuscan Consulate in Rome. At the end of the 17th century it was acquired by the Marini Clarelli family. In the 19th century it was used as barracks before being sold to the city of Rome in 1870. The façade (richly historiated at the time of Cresci) and the portal are lined with rusticated ashlars. On the sides of the portal there are badly rebuilt large windows on consoles.
### 25 Casa di Raffaello (Via Giulia 85)
This palace, erroneously called the House of Raphael, was built after 1525 for the Vatican Chapter according to a design by the architect Bartolomeo de Ramponibus. Raphael originally acquired several plots of land here. However, he died before the building's construction began. The original and the definitive design – known through three plans discovered in the Uffizi – are respectively by Raphael and Antonio da Sangallo the Younger. An inscription above the windows of the first floor is dedicated to Raphael: "POSSEDEVA RAF SANZIO NEL MDXX" (English: Raf(faello) Sanzio owned (this house) in 1520).
### 26 Quarter of the Florentines
In 1448 Florentine merchants who resided in Rome (many of them settled in the Tiber bend, today's Ponte rione), founded the Compagnia della Pietà, akin to the Florentine "Misericordia". Both popes from the Medici family, Leo X and Clement VII (r. 1523–1534), promoted the influx of Florentines. Since 1515 the Republic of Florence had its own consulate in a palace on Via del Consolato that was erected in 1541 and demolished in 1888 to open the Corso Vittorio Emanuele avenue. It had its own court and its own prison. Some of the buildings erected towards the end of the 15th century that once belonged to Florentines are still preserved across from the church of San Giovanni dei Fiorentini:
### 27 San Giovanni dei Fiorentini (Via Acciaioli 2)
In 1519 the "nation" of the Florentines received from Leo X the privilege to build a parish church in honour of John the Baptist. The church stands at the northern end of Via Giulia in the Florentine quarter. The church reflects the grandeur and the political self-image of the Medici family, whose portraits adorned the facade of a palazzo'' right next to the church. It is the largest church on Via Giulia and its construction, started at the beginning of the 16th century, lasted more than 200 years. It combined the efforts of three of Rome's master builders: Giacomo della Porta, Carlo Maderno, and Francesco Borromini. The last two artists were interred in the same tomb at the church. The altarpiece, started by Pietro da Cortona, was continued by Borromini and finished by Ciro Ferri.
|
29,557,795 |
ProtoGalaxy
| 1,151,957,395 |
2010 video game
|
[
"2010 video games",
"Action-adventure games",
"Culture of Newfoundland and Labrador",
"English-language-only video games",
"Indie games",
"Memorial University of Newfoundland",
"Multiplayer and single-player video games",
"Post-apocalyptic video games",
"Puzzle video games",
"Science fiction shooter video games",
"Science fiction video games",
"Third-person shooters",
"Top-down video games",
"Video games developed in Canada",
"Video games set in outer space",
"Video games with 2.5D graphics",
"Windows games",
"Windows-only games"
] |
ProtoGalaxy is a cross-genre video game for Microsoft Windows that was released on October 6, 2010. In the game's back-story, a species of powerful, unknown extraterrestrials enters the Milky Way with the intention of enslaving its inhabitants. The player characters must defend Earth from this alien threat and restore human civilization. ProtoGalaxy is a 2.5D game; the 2D playing field employs 3D graphics. ProtoGalaxy incorporates elements of a variety of gaming genres, such as adventure, arcade, shooter, puzzle, and role-playing genres.
This indie PC game is the debut production by Source Studio, a Newfoundland-based company. The idea for the game was originally conceived in 2007 when Alex Brown, Rob Rees, and Albert Chaulk, the three co-founders of Source Studio, were engineering students together at Memorial University.
## Gameplay
ProtoGalaxy is presented from a 2.5D perspective; the 2D playing field employs 3D graphics. ProtoGalaxy incorporates elements of a variety of gaming genres, such as adventure, arcade, shooter, puzzle, and role-playing genres. In the game's back-story, a species of powerful, unknown extraterrestrials enters the Milky Way with the intention of enslaving its inhabitants. The player characters, of which there may be up to four at a time, follow a storyline by which they must defend Earth from an alien threat and restore human civilization, rebuilding for the sake of those humans who survive.
Players control individual ships, with which they can earn money by defeating enemies and then buy new ship parts. ProtoGalaxy may be played on single-player or multiplayer mode, where players can team up either online or on a single system. Allgame, a video game review website, labelled ProtoGalaxy as an "overhead free-roaming shooter". One of the features of the game is that it allows players to create their own levels, put them online, and download new levels other players have created.
## Development and release
ProtoGalaxy was the first product developed by Source Studio, a Newfoundland-based company. The idea for the game was originally conceived in 2007 when Alex Brown, Rob Rees, and Albert Chaulk, the three co-founders of Source Studio, were engineering students together at Memorial University of Newfoundland. Memorial University's business incubator, the Genesis Centre, accepted Source Studio in 2008. Brown called the game "an intense space themed dungeon crawler". ProtoGalaxy was released on October 6, 2010 on the Steam digital distribution platform along with a demo version.
There have been three patches distributed since the game's initial release. The first patch for the game was released on October 21, 2010, while the second came out on October 28, and the third appeared on December 31, bringing the game to version 1.0.5. These updates improved such elements as gameplay, graphics, and the campaign map. The developers also intended to expand ProtoGalaxy with new features and levels. A party celebrating the game's launch was held on October 15, 2010 at Memorial University. On February 25, 2011, Source Studio released Proto Defense, which enhanced the level editor and provided gamers with a new tower-defense-style level as downloadable content. On April 28, 2011, ProtoGalaxy was released on Impulse, another digital distribution platform.
## Reception
Harry Hughes of PC MMGN called the game "one of this year's most polished indie titles", praising its immersiveness and tasteful integration of multiple gaming genres. He also highlighted such features as the extensive campaign, the customizability of levels and visuals, and the wide range of possible configurations for players' ship parts. Criticism of the game focused on the rough transitions between views, the slow mouse speed on the control menu, and the cumbersome controls for switching between weapons.
|
2,430,486 |
Battle of Great Bridge
| 1,160,969,232 |
Battle of the American Revolutionary War
|
[
"1775 in Virginia",
"1775 in the Thirteen Colonies",
"American Revolution on the National Register of Historic Places",
"Archaeological sites on the National Register of Historic Places in Virginia",
"Battles in the Southern theater of the American Revolutionary War 1775–1779",
"Battles involving Great Britain",
"Battles involving the United States",
"Battles of the American Revolutionary War in Virginia",
"Conflict sites on the National Register of Historic Places in Virginia",
"Conflicts in 1775",
"History of Chesapeake, Virginia",
"National Register of Historic Places in Chesapeake, Virginia"
] |
The Battle of Great Bridge was fought December 9, 1775, in the area of Great Bridge, Virginia, early in the American Revolutionary War. The victory by colonial Virginia militia forces led to the departure of Royal Governor Lord Dunmore and any remaining vestiges of British power over the Colony of Virginia during the early days of the conflict.
Following increasing political and military tensions in early 1775, both Dunmore and colonial rebel leaders recruited troops and engaged in a struggle for available military supplies. The struggle eventually focused on Norfolk, where Dunmore had taken refuge aboard a Royal Navy vessel. Dunmore's forces had fortified one side of a critical river crossing south of Norfolk at Great Bridge, while rebel forces had occupied the other side. In an attempt to break up the rebel gathering, Dunmore ordered an attack across the bridge, which was decisively repulsed. Colonel William Woodford, the Virginia militia commander at the battle, described it as "a second Bunker's Hill affair".
Shortly thereafter, Norfolk, at the time a Loyalist center, was abandoned by Dunmore and the Tories, who fled to navy ships in the harbor. Rebel-occupied Norfolk was destroyed on January 1, 1776 in an action begun by Dunmore and completed by rebel forces.
## Background
Tensions in the British Colony of Virginia were raised in April 1775 at roughly the same time that the hostilities of the American Revolutionary War broke out in the Province of Massachusetts Bay with the Battles of Lexington and Concord. John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore, the royal governor of Virginia, had dismissed the colonial legislative assembly, the House of Burgesses, who then established a provisional assembly in Virginia Conventions. The Burgesses authorized existing and newly raised militia troops to arm themselves, leading to a struggle for control of the colony's military supplies. Under orders from Lord Dunmore, British forces removed gunpowder from the colonial storehouse in the capital of Williamsburg, causing a confrontation between royal and militia forces. Although the incident was resolved without violence, Dunmore, fearing for his personal safety, left Williamsburg in June 1775 and placed his family on board a Royal Navy ship. A small British fleet then took shape at Norfolk, a port town whose merchants had significant Loyalist (Tory) tendencies. The threat posed by the British fleet may also have played a role in minimizing Whig activity in the town.
Incidents continued between rebels on one side and loyalists (Tories) on the other until October, when Dunmore had acquired enough military support to begin operations against the rebellious colonists. General Thomas Gage, the British commander-in-chief for North America, had ordered small detachments of the 14th Regiment of Foot to Virginia in response to pleas by Dunmore for military help. These troops began raiding surrounding counties for rebel military supplies on October 12. This activity continued through the end of October, when a small British ship ran aground and was captured by rebels during a skirmish near Hampton. Navy boats sent to punish the townspeople were repulsed by colonial militia in a brief gunfight that resulted in the killing and capture of several sailors. Dunmore reacted to this event by issuing a proclamation on November 7 in which he declared martial law, and offered to emancipate colonist slaves in Virginia willing to serve in the British Army. The proclamation alarmed rebel and loyalist slaveholders alike, concerned by the idea of armed former slaves and the potential loss of their property. Nevertheless, Dunmore was able to recruit enough slaves to form the Ethiopian Regiment, as well as raising a company of Tories he called the Queen's Own Loyal Virginia Regiment (later absorbed into the Queen's Rangers in 1776). These local forces supplemented the two companies of the 14th Foot, and in addition to the naval forces, that were the sole British military presence in the colony. This successful recruiting drive prompted Dunmore to write on November 30, 1775 that he would soon be able to "reduce this colony to a proper sense of their duty."
## Prelude
Lord Dunmore had, on arrival in Norfolk, ordered the fortification of the bridge across the southern branch of the Elizabeth River, about 9 miles (14 km) south of Norfolk in the village of Great Bridge. The bridge formed a natural defense point since it was on the only road leading south from Norfolk toward North Carolina, it was bordered on both sides by the Great Dismal Swamp, and the access to the bridge on both sides was via narrow causeways. Dunmore sent 25 men of the 14th Foot to the bridge, where they erected a small stockade fort they called Fort Murray on the Norfolk side of the bridge. They also removed the bridge planking to make crossing it more difficult. The fort was armed with two cannons and several smaller swivel guns. The men of the 14th were augmented by small companies from the Ethiopian and Queen's Own regiments, bringing the garrison size to between 40 and 80 men.
In response to Dunmore's proclamation, Virginia's assembly ordered its militia troops to march on Norfolk. William Woodford, the colonel leading the 2nd Virginia Regiment, advanced toward the bridge with his regiment of 400 and about 100 riflemen from the Culpeper Minutemen. On December 2 they arrived at the bridge and set up a camp across the bridge from the British fort. Upon their arrival the British set about destroying buildings near the fort to ensure a clear field of fire. Woodford was at first unwilling to assault the British position, thinking he lacked enough cannons to overcome an overly generous estimate of the garrison's strength. He therefore began entrenching his position, while more and more militia companies arrived from the surrounding counties and North Carolina. Some cannons eventually arrived with a contingent of North Carolina men, but they were useless because they lacked mountings and carriages. Woodford also became concerned when he heard rumors that a large number of Scottish Highlanders had joined Dunmore's forces. The rumors were partly true: the Highlanders were in fact 120 families, but few of the men were skilled at arms. By December 8, the force in the militia camp had grown to nearly 900, with more than 700 fit for duty.
Dunmore learned that the colonial militia had acquired cannons, but was unaware they were inoperable. Concerned for the safety of the garrison, he decided an attack on their position was necessary. His plan called for a diversionary attack by the Ethiopian companies of the garrison at a spot downriver from the bridge to draw the militia's attention, while the garrison, reinforced by additional troops from Norfolk, would attack across the bridge in the early morning light.
## Battle
Dunmore's best intelligence had informed him that the rebel forces numbered about 400. On the night and morning of December 8 and 9, Captain Samuel Leslie led reinforcements up to Fort Murray, arriving around 3:00 am. Upon his arrival, he learned that the Ethiopian detachment intended for the diversion was not in the fort. They had been dispatched on a routine deployment to another nearby crossing, and Dunmore had failed to send orders ensuring their availability for the operation. Leslie decided to proceed with the attack anyway. After resting his troops until a little before dawn, he sent men out to replace the bridge planking. Once this was finished, Captain Charles Fordyce led a company of 60 grenadiers across the bridge. They briefly skirmished with militia sentries, raising the alarm in the camp beyond the entrenchments. Fordyce's men were then joined by a company of navy gunners who had been brought along to operate the field artillery for the attack, while the Tory companies arrayed themselves on the Norfolk side of the bridge.
The militia leader in the camp at first thought the early skirmishing was a typical morning salute and paid it little heed. Shortly after reveille, the severity of the alarm became apparent. While the camp mobilized, a militia company numbering about sixty prepared for the British advance behind the earthworks. They carefully withheld fire until the grenadiers, advancing with bayonets fixed, were within 50 yards (46 m), and then unleashed a torrent of fire on the British column. Fordyce, leading the column, went down in a hail of musket fire just steps from the earthworks along with many of the men in the front ranks. The British advance dissolved as the militia musket fire continued; about half of Fordyce's force was killed, and many were injured. The navy gunners provided covering fire as they retreated back across the bridge, but their small cannons made no impression on the earthworks.
Colonel Woodford had by this time organized the forces in the rebel camp, and they marched out to face the British. After an inconsequential exchange of musket fire at long range, Woodford sent the riflemen of the Culpeper Minutemen off to the left. From this position, the riflemen, whose weapons had a much longer range than muskets, began to fire on the British position on the far side of the bridge. The navy gunners, with the only weapons the British had available to contest the riflemen at that range, were now out of position and were also being threatened by the large militia force approaching the earthworks. They spiked their guns and retreated across the bridge, and Captain Leslie ordered his men to retreat into Fort Murray. In some 25 minutes, Dunmore's attempt to stop the rebel buildup near Norfolk had been emphatically turned back.
## Aftermath
Following a truce to permit the British to remove their dead and wounded, the Tory forces snuck out in the night to return to Norfolk. Captain Fordyce was buried with full military honors by the rebels near the site of the battle. Casualty estimates ranged from Dunmore's official report of 62 killed or wounded to an escaped patriot's report that the British losses totaled 102, excluding militia casualties. The only claimed rebel casualty was one man with a slight wound to the thumb. Colonel William Woodford, reporting on the 2nd Virginia Regiment's service at the battle, wrote in a letter published in Purdie's Virginia Gazette, December 15, 1775: "This was a second Bunker's Hill affair, in miniature; with this difference, that we kept our post, and had only one man wounded in the hand."
The Virginia militia forces were then reinforced by the arrival of troops from North Carolina under Colonel Robert Howe. Dunmore blamed Leslie for his decision to attack without the accompanying diversion, although the outcome of the battle may not have been different even with the diversion, given the disparity in force sizes. In the following days, Dunmore and his Tory supporters took refuge on ships of the Royal Navy, and Norfolk was occupied by the victorious rebel forces. The danger Dunmore posed to the rebel cause, however, had not been eliminated. General George Washington, commander-in-chief of the Continental Army and a Virginian who knew Dunmore well, wrote a letter to Charles Lee in late December, warning of continued danger despite Dunmore's flight to the navy. He told Lee that "if that Man is not crushed before Spring, he will become the most formidable Enemy America has", and that "nothing less than depriving him of life or liberty will secure peace to Virginia."
After a series of escalations over the rebel's refusal to allow provisions to be delivered to the overcrowded vessels, Dunmore and Commodore Henry Pellow decided to bombard the town. On January 1, 1776, Norfolk was destroyed in action begun by Royal Navy ships and their landing parties, but completed by rebel troops that continued to loot and burn the former Tory stronghold.
Lord Dunmore occupied Portsmouth in February 1776, and used it as a base for raiding operations until late March, when General Charles Lee successfully forced him back to the fleet. After further raiding operations in the Chesapeake, Dunmore and the British fleet left for New York City in August 1776. Dunmore never returned to Virginia.
A highway marker was placed by the state of Virginia in 1934 near the battle site. In response to construction threats to the battlefield, local citizens organized in 1999 to preserve the area. In 2021, the American Battlefield Trust and its partners acquired and preserved two-thirds of an acre of the battlefield.
## Gallery
## See also
- List of American Revolutionary War battles
- American Revolutionary War §Early Engagements. The Battle of Great Bridge placed in sequence and strategic context.
|
30,158,677 |
Battle of Ka-san
| 1,141,247,081 |
Part of the Korean War
|
[
"Battle of Pusan Perimeter",
"Battles and operations of the Korean War in 1950",
"Battles of the Korean War",
"Battles of the Korean War involving North Korea",
"Battles of the Korean War involving South Korea",
"Battles of the Korean War involving the United States",
"History of North Gyeongsang Province",
"September 1950 events in Asia"
] |
The Battle of Ka-san was an engagement between United Nations Command (UN) and North Korean forces early in the Korean War from September 1 to September 15, 1950, in the vicinity of Ka-san in South Korea. It was a part of the Battle of Pusan Perimeter, and was one of several large engagements fought simultaneously. The battle ended in a victory for the United Nations after large numbers of United States Army (US) and Republic of Korea Army (ROK) troops repelled a strong Korean People's Army (KPA) attack.
Attempting to capture Taegu as part of the Great Naktong Offensive, the KPA 1st and 13th Divisions advanced to the hill masses north of the city where they confronted the US 1st Cavalry Division and the ROK 1st Division. The KPA sought to occupy a number of hill masses, most prominently Hill 902, known to South Koreans as Ka-san, for the ancient fortress situated atop it.
In two weeks of fighting in and around the fortress, the KPA were able to gradually push back the UN forces from Ka-san and Hills 755 and 314 to the south, but the UN forces held out strongly and the KPA were not able to quickly consolidate their gains. The UN forces defended the ground tenaciously, even assigning a battalion of engineers to fight on the front lines, eventually preventing the KPA from advancing long enough for the KPA to be outflanked by the Inchon landings on 15 September and on 16 September the UN forces began their breakout from the Pusan Perimeter which drove the KPA from the area.
## Background
### Pusan Perimeter
From the outbreak of the Korean War and the invasion of South Korea by the North, the KPA had enjoyed superiority in both manpower and equipment over both the ROK and the UN forces dispatched to South Korea to prevent it from collapsing. The KPA tactics were to aggressively pursue UN forces on all avenues of approach south and to engage them aggressively, attacking from the front and initiating a double envelopment of both flanks of the unit, which allowed the KPA to surround and cut off the opposing force, which would then be forced to retreat in disarray, often leaving behind much of its equipment. From their initial June 25 offensive to fights in July and early August, the KPA used these tactics to effectively defeat any UN force and push it south. However, when the UN forces, under the Eighth United States Army, established the Pusan Perimeter in August, the UN troops held a continuous line along the peninsula which KPA troops could not flank, and their advantages in numbers decreased daily as the superior UN logistical system brought in more troops and supplies to the UN forces.
When the KPA approached the Pusan Perimeter on August 5, they attempted the same frontal assault technique on the four main avenues of approach into the perimeter. Throughout August, the KPA 6th Division, and later the KPA 7th Division engaged the US 25th Infantry Division at the Battle of Masan, initially repelling a UN counteroffensive before countering with battles at Komam-ni and Battle Mountain. These attacks stalled as UN forces, well equipped and with plenty of reserves, repeatedly repelled KPA attacks. North of Masan, the KPA 4th Division and the US 24th Infantry Division sparred in the Naktong Bulge area. In the First Battle of Naktong Bulge, the KPA division was unable to hold its bridgehead across the river as large numbers of US reserve forces were brought in to repel it, and on August 19, the KPA 4th Division was forced back across the river with 50 percent casualties. In the Taegu region, five KPA divisions were repulsed by three UN divisions in several attempts to attack the city during the Battle of Taegu. Particularly heavy fighting took place at the Battle of the Bowling Alley where the KPA 13th Division was almost completely destroyed in the attack. On the east coast, three more KPA divisions were repulsed by the ROK at P'ohang-dong during the Battle of P'ohang-dong. All along the front, the KPA troops were reeling from these defeats, the first time in the war their tactics were not working.
### September push
In planning its new offensive, the KPA command decided any attempt to flank the UN force was impossible thanks to the support of the UN naval forces. Instead, they opted to use frontal attack to breach the perimeter and collapse it as the only hope of achieving success in the battle. Fed by intelligence from the Soviet Union the North Koreans were aware the UN forces were building up along the Pusan Perimeter and that it must conduct an offensive soon or it could not win the battle. A secondary objective was to surround Taegu and destroy the UN units in that city. As part of this mission, the KPA would first cut the supply lines to Taegu.
On August 20, the KPA commands distributed operations orders to their subordinate units. The plan called for a simultaneous five-prong attack against the UN lines. These attacks would overwhelm the UN defenders and allow the KPA to break through the lines in at least one place to force the UN forces back. Five battle groupings were ordered. The center attack called for the KPA 3rd, 13th and 1st Divisions to break through the US 1st Cavalry Division and ROK 1st Division to Taegu.
## Battle
Simultaneous with their attack at Ka-san, UN and KPA units were similarly deadlocked a short distance away in the Battle of Tabu-dong. In that sector, KPA Major Kim Song Jun of the 19th Regiment, 13th Division had defected to the UN troops on September 1. He reported that a full-scale KPA attack was to begin at dusk that day. The 13th Division, he said, had just taken in 4,000 replacements, 2,000 of them without weapons, and was now back to a strength of approximately 9,000 men. Upon receiving this intelligence, 1st Cavalry Division commander Major General Hobart R. Gay alerted all of his division's front-line units to be prepared for the attack. ROK 1st Division commander Major General Paik Sun Yup also braced his men for attack.
### North Korean attack
Hard on the heels of Kim's warning that the KPA attack would strike the night of September 2, the attack hit with full force in the Bowling Alley area north of Taegu. The attack caught the US 8th Cavalry Regiment unprepared at Sangju. The division was poorly deployed along the road to that town, lacking a reserve force to counterattack effectively. The KPA struck the 2nd Battalion, 8th Cavalry, the night of September 2–3 on Hill 448 west of the Bowling Alley and 2 miles (3.2 km) north of Tabu-dong, and overran it. On the right, E Company, although not under attack, was cut off and had to withdraw. The commanding officer of the 3rd Battalion placed I Company in a blocking position just north of Tabu-dong astride the road. There, two KPA T-34 tanks and some infantry struck it at 02:00 on September 3. In this action, I Company suffered many casualties but repelled the attack. The overrun 2nd Battalion withdrew through the 3rd Battalion which had assembled hastily in a defensive position south of Tabu-dong. During the day, elements of the KPA 1st Division forced the 8th Cavalry I&R Platoon and a detachment of National Police from the Walled City of Ka-san on the crest of Hill 902, 4 miles (6.4 km) east of Tabu-dong. On September 3, therefore, the UN command, the Eighth United States Army lost both Tabu-dong and Hill 902, locally called Ka-san, the dominant mountain-top 10 miles (16 km) north of Taegu.
The North Koreans now concentrated artillery north of Hill 902 and, although its fire was light and sporadic, it did cause minor damage in the 99th Field Artillery positions. This sudden surge of the North Koreans southward toward Taegu concerned the Eighth Army commander, Lieutenant General Walton Walker. The Army ordered an ROK battalion from the Taegu Replacement Training Center to a position in the rear of the 8th Cavalry, and the 1st Cavalry Division organized Task Force Allen, to be commanded by Assistant Division Commander Brigadier General Frank A. Allen, Jr. This task force comprised two provisional battalions formed of division headquarters and technical service troops, the division band, the replacement company, and other miscellaneous troops. It was to be used in combat as an emergency force should the North Koreans break through to the edge of Taegu.
### US counterattack on Ka-san
Eighth Army countered the KPA advance down the Tabu-dong road by ordering the 1st Cavalry Division to recapture and defend Hill 902. This hill, 10 miles (16 km) north of Taegu, gave observation all the way south through Eighth Army positions into the city, and, in KPA hands, could be used for general intelligence purposes and to direct artillery and mortar fire. Hill 902 was too far distant from the Tabu-dong road to dominate it; otherwise it would have controlled this main communication route. The shortage of KPA artillery and mortar ammunition reduced the advantages the peak held as an observation point for the KPA.
Despite being popularly known as the "walled city," there was no walled city on the crest of Ka-san in 1950. Ka-san, or Hill 902, the 3,000-foot-high (910 m) mountain which differs from most high peaks in this part of Korea in having an oval-shaped semi-level area on its summit. This oval is a part of a 1-mile-long (1.6 km) ridge-like crest, varying from 200 yards (180 m) to 800 yards (730 m) in width, which slopes down from the peak at 902 metres (2,959 ft) to approximately 755 metres (2,477 ft) at its southeastern end. On all sides of this ridge crest the mountain slopes drop precipitously. In ancient times, Koreans had built a 30 feet (9.1 m) stone wall around the crest and had converted the summit into a fortress. Most of the summit in 1950 was covered with a dense growth of scrub brush and small pine trees. There were a few small terraced fields. Koreans knew Ka-san as the "Sacred Mountain". Near the northern end of the crest still stood the Buddhist Poguk Temple.
When the 1st Cavalry Division on August 29 assumed responsibility for the old ROK 1st Division sector north of Taegu it sent a patrol from the I&R Platoon to the top of Ka-san. There the patrol found 156 National Police. There was some discussion between Gay and Walker about whether the 1st Cavalry Division or the ROK 1st Division should have the responsibility for the mountain. Gay maintained that his understrength division with a 35 miles (56 km) front was already overextended and could not extend eastward beyond the hills immediately adjacent to the Tabu-dong road. Uncertainty as to final responsibility for Ka-san ended on the afternoon of September 3 after the KPA had seized the mountain.
The Eighth Army telephoned Colonel Ernest V. Holmes, Chief of Staff of the 1st Cavalry Division, and told him that the 1st Cavalry Division had responsibility for the Walled City. Holmes replied he would send a company of engineers to Ka-san. Holmes ordered Lieutenant Colonel William C. Holley, commanding officer of the 8th Engineer Combat Battalion, to report to Colonel Raymond D. Palmer, commanding the 8th Cavalry Regiment. That afternoon Palmer in his command post on the Tabu-dong road outlined to Holley and the commanding officers of D Company, 8th Engineer Combat Battalion, and E Company, 8th Cavalry, his attack plan to regain control of Ka-san. The Engineer company, commanded by First Lieutenant John T. Kennedy, was to lead the attack, E Company following. Once the force had gained the crest and E Company had established itself in defensive positions, the Engineer company was to come off the mountain. Many of the men in D Company were veteran infantrymen who had fought in World War II.
That evening, D Company loaded into trucks traveled north to the assembly area through a heavy rain. On the way they met two truckloads of National Police going south, some of them wounded. These were the police who, together with the detachment of the I&R Platoon, had been driven off Ka-san that afternoon. After waiting in the rain awhile for orders, the Engineer company turned around and went back to camp.
### Engineer attack
The next morning, September 4, D Company received orders to move immediately as an infantry force to Ka-san. The company carried no rations since E Company, 8th Cavalry, was to bring food and water later. The engineer troops arrived at their assembly area near the village of Kisong-dong 2 miles (3.2 km) east of the Tabu-dong road, where Holley set up a communications command post. Sniper fire came in on the men as they moved up the trail to the base of Ka-san's steep slope. Word was given to the company that there were about 75 disorganized KPA troops on Ka-san. But actually, during the afternoon and evening of September 3, the KPA 2nd Battalion, 2nd Regiment, 1st Division, had occupied the summit of Ka-san.
The engineer company started its attack up the mountain about noon of September 4, following a trail up a southern spur. The 1st Platoon was in the lead, single file, followed by the 2nd and 3rd Platoons. Palmer considered the mission so important that he and his military intelligence officer, Captain Rene J. Guiraud, accompanied the engineers. Platoon Sergeant James N. Vandygriff, 2nd Platoon, D Company, in a brief conversation with Holley as he went ahead of the latter on his way up the trail, said he thought the attack was a "suicide mission".
Less than 1 mile (1.6 km) up the trail, D Company came under machine gun fire from its right flank, which inflicted several casualties. Kennedy rejected Vandygriff's request to take a squad and knock out the gun, so the file got past the line of fire as best it could until M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle fire from the 3rd Platoon silenced the weapon. Farther up the trail another KPA machine gun fired from the right along the trail and held up the advance until US artillery fire silenced it. The file of men left the trail-like road, which dead-ended, dropped over into a ravine on the left, and continued the climb. KPA mortar fire killed two men and wounded eight or ten others in this phase of the ascent. At this time the 2nd Platoon leader collapsed from a kidney ailment and command passed to Vandygriff. Vandygriff led his platoon, now at the head of the company, on up the gully and at about 17:00, came through a tunnel under a small ridge and the stone wall into the bowl-shaped summit of Hill 755, the southern arm of the Hill 902 crest. The 2nd and 3rd Platoons soon arrived, in that order. Near the top, Palmer received radio orders from Gay to come off the mountain; Gay had not known that Palmer had accompanied the attack.
### Defense of Ka-san
Kennedy placed the 90 men of his company in position facing in an arc from west to northeast; the 2nd Platoon took the left flank near the stone wall, the 1st Platoon took the center position on a wooded knoll, and the 3rd Platoon the right flank at the edge of a woods. Just as he reached the top, Second Lieutenant Thomas T. Jones, commanding the 3rd Platoon, saw and heard three KPA mortars fire from 1,000 yards (910 m) away on a grassy ridge to the east. He suggested to Kennedy that artillery fire be directed on these mortars, but Kennedy did not act on the suggestion. Kennedy established his command post inside the tunnel behind the 2nd Platoon position. The D Company position was entirely within the area enclosed by the stone wall, which was nearly intact except on the northeast near the 3rd Platoon position where it had crumbled and was covered with brush and trees. Jones pointed out to his platoon sergeant and squad leaders where he wanted them to take position at the edge of the woods facing the KPA mortars he had seen on the grassy ridge beyond. He then remained a few minutes in conversation with Kennedy. A few minutes later Jones joined his 3rd Squad men at the edge of the woods. They told him that the platoon sergeant and the rest had continued on toward the narrow grassy ridge. One of the squad members called Jones to the edge of the woods and pointed out 12 well-camouflaged KPA soldiers, one of them carrying a machine gun, coming down the narrow ridge toward them from the mortar position. This group was a security force for the mortars and they dropped to the ground about one-third of the way down the ridge.
Jones decided to bring back his other two squads to form a solid line and, expecting to be gone only a few minutes, he left his SCR-300 radio behind. Jones found one squad but the other had gone on farther and was not visible. While he studied the terrain and waited for a messenger he had sent to bring back that last squad, KPA attacked the main company position behind him. Judging by the noise he heard, Jones thought that KPA had moved in force to the wooded bowl between him and the rest of the company. Jones never got back to his 3rd Squad. He and the rest of the platoon dropped down off the ridge into a gully on the left.
That night Jones and the eight men with him stayed in the ravine just under the crest. Without his radio he could not communicate with the rest of the company which he thought had been destroyed or driven off the hill. The next day when American fighter planes strafed the hilltop it confirmed his belief that no D Company men were there. Some of the men in the advanced squad made their way back to US lines, but the KPA captured Jones and the eight men with him near the bottom of Ka-san on September 10 as they were trying to make their way through the KPA lines. This account of the 3rd Platoon explains why, except for the 3d Squad which rejoined D Company that evening, it was out of the action and off the crest almost as soon as it arrived on top, unknown to Kennedy and the rest of the company at the time.
### North Koreans hit Hill 755
About 30 minutes after D Company had reached Hill 755, an estimated KPA battalion launched an attack down the slope running south to Hill 755 from the crest of Hill 902. The main attack hit Vandygriff's 2nd Platoon just after Vandygriff had set up and loaded his two machine guns. These machine guns and the protection of the 15 feet (4.6 m) wall on its left enabled D Company to turn back this attack, which left one dead and three wounded in the 2nd Platoon. That night, KPA mortar and small arms fire harassed the company and there were several small probing attacks. Having no communication with the 3rd Platoon, Kennedy sent a patrol to its supposed position. The patrol reported back that it could find no one there but had found the platoon's rocket launchers and two light machine guns.
At dawn on September 5 the KPA attacked. The engineers repulsed this attack but suffered some casualties. KPA fire destroyed Vandygriff's radio, forcing him to use runners to communicate with Kennedy's command post. Ammunition was running low and three US C-47 Skytrain aircraft came over the area to make an airdrop. Kennedy put out orange identification panels, but the KPA put out similar panels. The planes circled, and finally dropped their bundles of ammunition and food on the KPA positions. Immediately after the airdrops, two F-51 Mustang fighter planes came over and attacked D Company. The KPA panels had misled both the cargo and fighter planes. The fighters dropped two napalm tanks within D Company's perimeter, but none there were injured. The planes then strafed right through the 2nd Platoon position, but again caused no casualties. Soon after this aerial attack, KPA troops attacked the positions, and PPSh-41 "burp gun" fire wounded Kennedy in the leg and ankle.
Sometime between 10:00 and 11:00 the advanced platoon of E Company, 8th Cavalry Regiment, arrived on top of Hill 755 and came into D Company's perimeter. Some of the engineers fired on the E Company men before the latter identified themselves. The E Company platoon went into position on the right of Vandygriff, and Kennedy turned over command of the combined force to the E Company commander. Kennedy then assembled 12 wounded men and started down the mountain with them. The party was under small arms fire most of the way. A carrying party of Korean A-frame porters led by an American officer had started up the mountain during the morning with supplies. KPA fire, killing several of the porters, turned it back.
The day before, E Company had been delayed in following D Company to Hill 755. Soon after the Engineer company had started up the trail on September 4, E Company arrived at Holley's command post at the base of the mountain. KPA mortar fire was falling on the trail at the time and the company commander said he could not advance because of it. Holley radioed this information to Palmer who designated another company commander. This second officer was soon wounded in the leg and Holley then designated a third officer, who started up the mountain with E Company that evening about 20:00. KPA fire stopped the company 500 yards (460 m) short of the crest before dawn. It was this same company that the KPA 13th Division had cut off when it launched its attack the evening of September 2 and overran the 2nd Battalion north of Tabu-dong. Tired and dispirited from this experience and their roundabout journey to rejoin the regiment, E Company men were suffering from lowered morale.
Shortly after the E Company platoon joined Vandygriff, the KPA attacked again. The E Company infantrymen had brought no mortars with them-only small arms. In this situation, Vandygriff took a 3.5-inch rocket launcher and fired into the KPA attackers, causing them to break off the attack. By now Vandygriff's troops were nearly out of ammunition. He then instructed his men to gather up all the weapons and ammunition from KPA dead they could reach, and in this manner they obtained for emergency use about 30 to 40 rifles, 5 PPSh-41 guns, and some hand grenades.
In the course of gathering up these weapons, Vandygriff passed the dug-in position of Private First Class Melvin L. Brown, a BAR man in the 3rd Squad. Brown was next to the wall on the extreme left of the platoon position at a point where the wall was only about 6 feet (1.8 m) high. At the bottom of the wall around Brown's position lay 15 to 20 KPA dead. Earlier in the day, about 08:00, Kennedy had visited Brown and had seen five KPA dead that Brown had killed with BAR fire. Subsequently, Brown exhausted his automatic rifle ammunition, then his few grenades, and finally he used his entrenching tool to knock the KPA in the head when they tried to climb over the wall. Brown had been slightly wounded in the shoulder early in the morning, but had bandaged it himself and refused to leave his position.
### Evacuation of Ka-san
At 13:30 Gay ordered the 8th Cavalry Regiment to withdraw its men off Ka-san. Gay believed he had insufficient forces to secure and hold it and that the KPA had insufficient ammunition to exploit its possession as an observation point for directing artillery and mortar fire. However, Holley could not reach anyone in D Company, 8th Engineer Combat Battalion.
Rain started falling again and heavy fog closed in on the mountain top and severely reduced visibility there. Again the KPA attacked the 2nd Platoon and the adjacent E Company infantrymen. One of the engineers was shot through the neck and Vandygriff sent him to the company command post, only to have the man return to report that there was no longer a command post, that he could not find anyone and had seen only KPA dead. Vandygriff now went to the noncommissioned officer who was in command of the E Company platoon and inform him. The two decided to withdraw.
As Vandygriff and his men began pulling back from the mountain, KPA fire was falling in the platoon area from nearly all directions. The squad leaders started to break up the weapons that the platoon could not take out with them. At this time they discovered Brown was dead. Vandygriff told his troops not to remove the identification tags from the dead they would be leaving behind, as the tags would be the only means of identification later. Vandygriff put his platoon in a V formation and led them off the hill by the same trail they had ascended, picking up four wounded men on the way down.
At the base of the mountain, Holley and others in the afternoon saw E Company men come down from the top and, later, men from the engineer company. Each group thought it was the last of the survivors and told confused, conflicting stories. When all remaining members of D Company had been assembled, Holley found that the company had suffered 50 percent casualties; 18 men were wounded and 30 were missing in action.
### KPA consolidation
Soldiers of the ROK 1st Division captured a KPA soldier near Ka-san on September 4 who said that about 800 KPA soldiers were on Ka-san with three more battalions following them from the north. The engineer company had succeeded only in establishing a perimeter briefly within the KPA-held area. By evening of September 5, Ka-san was securely in KPA hands with an estimated five battalions, totaling about 1,500 soldiers, on the mountain and its forward slope. A KPA oxtrain carrying 82-mm. mortar shells and rice reportedly reached the top of Ka-san during the day. The ROK 1st Division captured this oxtrain a few days later south of Ka-san. By September 10, 400-500 KPA were on the ridge of Ka-San, as observed by a T-6 Mosquito spotter plane.
Now, with Ka-san firmly in their possession, the KPA 13th and 1st Divisions made ready to press on downhill into Taegu. On September 6, the day after the US troops were driven off Ka-san, a KPA force established a roadblock 3 miles (4.8 km) below Tabu-dong and other units occupied Hill 570, 2 miles (3.2 km) southwest of Ka-san and overlooking the Taegu road from the east side. The next morning five tanks of the 16th Reconnaissance Company prepared to lead an attack against the roadblock. The KPA troops were in a rice field west and on the hills east of the road. Gay personally observed the action. The tank attack speedily disposed of the KPA in the rice field, but the US infantry spent several hours clearing the hills on the east side of the road.
KPA artillery during September 7 shelled batteries of the 9th and 99th Field Artillery Battalions, forcing displacement of two batteries during the day. US air strikes and artillery kept both Hills 902 and 570 under heavy attack. Even though the 1st Cavalry Division fell back nearly everywhere that day, Walker ordered it and the ROK II Corps to attack and seize Hill 902 and Ka-san. He directed the ROK 1st Division and the US 1st Cavalry Division to select a boundary between them and to maintain physical contact during the attack.
On the morning of September 8, Lieutenant Colonel Harold K. Johnson's 3rd Battalion, 8th Cavalry, after a withdrawal during the night from its former position, tried to drive the KPA from Hill 570. The three peaks of this mountain mass were under clouds, making it impossible to support the infantry attack with air strikes or artillery and mortar fire. Johnson placed all three of his companies in the assault against the three peaks; two of them reached their objectives, one with little opposition, the other caught KPA soldiers asleep on the ground. But KPA counterattacks regained this second peak. The main KPA force on Hill 570 was on the third and highest of the three peaks and held it firmly against the L Company attack. The I Company commander and the L Company executive officer were killed, as were several NCOs. An estimated 1,000 KPA soldiers were on Hill 570, 8 miles (13 km) north of Taegu, and on September 8, Walker decided the continued pressure against the eastern flank of the 1st Cavalry Division sector was the most immediate threat to the UN Forces at Pusan Perimeter.
That same day, 8 September, the 1st Cavalry Division canceled a planned continuation of the attack against Hill 570 by the 3rd Battalion, 7th Cavalry Regiment, when KPA forces threatened Hills 314 and 660, south and east of 570.
### Taegu threatened
In the midst of this drive on Taegu, an ammunition shortage became critical for the UN forces. The situation was such that UN Commander General of the Army Douglas MacArthur on September 9 sent messages urging that two ammunition ships then en route to Yokohama, Japan and Pusan carrying 172,790 rounds of 105-mm. shells, with estimated arrival time September 11, proceed at maximum speed consistent with the safety of the vessels. Eighth Army on September 10 reduced the ration of 105-mm. howitzer ammunition from 50 to 25 rounds per howitzer per day, except in cases of emergency. Carbine ammunition was also in critical short supply. The 17th Field Artillery Battalion, with the first 8-inch howitzers to arrive in Korea, could not engage in the battle for lack of ammunition.
The KPA 1st Division now began moving in the zone of the ROK 1st Division around the right flank of the 1st Cavalry Division. Its 2nd Regiment, with 1,200 men, advanced 6 miles (9.7 km) eastward from the vicinity of Hill 902 to the towering 4,000-foot-high (1,200 m) mountain of P'algong-san. It reached the top of P'algong-san about daylight on September 10, and a little later new replacements made a charge toward the ROK positions. The ROK repulsed the charge, killing or wounding about two-thirds of the attacking force.
The US 1st Cavalry Division now had most of its combat units concentrated on its right flank north of Taegu. The 3rd Battalion, 7th Cavalry, attached to the 8th Cavalry Regiment, was behind that regiment on Hills 181 and 182 astride the Tabu-dong road only 6 miles (9.7 km) north of Taegu. The rest of the 7th Cavalry Regiment (the 1st Battalion rejoined the regiment during the day) was in the valley of the Kumho River to the right rear between the KPA and the Taegu Airfield, which was situated 3 miles (4.8 km) northeast of the city. The US 5th Cavalry Regiment was disposed on the hills astride the Waegwan road 8 miles (13 km) northwest of Taegu. On its left the entire 8th Engineer Combat Battalion was in line as infantry, with the mission of holding a bridge across the Kumho River near its juncture with the Naktong River east of Taegu.
The fighting north of Taegu on September 11 in the vicinity of Hills 660 and 314 was heavy and confused. For a time, the 1st Cavalry Division feared a breakthrough to the blocking position of the 3rd Battalion, 7th Cavalry. The rifle companies of the division were now very low in strength. Johnson stated later that any company of the 3rd Battalion, 8th Cavalry, that had 100 men during this period was his assault company for the day.
### Hill 314
While the 3rd Battalion, 8th Cavalry, again vainly attacked Hill 570 on September 11, KPA soldiers seized the crest of Hill 314 2 miles (3.2 km) southeast of it and that much closer to Taegu. Actually, the two hill masses are adjacent and their lower slopes within small arms range of each other. The KPA drove the 16th Reconnaissance Company from the hill and only the ROK 5th Training Battalion, previously hurried into the line from Taegu in a supporting position, prevented the KPA from gaining complete control of this terrain feature. This ROK battalion still held part of the reverse slope of Hill 314 when the 3rd Battalion, 8th Cavalry, hurried to the scene from its attacks on Hill 570 and tried to retake the position. The ROK battalion twice had attacked and reached the crest but could not hold it, and had dug in on the lower southern slopes. The 3rd Battalion, 7th Cavalry, command post had to fight off infiltrating KPA on September 12 as it issued its attack order and prepared to attack through the 8th Cavalry lines against Hill 314.
This attack on the 12th was to be part of a larger US and ROK counterattack against the KPA 13th and 1st Divisions in an effort to halt them north of Taegu. The 2nd Battalion, 7th Cavalry, relieved the ROK units on Hill 660, east of Hill 314, and had the mission of securing that hill. Farther east the ROK 1st Division had the mission of attacking from P'algong-san toward Ka-san. The point nearest Taegu occupied by KPA forces at this time was Hill 314. The KPA 13th Division valued its possession and had concentrated about 700 soldiers on it. The KPA intended to use Hill 314 in making the next advance on Taegu. From it, observation reached to Taegu and it commanded the lesser hills southward rimming the Taegu bowl. Hill 314 is actually the southern knob of a 500 metres (1,600 ft) hill mass which lies close to the east side of Hill 570 and is separated from that hill mass only by a deep gulch. The southern point rises to 314 metres (1,030 ft) and the ridge line climbs northward from it in a series of knobs. The ridge line is 1 mile (1.6 km) in length, and all sides of the hill mass are very steep.
Lieutenant Colonel James H. Lynch's 3rd Battalion, 7th Cavalry, on the eve of its attack against Hill 314 numbered 535 men, less its rear echelons. The battalion had arrived in Korea at the end of August. The action of the 7th Cavalry at Hill 518, begun nine days earlier, had been its first action, and attacking Hill 314 would be its second. The battalion attack plan this time differed radically from that employed against Hill 518 and was a direct development of that failure. The key aspect of the Hill 314 attack plan was to mass as many riflemen as possible on top of the narrow ridge line, by attacking with two companies abreast along the ridge, as opposed to Hill 518, where the firepower of only a platoon, and at times of only a squad, could be brought to bear against the KPA. Because of the ammunition shortage there was no artillery preparation on Hill 314, but there was an air strike before Lynch's battalion, with L Company on the left and I Company on the right started its attack from the lower slopes at 11:00 on September 12.
KPA 120-mm. mortar fire was already falling on battalion as it moved out. For 500 yards (460 m) it encountered only sporadic small arms and machine gun fire; then KPA rifle fire became intense and preregistered mortar fire came down on the troops, slowing the advance. On the left, men in L Company could see approximately 400 KPA preparing to counterattack. They radioed for an air strike but the designated planes were on the ground refueling. The troops were still able to repulse the counterattack with combined artillery, mortar, and small arms fire. The air strike came in at 14:00, blanketing the top and the north slope of the ridge. By this time KPA mortar fire had caused many casualties, and elements of L and I Companies became intermingled. But, in contrast to the action on Hill 518, the men continued the attack largely of their own volition after many of the officers had become casualties. Many of the officers in the companies were wounded but refused evacuation and simply continued the attack. Fifteen minutes after the air strike, the 3rd Battalion resumed its attack toward the crest. As it neared it the KPA came out of their positions in a violent counterattack and engaged at close quarters. Some men gained the crest but KPA mortar and machine gun fire drove them off. They reached it a second time but could not hold it. Another air strike hit the KPA. Then, a third time, the company commander led his men to the top. The men scrambled up a 60-degree slope for the last stretch to the top, where they closed with the KPA and overran their positions. The remaining men of the two US companies secured the hill and then reorganized jointly. There were fewer than 40 effectives left in L Company and about 40 in I Company; the latter had lost all its officers.
Gay caused a special study to be made of this action because he considered it so outstanding. He found that the 3d Battalion suffered 229 battle casualties in the first two hours. Of these, 38 troops were killed and 167 wounded, the remainder were Korean Augmentation To the United States Army. The battalion aid station reported treating 130 casualties. Other wounded were treated at the 8th Cavalry aid station. Many men with minor wounds did not ask for medical attention until the battle had ended, and there were only five cases of combat shock in contrast to the eighteen on Hill 518. KPA mortar fire caused 80 percent of the casualties.
The battalion held Hill 314 for the next six days and gathered up a large amount of KPA equipment and ammunition. The KPA soldiers on Hill 314 wore US uniforms, helmets and combat boots. Many of them had M1 rifles and carbines. About 200 KPA dead were on the hill. Of the other 500 estimated to have been there, most of them had been wounded or were missing. Several war crimes committed by the KPA came to light during the action on Hill 314. On September 12 while the final action on the hill was taking place, troops discovered an American officer who had been bound, gasoline poured over him, and burned. Two days later members of the battalion found on the hill the bodies of four other American soldiers with their hands tied. The bodies bore evidence that the men had been bayoneted and shot while bound.
### Final moves
After the capture of Hill 314 on September 12, the situation north of Taegu improved. On September 14 the 2nd Battalion, 8th Cavalry, attacked and, supported by fire from Hill 314, gained part of Hill 570 from the KPA 19th Regiment, 13th Division.
Across the army boundary on the right, the ROK 1st Division continued its attack northwest and advanced to the edge of Ka-san. The ROK 11th Regiment seized Hill 755 about dark on September 14, and small elements of the ROK 15th Regiment reached the stone ramparts of the Ka-san area at the same time. The ROK and KPA troops fought during the night and on into the 15th at many points along the high mountain backbone that extends southeast from Ka-san to Hills 755 and 783 and on to P'algong-san. Prisoners taken by the ROK's estimated that there were about 800 KPA on this high ridge. The ROK 1st Division later estimated that approximately 3,000 KPA were inside Ka-san's walled perimeter and about 1,500 or 2,000 outside it near the crest. At this time the bulk of the KPA 1st Division was gradually withdrawing into Ka-san and its vicinity. Indications were that the KPA 13th Division also was withdrawing northward. Aerial observers on the afternoon of September 14 reported that an estimated 500 KPA troops were moving north from Tabu-dong. While these signs were hopeful, Walker continued to prepare for a final close-in defense of Taegu. As part of this, fourteen battalions of South Korean police dug in around the city.
The fighting continued unabated north of Taegu on the 15th. The 2nd Battalion, 8th Cavalry, still fought to gain control of Hill 570 on the east side of the Tabu-dong highway. On the other side, the 2nd Battalion, 8th Cavalry, attacked Hill 401 where a KPA force had penetrated in a gap between the 8th and 5th Cavalry Regiments. The fighting on Hill 401 was particularly severe. Both sides had troops on the mountain when night fell.
### North Korean withdrawal
The UN counterattack at Inchon outflanked the KPA and cut off all their main supply and reinforcement routes. On September 16 Eighth Army began its Breakout from the Pusan Perimeter. On September 19 the UN discovered the KPA had abandoned much of the Pusan Perimeter during the night, and the UN units began advancing out of their defensive positions and occupying them. Most of the KPA units began conducting delaying actions attempting to get as much of their army as possible into North Korea. The KPA withdrew from the Masan area first, the night of September 18–19. After the forces there, the remainder of the KPA withdrew rapidly to the North. The UN units rapidly pursued them north, passing over the Naktong River positions, which were no longer of strategic importance.
## Aftermath
The KPA 13th and 1st Divisions were almost completely destroyed in the battles. The 1st Division had numbered 5,000 men at the beginning of the offensive on September 1. The 13th Division numbered 9,000. Only 2,000 men from the 1st Division were able to retreat back into North Korea by October. The majority of the division's troops had been killed, captured or deserted. The KPA 13th Division, however, was completely annihilated. Only a few isolated pockets of its men were known to have made it back to North Korea. Most of the division's officers, including its artillery commander, division surgeon, the chief of staff, and two of the three regimental commanders. When the KPA 19th Regiment surrendered in Tanyang, it had only 167 men. No more than a few hundred of the original 9,000 returned to North Korea. All of KPA II Corps was in a similar state, and the KPA was on the brink of defeat.
By this time, the US 1st Cavalry Division suffered 770 killed, 2,613 wounded, 62 captured during its time at Pusan Perimeter. This included about 600 casualties, with around 200 killed in action it had already suffered during the Battle of Taegu the previous month. American forces were continually repulsed but able to prevent the KPA from breaking the Pusan Perimeter. The division had numbered 14,703 on September 1, but was in excellent position to attack despite its casualties. South Korean casualties at the battle were difficult to predict, but also thought to be heavy. The ROK 1st Division had numbered 10,482 men September 1.
|
2,291,976 |
Ramblin' Wreck from Georgia Tech
| 1,167,253,335 |
Fight song of Georgia Institute of Technology
|
[
"American college songs",
"Atlantic Coast Conference fight songs",
"College fight songs in the United States",
"Drinking songs",
"Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets",
"Songs about Georgia (U.S. state)"
] |
"(I'm a) Ramblin' Wreck from Georgia Tech" is the fight song of the Georgia Institute of Technology, better known as Georgia Tech. The composition is based on "Son of a Gambolier", composed by Charles Ives in 1895, the lyrics of which are based on an old English and Scottish drinking song of the same name. It first appeared in print in the 1908 Blueprint, Georgia Tech's yearbook. The song was later sung by the Georgia Tech Glee Club on The Ed Sullivan Show in 1953, and by Richard Nixon and Nikita Khrushchev during the 1959 Kitchen Debate.
"Ramblin' Wreck" is played after every Georgia Tech score in a football game, directly after a field goal or safety, and preceded by "Up With the White and Gold" after a touchdown. It is also frequently played during timeouts at the team's basketball games.
The term "Ramblin' Wreck" has been used to refer to students and alumni of Georgia Tech much longer than the Model A now known as the Ramblin' Wreck has been in existence. The expression has its origins in the late 19th century and was used originally to refer to the makeshift motorized vehicles constructed by Georgia Tech engineers employed in projects in the jungles of South America. Other workers in the area began to refer to these vehicles and the men who drove them as "Rambling Wrecks from Georgia Tech."
## Lyrics
> > I'm a Ramblin' Wreck from Georgia Tech, and a hell of an engineer— A helluva, helluva, helluva, helluva, hell of an engineer. Like all the jolly good fellows, I drink my whiskey clear. I'm a Ramblin' Wreck from Georgia Tech and a hell of an engineer.
> >
> > Oh! If I had a daughter, sir, I'd dress her in White and Gold, And put her on the campus to cheer the brave and bold. But if I had a son, sir, I'll tell you what he'd do— He would yell, 'To hell with Georgia!' like his daddy used to do.
> >
> > Oh, I wish I had a barrel of rum and sugar three thousand pounds, A college bell to put it in and a clapper to stir it round. I'd drink to all the good fellows who come from far and near. I'm a ramblin', gamblin', hell of an engineer!
## Previous adaptations
The earliest rendition of the song is "Son of a Gambolier" (also known as "A Son of a Gambolier" and "The Son of a Gambolier"), which is a lament to one's own poverty; a gambolier is "a worthless individual given to carousing, gambling, and general moral depravity." The chorus goes:
> > Like every jolly fellow I takes my whiskey clear, For I'm a rambling rake of poverty And the son of a gambolier.
The tune was first adapted as a school song by Dickinson College in southern Pennsylvania in the 1850s. Students at the college modified it to include a reference to their college bell by adding the following lyrics:
> > I wish I had a barrel of rum, And sugar three hundred pounds, The college bell to mix it in, The clapper to stir it round
In 1857, the Delta Kappa Epsilon fraternity published a songbook that contained a heavily modified version of the song. The adapted chorus used the following lyrics:
> > I'm a son of a, son of a, son of a, son of a, son of a DKE! I'm a son of a, son of a, son of a, son of a, son of a DKE! Like every college fellow, I like my whiskey free, For I'm a rambling rake of a college man, And the son of a DKE!
The song was subsequently adapted by the Colorado School of Mines in the late 1870s and entitled "The Mining Engineer." This version is the closest adaptation to "Ramblin' Wreck from Georgia Tech."
> > Like every honest fellow, I take my whisky clear, I'm a rambling wreck from Golden Tech, a helluva engineer.
The Mines version also includes:
> > Oh, if I had a daughter I'd dress her up in green, And send her up to Boulder To coach the football team But if I had a son, sir, I'll tell you what he'd do— He'd yell: 'TO HELL WITH BOULDER!' Like his daddy used to do.
The song is also used by the South Dakota School of Mines and Technology, entitled "Ramblin' Wreck" although on campus it is referred to simply as the "School Song." This version is almost identical to the first four lines of "Ramblin' Wreck from Georgia Tech."
> > I'm a rambling wreck from Rapid Tech, and a helluva engineer. a helluva, helluva, helluva, helluva, hell of an engineer. Like all my jolly good fellows, I drink my whiskey clear, I'm a rambling wreck from Rapid Tech, and a helluva engineer. Hey!
In the early 1890s, Ohio State University adapted it and called it "If I had a Daughter". At the time Ohio Wesleyan University was their archrival, hence the references to Delaware, Ohio and Methodists. One verse follows:
> > If I had a daughter, I'd dress her up in green, I'd send her on the campus to coach the Freshman team; And if I had a son, I tell you what he'd do He would yell "To Hell" with Delaware" And yell for O. S. U.
In 1895, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute adapted it and called it "A Son of Old R.P.I." This version includes the lyrics:
> > Like every honest fellow, I drink my whiskey clear, I'm a moral wreck from the Polytech And a hell of an engineer.
The Clemson University Tiger Band's rude songbook, "The Unhymnal", has a four-verse parody of the fight song which is distinctly un-politically correct which derides the Georgia Tech coach, football team and cheerleaders.
Here's the unofficial 4th verse to the song from the 1970's & 1980's:
> > I'm a twiddly-twat from Agnes Scott, and I dated a guy from Tech, He took me to The Varsity, and taught me how to neck; He fed me all those V-Dogs, and pitchers & pitchers of beer, And now I'm the mother of a nine-pound Engineer!
In 1929 Norwegian University of Science and Technology adapted it and called it "Nu klinger".
> > Studenter i den gamle stad, ta vare på byens ry! Husk på at jenter, øl og dram var kjempenes meny. Og faller I alle mann alle, skal det gjalle fra alle mot sky. La'kke byen få ro, men la den få merke det er en studenterby! Og øl og dram, og øl og dram, og øl og dram, og øl og dram.
Two different sources are claimed to have been the origin for the song's music. The first is the marching tune "The Bonnie Blue Flag", published in 1861 by Harry McCarthy. The second, and more widely cited, is Charles Ives' composition of "Son of a Gambolier" in 1895.
## Creation at Georgia Tech
Georgia Tech's use of the song is said to have come from an early baseball game against rival Georgia. Some sources credit Billy Walthall, a member of the school's first four-year graduating class, with the lyrics. According to a 1954 article in Sports Illustrated, "Ramblin' Wreck" was written around 1893 by a Tech football player on his way to an Auburn game.
> The "Rambling Wreck" had its beginning during the first year or two after Tech opened. Some of the frills were afterward added. We had no football team during the early days, but football was played on the campus. A round rubber ball was used and it was strictly football-no holding the ball and running with it.
>
> We had a good baseball team and I remember on one occasion almost the whole school went over to Athens to play Georgia. Duke Black of Rome pitched and we brought home the bacon. This was the beginning of the Rambling Wreck.
In 1905, Georgia Tech adopted the tune as its official fight song, though it had already been the unofficial fight song for several years. It was published for the first time in the school's first yearbook, the 1908 Blueprint. Entitled "What causes Whitlock to Blush", words such as "hell" and "helluva" were censored as "certain words [are] too hot to print".
After Michael A. Greenblatt, Tech's first bandmaster, heard the Georgia Tech band playing the song to the tune of Charles Ives's "A Son of a Gambolier", he wrote a modern musical version. In 1911, Frank Roman succeeded Greenblatt as bandmaster; Roman embellished the song with trumpet flourishes and publicized it. Roman copyrighted the song in 1919.
## Rise to fame
In 1920, dance instructor Arthur Murray organized the world's first "radio dance" while he attended Tech. A band on campus played "Ramblin' Wreck" and other songs, which were broadcast to a group of about 150 dancers (mostly Tech students) on the roof of the Capital City Club in downtown Atlanta. Murray also opened the first Arthur Murray Dance Studio while in Atlanta. It was located at the Georgian Terrace Hotel. In 1925, the Columbia Gramophone Company began selling a recording of Tech songs (including "Ramblin' Wreck"); Tech was one of the first colleges in the Southern United States to have its songs recorded. The song became immensely popular and was known nationally because of its extensive radio play. In 1947, the song was performed by The Gordonaires in a Soundie entitled "Let's Sing A College Song".
On October 11, 1953, the Georgia Tech Glee Club sang "Ramblin' Wreck" on Ed Sullivan's "Toast of the Town" program (later known as The Ed Sullivan Show) on CBS. The performance reached a television audience of approximately 30 million viewers. Because only 28 seats were available on the train to the show, Glee Club members auditioned for the available spots. The group prepared three songs—"Ramblin' Wreck," There's Nothin' Like a Dame, and the alma mater. Sullivan made them sing "heck" and "heckuva" instead of "hell" and "helluva," and would not let them sing "dames." According to The Technique, "The club sang 'Dames' at rehearsal and brought down the house, only to have Sullivan give it the axe."
Then-Vice President Richard Nixon and Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev sang the song together when they met in Moscow in 1959 to reduce the tension between them during the Kitchen Debate. As the story goes, Nixon did not know any Russian songs, but Khrushchev knew that one American song as it had been sung on the Ed Sullivan show.
"Ramblin' Wreck" has had many other notable moments in history. It has been reported to be the first school song played in space. Gregory Peck sang the song while strumming a mandolin in the movie The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit. John Wayne whistled it in The High and the Mighty. Tim Holt's character sings a few bars of it in the movie His Kind of Woman. Gordon Jones sings a few stanzas several times in the movie My Sister Eileen. There are numerous stories of commanding officers in Higgins boats crossing the English Channel on the morning of D-Day leading their men in the song to calm their nerves.
## Modern history
The Edwin H. Morris & Company obtained a copyright to Roman's version in 1931. The copyright to that version expired in 1952, so Greenblatt wrote a new arrangement and applied for a new copyright. In 1953, Greenblatt sold the copyright for the new version to Georgia Tech for one dollar. There was some controversy when MPL Communications acquired the old copyright; a law firm commissioned by Georgia Tech in 1984, Newton, Hopkins & Ormsby, concluded that while there were copyrighted versions of the song, the version used by the school was not copyrighted and falls in the public domain.
Over the years, a few variations of the song have been created at Georgia Tech. In 1998, a 19-member "Diversity Task Force" proposed that changes be made to the song because it discriminated against women. The proposal was widely and strongly opposed by students and alumni, and it was dropped. A different request to change the word cheer to join with respect to alumni daughters surfaced in 2015. Over the years, a few variations of this song have been created at Georgia Tech; "To cheer the brave and bold." is often substituted with "To increase the ratio," "To raise the ratio," "To help the ratio," or "To boost the ratio" as a reference to the large ratio of undergraduate men to women. Women, especially alumni, often substitute "Like his daddy used to do." with "Like his mommy used to do." At the conclusion of the song there is a call of "Go Jackets!" responded to with "Bust their ass!" Following three of these calls and responses, the song was ended with a call of "Go Jackets! Fight! Win!" Recently, however, the student body has yelled "Fight! Win! Drink! Get Naked!"
On March 28, 2018, a German version of the song premiered during the Ivan Allen College of Liberal Arts Distinguished Alumni Awards event. The German version, written and arranged by Stephen C. Hall (Industrial Management, 1967), Jerry A. Ulrich (School of Music), and Richard Utz (School of Literature, Media, and Communication), was performed by the Georgia Tech Glee Club in honor of the awarding of the College's Dean's Appreciation Award to Barry (Mechanical Engineering, 1965) and Gail Spurlock, in recognition of their support for program initiatives in Germany, specifically Georgia Tech's German and German Languages for Business and Technology (LBAT).
|
11,505,014 |
Helen Foster Snow
| 1,168,450,831 |
American journalist (1907–1997)
|
[
"1907 births",
"1997 deaths",
"20th-century American journalists",
"20th-century American women journalists",
"20th-century American women writers",
"20th-century American writers",
"American expatriates in China",
"American political writers",
"Harold B. Lee Library-related 20th century articles",
"Journalists from Utah",
"Korean independence activists",
"People from Cedar City, Utah",
"University of Utah alumni",
"Writers from Utah"
] |
Helen Foster Snow (September 21, 1907 – January 11, 1997) was an American journalist who reported from China in the 1930s under the name Nym Wales on the developing Chinese Civil War, the Korean independence movement and the Second Sino-Japanese War.
Snow's family moved often throughout her youth and she ended up living in Salt Lake City with her grandmother in her teenage years, until she decided to move to China in 1931. There, she married American journalist Edgar Snow and became a correspondent for several publications. While she and her husband were sympathetic to the revolutionaries in China, whom she compared favorably to the Nationalists under Chiang Kai-shek, she was never a member of the Chinese or American Communist Party.
While living in Beijing, the Snows befriended leftist leaders of the 1935 December 9th Movement, who arranged for first Edgar, then Helen to visit the communist wartime capital, Yan'an, in 1937, where she interviewed Chinese Communist leaders, including Mao Zedong. The Snows also conceptualized the Chinese Industrial Cooperatives, known as the Gung-Ho movement, which provided jobs and stability. In 1940, Snow returned to the United States, where she and Edgar divorced. She continued to support the Cooperatives and write books based on her experiences in China. In the late 1940s, critics grouped her with the China Hands as one of those responsible for the "loss of China" who went beyond sympathy to active support of Mao's revolution.
## Early life
Helen Foster was born in Cedar City, Utah, and raised as a member of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church). She was born to John Moody Foster and Hannah Davis, who met working as teachers at Ricks Academy, a school affiliated with the LDS Church. Hannah graduated from Ricks Academy, and John was a graduate from Stanford University. Both of Helen's parents were descendants of Mormon pioneers who migrated to Utah in the mid-1800s.
From the time Helen was young, the Foster family moved quite frequently. After Helen's birth in Cedar City, the Fosters moved to Chicago so John could attend law school. Several years later, the family once again moved to Idaho. The frequent moves helped to shape Helen's outgoing personality as she was constantly concerned about what her new peers would think of her. Being the oldest child and only daughter of the family, she took on a lot of responsibility as the family expanded. She often worked alongside her mother to care for her three younger brothers and complete chores, especially when financial circumstances were difficult for the Fosters.
Upon entering high school, Helen moved to Salt Lake City to live with her grandmother and aunt. She attended West High School and became involved in many school activities and organizations. She frequently worked on editing the school's yearbook and was elected student vice president of her senior class. Due to her father's influence, Helen wanted to attend college at Stanford, but the cost of tuition was prohibitive. According to Helen, her parents believed that "girls were not considered a good investment in higher education as they would only get married, while boys were worth it". However, Helen's father agreed to pay for her attendance at the University of Utah. She attended school for several years, but did not graduate.
Instead, Helen focused on work and was hired as a secretary for the Utah chapter of the American Silver Mining Commission. While at this position, she decided she would like to work abroad in addition to her aspiration to write her own "great American novel". Helen took the civil service exam and passed, yet there were no open positions in Europe, where she initially desired to go. However, her employer had a connection in China, ultimately securing a job for Helen with the president of an American company in Shanghai. In August 1931, Helen set sail to Asia in the hopes of becoming a writer.
## Life in China
### Arrival
Almost immediately after arriving in 1931, she met Edgar Snow, who had arrived in China in 1929. Edgar was ready to return to America at this point as his mother had died and he was battling malaria. But meeting Helen convinced him to stay working in China. She admired his work and had collected clippings of the newspaper articles he had written. Helen wanted her career to emulate his.
Less than one week after Helen's arrival, the Yangtze flood caused extreme damage around Shanghai. Helen was working as a foreign correspondent for the Seattle Star through the Scripps-Canfield League, a newspaper publishing company, and was to provide images "glorifying the glamorous Orient". The flood of the Yangtze was the worst in recorded history, displacing 120,000 people. Over a period of three weeks, continuous floods killed over 600,000 and destroyed 12 million homes.
Several months later, on January 28, 1932, Japanese forces invaded Shanghai. Helen was in the battle area and observed the invasion from the tower at her apartment. Edgar was also in the midst of the battle. Because of his foreigner status, he was able to observe the action up close with a lesser amount of risk. Helen too wanted to experience battle in-person and take better pictures of the war. Edgar helped her to get a press card, and Helen soon became a war correspondent herself.
Helen had only planned to stay in China for a year. However, over the next year, a courtship blossomed between Helen and Edgar. In a letter from the winter of 1932, Helen wrote, "I like him better than anyone else I have ever known". Edgar proposed to Helen on her 25th birthday, but she declined his offer. She didn't want their marriage to suffer because of her "author psychology" as she was working on a book. Several months later, Ed proposed once again and Helen accepted. The couple married on Christmas Day in 1932. The Snows remained in China for nearly a decade.
### December 9 Student Movement
At a time when many Chinese were impatient with the Nationalist government for not opposing the Japanese more actively, the couple moved to Beiping, as Beijing was then called, and took up residence in a small house near Yenching University, where Edgar taught journalism. Helen enrolled in courses at the university. The couple benefited from extraterritorial status as foreigners in China, so they were exempt from Chinese law. With this privilege, the Snows were able to assist students in protesting fascism and contribute to the student movement. Helen once observed, "We couldn't have done anything if we'd been under Chinese law. A Chinese would have been executed for even messing with such things as we did". The Snows served as a source of information for the students, providing them with information that was generally censored by the government. While the Snows never joined the Communist party, they sympathized with Chinese students who desired to resist the Japanese.
In 1935, Helen played a large role in orchestrating the anti-Japanese December 9th Movement at Yenching after the attack on Manchuria. Between 800 and 3000 students are estimated to have marched in the streets on the night of December 9. Helen not only directed the demonstration, but she also reported on it. This particular protest inspired the organization of 65 other demonstrations in 32 cities across China. One week later, on December 16, an even larger demonstration took place. Nearly 10,000 students from 28 schools participated in this protest. The Snows got to know idealistic and patriotic students, a number of whom were in their journalism classes, and some of whom were members of the Communist underground and would eventually become leaders of the Chinese Communist Party. Edgar and Helen opened their home to student activists during this time as a safe place to develop plans of the student movement and Communist Party.
The couple helped translate Living China, a collection of stories that served as a modern left-wing literary work. Helen also produced and dispersed anti-fascist documents to students. In addition, the Snows produced a magazine in 1937 called Democracy, which was intended to spread Christian ethics. Edgar was intended to be the driving force behind the magazine, however, Helen took charge as her husband worked on his book. The Snows had an agreement that Helen would do all the work for the publication and Edgar would put his name on it as editor. However, the magazine's production came to an end when the Japanese invaded and seized copies from the presses that same year.
### Caves of Yan'an and Mao Zedong
Edgar was the first to go to the "Red Areas" and came back with the material for his Red Star Over China. Helen, or "Peg", as she was known to her friends, was not to be outdone, and soon followed. In April 1937, Helen made a trip to the city of Yan'an, the location of the Chinese Communist Party's headquarters. Her trip was much longer than anticipated as the Japanese occupied Northern China beginning in July of that same year and bad weather conditions made it impossible to travel. In Yan'an, Helen was only the second foreign woman to enter the area, and the eighth foreign journalist to have such access. She interviewed Mao Zedong and also got his support for what would become the Chinese Industrial Cooperatives.
According to Yu Jianting, Helen's translator, Mao explained the history of the Red Army for the first time to Helen despite Edgar's multiple interviews with him the previous year. Chinese Communist leaders had not shared the history of the party previously as they wanted to be seen as equals within the community rather than "heroes of the people". Mao provided Helen with a letter introducing her as a war correspondent, which would give her access to otherwise restricted areas. Mao also requested that Helen share the Chinese Communist Party's "Ten Guiding Principles to Resist against Japan and Save the Nation" on an international scale. Helen's work with Mao gave her the opportunity to interview other important Communist Party figures in Yan'an, which would become the basis for her book.
Helen also interviewed Kang Keqing, wife of the future head of state Zhu De. Kang informed Helen of several issues the army were facing, including lack of soldiers and weaponry. Helen maintained a friendship with Kang and the two exchanged letters for many years after Helen left China.
While in Yan'an, Helen developed severe dysentery and became extremely ill. Despite her illness, Helen completed her book's manuscript in less than one year. Inside Red China was the first book ever written that focused on the city of Yan'an and became important literature to students all over China. This book was supposed to be a companion work to Edgar's Red Star Over China, but it never received the acclaim that Edgar's work had. This specific trip to Yan'an provided Helen with the material to produce at least five other books. Helen used experiences from this trip to write her most successful book, The Song of Ariran. She also drew upon her interviews with Kim San, Korean independence leader she met in Yan'an.
### Chinese Industrial Cooperatives and the Gung-Ho movement
In 1937, Japan attacked China, destroying or gaining control over 90% of the country's modern industries. The couple joined anti-Japanese friends, such as Ida Pruitt, Israel Epstein, and Rewi Alley in organizing Chinese Industrial Cooperatives' Gung-Ho industrial worker's cooperatives after 1937. Helen envisioned the concept for Indusco from the beginning. The purpose for the industrial cooperatives was to create jobs and income so the Chinese people could wield economic power against Japan. The system was to be run by its own members. "Gung-ho" is Chinese for "work together", which represents all peoples working together in cooperation. The Nationalist Chinese Government under Chiang Kai-shek was willing to provide funding for the cooperatives and that support would continue under Mao Zedong.
In 1938, the first booklet titled Chinese Industrial Cooperatives was published. The first Committee for the Promotion of Industrial Cooperatives in China was formed on April 3, 1938. Helen used her writing position with certain publications to create support and financial backing in America for the Chinese Cooperatives. In addition, the Snows became good friends with Colonel Evans Carlson, who had a connection to President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Helen believed Roosevelt would support the cooperatives in accordance with his New Deal policy. Eventually, Eleanor Roosevelt became a member of the American Board of Sponsors for the Cooperatives. Overall, the Cooperatives received funds from Americans as well as Chinese citizens in the Philippines.
After the Chinese Industrial Cooperatives' first year in existence, 1,284 industrial cooperatives were functioning with 15,625 members. By 1940, the numbers in membership nearly doubled. With notoriety building around the cooperatives, Helen took it upon herself to publish a book on Indusco for an American audience. In 1941, she wrote and published China Builds for Democracy. The book not only created publicity, but also accumulated support for the Cooperatives in the United States.
By June 1941, the Indusco system had reached its highest numbers, with 1,867 cooperatives with 29,284 registered members. However, by the end of World War II, the Indusco model was not as powerful as it once was in China. In December 1945, only 335 Indusco cooperatives with 4,889 registered members were reported. While Indusco declined in China, the model spread to other nations, including India, Burma, and Japan. Helen continued to promote the Indusco model as she remained a member and vice chairman of the American Committee to Aid Chinese Industrial Cooperatives until 1951 when it split. She revived the committee in 1981. In 1982, it was proposed that the Chinese Industrial Cooperatives be revived again, and the Peking government granted permission for such a revival in 1983.
## Post-China years
The Snows' marriage was strained and the Japanese occupation of much of China made life difficult. In December 1940, the Snows decided to move back to the United States in fear that the Japanese would make them prisoners of war. The attack on Pearl Harbor would take place exactly one year later. Prior to their departure, Edgar was offered a position as a war correspondent for the New York Herald Tribune and Helen encouraged him to take it. She returned to the United States without him. After a short while, Edgar realized he didn't want to be without his wife and the living conditions were too difficult for him. The Snows had been in China for a decade and they were both lacking proper nutrition and vitamins. Nearly the entire time they were in Asia, they did not eat raw foods in order to avoid dysentery and their health was depleted. Upon their initial return to the United States, the couple lived in California for a short time and then moved into a small mid-1700s house in Madison, Connecticut.
While the Snows were settled back in America, Edgar would continue to travel back and forth between home and Europe. His books and reporting on China had earned him critical acclaim in the U.S. This success made Edgar a very valuable asset as a war correspondent. President Roosevelt often looked to Edgar for his understanding on matters in Asia. Roosevelt personally suggested that Edgar become a war correspondent once again, to which Edgar agreed. Though he did not want to report on World War II directly after his time in China, his personal struggles with Helen and encouragement from Roosevelt pushed Edgar to travel and cover the war. In 1945, the couple legally separated. Edgar started a new relationship with actress Lois Wheeler and sought a divorce from Helen. The divorce proceedings took several years as the two were stalemated in terms of settlement. The couple formally divorced in 1949. Edgar married Lois less than ten days after the official date of the divorce. He lived in Switzerland until he died from cancer in 1972.
Helen spent the rest of her life in Connecticut, developing an interest in family genealogy, drafting a novel, and writing short pieces on her experiences in China. Although Helen was never tried during the McCarthy era, her works suffered from the idea that she was a Chinese Communist sympathizer. She often had issues getting new books published and many of her books went out of print. Helen returned to China twice more in her lifetime. The first visit was from 1972 to 1973, following President Richard Nixon's trip in 1972 which eased relations between China and the United States. The second visit was in 1978 when Helen returned to China for six weeks with a camera crew. There she was interviewed and asked to recount her adventures of the 1930s with Edgar. She published her autobiography in 1984.
## Death and legacy
On January 11, 1997, Helen Foster Snow died at the age of 89 at the Fowler Nursing Center in Guilford, Connecticut. Memorial services were held in Connecticut and China. An official Chinese memorial service took place in the Great Hall of the People on Tiananmen Square in Beijing, an honor rarely bestowed upon foreigners.
Prior to her death, she donated personal papers, book manuscripts, and photographs taken of Chinese notables in the 1930s to the Hoover Institution Library and Archives, which holds 63 manuscript boxes of her papers. After her death, in 1997, Helen's family donated remaining manuscripts, documents, and photographs to the Brigham Young University library. On October 26–27, 2000, BYU held a Helen Foster Snow Symposium to celebrate this donation, and premiere the documentary Helen Foster Snow: Witness to Revolution.
Part of a hospital and a school in Xi'an, China, were named after her. There is also a Helen Foster Snow wing in the Communist Eighth Route Army Museum in Xi'an and a Helen Foster Snow Society in Beijing. In 2009, the US–China Cultural Exchange Committee placed a 7-foot (2.1 m) tall bronze statue of Helen Foster Snow, cast in China, in the Main Street Park of her hometown of Cedar City. In 2011, students and faculty from Southern Utah University began a collaborative project with Chinese musicians, dancers, and artists to create a dance drama based on Helen Foster Snow's life entitled Dream of Helen.
## Awards and honors
In 1981, Helen Foster Snow was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize for her work in China and nominated again in 1982. In her memoir My China Years, Helen writes, "The nomination was not for any particular achievement, but for the potential that my ideas and world view hold for peace and progress in the world". In 1993, Helen was the first recipient of the China Writers Association's literary award. In June 1996, Helen was honored by the Chinese government as Friendship Ambassador, one of China's highest honors offered to foreign citizens. She was the first American and only the fifth person ever to receive the award.
## Works
Helen Foster Snow wrote under the pen name Nym Wales, which her husband chose for her. "Nym'' is the Greek word for name. Wales was used because she was part Welsh. However, the pseudonym created questions regarding nationality and whether the author was an "insider" of the Communist Party. Helen's works amount to 40 books and 27 manuscripts.
- Helen Foster Snow, Inside Red China (New York,: Doubleday, Doran, 1939). Reprinted: New York: DaCapo 1977, 1979.
- Nym Wales, China Builds for Democracy; a Story of Cooperative Industry (New York,: Modern Age Books, 1941). Reprinted: St. Clair Shores, MI: \*Scholarly Press, 1972.
- Nym Wales and Kim San, Song of Ariran: A Korean Communist in the Chinese Revolution (New York: The John Day Company, 1941). Reprinted: San Francisco: Ramparts Press, 1972.
- Nym Wales, The Chinese Labor Movement (New York: John Day, 1945). Reprinted: Freeport, NY: Books for Libraries, 1970.
- Nym Wales, Red Dust; Autobiographies of Chinese Communists (Stanford, Calif.,: Stanford University Press, 1952).
- Nym Wales, Fables and Parables for the Mid-Century (New York,: Philosophical Library, 1952).
- Nym Wales, Notes on the Left-Wing Painters and Modern Art in China (Madison, Conn., 1961).
- Nym Wales, Women in Modern China (The Hague, Paris,: Mouton, 1967).
- Helen Foster Snow, My China Years: A Memoir (New York: Morrow, 1984).
|
8,852,888 |
21-Hydroxylase
| 1,172,863,301 |
Human enzyme that hydroxylates steroids
|
[
"Cytochrome P450",
"EC 1.14.99",
"Enzymes",
"Human proteins",
"Metabolism",
"Steroid hormone biosynthesis"
] |
Steroid 21-hydroxylase (also known as steroid 21-monooxygenase, cytochrome P450<sub>C21</sub>, 21α-hydroxylase and less commonly 21β-hydroxylase) is an enzyme that hydroxylates steroids at the C21 position and is involved in biosynthesis of aldosterone and cortisol. The enzyme converts progesterone and 17α-hydroxyprogesterone into 11-deoxycorticosterone and 11-deoxycortisol, respectively, within metabolic pathways that ultimately lead to aldosterone and cortisol. Deficiency in the enzyme may cause congenital adrenal hyperplasia.
Steroid 21-hydroxylase is a member of the cytochrome P450 family of monooxygenase enzymes that uses an iron containing heme cofactor to oxidize substrates. The enzyme is localized in endoplasmic reticulum membranes of adrenal cortex, and is encoded by the gene in humans, which is located near the CYP21A1P pseudogene with high degree of sequence similarity. This similarity makes it difficult to analyze the gene at the molecular level, and sometimes leads to loss-of-function mutations of the gene due to intergenic exchange of DNA.
## Function
The steroid 21-hydroxylase enzyme hydroxylates steroids at the C21 position. The enzyme catalyzes the chemical reaction in which the hydroxyl group (-OH) is added at the C21 position of the steroid biomolecule.
The enzyme is a member of the cytochrome P450 superfamily of monooxygenase enzymes. The cytochrome P450 enzymes catalyze many reactions involved in drug metabolism and synthesis of cholesterol, steroids and other lipids.
21-hydroxylase is localized in microsomes of endoplasmic reticulum membranes within adrenal cortex. It is one of three microsomal steroidogenic P450 enzymes, the others being 17-hydroxylase and aromatase.
21-hydroxylase is essential for the biosynthesis of cortisol and aldosterone.
## Structure
21-hydroxylase, as a member of the cytochrome P450 family of monooxygenase enzymes, contains a conserved core of a four α-helix bundle, two additional alpha helices, two sets of β-sheets, and a heme cofactor binding loop. Each subunit in the human enzyme consists of a total of 13 α-helices and 9 β-strands that folds into a triangular prism-like tertiary structure. The iron(III) heme group that defines the active site resides in the center of each subunit. The human enzyme binds one substrate at a time. In contrast, the well-characterized bovine enzyme can bind two substrates. The human and bovine enzyme share 80% amino acid sequence identity, but are structurally different, particularly in loop regions, and also evident in secondary structure elements.
## Mechanism
21-Hydroxylase is a cytochrome P450 enzyme that is notable for its substrate specificity and relatively high catalytic efficiency. Variations of the 21-hydroxylase enzyme can be found in all vertebrates.
Like other cytochrome P450 enzymes, 21-hydroxylase participates in the cytochrome P450 catalytic cycle and engages in one-electron transfer with NADPH-P450 reductase. 21-Hydroxylase is highly specific for hydroxylation of progesterone and 17-hydroxyprogesterone. This is in marked contrast to the evolutionarily and functionally related P450 enzyme 17-hydroxylase, which has a broad range of substrates.
The chemical reaction in which 21-hydroxylase catalyzes the addition of hydroxyl (-OH) to the C21 position of progesterone, 17α-hydroxyprogesterone and 21-desoxycortisone was first described in 1952.
Studies of the human enzyme expressed in yeast initially classified 17-hydroxyprogesterone as the preferred substrate for 21-hydroxylase, however, later analysis of the purified human enzyme found a lower K<sub>M</sub> and greater catalytic efficiency for progesterone over 17-hydroxyprogesterone.
The catalytic efficiency of 21-hydroxylase for conversion of progesterone in humans is approximately 1.3 x 10<sup>7</sup> M<sup>−1</sup>s<sup>−1</sup> at 37 °C. This makes it the most catalytically efficient P450 enzyme of those reported to date, and catalytically more efficient than the closely related bovine 21-hydroxylase enzyme. C-H bond breaking to create a primary carbon radical is thought to be the rate-limiting step in the hydroxylation.
## Genetics
21-hydroxylase is a protein encoded by the CYP21A2 gene in humans. A related pseudogene, CYP21A1P, is located nearby and retains 98% exonic sequence identity with the functional gene CYP21A2. Both genes are located on chromosome 6, in the major histocompatibility complex III close to the Complement component 4 genes C4A and C4B, the Tenascin X gene TNXB and STK19.
`In the mouse genome, the CYP21A2 is a pseudogene and the CYP21A1 is a functional gene. In the chicken and quail, there is only a single CYP21 gene, which locus is located between complement component C4 and TNX gene, along with CENPA.`
The CYP21A2 gene travels in tandem with a pseudogene, CYP21P1, and the high degree of sequence similarity between them indicates that these two genes are evolving in tandem through intergenic exchange of DNA. The CYP21A2 gene is located within the RCCX cluster (an abbreviation composed of the names of the genes RP (a former name for STK19 serine/threonine kinase 19), C4, CYP21 and TNX), which is the most complex gene cluster in the human genome. It is part of the major histocompatibility complex class III (MHC class III), which is the most gene-dense region of the human genome, containing many genes that yet have unknown function or structure. Due to the high degree of homology between the CYP21A2 gene and the CYP21P1 pseudogene and the complexity of the locus, it is difficult to study the CYP21A2 gene at the molecular level.
## Clinical significance
### Congenital adrenal hyperplasia
Genetic variants in the CYP21A2 gene cause a disturbance in the development of the enzyme, leading to congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency. Gene conversion events involving the functional gene and the pseudogene account for many cases of steroid 21-hydroxylase deficiency. CAH is an autosomal recessive disorder. There are multiple forms of CAH, broken down into classical and nonclassical forms based on the amount of enzyme function retained.
The classical forms occur in approximately 1 in 10000 to 1 in 20000 births globally, and include the salt-wasting and simple-virilizing forms. Complete loss of enzymatic activity causes the salt-wasting form. Variations in the structure of 21-hydroxylase are related to the clinical severity of congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Cortisol and aldosterone deficits are associated with life-threatening salt-loss (hence salt-wasting), as the steroids play roles in regulating sodium homeostasis. Simple-virilizing CAH patients (\~1-2% enzyme function) maintain adequate sodium homeostasis, but exhibit other symptoms shared by the salt-wasting form, including accelerated growth in childhood and ambiguous genitalia in female neonates.
The nonclassical form is the mildest one, retaining about 20% to 50% of enzyme function. This form is associated with mild and clinically silent cortisol impairment, but an excess of androgens post-puberty.
### Non-classic congenital adrenal hyperplasia
Non-classical congenital adrenal hyperplasia caused by 21-hydroxylase deficiency (NCCAH) is a milder and late-onset congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Its prevalence rate in different ethnic groups varies from 1 in 1000 to 1 in 50. Some people affected by the condition have no relevant signs and symptoms, while others experience symptoms of hyperandrogenism.
Women with NCCAH usually have normal female genitalia at birth. In later life, the signs and symptoms of the condition may include acne, hirsutism, male-pattern baldness, irregular menstruation, and infertility.
Fewer studies have been published about males with NCCAH comparing to those about females, because males are generally asymptomatic. Males, however, may present with acne and early balding.
While symptoms are usually diagnosed after puberty, children may present with premature adrenarche.
### Research on other conditions
There is ongoing research on how Genetic variants in the CYP21A2 gene may lead do pathogenic conditions. A variant of this gene has been reported to cause autosomal dominant posterior polar cataract, suggesting that 21-hydroxylase may be involved in the extraadrenal biosynthesis of aldosterone and cortisol in the lens of the eye.
## See also
- Steroidogenic enzyme
- Cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase deficiency
|
239,512 |
MP 40
| 1,173,813,765 |
WWII German submachine gun
|
[
"9mm Parabellum submachine guns",
"Erma Werke firearms",
"MP 38 derivatives",
"Simple blowback firearms",
"Submachine guns of Germany",
"Weapons and ammunition introduced in 1940",
"World War II infantry weapons of Germany",
"World War II submachine guns"
] |
The MP 40 (Maschinenpistole 40) is a submachine gun chambered for the 9×19mm Parabellum cartridge. It was developed in Nazi Germany and used extensively by the Axis powers during World War II.
Designed in 1938 by Heinrich Vollmer with inspiration from its predecessor the MP 38, it was heavily used by infantrymen (particularly platoon and squad leaders), and by paratroopers, on the Eastern and Western Fronts as well as armoured fighting vehicle crews. Its advanced and modern features made it a favorite among soldiers and popular in countries from various parts of the world after the war. It was often called "Schmeisser" by the Allies, after Hugo Schmeisser, who designed the MP 18, although he was not involved in the design or production of the MP 40. The weapon's other variants included the MP 40/I and the MP 41. From 1940 to 1945, an estimated 1.1 million were produced by Erma Werke.
## Development
The Maschinenpistole 40 ("Machine pistol 40") descended from its predecessor the MP 38, which was in turn based on the MP 36, a prototype made of machined steel. The MP 36 was developed independently by Erma Werke's Berthold Geipel with funding from the German Army. It took design elements from Heinrich Vollmer's VPM 1930 and EMP. Vollmer then worked on Berthold Geipel's MP 36 and in 1938 submitted a prototype to answer a request from the Heereswaffenamt (Army Weapons Office) for a new submachine gun, which was adopted as MP 38. The MP 38 was a simplification of the MP 36, and the MP 40 was a further simplification of the MP 38, with certain cost-saving alterations, most notably in the more extensive use of stamped steel rather than machined parts.
The MP 40 was often called the "Schmeisser" by the Allies, after the weapon designer Hugo Schmeisser. Schmeisser had designed the MP 18, which was the first mass-produced submachine gun. He did not, however, have anything to do with the design or development of the MP 40, although he held a patent on the magazine.
## Design
The MP 40 submachine guns are open-bolt, blowback-operated automatic arms. The only mode of fire is automatic, but the relatively low rate of fire permits single shots with controlled trigger pulls. The bolt features a telescoping return spring guide which serves as a pneumatic recoil buffer. The cocking handle was permanently attached to the bolt on early MP 38s, but on late-production MP 38s and MP 40s, the bolt handle was made as a separate part. It also serves as a safety by pushing the head of the handle into one of two separate notches above the main opening; this action locks the bolt in either the cocked (rear) or uncocked (forward) position. The absence of this feature on early MP 38s resulted in field expedients such as leather harnesses with a small loop that were used to hold the bolt in the forward position.
The MP 38 receiver was made of machined steel, but this was a time-consuming and expensive process. To save time and materials, and thus increase production, construction of the MP 40 receiver was simplified by using stamped steel and electro-spot welding as much as possible. The MP 38 also features longitudinal grooving on the receiver and bolt, as well as a circular opening on the magazine housing. These features were eliminated on the MP 40.
One feature found on most MP 38 and MP 40 submachine guns is an aluminum, steel, or Margolit (a variation of Bakelite) resting bar under the barrel. This was used to steady the weapon when firing over the side of open-top armored personnel carriers such as the Sd.Kfz. 251 half-track. A handguard, also made of Margolit, is located between the magazine housing and the Margolit pistol grip. The barrel lacked any form of insulation, which often resulted in burns on the supporting hand if it was incorrectly positioned. The MP 40 also has a forward-folding metal stock, the first for a submachine gun, resulting in a shorter overall weapon when folded. However, this stock design was at times insufficiently durable for hard combat use.
Although the MP 40 was generally reliable, a major weakness was its 32-round magazine. Unlike the double-column, staggered-feed magazine found on the Thompson M1921/1928 variants, the MP 40 uses a double-column, single-feed version. The single-feed insert resulted in increased friction against the remaining cartridges moving upwards towards the feed lips, occasionally resulting in feed failures; this problem was exacerbated by the presence of dirt or other debris. Another problem was that the magazine was also sometimes misused as a handhold. This could cause the weapon to malfunction when hand pressure on the magazine body caused the magazine lips to move out of the line of feed, since the magazine well did not keep the magazine firmly locked. German soldiers were trained to grasp either the handguard on the underside of the weapon or the magazine housing with the supporting hand to avoid feed malfunctions.
## Usage
At the outbreak of World War II, the majority of German soldiers carried either Karabiner 98k rifles or MP 40s, both of which were regarded as the standard weapons of choice for an infantryman.
However, later confrontations with Soviet troops such as the Battle of Stalingrad, where entire enemy units were armed with PPSh-41 submachine guns, the Germans found themselves out-gunned in short range urban combat which caused a shift in their tactics, and by the end of the war the MP 40 and its derivatives were sometimes issued to entire assault platoons. Starting in 1943, the German military moved to replace both the Karabiner 98k rifle and MP 40 with the new, revolutionary StG 44. By the end of World War II in 1945, an estimated 1.1 million MP 40s had been produced of all variants.
### Post-war use
During and after the end of World War II, many MP 40s were captured or surrendered (upwards of 200,000) to the Allies and were then redistributed to the paramilitary and irregular forces of some developing countries. The Norwegian army withdrew the MP 38 from use in 1975 but used the MP 40 for some years more. In particular, the Territorials (Heimevernet) used it until about 1990, when it was replaced by the Heckler & Koch MP5.
## Variants
### MP 40/I
The MP 40/I (sometimes erroneously called MP 40/II) was a modified version of the standard MP 40 with a dual side-by-side magazine holder (for a theoretical ammunition total of 64 rounds), designed for special operations troops on the Eastern Front to compensate for the enemies' PPSh-41 larger magazine capacity. However, the design proved unsuccessful due to weight and reliability issues. Authentic versions, in addition to the dual mag magazine well, also have a smaller buttpad and shortened ejector.
### MP 41
In 1941, Hugo Schmeisser designed the MP 41, which was, in reality, an MP 40 upper receiver with a lower receiver of an MP 28 submachine gun. It saw limited service, however, and was issued only to SS and police units in 1944. The MP 41 was also supplied to Germany's Axis ally Romania.
Later in 1941, rival company Erma Werke sued Haenel, at which Schmeisser was Chief Designer, for patent infringement. Production subsequently ceased on the MP41.
## Influence on later weapons
The MP 38 and MP 40 also directly influenced the design of later weapons, including the Spanish Star Z45, the Yugoslavian Zastava M56, and the semi-automatic German Selbstladebüchse BD 38 replica.
Details of the MP 40 have also been adopted in other submachine guns, which otherwise differ significantly from a technical point of view:
- The designers of the American M3 "Grease Gun" examined British Sten guns and captured MP 40s for usable construction details.
- The folding stock became the model for those on later weapons, such as the Soviet PPS-43 and the AKS and AKMS versions of the AK-47.
- The MP 40 magazine can also be used in the Belgian Vigneron submachine gun.
## Users
During World War II, the resistance and the Allies sometimes captured MP 40s to replace or supplement their own weapons. The MP 40 was used for several decades following World War II by many countries around the world in armed conflicts. Some found their way into guerrilla groups such as the Viet Cong or African guerrillas.
Its operators have included:
- Algeria: The National Liberation Army used MP 40s supplied by Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia.
- Austria
- Bosnia
- Bulgaria
- Croatia
- Czechoslovakia
- Finland: Around 160 were delivered together with German vehicles during the Continuation War; after the war they were used by prison administration before being retired in the 1970s
- France: French resistance used captured guns during World War II. MP 40s were also carried by French Army in French Indochina and French Algeria especially by paratroopers.
- Greece
- Guatemala: MP 38/40 supplied in 1954 from Czechoslovakia, still in service with the police at the end of the Guatemalan Civil War.
- Indonesia
- Israel: Used during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War and by Unit 101 before replaced by the Uzi.
- Iran: Used in small numbers by the 55th Airborne Brigade and Iranian Imperial Guards.
- Italian Partisans: Used examples captured from German soldiers.
- Kosovo Liberation Army
- Nazi Germany: Used by the Wehrmacht, military police, Gestapo, Waffen-SS, Volkssturm, and Hitler Youth at the end of war.
- Netherlands: Post war, used by the Papuan Volunteer Corps during West New Guinea dispute.
- Norway
- Poland: Captured MP 40s were used by Polish rebels during World War II.
- Romania
- Soviet Union: Captured MP 40s were used by Soviet partisans and Worker-Peasant Red Army. After the war, the MP 40 with other weapons, were sold to others countries in the Eastern Bloc.
- Spain: Copied as the Star Model Z-45.
- South Vietnam: Used by the South Vietnamese Popular Force.
- Syria: Used against Israel.
- United States: Captured MP 40s used by United States during World War II and by Special Forces and their Civilian Irregular Defense Group program at the beginning of the Vietnam War. Some also apparently captured in the Iraq War.
- Vietnam: Captured from the French Far East Expeditionary Corps and used by the Viet Minh, the Viet Cong and the People's Army of Vietnam.
- Yugoslavia
- Zimbabwe: Used by ZIPRA and ZANLA.
## Civilian ownership in the United States
During the Allied occupation of Germany starting in 1945, U.S. servicemen shipped home thousands of captured firearms as war trophies, including MP 40s. This practice required proper registration of automatic weapons in accordance with the National Firearms Act before they could be imported, but this was curtailed later in the occupation, meaning a relatively small number of civilian-transferable original German MP 40s remain in circulation and are valued at around \$20,000-37,500 as of 2021, with some selling for almost \$50,000.
After the commercial importation of complete machine guns was banned by the Gun Control Act of 1968, MP 40 parts kits (the disassembled parts of the gun excluding the receiver tube) were imported and reassembled onto receivers manufactured in the United States by Charles Erb, Wilson Arms, and others. These remanufactured legally transferable machine guns, colloquially called "tube guns", are (depending on quality of construction and condition) generally valued at 50-75% of the price of original German MP 40s, as they do not have their historical background. As such, they are commonly used for recreational range shooting and WW2 historical reenactments, because the associated wear and tear (within reasonable limits) will not significantly diminish their value, as it would on original collectible examples. Manufacture of new tube guns ceased following the passage of the Firearm Owners Protection Act in 1986.
There are several semi-automatic variants and cosmetic replicas of the MP 40 available for civilian ownership in the U.S. Beginning in 2014, American Tactical Imports began importing an MP 40 replica manufactured by German Sporting Guns GmbH chambered in .22LR, and since 2016 has also imported a pistol variant chambered in 9mm. The .22LR variant features an all-metal construction with period-accurate Bakelite furniture, a folding stock, and a faux-suppressor to meet barrel length import requirements. The 9mm variant is classified as a pistol and therefore does not ship with a folding stock. Both variants are closed-bolt, blowback-operated semi-automatic firearms that vary substantially from originally manufactured MP 40s in internal operation, making them more of an affordable cosmetic replica than a faithful reproduction. Neither of the GSG-manufactured variants are compatible with originally manufactured MP 40 parts and magazines.
## See also
- List of common World War II infantry weapons
- List of submachine guns
- List of World War II firearms of Germany
|
71,891,467 |
Ida Hunt Udall
| 1,172,369,418 |
American Latter-day Saint diarist (1858–1915)
|
[
"1858 births",
"1915 deaths",
"19th-century American women writers",
"19th-century diarists",
"American Latter Day Saint writers",
"American diarists",
"Arizona pioneers",
"History of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints",
"Latter Day Saints from Arizona",
"Mormonism and polygamy",
"People from Beaver, Utah",
"People from San Bernardino, California",
"People from St. Johns, Arizona",
"Polygamy in the United States",
"The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints members",
"Udall family",
"Women in Arizona",
"Young Women (organization) people"
] |
Ida Frances Hunt Udall (March 8, 1858 – April 26, 1915) was an American diarist, homesteader, and teacher in territorial Utah and Arizona. A lifelong member of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), Udall participated in the church's historical practice of plural marriage as the second wife of Latter-day Saint bishop David King Udall and co-wife of former telegraphist Ella Stewart Udall and of Mary Ann Linton Morgan Udall, a widow of John Hamilton Morgan.
During the height of the United States' prosecutorial campaign against polygamy in the 1880s, Udall went into hiding as a fugitive on the "Mormon Underground", or the practice of Latter-day Saints (Mormons) going into hiding to evade arrest or subpoena for antipolygamy prosecution. From 1882 to 1886, she authored a diary of her life in plural marriage and then on the Underground. This diary, considered a "major contribution to Mormon pioneer literature" by biographer Maria Ellsworth, later became the core of a posthumous biography that won the Mormon History Association's Best Biography Award.
Called a "serene intellectual" by historian Leonard J. Arrington, Udall spent much of her adulthood homesteading in eastern Arizona while she raised six children, several of whom went on to have influential political careers.
## Early life
### Childhood
Ida Frances Hunt was born at Hamilton Fort, Utah, on March 8, 1858. She was the oldest child of John Hunt and Lois B. Pratt Hunt, who were both Mormons, or members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), and raised Ida Hunt in their faith. John and Lois Hunt raised Ida in Iron County, Utah, until she was approximately a year old, at which time they moved to San Bernardino, California, where two of her sisters were born. In 1863, Hunt's parents moved the family to Beaver, Utah, where Hunt's maternal grandmother Louisa Barnes Pratt lived, and the Hunts arrived there in May. In November 1869, when she was eleven years old, Hunt was baptized into the LDS Church by immersion in the Beaver River.
### Adolescence
Hunt received her education while growing up in Beaver, and she formed friendships that endured throughout her life. When Hunt was thirteen, her father paid for her and her sisters to attend a local school, and Hunt attended until she was sixteen.
Sometime between 1872 and 1873, Hunt began working as a bookkeeper for a local wool mill. In 1875, Hunt joined the newly formed Beaver Literary Association, and in April of that year she started her own school for children. Seventeen years old, she taught classes and independently managed the school's finances. In November 1875, John Hunt moved the family from Beaver to Sevier County, Utah, and Hunt continued her teaching career there. She taught for at least a term at a log-cabin school in Joseph City, Utah, and for another term in Monroe, Utah.
## Young adulthood
### New Mexico
In February 1877, John Hunt moved the family again, this time to New Mexico. On the way, the Hunt family passed through the Utah cities of Washington and St. George. While in St. George in late-February, Ida Hunt and her sister May received their endowments in the St. George Temple.
The family traveled for approximately three months. Hunt and May together drove one of the teams of animals throughout the trip. The Hunts arrived in San Lorenzo, Valencia County, New Mexico, on May 10, 1877, and they stopped there for three weeks before pressing on to the Savoia Valley, an interethnic community where Euro-American Latter-day Saints, Mexicans, Navajo, and Zuni lived in proximity to each other. While living in Savoia, Hunt studied Spanish, taught her younger siblings in an ad hoc school, and made money as a seamstress.
### Utah
In late 1878, the LDS Church asked John Hunt to serve as a bishop for the church in Snowflake, Arizona, and he moved the family once again. This time, Ida Hunt did not accompany the rest of her family; she instead moved back to Beaver, Utah, arriving there in November 1878, to live with her grandmother Louisa Barnes Pratt. At this time, the Beaver Stake of the LDS Church appointed Ida Hunt to serve in its Young Ladies Mutual Improvement Association (YLMIA) as a counselor, or advisor, to the president. Hunt supported herself by earning money sewing and transcribing court records, and she participated in a vibrant social life with concerts, parties, and social gatherings. Hunt also reconnected with Johnny Murdock, a son of Beaver Stake president John R. Murdock, and Johnny Murdock became what literary scholar Genevieve Long calls a "serious suitor" to her.
### Arizona
In April 1880, at her immediate family's urging, Hunt left Beaver to move to Snowflake, Arizona, to rejoin them. John R. Murdock arranged for Hunt to make the trip with Jesse N. Smith, Eastern Arizona Stake president, and his wives Emma and Augusta. During this time, Latter-day Saints married polygamously as a religious practice, though the federal Morrill Anti-Bigamy Act had criminalized polygamy in American territories since 1862. The proportion of Latter-day Saint families participating in polygamy during the time of its official practice ranged between approximately 20% and 64%, depending on the congregation. In Arizona, that proportion may have been even greater, and local ecclesiastical leaders were often polygamists. As Hunt traveled with the Smiths, she perceived something distinctly spiritual in their relationship which much impressed her. In the words of historian Jan Shipps, Hunt was "converted to plural marriage".
Hunt reunited with her family in Snowflake. Shortly after their arrival, Smith called Hunt to serve as YLMIA president for the Eastern Arizona Stake; she simultaneously served as secretary of the stake-level Relief Society. In her professional life, Hunt returned to teaching, and she taught at log schools in Snowflake and Taylor, Arizona.
In 1881, Johnny Murdock proposed marriage to Hunt, but she broke off their relationship. Hunt wanted a polygamous marriage involving other wives, and Murdock was a monogamist who did not support polygamy.
### Plural courtship and engagement
While Hunt was in Snowflake, she met David King Udall, a Latter-day Saint who at the time was bishop in St. Johns, Arizona, and superintendent of a church-endorsed co-op store. In need of a clerk for the Co-op, Udall wanted to hire someone who spoke Spanish, and he found Hunt an agreeable candidate. Udall hired Hunt in the autumn of 1881, and she moved to St. Johns to work for the Co-op, boarding with Udall, his wife Ella Stewart Udall (a former telegraphist), and their baby daughter Pearl (a year old at the time). Hunt and David had a mutual attraction. That winter, with Ella's consent, David asked Hunt about the possibility of her marrying him as a plural wife.
Sensitive to the feelings of Ella, whom she deeply respected, Hunt moved back to Snowflake and returned to teaching at a school in Taylor. From there, Hunt asked Ella Udall by a January 1882 letter for permission to plurally marry her husband. Replying by mail in March, Ella Udall, albeit somewhat reluctantly, consented to Hunt marrying David Udall. David, Ella, and Pearl Udall met up with Hunt in Snowflake, and on May 6, 1882, the four of them departed together, heading for St. George, Utah, to marry in the temple there.
## Early marriage
Hunt began keeping a diary the day she and the Udalls departed for their wedding. The diary was simultaneously a personal journal and a conscious contribution to recording the history of the Latter-day Saints. Long states that in her writing, Hunt made "artful use of language and plot" and drew upon tropes from contemporary sentimental fiction—such as, according to Long, portraying David Udall as a "strong male hero" or her life as "the heroine's quest for a happy marriage and family"—to articulate the narrative of her experiences.Hunt and the Udalls journeyed by way of the "Honeymoon Trail" leading from Snowflake to St. George. On the way, Hunt conducted herself cautiously, hoping to avoid offending Ella Udall who remained ambivalent about the plural marriage. To portray this in her diary, Hunt used romantic tropes that dramatized the difficult emotions she felt around David and Ella. After a three-week trip, they arrived in St. George, and Ida Hunt married David Udall with Ella present in the St. George Temple on May 25, 1882.
Following the marriage, Ida Udall and Ella Udall made some rapprochement. They spent the wedding night together in conversation, and on the way back to St. Johns they continued having private conversations with each other. The Udall family also made a two-week stop to visit with Ella's relatives, and Ida Udall became part of the family and its network of plural wives, achieving some measure of reconciliation between herself and Ella Udall.
Udall stayed with her father over the summer. On August 25, 1882, she moved back to St. Johns and into the same household as David, Ella, and Pearl. While living together, Udall and Ella collaborated on community projects, such as a local May Day celebration in 1884.
Community life in St. Johns was uneasy. The Latter-day Saints were relative newcomers to the town, and more established residents resented the Mormons' presence out of religious opposition as well as economic and political rivalry. In 1884, the local Apache Chief newspaper publicly proposed that the community lynch John Hunt, Udall's father, and her husband David. Ida Udall felt uncomfortable surrounded by this animosity. Worsening matters, in an attitude common among white Mormons at the time, she held racist views against the Mexican community living in St. Johns, whom she did not consider worthy neighbors.
## Mormon Underground
In mid-1884, David Udall was indicted on a charge of polygamy. Federal law had criminalized polygamy in U. S. territories since the 1862 Morrill Anti-Bigamy Act, and the 1882 Edmunds Act additionally outlawed "unlawful cohabitation", or the cohabitation of a man with multiple women without marriage proven. To avoid being subpoenaed and forced to testify against him, as questioning plural wives in court was a well-known strategy of anti-polygamy prosecution, Ida Udall went into hiding for over two years in a practice known as the "Mormon Underground". By "Mormon Underground", Latter-day Saints referred to a variety of strategies for evading arrests or subpoenas, including frequently moving, living in hiding, keeping marriages and pregnancies secret, and living under pseudonyms. Historian Charles Peterson writes that Udall did so to "remove the physical evidence that would indict" David: herself. Accompanied by three other plural wives, Udall vacated St. Johns and went to Snowflake.
In August, federal marshals inquired after Ida Udall at the Udall home in St. Johns where they questioned four-year-old Pearl, who denied any knowledge of Ida Udall's whereabouts. On September 28, Udall fled town, and she eventually went to live with David Udall's parents in Nephi, Utah. When prosecutors brought polygamy charges against David Udall, they were unable to summon Ida Udall to testify against him and failed to secure a conviction.
Udall remained on the Underground for over two years and gave birth to her first child with David, named Pauline, while in hiding. During this time, Udall stayed with David's parents sporadically, and she depended heavily on support from a network of friends and other Latter-day Saint women who assisted her materially and emotionally by helping her secure employment, childcare, social connections, and emotional stability. To support herself, Udall often turned to sewing and bookkeeping, and she briefly held a job transcribing county records. In order to obfuscate their relationship and her location, Udall communicated with David through her co-wife Ella. Even in this correspondence, David wrote as if he and Ida were siblings in order to maintain plausible deniability about their relationship, though not being acknowledged as a wife frustrated Udall, who felt lonely in her isolation from the family.
Although prosecutors did not successfully bring polygamy charges against David Udall, in 1885 he was convicted and imprisoned on a trumped-up perjury charge that was attributed to anti-polygamy lobbying in St. Johns. However, St. Johns County officials signed a letter to Grover Cleveland, the President of the United States, asking him to pardon David, and Cleveland pardoned David for the perjury in 1885. The polygamy charge was dropped in 1886, and Ida Udall eventually returned to eastern Arizona from Utah. That same year, in November, she stopped keeping a diary.
Udall and her daughter did not immediately return to St. Johns; they stayed with two of her sisters in Snowflake until March 1888, when she moved to a farm in Round Valley, Arizona, that David and his brother had purchased. Ella Udall and her children visited that summer; it was the first time Ida Udall and Ella Udall had seen each other in four years.
Ella's ambivalence about plural marriage persisted, however. When David had financial difficulty in caring for the whole family, he temporarily had Ida move back in with her parents in Snowflake, for fear of "offend[ing] Ella", and Udall's place in the household remained inconstant thereafter. For two years, Udall and her children moved back and forth between Snowflake and Round Valley, and Ella and her children moved back and forth between Round Valley and St. Johns. Anti-polygamy prosecution also continued to haunt Udall; in the summer of 1891, she and friend Mary Ann Linton Morgan cut short a stay in Round Valley and fled to Snowflake to hide from federal marshals.
## Homesteading and later life
In 1890, LDS Church president Wilford Woodruff issued a statement known as the 1890 Manifesto in which he publicly advised Latter-day Saints to obey federal laws outlawing polygamy, withdrawing the church's official sanction of the practice. The Udalls lived as one family in a single household in the winter of 1891–1892, but in the spring David concluded that complying with the 1890 Manifesto required not cohabitating with plural wives, and he moved Ida Udall to a farm in Eagar, Arizona, where she ran a co-op store while he occasionally checked in. However, in July 1892, church leaders instructed him otherwise and to remain a family, and David restored contact with Ida Udall. Still, for most of the remainder of Ida Udall's life, David primarily cohabited with Ella, with Ida Udall managed the farm on her own.
At the turn of the century, Udall acquired a homestead in her own name in Greer Valley (later called Hunt Valley), Arizona, where she began living in the spring of 1902. The homestead was named Hunt. Udall and her sons worked the property, starting in a tent and eventually building a house. Over the years, she tended a garden, raised grain, kept pigs, cows, and chickens; made cheese, butter, and hay; and managed the property as a way station for mail carriers. Udall also continued using her business and bookkeeping skills. She handled finances for the Hunt ranch and wrote David's professional and ecclesiastical correspondence on his behalf. Throughout these conditions, Udall was a "serene intellectual", in the words of historian Leonard J. Arrington, who promoted culture and education as a teacher and musician.
Udall had six children with David, and for the most part she raised them on her own while David mostly lived with Ella. In May 1903, Latter-day Saint apostles Matthias F. Cowley and John W. Taylor encouraged David Udall to plurally marry Mary Ann Linton Morgan, a widow whose husband John Hamilton Morgan had died in 1894. Ida Udall was a close friend of Morgan's and encouraged the marriage. Ella "was not interested." At Cowley and Taylor's behest, David married Morgan in 1903. Morgan and her three young sons began living with Ida Udall and her children at Hunt on December 23 that year. Having been friends for years, Udall and Morgan got along well as co-wives living together. Udall and Morgan lived together until 1906, when Mary purchased and moved into a house of her own.
Between 1906 and 1908, Udall suffered three strokes, the last of which paralyzed her on her left side. Pauline took responsibility for Udall's care, and Pearl, at the time a student at the Los Angeles College of Osteopathy, took a leave from her program in order to help. Thereafter, Udall and Pauline lived variously in Hunt Valley, St. Johns, and Snowflake. In what biographer Ellsworth calls an "unexpected blessing", Ella Udall's sometimes fraught feelings toward her co-wife warmed, and her relationship with Ida Udall improved.
Seven years after her third stroke, Udall died in Hunt Valley on April 26, 1915, in the home and company of her daughter Pauline, and she was buried in St. Johns.
## Legacy
### Family
Many of Udall's children became prominent figures in Western community and politics. Three of her sons—John Hunt Udall, Jesse Addison Udall, and Don Taylor Udall—served in the Arizona state legislature. John Hunt Udall was a two-time gubernatorial nominee and later a mayor of Phoenix, Arizona. John's son, John Nicholas Udall, was later a mayor of Phoenix as well; he served several terms. Don Taylor and Jesse Addison were also superior court judges in Navajo County and Graham County, respectively. In 1960, Jesse acceded to the Arizona Supreme Court, and he served as a justice for eleven years. Pearl Udall moved to Salt Lake City, Utah, and opened a medical practice, which she successfully ran the rest of her life. Pauline remained in northeastern Arizona; she served for seventeen years as president of the LDS Church's Snowflake Stake Primary Association. Pauline's husband and Udall's son-in-law, Asahel Henry Smith, admired Udall and frequently retold stories from her life.
Udall was the grandmother of Maria S. Ellsworth, her biographer, a schoolteacher, and a book review author, whom Kim Engel-Pearson called a "specialist in Mormon History". Udall also was the great-grandmother of Milan Smith, a judge on the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit. She was also the great-great-grandmother of novelist Brady Udall, author of The Lonely Polygamist.
### Diary
The diary Udall kept during the first four years of her marriage is, according to biographer Ellsworth, a "major contribution to Mormon pioneer literature." In a historical and literary analysis, Genevieve Long concludes that Udall's journal is "an important account of polygamous life" and "may justly be called an autobiography, a carefully crafted, artful reconstruction of a life". Written with intertextuality with then-contemporary literature, according to Long, the diary demonstrates creativity and literary strategy, functioning as both a "personal resource" and "public record". As a historical document, Charles S. Peterson describes Udall's writing as being "outstanding among" Mormon women's diaries, "written with feeling and perception". Peggy Pascoe considers it "riveting reading". Publishers Weekly's review regretted that "Udall's complaints against her husband" in the diary "seem to be given short shrift due to her own self-abnegation". According to Engel-Pearson, Udall's accounts "wrote into being the pioneer women's experience" in Arizona.
Udall's diary is the core of a biography assembled by Ellsworth which the University of Illinois Press published in 1992. Titled Mormon Odyssey: The Story of Ida Hunt Udall, Plural Wife, the book contains full transcriptions of Udall's diary and unfinished memoir alongside biographical writing by Ellsworth. Reviewer Stephen Stein recommended the book to people interested in women's studies, religious history, and Mormon history, though according to him it "lacks a critical perspective, because of the documents contained in it". Historian Jan Shipps wrote of the "beauty and pathos of Ida Hunt's story" but believed that the book suffered from Ellsworth "fail[ing] to make a consistent effort to render [Mormonism] intelligible to a general audience". Pascoe considered "Ellsworth's editorial touch... deft and unobtrusive", stating that Ellsworth had "a fine eye for phrases outsiders will not understand, and she provides footnotes with all the necessary explanation". After its publication, Mormon Odyssey received the Mormon History Association's Best Biography Award.
## See also
- Mormon literature
- Northern Arizona
- The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Arizona
- Udall family
|
223,482 |
Bart the General
| 1,167,749,792 | null |
[
"1990 American television episodes",
"Television episodes about bullying",
"Television episodes about revenge",
"Television episodes about wars",
"Television shows written by John Swartzwelder",
"The Simpsons (season 1) episodes"
] |
"Bart the General" is the fifth episode of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It originally aired on Fox in the United States on February 4, 1990. In the episode, Bart Simpson enlists Grampa's help to battle local bully Nelson Muntz. Bart unites the neighborhood children against Nelson and defeats him. The episode was directed by David Silverman and was the first to be written by John Swartzwelder.
## Plot
Bart gets into a fight with Nelson Muntz, the school bully, after Nelson's friends stomp on a box of cupcakes that Lisa baked for Miss Hoover's birthday party. Nelson beats up Bart after school and warns him to expect the same pummeling the next day. Marge encourages Bart to reason with Nelson, but Homer urges him to bend the rules and fight dirty. Bart follows Homer's advice and gets beaten up again. He turns to the toughest member of the Simpson family, Grampa, who introduces him to Herman, the crazed one-armed proprietor of an army surplus store called Herman's Military Antiques. After Herman teaches him military tactics, Bart declares war on Nelson and his gang of bullies.
Bart enlists all of Nelson's other victims — nearly all of his friends and classmates — and trains them for combat. With Herman commanding from Bart's tree house, Bart leads his forces into battle by ambushing Nelson and his minions. They commence saturation bombing with water balloons, forcing Nelson's thugs to surrender and Nelson to be taken prisoner, who threatens to beat up Bart as soon as he is untied. Herman drafts an armistice that states that Nelson will retain his honorary position and name but not hold any actual power. After Bart and Nelson sign the treaty, Marge serves cupcakes and peace prevails.
During the epilogue, Bart tells the audience that contrary to the events of the episode, war is neither glamorous nor fun, and states that there are no winners and very few good wars. He also advises that the audience visit their local library for more information about war.
## Cast
- Dan Castellaneta as Homer Simpson and Grampa Simpson
- Julie Kavner as Marge Simpson and Receptionist
- Nancy Cartwright as Bart Simpson, Nelson Muntz and Lewis
- Yeardley Smith as Lisa Simpson
- Harry Shearer as Otto, Principal Seymour Skinner, Jasper and Herman
- Susan Blu as Weasel \#1
- Jo Ann Harris as Weasel \#2, Richard and Lewis
- Pamela Hayden as Milhouse Van Houten and Boy
## Production
This episode was running too long to use the normal opening sequence and therefore did not feature a chalkboard gag or a couch gag. Instead, it just cut to an image of the Simpson house. David Silverman was the director and was somewhat stressed, because he was doing storyboards for this episode while also directing "Bart the Genius". Originally, he had planned to use the song "War" by Edwin Starr in the episode. The plans were dropped when they decided the song did not really fit the story. John Swartzwelder wrote the episode, being his first work on the show. The episode had problems with the censors, who did not want the characters to say "family jewels" on prime time television. The producers ignored the notes and "family jewels" remained in the episode. This act of attempted censorship was reflected in the part where Grampa Simpson writes a letter complaining of how sexualized television has become and gives a list of words he never wants to hear on television again, one of which is the phrase "family jewels".
Two new characters were introduced in this episode. The first, Nelson Muntz, remains a frequently used recurring character. Voice actress Dana Hill was originally assigned to play Nelson and was present at the table read, but not at the recording session (for unknown reasons). Nancy Cartwright was then assigned the role. The second character, Herman, has been used far less. The design of Herman, with the exception of his missing arm, was inspired by writer John Swartzwelder. His voice, as performed by Harry Shearer, was partly inspired by George H. W. Bush. The original idea for Herman was for him to have a differing story for the loss of his arm with every appearance.
## Cultural references
The episode featured several references to war films. Several lines of dialogue, Bart slapping one of his soldiers for "being a disgrace", and the music was lifted directly from the 1970 film Patton, composed by Jerry Goldsmith. Fox owned the rights to this film, so it was no problem to use the soundtrack. The marching sequence and the silhouettes of the children climbing the jungle gym against the setting sun are a nod to Stanley Kubrick's 1987 film Full Metal Jacket. The Longest Day from 1962 is also referenced. The episode parodies the famous sailor kissing a girl in Times Square photograph taken on V-J Day, where a random boy in a sailor suit kisses Lisa, before she slaps him in the face. Bart concludes the episode by saying the only "good wars" are the American Revolution, World War II, and the Star Wars trilogy.
## Reception
In its original American broadcast, "Bart the General" finished 31st place in the weekly ratings for the week of January 29 – February 4, 1990 with a Nielsen rating of 14.3. It was the highest-rated show on Fox that week.
Since airing, the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics. The authors of the book I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide, Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, said: "Some good lines and setpieces aside – we love Bart's fantasy of death at Nelson's hands – this episode nevertheless feels a bit unsure of itself, particularly towards the end." In a DVD review of the first season, David B. Grelck rated the episode a 3 (of 5) and called it "another episode that helped to propel Bart's popularity into the stratosphere ..."
Colin Jacobson at DVD Movie Guide said in a review that the episode "remains a primitive example of The Simpsons, but it's a reasonably amusing and entertaining experience", adding that the episode "lacks the subtlety and cleverness found on later episodes, but it was onto something". Matt Groening notes on the commentary track that he finds it strange how controversial this episode seemed at the time of its release. Today, they would go a lot further and to him this episode now seems harmless. The episode's reference to Full Metal Jacket was named the eleventh greatest film reference in the history of the show by Nathan Ditum of Total Film.
### Use in scientific research
"Bart the General" and Seinfeld's "The Tape" were used in a Dartmouth College experiment to study brain activity in relation to humorous moments in television shows. The results were published in a 2004 issue of the academic journal Neurolmage. The researchers noted, "During moments of humor detection, significant [brain] activation was noted in the left posterior middle temporal gyrus ... and left inferior frontal gyrus."
## Home media
The episode was released first on home video in the United Kingdom, as part of a VHS release titled The Simpsons Collection; the episode was paired with season one episode "There's No Disgrace Like Home". It was released in the US on the VHS release The Best of The Simpsons, Vol. 2 (1997), paired with "Moaning Lisa". It was later re-released in the US in a collector's edition boxed set of the first three volumes of The Best of The Simpsons collections. It was re-released in the UK as part of a VHS boxed set of the complete first season, in November 1999. The episode's debut on the DVD format was as a part of The Simpsons season one DVD set, which was released on September 25, 2001. Groening, Brooks, and Silverman participated in the DVD's audio commentary. A digital edition of the series' first season, including the episode, was published December 20, 2010 in the United States through Amazon Video and iTunes.
|
489,833 |
Tautiška giesmė
| 1,171,156,934 |
National anthem of Lithuania
|
[
"Anthems of the Republics of the Soviet Union",
"Compositions in A-flat major",
"European anthems",
"Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic",
"Lithuanian songs",
"National anthems",
"National symbols of Lithuania"
] |
"Tautiška giesmė" (; literally "The National Hymn") is the national anthem of Lithuania, also known by its opening words, "Lietuva, Tėvyne mūsų" (official translation of the lyrics: "Lithuania, Our Homeland", literally: "Lithuania, Our Fatherland"), and as "Lietuvos himnas" ("The National Anthem of Lithuania"). The music and lyrics were written in 1898 by Vincas Kudirka, when Lithuania was still part of the Russian Empire. The fifty-word poem was a condensation of Kudirka's conceptions of the Lithuanian state, the Lithuanian people, and their past. Shortly before his death in 1899, the anthem was performed for Lithuanians living in Saint Petersburg, Russia.
The first public Lithuanian performance of the anthem took place in Vilnius in 1905, and it became the official national anthem in 1919, a year after Lithuania declared its independence.
"Tautiška giesmė" was reinstated in 1989 shortly before the reestablishment of Lithuanian independence and confirmed in the National Anthem Act (21 October 1991). It was automatically included as the national anthem in 1992, when the new Constitution was ratified after independence from the Soviet Union was achieved. The status of "Tautiška giesmė" as the national anthem of Lithuania was further confirmed in 1999 with the passage of a national law stating this.
## Creation
At the time when the poem Lietuva, Tėvyne mūsų was written, Lithuania was part of the Russian Empire. Kudirka, a medical student at the University of Warsaw, was writing as a columnist for the newspaper Varpas (The Bell). In his Varpas columns, Kudirka urged Lithuanians to take pride in their heritage, discussed the problems the Russian Government was causing the Lithuanian population, and denounced those who wished to work for the Tsarist autocracy. In the course of writing for Varpas, he wrote down his thoughts on what Lithuania was and what it should be, resulting in the fifty-word poem Lietuva, Tėvynė mūsų ("Lithuania, Our Homeland").
The poem described the heroic past of Lithuania and exhorted its people to care for the land, care for humanity, and live in honor. Kudirka also urged the country to become a source of enlightenment and virtue. Without a melody, Kudirka took the time to compose the music just before dying of tuberculosis. Both the melody and the lyrics were printed in Varpas in September 1898. Upon his death in 1899, Kudirka's tomb was engraved with the second stanza of the anthem (later destroyed by the authorities).
## History
### Pre-independent Lithuania
Before Kudirka's death, the first performance of the poem occurred at a concert in St. Petersburg, Russia in 1899. The concert was conducted by Česlovas Sasnauskas and was attended by Lithuanians, which St. Petersburg had the largest population of at that time. The anthem was first performed in Lithuania during the Great Seimas of Vilnius on December 3, 1905.
### Independent Lithuania
When Lithuania declared its independence from Russia in 1918, the song was declared the national anthem. It held this status until Lithuania was annexed into the Soviet Union during World War II. During the interwar period, there had been suggestions to modify the words to include a reference to God. It was decided, in Kudirka's memory, that the lyrics should remain as he had written them. Also, the national anthem received criticism over melody.
### Usage in German-occupied Lithuania
On 9 until 12 May 1942, the Marijampolė Commissariat took 580 young men to take charge of the work of the carriers for the German Army Transportation Service. In the division of the men mentioned in the yard of the soldiers, about 3000-4000 people came there, about two thirds of women and girls, and began to shout out: "We are not Germans, do not go to the front." At that time, about 70% of the troops returned to the barracks yard to support the demonstration. Marijampole Teachers Seminary and Gymnasium Students. The demonstrators then sang Lithuanian liberation songs and Tautiška giesmė and when threatened with a fight by several insufficiently armed local commando soldiers, turned the tables and broke some windows. Finally, the crowd gathered on the street to walk to the city. In that direction, the soldiers of the Wehrmacht stoned the truck.
While singing the national anthem, the Lithuanian policemen paid homage, and weighed on two of them. The soldiers of the 1st Police Battalion in the Marijampolė were completely passive, with regard, to the crowd.
### Usage in the Lithuanian SSR
#### 1940–1941
Immediately following the Soviet occupation of Lithuania, the government of the Lithuanian SSR published a new constitution, the Stalinist Constitution of the Lithuanian SSR, that regulates the usage of the new flag and the new coat of arms as a symbol of the socialist identity. However, in this constitution, there was no regulations on a regional anthem for the Lithuanian SSR. According to Soviet custom, all of the republics of the Soviet Union had the "Internationale" translated into their own language as regional anthems.
The officially-introduced "Internationale" in Lithuania was unpopular and the majority of the population of Lithuania disliked it as most Lithuanians then still remembered the "Tautiška giesmė" as being their national one. This was particularly evident when the authorities gathered all of the teachers in 14–15 August 1940 at the Lithuanian Teachers' Congress in Kaunas. The congress was attended by more than 10,000 primary and secondary school teachers and high schools lecturers. Of all the speakers, only the Prime Minister of Lithuania, Vincas Krėvė-Mickevičius, reminded the audience of the Lithuanian national anthem, concluding his speech: "Light and truth all along, guide our steps forever." Upon the end of the congress and the orchestra after the Internationale was played, a teacher began to sing the Tautiška giesmė. Other teacher joined in front of her, singing the anthem, and after that, all of the teachers that attended the congress sing the anthem, publicly testifying about "their determination to serve their homeland, but not the occupier". Inspired by them, the orchestra followed them standing.
#### 1944–1950
The issue about the anthem was raised again after the re-occupation of the Baltic States, after Lithuania re-joined the USSR as the Lithuanian SSR. A new anthem of the USSR was made, and the lyrics of the anthem were translated to the languages of the USSR republics. The original plan was to use the translated anthem as the temporary anthem, until a new, more socialist anthem was made.
During the translation process, Antanas Venclova as the translator, have some worries on the lyrics. The lyrics mentioned Великая Русь (English: Great Russia), which he translated to Didžiosios Rusios. He feared that the part of the lyrics would be badly accepted in Lithuania, because the lyrics shows superiority of the Russian nation in Lithuania, and the spirit of the national revival that passed away after the occupation of Lithuania. The translation of the anthem itself was submitted on 5 January 1944. The translation of the anthem was approved on 7 January 1944.
On 26 January 1944, on the session of the Supreme Council of the USSR, the council adopted a resolution about the rights of all of the Soviet republics to hold their national military formations and Foreign Affairs Commissariat. The resolution was an attempt was made for the image of the USSR as the Soviet republics have an independent statehood. By doing so, the Soviet Union seeks to create a single place for each of the Soviet republics in the UN. Even before the session, Justas Paleckis proposed to the USSR Commissioner for Foreign Affairs of the People's Commissars, Vyacheslav Molotov, to consider whether the Soviet republics are allowed to have their own anthems. Molotov reported that the Politburo had decided to offer the Soviet republics to create their own anthems.
With the offer from the USSR government, the question of the Lithuanian anthem was re-discussed. The first proposal of the anthem was the song "Mes su Stalinu" (English: We are with Stalin), which was proposed by G. Alexandrov to Kazys Preikšas. Other proposals proposed by G. Alexandrov was Tautiška giesmė, and other popular songs, including a poem by Petras Vaičiūnas "Ei, pasauli, mes be Vilniaus nenurimsime".
On 1 June 1944 the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Lithuania prepared a draft resolution of the national anthem of Lithuania:
> "At the present political situation, it is expedient to use the national anthem of Lithuania, in the Lithuanian SSR, to use its popularity and the opportunity to turn it into a weapon of strengthening the Soviet power to create a national anthem of the Lithuanian SSR..."
The main points of the decree were:
1. To allow the performance of music and text of the old Lithuanian national anthem, Tautiška giesmė, created in the end the 19th century by Vincas Kudirka as the National Anthem of the Lithuanian SSR
2. To delay the question about the creation of the anthem of the Lithuanian until the time when it will be possible to attract all creative forces of the nation, and to create a hymn that reflects a new era in the life of the Lithuanian nation and the changes of the country's economy, culture and people's minds.
In the same draft resolution, it was envisaged that the lyrics and the melody of the Tautiška giesmė will be approved by the Presidium of the Supreme Council of the Lithuanian SSR and the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR.
The question of the creation of a new anthem of the Lithuanian SSR returned a year later. From 28 until 29 September 1945, the issue was held at the meeting of the Lithuanian Communist Party Central Committee Bureau. In the meeting, it was decided that a new anthem of the Lithuanian SSR was needed to reflect the socio-political change in Lithuania. A commission was organized to make the new national anthem of the Lithuanian SSR.
The committee consisted of K. Preikšas as the chairman, Justas Paleckis, Juozas Banaitis, Juozas Žiugžda, and the honored artists in the Lithuanian SSR, Professor Juozas Gruodis, Kostas Korsakas, and Vladas Niunka. The lyrics and the melody of the national anthem of the Lithuanian SSR should be submitted no later than on 1 January 1946. However, the anthem wasn't submitted in the deadline. A new commission for the anthem was created, consisted of Antanas Venclova, Theophilus Tilvytis, Juozas Melnikas, Valerija Valsiūnienė, Eduardas Mieželaitis, Vacys Reimeris and Aleksys Churginas. Due to the active partisan struggle in Lithuania, the plans of the new national anthem was relinquished. Apparently, the authorities believed that replacing Tautiška giesmė with a new one would further aggravate dissatisfaction of the population with the political system.
Of all the Soviet Baltic republics, only Lithuania could maintain the usage of their previous national anthem. The anthem was used until 1950. In Latvia and Estonia, new anthems were created and approved in 1945. Due to the different opinions about the anthem of the Lithuanian SSR, Justas Paleckis proposed to change the words of the Tautiška giesmė. However, the propose idea was rejected.
#### 1950
After decline in Lithuanian partisan activity, the authorities concluded that it was safe to introduce the new anthem. On July 15, 1950, in the 10th anniversary of the incorporation of Lithuania to the Soviet Union, the Presidium of the Supreme Council of the Lithuanian SSR approved a new anthem. The music for the anthem was composed by Balys Dvarionas and Jonas Švedas, and the words were written originally by Antanas Venclova. The anthem was confirmed in Article 169 of the 1978 Constitution of the Lithuanian SSR.
#### 1950–1988
Even though Tautiška giesmė was used as the national anthem of the Lithuanian SSR for 6 years, the anthem ended up being banned in the Lithuanian SSR after the introduction and the approvement as the new anthem. During this period, the Lithuanian Tautiška giesmė became a symbol of national resistance to the Soviet Union. The anthem was often sung at various festivities in families and in small gatherings of trusted people.
#### 1988–1990
On 6 October 1988, Tautiška giesmė was approved as a replacement for the State Anthem of the Lithuanian SSR. The preliminary approval was made by the Supreme Soviet of the Lithuanian SSR and successive legislative bodies.
### Current status
The status of Tautiška giesmė as the national anthem of the Lithuanian Republic was reconfirmed in 1992. In that year, the Constitution of Lithuania was approved; Article 19 of the document states that Tautiška giesmė will be the national anthem of Lithuania. The last law in relation to the national anthem was passed in 1999; it contained the official lyrics and protocol on how and when to play the anthem.
## 1999 law
Signed into law by President Valdas Adamkus on 9 June 1999, the "Law on the National Anthem of the Republic of Lithuania" details when and where the national anthem is played and its performance protocols.
Article 2 of the law states that the anthem is to be played at the following occasions: At the beginning or ending of solemn sessions of the Seimas, on national holidays and memorial days, and at receptions and farewells of foreign heads of state on official visits to Lithuania—but only after the anthem of the foreign country has been played.
It is played in foreign countries to represent Lithuania, according to their own diplomatic protocols; on national holidays and other days when the Flag of Lithuania is raised by order of the government; when the flag is raised during public events sponsored by governmental institutions, business, and organizations; and at the beginning and end of National Radio programming. The anthem may also be played at other occasions, such as sporting competitions.
When playing the anthem, the music may be either live or recorded. The anthem may be performed with a choir, an orchestra, a military band, or a combination of the latter two. Article 4, section 2, states that all participants are encouraged to sing the national anthem. When the anthem is played, all civilians are asked to stand in a gesture of respect to the anthem. If employees of national defense, police, and other military or military-related organizations are present, they must respect the anthem in a way prescribed by their statutes. The anthem cannot be used as background music, purposes of advertisement, or for entertainment, such as karaoke. Public disrespect of the anthem may be punishable by law.
## Lyrics
## Sheet music
The Lithuanian National Culture Centre has created several sheet music for the anthem. Below are the sheet music for the anthem:
- Men's Choir (tenor and bass)
- Women's Choir (soprano and alto)
- Mixed Choir (soprano, alto, tenor and bass)
## See also
- Anthem of the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic
- List of national anthems
|
31,374,620 |
German destroyer Z14 Friedrich Ihn
| 1,122,253,792 |
Type 1934A-class destroyer
|
[
"1935 ships",
"Destroyers of the Soviet Navy",
"Ships built in Hamburg",
"Type 1934 destroyers"
] |
Z14 Friedrich Ihn was a Type 1934A-class destroyer built for Nazi Germany's Kriegsmarine in the mid-1930s. The ship was named after the First World War German naval officer Friedrich Ihn. At the beginning of World War II, the ship was initially deployed to blockade the Polish coast, but she was quickly transferred to the German Bight to lay defensive minefields in German waters. In late 1939 and early 1940, the ship laid multiple offensive minefields off the English coast that claimed 18 merchant ships and a destroyer. Ihn was under repair during the Norwegian Campaign of early 1940 and was transferred to France later that year.
After a lengthy refit in Germany, she returned to France in early 1941 where she escorted returning warships, commerce raiders, and supply ships through the Bay of Biscay for several months. She remained in Germany for the rest of the year after returning in July. The ship was transferred to France in early 1942 to escort the capital ships as they sailed through the English Channel to return to Germany (the Channel Dash). Ihn was then transferred to Norway where she participated in several unsuccessful attacks on convoys to the Soviet Union. Afterwards she returned to Germany and remained there for the rest of the year. The ship spent most of 1943 in the northern Norway although she was mostly inactive because of fuel shortages. Ihn was ordered home for a long refit late in the year and she was sent to southern Norway upon its completion in mid-1944. The ship remained there for the rest of the war, although she made several trips to evacuate refugees from East Prussia in the last days of the war.
Ihn was eventually allocated to the Soviets when the surviving warships were divided between the Allies after the war. Little is known about her service with the Soviet Navy and she was probably scrapped sometime in the 1960s.
## Design and description
Friedrich Ihn had an overall length of 119 meters (390 ft 5 in) and was 114 meters (374 ft) long at the waterline. The ship had a beam of 11.30 meters (37 ft 1 in), and a maximum draft of 4.23 meters (13 ft 11 in). She displaced 2,239 long tons (2,275 t) at standard and 3,165 long tons (3,216 t) at deep load. The Wagner geared steam turbines were designed to produce 70,000 metric horsepower (51,000 kW; 69,000 shp) which would propel the ship at 36 knots (67 km/h; 41 mph). Steam was provided to the turbines by six high-pressure Benson boilers with superheaters. Friedrich Ihn carried a maximum of 752 metric tons (740 long tons) of fuel oil which was intended to give a range of 4,400 nautical miles (8,100 km; 5,100 mi) at 19 knots (35 km/h; 22 mph), but the ship proved top-heavy in service and 30% of the fuel had to be retained as ballast low in the ship. The effective range proved to be only 1,530 nmi (2,830 km; 1,760 mi) at 19 knots (35 km/h; 22 mph). The ship's crew consisted of 10 officers and 315 sailors.
Friedrich Ihn carried five 12.7 cm SK C/34 guns in single mounts with gun shields, two each superimposed, fore and aft. The fifth gun was carried on top of the rear deckhouse. Her anti-aircraft armament consisted of four 3.7 cm SK C/30 guns in two twin mounts abreast the rear funnel and six 2 cm C/30 guns in single mounts. The ship carried eight above-water 53.3-centimeter (21.0 in) torpedo tubes in two power-operated mounts. A pair of reload torpedoes were provided for each mount. Four depth charge throwers were mounted on the sides of the rear deckhouse and they were supplemented by six racks for individual depth charges on the sides of the stern. Sufficient depth charges were carried for either two or four patterns of sixteen charges each. Mine rails could be fitted on the rear deck that had a maximum capacity of sixty mines. 'GHG' (Gruppenhorchgerät) passive hydrophones were fitted to detect submarines and an active sonar system was installed by February 1941.
### Modifications
During the war the ship's light anti-aircraft armament was augmented several times. In April 1941, improved 2 cm C/38 guns replaced the original C/30 guns and three additional guns were added. The two guns on the aft shelter deck were replaced at some point by a single 2 cm quadruple Flakvierling mount, probably in 1942. Sometime in 1944–45, Z14 Friedrich Ihn received a partial "Barbara" anti-aircraft refit where twin 2 cm mounts replaced her singles, giving her a total of eighteen 2 cm barrels.
## Construction and career
Friedrich Ihn, named after the commander of the torpedo boat S35, who was killed during the Battle of Jutland in 1916, was ordered on 19 January 1935 from Blohm & Voss. She was laid down at their shipyard in Hamburg on 30 May 1935 as yard number B503, launched on 5 November 1935 and completed on 6 April 1938. The ship participated in the August 1938 Fleet Review as part of the 3rd Destroyer Division. On 23–24 March 1939, Friedrich Ihn was one of the destroyers escorting Adolf Hitler aboard the pocket battleship Deutschland as the Germans occupied Memel. She participated in the Spring fleet exercise in the western Mediterranean and made several visits to Spanish and Moroccan ports in April and May.
When World War II began, Friedrich Ihn was initially deployed in the Baltic to operate against the Polish Navy and to enforce a blockade of Poland, but she was soon transferred to the German Bight where she joined her sister ships in laying defensive minefields. She also patrolled the Skagerrak to inspect neutral shipping for contraband goods in October. The ship was scheduled to conduct a minelaying operation off the British coast in early November, but it was cancelled when one of the other destroyers assigned to participate suffered machinery problems from contaminated fuel oil.
On the night of 12/13 December, German destroyers sortied to lay minefields off the British coast. Under the command of Commodore (Kommodore) Friedrich Bonte in his flagship Hermann Künne, Friedrich Ihn, Bruno Heinemann, Richard Beitzen, and Erich Steinbrinck laid 240 mines off the mouth of the River Tyne, where the navigation lights were still lit. The British were unaware of the minefield's existence and lost eleven ships totaling 18,979 gross register tons (GRT). The destroyers were later ordered to escort the crippled light cruisers Leipzig and Nürnberg which had been torpedoed by the submarine HMS Salmon while covering the destroyers' withdrawal. Ihn and Steinbrinck had machinery problems en route and were forced to return to port before they reached the cruisers. Ihn and her sisters Friedrich Eckoldt and Steinbrinck sortied again on the night of 18 December, but the British had turned off the navigation lights off Orfordness and the German were forced to abandon the attempt because they could not locate themselves precisely enough to lay the minefield in the proper position.
### 1940
Another minefield of 170 magnetic mines was laid by Ihn, Eckolt, and her sister Steinbrinck on the night of 6/7 January 1940 off the Thames Estuary. The destroyer HMS Grenville and six merchant ships totalling 21,617 GRT were lost to this minefield as well and another ship was damaged as well. Bonte led a destroyer minelaying sortie to the Newcastle area on the night of 10/11 January with Ihn, Heidkamp, Eckoldt, Anton Schmitt, Beitzen, and Karl Galster. Ihn had problems with her boilers that reduced her maximum speed to 27 knots (50 km/h; 31 mph) and she had to be escorted back to Germany by Beitzen. This minefield only claimed one fishing trawler of 251 tons.
Ihn was under repairs during Operation Weserübung in April and did not leave the dockyard until May when she began working up as part of the 5th Destroyer Flotilla. The flotilla was transferred to the Atlantic Coast of France in early September and was attacked by Bristol Blenheim bombers of the Royal Air Force on 11 September while crossing the Baie de la Seine without result, although Ihn was near-missed. Now based at Brest the flotilla laid a minefield in Falmouth Bay during the night of 28/29 September. Five ships totalling only 2,026 GRT were sunk by this minefield. Led by Kapitän zur See Erich Bey, Ihn and four other destroyers sortied for the Southwest Approaches on 17 October and were intercepted by a British force of two light cruisers and five destroyers. The British opened fire at extreme range and were forced to disengage in the face of long-range torpedo volleys and attacks by Luftwaffe bombers without having hit any of the German ships. Ihn returned home on 7 November for a refit in Stettin.
Her refit was completed in late January 1941, but she was trapped by thick ice so that she could not reach Gotenhafen to work up until mid-February. Ihn returned to France in April where she was based at La Pallice. There she was primarily occupied with escorting returning commerce raiders, warships and supply ships through the Bay of Biscay to bases in France. These included the raider Thor on 22 April, the supply ship Nordland, and the fleet oiler Ermland in late May. The heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen was escorted to Brest in early June after separating from the battleship Bismarck during Operation Rheinübung. Ihn sailed from Brest on 27 July for another refit and was ineffectually attacked by British motor torpedo boats (MTB) off Calais that same day.
### 1942
The ship remained in German waters for the rest of the year after completing her refit. She was sent to Brest in February 1942 to escort the battleships Gneisenau and Scharnhorst, as well as Prinz Eugen through the English Channel back to Germany (Operation Cerberus). During the voyage, Ihn twice engaged British MTBs and shot down two Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers. Shortly afterwards, the ship joined four other destroyers in escorting Prinz Eugen and the heavy cruiser Admiral Scheer to Trondheim, Norway. Heavy weather forced Ihn and two other destroyers to return to port before reaching Trondheim and Prinz Eugen was badly damaged by a British submarine after their separation.
On 6 March, the battleship Tirpitz, escorted by Ihn and three other destroyers, sortied to attack the returning Convoy QP 8 and the Russia-bound PQ 12 as part of Operation Sportpalast (Sports Palace). That night the weather worsened and Ihn suffered some damage to her bridge and forward gun mount from high waves. The following morning, Admiral Otto Ciliax, commanding the operation, ordered the destroyers to search independently for Allied ships and they stumbled across the 2,815 GRT Soviet freighter SS Ijora, a straggler from QP 8 later that afternoon and sank her. Tirpitz rejoined them shortly afterwards and Ciliax ordered Ihn to Harstad to refuel. The destroyer rejoined the battleship in the morning and was able to shoot down one of five Fairey Albacore torpedo bombers from the aircraft carrier HMS Victorious that unsuccessfully attacked the German ships at 10:20. Two hours later both ships arrived back in port.
By May, Ihn was flagship of Captain Fritz Berger of the 5th Destroyer Flotilla and she was assigned to escort Tirpitz during Operation Rösselsprung (Knight's Move), the attack on the Russia-bound Convoy PQ 17. The ships sailed from Trondheim on 2 July for the first stage of the operation, although all three of the other destroyers assigned to Tirpitz's escort ran aground in the dark and heavy fog and were forced to return to port for repairs. Tirpitz, the heavy cruiser Admiral Hipper and Ihn arrived at Altafjord on 4 July, but they were recalled shortly after sortieing on the 5th and never engaged any Allied ships. She escorted Galster, one of the destroyers that had run aground, back to Germany on 12 July.
### 1943–1945
Ihn was refitted after her arrival and remained in the Baltic Sea for the rest of the year. On 9 January 1943, together with two other destroyers, she escorted Scharnhorst and Prinz Eugen as they attempted to return to Norway from Gotenhafen. The ships were spotted en route two days later by an aircraft from the Royal Air Force and the attempt was abandoned as the element of surprise was lost. Another attempt was made in March, although just with Scharnhorst, and Ihn joined her escort off Kristiansand, Norway, on 7 March. Heavy weather forced the destroyer to put into Bergen, Norway, although the battleship reached Trondheim. Ihn was transferred to Narvik, Norway at the end of April, although the shortage of fuel severely limited her activities in the Arctic. She was ordered home to refit in November, a lengthy one that lasted until June 1944. She was then stationed at Horten, Norway for the rest of the year, where she was employed on convoy escort and minelaying duties, mainly in the Skagerrak. The ship received a brief refit at Swinemünde in November that augmented her anti-aircraft armament and returned to Horten where she remained until May 1945. On 5 May, Ihn sailed from Denmark to Hela where she loaded refugees that she ferried to Copenhagen the following day. She immediately turned around and returned to Hela for another load that she delivered to Glücksburg, Germany, on the 8th. She surrendered at Flensburg by the next day.
### Post-War
The ship was moved to Wilhelmshaven over the summer under British control while the division of the surviving warships was decided among the victorious Allies. While this was being argued the ships were overhauled with a small maintenance crew aboard to preserve their value. The Allied Tripartite Commission allocated Ihn to the Soviet Union at the end of 1945. By this time she had developed some problems with her boilers and the British proposed to swap her for Theodor Reidel to avoid forcing the Soviets to wait for her to be repaired. They refused and Ihn was repaired more quickly than had been estimated with additional spare boiler parts loaded aboard for the voyage. Commissioned into the Soviet Navy as Prytky (Russian: Прыткий), the ship served in the Baltic fleet until she was struck from the list on 22 March 1952 and sold for scrap.
|
45,390,758 |
The Mad Hermit
| 1,167,809,162 |
1910 silent short film
|
[
"1910 drama films",
"1910 films",
"1910 lost films",
"1910s American films",
"American black-and-white films",
"American silent short films",
"Films directed by Barry O'Neil",
"Lost American drama films",
"Silent American drama films",
"Thanhouser Company films"
] |
The Mad Hermit is a 1910 American silent short drama film produced by the Thanhouser Company. The story focuses on Harry Willard, who becomes a hermit after his wife and daughter leave him. He spends a quarter of a century in isolation, but he stumbles across a runaway carriage and the woman tosses her baby to him. He runs into the wilderness and prepares to kill it, but he stays his hand when he sees the baby's locket. The parents survive the carriage crash and seek out the hermit, and it is revealed that the baby's mother is the daughter of Harry Willard. Created by a staff of twenty, it was the first film to be produced by the Thanhouser Company. The film was released on August 9, 1910, after the success of the company was ensured, and met with positive reception by critics. The film is presumed lost.
## Plot
Though the film is presumed lost, a synopsis survives in The Moving Picture World from August 13, 1910. It states: "The story centers on Harry Willard, a plodding farmer. A city gentleman promises Harry's frivolous wife a life of ease and luxury - and it is the old, old story. She takes her tiny daughter, Agnes, with her, and leaves a note announcing the fact for Harry. The young farmer, who loves his wife and child with an all-consuming love, loses his reason as he reads the announcement of his betrayal. Although without the bare means for his subsistence, he searches for days for his loved ones. Eventually the strain, mental and physical, tells on him - he comes out of it all a maniac. His wrath takes the form of an aversion to all mankind. He wants to forget the world that has treated him so ill - he decides to become a hermit and betakes himself to a desolate cave, where he spends the years execrating humanity. A quarter century goes by. Rarely in that time does he venture on beaten paths for fear that he may meet a hated human, but one day he forgets his resolve long enough to cross a carriage drive. He hears the clatter of hooves and sights a horse tearing toward him with a swaying carriage and screaming occupants - runaway! As the carriage passes by him, a woman flings a bundle to him; he catches it and finds it a pink and white bit of humanity. Dazed he runs into the wilderness with a baby and makes for his cave. Arrived at the cave the maniac resolves to even his score with society by taking the babe's life. But his eyes light on the baby's locket and his hand is stayed. For the locket bears a picture of the child of the wife who betrayed him!"
"The parents of the baby have miraculously escaped death in the crash of their carriage and trace the strange creature who rescued the child to his lair. They arrive as he ponders upon the picture in the locket and tries to recall the original of it. The babe is the daughter of the original and its mother the hermit's daughter, Agnes - the one-time tot whom the deserting wife took with her. A wife and mother, she is quite a mature woman now - but her features are unchanged. The face appears familiar to the hermit and he tries to place it. Eventually he succeeds. The shock of recognition dazes him - and changes him. The light of sanity returns to his eyes. His reason is restored. He takes to his breast the daughter whom he had lost and found again. She takes him from his forest home and back to the civilization that had tricked him. But the kindly care and love his daughter bestows on him to act in a measure as a recompense for the wrong done him in the long ago, and with the passing years the bitterness passes from his being. The picture touches the heartstrings; it will please to a certainty."
## Production
The Mad Hermit was the first film to be produced by the Thanhouser Company, but the first release was The Actor's Children. The writer of the scenario is unknown. The film was shot in the autumn of 1909. Edwin Thanhouser would later describe the production as, "...a rather lamentable affair. It included everything from murder through robbery and a love story. It boasted enough material for 15 plots." According to Q. David Bowers, Edwin Thanhouser felt that the production had many amateurish aspects and held off on releasing the film until the reputation of the company was secured. The film was directed by Barry O'Neil, the stage name of Thomas J. McCarthy. O'Neil would direct many important Thanhouser pictures, including its first two-reeler, Romeo and Juliet. There are no known credits for the cast, but Anna Rosemond and Frank H. Crane are two possible actors that were prominent players in 1910. Involved with the company since its beginnings, Anna Rosemond was one of two leading ladies of the Thanhouser company in this era. Frank H. Crane was a leading male actor of the company and also involved since the very beginnings of the Thanhouser Company. Bowers states that most of the credits are fragmentary for 1910 Thanhouser productions. A later statement by Edwin Thanhouser would state that 20 persons, including the director and cameraman, were involved in the production. A surviving film still leaves open the possibility of identifying two characters.
## Release and reception
The single reel drama, approximately 1,000 feet long, was released on August 9, 1910. The film had a wide national release, with advertisements including those in Kansas, California, Arizona, Nebraska, Washington, South Dakota, Pennsylvania, and Texas. An advertisement for the Province Theatre suggests that the film arrived in British Columbia, Canada within days of its release.
The film received praise from critics with The Moving Picture World stating, "[It is a] picture which touches the heart and arouses the strongest emotions. It can be readily understood how a man might become a maniac under such circumstances. The loss of a wife and daughter is sufficient to overthrow reason. That a man should be a hermit afterward seems not unusual. Then comes the excitement of the runaway, the rescue of the baby and the discovery of his daughter, with returning reason and love to follow during his declining years. The emotions will be strongly aroused by this picture, and that will make it popular. Whatever touches the heart is always popular, and this seems to appeal with unusual power." The New York Dramatic Mirror offered minor praise for the film for the production and its acting.
## See also
- List of American films of 1910
|
188,740 |
Esarhaddon
| 1,173,029,745 |
7th-century BC King of Assyria
|
[
"669 BC deaths",
"710s BC births",
"7th-century BC Assyrian kings",
"7th-century BC Babylonian kings",
"Esarhaddon",
"Kings of the Universe",
"Sargonid dynasty",
"Year of birth uncertain"
] |
Esarhaddon, also spelled Essarhaddon,' Assarhaddon and Ashurhaddon (Neo-Assyrian cuneiform: [] Error: : no text (help), also [] Error: : no text (help) Aššur-aḫa-iddina, meaning "Ashur has given me a brother"; Biblical Hebrew: ʾĒsar-Ḥaddōn) was the king of the Neo-Assyrian Empire from the death of his father Sennacherib in 681 BC to his own death in 669. The third king of the Sargonid dynasty, Esarhaddon is most famous for his conquest of Egypt in 671 BC,' which made his empire the largest the world had ever seen, and for his reconstruction of Babylon, which had been destroyed by his father.'
After Sennacherib's eldest son and heir Aššur-nādin-šumi had been captured and presumably executed in 694, the new heir had originally been the second eldest son, Arda-Mulissu, but in 684, Esarhaddon, a younger son, was appointed instead. Angered by this decision, Arda-Mulissu and another brother, Nabû-šarru-uṣur, murdered their father in 681 and planned to seize the Neo-Assyrian throne. The murder, and Arda-Mulissu's aspirations of becoming king himself, made Esarhaddon's rise to the throne difficult and he first had to defeat his brothers in a six-week long civil war.
His brothers' attempted coup had been unexpected and troublesome for Esarhaddon and he would be plagued by paranoia and mistrust for his officials, governors and male family members until the end of his reign. As a result of this paranoia, most of the palaces used by Esarhaddon were high-security fortifications located outside of the major population centers of the cities. Also perhaps resulting from his mistrust for his male relatives, Esarhaddon's female relatives, such as his mother Naqiʾa and his daughter Šērūʾa-ēṭirat, were allowed to wield considerably more influence and political power during his reign than women had been allowed in any previous period of Assyrian history, with the possible exception of Sammuramat in the 8th century BC.
Despite a relatively short and difficult reign, and being plagued by paranoia, depression and constant illness, Esarhaddon remains recognized as one of the greatest and most successful Assyrian kings. He quickly defeated his brothers in 681, completed ambitious and large-scale building projects in both Assyria and Babylonia, successfully campaigned in Media, Persia, Elam, the Arabian Peninsula, Anatolia, the Caucasus, and the Levant, defeated the Kushite Empire and conquered Egypt and Libya, enforced a vassal treaty upon the Medes and Persians and ensured a peaceful transition of power to his two sons and heirs Ashurbanipal as ruler of the empire and Šamaš-šuma-ukin as king of Babylonia after his death.
## Background
Although Esarhaddon had been the crown prince of Assyria for three years and the designated heir of King Sennacherib, with the entire empire having taken oaths to support him, it was only with great difficulty that he successfully ascended the Assyrian throne.'
Sennacherib's first choice as successor had been his eldest son, Aššur-nādin-šumi, who he had appointed as the ruler of Babylon in about 700 BC. Shortly thereafter, Sennacherib attacked the land of Elam (modern day southern Iran) in order to defeat the Elamites and some Chaldean rebels which had fled there. In response to this attack, the Elamites invaded Babylonia in the south of Sennacherib's empire and in 694 successfully captured Ashur-nadin-shumi at the city of Sippar. The prince was taken back to Elam and probably executed, causing Sennacherib to wreak savage revenge on the Elamites, Chaldeans and Babylonians.
After Aššur-nādin-šumi's presumed death, Sennacherib elevated his second eldest surviving son, Arda-Mulissu, as crown prince. After several years as crown prince, Arda-Mulissu was replaced as heir by Esarhaddon in 684. The reason for Arda-Mulissu's sudden dismissal from the prominent position is unknown, but it is clear that he was very disappointed. Esarhaddon described the reaction of his brothers to his appointment as heir in a later inscription:
> Of my older brothers, the younger brother was I. But by decree of [the gods] Ashur and Shamash, Bel and Nabu, my father exalted me, amid a gathering of my brothers he asked Shamash, "is this my heir?" and the gods answered, "he is your second self".
> And then my brothers went mad. They drew their swords, godlessly, in the middle of Nineveh. But Ashur, Shamash, Bel, Nabu, Ishtar, all the gods looked with wrath on the deeds of these scoundrels, brought their strength to weakness and humbled them beneath me.
Arda-Mulissu was forced to swear loyalty to Esarhaddon by his father, but repeatedly appealed to Sennacherib to again accept him as heir instead. These appeals were not successful, and Sennacherib came to realize that the situation was tense, so he sent Esarhaddon into exile in the western provinces for his own protection. Esarhaddon was unhappy with his exile and blamed his brothers for it, describing it with the following words:
> Malicious gossip, slander and falsehood they [i.e. Esarhaddon's brothers] wove around me in a godless way, lies and insincerity. They plotted evil behind my back. Against the will of the gods they alienated my father's well-disposed heart from me, though in secret his heart was affected with compassion, and he still intended me to exercise kingship.
Though Sennacherib had foreseen the danger of keeping Esarhaddon near his ambitious brothers, he had not foreseen the dangers to his own life. On 20 October 681, Arda-Mulissu and another of Sennacherib's sons, Nabû-šarru-uṣur, attacked and killed their father in one of Nineveh's temples. However, Arda-Mulissu's dreams of claiming the throne would be crushed. The murder of Sennacherib had caused some friction between Arda-Mulissu and his supporters which delayed a potential coronation and in the meantime, Esarhaddon had raised an army. With this army at his back he met an army raised by his brothers at Hanigalbat, a region in the western parts of the empire, where most of the soldiers deserted his brothers to join him and the enemy generals fled. He then marched on Nineveh without opposition.
Six weeks after his father's death he was accepted and recognized as the new Assyrian king at Nineveh. Shortly after taking the throne, Esarhaddon made sure to execute all conspirators and political enemies he could get his hands on, including the families of his brothers. All servants involved with the security of the royal palace at Nineveh were "dismissed" (i.e. executed). Arda-Mulissu and Nabû-šarru-uṣur survived this purge as they had escaped as exiles to the northern kingdom of Urartu a vassal state of the Assyrian Empire in Anatolia. The frequent mentions of Arda-Mulissu and Esarhaddon's other brothers in his inscriptions indicates that he was surprised and bothered by their actions. Esarhaddon's own inscription chronicling his entry into Nineveh and his purge of those in support of the conspiracy reads as follows:
> I entered into Nineveh, my royal city, joyfully, and took my seat upon the throne of my father in safety. The south wind blew, the breath of Ea, the wind whose blowing is favorable for exercising kingship. There awaited me favorable signs in heaven and on earth, a message of the soothsayers, tidings from the gods and goddesses. Continually [missing portion] and gave my heart courage.
> The soldiers, the rebels who had fomented the plot to seize the rulership of Assyria for my brothers, their ranks I examined to the last man and I laid a heavy penalty upon them, I destroyed their seed.
## Reign
### Paranoia
As a result of his tumultuous rise to the throne, Esarhaddon was distrustful of his servants, vassals and family members. He frequently sought the advice of oracles and priests on whether any of his relatives or officials wished to harm him.' Although highly distrustful of his male relatives, Esarhaddon seems to not have been paranoid in regards to his female relatives. During his reign his wife Ešarra-ḫammat, his mother Naqiʾa and his daughter Šērūʾa-ēṭirat all wielded considerably more influence and political power than women during earlier parts of Assyrian history.'
Esarhaddon's paranoia was also reflected by where he chose to live. One of his main residences was a palace in the city of Nimrud originally constructed as an armory by his predecessor Shalmaneser III (r. 859–824 BC) almost two hundred years earlier. Rather than occupying a central and visible spot within the cultic and administrative center of the city, this palace was located in its outskirts on a separate mound which made it well-protected. Between 676 and 672, the palace was strengthened with its gateways being modified into impregnable fortifications which could seal the entire building off completely from the city. If these entrances were sealed, the only way into the palace would be through a steep and narrow path protected by several strong doors. A similar palace, also located on a separate mound far from the city center, was built at Nineveh.
All Assyrian kings are known to have sought the guidance of the sun-god Shamash (which was obtained through interpreting what was perceived as signs from the gods) for advice in political and military matters, such as whom to appoint to a certain position or if a planned military campaign would be successful. Queries concerning the possibility of betrayal are known only from Esarhaddon's reign.
Most scholars have classified Esarhaddon as paranoid, some going as far as suggesting that he developed paranoid personality disorder after the murder of his father. Other scholars have refrained from using this label, instead simply characterizing him as "mistrustful" and noting that paranoia is "by definition delusional and irrational" while Esarhaddon is likely to have had many real opponents and enemies.
### Reconstruction of Babylon
Esarhaddon wished to ensure the support of the inhabitants of Babylonia, the southern part of his empire. To this end, the king sponsored building and restoration projects throughout the south to a far greater extent than any of his predecessors had. Babylonia had only become part of the Assyrian empire relatively recently, having been ruled by native kings as vassals of the Assyrians until its conquest and annexation by the Assyrian king Tiglath-Pileser III in the previous century. Through his building program, Esarhaddon likely hoped to show the benefits of continuing Assyrian rule over the region and that he meant to rule Babylon with the same care and generosity as a native Babylonian king.
The city of Babylon, which gave its name to Babylonia, had been the political center of southern Mesopotamia for more than a thousand years. In an effort to quell Babylonian aspirations of independence, the city had been razed by Esarhaddon's father in 689 BC, and the statue of Bel (also known as Marduk), the patron deity of the city, had been carried off deep into Assyrian territory. The restoration of the city, announced by Esarhaddon in 680, became one of his most important projects.
Throughout Esarhaddon's reign, reports from the officials the king appointed to oversee the reconstruction speak of the great scope of the building project. The ambitious restoration of the city involved removing the large amount of debris left since Sennacherib's destruction of the city, resettlement of the many Babylonians who by this point were either enslaved or scattered across the empire, the reconstruction of most of the buildings, the restoration of the great temple complex dedicated to Bel, known as the Esagila, and the enormous ziggurat complex called Etemenanki as well as the restoration of the two inner walls of the city. The project was not only important because it illustrated goodwill towards the Babylonian people, but also because it allowed Esarhaddon to assume one of the essential characteristics the Babylonians invested in kingship. While the king of Assyria was generally supposed to be a military figure, the king of Babylon was ideally a builder and restorer, particularly of temples. Careful to not associate himself with the city's destruction, he only refers to himself as a king "ordained by the gods" in his inscriptions in Babylon, only mentioning Sennacherib in his inscriptions in the north and blaming the city's destruction not on his father but on Babylon "offending its gods". Writing of his reconstruction of Babylon, Esarhaddon states the following:
> Great king, mighty monarch, lord of all, king of the land of Assur, ruler of Babylon, faithful shepherd, beloved of Marduk, lord of lords, dutiful leader, loved by Marduk's Consort Zurpanitum, humble, obedient, full of praise for their strength and awestruck from his earliest days in the presence of their divine greatness [am I, Esarhaddon]. When in the reign of an earlier king there were ill omens, the city offended its gods and was destroyed at their command. It was me, Esarhaddon, whom they chose to restore everything to its rightful place, to calm their anger, to assuage their wrath. You, Marduk, entrusted the protection of the land of Assur to me. The Gods of Babylon meanwhile told me to rebuild their shrines and renew the proper religious observances of their palace, Esagila. I called up all my workmen and conscripted all the people of Babylonia. I set them to work, digging up the ground and carrying the earth away in baskets.
Esarhaddon successfully rebuilt the city gates, battlements, drains, courtyards, shrines and various other buildings and structures. Great care was taken during rebuilding of the Esagila, depositing precious stones, scented oils and perfumes into its foundations. Precious metals were chosen to cover the doors of the temple and the pedestal that was to house the statue of Bel was constructed in gold. A report from the governor Esarhaddon installed in Babylon confirms that the reconstruction was very well received by the Babylonians:
> I have entered Babylon. The Babylonians have received me kindly, and daily they bless the king, saying, "what was taken and plundered from Babylon, he has returned" and from Sippar to Bab-marrat the chiefs of the Chaldeans bless the king, saying, "(It is he) who resettled (the people) of Babylon".
The rebuilding of the city was not completed during Esarhaddon's lifetime and much work was also done during the reign of his successors. Exactly how much of the reconstruction was done during the reign of Esarhaddon is uncertain, but stones with his inscriptions are found in the ruins of the city's temples, suggesting that a substantial amount of work had been completed. It is likely that Esarhaddon fulfilled most of his restoration goals, including the near complete restoration of Esagila and Etemenanki, with the possible exception of the city walls, which were likely fully restored by his successor.'
Esarhaddon also sponsored restoration programs in other southern cities. In his first regnal year, Esarhaddon returned the statues of various southern gods that had been captured in wars and held in Assyria. During the time since Sennacherib's destruction of the city, the statue of Bel had, along with statues of several other traditional Babylonian deities, been kept at the town of Issete in the northeastern parts of Assyria.' Although the statue of Bel remained in Assyria, statues of other gods were returned to the cities of Der, Humhumia and Sippar-aruru.' In the years to follow, statues were also returned to the cities of Larsa and Uruk. As he had in Babylon, Esarhaddon also cleared away debris in Uruk and repaired the city's Eanna temple, dedicated to the goddess Ishtar. Similar small-scale restoration projects were undertaken in the cities of Nippur, Borsippa and Akkad.
Because of Esarhaddon's extensive building projects in the south and his efforts to link himself to the Babylonian royal tradition, some scholars have described him as the "Babylonian king of Assyria", but such a view might misrepresent the actual efforts of the king. Esarhaddon was king of both Assyria and Babylonia and his military and political base remained in the north, much like his predecessors. While his southern building projects were impressive, ambitious and unprecedented, he completed projects in the Assyrian heartland as well, although they were not as civically oriented as those in Babylonia. In Assyria, Esarhaddon constructed and restored temples but also worked on palaces and military fortifications.'
Possibly in order to reassure the Assyrian people that his projects in the south would be matched with projects of equal proportion in the north, Esarhaddon ensured that repairs were made to the temple of Ešarra in Assur, one of the chief temples of northern Mesopotamia.' Similar projects were conducted for temples in the Assyrian capital, Nineveh and in the city of Arbela.' Though the temple-building projects conducted in the south were matched with temple-building projects in the north, Esarhaddon's prioritizing of Assyria over Babylonia is apparent from the various administrative and military building projects undertaken in the north and the complete lack of such projects in the south.'
### Military campaigns
Vassals who had hoped to use the unstable political climate in Assyria to free themselves, perhaps believing that the new king hadn't yet consolidated his position well enough to stop them, and foreign powers eager to expand their territory soon realized that (despite Esarhaddon's distrust) the governors and soldiers of Assyria fully supported the new king.' Two of the principal threats to Assyria were the kingdom of Urartu under King Rusa II in the north, a sworn enemy of Assyria which still sheltered his brothers, and the Cimmerians, a nomadic tribe which was harassing his western borders.'
Esarhaddon allied with the nomadic Scythians, famous for their cavalry, in order to dissuade the Cimmerians from attacking but it doesn't appear to have helped. In 679 BC, the Cimmerians invaded the westernmost provinces of the empire and by 676 they had penetrated further into Esarhaddon's empire, destroying temples and cities on the way. To stop this invasion, Esarhaddon personally led his soldiers in battle in Cilicia and successfully repelled the Cimmerians. In his inscriptions, Esarhaddon claims to personally have killed the Cimmerian king Teušpa.'
While the Cimmerian invasion was underway, one of Esarhaddon's vassals in the Levant, the city of Sidon, rebelled against his rule.' Sidon had only recently been conquered by Assyria, having been made a vassal by Esarhaddon's father in 701.' Esarhaddon marched his army down along the Mediterranean coast and captured the rebellious city in 677 but its king, Abdi-Milkutti, escaped by boat.' He was captured and executed a year later, the same year that Esarhaddon decisively defeated the Cimmerians. Another rebellious vassal king, Sanduarri of "Kundu and Sissu" (likely locations in Cilicia), was also defeated and executed. In order to celebrate his victory, Esarhaddon had the heads of the two vassal kings hung around the necks of their nobles, who were paraded around Nineveh.' Sidon was reduced to an Assyrian province and two cities which had been under the Sidonian king's control were gifted to another vassal king, Baal of Tyre.' Esarhaddon discusses his victory over Sidon in a contemporary inscription:
> Abdi-milkutti, king of Sidon, who did not fear my majesty, did not heed the word of my lips, who trusted in the fearful sea and cast off my yoke – Sidon, his garrison city, which lies in the midst of the sea [missing portion]
> Like a fish I caught him up out of the sea and cut off his head. His wife, his sons, the people of his palace, property and goods, precious stones, garments of colored wool and linen, maple and boxwood, all kinds of treasures of his palace, in great abundance, I carried off. His widespreading peoples – there was no numbering them, cattle, sheep and asses, in great number, I transported to Assyria.
After dealing with the problems in Sidon and Cilicia, Esarhaddon turned his attention to Urartu. At first, he struck at the Mannaeans, a people allied with Urartu, but by 673 he was openly at war with the kingdom of Urartu itself.' As part of this war, Esarhaddon attacked and conquered the kingdom of Shupria, a vassal kingdom to Urartu whose capital Ubumu was located on the shores of Lake Van.' The king's casus belli for this invasion was the king of Shupria's refusal to hand over political refugees from Assyria (possibly some of the conspirators behind Sennacherib's death) and though the Shuprian king had agreed to give up the refugees after a long series of letters, Esarhaddon considered it took him too long to relent. The Assyrians seized and plundered the city after the defenders had attempted to burn down the Assyrian siege weapons and the fires had instead spread into Ubumu. The political refugees were captured and executed. Some criminals from Urartu, who the Shuprian king had similarly refused to give up to the king of Urartu, were seized and sent to Urartu, perhaps in order to improve relations. Ubumu was repaired, renamed and annexed, with two eunuchs being appointed as its governors.'
In 675, the Elamites invaded Babylonia and captured the city of Sippar. The Assyrian army had been away at the time, campaigning in Anatolia, and was forced to abandon this campaign in order to defend the southern provinces. Little is recorded of this conflict and as the fall of Sippar was an embarrassment it is not mentioned by Esarhaddon in any of his inscriptions. Shortly after seizing Sippar, the Elamite king Khumban-khaltash II died, which left the new Elamite king, Urtak, in a bad position. To repair relations with Assyria and avoid further conflict, Urtak abandoned the invasion and returned some statues of gods which the Elamites had stolen. The two monarchs entered into an alliance and exchanged children to be raised at each other's courts.'
Near the end of Esarhaddon's seventh year on the throne, in the winter of 673, the king invaded Egypt. This invasion, which only a few Assyrian sources discuss, ended in what some scholars have assumed was possibly one of Assyria's worst defeats.' The Egyptians had for years sponsored rebels and dissenters in Assyria and Esarhaddon had hoped to storm Egypt and take this rival out in one fell swoop. Because Esarhaddon had marched his army at great speed, the Assyrians were exhausted once they arrived outside the Egyptian-controlled city of Ashkelon, where they were defeated by the Kushite Pharaoh Taharqa. Following this defeat, Esarhaddon abandoned his plan to conquer Egypt for the moment and withdrew back to Nineveh.'
### Deteriorating health and depression
By the time of Esarhaddon's first failed invasion of Egypt in 673 BC, it had become apparent that the king's health was deteriorating.' This presented a problem since one of the chief requirements of being the Assyrian king was that one had perfect mental and physical health.' The king was constantly suffering from some illness and would often spend days in his sleeping quarters without food, drink and human contact. The death of Esharra-hammat, his beloved wife, in February 672 BC is unlikely to have improved his condition.' Surviving court documents overwhelmingly point to Esarhaddon often being sad. The deaths of his wife and their recently born infant child made Esarhaddon depressed. This can clearly be seen in letters written by the king's chief exorcist Adad-shumu-usur, the man who was chiefly responsible for Esarhaddon's well-being. One such letter reads:
> As to what the king, my lord, wrote to me: "I am feeling very sad; how did we act that I have become so depressed for this little one of mine?" Had it been curable you would have given away half your kingdom to have it cured! But what can we do? O king, my lord, it is something that cannot be done.
Notes and letters preserved from those at the royal court, including Esarhaddon's physicians, describe his condition in some detail, discussing violent vomiting, constant fever, nosebleeds, dizziness, painful earaches, diarrhea and depression. The king often feared that his death was near, and his condition would have been apparent to anyone who saw him as he was affected by a permanent skin rash which covered most of his body, including his face. The physicians, likely the best in Assyria, were perplexed and eventually had to confess that they were powerless to aid him. This is clearly expressed in their letters, such as the following:
> My lord, the king, keeps telling me: "Why do you not identify the nature of my disease and find a cure?" As I told the king already in person, his symptoms cannot be classified.
Because the Assyrians saw illness as divine punishment, a king who was ill would have been seen as an indication that the gods were not supportive of him. Because of this, Esarhaddon's poor health had to be hidden from his subjects at all costs.' That his subjects remained unaware was ensured through the ancient royal Assyrian tradition that anyone who approached the king had to be both on their knees and veiled.'
### Planning the succession
Seeing as he himself had only acquired the Assyrian throne with great difficulty, Esarhaddon took several steps in order to ensure that the transition of power following his own death would be a smooth and peaceful one. A treaty concluded between Esarhaddon and his vassal Ramataia, the ruler of a Median kingdom in the east called Urakazabarna in c. 672 BC makes it clear that all of Esarhaddon's sons were still minors at the time, which was problematic. The same treaty also shows that Esarhaddon was worried that there might be several factions who might oppose his successor's rise to the throne after his death, listing potential opposing forces as his successor's brothers, uncles and cousins and even "descendants of former royalty" and "one of the chiefs or governors of Assyria".
This indicates that at least some of Esarhaddon's brothers were still alive at this point and that they or their children could possibly represent threats to his own children. The mention of "descendants of former royalty" might allude to the fact that Esarhaddon's grandfather Sargon II had acquired the Assyrian throne through usurpation and may not have been related to any earlier Assyrian king. It is possible that descendants of earlier kings may still have been alive and in a position to press their claims on the Assyrian throne.
In order to avoid a civil war upon his death, Esarhaddon appointed his eldest son Sin-nadin-apli as crown prince in 674, but he died just two years later, again threatening a succession crisis. This time, Esarhaddon appointed two crown princes; his eldest living son Shamash-shum-ukin was selected as the heir to Babylon whilst a younger son, Ashurbanipal, was selected as the heir to Assyria. The two princes arrived at the capital of Nineveh together and partook in a celebration with foreign representatives and Assyrian nobles and soldiers. Promoting one of his sons as the heir to Assyria and another as the heir to Babylon was a new idea, for in the past decades the Assyrian king had simultaneously been the King of Babylon.'
The choice to name a younger son as crown prince of Assyria, which was clearly Esarhaddon's primary title, and an older son as crown prince of Babylon might be explained by the mothers of the two sons. While Ashurbanipal's mother was likely Assyrian in origin, Shamash-shum-ukin was the son of a woman from Babylon (though this is uncertain, Ashurbanipal and Shamash-shum-ukin may have shared the same mother which would probably have had problematic consequences if Shamash-shum-ukin was to ascend to the Assyrian throne. Since Ashurbanipal was the next oldest son, he then was the superior candidate to the throne. Esarhaddon probably surmised that the Babylonians would be content with someone of Babylonian heritage as their king and as such set Shamash-shum-ukin to inherit Babylon and the southern parts of his empire instead. Treaties drawn up by Esarhaddon are somewhat unclear as to the relationship he intended his two sons to have. It is clear that Ashurbanipal was the primary heir to the empire and that Shamash-shum-ukin was to swear him an oath of allegiance, but other parts also specify that Ashurbanipal was not to interfere in Shamash-shum-ukin's affairs which indicates a more equal standing. The two crown princes soon became heavily involved with Assyrian politics, which lifted some of the burden from the shoulders of their sickly father.'
Esarhaddon's mother Naqiʾa ensured that any potential enemies and claimants took an oath to support Ashurbanipal's rise to the Assyrian throne, another step to avoid the bloodshed which had begun Esarhaddon's own reign.' In order to ensure the succession of Ashurbanipal and Shamash-shum-ukin, Esarhaddon himself also concluded succession treaties with at least six independent rulers in the east and with several of his own governors outside the Assyrian heartland in 672.' Perhaps the main motivating factor to create these treaties was the possibility that his brothers, particularly Arda-Mulissu, were still alive and sought to claim the Assyrian throne. Some inscriptions suggest that they were alive and free as late as 673.'
### Conquest of Egypt and substitute kings
In the early months of 671 BC, Esarhaddon again marched against Egypt.' The army assembled for this second Egytian campaign was considerably larger than the one Esarhaddon had used in 673 and he marched at a much slower speed in order to avoid the problems that had plagued his previous attempt.' On his way he passed through Harran, one of the major cities in the western parts of his empire. Here, a prophecy was revealed to the king, which predicted that Esarhaddon's conquest of Egypt would be a successful one. According to a letter sent to Ashurbanipal after Esarhaddon's death, the prophecy was the following:
> When Esarhaddon marched to Egypt, a temple of cedar wood was erected at Harran. There, the god Sin was enthroned on a wooden column, two crowns on his head, and standing in front of him was the god Nuska. Esarhaddon entered and placed the crowns onto his head, and the following was proclaimed: 'You shall go forth and conquer the world!' And he went and conquered Egypt.
Three months after having received this prophecy, Esarhaddon's forces were victorious in their first battle with the Egyptians. Despite the prophecy and initial success, Esarhaddon was not convinced of his own safety. Just eleven days after he had defeated the Egyptians, he performed the "substitute king" ritual, an ancient Assyrian method intended to protect and shield the king from imminent danger announced by some sort of omen. Esarhaddon had performed the ritual earlier in his reign, but this time it left him unable to command his invasion of Egypt.'
The "substitute king" ritual involved the Assyrian monarch going into hiding for a hundred days, during which a substitute (preferably one with mental deficiencies) took the king's place by sleeping in the royal bed, wearing the crown and the royal garbs and eating the king's food. During these hundred days, the actual king remained hidden and was known only under the alias "the farmer". The goal of the ritual was that any evil intended for the king would instead be focused on the substitute king, who was killed regardless of if anything had happened at the end of the hundred days, keeping the real monarch safe.'
Whatever omen Esarhaddon was fearing, he survived 671 and would perform the ritual twice during the two years that followed, which left him unable to fulfill his duties as the Assyrian king for a total of almost a year. During this time, most of the civil administration of his empire was overseen by his crown princes and the army in Egypt was likely commanded by his chief eunuch, Ashur-nasir. The Assyrian army defeated the Egyptians in two additional battles and successfully seized and plundered the Egyptian capital of Memphis.' The Assyrian army was also forced to fight some of their vassals in the Levant, such as Baal of Tyre, who had allied with the Egyptians against Esarhaddon.'
Although the Pharaoh Taharqa had escaped, Esarhaddon captured the Pharaoh's family, including his son and wife, and most of the royal court, which were sent back to Assyria as hostages. Governors loyal to the Assyrian king were placed in charge of the conquered territories. In his victory stele, erected to commemorate the defeat of Egypt, Esarhaddon is depicted in a majestic pose with a war mace in his hand and a vassal king kneeling before him. Also present is the son of the defeated pharaoh, kneeling and with a rope around his neck.' The conquest resulted in the relocation of a large number of Egyptians to the Assyrian heartland.' In an excerpt from the text inscribed on his victory stele, Esarhaddon describes the conquest with the following words:
> I slew multitudes of his [e.g. Taharqa's] men and I smote him five times with the point of my javelin, with wounds from which there were no recovery. Memphis, his royal city, in half a day, with mines, tunnels, assaults, I besieged, I captured, I destroyed, I devastated, I burned with fire. His queen, his harem, Ushanahuru, his heir, and the rest of his sons and daughters, his property and his goods, his horses, his cattle, his sheep, in countless numbers, I carried off to Assyria. The root of Kush I tore up out of Egypt and not one therein escaped to submit to me. Over all of Egypt I appointed anew kings, viceroys, governors, commandants, overseers and scribes. Offerings and fixed dues I established for Assur and the great gods for all time; my royal tribute and tax, yearly without ceasing, I imposed upon them.
> I had a stele made with my name inscribed thereon and on it I caused it to be written the glory and valor of Assur, my lord, my mighty deeds, how I went to and from the protection of Assur, my lord, and the might of my conquering hand. For the gaze of all my foes, to the end of days, I set it up.
### Conspiracy of 671–670 BC
Shortly following Esarhaddon's victory in Egypt, news spread throughout his empire of a new prophecy at Harran. Since Esarhaddon had conquered Egypt and proven the previous prophecy from the city right, the oracles of Harran were seen as trustworthy. The prophecy, spoken by an ecstatic woman (the oracle of Nusku), was the following:
> This is the word of the god Nusku: Kingship belongs to Sasî. I shall destroy the name and the seed of Sennacherib!
The meaning of the prophecy was clear: it provided a possible religious foundation for a revolt against Esarhaddon's rule by declaring all of Sennacherib's descendants as usurpers.' It is possible that Esarhaddon's skin condition would have become apparent during his visit to Harran, which might be the reason for declaring him illegitimate. The identity of the Sasî who was proclaimed as the rightful king is unknown but he might have been connected to previous Assyrian royalty in some manner to give him a claim to the throne. It is possible that he was a descendant of Esarhaddon's grandfather Sargon II. Sasî managed to rally a large amount of support throughout the empire quickly, perhaps even rallying Esarhaddon's chief eunuch Ashur-nasir to his side.'
It did not take long for Esarhaddon to learn of the conspiracy. Because of his paranoia, Esarhaddon had a vast information network of servants throughout the empire, sworn to report to him once they heard of any planned actions against him. Through these reports, Esarhaddon was made aware that conspirators were active not only in Harran, but also in Babylon and in the Assyrian heartland. For a while, Esarhaddon simply gathered information on the activities of the conspirators and fearing for his life, performed the "substitute king" ritual for a second time in 671 BC, just three months after he had previously completed it.'
As soon as the ritual was complete, Esarhaddon emerged from hiding and brutally massacred the conspirators, the second such purge during his reign. The fate of Sasî and the woman who had proclaimed him king is unknown, but it is likely that they were captured and executed. Because of the extent of the officials killed, the administrative structure of Assyria suffered more than it had in many years. For the first few months of 670, no official was chosen to select the name of the year, something which was extremely rare in Assyrian history. Remains of several buildings in various cities, believed to have been the homes of supporters of Sasî, have been dated as having been destroyed in 670. The aftermath of the conspiracy saw Esarhaddon tighten security considerably. He introduced two new ranks into the court hierarchy so as to make it more difficult to meet him, which also limited the number of officials who controlled the access to his palaces.'
### Death
Although he had successfully survived the conspiracy, Esarhaddon remained diseased and paranoid. Just a year later, in 669 BC, he once more performed the "substitute king" ritual. Around this time, the defeated Pharaoh Taharqa appeared from the south and, perhaps combined with the chaotic political situation within Assyria, inspired Egypt to attempt to free itself from Esarhaddon's control.'
Esarhaddon received word of this rebellion and learnt that even some of his own governors who he had appointed in Egypt had ceased to pay tribute to him and joined the rebels.' After emerging from his hundred days of hiding, apparently relatively healthy by his standards, Esarhaddon left to campaign against Egypt for the third time. The king died at Harran' on 1 November 669,' before reaching the Egyptian border. The absence of evidence to the contrary suggests that his death was natural and unexpected.'
After Esarhaddon's death, his sons Ashurbanipal and Shamsh-shum-ukin successfully ascended the thrones of Assyria and Babylon without political turmoil and bloodshed, meaning that Esarhaddon's succession plans were a success, at least initially.'
## Diplomacy
### Diplomacy with the Arabs
The support of the Arabic and other tribes of the Sinai Peninsula had been crucial in Esarhaddon's 671 BC Egyptian campaign. Esarhaddon was also determined to retain the loyalty of the Arabic tribes who had been subjugated by his father in the Arabian Peninsula, particularly around the city of Adummatu. The king of Adummatu, Hazael, paid tribute to Esarhaddon and sent him several presents, which were reciprocated by Esarhaddon through returning the statues of Hazael's gods which had been seized by Sennacherib years earlier. When Hazael died and was succeeded by his son Yauta, Yauta's position as king was recognized by Esarhaddon, who also aided the new king in defeating a rebellion against his rule. Shortly thereafter, Yautu rebelled against Esarhaddon and though he was defeated by the Assyrian army, he successfully retained his independence until the reign of Ashurbanipal.'
Esarhaddon also successfully appointed a woman who had been raised at the Assyrian royal palace, Tabua, as "queen of the Arabs" and allowed her to return to and govern her people. In another episode, Esarhaddon invaded the country of "Bazza" in 676 (assumed to be located in the east of the Arabian Peninsula) after being petitioned for aid by a local king of a city called Yadi. The campaign apparently saw the Assyrians defeating eight kings of this region and granting their conquests to the king of Yadi.'
### Diplomacy with the Medes
The reign of Esarhaddon saw many of the Medes and Persians becoming or remaining Assyrian vassals. Esarhaddon's armies had proven to the Medes that Assyria was a great power to be feared when the Assyrians defeated the Median kings Eparna and Shidirparna near Mount Bikni (the location of which is unknown beyond being located somewhere in central Media) at some point before 676 BC. As a result of this victory, many of the Medes willingly swore allegiance to Assyria and brought gifts to Nineveh and allowed Esarhaddon to appoint Assyrian governors to their lands.'
When Esarhaddon made his subjects swear to uphold his wishes in regards to the succession of Ashurbanipal and Shamash-shum-ukin, some of the vassals made to swear allegiance to his successors were rulers and princes from Media. Esarhaddon's relations with the Medes weren't always peaceful as there are records of Median raids against Assyria as late as 672 and the Medes are constantly mentioned in Esarhaddon's requests to his oracle as potential enemies of Assyria. Among the chief rivals of Esarhaddon in Media was a figure the Assyrians called Kashtariti, who raided Assyrian territory. This king is perhaps identical with Phraortes, the second king of the Median Empire.'
## Family and children
From inscriptions it can be ascertained that Esarhaddon had multiple wives as his succession treaties differentiate between "sons born by Ashurbanipal's mother" and "the rest of the sons engendered by Esarhaddon". Only the name of one of these wives, Esarhaddon's queen Esharra-hammat (Ešarra-ḫammat) is known. Esharra-hammat is chiefly known from sources after her death, especially in regards to a mausoleum Esarhaddon constructed for her. It is uncertain which of Esarhaddon's many children were hers.
Esarhaddon had at least 18 children. Some of these children suffered from constant illness, similar to Esarhaddon, and required permanent and constant medical attention by the court physicians.' Contemporary letters by Esarhaddon's subjects discussing the king's "numerous children" confirm that his family was viewed as large by ancient Assyrian standards.' Those of Esarhaddon's children known by name are the following:
- Serua-eterat ([] Error: : no text (help) Šeruʾa-eṭirat) – the eldest of Esarhaddon's daughters and the only one known by name, Serua-eterat was older than Ashurbanipal and might have been the eldest of all of Esarhaddon's children. She held a position of importance in Esarhaddon's court and in the later court of Ashurbanipal as attested by numerous inscriptions.
- Sin-nadin-apli ([] Error: : no text (help) or [] Error: : no text (help) Sîn-nadin-apli) – Esarhaddon's eldest son and crown prince from 674 BC until his unexpected death in 672.
- Shamash-shum-ukin ([] Error: : no text (help) Šamaš-šumu-ukin) – Esarhaddon's second eldest son, crown prince and heir to Babylon 672–669 and King of Babylon thereafter.
- Shamash-metu-uballit ([] Error: : no text (help) Šamaš-metu-uballiṭ) – possibly Esarhaddon's third eldest son. His name, which means "Shamash has brought to life the dead", suggests that he suffered from poor health or had a difficult birth. He was still alive by 672 and his health might be the reason why he was overlooked in favor of his younger brother as heir. It is possible that Shamash-metu-uballit did not accept the succession of Ashurbanipal and paid for it with his life.
- Ashurbanipal ([] Error: : no text (help) Aššur-bāni-apli)) – possibly Essarhadon's fourth eldest son, crown prince and heir to Assyria 672–669 and King of Assyria thereafter.
- Ashur-taqisha-liblut (Aššur-taqiša-libluṭ) – possibly Esarhaddon's fifth eldest son. Thought to have been a sickly child, possibly dead before 672.
- Ashur-mukin-paleya ([] Error: : no text (help) Aššur-mukin-paleʾa) – possibly Esarhaddon's sixth eldest son. Probably born after Esarhaddon was already king. Was made a priest in Assur during the reign of Ashurbanipal.
- Ashur-etel-shame-erseti-muballissu ([] Error: : no text (help) Aššur-etel-šamê-erṣeti-muballissu) – possibly Esarhaddon's seventh eldest son. Probably born after Esarhaddon was already king. Was made a priest in Harran during the reign of Ashurbanipal.
- Ashur-sarrani-muballissu ([] Error: : no text (help) Aššur-šarrani-muballissu) – attested only in a single letter, it is possible that Ashur-sarrani-muballissu is identical to Ashur-etel-shame-erseti-muballissu.
- Sin-Peru-ukin (Sîn-perʾu-ukin) – known from a letter inquiring as to when it was appropriate to visit the king and another letter in which he is described as healthy.
## Legacy
### Assyria after Esarhaddon's death
After Esarhaddon's death, his son Ashurbanipal became the king of Assyria. After attending his brother's coronation, Shamash-shum-ukin returned the stolen statue of Bel to Babylon and became the king of Babylon.' At Babylon, Ashurbanipal sponsored a lavish coronation festival for his brother.' Despite his royal title, Shamash-shum-ukin was a vassal to Ashurbanipal; Ashurbanipal continued to offer the royal sacrifices in Babylon (traditionally offered by the Babylonian monarch) and the governors in the south were Assyrian. The army and guards present in the south were also Assyrians. Most of Shamash-shum-ukin's early reign in Babylon was spent peacefully, restoring fortifcations and temples.'
After he and his brother had been properly inaugurated as monarchs, Ashurbanipal left in 667 BC to complete Esarhaddon's unfinished final campaign against Egypt. In his 667 campaign, Ashurbanipal marched as far south as Thebes, plundering on his way, and upon his victory he left the joint Pharaohs Psamtik I (who had been educated at Esarhaddon's court) and Necho I as vassal rulers. In 666–665, Ashurbanipal defeated an attempt by Tantamani, nephew of Pharaoh Taharqa, to retake Egypt.'
As Shamash-shum-ukin grew stronger, he became increasingly interested in becoming independent of his brother. In 652' Shamash-shum-ukin allied with a coalition of Assyria's enemies, including Elam, Kush and the Chaldeans, and forbade Ashurbanipal from any further sacrifices in any southern city. This led to a civil war that dragged on for four years. By 650 Shamash-shum-ukin's situation looked grim, with Ashubanipal's forces having besieged Sippar, Borsippa, Kutha and Babylon itself. Babylon finally fell in 648 and was plundered by Ashurbanipal. Shamash-shum-ukin died, possibly committing suicide.'
Throughout his long reign, Ashurbanipal would campaign against all of Assyria's enemies and rivals.' After Ashurbanipal's death, his sons Ashur-etil-ilani and Sinsharishkun retained control of his empire for a time,' but during their reigns many of Assyria's vassals seized the opportunity to declare themselves independent. From 627 to 612, the Assyrian empire effectively disintegrated and a coalition of Assyrian enemies, chiefly led by the Median Empire and the newly independent Neo-Babylonian Empire pushed into the Assyrian heartland. In 612, Nineveh itself was plundered and razed.' Assyria fell with the defeat of its final king, Ashur-uballit II, at Harran in 609.'
### Assessment by historians
Esarhaddon, his predecessor Sennacherib and his successor Ashurbanipal are recognized as three of the greatest Assyrian kings.' He is typically characterized as gentler and milder than his predecessor, taking greater efforts to pacify and integrate the peoples he conquered.' The king has been described as one of the most successful of the Neo-Assyrian rulers on account of his many achievements, including the subjugation of Egypt, the successful and peaceful control of the notoriously rebellious Babylonia and his ambitious construction projects.' According to Assyriologist Karen Radner, Esarhaddon emerges more clearly as an individual from available sources than all other Assyrian kings.' Most Assyrian kings are known only from their royal inscriptions, but the decade of Esarhaddon's rule is exceptionally well documented because many other documents dating to his reign, such as court correspondence, have survived as well.'
Ashurbanipal, who would famously gather ancient Mesopotamian literary works for his famous library, had already begun collecting such works during the reign of Esarhaddon. It is possible that Esarhaddon is to be credited with encouraging Ashurbanipal's collection and education.''''''
## Titles
In an inscription describing his appointment as crown prince and his rise to power, Esarhaddon uses the following royal titles:
> Esarhaddon, the great king, king of Assyria, viceroy of Babylon, king of Sumer and Akkad, king of the four regions of the earth, favorite of the great gods, his lords. Whom Assur, Marduk and Nabu, Ishtar of Nineveh and Ishtar of Arbela, [missing portion] and whose name they named for the kingship.
In another inscription, the titles of Esarhaddon read as follows:
> Esarhaddon, the great king, the mighty king, king of the Universe, king of Assyria, viceroy of Babylon, king of Sumer and Akkad, son of Sennacherib, the great king, the mighty king, king of Assyria, grandson of Sargon, the great king, the mighty king, king of Assyria; who under the protection of Assur, Sin, Shamash, Nabu, Marduk, Ishtar of Nineveh, Ishtar of Arbela, the great gods, his lords, made his way from the rising to the setting sun, having no rival.
A longer version of Esarhaddon's royal titles, and an accompanying boast of his gifts from the gods, preserved in another of his inscriptions, reads:
> I am Esarhaddon, king of the Universe, king of Assyria, mighty warrior, first among all princes, son of Sennacherib, king of Assyria, grandson of Sargon, king of the universe, king of Assyria. Creature of Assur and Ninlil, beloved of Sin and Shamash, favorite of Nabu and Marduk, object of Queen Ishtar's affection, heart's desire of the great gods; the powerful, the wise, thoughtful and knowing, whom the great gods have called to kingship for the restoration of the images of the great gods, and the complete rebuilding of the shrines of every metropolis. Builder of the temple of Assur, restorer of Esagila and Babylon, who restored the images of the gods and goddesses dwelling therein, who returned the captive gods of the lands from Assur to their places and caused them to dwell in peaceful habitations, until he had completely restored all the temples and settled the gods in their shrines, to dwell there eternally.
> It was I who marched triumphantly, relying on their might, from the rising to the setting sun, and had no rival, who brought in submission at my feet the princes of the four-quarters of the world. Against every land that had rebelled against Assur, they sent me. Assur, father of the gods, he commissioned me to cause men to settle down and live in peace, to extend the borders of Assyria. Sin, lord of the tiara – power, manhood, bravery – he made my lot. Shamash, light of the gods, – to my honored name he brought the highest renown. Marduk, king of the gods, – he made the fear of my rule overwhelm the lands of the four-quarters of the world like a mighty hurricane. Nergal, the almighty among the gods, – fear, terror, awe-inspiring splendor, he granted me as a gift. Ishtar, queen of battle and warfare, – a mighty bow, a monstrous javelin, she gave me as a gift.
## See also
- Esarhaddon's Treaty with Ba'al of Tyre (K 3500 + K 4444 + K 10235)
- Esarhaddon's Succession Treaty or Vassal Treaty with Ramataia of Urakazabarna (BM 132548)
- List of Assyrian kings
- Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire
- List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources
- Palace of Esarhaddon discovered at Mosul (Nineveh) in 2017 under Tomb of Jonah (Yunus) destroyed by ISIL in 2014
|
8,414,596 |
First National Bank Tower
| 1,167,103,419 |
Skyscraper at 1601 Dodge Street in downtown Omaha, Nebraska
|
[
"2002 establishments in Nebraska",
"Bank company headquarters in the United States",
"Office buildings completed in 2002",
"Skyscraper office buildings in Omaha, Nebraska"
] |
The First National Bank Tower is a 45-story office skyscraper located at 1601 Dodge Street in downtown Omaha, Nebraska, United States, and the official headquarters of First National Bank of Omaha. At 634 ft (193 m) it is the tallest building in Omaha and the state. It has been since its completion, overtaking the 30-story Woodmen Tower located nearby. Construction began in April 1999 and lasted until 2002, with the building's completion being the subject of ACEC and Emporis awards.
The tower's and its parking garage's construction heavily featured the use of cast-in-place concrete. Inside, the tower features a wintergarden and the original facade of the Medical Arts Building. This building was torn down to make space for the First National Bank Tower.
## History
In the 1970s, the First National Bank of Omaha outgrew its original headquarters and began drafting plans for a new headquarters. In 1997, the engineering firm Leo A Daly was selected to design the tower. Kiewit Corporation was chosen as the general contractor, and the construction cost was \$225 million. The project was announced to the public in 1998. The First National Bank Tower was built on the site of the former Medical Arts Building, which was imploded on April 2, 1999, to make way for the current skyscraper.
In April 1999, Kiewit formally began construction on the building. Between May and June 1999, "Big Stan", the world's largest drilling rig, was brought in to drill the caissons and foundation. On January 23, 2001, the structure's core passed 467 feet, overtaking the Woodmen Tower's record of 458 ft (140 m) at the time and making the First National Bank Tower the tallest building in Nebraska. The building was officially completed in 2002, with a height of 634 ft (193 m) and 45 stories in total. The building was designed to be three feet higher than both the 801 Grand building in Des Moines and the Gateway Arch in St. Louis, making the final project the tallest building in the Midwest between Denver and Chicago.
In 2022, Mutual of Omaha announced plans for the Mutual of Omaha Headquarters Tower. This building has been described by CEO James Blackledge as "on the scale of the First National Bank tower" and estimated to either be the same height as or overtake First National Bank Tower as the tallest building in the state.
## Design
### Construction
The First National Bank Tower follows a postmodern design with a granite facade.Externally, the building has a central tapering structure and an upward-curving base along its eastern side. The bottom six stories are designated as the building's base and host a parking garage nearby. Underneath the building is a series of tunnels that connect the parking garage to the main building.
Lightweight concrete on metal decks was used to form the floor slabs of the building. This was done to minimize dead loads and support planned office and storage spaces. A two-hour fire-rated floor was constructed with 5.25 in (13.3 cm) concrete. The perimeter girder slabs were reinforced with steel, while the rest were reinforced with synthetic fiber. Exterior steel columns were spaced at 10 ft (3.0 m) around the building's perimeter, and composite wide-flange beams extended 47 ft (14 m) between the building's core and the exterior columns. The original core plan had dimensions of 91 ft 5 in × 39 ft 6 in (27.86 m × 12.04 m). The core was a self-climbing style, housed an elevator shaft, and was constructed with 8000-psi (approximately 5.5 million pascal) concrete to provide lateral resistance to the structure. The core was supported by a 120 ft × 76 ft × 12 ft (36.6 m × 23.2 m × 3.7 m) concrete pile cap and 950 tons (862 metric tons) of steel to combat shear and uplift forces. Construction of the pile cap took 11 hours of continuous concrete pouring and was the "largest single placement of concrete in the state of Nebraska". The foundations of the building were supported by 28 shafts, 90 in (230 cm) in diameter, that were drilled in the limestone bedrock by the Big Stan drilling rig.
The steel support structure of the parking garage was encased in concrete to emulate a cast-in-place style of construction, while the rest of the parking garage was built with cast-in-place concrete. This was done because the design lacked expansion joints, separation joints, and post-tension concrete; thus, the concrete design was connected to form one single structure. The parking garage was supported by 70 ft-deep (21 m), 30–60 in-diameter (76–152 cm), drilled shafts with cast-in-place concrete.
Inside the building are two fountains, with a third one located in the tower's front plaza. The lobby was built to feature a 60 ft (18 m) glass winter garden, constructed with bowed tube trusses and a curved cast-in-place concrete wall. The wintergarden also contains a mezzanine that leads to the building's second floor. This is supported by two tapered, cantilevered, cast-in-place concrete supports from a fountain. The lobby also includes the original terracotta facade from the former Medical Arts Building along the lobby's southern wall.
### Awards
Following the completion of the building, its use of cast-in-place concrete and steel during the construction of the building's framework was the recipient of the Nebraska Chapter ACI Award of Excellence for Use of Concrete, the Engineering Excellence Honor Award from the Nebraska Chapter of ACEC, and National Finalist Recognition by the national ACEC organization. The building also won fifth place for the 2002 Emporis Skyscraper Award.
## Gallery
## See also
- Economy of Omaha, Nebraska
- List of tallest buildings in Omaha, Nebraska
|
50,148,834 |
A + No Poder
| 1,167,105,891 |
2015 studio album by Alejandra Guzmán
|
[
"2015 albums",
"Alejandra Guzmán albums",
"RCA Records albums",
"Sony Music albums",
"Spanish-language albums"
] |
A + No Poder (English: "To the Max") is the fourteenth studio album by Mexican recording artist Alejandra Guzmán. It was released on September 11, 2015, by Sony Music Latin. After the success of her previous live album, Primera Fila (2013) and its promotional tour, Guzmán recorded the album with original songs, composed and produced by her and Argentinian musician José Luis Pagán.
After its release, A + No Poder received favorable reviews from music critics, with one expressing appreciation for the balance between ballads and rock songs. The record peaked at number twelve on the US Billboard Latin Pop Albums and number six in Mexico. To promote the album, three singles were released: "Adiós" featuring reggaeton performer Farruko, which peaked at number 26 on the Billboard Latin Pop Songs chart, "Qué Ironía" and "Esta Noche".
## Background
In 2013, Alejandra Guzmán released her fourth live album titled Primera Fila, selling 90,000 units in Mexico and launching the "La Guzman 1F Tour", which included dates in cities of the United States such as Los Angeles, Las Vegas, Houston, Miami and also Puerto Rico. Two years later, Guzmán entered the recording studio to record A + No Poder, which would become her first studio album in over five years. The album's songs were written by Guzmán and Argentinian musician José Luis Pagán. The singer stated that the album "reflects maturity and growth that has also regains my rock essence since I was pigeonholed as a balladeer but not at all, that is what I am." A + No Poder is Guzmán's first studio album since Único (2009), a critically acclaimed effort that was commercial unsuccessful due to lack of promotion, according to Ángel Rodríguez of ADN Informativo.
## Content
A + No Poder is dedicated to Guzmán's daughter Frida Sofia. The album includes twelve tracks: eleven written by Guzmán and Pagán, with additional writers for three of them. "Adiós" was co-written by Carlos Efrén Reyes, "Esta Noche" was co-written by Karenka and Reyli Barba, and "A Más No Poder" was co-written Sarah Lenore. Another track, "Una Canción de Amor", was entirely written by Argentinean singer-songwriter Alejandro Lerner. "Adiós" features Puerto-Rican reggaeton performer Farruko. "Te Esperaré" is a ballad, and "Malvada", a story about a femme fatale, has country music undertones with a harmonica that resembles Mexican band El Tri. "Malvada" and "This is Too Much Rock and Roll" are rock songs, with the latter reminds of Soy, an album released by the singer in 2001. "Esta Noche" is a pop/funk track with reggae influences. "A Más No Poder" has sexual connotations in its lyrics and as stated by Ángel Rodríguez of ADN Informativo, "brings back memories when Guzmán was produced by Miguel Blasco in the 90's". "Mi Debilidad" is a pop/rock song, while "No Puedo Parar" is a heavy metal track. "Qué Ironía" is a rock ballad that recalls Guzmán greatest hits such as "Mi Peor Error". About the songs included, Guzmán stated to Tabasco Hoy: "In recent years I experienced many good and bad things, so I thought, why not transform them into songs. And so it began to take shape this new album, which I think is more intelligent, mature and planned than my previous work".
## Reception
### Critical reception
The album was met with positive reviews by music critics. Fabiola Hinojosa, of Televisa Espectáculos stated that the album "shows that despite being a rocker at heart, she has no problem recording in another genre and experiment[ing] with new rhythms." Hinojosa also praised the rock song "No Puedo Parar", arguing that "if someone who never before had heard another song from her would believe that she [Guzmán] only performs in the rock genre". Ángel Rodríguez of ADN Informativo said that "Guzmán is back and wants to reclaim her place on the music market." Rodríguez also reminded that Guzmán keeps trying to incorporate new or alternative rhythms to her music even if the results are not commercially successful, such as her albums Cambio de Piel (1996) produced by Spanish musician Carlos Narea, or Lipstick (2004), helmed by American artist Desmond Child, and A + No Poder is no exception, since the "Queen of Rock in Mexico" includes songs that "hark back to the era of the nineties, but so potentiated with harder songs where the guitars, drums and her hoarse voice come together in musical chords." Alex Alexdy of Hey Espectáculos referred to this album as a "well balance between rock and pop" that shows Guzmán's excentric side who opted for a rock album with some ballads and new rhythms such as reggaeton.
### Commercial reception
A + No Poder peaked at number 12 in the Billboard Latin Pop Albums component chart in the United States, one of her worst placements in the chart, only Lipstick (2004) and Fuerza (2007) have reached lower numbers, at 15 and 16, respectively. In Mexico, the album peaked at number six in the Mexican Albums Chart.
## Singles
To promote the album, Guzmán released three singles. Lead single "Adiós" was released on June 5, 2015, and features guest vocals from Farruko. The track peaked at number 26 in the Billboard Latin Pop Songs and 17 in the Latin Rhythm Airplay charts, respectively, in the United States and at 15 on the Mexican Espanol Airplay chart. According to Alex Alexdy of Hey Espectáculos, the song was not a success since it is not good enough to compete with other 'reggaeton' songs and "it is far from the ballads that are surefire hits for Guzmán." The music video for the second single, "Qué Ironía", was filmed on Iceland and released on September 12, 2015. To further promote the album, the track "Esta Noche" was used as the main theme of the Mexican TV show Parodiando: Noches de Traje, and was later released as the third single on May 27, 2016, with a music video filmed on Campeche, Mexico.
## Track listing
## Credits
Credits adapted from AllMusic.
- Robert Arthur – acoustic guitar
- Gustavo Borner – mastering, mixing
- Pat Coil – Hammond organ
- Farruko – featured artist
- Manny Galvez – assistant engineer
- Alejandra Guzmán – direction, primary artist, realization
- Brendan Harkin – recording
- Jim Hoke – harmonica
- Chris Latham – recording
- Matt Laug – drums
- Sarah Lenore – background vocals
- Guillermo Gutiérrez Leyva – A&R
- Chris McDonald – string arrangements
- Teddy Mulet – trombone, trumpet
- Craig Nelson – upright bass
- Quique Ollervides – artist, design
- Azucena Olvera – A&R
- José Luis Pagán – arrangement, bass, background vocals, direction, acoustic guitar, electric guitar, keyboard programming, production, recording, string arrangements
- Saverio Principini – bass guitar, recording
- Gabriel Saientz – piano
- Doug Sarrett – recording
- Marco Sonzini – recording
- Sharo Torres – keyboards, recording, rhythm programming
- Kameron Williams – MC
## Charts
### Weekly charts
### Year-end charts
|
3,848,705 |
Roderigo Lopes
| 1,147,915,517 |
16th century physician
|
[
"1517 births",
"1594 deaths",
"16th-century Anglicans",
"16th-century English Jews",
"16th-century English medical doctors",
"16th-century Jewish physicians",
"16th-century Portuguese people",
"16th-century Portuguese physicians",
"Converts to Anglicanism from Roman Catholicism",
"English people of Portuguese-Jewish descent",
"Executed English people",
"Executed Portuguese people",
"Health care professionals convicted of crimes",
"Jewish refugees",
"Medieval Jewish physicians of England",
"People executed under Elizabeth I by hanging, drawing and quartering",
"People of the Elizabethan era",
"Poisoners",
"Portuguese emigrants to England",
"Portuguese people executed abroad",
"Spanish spies",
"University of Coimbra alumni"
] |
Roderigo Lopes (also called Ruy Lopes, Ruy Lopez, Roderigo Lopus, Ruy Lopus, Roger Lopez and Rodrigo Lopes; also referred to as Roderigo Lopez and Rodrigo Lopez; c. 1517 – 7 June 1594) served as a physician-in-chief to Queen Elizabeth I of England from 1581 until his death by execution, having been found guilty of plotting to poison her. A Portuguese converso or New Christian of Jewish ancestry, he is the only royal doctor in English history to have been executed, and may have inspired the character of Shylock in Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice, which was written within four years of his death.
The son of a Portuguese royal physician of Jewish descent, Lopes was raised a Catholic and educated at the University of Coimbra. Amid the Portuguese Inquisition he was accused of secretly practising Judaism, and compelled to leave the country. He settled in London in 1559, joined the Church of England and became house physician at St Bartholomew's Hospital. Gaining a reputation as a careful and skilled physician, he acquired several powerful clients, including the Earl of Leicester and Sir Francis Walsingham, and eventually the Queen of England herself.
The Earl of Essex accused Lopes of conspiring to poison the Queen in January 1594. Insisting on his innocence, the doctor was convicted of high treason in February and hanged, drawn and quartered in June, reportedly after averring from the scaffold that "he loved the Queen as well as he loved Jesus Christ"—a statement that, from a man of Jewish background, prompted mocking laughter from the crowd. Elizabeth's three-month delay signing Lopes' death warrant is sometimes interpreted as evidence that she doubted the case against him. In any case she returned almost all of his estate to his widow and children.
## Early life and family
Rodrigo Lopes was born in Crato, Portugal into a family of Jewish origin around 1517. His father, António Lopes, was physician to King John III of Portugal, and had been baptised into the Roman Catholic Church under coercion in 1497. Lopes was baptised and raised in the Catholic faith as a converso or New Christian, and educated at the University of Coimbra. He received a BA degree under the name Ruy Lopes on 7 February 1540, then an MA on 4 December 1541; he enrolled for a medical course on 23 December that year. Records do not survive regarding his doctorate, but according to his biographer Edgar Samuel it is probable that he received it in 1544.
Amid the Portuguese Inquisition, Lopes was alleged to be a Crypto-Jew or marrano—one of Jewish descent who professed the Christian faith, but secretly adhered to the Judaism of his ancestors—and was compelled to leave Portugal. He settled in England in 1559, anglicising his first name as "Roger", and successfully resumed his practice as a doctor in London. He joined the Church of England. He soon became the house physician at St Bartholomew's Hospital in Smithfield. A colleague there, the surgeon William Clowes, noted in 1591 that "Lopes showed himself to be both careful and very skilful ... in his counsel in dieting, purging and bleeding."
Around 1563 Lopes married Sarah Anes (b. 1550), the eldest daughter of another New Christian refugee from the Portuguese Inquisition, the merchant Dunstan Anes, who had settled in London in 1540. According to Samuel, both the Anes and Lopes households secretly practised Judaism, which was then illegal in England, while outwardly conforming as Anglicans. Other scholars are ambivalent on the matter; Lopes would always insist that he was a Christian. Roderigo and Sarah had four sons and two daughters, of whom at least the eldest five—Ellyn (Elinor), Ambrose, Douglas, William and Ann—were baptised within the hospital precincts at St Bartholomew-the-Less between 1564 and 1579. Lopes' brother Lewis lived with them in Holborn; a second brother, Diego Lopes Aleman, became a merchant in Antwerp and Venice.
## Royal physician
Lopes developed a large practice among powerful people, including Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester and the principal secretary Sir Francis Walsingham, and in 1581 he was made physician-in-chief to Queen Elizabeth I of England and her household, with a life pension of £50 per year. In June 1584, Elizabeth granted him a monopoly on the importation of aniseed and sumac to England for ten years; this was renewed in January 1593. In 1588 he was given land and tithes in Worcestershire belonging to the Bishop of Worcester Edmund Freke. Gabriel Harvey, an English scholar of the era, remarked on Lopes' rise on the title page of a book he owned, Judaeorum Medicastrorum calumnias:
> Doctor Lopus, the Queenes physitian, is descended of Jewes: but himselfe A Christian, & Portugall. He none of the learnedest, or expertest physitians in ye Court: but one, that maketh as great account of himself, as the best: & by a kind of Jewish practis, hath growen to much wealth, & sum reputation: aswell with ye Queen herselfe as with sum of ye greatest Lordes, & Ladyes.
There were sections of English society at the time that believed there to be a plot, orchestrated by Catholics and carried out by Jewish physicians, to poison patients. Converso doctors in Iberia were similarly often accused of murdering their patients or attempting to poison them. In 1584, an anonymous Catholic pamphlet denouncing the Earl of Leicester suggested that "Lopes the Jewe" was one of the earl's agents "for poysoning & for the arte of destroying children in women's bellies".
Fluent in five languages, Lopes was involved in diplomatic intrigue, as many Christians of Jewish origin were at this time. Amid England's war with Spain in the 1580s, Lopes became an important member of a circle of Portuguese exiles in England, and the Queen's intermediary with the Portuguese pretender Dom António, Prior of Crato, who was staying near Windsor Castle. Lopes supported Dom António, but in 1586 one of the pretender's entourage, António da Veiga, wrote to the Spanish Ambassador in Paris, Don Bernardino de Mendoza, claiming that he could persuade Lopes to poison Dom António. The Spanish did not act on this idea.
In 1590, Lopes approached Mendoza, possibly on Walsingham's behalf, with the intention of opening peace negotiations. The Spanish gave Manuel de Andrada, Lopes' intermediary, a jewelled ring worth £100 as a gift for Lopes' daughter. After Walsingham's death in 1591, Lopes continued exchanging letters with Spanish officials without the English government's knowledge or authority. There is no surviving evidence to suggest that Lopes conspired against England or Elizabeth personally, but these Spanish connections would come back to punish him—according to Samuel, "Lopes had acted stupidly and dishonestly".
## Trial and execution
By the early 1590s, Lopes was wealthy and generally respected. He owned a comfortable house in Holborn and had his youngest son Anthony enrolled at Winchester College. He incurred the fury of one of his former patients, Queen Elizabeth's favourite Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex, when he described to Dom António and the Spanish statesman Antonio Pérez occasions on which he had treated Essex for venereal diseases. Learning of this from Pérez, Essex began to assemble evidence implicating Lopes as some sort of fifth columnist in the pay of King Philip II of Spain. The Lord High Treasurer Lord Burghley initially thought Essex's allegations against Lopes absurd. The Queen herself also rebuked Essex.
Late in 1593, Essex discovered a secret correspondence between Estevão Ferreira da Gama, one of Dom António's former supporters, and officials in the Spanish Netherlands—and had a messenger, Manuel Luis Tinoco, arrested. Lopes' courier Gomez d'Avila, a London-based Portuguese New Christian, was also arrested. Both implicated Lopes during interrogation. On 28 January 1594 Essex wrote to Anthony Bacon of "a most dangerous and desperate treason", the target of which was Queen Elizabeth: "The executioner should have been Dr Lopus. The manner by poison." Parallels were drawn with a letter written by Andrada to Burghley in 1591, in which reference was made to a plot whereby the King of Spain would deploy "three Portuguese to kill her Majesty and three more to kill the King of France". Tinoco was tortured and Ferreira da Gama threatened with torture until they confessed along the lines Essex suspected; Ferreira da Gama, asked if Lopes might have been willing to poison the Queen, replied in the affirmative. Lopes was arrested and held first at Essex House, then the Tower of London. He confessed when threatened with torture, but promptly recanted this statement.
Revelations regarding Lopes' secret correspondence with Spanish officials did not help his case, particularly when it emerged that he had given the Spanish information about the English court and apparently donated money to a secret synagogue in Antwerp. Burghley and the spymaster William Wade were soon "ready to believe the worst", to quote Samuel. Lopes, Ferreira da Gama and Tinoco were tried by a commission headed by Essex at Guildhall on 28 February 1594. Lopes insisted that he was innocent. The prosecutor, Sir Edward Coke, denounced the doctor as "a perjured, murdering villain and a Jewish doctor worse than Judas himself ... [not] a new Christian ... [but] a very Jew". The three were convicted of high treason and sentenced to death.
The Queen waited over three months before signing the death warrant; this delay is sometimes interpreted as evidence that the Queen doubted the case against her doctor. Lopes, Ferreira da Gama and Tinoco were hanged, drawn and quartered at Tyburn on 7 June 1594. Lopes insisted to the end that he was innocent and that his professed Christian faith was genuine. He fell into a state of depression, but on the scaffold gathered his resolve and, according to the 16th-century historian William Camden, declared that "he loved the Queen as well as he loved Jesus Christ". The crowd roared with derision and laughter, taking this, from a man of Jewish background, for a thinly veiled confession.
Lopes' property was forfeited on his attainder. His widow Sarah petitioned the Queen to be allowed to keep his estate; the Queen kept the ring given to Lopes' daughter by the Spanish, but returned the rest. Elizabeth also granted £30 per year to Anthony to support him at Winchester. A letter written by the Spanish diplomat Count Gondomar to King Philip III of Spain a decade after the trial seems to indicate that Lopes and Ferreira da Gama had been unjustly convicted, and that there had been no plot involving the Portuguese doctor: "the King our master [Philip II] had never conceived nor approved such measures ... the Count of Fuentes neither received nor gave such an order, moreover it is understood that Dr Lopez never passed through his thoughts, because he was a friend of the Queen and a bad Christian." Lopes remains the only royal physician executed in English history.
## Possible literary legacy
Some historians and literary critics consider Lopes and his trial to have been an influence on William Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice (written c. 1596–98), specifically as a prototype for the play's principal antagonist Shylock, a Venetian Jewish moneylender who hates Christians. The Lopes case prompted a revival of Christopher Marlowe's play The Jew of Malta (c. 1589–90), which according to Elizabeth Lane Furdell began rehearsals in London the same day Lopes was taken to Essex House. In Marlowe's Doctor Faustus (c. 1592), there is a mention of Lopes—probably added after Marlowe's death in 1593—comparing him to the title character. It reads: "Doctor Lopus was never such a doctor!"
|
54,468,099 |
Tropical Storm Nanmadol (2017)
| 1,171,851,619 |
Pacific severe tropical storm in 2017
|
[
"2017 Pacific typhoon season",
"Articles containing video clips",
"July 2017 events in Japan",
"Tropical cyclones in 2017",
"Typhoons in Japan"
] |
Severe Tropical Storm Nanmadol, known in the Philippines as Severe Tropical Storm Emong, was a tropical cyclone that impacted southern Japan during July 2017. Nanmadol developed over in the Philippine Sea as a tropical depression on July 1, and strengthened into the third named storm of the 2017 typhoon season on July 3. After gaining organization, the system rapidly developed and intensified into a severe tropical storm and reached its peak intensity with a 10-minute maximum sustained winds of 100 km/h (62 mph) and a minimum barometric pressure of 985 hPa (29.1 inHg). On July 4, Nanmadol turned eastwards and made landfall near Nagasaki, Kyushu, just before it transitioned into an extratropical cyclone.
Nanmadol dropped torrential rainfall across Kyushu, resulting in landslides, although the Fukuoka and Ōita Prefectures were the hardest hit. The city of Asakura, Fukuoka experienced a one-day rainfall surpassing the city's average total for July by 50%, with a rainfall of 500 mm (20 in) recorded within a 12-hour period on July 5. Landslides were recorded in 44 different locations and flooding in 38 locations, and from this, more than 2,600 homes were destroyed. In total, 42 people died from Nanmadol due to drowning from flash flooding or due to landslides. Total damages was estimated to have toppled to ¥190 billion (US\$1.68 billion).
## Meteorological history
During June 30, a tropical disturbance developed about 463 km (288 mi) to the north-northeast of Palau. Noting some organization within the system, the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert (TCFA) early on July 1. Six hours later, the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) classified it as a tropical depression. Later that day, the JMA began to issue advisories, predicting that the system could intensify into a tropical storm within the next 24 hours. Shortly after, the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA) upgraded the system to a tropical depression, assigning the local name Emong.
Early on July 2, the JMA upgraded the system to a tropical storm, and assigned the official name Nanmadol. The PAGASA also upgraded the system to a tropical storm. Soon after, the JTWC gave the system the internal designation of 05W. Satellite imagery depicted convective banding wrapping tightly into Nanmadol's low-level circulation center (LLCC), prompting the JTWC to upgrade it to a tropical storm in their next advisory. Nanmadol later entered a favorable environment with low vertical wind shear and high sea surface temperatures (SSTs) of 30–31 °C (86–88 °F), allowing it to develop a deep and symmetric core surrounded by deep convection. At this time, the JMA stated that Nanmadol had intensified into a severe tropical storm. The PAGASA also upgraded Nanmadol to a severe tropical storm in their final advisory on the system as it exited the Philippine Area of Responsibility.
Nanmadol continued to intensify while moving northward just to the east of Taiwan, with satellite imagery capturing a small, developing eye. At 06:00 UTC on July 3, Nanmadol reached its peak intensity with the JTWC assessing the cyclone to have 1-minute sustained winds of 110 km/h (68 mph); the JMA estimated 10-minute sustained winds of 100 km/h (62 mph) and a minimum barometric pressure of 985 hPa (29.09 inHg). However, the JTWC assessed that Nanmadol reached its peak intensity as a Category 1-equivalent typhoon with 1-minute sustained winds of 120 km/h (75 mph) six hours later in a post-analysis report. Nanmadol maintained its peak intensity for several hours until just before July 4, when the system began curving eastwards and its satellite presentation deteriorated. Around that time, Nanmadol made landfall approximately 40 km (25 mi) to the east of Nagasaki in Kyushu. Despite the system still displaying a well-defined center, cloud tops began to warm, in line with the rapid weakening trend of the system. After several hours, Nanmadol began to interact with the mid-latitude westerlies; the JTWC downgraded the system further to a low-end of tropical storm intensity, though the JMA still maintained it at severe tropical storm intensity. By 21:00 UTC on the same day, the JTWC issued its final advisory on Nanmadol, mentioning that the system was embedded within the cold baroclinic zone, and had thus lost its tropical characteristics and transitioned into a cold-core low. The JMA soon followed suit with their final warning, declaring that Nanmadol had fully become an extratropical cyclone at 00:00 UTC on July 5. Its extratropical remnants later left the basin on July 8.
## Preparations, impact, and aftermath
The JMA issued a heavy rain warning for Shimane Prefecture and neighboring areas, in which the government had urged 20,000 residents to evacuate. On July 3, the Sasebo City Emergency Management Bureau activated a total of 30 emergency shelters. The government dispatched a total of 12,000 rescuers, including police officers, firefighters and the Self-Defense Forces troops, in preparation for post-storm relief. On July 10, the Kyushu Railway Company began a bus service to aid residents trapped in some areas along the currently suspended Kyudai Main Line; this included areas between Ukiha Station in Fukuoka Prefecture and Hita Station, Ōita Prefecture, where an iron bridge spanning a river was washed away by floodwaters. Due to the threat of further landslides, the West Nippon Expressway Company extended a closure of the Ōita Expressway. Trees with trunks of 50–60 cm (19.5–23.5 in) were washed away, blocking the water stream further and exacerbating floods. Therefore, on July 11, Forestry Minister Yuji Yamamoto pledged to set up a task force to remove driftwood. Meanwhile, an official at the University of Hyogo warned other municipalities of potential damage caused by fallen trees.
Peak windspeeds of 150 km/h (93 mph) were recorded in Nagasaki upon landfall, including a 162 km/h (101 mph) wind gust in the Shikoku town of Muroto just after 05:30 UTC. Strong winds overturned vehicles, collapsed scaffolding, and left 68,500 homes without power in Nagasaki and Kumamoto prefectures; other blackouts occurred in the prefectures of Ōita, Miyazaki and Kagoshima. Around 3,000 airline passengers were affected by the grounding and cancellation of at least 47 flights. Heavy rains and strong winds disrupted numerous train services including the iconic Shinkansen, between Hakata and Kagoshima-Chuo in Kyushu. Evacuation advisories were issued to at least 20,000 residents due to fears of possible flooding and landslides, especially in the Niigata, Toyama and Nagano prefectures that had experienced rainfall accumulations of up to 300 mm (12 in) in the preceding hours. In Hamada, Shimane, over 80 mm (3.1 in) fell in an hour.
At least three people were injured during the storm—a young boy's hand was injured when a school window broke in the city of Kumamoto, and two adults in Ōita prefecture sustained injuries from falls as a result of the strong winds. About 180 people took shelter at a junior high school gymnasium in Asakura. Within the prefecture, 130 mm (5.1 in) of rain fell in an hour, greatly contributing to a 24-hour rainfall total of 545 mm (21.5 in). A later report showed that the prefecture experienced a total accumulated rainfall of 632.5 mm (24.90 in). The city of Hita, Ōita also experienced extreme rainfall, with accumulations of 400 mm (16 in). However the prefecture of Fukuoka experienced an incredible amount of 774 mm (30.5 in) of rain within the course of nine hours on July 5. Due to the risk of landslides, an evacuation order which covered 316 people from 115 households was issued in the Haki District of Asakura, due to high risk of landslides. Throughout the Fukuoka and Ōita Prefectures, 1,724 people evacuated. More than 2,600 homes were destroyed by Nanmadol around the Fukuoka, Oita, and the Hiroshima prefectures, but a later report showed a total of 4,458 buildings damaged. Nearly a week after the flooding had begun, some roads were already reopened over in some communities in the Fukuoka Prefecture. During July 12, the Japanese Prime Minister Shinzō Abe canceled a trip to Estonia for a European tour and instead visited devastated places over in the Kyushu region to view the damage and console residents. He also promised that the government would take action and do everything possible to help rebuild.
A total of 42 people have been confirmed dead due to torrential rains which caused landslides and flooding, particularly in Kyushu, where two still remained missing and leaving 39 people injured. Total damages in Japan were amounted to be ¥190 billion (US\$1.68 billion).
## See also
- Other tropical cyclones named Nanmadol
- Other tropical cyclones named Emong
- Typhoon Neoguri (2014)
- Typhoon Chaba (2016)
- Tropical Storm Etau (2009)
- Tropical Storm Etau (2015)
- Typhoon Talim (2017)
|
51,603,673 |
Tropical Storm Julia (2016)
| 1,171,842,039 |
Atlantic tropical storm in 2016
|
[
"2016 Atlantic hurricane season",
"2016 in Florida",
"Atlantic tropical storms",
"Tropical cyclones in 2016"
] |
Tropical Storm Julia was a weak tropical cyclone that caused minor damage across the Eastern United States in September 2016. The tenth named storm of the 2016 Atlantic hurricane season, Julia developed from a tropical wave near the coast of east-central Florida on September 13. Initially a tropical depression, the system soon made landfall near Jensen Beach. Despite moving inland, the cyclone intensified into a tropical storm, shortly before strengthening further to reach maximum sustained winds of 50 mph (85 km/h). Julia then drifted north-northwestward and then northeastward, moving offshore the Southeastern United States on September 14. A cyclonic loop occurred as strong westerly air developed in the region, with the shear causing fluctuations in intensity. By September 19, Julia degenerated into a remnant low, which later transitioned into an extratropical cyclone and moved inland over North Carolina before dissipating on September 21.
Due to Julia's asymmetrical structure and fairly weak intensity, the storm caused generally minor wind and flooding damage in Florida, Georgia, and South Carolina. However, parts of North Carolina received as much as 12 in (300 mm) of rain, while as much as 18 in (460 mm) fell in the Hampton Roads area of Virginia. One million gallons of sewage from Elizabeth City flowed into the Pasquotank River and Charles Creek. The Cashie River in Windsor, reached 15 ft (4.6 m), 2 ft (0.6 m) above flood stage. Several businesses and approximately 60 homes in the town were destroyed. In Bertie County alone, a total of 72 people had to be rescued from their homes, while 61 others were evacuated from nursing homes. Schools were closed in Bertie, Currituck and Hertford counties for at least two days. In Virginia, flooding overwhelmed the sewer system in Chesapeake and inundated numerous roads in the southeastern portion of the state. Damage from the storm amounted to \$6.13 million.
## Meteorological history
A tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic Ocean from the west coast of Africa on September 1. Due to entrainment of dry air, the wave struggled to maintain convection as it progressed westwards. The National Hurricane Center (NHC) did not begin monitoring the system in its Tropical Weather Outlooks until a concentrated area of low pressure developed about 350 mi (560 km) east of the Leeward Islands on September 8. The convection quickly diminished and mainly consisted of only sporadically bursts of shower and thunderstorm activity. Little change in organization took place as the disturbance tracked through the Bahamas on September 11 and September 12. However, the disturbance quickly organized and developed more thunderstorm activity while approaching Florida. A tropical depression is estimated to have formed at 06:00 UTC on September 13, around the time it was making landfall in Jensen Beach, Florida. Within a few hours, a strong band of deep convection formed in the northeast quadrant of the cyclone, though westerly wind shear prevented any significant convection from developing on the western side of the storm.
Radar and surface observations indicate that the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Julia around 12:00 UTC on September 13, about six hours after forming, becoming the first tropical cyclone to intensify into a tropical storm while over land. Once designated as a tropical storm, Julia reached its peak intensity of 50 mph (85 km/h) while inland, At 03:00 UTC on September 14, the NHC initiated advisories on Julia – which was then centered near Jacksonville – and initially predicted that the storm would move north-northwestward and become extratropical or a remnant low pressure area over Georgia by September 16. Shortly thereafter, Julia weakened slightly due to moderate to high wind shear. Periodic bursts of convection occurred near the center of the system as it moved over water and paralleled the coast of Florida and Georgia. However, these bursts were short-lived due to strong wind shear, causing its elongated circulation to become far removed from the deep convection. Operationally, the NHC erroneously downgraded Julia to a tropical depression on September 15. At 00:00 UTC that day, Julia attained its minimum barometric pressure of 1007 mbar (29.7 inHg).
Julia consisted of mainly a low-level swirl of clouds by late on September 16; however, minimal convection kept the storm at the minimum requirements for a tropical cyclone. Early on September 17, Julia weakened to a tropical depression. Despite a slight increase in convection and organization, wind shear and dry air continued to take its toll on the increasingly ill-defined storm, and Julia degenerated into a remnant low by early on September 19 after being devoid of convection for nearly 12 hours. While moving north, the remnants of Julia then transitioned into a weak extratropical cyclone and made a small westward turn before dissipating inland over North Carolina on September 21.
## Preparations and impact
Upon initiating advisories on the storm at 03:00 UTC on September 14, the NHC issued a tropical storm warning from Ponte Vedra Beach, Florida, to Altamaha Sound in Georgia. Nine hours later, the tropical storm warning was discontinued as the cyclone began moving offshore Georgia. Additionally, flash flood watches were issued between Florida and North Carolina, as up to 10 in (250 mm) of rainfall was possible in some areas. Florida governor Rick Scott urged residents to prepare in case an evacuation became necessary and to dump standing water to control mosquitoes that could be carrying the Zika virus. Jacksonville mayor Lenny Curry released a statement telling those in the path of the storm to stay off the roadways due to the rain and wind and potential flash flooding.
In Florida, the storm produced wind gusts of 30 to 48 mph (48 to 77 km/h) along the First Coast, causing some structural damage, including ripping apart the roof of a Chevron gas station in Neptune Beach and carrying it over two blocks before dropping it. While Julia was still in its precursor stages as it paralleled the coast of Florida, an EF0 tornado was reported and later confirmed in the areas of Barefoot Bay, with sustained winds as high as 85 mph (137 km/h). One home had its roof partially ripped off by the tornado as it tracked through the area. Flooding rain impacted the Space Coast and the First Coast, with 3.3 in (84 mm) of precipitation reported in Melbourne.
The storm knocked out power to over 1,300 people in Georgia, especially in and near the Sea Islands and St. Simons. In South Carolina, rainfall from Julia caused flash flooding in a number of locations, such as the Charleston metropolitan area, where flooding resulted in the closure of several roads. Accumulations peaked at 3.67 in (93 mm) on September 14. Sporadic power outages were also reported.
As the remnants of Julia interacted with a cold front near the coastline, parts of North Carolina received as much as 12 in (300 mm) of rain. One million gallons of sewage from Elizabeth City flowed into the Pasquotank River and Charles Creek. The Cashie River in Windsor, crested at 15 ft (4.6 m) on September 22, about 2 ft (0.61 m) above major flood stage. In Windsor, several businesses and approximately 60 homes suffered water damage. In Bertie County alone, 72 people had to be rescued from their homes and vehicles, while 61 others were evacuated from nursing homes. A shelter was opened for displaced residents. Damage in the county reached about \$5 million in damage, including \$4 million to property and \$1 million to agriculture. Flooding in Bertie, Currituck, and Hertford counties resulted in school closures for at least two days. On September 22, then-Governor Pat McCrory declared a state of emergency for Bertie, Camden, Chowan, Currituck, Dare, Gates, Halifax, Hertford, Northampton, Pasquotank, and Perquimans. A disaster declaration was approved following Hurricane Matthew in October, which also included aid for victims of flooding during Julia. The declaration allowed businesses and non-profit organizations in Bertie, Chowan, Halifax, Hertford, Martin, Northampton, and Washington counties to apply for low-interest loans via the Small Business Administration, while loans up to \$200,000 became available for needy homeowners.
Heavy rainfall was reported in southeastern Virginia, with 17.85 in (453 mm) of precipitation observed near Great Bridge. Numerous roads were washed out in several counties and independent cities, including Chesapeake, Franklin, Isle of Wight, Norfolk, Portsmouth, Southampton, Suffolk, and Virginia Beach. In Chesapeake, flood waters overwhelmed the sewer system, causing sewage to enter the city's water system and local waterways. Farther north, the remnants of the storm interacted with a frontal boundary, resulting in heavy rainfall in some portions of Delaware, Maryland, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. Throughout its path, damage from the storm amounted to about \$6.13 million.
## See also
- Other storms named Julia
- List of Florida hurricanes (2000–present)
- List of North Carolina hurricanes (2000–present)
- Hurricane Ophelia (2005)
- Tropical Storm Tammy (2005)
- Tropical Storm Ana (2015)
- Hurricane Sally (2020) – strengthened to a tropical storm over Southern Florida during the 2020 Atlantic hurricane season
- Brown ocean effect – a phenomenon that causes topical cyclones to intensify over land
|
5,847,079 |
Pennsylvania Route 378
| 1,157,219,375 |
State highway in Pennsylvania, US
|
[
"Limited-access roads in Pennsylvania",
"State highways in Pennsylvania",
"Transportation in Lehigh County, Pennsylvania",
"Transportation in Northampton County, Pennsylvania"
] |
Pennsylvania Route 378 (PA 378) is a north-to-south road in Lehigh and Northampton counties in the Lehigh Valley region of the U.S. state of Pennsylvania. The southern terminus is at PA 309 in Center Valley. Its northern terminus is at U.S. Route 22 (US 22) in Bethlehem. The route heads north from PA 309 as a two-lane undivided road through Upper Saucon Township and Lower Saucon Township before crossing South Mountain into the city of Bethlehem. Here, PA 378 follows city streets through Bethlehem's South Side, intersecting the northern terminus of PA 412. The route crosses the Lehigh River and becomes a four-lane freeway that continues north to US 22. PA 378 is the only highway from US 22 to Center City Bethlehem, and a quick route for visitors traveling to the Wind Creek Bethlehem casino resort on the city's South Side.
The portion of PA 378 south of Bethlehem was originally numbered as PA 12 in 1928 and renumbered to PA 191 in 1961. Construction on the freeway from West Broad Street to US 22 began in 1966 and finished two years later. This freeway was numbered Interstate 378 (I-378) and served as a spur of I-78, which formerly ran along the US 22 freeway. When I-78 was rerouted from US 22 to south of the city, the spur became disjointed from its parent. I-378 was downgraded to state route status in 1971. Three years later, the PA 378 designation replaced PA 191 from Center Valley to Third Street in Bethlehem. The state did not remove the exit tabs for the freeway section, making PA 378 one of only a few state freeways with exit numbers (another one is PA 309 in Wilkes-Barre). The exit numbers also go in the wrong direction: Exit 3 is south of Exit 1, most likely due to the freeway being built when Pennsylvania still practiced sequential exit numbering. In 2009, the portion north of the Lehigh River was named the Fred B. Rooney Highway after Fred B. Rooney.
## Route description
PA 378 begins at two separate intersections with PA 309 in the community of Center Valley in Upper Saucon Township, Lehigh County, which is in the Lehigh Valley. The route heads northward as a three-lane road with a center left-turn lane, passing through Center Valley and paralleling Old Bethlehem Pike. The road runs through a mix of farm fields and woods with residential and commercial development. After an intersection with Preston Lane, PA 378 turns to the north-northeast. Farther north, the highway crosses Saucon Creek and passes to the west of the Saucon Valley Country Club. At the intersection with Osgood Avenue, PA 378 turns to the northeast, crossing the Old Bethlehem Pike soon after. After crossing Saucon Valley Road, the highway comes to an intersection with Center Valley Parkway, an arterial boulevard.
After that, the highway enters Lower Saucon Township in Northampton County and crosses under I-78 without an interchange. Past this, PA 378 heads north through the community of Seidersville, where it passes homes and businesses as a four-lane road parallel to Old Philadelphia Pike. The road traverses South Mountain where it runs through forested areas with some homes. Descending the mountain, PA 378 bends northwestward as a four lane arterial known as Wyandotte Street until leaving the University Heights area near Holy Ghost Cemetery. PA 378 continues into the city of Bethlehem, where it turns northward into residential areas as a two-lane road and is called Wyandotte Street. In the South Side section of the city, PA 378 intersects with the northern terminus of PA 412 (Broadway). The route continues northward and intersects a ramp to 3rd Street that provides access to PA 412, at which point it widens to four lanes. PA 378 passes over Norfolk Southern's Lehigh Line before crossing the Lehigh River on the Hill to Hill Bridge.
PA 378 heads northward across the Hill to Hill Bridge, at which point it crosses back into Lehigh County. The route crosses over West Lehigh Street and intersects with the off-ramp to Main Street in Bethlehem. There was formerly a ramp to 2nd Avenue, but that has been closed and is only used by pedestrians. After this interchange, PA 378 becomes a four-lane freeway and is named the Fred B. Rooney Highway. The highway continues northward through the city, crossing under West Broad Street and reaching a southbound interchange with North Street, which leads to Center City and Third Avenue. The freeway continues northward, crossing over and receiving an on-ramp from Union Boulevard.
The road turns to the northwest and interchanges with Eighth Avenue at exit 2E and exit 2W northbound and exit 2 southbound. PA 378 turns westward through Bethlehem, paralleling Union Boulevard and crossing under Fourteenth Avenue. The route then turns northward, crossing under Eaton Avenue and a Norfolk Southern rail line and passing the Hal Fenicle Memorial Park. PA 378 continues northbound, interchanging with and crossing under Catasauqua Road. After running to the southwest of Lehigh Valley Hospital–Muhlenberg, the freeway enters an interchange with US 22 (Lehigh Valley Thruway), PA 378 northbound traffic is directed onto US 22 westbound.
## History
The at-grade portion of PA 378 south of Bethlehem was originally designated in the 1928 numbering as an alignment of PA 12, a route crossing through Northampton and Monroe Counties. On April 17, 1961, PA 12 was decommissioned in favor of PA 191, a 90-mile-long (140 km) highway from Center Valley to the New York state line on the Delaware River. In 1974, following the decommissioning of I-378 to PA 378, PA 191 had its southern terminus moved to US 22 in Brodhead, and the former alignment between Center Valley and Bethlehem became a southern, non-expressway extension of PA 378.
The current alignment of PA 378 was first constructed from West Broad Street in Bethlehem to the current interchange with the Lehigh Valley Thruway. As part of the Interstate Highway System, the Lehigh Valley Thruway was cosigned as the alignment of I-78. Upon completion of the freeway in 1968, the new highway was designated I-378, a spur off of I-78. However, in 1970, as I-78 was realigned to a new bypass to the south of Bethlehem, I-378 was decommissioned and replaced with the alignment of PA 378 the following year.
Since completion, PA 378 has undergone little major change, but the highway has undergone several rehabilitations. The Hill to Hill Bridge received a minor fire during reconstruction of the bridge, when a piece of equipment had its motor catch fire on April 13, 2009, when the bridge was undergoing re-painting. The bridge repainting was completed on May 15, 2009, after the closing of a bridge and was re-opened later due to rainfall in the area.
On September 23, 2009, the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation announced plans and designs for an upgrade and redesign of PA 378 through Bethlehem at its interchange with West Third Street, although this met public criticism. Part of the project, construction of a new ramp from Wyandotte Street to West Third Street, was completed in September 2011. Completion of the widening of West Third Street and PA 412 was completed later in 2011. The \$5.1 million project will also include a widening of PA 412 between Exit 67 on I-78 and Daly Avenue in Bethlehem to two lanes in each direction. On November 21, 2009, the project was given funding from the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 signed by President Barack Obama in 2009. The Pennsylvania Department of Transportation received \$1 billion worth of funding from the act.
## Major intersections
## See also
- Pennsylvania Route 581 - another state route with exit numbers.
|
5,208,126 |
Vivah
| 1,173,322,398 |
2006 film by Sooraj R. Barjatya
|
[
"2000s Hindi-language films",
"2006 films",
"2006 romantic drama films",
"Films about Indian weddings",
"Films directed by Sooraj Barjatya",
"Films scored by Ravindra Jain",
"Films set in Delhi",
"Films shot in Delhi",
"Films shot in Uttarakhand",
"Indian romantic drama films",
"Rajshri Productions films"
] |
Vivah () is a 2006 Indian Hindi-language romantic drama film, written and directed by Sooraj R. Barjatya and starring Shahid Kapoor and Amrita Rao in the lead roles. The movie was produced and distributed by Rajshri Productions. Vivah tells the story of two individuals, and relates their journey from engagement to marriage and aftermath.
Vivah is the fourth film to feature Shahid Kapoor opposite Amrita Rao. The film was released on 10 November 2006, and became one of the biggest commercial successes of the year, grossing more than ₹139 million (US\$1.7 million) worldwide. Critical reception was mixed; some reviewers found it dramatically lacking and bloated, but it also has been credited for triggering changes to the way marriage is depicted on film. It became an unexpected success, as well as Kapoor and Rao's biggest commercial success at that point.
Kapoor and Rao's performance in the film earned them a nomination for Best Actor and Best Actress respectively at the Screen Awards. Vivah is the first Indian film to be simultaneously released in cinema and on the internet (through the production company's official site). The film was also dubbed into Telugu and released as Parinayam.
## Plot
Poonam, a middle-class girl lives in the small town Madhupur in Mathura district, Uttar Pradesh. Her parents died in her childhood and since then her uncle Krishnakant has fulfilled a father's void in her life. However, his wife Rama is jealous and unable to accept Poonam, driven by the fact that their own daughter Rajni is dark in complexion and not as beautiful than Poonam. Despite this Rajni and Poonam grow close and consider themselves sisters. Harish Chandra Bajpayee, a renowned businessman in New Delhi has two sons: the married Sunil, and the soft-spoken and well-educated Prem.
Poonam's simple and affectionate demeanor impresses Bhagat, a jeweller and Krishnakant's friend, who takes her marriage proposal for Prem. Harish takes his opinion on the proposition. Hesitant, Prem feels he needs to focus on his career first. Harish convinces him to meet Poonam before deciding so Prem agrees. They visit the Mishras and let him get acquainted with Poonam. Prem and Poonam are instantly attracted to each other, agree to the marriage and get engaged.
Krishnakant invites Bajpayees to their summer place in Som Sarovar, so Prem and Poonam get to know each other better. The two go through the most magical and romantic period of their lives, begin to fall in love and become attached. Later, Harish and his family return home to attend a business meeting urgently. Poonam and Prem communicate via telephone and letter. Prem joins the business and takes on an essential project in Japan.
Upon returning, the family brings Poonam as a surprise, and a celebration is held in honour of Poonam's first visit and Prem's successful business venture. During the celebration, an angry and jealous Rama hides in her room. Krishnakant finds her and angrily confronts her and calls her out on her refusal to accept Poonam despite her attempts throughout her life to win Rama's love. He informs her that she is the only person who has ever had a problem with Poonam. However, two days before the wedding, a fire breaks out at Mishra house. Although Poonam runs out in time, she realizes Rajni is still inside and saves her, but gets heavily burnt in the process. The doctor informs her father that in such cases, even families disown their own. Upon hearing Poonam's diagnosis, and the fact that she was injured saving Rajni, a remorseful Rama breaks down realizing how cruel she has been to Poonam. Bhagatji, broken heartedly, calls Prem right as he is leaving for Madhupur for the ceremony. As he is about to sign the waiver allowing her surgery, he begins to cry and cannot do so. Prem arrives, determined to marry Poonam despite her injuries and bringing the finest doctors from Delhi. He marries her informally before her surgery. With the aid of the doctors from Delhi, the hospital successfully performs surgery on Poonam. Later, Poonam and Prem are traditionally married and go home to their new life. At their wedding night, Prem takes the initiative of dressing Poonam's burns. Then the film ends with a kiss and beginning of their married life.
## Cast
The cast is listed below:
- Shahid Kapoor as Prem Bajpayee, Poonam's husband
- Amrita Rao as Poonam "Bitto" Mishra Bajpayee, Prem's wife
- Anupam Kher as Harishchandra Bajpayee, Prem and Sunil's father
- Alok Nath as Krishnakant Mishra, Poonam's uncle and Chhoti's father
- Seema Biswas as Rama Mishra: Krishnakant's wife and Chhoti's mother
- Samir Soni as Sunil Bajpayee, Prem's elder brother and Bhavna's husband
- Lata Sabharwal as Bhavna Bajpayee, Sunil's wife and Prem's sister-in-law
- Manoj Joshi as Bhagatji, Krishnakant's friend
- Amrita Prakash as Rajni "Chhoti" Mishra, Krishnakant and Rama's daughter
- Ameya Pandya as Rahul Bajpayee, Sunil and Bhavna's son
- Dinesh Lamba as Munim
- Mohnish Bahl as Dr. Rashid Khan (extended cameo appearance)
- Yusuf Hussain in a friendly appearance as Dr. Jain
## Production
Director/writer Sooraj Barjatya noted that the story of Vivah is based upon a newspaper article his father read in 1988. Like in all of Sooraj R. Barjatya's previous films, the male lead is called Prem. The story combined elements of Hindu tradition to set itself up as a film of cultural significance and was constructed differently than Barjatya's earlier films. Barjatya hoped that the film would be remembered as the first to tackle the definitions and dynamics of a marriage. In an interview with Times of India Barjatya said, he kept in mind all the novels of Saratchandra Chatterjee while making Vivah. Barjatya felt that the film should possess a lyrical feel, since it was, according to him, "a lyrics oriented film."
Filming took place during the first months of 2006. The main hurdle came up with the location. Barjatya wanted to shoot film in an authentic way. He asked the film's art director Sanjay Dhobade to create the entire town of Madhupur that can give a realistic look, particularly portions where water leaking takes place and portions where spit marks were visible on the walls of the buildings in the film. Later, the town was created in film city, Mumbai. Outdoor session of the film was done in Delhi, Lonavla, Ranikhet, Nainital and Almora.
Additional production credits include: Jay Borade – dance choreographer, Sound — Jitendra Chaudhary, Dialogue — Aash Karan Atal, Cinematography — Harish Joshi and Editor — V N Mayekar. Amrita Rao's costumes were created by Indian designer Anna Singh and Shahid Kapoor's clothes were created by Shabina Khan. To promote the film, Shahid Kapoor and Amrita Rao sold tickets at the Fame Theatre in Malad, Mumbai.
## Soundtrack
The soundtrack (songs and the background score) and lyrics for Vivah was scored by Ravindra Jain. Vivah was seventh collaboration of Ravindra Jain with Rajshri Productions. It was produced under the Saregama label. The composer primarily gave special importance to "taal" and opted to keep two "antras" followed by a "mukhra" in the songs. The orchestra combines with classical Indian instruments, like the sitar, sarod, violin, dholak and tabla to produce a blend between classical western and classical Indian music. The complete film soundtrack album was released on 26 September 2006.
Although the songs were appreciated, the music was criticised due to its monotony choice of instruments and music arrangements being very similar to one another. Rediff.com wrote in its music review that, "Vivah's music disappoints". Nofil of Glamsham gave the album 2.5 out of 5 stars and noted that, "The music of Vivah fails to emerge as successful as other Rajshri family potboilers, Maine Pyar Kiya, Hum Aapke Hain Koun [sic] and Hum Saath-Saath Hain."
## Reception
Kapoor and Rao's performance in the film earned them a nomination for Best Actor and Best Actress respectively at the Screen Awards.
### Box office
Vivah premiered on 10 November 2006 across India. Like Hum Aapke Hain Koun..! (1994), Rajshri Productions released limited number of prints for the film and eventually increased prints with increasing popularity. Early reviewers of Vivah predicted that it would be a huge disappointment. The film opened well and went on to become a commercially successful venture.
The film earned ₹222 crore (equivalent to ₹710 crore or US\$89 million in 2023) net gross after seven weeks of running. Made on a budget of around ₹80 million (US\$1.0 million), the film went on to collect ₹496 million (US\$6.2 million) at the domestic box office. Vivah was released by Rajshri Media Limited on the production company's official site. The film's DVD was released by Rajshri Production.
### Critical response
Ron Ahluwalia of Planet Bollywood gave it 7.5 out of 10 wrote, "Sooraj Bartjatya comes up with the best, cheesiest family flick we’ve seen in a long time without sending us back to the 1940s." Deepa Gahlot of Sify said, "Vivah is far less offensive and far more watchable." Nikhat Kazmi from The Times of India called it a "simple documentation of something as banal as an engagement to a vivah".
Madhuparna Das of The Telegraph criticised Vivah for lacking plot, flat characters and mentioning that the story was "rather weak and improbable." BBC described Vivah as "a didactic, worthy, and highly sanitised take on reality in keeping with the Rajshri tradition." Rajeev Masand of CNN-IBN gave only 1 out of 5 stars and condemned the screenplay, calling both Kapoor and Rao "insipid and boring." A review carried by Anupama Chopra mentioned, "Sooraj Barjatya's fantasy world is carefully constructed, but his conviction infuses his films with an emotional heft."
## Influence
Indian painter M. F. Husain, decided to create a series of paintings inspired by Amrita Rao and Vivah. He planned to create an entire exhibition around her. He organised a private screening for 150 friends and press attendees to "convey his interest for the film" at Dubai's Plaza cinema. The Regent, a theater in Patna, Bihar, put up a festive banner to promote the movie. The banner reads Poonam weds Prem. Vivah inspired couples at that time to emulate the protagonists.
|
53,598,414 |
The Hate U Give
| 1,172,714,363 |
2017 young adult novel by Angie Thomas
|
[
"2017 American novels",
"2017 debut novels",
"African-American novels",
"African-American young adult novels",
"American novels adapted into films",
"Balzer + Bray books",
"Black Lives Matter art",
"Books about activists",
"Censored books",
"Literature by African-American women",
"Novels about race and ethnicity",
"Novels about racism",
"Novels set in the 21st century",
"Novels set in the United States",
"Race-related controversies in literature"
] |
The Hate U Give is a 2017 young adult novel by Angie Thomas. It is Thomas's debut novel, expanded from a short story she wrote in college in reaction to the police shooting of Oscar Grant. The book is narrated by Starr Carter, a 16-year-old African-American girl from a poor neighborhood who attends an elite private school in a predominantly white, affluent part of the city. Starr becomes entangled in a national news story after she witnesses a white police officer shoot and kill her childhood friend, Khalil. She speaks up about the shooting in increasingly public ways, and social tensions culminate in a riot after a grand jury decides not to indict the police officer for the shooting.
The Hate U Give was published on February 28, 2017, by HarperCollins imprint Balzer + Bray, which had won a bidding war for the rights to the novel. The book was a commercial success, debuting at number one on The New York Times young adult best-seller list, where it remained for 50 weeks. It won several awards and received critical praise for Thomas's writing and timely subject matter. In writing the novel, Thomas attempted to expand readers' understanding of the Black Lives Matter movement as well as difficulties faced by black Americans who employ code switching. These themes, as well as the vulgar language, attracted some controversy and caused the book to be one of the most challenged books of 2017, 2018, and 2020 according to the American Library Association.
The book was adapted into a film by 20th Century Fox in October 2018, which received positive reviews. The novel was also adapted into an audiobook, which won several awards and earned praise for its narrator, Bahni Turpin.
## Development and publication
Shaken by the 2009 police shooting of Oscar Grant, then-college student Angie Thomas began the project as a short story for her senior project in Belhaven University's creative writing program. While writing the short story, the project quickly expanded, though Thomas put it aside for a few years after graduation. Speaking to her hometown newspaper, Thomas said, "I wanted to make sure I approached it not just in anger, but with love even." The deaths of Trayvon Martin, Michael Brown, Tamir Rice, and Sandra Bland drew Thomas back to expand the project into a novel, which she titled after Tupac's "THUG LIFE" concept: "The Hate U Give Little Infants Fucks Everybody." Events surrounding the killings of Alton Sterling, Philando Castile and Michael Brown, and widespread ensuing protests against racism and police brutality, also informed moments in the book.
Unsure whether publishers would be interested in the Black Lives Matter-inspired material, Thomas reached out to literary agent Brooks Sherman on Twitter in June 2015 to ask for advice. In February 2016, HarperCollins' imprint Balzer + Bray bought the rights to the novel in an auction, outbidding 13 other publishing houses, and signed a two-book deal with Thomas. 20th Century Fox optioned the film rights the following month.
The 464-page book was published on February 28, 2017, when the industry was attempting to address a decade-long stagnation in the number of children's books by African-American authors. Since its publication, Thomas has become an example of attempts by publishers to publish more young adult African-American novelists.
## Plot
Starr Carter is a 16-year-old black girl, who lives in the fictional and mostly poor black neighborhood of Garden Heights, but attends an affluent and predominantly white private school, Williamson Prep. After a shooting breaks up a party Starr is attending, she is driven home by her childhood best friend and sometimes crush Khalil. They are stopped by a white police officer, "One-Fifteen". One-Fifteen instructs Khalil, who is black, to exit the car; while outside the car, Khalil leans into the driver-side window to check in on Starr. One-Fifteen assumes he is grabbing a gun and shoots Khalil three times, killing him.
Starr agrees to an interview with police about the shooting after being encouraged by her Uncle Carlos, who is also a detective. Carlos was a father figure to Starr when her father, Maverick, spent three years in prison for gang activity. Following his release, Maverick left the gang and became the owner of the Garden Heights grocery store where Starr and her older half-brother Seven work. Maverick was only allowed to leave his gang, the King Lords, because he confessed to a crime to protect gang-leader King. Widely feared in the neighborhood, King now lives with Seven's mother, Seven's half-sister Kenya, who is friends with Starr, and Kenya's little sister, Lyric.
Khalil's death becomes a national news story. The media portrays Khalil as a gang banger and drug dealer, while portraying One-Fifteen more favorably. Starr's identity as the witness is initially kept secret from everyone outside Starr's family, including her younger brother Sekani. Keeping the secret from her white boyfriend Chris and her best friends Hailey Grant and Maya Yang – who all attend Williamson Prep – weighs on Starr, as does her need to keep her Williamson and Garden Heights personalities separate. Starr's struggles with her identity are further complicated after her mother gets a higher-paying job and the family moves out of Garden Heights.
After a grand jury fails to indict One-Fifteen, Garden Heights erupts into both peaceful protests and riots. The failure of the criminal justice system to hold One-Fifteen accountable pushes Starr to take an increasingly public role, first giving a television interview and then speaking out during the protests, which are met by police in riot gear. Her increasing identification with the people of Garden Heights causes tension with Starr's friends, especially with her boyfriend Chris as well as Hailey, who makes racist comments at Starr. But by the end of the novel, Starr and Maya have started standing up to Hailey's comments while Chris offers support to Starr.
The climax of the novel occurs during the riot following the grand jury decision. Starr, Chris, Seven, and DeVante – a teenager whom Maverick helped leave the King Lords – defend Maverick's store from King, though it does get burned down. The neighborhood stands up to King and as a result of testimony by DeVante, King is arrested and expected to be imprisoned for a lengthy sentence. Starr promises to keep Khalil's memory alive and to continue her advocacy against injustice as Garden Heights rebuilds.
## Style
Vincent Haddad of Central State University reads The Hate U Give as an attempt to build empathy with the Black Lives Matter movement, as "the appeals for empathy figured by Starr's first-person account ultimately serve to discipline those who seek solutions deemed too 'un-realistic' to oppose the 'sustained violence against Black communities'". By maintaining realism, and explicitly naming real-world victims of police brutality, Haddad contends that Thomas is able to spur action in her readers. However, he ultimately feels that there are limits to this approach because it is about the individual rather than the collective. By contrast, Vox's Constance Grady argues that this realism is what makes the novel ultimately work to larger purposes: "The specificity and whimsy of ideas like the anger scale of breakup songs is what keeps The Hate U Give moving so deftly through its heavy subject matter; it stays warm and focused and grounded in character even when it's dealing with big, amorphous ideas like systemic racism."
## Themes
Race relations are a core theme of the novel. Professor Khalil Muhammad of Harvard University's Kennedy School of Government sees the novel as a way to have discussions among people who might not otherwise discuss Black Lives Matter: "The book – and to some degree the movie – has been read and will be read by students in all-white spaces, where otherwise the urgency of these issues has not affected them personally." At the same time, it could offer solace for black teens who have faced similar challenges to Starr. An example of this is Starr's ability to code switch between her private school and home, which Thomas demonstrates through the slang that Starr uses in each context's dialogue. Also helping Starr is her family who offer a variety of points of view, including her Uncle's thoughts as a police officer and her father teaching Starr and her siblings about the Black Panther Party. The novel also shows Starr's parents' struggles with remaining connected to their community while needing to protect and give opportunity to their children.
The Hate U Give shows Starr's dual need to respond both to the trauma of witnessing Khalil's death and her need to do so politically. This dual need, combined with Thomas's ability to root these struggles in their historical context, helps give the book its power, according to Jonathan Alexander writing in the Los Angeles Review of Books. Los Angeles Times' critic Adriana Ramirez sees Starr as similar to the protagonists of fantasy dystopian novels like Divergent and The Hunger Games as she seeks to change an entrenched system of power, noting, "it is also a dystopian young adult novel that happens to be set in reality." Nick Smart, a professor at the College of New Rochelle, takes this further, stating, "In The Hate U Give, there's also a girl – who happens to be a black girl – being sent out against the system, against the world, against an entrenched opposition," while Ramirez notes that Starr's blackness is a core element for some readers. Before its publication, exploring a female perspective on the isolation and need to be a model minority at an elite private school was something which had not been conducted in literature or film with the same frequency as for males. Thomas's ability to capture these feelings stemmed from her own experiences with the reactions of her white classmates following the death of Oscar Grant.
Discussing the title, The Atlantic wrote, "Thomas’s book derives its title from the rapper Tupac Shakur’s philosophy of THUG LIFE—which purportedly stands for “The Hate U Give Little Infants Fucks Everybody”—and it’s a motif the novel returns to a few times. The acronym tattooed across Tupac’s abdomen could be read as an embrace of a dangerous lifestyle. But, as Khalil explains to Starr, just minutes before the cop pulls them over, it’s really an indictment of systemic inequality and hostility: “What society gives us as youth, it bites them in the ass when we wild out.”
The novel does not shy away from the realities of urban life, exemplified by the title's reference to the Tupac Shakur quote. Starr's feelings about Khalil evolve during the novel. The reader is first introduced to him at the party as a friend of Starr's and as a victim of a police shooting. This narrative is then complicated both for Starr and in the novel's world at large when it is learned that Khalil dealt drugs. However, Starr comes to disagree with the way the media is portraying Khalil. As Starr finds her own agency, she is able to challenge this narrative first for herself and then for others, recognizing that Khalil was forced into these circumstances by poverty, hunger, and a desire to care for his drug addict mother. She is able to show her courage speaking to the grand jury, and realizes that she needs to participate in the protests which follow its decision. How and where Khalil and Starr can find justice also drives Starr's decision to join in the protests.
## Reception
### Critical reviews
Critics also widely praised the book. In the Christian Science Monitor, Katie Ward Beim-Esche wrote, "Believe the hype: The Hate U Give, Angie Thomas's extraordinary and fearless debut, really is that good." Shannon Ozirny of The Globe and Mail also felt it would have wide appeal, "Ignore the YA label – this should be the one book everyone reads this year." On Salon, Erin Keane wrote that the novel is "topical, urgent, necessary, and if that weren't enough, it's also a highly entertaining and engaging read."
The book also earned starred reviews from multiple review journals. Kirkus praised both its writing and timelines: "With smooth but powerful prose ... This story is necessary. This story is important." Young adult literature expert Michael Cart, writing in Booklist, also praised Thomas's writing as Starr: "Beautifully written in Starr's authentic first-person voice, this is a marvel of verisimilitude." While praising the overall book in a starred review, School Library Journal's Mahnaz Dar criticized the writing of several characters as "slightly uneven." The Bulletin of the Center for Children's Books, Horn Book Magazine, and VOYA also gave the book their equivalents of starred reviews.
### Awards and honors
The Hate U Give debuted at the top of The New York Times young adult (YA) best-seller list, and was on it for more than 80 weeks. It is also an IndieBound best seller. The book had 100,000 copies in print in the first month, eventually selling more than 850,000 copies as of June 2018.
The Horn Book Magazine, Kirkus Reviews, Publishers Weekly, and Shelf Awareness, among others, named it one of the best young adult novels of 2017. Booklist named it one of the best books of the year regardless of genre. Booklist included the audiobook on their 2017 "Top 10 First Novels on Audio" and 2018 "Top 10 Diverse Novels on Audio" lists.
Both the book and audiobook editions are Junior Library Guild selections.
### Challenges
The American Library Association listed the book as one of the ten most-challenged books of 2017, 2018, and 2020 "because it was considered 'pervasively vulgar,'" contained "drug use, profanity, and offensive language," as well as sexual references, and "was thought to promote an anti-police message."
In July 2018, a South Carolina police union raised objections to the inclusion of the book, as well as the similarly themed All American Boys by Brendan Kiely and Jason Reynolds, in the summer reading list for ninth-grade students of Wando High School. A representative of the police lodge described the inclusion of the books as "almost indoctrination of distrust of police" and asserted that "we've got to put a stop to that." The books remained on the list and Wando's principal was later recognized by the state school library association for her defense of the challenged books.
The book was removed from the school libraries of the Katy Independent School District due to its explicit language. Thomas responded to these challenges by defending the book's message and saying that it is a spur for conversation. In December 2021, it was also removed from some Washington County School District libraries for explicit content.
## Adaptations
### Film
Fox 2000 optioned The Hate U Give for a film adaption in March 2017, shortly after the book's auction. Director George Tillman Jr. and actress Amandla Stenberg were immediately attached to the project. The movie also features Issa Rae, Regina Hall, Russell Hornsby, Algee Smith, KJ Apa, Lamar Johnson, Anthony Mackie, Common, and Sabrina Carpenter. The film is based on a screenplay by Audrey Wells, who died one day before it was released. Stenberg's casting received some criticism because of her lighter complexion as compared to the girl on the novel's cover. The movie was given a limited release on October 5, 2018, and a wide release on October 19, 2018. The film was favorably received, with a Rotten Tomatoes critics score of 8.2 out of 10, and an A+ CinemaScore. As of March 2019, the film had a worldwide box office gross of \$34 million against a budget of \$23 million.
### Audiobook
An audiobook was released by Harper Audio on the same day as the novel and featured narration by Bahni Turpin, whom Thomas had selected. Audiobook producer Caitlin Garing spoke of the importance of matching the material with the narrator and spoke of Turpin's skill, "you can trust her to get to the heart of a story and lead the listener there." It was well reviewed and won Audie Awards for best YA and best female narrator. In her acceptance speech, Turpin said it was "an important book for our time." It also won the 2018 Odyssey Award for best children's audiobook. Odyssey committee chair Joan Schroeder Kindig said, "Bahni Turpin's powerful narration of this timely novel will inspire listeners to find their own voices." Turpin downplayed the award saying, "I don't think the public is aware of most of our awards, though – in general, I think those who most appreciate the awards are ... the people in the business of books." Publishers Weekly, in its starred review of the audiobook, praised Turpin's abilities to convey "the complexity of the 16-year-old protagonist who sounds both youthful and mature for her age, as she relies on code-switching to navigate two different social settings." Maggie Knapp in her starred review for School Library Journal and Lynette Pitrak in her starred review for Booklist also praised Turpin's ability to capture Starr's voice in her performance.
|
45,159,097 |
William Pantulf
| 1,149,607,882 |
12th-century Anglo-Norman baron
|
[
"1110s deaths",
"12th-century English people",
"12th-century Normans",
"Anglo-Normans",
"Feudal barons of Wem",
"Norman warriors",
"People from Orne",
"Trials by combat"
] |
William Pantulf (died 16 April probably in 1112) was an Anglo-Norman nobleman and Baron of Wem. He was born in Hiémois, a county of Normandy, where his family had lived since around 1030. Pantulf held lands in Shropshire following the Norman Conquest of England. A vassal of Roger of Montgomery, the Earl of Shrewsbury, Pantulf was accused of murdering Roger's wife but proved his innocence of the charge by a trial by ordeal. When Roger's son Robert of Belleme rebelled against King Henry I of England, Pantulf did not take part and sided with the king. Upon his death, which most likely occurred in 1112, William's eldest son Philip inherited his Norman lands, and his second son Robert received the English lands.
## Background and family
Pantulf was from Normandy. His family had lived there since at least around 1030, as a charter of Jumièges Abbey shows the family as vassals of the House of Montgomery in the Montgomery lands near Sées. Pantulf's mother was named Beatrice, and his sister was named Helwise, but his father's name and other siblings are not known.
## After the Conquest
After the Norman Conquest of England, Pantulf held lands in Shropshire from Earl Roger de Montgomery. The earl settled a number of his Norman vassals, including Pantulf, on his new lands in Sussex and Shropshire. Pantulf was probably not present at the Battle of Hastings, likely due to Earl Roger's lack of participation in the campaign of conquest. Pantulf's grants totalled eleven manors located in Hodnet Hundred. Pantulf's lands in England were centered on Wem, and are considered a feudal barony, making Pantulf the first Baron of Wem. Although he had substantial lands in England, Pantulf continued to spend most of his time on the continent.
Pantulf was present at the consecration of the church at Bec Abbey on 23 October 1077, along with King William the Conqueror of England. Pantulf lost his lands temporarily because he was suspected of murdering Roger's wife Mabel de Bellême, around 1077. Pantulf came under suspicion because Mabel had seized a castle at Peray en Saonnais held by Pantulf. When he was accused of the murder, Pantulf was in southern Italy, which had also been conquered by Normans. Pantulf sought refuge at the Abbey of Saint-Evroul in Normandy while he was under suspicion; he and his family were under the protection of the abbot.
Pantulf regained his lands after he cleared himself of the charge, through the mechanism of a trial by ordeal. It is not clear why the ordeal was required, with the historian David Bates speculating that either the evidence of Pantulf's involvement was not conclusive or that murder victim's family demanded the ordeal because they suspected any evidence pointing to Pantulf's innocence. Pantulf gave Saint-Evroul four altar frontals for the abbey's help after he was cleared of the charges.
By 1086 Pantulf held 29 manors in Shropshire, along with other lands in Staffordshire and Warwickshire. When Roger's son Robert de Bellême became Earl of Shrewsbury in 1098, Pantulf was once more deprived of those lands he held as a vassal of the Earl.
## Role in rebellion
In 1102 Robert de Bellême rebelled against King Henry I of England. Although Pantulf was still deprived of his previous holdings, he offered to support Robert, but was rebuffed and instead supported the king. Henry placed Stafford Castle in Pantulf's custody. Besides controlling Stafford Castle, Pantulf mediated between Henry and some of the Welsh princes, who had previously sided with Robert, and helped secure their support for the king. Later Pantulf again acted as an envoy for the king, being sent to secure the switch of sides of Robert's men who were holding Bridgnorth. Pantulf won their change of sides by offering the men lands worth a 100 pounds on the king's behalf. His services to the king earned Pantulf the restoration of his confiscated estates as well as the grant of further lands—including the fief of Roger de Courcelles.
## Death and legacy
Pantulf married Lescelina and they had four sons – Philip, Ivo, Arnald and Robert. He and his wife founded Noron Priory, in 1073. This was located in Normandy and was founded as a small dependent priory of Saint Evroul. Besides Noron, Pantulf was also a benefactor of the Saint-Evroul. In 1092 Pantulf journeyed to southern Italy again, this time to secure a relic of Saint Nicholas for his foundation at Noron. During this visit, he was offered extensive lands in Apulia by Robert Guiscard, but declined the offer and returned to the north. Pantulf died on 16 April, probably in 1112, when his English lands were transferred to his second son Robert. The Norman lands went to the eldest son, Philip. Pantulf and his wife were buried at Noron in the cloister of his priory there.
Orderic Vitalis described Pantulf as "kind to the poor, to whom he was liberal in alms, he was firm in prosperity and adversity, put down all his enemies, and exercised great power through his wealth and possessions".
|
73,236,362 |
James Hayter (RAF officer)
| 1,169,438,827 |
New Zealander flying ace
|
[
"1917 births",
"2006 deaths",
"Burials at Wakapuaka Cemetery",
"New Zealand World War II flying aces",
"New Zealand World War II pilots",
"New Zealand people of World War II",
"People from Timaru",
"Recipients of the Air Force Cross (United Kingdom)",
"Royal Air Force officers",
"Royal Air Force squadron leaders",
"The Few"
] |
James Chilton Francis Hayter, (18 October 1917 – 3 October 2006) was a New Zealand flying ace of the Royal Air Force (RAF) during the Second World War. He was officially credited with at least five aerial victories.
Born in Timaru, Hayter joined the Royal New Zealand Air Force (RNZAF) in November 1938 and on completing his flight training was sent to the United Kingdom. In 1939 he transferred to the RAF and served with No. 103 Squadron during the Battle of France, flying Fairey Battle light bombers. He volunteered for Fighter Command and flew Hawker Hurricane fighters with No. 605 Squadron during the Battle of Britain and then on the Channel Front in early 1941. Later in the year he served as an instructor before joining No. 601 Squadron. Awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross (DFC) in October, he was dispatched to the Middle East in March 1942. There he served with No. 33 Squadron before being given command of No. 274 Squadron, which he led until September.
After a period on attachment to the Turkish Air Force as an instructor, Hayter returned to duty with the RAF when he took command of No. 74 Squadron in April 1943. It operated in the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea, including during the failed Dodecanese campaign. The squadron returned to the United Kingdom in April 1944 and served with the Second Tactical Air Force during the campaign in Northwest Europe. Hayter, having transferred to the RNZAF, relinquished command at the end of the year. He was repatriated to New Zealand in September 1945 and released from the RNZAF. In civilian life he took up farming and later became a mariner. He died at Takaka in 2006, at the age of 88.
## Early life
James Chilton Francis Hayter, the son of H. Hayter, a farmer, was born in Timaru, New Zealand, on 18 October 1917 and was educated at Nelson College. On completing his schooling, he commenced working on his father's farm, which was on D'Urville Island in the Marlborough Sounds. He subsequently worked as a roustabout on other farms and stations in the Marlborough region. In his spare time, he received tuition in flying at the Marlborough Aero Club and upon deciding to pursue a career in military aviation, joined the Royal New Zealand Air Force (RNZAF) on a short-service commission in 1938. His initial training, which commenced in November, was at No. 1 Flying Training School at Wigram. He gained his wings on 19 April 1939.
Hayter was involved in a crash when a Vickers Vildebeest light bomber, in which he was an observer, made a forced-landing at Wigram on 8 May. Uninjured, he was in another crash, flying again as an observer in a Vildebeest, the following month when the pilot flew too low over Lake Ellesmere and crashed, Hayter receiving minor injuries. His flight training was completed in June and the following month he left New Zealand, traveling on the SS Tamaroa, for the United Kingdom. He was to serve with the Royal Air Force (RAF) and was granted a short-service commission as a pilot officer with effect from 16 August 1939. Hayter was posted to No. 98 Squadron, which was based at Hucknall equipped with Fairey Battle light bombers. Following the outbreak of the Second World War, the squadron was used as a reinforcement unit, training and distributing pilots to serve with operational squadrons. Hayter had another crash, this time as the pilot, when he flew his Battle into an air-raid shelter.
## Second World War
In November 1939, Hayter was posted to No. 103 Squadron, one of ten Bomber Command squadrons sent to France as part of the Advanced Air Striking Force (AASF). Based at Plivot and operating Battles, the squadron mainly served in a reconnaissance role over the French–German border and also flew leaflet drops into Germany. On 10 May, Germany commenced its invasion of France and the Low Countries and two days later Hayter flew on his first bombing raid, against a pontoon bridge over the Meuse River. Despite the intervention of Messerschmitt Bf 110 heavy fighters, he was successful. A large mass raid mounted by the AASF on the afternoon of 14 May, directed at German forces near Sedan, saw many casualties among the attackers such that the Battles, slow with limited range and armament, were rarely used in significant numbers again. The next day, No. 103 Squadron abandoned its base and flew south to St Lucien Ferme near Rhèges.
The bomber squadrons in France continued to harry the German advance, attacking transport and advancing troops. On 12 June, Hayter and his air gunner engaged a Henschel Hs 126 reconnaissance aircraft over northern France. Despite the Hs 126 apparently crashing, Hayter did not claim it and it was subsequently confirmed as being destroyed by the French. While attempting to land at his airfield on 16 June, Hayter was shot down by a Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighter. Unharmed, he and the rest of the squadron were withdrawn to England just hours later as France was about to surrender. He subsequently volunteered to transfer to Fighter Command. Promoted to flying officer on 3 September, the next day he was transferred to No. 615 Squadron, a fighter squadron then resting at Prestwick in Scotland and training replacement pilots after being heavily engaged in the Battle of Britain. After two weeks, he was posted to No. 605 Squadron.
### Battle of Britain
No. 605 Squadron was stationed at Croydon, operating Hawker Hurricane fighters to intercept Luftwaffe raids against London. It regularly was on patrol over Kent and Surrey for the next weeks and on 15 October, Hayter damaged a Bf 109 over Canterbury. He met and damaged another Bf 109 while patrolling south of Mayfield on 26 October but immediately afterwards was shot down; having bailed out of his damaged aircraft, Hayter landed in the grounds of the home of Victor Cazalet, a member of parliament, who was hosting a party. Hayter was slightly wounded but a doctor present treated his injuries and he joined in the festivities while waiting for his fiancée, who lived nearby and he later married, to pick him up. The intensity of the Luftwaffe's operations was on the decline at this stage and the Battle of Britain ended a few days later. In November, the squadron began receiving new Hurricane Mk IIs and flying one of these, Hayter destroyed a Bf 109 to the south west of Canterbury on 1 December.
### Channel Front
In early 1941, Fighter Command went on to the offensive and No. 605 Squadron began to fly operations over France. Its first such operation was on 10 February, when it escorted Bristol Blenheim light bombers to Boulogne. Later in the month Hayter was appointed a flight commander and was promoted to acting flight lieutenant. At the end of the month, the squadron was rested and sent to Martlesham Heath for a month, before moving again, this to Tern Hill where it stayed until May. By this time Hayter had flown on 150 sorties and was posted to instructing duties at No. 52 Operational Training Unit at Debden. Although intended to be a rest, being an instructor still came with risk and in June, Hayter crashed twice in three days when his pupil, the same on both occasions, froze when landing a North American Harvard trainer.
Hayter was posted to No. 611 Squadron, which was operating Supermarine Spitfire fighters from Hornchurch, in July. His new unit regularly flew bomber escort missions and sweeps to France and on one of these, carried out on 10 July, Hayter shot down a Bf 109. His Spitfire was damaged by anti-aircraft fire later on in the flight and he had to crash land near Southend. Four days later, he destroyed another Bf 109 to the south of Boulogne and on 29 August shot down a Bf 109 over England. In early September his flight lieutenant rank was made substantive. He damaged a Bf 109 to the east of Mardyck on 17 September. The following month, he was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross (DFC), the announcement being made on 17 October in The London Gazette.
> Since June 1941, this officer has completed 48 operational flights over enemy territory and during the period has destroyed 4 and damaged a further 4 hostile aircraft. Flight Lieutenant Hayter participated in the fighting in France in 1940 and later fought in the Battle of Britain. He has displayed great skill and leadership and has contributed materially to the high standard of morale in his unit.
### Middle East
In November, No. 611 Squadron was rested, relocating to Drem for a quiet period of convoy patrols. Hayter, by this time having completed 76 sorties with the squadron, was transferred to the Middle East in March 1942. He was posted to No. 33 Squadron, based at Gambut in Libya and equipped with Hurricanes. The squadron was carrying out sweeps, bomber escort sorties and patrols over the front line. In June, Hayter was engaged by an Italian Macchi MC.202 and in the ensuing dogfight, his Hurricane was damaged. In endeavouring to make a crash landing, he found himself with the opportunity to fire his aircraft's machine-guns at his Italian opponent. As a result, the MC.202 had to crash land as well, with the Italian being made a prisoner of war.
The following month, Hayter was promoted to acting squadron leader and appointed commander of No. 274 Squadron, a squadron operating Hurricane fighter-bombers from Landing Ground 92. By this time, the Axis advance in Egypt had been halted and the Allied fighter squadrons were busy on ground attack and patrol sorties around El Alamein. On 10 July, Hayter's squadron was providing air cover for another unit and became involved in a dogfight with group of Italian fighters near El Adem and he claimed one MC.202 as probably destroyed. He shot down a Bf 109 over El Alamein on 18 July.
In September, No. 274 Squadron moved to Edku and was engaged in patrolling the Delta region and providing air cover for shipping. The following month, Hayter was seconded for special duties, with effect from 4 October and sent to Turkey. Here he acted as an instructor for Turkish pilots learning to operate the Hurricane and P-40 Kittyhawk fighters. His secondment ended on 6 March 1943 and he took command of No. 74 Squadron, based in Mehrabad, in Iran, as part of the Allied garrison defending the region from a possible German attack from the Caucasus.
Hayter's command moved to El Daba in May and patrolled the area around Alexandria without seeing much action. On 23 July, Hayter led a flight of the squadron as part of a large fighter sweep, involving over 100 aircraft, to German-occupied Crete. During this sortie, the first of its size mounted against the island, Hayter's flight attacked a number of ground targets and returned to their base without loss. No. 74 Squadron continued to be involved in the occasional offensive sweep in combination with its patrolling duties until the end of August, at which time it re-equipped with the Spitfire Mk Vc.
The following month, No. 74 Squadron participated in the Dodecanese campaign, an attempt to seize the Italian-controlled Dodecanese islands in the Aegean Sea. Hayter flew the squadron to operate from Antimachia airfield on Kos Island. On 3 October the Germans invaded Kos and by the afternoon had overrun the airfield. Abandoning their Spitfires, Hayter and a number of other pilots took to nearby hills. They evaded the pursuing Germans for four days before being rescued by personnel of the Special Boat Service who took them to Cyprus on a fishing boat. Hayter returned to Edku on 24 October but it was not until nearly the end of the year that No. 74 Squadron was complete again. He was mentioned in despatches on 14 January 1944 for his efforts to evade capture on Kos. Once it had been re-built, No. 74 Squadron resumed uneventful patrolling duties for the next three months, most of which was spent at Ekdu and Dekhelia.
### Return to Europe
In April 1944, No. 74 Squadron was dispatched to the United Kingdom and settled at North Weald, where it converted to the latest Spitfire Mk LF.IXe. It became operational the following month and was engaged in sweeps, patrols and bomber escort duties as part of the North Weald Wing. Hayter was again mentioned in despatches on 8 June, for "distinguished service". A few days afterwards his squadron commenced flying in Operation Diver, where it patrolled for V-1 flying bombs and sought out the sites from which the rockets were launched. On 1 July Hayter's rank of squadron leader was made substantive.
Later in July, No. 74 Squadron was transferred to the Second Tactical Air Force, flying bomber escort missions. It began operating from France, based at Sommervieu on 19 August and thereafter often worked in support of the advancing Allied armies, attacking ground targets but also still acting in an escort role for bombers. By this time his short service commission in the RAF had ended and he transferred to the RNZAF.
Hayter relinquished command of No. 74 Squadron at the end of December, by which time it was based at Antwerp and returned to the United Kingdom. Awarded a bar to his DFC in January 1945 for his services with the squadron, he took a course at the Fighter Leaders' School at the Central Fighter Establishment at Milfield and by June was preparing for a return to New Zealand. He eventually departed the United Kingdom in mid-August. Hayter ended the war having flown 535 sorties, during which he was credited with shooting down five aircraft, one probably destroyed and three damaged. There was also another aircraft destroyed which he did not claim.
## Later life
Arriving in New Zealand in late September 1945, Hayter was transferred to the Reserve of Officers at the end of the year. In civilian life, he took up farming but by the 1960s found the work increasingly difficult due to his war injuries. Following operations on his back and having sold his farm, he became a mariner. He worked on a survey ship in Australia, Singapore and South America and subsequently gained a master's certificate. He then worked in the shipping industry in the United States.
Returning to New Zealand in 1973, he again took up farming but four years later became the manager of a camping ground. In 1978 he was found guilty of cultivating cannabis on his property in Golden Bay, despite claiming his innocence. At his sentencing, he was fined \$500. He later worked in property development in Takaka in the Tasman District. He died on 3 October 2006 at Takaka and is buried at Wakapuaka Cemetery in Nelson.
|
3,103,765 |
Matango
| 1,168,457,979 |
1963 Japanese horror film
|
[
"1960s Japanese films",
"1960s Japanese-language films",
"1960s monster movies",
"1960s science fiction horror films",
"1963 films",
"1963 horror films",
"Fictional fungi",
"Films about vacationing",
"Films based on adaptations",
"Films based on short fiction",
"Films directed by Ishirō Honda",
"Films produced by Tomoyuki Tanaka",
"Films set on islands",
"Films set on ships",
"Japanese natural horror films",
"Japanese science fiction horror films",
"Toho tokusatsu films"
] |
Matango (マタンゴ) is a 1963 Japanese horror film directed by Ishirō Honda. The film stars Akira Kubo, Kumi Mizuno and Kenji Sahara. It is partially based on William Hope Hodgson's short story "The Voice in the Night" and is about a group of castaways on an island who are unwittingly altered by a local species of mutagenic mushrooms.
Matango was different from Honda's other films of the period as it explored darker themes and featured a more desolate look. Upon the film's release in Japan, it was nearly banned due to scenes that depicted characters resembling victims of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The film was released directly to television in the United States in a shortened form. Retrospective reviews generally commented on how the film varied from Honda's other work, with its darker tone.
## Plot
Quarantined in a Tokyo mental hospital, a psychology professor named Kenji Murai is visited by a group of doctors asking him about the events that led him there. Murai proceeds to explain how, despite only two of his party being dead, he was the only one to be rescued. He then relates the story of his band of day trippers on a yacht: Murai, wealthy industrialist Masafumi Kasai (the owner of the yacht), salaryman skipper Naoyuki Sakuda, his shipmate assistant Senzō Koyama, celebrity writer Etsurō Yoshida, professional singer Mami Sekiguchi, and student Akiko Sōma. A sudden storm causes the yacht to nearly capsize. Though the boat remains upright, it sustains severe damage during the storm and drifts uncontrollably. The group arrive at a seemingly deserted island and begin to explore. They come across ponds full of fresh rainwater and a forest populated by unusually-large mushrooms.
As they cross the island, they come upon a wrecked ship on the shore whose sails are rotted and its interior is covered with a mysterious mold. Murai, after reading the ship's log, warns them not to eat the mushrooms because they might be poisonous since the former crew had hallucinations after eating them. Finding that the mold is killed by cleaning products, they work to clear it from the ship. In doing so, they begin to suspect that the ship was connected to nuclear tests conducted in the vicinity of the island, with the resultant fallout forcing a bizarre mutation on various organisms native to the surrounding area, including the mushrooms. As the days pass, the group grows restless as their supply of food stores starts to run low. Kasai refuses to help find a way off the island and insists on living in the captain's quarters alone. One night, as Kasai is raiding the food stores, he is attacked by a grotesque-looking man who promptly disappears after encountering the group.
A drunk Yoshida decides to try eating the mushrooms for their hallucinogenic properties. After scuffling with Koyama over Mami, Yoshida pulls a gun and declares his intent to have his way with the women after murdering the others (accepting that if the mushrooms do turn him into a monster, then there will be no consequences for his actions). Subdued by the others, Yoshida is locked in the captain's quarters, ironically ousting Kasai. Kasai tries to convince Naoyuki to abscond together with the food and repaired yacht. Naoyuki violently rebukes this notion, but an unstated amount of time later hogties Kasai and flees with all the gathered food (including Koyama's secret stash that they had been hoarding to extort money from Kasai). Faced with this dire prospect, Mami frees Yoshida and they attempt to take over the ship, shooting and killing Senzō in the process. Murai and Kasai manage to take the gun from Yoshida and force the two off the ship. Some time later, Kasai is confronted by Mami, who entices him to follow her into the forest and eat the mushrooms. Perpetual rainfall has caused wild fungal growth, and Kasai realizes that those who have been eating the mushrooms have turned into humanoid mushroom creatures themselves. The mushrooms are delicious and cannot be resisted after the first bite. Kasai eats the mushrooms, hallucinates scenes of Tokyo nightlife, and falls to his knees amongst the creatures.
Murai finds the yacht adrift and swims out towards it. He finds a note left behind by Naoyuki listing the names of those on the island as dead and how, having now run out of food and energy, he has decided to jump into the sea. Murai draws a large X over the note. Others who have turned into mushroom creatures attack Akiko and Murai. They are separated and Akiko is kidnapped. As Murai tracks her down, he discovers that she has been fed mushrooms and is under their influence along with Mami, Yoshida, and Kasai. Murai attempts to rescue Akiko, but he is overwhelmed by the mushroom creatures and flees without her, making his way onto the yacht and escaping the island. Several days pass later, Murai is finally rescued. As he waits in the hospital, he begins to wonder if he should have stayed with Akiko on the island. His face is revealed to show signs of being infected with fungal growths. Murai states after that it did not matter whether he stayed or not, but he would have been happier there with Akiko. The screen fades as Murai notes that humans are not much different from the mushroom creatures.
## Cast
## Production
### Writing
The film was based on a story in S-F Magazine which Masami Fukushima was an editor of. A treatment was written on the film by Shinichi Hoshi and Fukushima which was then made into a screenplay by Takeshi Kimura. The story itself was based on William Hope Hodgson's short story "The Voice in the Night", which originally appeared in the November 1907 issue of Blue Book.
The script was relatively faithful to Hodgson's story, but added a number of extra characters. Honda was also inspired by a news story about a group of rich kids who took their father's yacht far into the sea and had to be rescued. Early drafts featured characters paralleling their real-life counterparts, as well as reports of ships and aircraft vanishing in the Bermuda Triangle.
### Filming
Director Ishirō Honda was better known for his kaiju (giant monster) films, but occasionally developed horror films such as The H-Man (1958) and The Human Vapor (1960), where characters become bizarre transformed beings. Honda's last film in this style was Matango. Critic Bill Cooke noted in Video Watchdog that Matango defies easy categorization as a film belonging to either the kaiju (monster) or kaidan (ghost) genres of the era. In his book Japanese Science Fiction, Fantasy, and Horror Films, Stuart Galbraith IV described it as a psychological horror film that "contains science fiction elements".
In their book Ishiro Honda: A Life in Film, from Godzilla to Kurosawa, Steve Ryfle and Ed Godziszewski stated that both thematically and visually, Matango was "uniquely dark" among Honda's films and was a radical departure from his brightly lit and lighthearted films Mothra and King Kong vs. Godzilla. Art director Shiegkazu Ikuno designed the stark look of the film. Ikuno was the apprentice of the production designer of Godzilla, Satoru Cuko. Assistant director Koji Kajita described Ikuno as being known for set designs that were "vanguard, experimental sets". Tomoyuki Tanaka produced the film, with music by Sadao Bekku and cinematography by Hajime Koizumi.
According to Yoshio Tsuchiya, Honda took the project seriously, telling actors before production that the film was "a serious drama picture, so please keep this in mind and work accordingly". Tsuchiya also explained that in addition to the official ending of the film, a different ending was shot where Kubo's face was normal.
### Special effects
Matango was Honda's first film to use the Oxberry optical printer, which Toho purchased from the United States to allow for better image compositing. The printer allowed the ability to superimpose up to five composite shots, allowing the crew to avoid costly hand-painted mattes and glass shots.
## Release
Toho released the film in Japan on August 11, 1963. Honda described it later as a film that was not "a typical Japanese mainstream movie at all", saying, "When critics saw it, [they] didn't like it, so that was pretty much the end of that film". Matango was nearly banned in Japan because some of the makeup resembled the facial disfigurements characteristic of the victims of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
Matango was Honda's first science fiction film not to receive a theatrical release in the United States. There, American International Television released it directly to television in 1965 as Attack of the Mushroom People. This version of the film had a run-time of 88 minutes. Toho produced an English-dubbed version of the film, but it is uncertain when it was officially released.
Prior to Matango's release on home video, Galbraith noted that the film was shown frequently on American television during the 1960s and 1970s, but as of 1994, it "ha[d] all but disappeared". Ryfle and Godziszewski stated that Matango was considered an obscure film for many years after its release.
The film was released on home video in the United Kingdom in the 1980s under the title Fungus of Terror. Media Blasters issued Matango on DVD in the United States on March 15, 2005. It featured a generous selection of extras, including commentary by the film's male lead, Kubo, production sketches, an interview with special effects team member Teruyoshi Nakano, and other features. Tim Lucas of Sight & Sound described Tokyo Shock's release of the film as "a revelation to those of us who grew up watching pan-and-scanned, re-edited bastardisations of these films on television". Lucas also noted that "Matango looks splendid on Tokyo Shock's disc, its anamorphic transfer retaining the naturalistic colour of the earlier Toho Video laserdisc release with brighter contrast and a slightly more generous (2.53:1) screen width". He felt that "the English subtitles access adult dimensions of the story that were never apparent in the old television prints". Toho released the film on Blu-ray in Japan on November 3, 2017.
## Reception
In a contemporary review, the Monthly Film Bulletin assessed an 89-minute English dub of the film. The review noted that the film was "not one of the best of Toho's special effect exercises though the mushroom people are quite fanciful and the mushrooms come in all shapes, sizes and colours", and that most scenes were "disappointingly dull" as "the whole thing sags miserably in the middle when characters get down to bickering among themselves".
Matango has been described as a "virtually unknown film", except to "aficionados of Asian cult cinema, fans of weird literature, and sleepless consumers of late-night television programming". The film has received relatively little scholarly attention. Galbraith described Matango as one of Toho's "most atypical and interesting films". He noted that the film was not as strong as its source story, and that the creatures in their final form were "rubbery and unconvincing", but that the film was "one of the most atmospheric horror films to ever come out of Japan". In his book Monsters Are Attacking Tokyo!, Galbraith later compared the English version with the Japanese original, giving the versions 2.5 and 3.5 stars, respectively. In another retrospective review, Lucas stated that the film was the best of Honda's non-kaiju themed horror films, and that it was a "well-crafted picture that parallels 1956's Invasion of the Body Snatchers". Cooke described the film as "a classic from Japan's early-Sixties horror boom" and as "some of the finest work of Ishiro Honda". He also opined that the film was one of Toho's "most colorful science-fiction productions" with a "rich and varied palette". In Leonard Maltin's film guide, the film received 2.5 out of 4 stars, with Maltin writing, "Initially slow-paced [it] grows into a disturbing, peculiarly intimate kind of horror, unusual for director Honda".
### Aftermath and influence
Honda reflected on Matango decades afters its initial release, stating that it was a comment on the "'Rebel era" in which people were becoming addicted to drugs. Once you get addicted, it's a hopeless situation". He added that "no matter how good friends people are, even if they're the very best of friends, under certain conditions things can get very ugly". Actor Kubo declared that of the few monster or outer space-themed films which he acted in, Matango was his favorite. Director Steven Soderbergh stated he had wanted to make a remake of Matango, describing it as a film that he watched as a child that "scared the shit out of me". Soderbergh said he was unable to reach a deal with Toho, so the remake did not happen.
In his book analyzing the kaiju film, Jason Barr noted that Matango was the most famous of films of the genre between the 1960s and 1970s that focused on themes of metamorphosis and assault on human bodies. In the book Monsters and Monstrosity from the Fin de Siecle to the Millennium: New Essays, Camara stated that Matango would leave an imprint on Japanese cyberpunk influenced body horror films of the future such as Sogo Ishii's Electric Dragon 80.000 V, Shozin Fukui's Pinocchio 964 and Yoshihiro Nishimura's Tokyo Gore Police.
## See also
- List of horror films of 1963
- List of Japanese films of 1963
- The Last of Us – a 2013 video game featuring creatures infected by a mutated fungus
- Cordyceps – a genus of fungi often parasitic on insects and other arthropods
|
71,578,674 |
Franklin Flores
| 1,161,043,462 |
Bolivian politician (born 1979)
|
[
"1979 births",
"21st-century Bolivian politicians",
"Aymara politicians",
"Bolivian municipal councillors",
"Bolivian people of Aymara descent",
"Bolivian politicians of indigenous peoples descent",
"Bolivian trade unionists",
"Higher University of San Andrés alumni",
"Living people",
"Luis Arce administration personnel",
"Members of the Bolivian Chamber of Deputies from La Paz",
"Movimiento al Socialismo politicians",
"People from Aroma Province"
] |
Franklin Richar Flores Córdova (born 8 July 1979) is a Bolivian politician, trade unionist, and former student leader serving as general manager of the Food Production Support Enterprise since 2021. A member of the Movement for Socialism, he previously served as a member of the Chamber of Deputies from La Paz, representing circumscription 18 from 2015 to 2020. Before that, he served as a Sica Sica municipal councillor from 2010 to 2014, during which time he held office as the body's president. In 2021, Flores was his party's candidate for governor of La Paz, placing second in that year's gubernatorial election.
## Early life and career
An ethnic Aymara, Franklin Flores was born on 8 July 1979 in the Sica Sica Municipality of La Paz. He completed primary studies at a small rural school in the Aisacollo community, graduating high school in Konani before moving to La Paz in 1997, where he attended the city's American Institute. Flores studied law at the Higher University of San Andrés (UMSA), though it is unclear whether he completed his degree. During his time at the university, Flores rose through the ranks of students' union leadership, serving as executive secretary of the UMSA Faculty of Law Student Center. Returning to Sica Sica, he became active in various trade union organizations in and around the Aroma Province.
Flores's union activity led him to join the ranks of the ruling Movement for Socialism (MAS-IPSP), a party with which he sought his first elective position. In the 2010 municipal elections, Flores headed the MAS's electoral list of councillors in the Sica Sica Municipality, winning the seat for the party. Throughout his term, Flores served as president of the Sica Sica Municipal Council, attaining the support of the legislature's MAS majority to hold the post five consecutive times between 2010 and 2014.
## Chamber of Deputies
### Election
Nearing the end of his term, Flores resigned from office to run for a seat in the Chamber of Deputies. The MAS postulated him in the rural circumscription 18, a constituency encompassing the Aroma, Loayza, and Villarroel provinces, as well as segments of Murillo Province. During the campaign, Flores was involved in a minor scandal after the municipal vehicle he was driving collided at high speeds with a white minibus, leaving four injured, including himself. Following the accident, Flores allegedly abandoned the van, leaving his unlicensed nephew as the driver. Despite the incident, Flores went on to win the election with 84.60 percent of the vote. The landslide victory, according to sociologist Salvador Romero, owed to the MAS's overwhelmingly hegemonic position in the rural highlands, where "parliamentary campaigns are symbolic" and victory is assured "regardless of the candidates nominated".
### Tenure
During his tenure in the Chamber of Deputies, Flores established himself as a close ally of President Evo Morales, the ruling party's top leader. When Morales controversially presented his resignation in 2019, Flores led the bloc of Morales loyalists that sought to reject its approval in the Legislative Assembly. Amid shouts and protests, Flores attempted to present a motion of prior consideration in a bid to stall a vote on the topic. However, he failed to gain the legally necessary support of five other legislators to pass the motion. Morales's resignation was formally approved on 21 January 2020—two months after he had already left office—by a majority of those present, including a majority of the MAS caucus. Arguments between opposing MAS legislators continued after the session, with Flores accusing Senator Omar Aguilar of manipulating the vote count.
#### Commission assignments
- Plural Justice, Prosecutor's Office, and Legal Defense of the State Commission
- Ordinary Jurisdiction and Magistracy Council Committee (–)
- Constitution, Legislation, and Electoral System Commission
- Constitutional Development and Legislation Committee (–)
- Government, Defense, and Armed Forces Commission (President: –)
- Plural Economy, Production, and Industry Commission (President: –)
- Education and Health Commission (President: –)
## La Paz gubernatorial campaign
Shortly after the conclusion of his term in the Legislative Assembly, Flores profiled himself as a contender for the La Paz governorship. In early November, several agrarian workers' unions in Flores's home province of Aroma proclaimed him as their pre-candidate for the MAS's nomination, a position officialized thanks to the support of the Túpac Katari Peasant Federation. From then on, Flores quickly established himself as the favorite to win the internal primary, facing only one other pre-candidate, Beimar Calep Mamani, the outgoing mayor of Palos Blancos. His position as the MAS's gubernatorial nominee was made official on 27 December, with Morales stating that he had been chosen "almost by consensus". This claim faced pushback by sectors supporting Mamani, leading Página Siete to later describe Flores as having been "chosen by Evo", an allegation he denied, pointing out that over 2,000 local communities had backed him before he won Morales's endorsement.
Throughout the campaign season, Flores enjoyed a slight lead in opinion polling, a fact aided by the death of Felipe Quispe—the original frontrunner—midway through the race. By election night, exit polling conducted by Ciesmori and Focaliza indicated that Flores had attained nearly forty percent of the vote, an over ten-point lead above his closest competitor. The margin was substantial enough for Red UNO to call the race for Flores, believing that with the remaining votes, he would be able to circumvent a runoff. With that, Flores declared victory. However, as the race narrowed, the final count ultimately gave him 39.7 percent of the vote, leaving him just three tenths of a percent shy of winning the governorship outright.
With the second round underway, Flores focused his efforts on solidifying his support in the provinces, enlisting the help of the MAS's newly elected mayors to serve as his campaign managers in their respective municipalities. According to analysts, Flores's main challenge was surviving the vote in the capital, where a majority of the electorate had not voted for either of the top two contenders. For columnist José Luis Quiroga, Flores's chances of winning relied on whether or not voters in the city of La Paz switched their support to his challenger, Santos Quispe, or opted instead to sit out the runoff. Ultimately, a majority of votes broke for Quispe, who defeated Flores by a margin of 55.23 percent to Flores's 44.77.
## Food Production Support Enterprise
Just over a month after his gubernatorial defeat, Flores was appointed to serve as general manager of the state-owned Food Production Support Enterprise (EMAPA). Flores's designation faced pushback from agricultural producers, who criticized his lack of experience in the sector. Speaking to Bloomberg Línea, Luis Fernando Chávez stated that "EMAPA should be managed by a food engineer, by an agronomist, by some experienced agricultural leader, but not by a politician who has never known ... [how to] guarantee food production". Chávez considered Flores's designation to have been the product of political favoritism.
A year into his term, Flores's administration faced protests from producers in Santa Cruz's Integrated North region, who denounced that EMAPA was illegally transporting and storing transgenic corn. Save for soybeans, the use of genetically modified seeds is strictly prohibited by Bolivian law, a regulation producers in the region had for years requested be repealed so as to increase crop yields and ward off pests. The government, however, had historically refused, considering transgenics unsuitable for human consumption and harmful to the environment. As such, when complaints arose that EMAPA had been transporting and storing genetically modified corn, local producers protested the lack of equal enforcement of the law. "Here, if someone dares to produce transgenic corn, they threaten us with prosecutors and with taking our land, but for those over there on the border, there is no control", complained Eliazer Arellano, leader of the North Group Producers Association.
In July, disgruntled producers blockaded the highway connecting Montero to San Pedro, where access to EMAPA's storage silos was also blocked off. There, local farmers carried out tests on corn samples taken from ten different transport vehicles, alleging that they had all come out positive as transgenic. On the fifteenth, Flores and other ruling party officials met with Arellano and representatives of the National Association of Oilseed Producers to negotiate an agreement. The five-point deal saw producers end their blockades while EMAPA pledged to take action against the illegal importation of transgenic seeds, among other concessions. However, the agreement fell through within the day, with Arellano accusing Flores of having "escaped" along with the transport trucks, contravening EMAPA's promise to allow producers to carry out a final sampling of the questioned corn. Five days later, Flores announced that EMAPA had completed its own examination, assuring that all observed produce had tested negative for transgenics. Arellano, in turn, accused Flores of being an "incapable manager" and demanded his resignation.
## Electoral history
|
29,675,418 |
Nasr ibn Sayyar
| 1,171,601,980 |
General and last Umayyad governor of Khurasan
|
[
"660s births",
"748 deaths",
"7th-century Arab people",
"8th-century Arab people",
"Arab generals",
"Generals of the Umayyad Caliphate",
"Kinana",
"Muslim conquest of Transoxiana",
"People of the Abbasid Revolution",
"Umayyad governors of Khurasan"
] |
Naṣr ibn Sayyār al-Lāythi al-Kināni (Arabic: نصر بن سيار الليثي الكناني; 663 – 9 December 748) was an Arab general and the last Umayyad governor of Khurasan in 738–748. Nasr played a distinguished role in the wars against the Turgesh, although he failed to decisively confront the rebellion of al-Harith ibn Surayj in its early stages. Although respected as a soldier and a statesman, he owed his appointment as governor more to his obscure tribal background, which rendered him dependent on the caliph. His tenure was nevertheless successful, as Nasr introduced long-overdue tax reforms that alleviated social tension and largely restored and stabilized Umayyad control in Transoxiana, which had been greatly reduced under the Turgesh onslaught. His last years were occupied by inter-tribal rivalries and uprisings, however, as the Umayyad Caliphate itself descended into a period of civil war. In 746 Nasr was driven from his capital by Ibn Surayj and Juday al-Kirmani, but returned after the latter fell out among themselves, resulting in Ibn Surayj's death. Preoccupied with this conflict, Nasr was unable to stop the outbreak and spread of the Abbasid Revolution, whose leader, Abu Muslim, exploited the situation to his advantage. Evicted from his province in early 748, he fled to Persia pursued by the Abbasid forces, where he died on 9 December 748.
## Early life and career
Nasr was a military leader with long service and experience in Khurasan. As early as 705 he participated in a campaign along the upper Oxus River, led by Salih, the brother of Qutayba ibn Muslim, the general who had been tasked with subduing Transoxiana. For his service during this campaign, Nasr was awarded an entire village in this region. Despite the successes of Qutayba, much of Central Asia east of the Oxus remained outside effective Arab control; while garrisons had been established in places like Samarkand, Balkh, or Bukhara, the Umayyad Caliphate largely relied on cliental relationships with the multitude of local rulers, who became tributary to the Umayyads. In addition, clashes with the Chinese-backed Türgesh, the ambiguous policy followed regarding conversion of the native population (mass conversions would lessen the taxable population and hence the amount of tribute received) and increasing inter-Arab tribal factionalism weakened Umayyad control over the region and necessitated increased military activity.
In 724, Nasr is recorded as heading a Mudari army sent against Balkh, where restive Yemenite troops refused to participate in the expedition against Ferghana that resulted in the disastrous 'Day of Thirst'. His troops, reinforced by men from the subject Hephthalite principality of Chaghaniyan, clashed with the Yemenis at Baruqan and prevailed over them. This led to resentment towards his person among the Yemenis, especially from those around Balkh; and during the governorship of the Yemeni Asad ibn Abdallah al-Qasri, along with other Mudari leaders, Nasr fell into disfavour and was mistreated.
Nasr was one of the few Muslim leaders to distinguish himself in the disastrous Battle of the Defile in July 731. In 734 he was appointed as governor of Balkh, after arresting the previous governor. There he faced the rebellion of the local Khurasani troops under al-Harith ibn Surayj, who called for reforms in taxation and the ending of discrimination towards the native converts (mawali). Ibn Surayj marched on Balkh and took the city with only 4,000 followers, even though Nasr commanded 10,000 men. It is unclear from the sources whether the town was seized from Nasr, or whether it was captured in his absence and then successfully held against him. In any case, Nasr and his army remained passive for the remainder of the revolt; they did not aid the provincial capital, Merv, when the rebels attacked it, and this stance encouraged several local tribes to join the uprising. Eventually however the rebels were defeated by Juday al-Kirmani, with Ibn Surayj fleeing across the Oxus to the Türgesh.
## Appointment as governor of Khurasan
In July 738, at the age of 74, Nasr was appointed as governor of Khurasan. Despite his age, he was widely respected both for his military record, his knowledge of the affairs of Khurasan and his abilities as a statesman. Julius Wellhausen wrote of him that "His age did not affect the freshness of his mind, as is testified not only by his deeds, but also by the verses in which he gave expression to his feelings till the very end of his life". However, in the climate of the times, his nomination owed more to his appropriate tribal affiliation than his personal qualities.
From the early days of the Muslim conquests, Arab armies were divided into regiments drawn from individual tribes or tribal confederations (butun or ʿashaʿir). Despite the fact that many of these groupings were recent creations, created for reasons of military efficiency rather than any common ancestry, they soon developed a strong and distinct identity. Eventually, and certainly by the beginning of the Umayyad period, this system progressed to the formation of ever-larger super-groupings, culminating in the two super-groups: the northern Arab Mudaris or Qaysis, and the southern Arabs or 'Yemenis' (Yaman), dominated by the Azd and Rabi'ah tribes. By the 8th century, this division had become firmly established across the Caliphate and was a source of constant internal instability, as the two groups formed in essence two rival political parties, jockeying for power and separated by a fierce hatred for each other. During the reign of Caliph Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik (r. 724–743), the Umayyad government appointed Mudaris as governors in Khurasan, except for Asad ibn Abdallah al-Qasri's tenure in 735–738. Nasr's appointment came four months after Asad's death. In the interim, the sources report variously that the province was run either by the Syrian general Ja'far ibn Hanzala al-Bahrani or by Asad's lieutenant Juday al-Kirmani. At any rate, the sources agree that al-Kirmani stood at the time as the most prominent man in Khurasan and should have been the clear choice for governor. His Yemeni roots (he was the leader of the Azd in Khurasan), however, made him unpalatable to the caliph.
Nasr on the other hand, in addition to his other qualities, was a Mudari and married to a Tamimi wife. He would therefore be acceptable to the numerous Mudari element of the Khurasani army, which outnumbered the Yemenis, but could also, as a local, help to reduce the Khurasani Arabs' discontent towards the Syria-centric Umayyad government. Nasr's own relatively obscure tribal background—from a non-noble family of the Layth tribe from Kinanah—also suited the caliph's purposes, as it meant that he lacked any local power base of his own. Indeed, Nasr's rule throughout his tenure was not fully accepted by many Arab tribesmen: aside from the Yemenis, who favoured their own candidate al-Kirmani and resented the shift in power back towards the Mudaris, the Qays around Nishapur refused to support him, and even the Syrian contingent sided with his opponents. Nasr was hence mostly reliant on the support of his wife's powerful Tamim tribe, living around Marv. As long as he was supported by a strong central government in Damascus, Nasr was able to keep his internal enemies in check, but in the troubles that followed Hisham's death in 743, that support vanished. In the event, Nasr would succeed in retaining his office for a decade, despite the turmoil that swept the Caliphate after 743. When Yazid III came to power in early 744, he initially ordered Nasr replaced. Nasr refused to accept this, and held on to the post, being eventually confirmed to it a few months later. After Marwan II's rise to power in December 744, he likewise affirmed Nasr's position.
## Reforms and campaigns
Nasr gave his province an unprecedented period of good government, stability and prosperity, so that, in the words of the 9th-century historian al-Mada'ini, "Khurasan was built up as it had never been before". His major achievements during his tenure were the reform of the tax system and the restoration of Umayyad control over Transoxiana.
The Khurasani tax system had been established at the time of the Muslim conquest and remained unchanged since. It relied on the collection of a fixed tribute by the local non-Muslim (mostly Zoroastrian) gentry, the dihqans, who often discriminated against the Muslim settlers and the native converts. This contributed to the latter's increasing resentment of Umayyad rule, and the demand for a tax reform had fuelled past revolts like that of Ibn Surayj. Consequently, Nasr streamlined the tax system in 739, implementing a blanket imposition (the kharaj) on all owners of agricultural land and forcing the non-Muslims to pay an additional poll tax (the jizyah). In this way, the chroniclers report, 30,000 Muslims were absolved of the jizyah, and 80,000 non-Muslims were forced to pay it instead. Attention was also paid to the accurate collection of the kharaj in accordance with treaties with the local rulers, as a result of which the tax burden was generally eased. This reform is traditionally held to have assisted in regaining the loyalty of the local populations and their princes, who returned quickly to the Arab fold. Other modern scholars however consider the effect of this belated reform on the prevailing anti-Umayyad climate as minimal. Upon his appointment, Nasr also moved the provincial capital back to Merv from Balkh, where Asad had established it. Additionally, for the first time in the province's history he appointed sub-governors. They were drawn from among his allies and supporters in order to reward them and to improve his own control of the province.
Taking advantage of the disintegration of the Türgesh khaganate after the murder of the khagan Suluk, Nasr moved aggressively across the Oxus. His first campaign, immediately after his appointment, was in the area of Chaghaniyan; his second campaign, in 740, recovered much territory in Sogdia, including Samarkand, with little apparent resistance. Aiming to recover all the lands previously held under Qutayba ibn Muslim and to curtail the activities of the renegade Ibn Surayj, who was based there, Nasr then launched an expedition targeting al-Shash (Tashkent). The principality of Usrushana submitted peacefully, but when the Muslim army reached the Jaxartes, it was confronted by a 15,000-strong force from Shash along with Ibn Surayj's men and some Türgesh; according to Arab tradition, the latter were led by Suluk's murderer and successor, Kursul. According to the Arab sources, Nasr was able to drive off the Türgesh and scored a victory against one of their detachments, killing its chief. He apparently failed to subdue al-Shash, for he was forced to content himself with an agreement with the ruler of Shash, whereby Ibn Surayj was evicted to Farab, where the latter was left unmolested to continue his opposition to the Umayyads. Nasr also launched two expeditions against Ferghana, which plundered and ravaged the countryside and took many captives. It seems, however, that the Muslim reconquest at this time did not extend much further than Samarkand, with occasional tribute being possibly levied from the remoter principalities.
Outwardly at least, by 743 the Umayyad position in Khurasan appeared stronger than ever. The reality beneath the splendid façade however was different. Tension and mutual mistrust existed between the Khurasani Arab levies (muqatila) and the 20,000 Syrian troops introduced into the province as a security measure after the disastrous Battle of the Defile in 731, while tribal antagonisms continued to create trouble: apart from continued Yemeni resentment at Nasr, there was strong dislike of the Umayyads' Syrian regime, fanned by their unjust tax policies. Although Nasr tried to remedy the situation, it was too late.
In addition, Khurasan was a major center of early Shiism, and specifically of the Kaysanite sect of the Hashimiyya, which had gained wide acceptance in the province, especially among the mawali. In 742–743, Nasr confronted and defeated a revolt led by Yahya, son of Zayd ibn Ali and the leader of the Hashimiyya in Khurasan. Yahya was captured and executed, and the resulting vacuum in Hashimi leadership opened the path for the Khurasani branch of the movement to come under the control of the Abbasid family. It is however, a testament to the "respect and even affection" (Gibb) with which Nasr was regarded by the native population in Transoxiana, that in contrast to Khurasan, no native city there welcomed the Hashimi missionaries, and that they remained loyal to him even during the later Abbasid Revolution.
## Civil wars and the Abbasid Revolution
In 743, after the death of Caliph Hisham, his successor, Walid II, reconfirmed Nasr in his post. The influential governor of Iraq, Yusuf ibn Umar al-Thaqafi, an opponent of Nasr, tried to lure him away from his province by calling him to Iraq. Nasr delayed his departure, stalling for time, and was saved by the murder of Walid in April 744. Walid's successor, Yazid III, moved to install a regime dominated by the Yemeni Kalb tribe. Nasr's position was severely undermined, and the Yemeni faction now hoped to see their leader, Juday al-Kirmani, appointed governor in his stead. Indeed, Yazid appointed his favourite, the Kalbi Mansur ibn Jumhur, as governor of Iraq, and he in turn nominated his own brother as Nasr's replacement. Nasr refused to accept this, and was again fortunate in his persistence, for Mansur fell out of favour and was dismissed after only two months. Agitation among the Yemeni faction persisted, amidst rumours that Nasr had intercepted letters appointing al-Kirmani as governor, and a dispute on the payment of stipends to the muqatila. Nasr tried to secure his own position by deposing al-Kirmani from his leadership of the Azd, as well as by trying to win over Azd and Rabi'ah leaders. This led to a general uprising by the Azd and Rabi'ah under al-Kirmani. It is indicative of the lingering inter-tribal antagonism of the late Umayyad world that the rebellion was launched in the name of revenge for the Muhallabids, an Azd family that had been purged after rebelling in 720—an act which had since become a symbol of Yemeni resentment of the Umayyads and their northern Arab-dominated regime.
On 13 July 744, Nasr captured and imprisoned al-Kirmani. After barely a month, the latter escaped, and his rebellion was joined not only by Azd soldiers, but also by many of the Arab settlers around Marv. A tentative truce was initially agreed upon, during which fruitless negotiations were conducted, but after Yazid reconfirmed Nasr in his post, al-Kirmani and the Yemenis—in reality, al-Kirmani's followers included other tribes as well, including most of the Syrians and even some Mudaris, but they were collectively called Yamaniyya in the sources—resumed their revolt. Nasr in turn tried to strengthen his own position by enlisting the services of al-Harith ibn Surayj, al-Kirmani's one-time adversary, who enjoyed considerable support among some Arab tribes and especially his fellow Tamimis. When Ibn Surayj arrived at Merv in July 745 he was enthusiastically received by the town's inhabitants. Scorning Nasr's proposals for cooperation, Ibn Surayj soon withdrew to the countryside and rose in rebellion as well. Ibn Surayj was also able to exploit the unpopularity of Marwan II among the Mudaris and Nasr's followers, even though Nasr recognized him as the legitimate caliph in exchange for his own confirmation to his post. Exploiting this resentment, Ibn Surayj soon gathered around him an army of over 3,000 men.
In March 746 Ibn Surayj's army attacked Marv, but was repulsed with many casualties, and he then made common cause with al-Kirmani—of whose activities between his escape in 744 and this point nothing is known. With Marwan II still trying to consolidate his own position in Syria and Mesopotamia, Nasr was bereft of any hopes of reinforcement, and the allied armies of Ibn Surayj and al-Kirmani drove him out of Merv towards the end of 746. Nasr retreated to Nishapur, but within days al-Kirmani and Ibn Surayj fell out among themselves and clashed, resulting in the death of Ibn Surayj. Al-Kirmani then destroyed the Tamimi quarters in the city, a shocking act, as dwellings were traditionally considered exempt from warfare in Arab culture. As a result, the Mudari tribes, hitherto reserved towards Nasr, now came over to him. Backed by them, especially the Qays settled around Nishapur, Nasr now resolved to take back the capital. During summer 747, Nasr's and al-Kirmani's armies confronted each other before the walls of Marv, occupying two fortified camps and skirmishing with each other for several months. The fighting stopped only when news came of the start of the Hashimi uprising under Abu Muslim.
Negotiations commenced, but were almost broken off when a member of Nasr's entourage, an embittered son of Ibn Surayj, attacked and killed al-Kirmani. Calmer heads prevailed for the moment, the two sides were able to tentatively settle their differences, and Nasr re-occupied his seat in Marv. Tensions however remained, and Abu Muslim soon managed to persuade al-Kirmani's son and successor, Ali, that Nasr had been involved in his father's murder. As a result, both Ali al-Kirmani and Nasr separately appealed for aid against each other to Abu Muslim, who now held the balance of power. The latter eventually chose to support al-Kirmani. On 14 February 748, the Hashimi army occupied Marv, and Nasr again had to flee the city. Pursued by the Hashimi forces under Qahtaba ibn Shabib al-Ta'i, Nasr was forced to abandon Nishapur too after his son Tamim was defeated at Tus, and retreat to the region of Qumis, on the western borderlands of Khurasan. At this point, the long-awaited reinforcements from the caliph arrived, but their general and Nasr failed to coordinate their movements, and Qahtaba was able to defeat the caliph's army at Rayy and kill its commander. Nasr was now forced to abandon Qumis and flee towards Hamadan. On the way, in the town of Sawa, he fell ill and died on 9 December, at the age of 85.
His grandson, Rafi ibn al-Layth, led a large-scale rebellion against the misgovernment of the Abbasid governor, Ali ibn Isa ibn Mahan, in 807–810, which spread across Khurasan and Transoxiana.
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ATLiens
| 1,172,848,764 | null |
[
"1996 albums",
"Albums produced by André 3000",
"Albums produced by Organized Noize",
"Albums recorded at Chung King Studios",
"Outkast albums"
] |
ATLiens is the second studio album by American hip hop duo Outkast. It was released on August 27, 1996, by Arista Records and LaFace Records. From 1995 to 1996, Outkast recorded ATLiens in sessions at several Atlanta studios—Bosstown Recording Studios, Doppler Recording Studios, PatchWerk Recording Studio, Purple Dragon Studios, and Studio LaCoCo—as well as Chung King Recording Studio and Sound On Sound Recording in New York City.
The record features outer space-inspired production sounds, with Outkast and producers Organized Noize incorporating elements of dub and gospel into the compositions. Several songs feature the duo's first attempts at producing music by themselves. Lyrically, the group discusses a wide range of topics including urban life as hustlers, existential introspection, and extraterrestrial life. The album's title is a portmanteau of "ATL" (an abbreviation of Atlanta, Georgia) and "aliens", which has been interpreted by critics as a commentary about the feeling of being isolated from American culture.
ATLiens debuted at number two on the US Billboard 200 chart, and it sold nearly 350,000 copies in its first two weeks of release. The album was very well received by music critics upon its release, who praised its unique sound and lyrical content. It has been certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), for shipments of two million copies in the United States. The album spawned the singles "Elevators (Me & You)", "ATLiens" / "Wheelz of Steel", and "Jazzy Belle". Since its release, ATLiens has been listed by several magazines and critics as one of the greatest hip-hop albums of all time.
## Background
In 1994, Outkast released their debut album, Southernplayalisticadillacmuzik, which was recorded when members Big Boi and André 3000 were 18 years old. Bolstered by the success of the single "Player's Ball", the record established Outkast as prominent figures in the Southern hip hop scene. After the album was certified platinum, LaFace Records gave Outkast more creative control and advanced money for their 1996 follow-up album ATLiens. The duo took the opportunity to recreate their image. On a trip to Jamaica with producer Mr. DJ, the two decided to abandon their cornrow hairstyles in favor of a more natural aesthetic, vowing to stop combing their hair. Dungeon Family member Big Rube observed an increase in the duo's confidence after returning from their first tour, remarking, "They started understanding the power they had in their music. They started showing a swagger that certain artists have—the ones that are stars." The members also underwent changes in their personal lives; in 1995, Big Boi's girlfriend gave birth to their first child and André 3000 and Total's Keisha Spivey ended their two-year relationship.
Despite its success, Southernplayalisticadillacmuzik had some detractors, including hip hop tastemakers who were unaccustomed to the album's style. As the East Coast and West Coast hip hop scenes were already well-established at the time, many did not view the South as a legitimate and respectable scene. At the 1995 Source Awards, an award ceremony held by The Source magazine, Outkast won in the "Best Newcomer" category, but were booed upon taking the stage and delivering their acceptance speech; in response, André 3000 said, "The South got somethin' to say." He later recalled how the album was received by some listeners: "People thought that the South basically only had bass music. At first people were looking at us like 'Um, I don't know.'" Taken aback by the backlash, André 3000 and Big Boi channeled their frustration in the studio to improve upon their debut.
## Recording and production
After acquiring their own recording studio, the duo immediately started working on new material and assimilated themselves with music recording and studio equipment, as they sought to become more ambitious artists and less dependent on other producers. The two also became more accustomed to playing live, particularly Big Boi, and André 3000 significantly changed his lifestyle; he adopted a more eccentric fashion sense, became a vegetarian (he has since resumed eating meat), and stopped smoking marijuana. Having dropped out months before graduation, André 3000 returned to high school to earn his diploma during the recording of ATLiens.
Before beginning work on ATLiens, André 3000 purchased an SP1200 drum machine, an MPC3000 sampler, a TASCAM mixing board, and turntables with stacks of classic records. Although he had never produced a song before, he used techniques learned from observing the Dungeon Crew at work. "Elevators (Me & You)" was the first song the duo created together for the album. The duo refrained from sampling on the album, with Big Boi explaining "I feel like you cheat the listener when you sample. If it's an old school jam, leave it to the old. We wanna have our own school of music."
Outkast recorded the album in sessions at several Atlanta studios—Bosstown Recording Studios, Doppler Recording Studios, PatchWerk Recording Studio, Purple Dragon Studios, and Studio LaCoCo—as well as Chung King Recording Studio and Sound On Sound Recording in New York City. For ATLiens, the band aimed for a consistent set of songs in which a listener would not need to skip tracks; Outkast wrote around 35 songs for the album and reduced them to fourteen. The duo's songwriting style for the album had no solid structure and was mostly spontaneous; Big Boi noted, "Stuff'll just come to you. I'll be sittin' in the truck, and I'll start rhymin'. People look at me like I'm crazy, but that's how it starts."
## Composition
### Music
Two-thirds of the album is produced by Organized Noize, Outkast's primary production team. The rest is produced by Earthtone III, a production team that includes Outkast themselves and Mr. DJ. André 3000 and Big Boi produced the songs "Jazzy Belle" and "Elevators (Me & You)". It also has a notably more laid-back, spacey production sound, which they expanded upon on their follow-up album Aquemini. Although the group drew from George Clinton's outer-space inspired compositions, the band utilizes a more laid-back style as opposed to Clinton's hard funk leanings. Many tracks feature strong echo and reverb, taking influence from dub and reggae. Andrea Comer of the Hartford Courant perceives an "extraterrestrial feel" in the record's production.
MTV wrote that the album's production "built giddy, chaotic hooks around throbbing bass grooves, neck-snapping drums and bits of backwoods country and psychedelic rock for good measure." Outkast also incorporated elements of gospel into the music; being from the South, the group felt obligated to "stay close to [their] slave roots". The album's introduction track "You May Die" has been described as "churchy". "Elevators (Me & You)" contains atmospheric elements including echoes, dub-influenced bass, organ riffs, and telephone tones. "13th Floor/Growing Old" contains a spoken word introduction from Big Rube, somber soul vocals from Debra Killings, and a "Prince-ish" piano riff, while "Wheelz of Steel" features "furious" turntable scratching by Mr. DJ. "Extraterrestrial" offers a break in the continuity of the record as it features no drum beat.
### Lyrics
Lyrically, André 3000 and Big Boi abandon the "hard-partying playa characters" of their debut album in favor of more spacey, funky, and futuristic personas on ATLiens. With their lyrics, the duo hoped to reflect on maturity in the wake of the birth of Big Boi's daughter. André 3000 explained, "It's like everybody's talking about sipping champagne and being big time, so we just took it upon ourselves to do something new ... I want my children to say, 'Daddy really said something, he wasn't just trying to brag on himself.'" Many songs on ATLiens feature more unconventional subject matter for hip hop. The lyrical content ranges from addressing urban life as hustlers and pimps to extraterrestrial life and space travel. The title track's chorus expresses Southern pride, while its verses feature André 3000 explaining his newly adopted drug-free lifestyle.
"Elevators (Me & You)" illustrates Outkast's rise to fame, and was inspired by a show the band played at Howard University with P. Diddy in the audience. The song also discusses the unlikely partnership of André 3000 and Big Boi, and uses the metaphor of an elevator for the ups and downs of fame. The final verse illustrates André 3000 dealing with a fan who pretends to have been childhood friends with him. It also references Southern culture, including mentions of Cadillacs and extended family gatherings. "Babylon" reflects on religious attitudes towards sex and illustrates André 3000's upbringing and his forbidden attractions throughout childhood. "Jazzy Belle" discusses the group's "increasingly enlightened" view regarding women: "Went from yellin' ... bitches and hoes to queen thangs". The album's closer "13th Floor/Growing Old" is a meditation on aging and emphasizes Southern hip hop's legitimacy.
## Release
### Promotion
ATLiens was released on August 27, 1996, by LaFace Records. In September, LaFace created a promotion for the record in conjunction with Blockbuster in which customers could enter to win a 1970s Cadillac car, emphasizing Outkast and Cadillac's connection with the Southern lifestyle. The record's inner booklet features a 24-page comic strip foldout starring the members, who must defend "positive music" against the villain Nosamulli. The strip continues in the artwork for each single released from ATLiens except for "Elevators (Me & You)".
The album's title is a portmanteau of "ATL" (an abbreviation of Atlanta, Georgia) and "aliens". In his book Icons of Hip Hop: An Encyclopedia of the Movement, Music, and Culture, author T. Hasan Johnson interprets the album's title as "partly a statement about being from Atlanta, while also signifying on the theme of the group's name (by using the term aliens) framing themselves as societal outcasts." Mark Bould, author of The Routledge Companion to Science Fiction, observes that the title symbolizes Outkast's "estrangement from American society", suggesting that "the inner city of their formative years is out of this world and its hostile conditions."
### Commercial performance
The album debuted at number two on the US Billboard 200 chart, and it sold nearly 350,000 copies in its first two weeks of release. It ultimately spent 33 weeks on the Billboard 200 chart. Three singles were released for the album—"Elevators (Me & You)" on July 5, 1996, "ATLiens" / "Wheelz of Steel" in November 1996, and "Jazzy Belle" in April 1997. "Elevators (Me & You)" reached number 12 and spent 20 weeks on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. It was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) on September 13, 1996, for shipments of 500,000 copies in the United States. "ATLiens" reached number 35 and spent 17 weeks on the Hot 100, and "Jazzy Belle" spent 14 weeks and peaked at number 52 on the Hot 100. The album was certified Platinum by the RIAA on November 6, 1996, for shipments of one million copies in the US. By 1998, it had sold over 1.2 million copies. On June 24, 2003, the RIAA certified ATLiens double platinum, having shipped two million copies in the US.
## Critical reception
ATLiens received critical acclaim. Andrea Comer of the Hartford Courant felt that Outkast's "lyrical acumen shines through" despite "Heltah-Skeltah mumbling and Southern slang", and stated, "after a few rotations, the alien feeling wears away, and [the album is] just out of this world." Sonia Murray of The Atlanta Journal-Constitution called the album "more thoughtful" than its predecessor, noting, "What the second album lacks in adventurous arrangements it more than makes up for in lyrical dominance." The Source's Allen S. Gordon observed "growth" from Outkast and Organized Noize, and stated, "Big Boi and Dre have gone out of this world into a new dimension of sight, sound and mind".
Kevin Powell of Rolling Stone felt that, like Outkast's debut album, ATLiens is "a gritty document of what's happening here and now, an up-to-the-minute briefing on Southern black ghetto life on which Outkast members Andre and Big Boi cast their feelings of alienation in familiar, realistic characterizations". Powell asserted that unlike East Coast hip hop's "hedonistic materialism" or "the gunplay and pimpism" of West Coast hip hop, "Andre and Big Boi display a unique ability to describe ghetto life while offering up life-affirming possibilities, something all too rare in today's hip-hop nation." Richard Harrington of The Washington Post enjoyed the record's "more serious and focused lyrical sensibility", explaining, "The raps are generally inventive, clever without being cloying, more proof (if any were needed) that hip-hop innovation isn't just an East-West thang."
## Legacy
In a retrospective review, AllMusic editor Steve Huey viewed the album as Outkast's "most focused work" and commented that "In addition to the striking musical leap forward, Dre and Big Boi continue to grow as rappers; their flows are getting more tongue-twistingly complex, and their lyrics more free-associative". RapReviews critic Steve Juon recommended it to listeners who "want to be challenged by [their] hip-hop" and wrote of the album's aesthetic:
> It's deep. So deep that listening to ATLiens you might feel like drowning, but the smooth vo-cals of Big Boi and the earthy flows of Andre always push you back up to the surface. They are players in the truest sense of the word; not just playing for ends but playing to win in the ultimate battle of life over death, good over bad, and righteousness over evil. Yet, it's not that heavy either. This album is nod your head music, shake your ass music. It makes you think and groove at the same time.
In The Rolling Stone Album Guide (2004), Roni Sarig felt that, strong rapping notwithstanding, the album's music "suffers as the duo make their first attempt at self-producing" and stated, "Although ATLiens promised expanded vistas with its interstellar motif, the record delivered something of a sophomore slump ... At best, ATLiens is the sound of an ambitious group searching for its voice."
In 1998, the album was selected as one of The Source's "100 Best Rap Albums". In 2000, Exclaim! listed the album on their "100 Records That Rocked 100 Issues of Exclaim!" list. Hip Hop Connection ranked it number six on their list of "The 100 Greatest Rap Albums 1995–2005". Complex ranked the album fifth on their list of "The 50 Greatest Sophomore Albums in Hip-Hop History", its title 15th on "The 50 Best Rap Album Titles Ever", and the title track's beat 91st on "The 100 Greatest Hip-Hop Beats of All Time". Rappers Isaiah Rashad, Wiz Khalifa and Dom Kennedy, and DJ Jesse Marco have named ATLiens as one of their favorite albums.
## Track listing
Track listing and samples compiled from album liner notes. All tracks produced by Organized Noize Productions, except where noted.
Notes
- "You May Die (Intro)" features additional vocals by Joi, Screechy Peach and Trina
- "Two Dope Boyz (In a Cadillac)" features additional vocals by Screechy Peach
- "Ova Du Wudz" and "E.T. (Extra-Terrestrial) feature additional vocals by EJ Tha Witch Doctor
- "Babylon" features additional vocals by Andrea Martin
- "Wailin'" features additional vocals by Cee-Lo of Goodie Mob
- "Mainstream" features additional vocals by Khujo and T-Mo of Goodie Mob
- "Decatur Psalm" features additional vocals by Big Gipp of Goodie Mob and Cool Breeze
- "Millennium" features additional vocals by ShaJuanna Edghill
- "13th Floor / Growing Old" features additional vocals by Big Rube and Debra Killings
Sample credits
- "You May Die (Intro)" is an interpolation of "Summer in the City" performed by Quincy Jones.
- "Two Dope Boyz (In a Cadillac)" contains a sample of "D.E.E.P." performed by Outkast, and "Danger, She's a Stranger" performed by The Five Stairsteps.
- "ATLiens" contains a sample of "Around the World" performed by Attilio Mineo, and "So Tired" performed by The Chambers Brothers.
- "Wheelz of Steel" contains a sample of "Focus III" performed by Focus, "Saturday Night Style" performed by Mikey Dread.
- "Jazzy Belle" contains a sample of "It's Yours" performed by T La Rock and Jazzy Jay, and "Prelude" performed by Lamont Dozier.
- "Elevators" contains a sample of "Blue Suede Shoes" performed by Carl Perkins.
- "Elevators (Me & You) [ONP 86 Mix]" contains a sample of "Come in Out of the Rain" performed by Parliament; the original contains SFX from the video game Super Mario Bros.
- "Ova Da Wudz" contain a sample of "Judas" performed by Society of Soul.
- "Babylon" contains a sample of "12 O'Clock" performed by Vangelis.
- "Wailin'" contains a sample of "To the Establishment" performed by Lou Bond.
- "Mainstream" contains a sample of "Sesame Street" performed by Goodie Mob and "Soldier In Our Town" by Iron Butterfly.
- "Decatur Psalm" contains a sample of "Cebu" performed by The Commodores.
## Personnel
Compiled from album liner notes.
### Musicians
OutKast
- Andre 3000 – vocals
- Big Boi – vocals
Guests
- Andrea Martin – vocals
- Big Gipp – vocals
- Big Rube – vocals
- Carlos Glover – acoustic guitar
- Cee-Lo – vocals
- Cool Breeze – vocals
- Craig Love – guitar
- Debra Killings – vocals
- Dee Simmons – drums
- Ed Stroud – guitar
- James "Jay" Nicholas – bass
- Jazzyfatnastees – vocals
- Joi – vocals
- Kenny Wright – keyboard
- Kerren Berz – violin
- Khujo – vocals
- Marq Jefferson – bass guitar
- Martin Terry – guitar
- Marvin "Chanz" Parkman – keyboard, organ
- Mr. DJ – scratches
- Preston Crump – bass guitar
- ShaJuanna Edghill – vocals
- Skinny Miracles – piano
- Sleepy Brown – vocals
- T-Mo – Vocals
- Tamara Powell – vocals
- Tommy Martin – acoustic guitar
- Trina Powell – vocals
- Screechy Peach – vocals
- Witchdoctor – vocals
### Production
- Alvin Speights – mixing
- Bernasky Wall – engineering
- Blake Eiseman – engineering
- Brian Frye – engineering
- Carlton Batts – mastering
- Derrick Williams – engineering
- Dexter Simmons – engineering, mixing
- Jarvis Blackshear – engineering
- John Frye – engineering
- John Wydrycs – engineering
- Leslie Brathwaite – mixing
- Mike Wilson – engineering
- Neal Pogue – mixing
- Organized Noize – drum programming, keyboard programming, mixing, production
- Outkast – drum programming, keyboard programming, mixing, production
## Charts
### Weekly charts
### Year-end charts
## Certifications
## See also
- List of Billboard number-one R&B albums of 1996
|
2,258,874 |
She's a Woman
| 1,170,208,268 |
1964 single by the Beatles
|
[
"1964 singles",
"1964 songs",
"Blues songs",
"British pop rock songs",
"British reggae songs",
"British rhythm and blues songs",
"British rock-and-roll songs",
"Capitol Records singles",
"Chet Atkins songs",
"Jeff Beck songs",
"Parlophone singles",
"Song recordings produced by George Martin",
"Songs about drugs",
"Songs published by Northern Songs",
"Songs written by Lennon–McCartney",
"The Beatles songs",
"Wednesday (Canadian band) songs"
] |
"She's a Woman" is a song by the English rock band the Beatles, written primarily by Paul McCartney and credited to Lennon–McCartney. It was released on a non-album single in November 1964 as the B-side to "I Feel Fine", except in North America, where it also appeared on the album Beatles '65, released in December 1964. Though it was the B-side, it charted in the US, reaching number four on the Billboard Hot 100 and number eight on the Cash Box Top 100. The song originated in McCartney's attempt to write a song in the style of Little Richard. The lyrics include the first reference to drugs in a Beatles song, with the line "turn(s) me on" referring to marijuana.
The Beatles recorded "She's a Woman" in October 1964, during the sessions for their album Beatles for Sale. McCartney composed it quickly, writing much of the song at EMI Recording Studios shortly before recording. With a sparse arrangement, John Lennon's rhythm guitar hits on the offbeats, allowing room for the bass to be the centre of the recording. McCartney's prominent bass was to that point the loudest heard on a Beatles recording, anticipating his high-profile bass lines in later songs. His vocal extends near the top of his register, heard especially as he strains near the song's opening. The song has subsequently appeared on compilation albums such as the UK edition of Rarities; Past Masters, Volume One and Mono Masters.
"She's a Woman" has received praise from several music critics and musicologists for McCartney's strong vocal and the band's loud backing, though some have criticised its lyrics as weak. In addition to recording the song twice for BBC radio, the Beatles regularly performed the song during their 1965 and 1966 tours. An August 1965 performance appeared on the 1977 live album The Beatles at the Hollywood Bowl while one from June 1966 was included on the 1996 compilation Anthology 2. In his post-Beatles career, McCartney has occasionally performed the song in concert, including an acoustic version that appeared on his 1991 live album Unplugged (The Official Bootleg). Charles River Valley Boys, Jeff Beck and Scritti Politti are among the artists who have covered the track.
## Background and composition
Paul McCartney began composing the lyrics and melody to "She's a Woman" on 8 October 1964, the same day that it was recorded, and finished it quickly. Appearing on the radio programme Top Gear on 17 November 1964, he explained that he only had "about one verse" ready on the morning of the session, finishing the rest of the song once in the studio. In his authorised biography, Many Years from Now, he recalls that the initial idea came to him while walking around the streets of St John's Wood, but is unsure whether he finished the song at home, on his way to the studio, or once actually there. Comparing it to his earlier composition "Can't Buy Me Love", he further recalls the song as an attempt to write "a bluesy thing" in the style of one of his favourite singers, Little Richard. In a 1972 interview, John Lennon identifies the song as McCartney's, but suggests that he may have helped with the middle. In a 1980 interview with Playboy, he again identifies the composition as McCartney's, but suggests he likely contributed some lyrics.
"She's a Woman" is mainly in the key of A major, with brief shifts to C-sharp minor, and is in 4/4 time. Besides its two short bridge sections, the song only uses the chords I, IV and V. Music scholar Thomas MacFarlane characterises the song as a "synthesis of rock and blues inflections with elements derived from country and western or folk styles". Variously described as rock and roll, pop rock, R&B, or "perky pop-blues", the song is a long-form blues number with a four-bar bridge. Musicologist Walter Everett characterises the format as structurally similar to "Can't Buy Me Love", joining a minor pentatonic verse with a major mode bridge. Similar to Cliff Richard's song "Move It", the verse is twenty four-bars rather than the more typical twelve-bar format, making the four-bar bridge sound especially short. Everett suggests the short bridge quickly returning to the verse creates a "formal ambiguity".
Comparing its beginning to "I Want to Hold Your Hand", Everett writes that before the song's beat has been established, the "sneaky accenting" of offbeats results in an "off-center introduction". For the first four bars, the rhythm guitar and piano are the only instruments heard, with the "heavily accented backbeat" not heard as such until the bass and drums begin playing, "'proving' the correct metrical accent". Music critic Tim Riley writes the "clipped guitar yelps" of the opening "tease the ear in a simpler way than the fade-in to 'I Want to Tell You' will". Rather than playing a typical rhythm guitar section, Lennon provides a distinct sound to the track by only hitting the off-beats, adding a reggae accent to the song, and which McCartney later explained, "left a lot of space for the rest of the stuff". Musicologist Ian MacDonald calls McCartney's legato bass line the "structural centrepiece" of the song and that "without it, the other elements in this stark arrangement would make no sense". Everett suggests it is instructive to compare "the simple form and involved melodicism" of the song against "the opposite emphases" heard on Ray Charles's "I Got a Woman". Pollack contends that the song pairs well with "I Feel Fine", in particular the "euphoric subtext of the words", its stylised blues and the similar V–IV–I intros. MacDonald characterises it as the second single by the Beatles to be based on blues changes, the first being the March 1964 release "Can't Buy Me Love"/"You Can't Do That".
McCartney sings the song near the top of his vocal register, straining in the opening to hit a high A. Sung in the third person, the singer explains that though his lover does not give him presents they each still love each other. Several lines rhyme with the second-to-last word, as in "lonely" with "only [fooling]" and "jealous" with "well as [loving]". Its lyric includes the first reference to drugs in the Beatles' catalogue, with the line "turn(s) me on when I feel lonely" referring to marijuana. The Beatles had one of their earliest experiences with the drug six weeks earlier – smoking with Bob Dylan in New York City during their 1964 North American tour – with Lennon reflecting in 1980 that "[w]e were so excited to say 'turn me on' – you know, about marijuana and all that, using it as an expression".
## Recording
The Beatles recorded "She a Woman" on 8 October 1964, during the sessions for their fourth album, Beatles for Sale. Recording took place in EMI's Studio Two, with George Martin producing the session, assisted by balance engineer Norman Smith. The basic track features guitars, drums, bass and a lead vocal from McCartney. Everett suggests that Lennon's damped Rickenbacker 325 Capri results in a sound like "a Motown offbeat 'chick' rhythm guitar". The song's first take was in a rockabilly style, not yet using the syncopated chords heard on the completed version. On take five, the band moved into an extended jam with McCartney screaming, the complete take lasting over six minutes. Journalist Mark Hertsgaard calls the take "a spirited, if somewhat ragged, jam", while Everett suggests it comes closer to Lennon's 1969 song "Cold Turkey" than any other pre-1968 recording. After two more attempts, take six was marked "best".
After breaking for dinner, the band completed the track with overdubs onto take six. Ringo Starr added further percussion with a chocalho – a shaker made of metal and filled with either lead shot or peas. Along with double tracking his original vocal, McCartney played Studio Two's Steinway Vertegrand tack piano – dubbed "Mrs Mills" in reference to the music hall pianist Gladys Mills – substituting it on the second verse in place of a lead guitar. George Harrison did not play on the basic track, but instead overdubbed a double tracked guitar solo with his Gretsch Country Gent. Playing the solo nearly identically each time – capturing the same ornamental hammer-ons, pull-offs and portamento slides – the double tracking alters the guitar's tonal qualities. McCartney was pleased with the final recording, calling it "a nice little R&B thing".
On 12 October, Martin and Smith returned to Studio Two to remix the track for mono and stereo. McCartney's prominently featured bass, to that point the loudest bass heard on a Beatles track, necessitated the mix be ducked whenever it left the home triad. The mono mix made on 12 October was meant exclusively for UK release, while a later mono remix made on 21 October was made for the US market, the latter fading out one second earlier. The 21 October mix was made in EMI's Room 65, typically designated as the studio's "experimentation room". After receiving the US master, Capitol executive Dave Dexter Jr. added heavy echo to the tape, drowning out the sound of McCartney's piano. The stereo version heard on US releases is fake stereo, reprocessed from the mono American masters.
## Release and reception
Capitol released "She's a Woman" in the US as the B-side to "I Feel Fine" on 23 November 1964. EMI's Parlophone label released the same single in the UK four days later. Journalist Neil Spencer suggests that the song would have been an album track on Beatles for Sale were it not for the dearth of new Lennon–McCartney compositions. In the US – where Capitol reconfigured the Beatles' albums, reducing the number of songs and using single A- and B-sides to create further LP releases – the song appeared on the North American album Beatles '65, released on 15 December 1964. It has since appeared on the 1978 British compilation album Rarities, while the first true stereo mix of the song to be released in the US appeared on the 1988 compilation Past Masters, Volume One. The mono mix was subsequently included on the 2009 Mono Masters compilation.
Among contemporaneous reviews, Derek Johnson in the NME described "She's a Woman" as "arresting and ear-catching", and highlighted the track's "pounding beat" and blues-inflected vocal. Billboard predicted an immediate chart hit for both sides of the single and recognised the record as a "gift to Capitol on the group's first anniversary with the label". The UK single release sold 800,000 units within five days and over a million by 9 December. In the US, where five albums and sixteen singles had been released in the first seven months of 1964, the ensuing lull of new Beatles material led to fans highly anticipating the next single's release. The US release sold more than a million copies in its first week. "She's a Woman" became a hit in its own right, mostly on the strength of point of sale requests, peaking at number four on the Billboard Hot 100 and remaining on the chart for nine weeks.
In a retrospective review for AllMusic, Stephen Thomas Erlewine says the song demonstrates the Beatles' ability to "rock really, really hard". MacDonald describes the track as "the most extreme sound the Beatles had manufactured to date". Writing that it is the first Beatles song to feature a high profile bass line, he opines that it foreshadows McCartney's later "striving to get his instrument 'up' in volume, tone, and octave". He further characterises the recording as outré, and groups it with "What You're Doing" and "Eight Days a Week" as one of McCartney's late-1964 recording experiments. Everett writes that his piano playing on the song "[took] his keyboard work to a new level", while describing Harrison's guitar solo as rockabilly in style, heavily influenced by guitarist Carl Perkins. Rolling Stone critic Rob Sheffield opines that the song's "power-chord thud" anticipates the sound of the heavy metal band Black Sabbath.
Spencer calls the song McCartney's "stoned out-take on his Little Richard legacy", and musicologist Alan W. Pollack describes the song as McCartney's "most outrageous vocal performance" since "Long Tall Sally", anticipating that of the 1969 songs "Get Back" and "Oh! Darling". He further writes that as the song progresses, the vocal gets "steadily freer, louder, and more extroverted". Calling the song a "throaty McCartney rocker", Hertsgaard describes the line, "My love don't give me presents / I know that she's no peasant" as "one of the most awkward rhymes in the Beatles' catalogue. MacDonald also dismisses the lyrics, calling them "[k]nowingly functional" and only notable for the marijuana reference. Riley writes that, were it not for Starr's cymbal smashing in the four-bar break, the song would be "almost too tightly strung".
## Other versions
### The Beatles
British law in the 1960s compelled BBC Radio to play material recorded especially for the medium. In keeping with this practice, the Beatles played "She's a Woman" twice for radio, recording for the BBC Light Programmes Top Gear and The Beatles (Invite You to Take a Ticket to Ride) on 17 November 1964 and 26 May 1965, respectively. The latter, broadcast on 7 June 1965, was among the last set the Beatles contributed to BBC Radio. EMI included the November 1964 performance on the 1994 album Live at the BBC.
The Beatles regularly performed the song during their 1965 and 1966 tours, sequencing it second in the set list after "Twist and Shout", "I Feel Fine" or "Rock and Roll Music". Though the band performed the song on 15 August 1965 at Shea Stadium in New York City, it was omitted from the documentary film The Beatles at Shea Stadium because the film cameras were being reloaded during the song. The 1977 live album The Beatles at the Hollywood Bowl includes a performance of "She's a Woman" from the 30 August 1965 show at the Hollywood Bowl in Los Angeles. Author Jonathan Gould describes this performance as the "definitive version" of the song, while pop historian Robert Rodriguez writes that the combination of "Twist and Shout" and "She's a Woman" "[kicks] things off with a bang". In 1996, Apple Records included the Beatles' 30 June 1966 performance from the Nippon Budokan in Tokyo on the compilation Anthology 2. Author John Winn describes the concert as a particularly poor performance, and Beatles road manager Neil Aspinall later suggested that the lack of screaming from the respectful Japanese audience caused the group to realise they were playing out of tune.
McCartney has occasionally performed the song in his live shows, including it on his 2004 Summer Tour's set list. He performed the song in a 25 January 1991 set, played on acoustic and filmed by MTV for their series Unplugged. Given the vocal strain needed to perform the original version, he found it necessary to transpose the song down a fourth from its original key of A to E. The MTV performance was included on McCartney's 1991 album Unplugged (The Official Bootleg).
### Cover versions
The American bluegrass band Charles River Valley Boys included "She's a Woman" on their 1966 album of bluegrass arranged Beatles covers, Beatle Country. Critic Richie Unterberger counts the cover as among several on the LP that few listeners would have thought possible to arrange into a bluegrass context. In a retrospective assessment coinciding with the album's 1995 CD re-release, Adrea Moed of CMJ New Music Monthly magazine remarked that the playing on the cover displays a "technical virtuosity [that] almost makes you forget [the song’s] origins".
British guitarist Jeff Beck covered "She's a Woman" on his 1975 album Blow by Blow, produced by George Martin. Months earlier, he played the song with the band Upp for the BBC documentary Five Faces of Guitar. Keyboard player Max Middleton suggested the song for the album, having come up with a calypso-like arrangement on his own. Middleton later recalled that "George hated it, but Jeff loved it, so we did it". Beck further altered the arrangement into a reggae instrumental, following the original vocal melody with his guitar, and incorporated a talk box. Mark Kirschenmann of AllMusic describes the arrangement as clever, and author Martin Power describes the track in similarly favourable terms, with its "flashes of syncopation, falling blues scales and the occasional use of the voice bag".
British pop band Scritti Politti covered "She's a Woman" with Jamaican dancehall musician Shabba Ranks. Reaching number twenty on the UK Singles Chart in April 1991, the recording immediately preceded a lengthy hiatus from Scritti Politti frontman Green Gartside, who did not return to recording until 1999. Later included on the band's 2011 compilation album Absolute, Terry Staunton of Record Collector magazine describes the track as a "trenchtown jolly-up" cover.
## Personnel
According to Ian MacDonald, except where noted:
- Paul McCartney – double tracked vocal, bass, piano
- John Lennon – rhythm guitar
- George Harrison – double tracked lead guitar
- Ringo Starr – drums, chocalho
## Charts
### Weekly charts
### Year-end charts
|
31,883,099 |
Highgrove House, Eastcote
| 1,148,802,983 |
Country house in Eastcote, London
|
[
"1881 establishments in England",
"Country houses in London",
"E. S. Prior buildings",
"Eastcote",
"Grade II listed buildings in the London Borough of Hillingdon",
"Grade II listed houses in London",
"History of Middlesex",
"Houses completed in 1881",
"Houses in the London Borough of Hillingdon",
"Middlesex"
] |
Highgrove House, also known as High Grove House or High Grove, is a Grade II listed mansion in the suburban area of Eastcote, within the London Borough of Hillingdon. Originally built in 1750 by the Reverend John Lidgould, the house was rebuilt in 1881 by Sir Hugh Hume-Campbell following a catastrophic fire. Along with Haydon Hall and Eastcote House, Highgrove was one of the three main houses of Eastcote and eventually became a residential hostel for homeless families, run by the local council from the 1960s until 2007. An area of the estate was sold to the local council in 1935 by the then-owner Eleanor Warrender to become what is now Warrender Park. In 1975, the house was granted Grade II listed status on account of its special architectural character.
The house was subsequently closed as a hostel by the council and sold for £1.295m to Westcombe Estates. Planning permission was granted to the new owners in January 2007 for the conversion of the building into a luxury housing block of 12 units and expanded for a further three years in February 2010.
## History
### First house
The site of the present house was originally owned and lived on by the Hale family in the 13th century. Reverend John Lidgould of Harmondsworth bought part of the land owned by Martha Hale and Elizabeth Kelly in 1747 and had the first house built.
Robert Turner bought the house and lived there from 1758; his son sold it in 1787 to the canon of Wells Cathedral, William Blencowe. John Humphrey Babb leased the house from the early 19th century, purchasing it outright from the Blencowe family in 1813. Upon his death in 1825, his successor as Deliverer of the Vote in the House of Commons, James Mitchell, moved to the house, living there until his own death in 1833. His widow subsequently sold Highgrove at auction.
In 1843, the house was bought by Lieutenant General Joseph Fuller. Days before his death, his daughter Juliana married Sir Hugh Hume-Campbell in October 1841. Ownership based to Fuller's daughter, the new Lady Hume-Campbell, although in 1879 the house was destroyed by fire. The Uxbridge Volunteer Fire Brigade with assistance from a pump provided by Pinner Hall were unable to save the building.
### Second house
The ruins of the house were cleared following the fire, and Sir Hugh contracted Edward Schroeder Prior to design the new house, which was completed in 1881. Prior followed the Queen Anne and early Georgian architecture styles in his design, which is based around an "L" shape with a southern extension for the house's domestic services. Highgrove was built of red brick, with two storeys and an attic. The window arches were also made of brick. On the ground floor facing the gardens, three sets of three windows in bays were included. Prior's design drawings for the house were shown in an exhibition at the Royal Academy in 1882.
The Hume-Campbells had no children, and the house eventually passed to the Warrender family in 1894, who, as the grandchildren of Sir Hugh from his first marriage, were the next of kin. Brother and sister Hugh and Eleanor Warrender shared the house and were friends with Jenny Churchill, the mother of the future British prime minister Winston Churchill. He stayed at the house for his honeymoon in the early 1900s.
In 1935, Eleanor Warrender sold 10.5 acres (4.2 ha) of the grounds of the house to the local council to establish a new playground and park, now named Warrender Park, and 13 acres (5.3 ha) to Ideal Homes for a residential development. During the Second World War, she made Highgrove available to the military, and British and American personnel from RAF Northolt stayed there.
Highgrove was bought by the Ruislip-Northwood Urban District Council in 1949 following Eleanor Warrender's death. The Council gave it to the Middlesex County Council and the house became a home for the elderly. In 1965, ownership passed to the newly established London Borough of Hillingdon and Highgrove became a residential hostel for homeless families. The house received Grade II listed status on 26 November 1975 due to its special architectural character, though was slightly damaged by a fire in the attic in 1979. According to English Heritage, a Grade II listing denotes "buildings that are of special interest, warranting every effort to preserve them."
### Restoration
The house closed as a hostel in 2007, after the London Borough of Hillingdon chose to replace its temporary accommodation with affordable permanent housing, in light of a directive from the Government for all local authorities to reduce the number of families in temporary housing by half by 2010. Highgrove, together with six other buildings was put forward to be sold for redevelopment, with the proceeds to be invested in the construction of new housing.
Permission was granted for the restoration of the house and its conversion into a 12 unit luxury housing block in January 2007. Part of the conversion work by the new owners, Westcombe Estates, involved the demolition of an annex building to make way for a sheltered housing block. At that time, the total land around and including the house included with the sale was 0.74 hectares (1.8 acres). In February 2010, the planning permission for the work was extended for a further three years.
In June 2010, an arson attack damaged sections of the ground floor and first floor. Two people were arrested the following day and released on bail in relation to the attack.
The construction of mews houses behind Highgrove House as part of the development was halted in July 2011 after it was found they were being built 1.5 metres (4 ft 11 in) out of the positions set in the planning permission. Following a review, the council agreed to allow the developers to continue the work, despite the close proximity to several existing houses bordering the site.
|
998,839 |
Sélestat
| 1,162,478,696 | null |
[
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"Cities in Grand Est",
"Communes of Bas-Rhin",
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"Populated places established in the 13th century",
"Subprefectures in France",
"Sélestat"
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Sélestat (; Alsatian: Schlettstàdt; German: Schlettstadt) is a commune in the Grand Est region of France. An administrative division (sous-préfecture) of the Bas-Rhin department, the town lies on the Ill river, 17 kilometres (11 mi) from the Rhine and the German border. Sélestat is located between the largest communes of Alsace, Strasbourg and Mulhouse.
In 2019, Sélestat had a total population of 19,242, which makes it the eighth most populous town in Alsace. During the Middle Ages and the Renaissance it was the third largest city in the region, after Strasbourg and Colmar, and it is ranked the third commune in Alsace for cultural heritage. Sélestat was founded in the 8th century as a port on the Ill and it experienced a long period of prosperity thanks to the trade in wine and a thriving religious and cultural life. It gradually declined after the Reformation and the French conquest in the 17th century. The town eventually experienced a new demographic growth in the second half of the 20th century when it became a small industrial and cultural centre.
Thanks to its rich heritage, which includes the renowned Humanist Library and an imposing pair of medieval churches, Sélestat is an important tourist destination in Alsace. It also benefits from its location on the Alsace wine road and its proximity to Haut-Kœnigsbourg castle. Aside from the medieval old town, the commune of Sélestat encompasses a nature reserve including one of the largest riparian forests of France.
## Name
The present name of the town is a Frenchification of the original Germanic name. It appeared soon after the French conquest in the 17th century. The town is called Schlettstàdt () in Alsatian and () in German.
Sélestat was first mentioned in 727 as Sclastat. It was mentioned as Scalistati in 775, as Slectistat in 881, as Sclezistat in 884 and as Slezestat in 1095. The current German name, Schlettstadt, appeared in 1310, although various spellings can be noticed on posterior documents, such as Schlestat, Schletstat and Schlettstat. The French administration used various forms from the 17th to the 19th century, such as Frenchified (Sélestat, Sélestadt) and Germanic (Schlestadt, Schelestadt). The town was officially known as Schlettstadt between 1871 and 1919, when Alsace was part of the German Empire. Since 1920, the town's French name is fixed as Sélestat.
The origin of the name "Schlettstadt" is unclear. It probably derives from Germanic words slade or sclade meaning "marshes", and stat for "city". Sélestat would then be a "city in the marshes", a reference to its position in the Grand Ried, a vast area subject to flooding that stretches over the centre of Alsace. Stat could also mean "area" rather than "city".
A popular myth explains that the town takes its name from a dragon called Schletto that founded the settlement after opening up the nearby Lièpvre valley in the Vosges mountains.
## History
### Birth of the town
Sélestat was first mentioned in 727 AD but the town probably has an earlier Celtic or Roman origin. Archaeological findings provide evidence of human settlement during the Mesolithic, the Neolithic and the Bronze Age. A large number of wood piles dating from the 1st and 2nd centuries AD were discovered around St. Quirin chapel, suggesting a Roman settlement. At that time Sélestat might have already been a port on the river Ill.
When Sélestat started to appear in written documents in the 8th century, it may have been a market town or simply a village populated by fishermen and farmers. The area was part of the estate of Eberhard, a member of the Alsatian ducal family, who donated it to Murbach Abbey at the end of his life. In 775, Charlemagne spent Christmas in Sélestat, which indicates that the town must have had enough appropriate buildings and population to accommodate his court and troops.
In the 1080s, Sélestat was the property of Hildegard von Eguisheim, mother of Frederick I, Duke of Swabia, the first member of the House of Hohenstaufen. Hildegard transformed the place into a religious centre when she founded St. Faith's Church, which she gave to the Benedictines of Conques Abbey. Monks from Conques opened a priory next to the church in 1092. The House of Hohenstaufen quickly became the leading dynasty of the Holy Roman Empire, which came to the imperial throne in 1152. Being under their protection, the priory of Sélestat strongly influenced local life. Even though Sélestat constituted a distinct parish, its priest had only limited power and the Benedictine prior was the true head of the municipality. At the end of the 12th century, the Hohenstaufen dynasty gradually lost power and as a result the priory started to decline. The citizens used this opportunity to reduce the prior's dominance and secure the power of their parish. They started to build a new parish church in the 1220s. St. George's Church was designed in Gothic style and was significantly larger than St. Faith's Church, another way to signify the end of Benedictine hegemony.
### Free imperial city
Frederick II, ruler of the Holy Roman Empire in the 13th century, realised that his dynasty was losing its power and granted freedoms to many cities in order to keep their allegiance. These cities became Free imperial cities and Sélestat became one of them in 1217. Under the new status Sélestat was able to build city walls and collect taxes on its own. Its serfs and settlers were freed. The German monarch Adolf of Nassau granted Sélestat a constitution in 1292. It was amended many times but it regulated local politics until 1789. Although the new status favoured trade and prosperity, free cities in Alsace were afraid that they would not be defended by imperial forces if a conflict was to occur. So they decided to form an alliance called the Decapolis in 1354, which comprised ten cities: (Haguenau, Colmar, Wissembourg, Turckheim, Obernai, Kaysersberg, Rosheim, Munster, Sélestat and Mulhouse). The seat of the alliance was in Haguenau but its archives were kept in Sélestat. Because the town was the most centrally located, it often hosted meetings of the association.
The Benedictine priory was closed in 1424 after many years of decline. It had long lost its power to the local nobility that were gradually replaced by the bourgeoisie in the mid-14th century. Nevertheless, Sélestat remained a religious centre even after the closing of the priory. Convents were established in the 13th century by Dominicans, Knights Hospitaller and Franciscans. Several abbeys located outside of the town also had a residence in town. At the beginning of the 16th century, Sélestat was a noted centre of Renaissance humanism thanks to its celebrated Latin school. Reformers Beatus Rhenanus and Martin Bucer were among the school's alumni. This school helped spread Protestant ideas among the population, although the local authorities remained faithful to Rome. Erasmus of Rotterdam visited Sélestat four times between 1515 and 1522.
Being a free city, Sélestat attracted settlers from the region who sought protection, freedom and a thriving economic environment. The first city wall, which had become too constricting, was replaced in 1280, and a third wall had to be erected in the 16th century as the city grew. At the end of the Middle Ages, the population was estimated at between 5,000 and 6,000. It was then the fourth largest Alsatian town after Strasbourg (18,000), Colmar and Haguenau (6,000 each). The local economy reached its zenith around 1500. It was centered on shipping and trade (mainly hay, cereals, wine, fish, glass, iron and salt). As the road network was poor and dangerous, goods transited via the Ill river.
### Decline
The decline of the town started in the 1520s, when the humanist school lost its former influence. The troubles surrounding the Protestant Reformation brought instability and unrest to the region. The town experienced the German Peasants' War in 1525 and its convents were sacked by a mob in 1534. During the same period Sélestat lost its pre-eminence in the Decapolis because the city of Mulhouse left the alliance in 1515 and was replaced by Landau in 1521, moving the geographical centre of the alliance to the north.
During the 17th century, Alsace was one of the main battlefields of the Thirty Years War. Sélestat was seized by the Swedes in 1632 after a month-long siege. They surrendered the town to their French allies two years later. The local population long remained predominantly faithful to the House of Habsburg. The Peace of Westphalia (1648) formalised the annexation of the Decapolis by France. Sélestat was briefly occupied by the Germans during the Franco-Dutch War in 1674. The Treaties of Nijmegen (1679) that ended the war also abolished the Decapolis.
At first, Sélestat was a major strategic stronghold for the French. Located near the Rhine, it controlled the access to the Vosges mountains and the rest of France. Vauban, the foremost military architect at that time, rebuilt the town walls between 1675 and 1691. However, after the conquest of Strasbourg in 1681 Sélestat lost much of its strategic importance, as Strasbourg was better located. But it remained a garrison town, and the troops stationed there helped to improve the faltering local economy. Although Protestantism was not forbidden in Alsace, French authorities largely encouraged Catholicism and opened three new convents in Sélestat. Jews were expelled from the town in 1642. During the French Revolution the population was extremely conservative and opposed to change. The new territorial organisation confirmed the decline of the town, which did not become a prefecture and was not distinguished as a subprefecture until 1806, when it replaced Barr in that capacity. Sélestat suffered from the Napoleonic wars as it was besieged and bombed by the Bavarians in 1814 and blockaded by a German coalition in 1815.
### Since 1815
Industry appeared very early in Sélestat. The town had already several factories at the beginning of the 19th century: a tilery, a sawmill, 12 tanneries and 11 mills. Sélestat quickly became specialised in wire gauze making but it never became a large industrial centre, remaining a small town with limited influence. The completion of the Strasbourg-Basel railway (1840), one of the first to be built in France, did not lead to significant urban development. The town walls that still encircled the town were a significant factor in its economic and demographic stagnation. After the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, Alsace and a part of Lorraine were annexed by the new German Empire. The German authorities demolished the city walls in 1874 and built new spacious neighbourhoods around the old town, as they did in Strasbourg and Metz.
Sélestat became French again after the First World War, during which almost a thousand inhabitants died. It was part of the Third Reich during the Second World War. Its liberation took three months and ended in February 1945. The town is a recipient of the War Cross 1914–1918 and War Cross 1939–1945. Sélestat has experienced steady demographic and economic growth since 1945. Its population almost doubled between 1946 and 1999 and two industrial parks were built to accommodate new large factories. The service industry has enriched the town's economy since the 1970s with a large number of small businesses.
South of the town, at , a large broadcasting facility was used for transmitting on 1161 kHz and 1278 kHz in the medium-wave range. It was opened in 1948 and ceased to emit on 1 January 2016.
## Governance
Sélestat is one of the six subprefectures of the Bas-Rhin departement. As such it is at the head of the Sélestat-Erstein arrondissement. Sélestat is also the administrative centre of a canton including 28 other communes which primarily serve as a constituency for local elections. Sélestat is part of the 5th Bas-Rhin constituency for national elections. Since 2002, the Member of the National Assembly for the constituency has been the Republican Antoine Herth.
Sélestat is a member of a federation of communes with shared competencies: the Communauté de communes de Sélestat. Sélestat is its main town, and it includes 11 neighbouring villages. It was created in 1995 to replace an older but similar structure founded in 1969. Sélestat is also the seat of the Central Alsace pays, a structure aiming at developing the area.
The town has had a council since 1292, when it was granted a constitution under the Holy Roman Empire. The constitution shaped the local political system until the French Revolution of 1789. Since then, the town has been administered as all the other communes of France. Its council currently comprises 33 councillors, whose number is defined by law according to the size of the population. The town also has a mayor elected by the councillors.
Alsace in general is a stronghold of the French right. The main French right-wing party, The Republicans, currently holds a large majority in the council (26 councillors). Marcel Bauer, who has been mayor since 2001, is also a member of that party. Voters in Sélestat generally favour right-wing candidates at other elections as well, although Sélestat was governed by the Socialist Party between 1989 and 2001.
## Geography
Sélestat is located at the very centre of Alsace, near the limit separating the Bas-Rhin and Haut-Rhin departments, which traditionally correspond to Lower and Upper Alsace, respectively. The town is located between Strasbourg and Mulhouse, the first being 42 kilometres (26 mi) north and the latter 57 kilometres (35 mi) south of the city. Sélestat is also located between Obernai (22 kilometres (14 mi)) and Colmar (21 kilometres (13 mi)). On the other side of the Rhine, Freiburg im Breisgau is around 40 kilometres (25 mi) distant.
Sélestat lies on the Alsace plains, a narrow, very fertile area that stretches between the Rhine and the Vosges mountains. The Ill flows parallel to the Rhine and crosses Sélestat. This river frequently branches and swells, making the area very wet and subject to flooding. Sélestat is only 4 kilometres (2 mi) from the Vosges, at the opening of one of the rare valleys crossing the mountain range and providing a connection to the rest of France. This valley corresponds to the course of the Giessen, a 35 kilometres (22 mi) long tributary of the Ill. In contrast to the Ill, which has a constant annual flow, the Giessen is a mountain river subject to sudden increases in the water level, especially during the spring thaw period. The Giessen passes north of the town and meets the Ill several kilometers to the east, in Ebersmunster.
The town itself is built on the Giessen alluvial fan so it is slightly higher than the rest of the Alsace plains. Much of its territory is however located on areas liable to flooding. Such areas are mostly located inside the Illwald natural reserve and comprise both forests and meadows. There the Ill forms more than 150 kilometres (93 mi) of waterways.
## Transport
Despite its small size, Sélestat is well connected to transport networks. Alsace as a whole, being part of the economic heart of Europe, has a high road and railway density.
The town is served by the A35 autoroute, a motorway that crosses Alsace north to south, connecting Strasbourg, Colmar and Mulhouse. Further south it connects to the Swiss A3 motorway, and further north to the German B9 highway. Taken together, these three roads connect the Netherlands to Austria. Sélestat is also located at one of the seven crossings of the Vosges mountains, connecting Lorraine to Alsace and Germany.
Sélestat train station was opened in 1840, which makes it one of the oldest in France. It lies on the Strasbourg–Basel railway, which also serves Colmar, Mulhouse and Saint-Louis. Sélestat is at the terminus of two local railways that are partly closed: Sélestat-Lesseux, now ending in Lièpvre, and Sélestat-Saverne, now ending in Molsheim. The former railway runs towards the west through the Vosges, while the latter runs towards the northwest. A third local line, Sélestat-Sundhouse, closed in 1953. Although one of the oldest in France, the Strasbourg-Basel railway allows high speed travel of (200 kilometres per hour (120 mph)) because it is very rectilinear and crosses a very flat landscape. Sélestat is served by all regional trains between Strasbourg and Basel (one train in each direction every hour on weekdays). Local trains also run between Sélestat and Molsheim, Sélestat and Strasbourg and Sélestat and Barr. Sélestat is served by a Paris-Colmar TGV every day in each direction, by Strasbourg-Nice and Strasbourg-Cerbère Intercités in the summer, and by EuroCity trains connecting Zurich to Brussels and Basel to Luxembourg City.
SNCF and the Bas-Rhin council operate coach lines between Sélestat and Sainte-Marie-aux-Mines, Saint-Dié-des-Vosges, Ribeauvillé, Marckolsheim, Sundhouse and Villé. The council also arranges for seasonal connections with Haut-Kœnigsbourg castle and Europa Park.
Sélestat and its communauté de communes have their own local bus network, the "Transport intercommunal de Sélestat" (TIS). It comprises two lines, one connecting Châtenois to Ebersheim, and the other Scherwiller to Muttersholtz. These two lines make several stops in Sélestat proper, which is at the centre of the network.
## Demography
As of 2019, Sélestat had 19,242 inhabitants. It is the 8th most populated commune in Alsace, having reached its maximum population in 2006, with 19,459 inhabitants. The oldest preserved birth registries of the town's Catholic parish go back to the year 1608; the oldest vital records (état civil) go back to the year 1793.
Sélestat was one of the largest towns in the region from the Middle Ages until the beginning of the 19th century. In 1801, it was still the third most populous in Alsace behind Strasbourg and Colmar. It then had 7,375 inhabitants, a slightly higher figure than for Mulhouse (7,197) and Haguenau (7,009). Through the 19th century, Sélestat did not take advantage of industrialisation and rural exodus because its city wall and military function prevented urban growth. It reached its overpopulation threshold around 1830, with around 10,000 inhabitants living on only 32 hectares (79 acres). Only after the Second World War did Sélestat experience significant demographic growth, almost doubling its population in 50 years. However, this growth was not strong enough for Sélestat to recover its previous rank.
The demographic growth that occurred in Sélestat after 1945 was primarily due to a relatively high birth rate (20.1‰ in Sélestat over the period 1968–1975, compared to 16.9‰ in France). After 1975, this rate progressively declined to match the national figure. Net migration figures remained slightly negative until 1990 because Sélestat and Central Alsace were on the margins of the metropolitan areas of Strasbourg and Colmar and lacked attractivity. Since 1990, the Strasbourg area greatly expanded to gradually reach Sélestat. The town has thus become more attractive to newcomers.
The population of Sélestat is relatively young, 36.2% of the population were under 30 in 2017 (France: 35.7%) and the percentage of people over 60 years old (23.6%) was lower than the national (25.5%) figure. Sélestat has a significant proportion of people between 15 and 44 (39.7%, compared to 36.4% for all of France) because it attracts a large number of young actives and couples starting a family. As other towns in the region, such as Saverne, Haguenau and Molsheim, it welcomes young adults and encourages them to settle in the surrounding villages.
## Economy
At the end of 2015, Sélestat had 2,142 businesses, most of them (1,441) in the tertiary sector. A large share were small businesses; only 9% had more than 10 employees. Sélestat is a retail and services centre for the whole Central Alsace, with a large shopping park and administrative and educational institutions. Industry is nonetheless represented by some large firms, such as the Société alsacienne de meubles, which builds kitchens and bathrooms under a Schmidt and Cuisinella franchise, Amcor (aluminium packaging), Daramic (battery separators), Albany (gauzes for the printing industry), Wanzl (warehouse material), and DHJ (textiles).
Most of the large factories are in an industrial estate located south of the town centre. Created in the 1930s, it covers a site of 67 hectares (166 acres). The newer commercial estate north of the town was developed in the 1970s and is dedicated to retail and cottage industry. It covers 134 hectares (331 acres). The town centre is also an important shopping area with more than 200 businesses.
## Sights and culture
In terms of architecture the city is one of the richest and most varied among the smaller cities of Alsace. Although it is only the 8th most populous town in the region, it has the third largest cultural heritage after Strasbourg and Colmar. Sélestat has 35 listed buildings and 119 additional sites that are indexed in the French list of cultural heritage monuments.
### Museums
The Humanist Library displays one of the oldest and most homogeneous collections of medieval manuscripts and Renaissance books in Europe. Its core is the still almost intact library of Beatus Rhenanus, which was bequeathed to the city and has been maintained by it ever since. The institution also holds the books that belonged to the Latin school of Sélestat, at which Rhenanus and many other reformers were educated around 1500. In 2011, the library has been inscribed in the Unesco's Memory of the World Register.
The library is open to both researchers and tourists, with an exhibition displaying some of its most noteworthy items: an 8th-century lectionary, the first books printed in Alsace, a copy of the Cosmographiae Introductio where the oldest mention of America can be found, and a 1521 document which contains the oldest record of a Christmas tree.
Sélestat also has a museum dedicated to bread and baking and it is the seat of the FRAC d'Alsace, a regional institution whose aim is to collect contemporary works of art (see below, Cultural institutions and events). These works are regularly part of temporary exhibits in Sélestat and other places in Alsace. FRAC possesses works by Aurélie Nemours, Olivier Debré, Mario Merz and Panamarenko, among other artists.
### Religious architecture
Sélestat has two large and remarkable churches from the Middle Ages. St. Faith's Church is the oldest and a prime example of Romanesque architecture. Its design is related to similar buildings both in the Rhine region and in Lorraine. It was built during the second half of the 12th century to replace an earlier building. The church was renovated in the 19th century and a medieval death mask was found during this work. It is often attributed to Hildegard of Eguisheim, founder of the church, and is now displayed in a crypt.
St. George's Church has always served as the main parish church. It is often referred to as "the cathedral" because of its size, but it has never been the seat of a diocese. Its construction started soon after 1200 and was completed at the beginning of the 15th century. Its design is pure Gothic, save for a Romanesque side portal. The choir, the last part to be completed, is the most remarkable element. It is illuminated by 288 stained glass panels, of which 55 date from the 15th century.
Most of the convents of the town have disappeared; the Dominican convent is the only one to have retained much of its original appearance. It was built in the 13th century and still has its church and cloister. The Franciscan convent was completely destroyed, apart from the choir of its church, which now serves as a Protestant church. Sélestat also has an old granary that belonged to the Benedictine priory, and a 16th-century commandery built by the Knights Hospitaller.
The synagogue was built in 1890. Its architecture is typical of the region, with a square shape and discreet neo-romanesque ornaments. Its cupola was destroyed in 1940 by the Nazis and never rebuilt. The Jewish cemetery, located outside the old town, was opened in 1622. It has several 18th century gravestones showing a Christian artistic influence.
### Civil and military architecture
The old town comprises a large number of medieval and Renaissance buildings. The quai des Tanneurs ("tanners' quay") is one of the most picturesque streets in Alsace. A stream used to flow in the middle of the street until the beginning of the 20th century, the relic of a former noxious-smelling trade, since tanning required large amounts of flowing water for treating and washing animal skins. Most of the old tanner houses date back to the Middle Ages and have a tall attic to provide a ventilated space for drying leather. In the neighbouring streets, rue des Oies ("geese street") and rue des Veaux ("calf street"), many houses were covered with a coat of plaster in the 19th century in order to hide the timbering, which was considered too rustic.
Several hôtels particuliers (large townhouses) date from the Renaissance. Most of them have oriel windows that are characteristic of German Renaissance architecture. The grandest of these hôtels belonged to the Ebersmunster abbey and it has a large three-story granary. The Ziegler house has a beautiful oriel that shows the interest of the elite of that time in Antiquity. The oriel partly reflects Vitruvius's architectural legacy and displays the portraits of four key figures of Antiquity. Baroque architecture is visible on some later hôtels dating from the 17th and 18th century. French classical architecture and its main feature, the mansard roof, were largely employed in the 18th century. To reduce costs, buildings were still built with timber framing, but as this technique was considered too Germanic and rustic, they were often covered with a rendering imitating stone.
The German period (1871–1918) left some examples of Wilhelminism in the city's architecture. This prestige-oriented style is a mixture of various earlier styles, including Romanesque, Gothic and neoclassical. Noteworthy are the post office (1884), the courthouse (1900), the lycée Koeberlé (1913) and the water tower (1906). The latter (height: 50 m (160 ft)) was largely inspired by the water tower in Deventer, Netherlands.
The medieval city walls, built in several stages between the 13th and the 16th century, were torn down after the French annexation in the 17th century. However, four towers escaped destruction. The Tour des Sorcières ("witches' tower"), which served as a gate and a jail, is the tallest. The Tour de l'Horloge ("clock tower") was also originally part of a gate. The clock and the elaborate roof were added in 1614. Two much smaller towers can also be seen, one near the Ill river and another integrated into a later house. All these remains date from the 13th century.
New walls were built by Tarade and Vauban in the 17th century. They were in their turn destroyed in 1874. Only small portions survive: two bastions and the Porte de Strasbourg ("Strasbourg gate"), a good example of French architecture under Louis XIV. Sélestat still has two old arsenals, Sainte-Barbe on the main square (1470) and Saint-Hilaire (1518). The first, with a large crenelated gable, is a fine example of Gothic architecture.
### Municipal archive
The municipal archive (archives municipales) of Sélestat owns and exhibits numerous ancient documents, among which royal charters dating back to the 13th century and, most famously, the register dated from 1521 containing the first written mention of the Christmas tree.
### Illwald forest
The Illwald forest was designated a regional nature reserve in 2013. It covers 1,855 hectares (4,584 acres), almost half of the territory of Sélestat, and is one of the largest riparian forests in France. It lies on the Ill, which forms a complex hydrographic network there. The site is subject to flooding and it is characteristic of the Grand Ried, a flat region located between the Ill and the Rhine that serves as a natural spillway for the two rivers.
Common trees are oaks, willows and alders, which tolerate wet soils. Because the phreatic table is very close to the surface, soils hardly freeze in winter and drought rarely occurs in summer. The nature reserve also has meadows and reed beds. Common animals include a large variety of birds (storks, curlews, harriers), amphibians and mammals (beavers). The reserve is home to the largest fallow deer population in France. This animal was introduced to the area in 1854.
The Illwald contains three chapels that were originally pilgrimage destinations. The Schnellenbuhl chapel was built by Jesuits in 1683; Our Lady of the Oaks dates back to the 15th century but it was rebuilt after a fire in 1920; Our Lady of Peace was built in 1960, and St. Anthony was founded in 1280 but rebuilt in 1930.
### Other cultural institutions and events
Sélestat is the seat of the Agence culturelle d'Alsace ("cultural agency of Alsace", ACA) since 1976. Since 1982, Sélestat is the seat of the FRAC Alsace, the Alsace branch of the Fonds régional d'art contemporain ("Regional Contemporary art fund"), administered by the ACA. A biennale dedicated to contemporary art takes place every two year in autumn since 1984. It has welcomed artists like Daniel Buren, Ben Vautier, Sarkis Zabunyan and Agnès Varda. Since 2006, Sélestat is the seat of Archéologie Alsace (formerly known as the Pôle interdépartemental d'archéologie rhénan, the "Rhenish inter-départemental center for archaeology"), which conducts and documents archaeological field surveys and excavations in Alsace.
Every year since 1927, Sélestat has organised a large flower procession through its old town. The "corso fleuri" is one of the biggest floral shows in eastern France. New floats are made each year around a theme and decorated with dahlias only. A carnaval procession is also held in March. It is the remnant of a very old tradition started by the town's butchers. Sélestat also has festivals dedicated to electronic music (Epidemic Experience), satirical cartoons (Sélest'ival), a spring fun fair, and a summer medieval reenactment with a market and a procession.
The cultural complex Les Tanzmatten, built by Rudy Ricciotti, was inaugurated in 2000. It serves as the town's concert and performances hall, as well as for exhibitions, commercial fairs and weddings.
## Sports
Sélestat Alsace Handball is a noted French handball club. It was founded in 1967. FC Sélestat, the football club, was founded in 1906.
## Notable people
### Born in Sélestat
- Martin Bucer, German Protestant reformer
- Fabienne Keller, French politician
- Jacques Paul Klein, French-American Diplomat and General
- Eugène Koeberlé, French surgeon
- Heinrich Kramer, German inquisitor
- Johannes Mentelin, German printer
- Beatus Rhenanus, German humanist
- Charles Sitzenstuhl, French politician
- Joseph Wackenthaler, French organist and composer
- Nicolas-Joseph Wackenthaler, French organist and composer
- Jakob Wimpfeling, German humanist
### Connected to Sélestat
- Ludwig Dringenberg (died in Sélestat)
- Frédéric Fiebig, painter (lived and died in Sélestat)
- Thierry Omeyer (played professionally for Sélestat)
- François Ignace Schaal (died in Sélestat)
## Twin towns - sister cities
Sélestat is twinned with:
- Charleroi, Belgium, since 1959
- Waldkirch, Germany, since 1966
- Grenchen, Switzerland, since 1988
- Dornbirn, Austria, since 2006
## See also
- Communes of the Bas-Rhin department
- Humanist Library of Sélestat
- Décapole
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Sinsinawa Mound raid
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Native American raid of 19th century
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[
"1832 in the United States",
"Battles and skirmishes of the Black Hawk War in Wisconsin",
"Grant County, Wisconsin",
"June 1832 events"
] |
The Sinsinawa Mound raid occurred on June 29, 1832, near the Sinsinawa mining settlement in Michigan Territory (present-day Grant County, Wisconsin in the United States). This incident, part of the Black Hawk War, resulted in the deaths of two men; a third man survived by seeking cover in a nearby blockhouse. In the aftermath of the raid, Captain James W. Stephenson set out to pursue the attackers—a straggling band of Sauk Native Americans—but lost their trail at the Mississippi River. The attack occurred in the same week as other skirmishes and raids, and as a result helped contribute to the growing fear in the region. The raid caused the residents of nearby Platteville to consider fleeing their settlement.
## Background
As a consequence of an 1804 treaty between the governor of Indiana Territory and a group of Sauk and Fox leaders regarding land settlement, the tribes vacated their lands in Illinois and moved west of the Mississippi in 1828. However, Sauk Chief Black Hawk and others disputed the treaty, claiming that the full tribal councils had not been consulted, nor did those representing the tribes have authorization to cede lands. Angered by the loss of his birthplace, between 1830–31 Black Hawk led a number of incursions across the Mississippi River into Illinois, but was persuaded each time to return west without bloodshed. In April 1832, encouraged by promises of alliance with other tribes and the British, he again moved his "British Band" of around 1,000 warriors and non-combatants into Illinois. Finding no allies, he attempted to return across the Mississippi (to present-day Iowa), but the undisciplined Illinois Militia's actions led to the Battle of Stillman's Run. A number of other engagements followed, and the militia of Michigan Territory and the state of Illinois were mobilized to hunt down Black Hawk's band. The conflict became known as the Black Hawk War.
The period between Stillman's Run and the raid at Sinsinawa Mound was filled with war-related activity. A series of attacks at Buffalo Grove, the Plum River settlement, Fort Blue Mounds and the war's most famous incident, the Indian Creek massacre, all took place between mid-May and late June 1832. The week before the Battle of Apple River Fort (on June 24) was an important turning point for the settlers: between June 16 and 18 two key battles, one at Waddams Grove and the other at Horseshoe Bend, played a role in changing public perception about the militia after its defeat at Stillman's Run. The Battle of Apple River Fort occurred five days before the Sinsinawa Mound raid; the fight was a 45-minute gun battle between defenders garrisoned inside Apple River Fort and Sauk and Fox warriors led by Chief Black Hawk himself.
## Prelude
George Wallace Jones, who would later become a U.S. Senator from Iowa, arrived in the Sinsinawa Mound area in 1827, and in 1828 established a mining settlement there. The first structure at the settlement was Jones's own log cabin, built during the spring of 1828 in two days. The cabin measured 49 feet (14.9 m) by 17 feet (5.2 m) and each room had one door and one window. When the Black Hawk War began four years later he also built a small fort at the site. The remains of the fort, one of many constructed in the region to protect local residents, are said to still stand at the entrance to the Sinsinawa Dominican complex. One of the men who assisted Jones in building the fort's blockhouse was Enoch Robinson, a soldier who later helped bury the victims of the Sinsinawa Mound raid. At the time of the attack Jones was with Henry Dodge's militia volunteers, on the way to meet overall commander General Henry Atkinson at Lake Koshkonong, then a marsh region.
## Attack
On June 29, 1832, what was probably a small band of Sauk attacked three men working in a cornfield at the Jones mining settlement near Sinsinawa Mound. The Sauk took up a position directly between the settlers and their weapons. Two of the men—James Boxley and John Thompson—were killed by the raiding party; their badly mutilated bodies were later recovered. The third, an unidentified man, made a run for Jones blockhouse and survived the attack. The raiders were most likely a group of stragglers from the main body of the British Band, which was moving toward the Rock River with Chief Black Hawk.
## Aftermath
When news of the raid reached Galena, Illinois, Captain James W. Stephenson set out with thirty soldiers to pursue the raiding party. Arriving at Sinsinawa Mound, they buried the two "most shockingly mutilated" settlers there; both Thompson and Boxley had been scalped and Thompson's heart had been removed. Stephenson then followed the Sauk trail to the Mississippi River where it went cold, the raiders having apparently crossed the river. Stephenson's party returned to Galena empty handed. Henry Dodge ordered the various elements of the militia to rendezvous at Fort Hamilton to eventually join General Henry Atkinson near present-day Madison, Wisconsin. When word of the attack at Sinsinawa Mound reached George W. Jones he left the volunteers under the command of Dodge and returned to the settlement at the mound.
The attack at Sinsinawa Mound, compounded by other incidents around the region, helped contribute to the fear gripping the settlers. The people of Platteville, in present-day Wisconsin, contemplated fleeing to Galena, about 25 miles (40 km) south, as a direct result of the Sinsinawa Mound raid. Colonel Dodge dispatched one of his men, Frederick Hollman, to Platteville to reassure its nervous residents. However, by the time Hollman arrived the settlers had already been informed that the local Native American Ho-Chunk tribesmen were friendly. This and the subsequent delivery of promised supplies from Galena further placated Platteville's residents, and the threatened exodus was called off.
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63rd Street lines
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New York City Subway lines
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[
"1989 establishments in New York City",
"Brooklyn–Manhattan Transit Corporation",
"Independent Subway System",
"New York City Subway lines",
"Program for Action",
"Railway lines opened in 1989"
] |
The IND 63rd Street Line and BMT 63rd Street Line, also referred to as the 63rd Street Crosstown, Crosstown Route, or Route 131-A, are two rapid transit lines of the B Division of the New York City Subway system. The two lines run under 63rd Street in the Upper East Side of Manhattan, with a cross-platform interchange at the Lexington Avenue–63rd Street station.
Each line consists of two tracks in a stacked configuration, with the southbound tracks of each line parallel to each other on the upper level, while the northbound tracks are parallel on the lower level. Crossover connections between each line's respective tracks are located just to the west of the Lexington Avenue station. The IND line, the southern of the two lines, is served by F trains at all times; it connects the IND Sixth Avenue Line in Manhattan to the IND Queens Boulevard Line in Queens. It uses the upper level of the bi-level 63rd Street Tunnel to travel under the East River between Manhattan and Queens. The northern, BMT, line is served by the Q train at all times, although a limited number of N and R trains also serve the line during rush hours. Also known as the Second Avenue Connection, it links the BMT Broadway Line to the Second Avenue Subway, both in Manhattan. The crossover between the lines has been used in the past during service disruptions as well as during the Manhattan Bridge closures in the late 1990s.
These lines were conceived as part of the Metropolitan Transportation Authority's 1968 expansion plans, and along with the Archer Avenue lines and a small section of the Second Avenue Subway, they were the only portions of the plan to be completed before it was scaled back due to fiscal issues. The IND 63rd Street Line was originally planned to be extended further east into Queens as a super-express bypass of the IND Queens Boulevard Line. After these plans were abandoned in the mid-1970s, it was commonly referred to as a "subway to nowhere" because it ended one stop into Queens, without any infrastructure connecting to other subway lines in Queens. The 63rd Street Tunnel lay unused for over a decade, and its lower level, intended for future Long Island Rail Road (LIRR) service, was completed solely to support the subway line above it.
The IND 63rd Street Line between Queens and Manhattan opened on October 29, 1989, and was connected to the Queens Boulevard Line on December 16, 2001. The BMT 63rd Street Line in Manhattan was only used for regular service starting in 2017, when the Second Avenue Subway's first phase opened.
## Extent and service
The following services use the 63rd Street Lines:
The 63rd Street Lines comprise two physical pairs of trackage; each track pair's mileage is measured via different subway chaining schemes. One is chained as part of the Independent Subway System (IND), and the other is chained as part of the Brooklyn–Manhattan Transit Corporation (BMT).
The IND line begins as a northward continuation of the IND Sixth Avenue Line at 57th Street station. It runs under Sixth Avenue and Central Park, turning east under 63rd Street and running through the 63rd Street Tunnel under the East River, with stations at Main Street on Roosevelt Island and at 21st Street-Queensbridge under 41st Avenue in Queens. At its eastern end, the line merges with the IND Queens Boulevard Line under Northern Boulevard, west of 36th Street station. This line is coded as chaining route "T", with the southbound track marked as T1 and the northbound track designated T2. Beneath the subway tunnel is a lower level used by the Long Island Rail Road (LIRR). It is connected to Grand Central Terminal as part of the LIRR's East Side Access project, which commenced operations in 2023.
The BMT line begins as a northward continuation of the express tracks of the BMT Broadway Line at the 57th Street–Seventh Avenue station. It runs under Seventh Avenue, Central Park and 63rd Street before turning north under Second Avenue and merging with the Second Avenue Subway. The tracks on this line are coded with BMT chaining, labeled as tracks G3 and G4 to distinguish them from the pre-existing G1 and G2 tracks associated with the 60th Street Tunnel and Astoria Line. The odd-numbered tracks carry southbound trains, while the even-numbered tracks carry northbound trains.
The two lines intersect at the Lexington Avenue–63rd Street station, where there are cross-platform interchanges for both northbound and southbound trains. Just west of Lexington Avenue-63rd Street, two diamond crossover tracks allow trains to switch between the two lines. This connection, not used in passenger service, allows trains to run from the Broadway Line to the Queens Boulevard Line and from the Sixth Avenue Line to the Second Avenue Line.
### Service history
The first segments of the two lines opened on October 29, 1989; the IND line opened between 57th Street and 21st Street–Queensbridge, and the BMT line opened between 57th Street-Seventh Avenue and Lexington Avenue-63rd Street. The BMT 63rd Street Line was not used for passenger service. The IND Line was usually served by , and trains; during this time, Q trains ran on the IND Sixth Avenue Line due to reconstruction of the Manhattan Bridge. From the line's opening until September 1990, service was provided by Q trains during weekdays, by B trains during weekends, and by an F/Q combination route late nights. Starting in September 1990, evening Q service was replaced by the B instead. In April 1993, the F/Q combination designation was dropped and was simply known as F. The JFK Express also served the IND line very briefly; the service was discontinued on April 15, 1990. From April to November 1995, as part of the Manhattan Bridge reconstruction, the bridge's north side (Sixth Avenue) tracks closed during middays and weekends; the Q ran on the BMT Broadway Line during these times, using the BMT 63rd Street Line and switching to the IND 63rd Street Line to Queens west of Lexington Avenue-63rd Street.
In May 1997, 63rd Street Shuttle service via the IND Sixth Avenue Line replaced F service during late nights. Between February 22, 1998, and May 22, 1999, service between the Sixth Avenue Line and the 63rd Street Line was suspended because of construction on the IND tracks. B and Q trains were cut back to 57th Street, and the late night shuttle suspended. During this time, a different shuttle provided full-time service between 21st Street–Queensbridge and 34th Street-Herald Square via the BMT Broadway Line; for instance, in 1995, this shuttle switched between the IND and BMT Lines west of Lexington Avenue station. On May 22, 1999, the B and Q returned to 21st Street–Queensbridge.
On July 22, 2001, the north side tracks of the Manhattan Bridge, which served the Sixth Avenue Line, closed. B and Q service on the IND 63rd Street Line was replaced with a full-time shuttle via the Sixth Avenue Line. On December 16, 2001, the 63rd Street Connector to the IND Queens Boulevard Line officially opened, and the F was rerouted to serve the IND Line at all times, replacing the shuttle and assuming its current service pattern.
On January 1, 2017, the first phase of the Second Avenue Subway opened, extending the Q (now running via the BMT Broadway Line), and some rush-hour N short turn trips, along the BMT 63rd Street Line. The Q and N then turned north to connect to the Second Avenue Subway, terminating at 96th Street. Before the Second Avenue Subway opened in 2017, the BMT line was generally not used for passenger service, except for detours due to emergencies or construction on other lines (including the aforementioned periods in 1995 and 1998). Because the line was not used in regular service from 1989 to 2016, it was not shown on the official subway map, except in 1995 and 1998. Prior to 2011, these tracks were also used to store train sets outside of rush hour.
## History
### Early plans
In February 1963, the New York City Transit Authority (NYCTA) proposed a two-track East River subway tunnel under 76th Street with unspecified connections to the rest of the transit network, at a cost of \$139 million. In a May 2, 1963, report, the proposed site of the tunnel was switched to 59th Street. On May 24, Mayor Wagner suggested that a tunnel around 61st Street "be built with all deliberate speed". On October 17, 1963, the Board of Estimate approved a new East River tunnel sited at 64th Street, noting that it would cost \$30 million and take seven years to build. The 64th Street site was said to be \$5.3 million less expensive, "because of easier grades and smaller curves".
The lack of specificity about how the tunnel would be used was criticized at an early date. In December 1964, the Citizens Budget Committee said that the project, now shifted to 63rd Street, was "leading nowhere-to-nowhere". The Committee went on to propose three connections that were eventually adopted (connections to the BMT Broadway Line and IND Sixth Avenue Line, both at 57th Street, and to the IND Queens Boulevard Line near Queens Plaza), and one that was not adopted (a connection to the IRT Lexington Avenue Line).
The route was changed to 63rd Street because officials at Rockefeller Institute at 64th Street feared that heavy construction and later train movements so close to the institute's buildings might have adversely affected delicate instruments at the Institute and change the accuracy of the research being conducted. The Board of Estimate approved the revised 63rd Street route on January 14, 1965, at a budget of \$28.1 million and a four-year timetable, with the connections to the rest of the transit network awaiting a study that was then scheduled for completion in mid-1966. The New York Times noted that "A variety of possible connections...are under study," including possible new lines under Madison and Second Avenues. The NYCTA's chairman, Joseph E. O'Grady, said that the tunnel and the subway connections would eventually be completed at about the same time, "since construction of the tunnel takes at least a year longer than the connections".
In 1966, Mayor John Lindsay gave his approval for the 63rd Street option, preferring it over the 61st Street option. Lindsay's administration proposed a new station at 63rd Street to connect with the Lexington Avenue/59th Street station via an underground arcade surrounded by retail areas. Communities along the route of the proposed crosstown tunnel disagreed on the exact routing. Advocacy groups such as the Citizens Budget Commission, Citizens Union, and the Commerce and Industry Association preferred a 61st Street routing for easier interchange with the Lexington Avenue/59th Street station. Queens civic leaders supported the 63rd Street proposal, saying that a transfer station at 61st Street would worsen congestion on the already busy Lexington Avenue Line.
A third track was added to the plans for the tunnel in April 1966. The track would serve Long Island Rail Road (LIRR) trains to east Midtown, alleviating train traffic into Pennsylvania Station. That August, a fourth track was added to the plans after it was determined that LIRR trains would be too large to run on subway tracks. This amendment increased the number of LIRR tracks to two, and provided dedicated tracks for the LIRR and the subway.
In November 1967, voters approved a \$2.5 billion transportation bond issue, and in early 1968, under the Program for Action, officials provided detailed plans for how it would be used. Among many other projects, the proposal included:
- Three portions of a new 63rd Street–Southeast Queens line. This included a bi-level 63rd Street tunnel for both subway and Long Island Rail Road service; a super-express bypass for the IND Queens Boulevard Line running along the LIRR Main Line between Northern Boulevard and Forest Hills–71st Avenue; and an IND Queens Boulevard branch line running along the LIRR Atlantic Branch right-of-way.
- A new Long Island Expressway line for northeastern Queens, running to Queens College and Kissena Boulevard with a later extension to Springfield Boulevard
- A new Archer Avenue subway line for eastern Queens, running to 188th Street in Hollis
- A Second Avenue Subway line, with multiple connections to the 63rd Street line
This proposal, with some modifications, received approval from the Board of Estimate on September 21, 1968.
### Construction
Plans for the 63rd Street Line were approved by the New York City Board of Estimate on June 3, 1969. Groundbreaking ceremonies for the line took place on November 24, 1969, at Vernon Boulevard and 21st Street in Queensbridge Park, Long Island City. Workers tunneled westward from Queens, as well as in both directions under Roosevelt Island. Four 38-foot-square (12 m) prefabricated sections of the 63rd Street Tunnel were constructed at Port Deposit, Maryland, then towed to New York and sunk under the East River. The first of the tunnel segments was delivered in May 1971 and was lowered into place on August 29, 1971; the last section was lowered on March 14, 1972. The double-deck, 3,140-foot (960 m) tunnel under the East River was "holed through" on October 10, 1972, with the separate sections of tunnels being connected.
One section of the line that ran through Central Park was controversial because it called for 1,500 feet (460 m) of cut-and-cover tunneling, which would require digging an open trench through Central Park. In May 1970, Manhattan Community Board 8 held a meeting so constituents could voice concerns about the project's impact. The next month, Mayor John Lindsay told city engineers to write a report that studied ways to reduce the project's impact. The results of the report, released in January 1971, called for using tunnel boring machines underneath Central Park to reduce disruption. In February 1971, the NYCTA published advertisements in newspapers, seeking construction bids for the tunnels under Central Park. After the advertisements had run for three days, the NYCTA withdrew them after community and conservation groups objected. Later that month, the NYCTA finally agreed to halve the width of the proposed 75-foot (23 m)-wide cut, which resulted in a proportionate decrease in the area of affected parkland. The NYCTA also agreed to reduce disruption to the Heckscher Playground, located above the proposed subway tunnel's path, by cutting construction time from three years to two years and by constructing a temporary playground nearby. In March, the NYCTA again sought construction bids. The sections that connected to the existing Broadway and Sixth Avenue Lines were holed through on October 11, 1973. Construction on the section between 5th Avenue and Park Avenue began in August 1974. The project involved digging a 45-foot (14 m)-high cavern underneath the street.
On March 20, 1975, New York mayor Abraham Beame announced significant cutbacks to the plan. Construction of the Southeastern Queens extension was deferred until 1981, and the Long Island Rail Road extension through the lower level of the 63rd Street tunnel was canceled for the foreseeable future. However, it was still anticipated that the Queens Boulevard super-express and the Archer Avenue Line up to Parsons/Archer would still be completed. The Queens project, although curtailed, was given priority because it was "more advanced in construction".
By January 1976, the tunnel was 95% complete. In May, construction was briefly halted when residents jumped into utility pits to protest the cutting of trees near the Lexington Avenue station. A US federal judge issued a stop-work order on May 13, but issued another verdict five days later that allowed construction to proceed. Construction resumed on May 25, after three weeks of protests, and the trees were cut down anyway.
In summer 1976, the NYCTA announced that "it will take an extra five or six years—until 1987 or 1988—to complete the new Manhattan–Queens trunk subway line from Central Park to Jamaica via the new 63rd Street tunnel." The main cause of the delay was the 5.8-mile "super express", although it was expected that the three new Archer Avenue line stations could be ready sooner. As an interim measure, the NYCTA proposed a new station at Northern Boulevard, adjacent to the Queens Plaza, which could possibly open by 1983 or 1984. However, there were also a lack of federal funds, so this could not be completed immediately. By this time, there were only going to be seven stations on the 63rd Street and Archer Avenue Lines combined. At the time, these two lines were part of the same route, the 63rd Street–Southeast Queens line.
The Manhattan portion of the line was completed in 1976. The Times noted:
> Underneath Central Park lie two eerily quiet sets of tracks. They have advanced equipment – welded tracks, fluorescent lighting and rubber-based pads under the rail – that have not yet been installed on most of the system's 230 operating miles.
>
> These tunnels were finished in 1976. This year, the contractor will tear down his two-story office in Central Park, remove the fence near Fifth Avenue and restore foliage and the bird house he damaged, at a cost of \$300,000.
>
> By 1981, five years after completion of the tunnel, the Transit Authority expects to put it to use; its brand new quiet tracks will be used as a storage yard for out-of-service trains.
#### Zoo York Wall
The Zoo York Wall was a graffiti wall within the line's length through Central Park, where subway writers and other street artists "made their marks" in the early 1970s. It was a temporary wall, erected by the NYCTA in 1971 to block unauthorized entry into the site of the 63rd Street Line running underneath the Central Park Zoo. Its name originates from the 63rd Street Tunnel (which it was supposed to guard), then called the "Zoo York Tunnel". During the tunnel's construction (1971–1973), the tunnel provided a subterranean gathering place for very early subway artists who hung around together in Central Park, and was named Zoo York by ALI, founder of the SOUL ARTISTS graffiti crew. The name came about because it was in a zoo in New York, hence "Zoo York".
Armored with polished aluminium in the futile hope of resisting spray-paint and permanent marker ink, the wall did little to dissuade teenage graffiti writers from climbing over and descending into the tunnel during its construction. Graffiti artists also marked their territory by "tagging" the wall which had been put up around the construction site. Upon completion of the subway project in 1973, the "Zoo York Wall" was torn down.
The name came about because the Central Park Zoo at that time was a classical 19th-century menagerie, populated by wild animals displayed in open-air cages, who paced the bars back and forth neurotically—always hoping for an escape, yet paradoxically blind to the world beyond their cramped quarters. ALI noted that by contrast, here were these feral teenagers, himself included, living in a free society, who sought nothing more wholeheartedly than to crowd together in a deep, dark hole in the ground. Marvelling at their perverse urban psychologies, ALI decided that all city people were insane for seeking imprisonment in tiny apartments, offices, subway cars and the like, and declared that New York City itself was "not New, but a Zoo!" He named the tunnel itself "Zoo York".
### The unused tunnel
In May 1978, the Times noted, "What started out a few years ago as 40 miles of new subway routes to serve the long-suffering residents of Queens has been whittled down to 15 miles, is years behind schedule, and will cost more than twice as much as originally estimated....The line costs \$100,000 a foot, will be very short and will serve only a modest number of riders." The article now noted that the Queens super-express had been deferred "to 1988 at the earliest", and the only sections in progress were the 63rd Street Line to Northern Boulevard, and "a small piece along Archer Avenue". The 63rd Street Line's opening date was projected for 1985. The plan depended on the idea that Queens Boulevard riders would be willing to exit the subway at Queens Plaza and walk a city block to a new station at Northern Boulevard to continue their trip. The NYCTA projected that this transfer would draw 11,000 passengers a day.
By October 1980, officials considered stopping both projects and spending the money on maintaining the existing system. By then, the Archer Avenue project was projected for completion in 1984, and the 63rd Street line in 1985. The Times noted that the lower level of the 63rd Street tunnel was still under construction, even though it would remain unused indefinitely. Richard Ravitch, the MTA chairman, said that to stop the work was "so costly as to make it impractical subsequent to the construction of the subway portion." It "had to be finished – largely for structural reasons – to support the subway tunnel above". The line was described as a "tunnel to nowhere" because the tunnel would have one station in Queens, and because it would not connect to any other lines.
In 1979, the New York City Department of Transportation and a steering committee started reexamining the New Routes program. The Queens Transit Alternatives Study was undertaken, evaluated 18 transit plans, and recommended that 5 be further evaluated. The MTA unveiled five proposals to local communities in the spring of 1983. The proposals ranged from leaving it as-is, with the line's terminus in Long Island City, to the original 1960s plan to connect the 63rd Street Line to the LIRR Main Line, the cost of which was now estimated at \$1 billion. At 21st Street–Queensbridge, usage estimates for that station in 1984 were 220 passengers per hour unless a connection was made to the rest of the system. These options were formally evaluated by an Alternative Analysis/Draft Environmental Impact Statement completed by the Federal Transit Administration and the MTA in May 1984. The MTA was studying four options for making this line more useful:
1. The Queens Express Bypass: extending the line along the LIRR Main Line to Forest Hills–71st Avenue. It would be completed in 1998 and cost \$931 million. This was the original plan for this line proposed in the 1968 Program for Action. This was also the only option that the MTA felt that would add passenger and train capacity to the and express services. At a proposed station at Northern Boulevard, a transfer concourse to Queens Plaza would have allowed transfers between local, express, and bypass trains.
2. Feeding the line into the IND Queens Boulevard Line's local tracks under Northern Boulevard. This alternative would be completed the earliest, by 1993; ran the shortest distance, with only 1,500 feet between 29th Street and Northern Boulevard; and was the cheapest, at a cost of \$222 million. However, the and services in Queens, the most crowded in the system, would not see any added capacity from such a connection, while the 63rd Street line would run at only 1⁄3 of its total capacity, in addition to reducing the viability of future extensions to the line. It would also require the service to terminate at Court Square instead of operating local on the Queens Boulevard Line. An option similar to this was ultimately chosen, and the was rerouted through the line to reduce congestion, with G service eliminated north of Court Square (see below).
3. Extending the line through the Sunnyside Yard and onto the LIRR Montauk Branch, running directly to the lower level of the Archer Avenue Line in Jamaica. The Montauk Branch in Queens is currently used for freight service, last seeing passenger service in 1998, and would have been rebuilt and electrified. The Montauk line would merge with the BMT Jamaica elevated at Lefferts Boulevard just west of 121st Street, using the BMT approach to the Archer Avenue subway. The Jamaica El would be truncated to Crescent Street in Brooklyn and replaced by bus service. New stations would be built at Thomson Avenue within the Sunnyside Yard, and at Fresh Pond Road (the site of the former Fresh Pond station) and Woodhaven Boulevard (at the former Ridgewood station site) along the Montauk Branch. The now-closed Richmond Hill station on the Montauk Branch would be renovated and lengthened for subway service. The LIRR would have exclusive use of the tracks during overnight hours for freight service. This \$594 million option would be open by 1997, but people living around the Montauk Branch opposed the proposal due to fears of increased traffic and danger from the Montauk Branch's multiple grade crossings, though plans called for new overpasses and access roads to eliminate these crossings.
4. Extending the line to a new subway/LIRR terminal at Thomson Avenue within the Sunnyside Yard, with a walking transfer to the Queens Plaza station, and a transfer to a new LIRR route that would go to Rosedale and Queens Village via the Montauk Branch. The LIRR would be rebuilt, grade-separated, and electrified. The Richmond Hill station would be renovated for additional LIRR service, while the Hollis and Queens Village stations would be converted from side platform stations to island platform configurations. This \$488 million option, to be completed by 1995, was also opposed by people living along the Montauk Branch.
The suburban Glendale, Ridgewood and Middle Village communities in central Queens strongly opposed any proposals involving the Montauk Branch, which ran through their neighborhood. The ultimately agreed-on plan was to connect the tunnel to the local tracks of the IND Queens Boulevard Line, at a cost of \$222 million, and a timetable of at least eight years. It was estimated that the project would attract 16,500 passengers per hour. This was the cheapest plan besides doing nothing. The MTA board approved this plan on December 14, 1984. The section of the line up to Long Island City was projected to open by the end of 1985.
By June 1985, the project was again delayed indefinitely. According to The New York Times, the tunnel had originally been planned to open that year, but then inspectors found that the tube was not ready for service. The tunnels had been inundated with 6 feet (1.8 m) of water, and several girders and electrical equipment had also deteriorated.
Two contractors were hired to assess the structural integrity of the tunnel, and the delay was estimated at two years. The federal government withheld \$31 million of funding for the tunnel in July 1985 due to "'wholly inadequate' management of the tunnel's construction". In August 1985, at the instigation of Senator Al D'Amato, the federal government suspended funding on both the 63rd Street and Archer Avenue projects over "concerns with the construction management practices". The two projects had cost nearly \$1 billion between them, of which the federal government had provided \$530 million for 63rd Street and \$295 million for Archer Avenue.
### Opening
By February 1987, the MTA's contractors had concluded that the tunnel was structurally sound, although federal funding had not yet been released. The MTA approved a new plan to have the tunnel open by October 1989. The agency also proposed a \$550 million, 1,500-foot connector to both the express and local tracks of the IND Queens Boulevard Line. Under the plan, the Queens Boulevard Line would be "reverse-signaled", which would accommodate Manhattan-bound trains on three out of the line's four tracks in the morning rush, and the opposite for the evening rush. This part of the plan was not projected to begin before the 1990s.
In June 1987, the federal government completed its own review of the project. "A little light appeared at the end of the Metropolitan Transportation Authority's 63rd Street 'tunnel to nowhere' last week", the Times reported, as the government's own inspector found the tunnel sound, and released the final installment of \$60 million for both the 63rd Street and Archer Avenue projects. The first train to use the extension was the "rail polisher train", a non-revenue move that occurred on August 1, 1989.
The 63rd Street lines went into service on October 29, 1989, twenty years after construction began, with new stations at Lexington Avenue, Roosevelt Island, and 21st Street/41st Avenue in Queens. The IND line was served by trains on weekdays and trains on weekends. The 1,500-foot (460 m) connector to the Queens Boulevard Line had not yet started construction. The BMT line was not in use at that time. It was built for future service options, including a connection to the Second Avenue Subway for service from the Upper East Side to Lower Manhattan. From May to November 1995, the north side of the Manhattan Bridge was closed for reconstruction during middays and weekends and the Q train was routed via Broadway at this time. It used the BMT 63rd Street Line to connect to the IND 63rd Street Line and serve Lexington Avenue, Roosevelt Island, and 21st Street–Queensbridge stations.
From February 22, 1998, to May 22, 1999, 63rd Street Shuttle trains operated via this line between 21st Street–Queensbridge and 57th Street–Seventh Avenue, later running further to 34th Street–Herald Square. The 57th Street/Sixth Avenue station was closed from 12:30 to 6 a.m. daily during the project. The project had initially been slated to be completed in fall 1999, but normal service resumed in May 1999, ahead of schedule. The 1998–1999 reconstructions were to replace the tracks, which had become deteriorated after eight years of use due to a flaw in the railway ties; namely, an "innovative" design of "shallow epoxy-and-sand pads" had weakened the base of the rails.
### Connection to the Queens Boulevard Line
Planning for the connection to the IND Queens Boulevard Line began in December 1990, with the final design contract awarded in December 1992. Two build alternatives were evaluated: a connection to the local tracks of the Queens Boulevard Line, and a connection to the local and express tracks. The goal of the project was to increase capacity on Queens Boulevard by 33% and to eliminate the dead-end terminal at 21st Street–Queensbridge. Bellmouths were constructed to allow for a future bypass line through Sunnyside Yard.
The remaining section from 21st Street to the Queens Boulevard Line, which cost \$645 million, began construction on September 22, 1994. The construction project also extended the lower level LIRR tunnel and involved a number of other elements, including the integration of ventilation plants, lowering a sewer siphon 50 feet, rehabilitation of elements of the existing line, mitigating ground water, diverting trains which continued to run through the project area and widening of the entry point to the Queens Boulevard Line to six tracks. In December 2000, the 63rd Street Connector was opened for construction reroutes. The connector was open for off-peak reroutes on January 13, 2001, and regular service was expected to begin by August or September of that year. However, the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks delayed the commencement of regular service. The connector came into regular use on December 16, 2001, with the rerouting of F service at all times to 63rd Street.
The 63rd Street Connector created a new path between Manhattan and the heavily traveled Queens Boulevard Line, increasing the amount of train service that could be run between Manhattan and Queens. With the F rerouted via 63rd Street, service through the 53rd Street Tunnel was replaced by the , a new local service that ran along the Sixth Avenue and Queens Boulevard lines. This service was discontinued on June 25, 2010, and replaced with a reroute of the .
### Connections to the Second Avenue Subway
The 63rd Street Lines were envisioned to connect the Second Avenue Subway to the BMT Broadway Line, the IND Sixth Avenue Line, and Queens. The BMT 63rd Street Line would directly connect the upper Second Avenue Line to the Broadway Line. Construction on the IND Second Avenue Line began in 1972, but was halted in 1975 due to the New York City fiscal crisis. As a result, the BMT 63rd Street Line was not finished and instead ended abruptly at Lexington Avenue-63rd Street station. In 2007, construction on the Second Avenue line recommenced and in 2011, construction started at Lexington Avenue-63rd Street to expand and renovate the station, and to complete the connection to the Second Avenue Line. This renovation removed the walls on the platforms and opened new entrances on the Third Avenue side of the station. The tunnel boring machine being used to create the tunnels for the first phase of Second Avenue Line broke through the wall into the lower level of the BMT 63rd Street Line on September 22, 2011.
On January 1, 2017, the first phase of the Second Avenue Line opened, extending the Q and N services under Central Park and eastward to the stop at Lexington Avenue–63rd Street before turning north at Second Avenue to merge with the Second Avenue Line. This created direct service between the Upper East Side and the existing BMT Broadway Line. The double-decked Lexington Avenue–63rd Street station provides cross-platform interchange between the two 63rd Street lines. Northbound trains use the lower level; southbound trains use the upper level.
The third phase of Second Avenue Line construction, which is not funded as of 2017, is proposed to include a separate connection between the IND 63rd Street Line and the Second Avenue Line, turning southwest from 63rd Street onto Second Avenue. This connection would allow trains coming from the IND Queens Boulevard Line to run on the Second Avenue Line to Midtown Manhattan and Lower Manhattan. However, the MTA does not plan to run passenger trains through this connection and it would be used only for movements by non-passenger trains, although passenger service could be possible if subway capacity in Queens is increased to accommodate extra service. Garbage piled up within the unused bellmouths for this connection; when the trash was cleaned up in 2021, MTA officials estimated that the rubbish piles might have been accumulating in the bellmouths since the 1980s.
### 2020s repairs
As part of a \$107 million project, the tunnels were scheduled to experience numerous service disruptions in 2023 to accommodate replacement of direct fixation track and cables, installation of new signal equipment, leak remediation, and repairs to concrete surfaces. Much of the concrete track was installed in 1981, eight years before the line opened. From August 28, 2023, through the first quarter of 2024, F trains will be rerouted via the 53rd Street Tunnel between Queens and Manhattan, and weekday M trains will be truncated to 57th Street in Manhattan, due to repairs in the 63rd Street Tunnel. An F shuttle train would run between Lexington Avenue-63rd Street and 21st Street-Queensbridge, stopping at Roosevelt Island, at all times except late nights. Shuttle buses would run between Queens Plaza and 21st Street–Queensbridge during the day and between Queens Plaza and Roosevelt Island at night.
## Station listing
|
1,563,275 |
California State Route 3
| 1,171,608,949 |
State highway in California, United States
|
[
"Klamath Mountains",
"Roads in Siskiyou County, California",
"Roads in Trinity County, California",
"State highways in California",
"Trinity Mountains (California)",
"Weaverville, California",
"Yreka, California"
] |
State Route 3 (SR 3) is a state highway in the U.S. state of California that serves Trinity and Siskiyou counties. It runs from SR 36 north along the shore of Trinity Lake, Fort Jones and Etna. The route then approaches Yreka, intersecting with Interstate 5 (I-5), and turns east to Montague. The road was numbered SR 3 in 1964, and most of it has been part of the state highway system since 1933.
## Route description
SR 3 begins at the junction with SR 36 south of the town of Peanut in Trinity County. SR 3 is also known as Bramlot Road from its southern terminus to Hayfork. This stretch of road through the Shasta-Trinity National Forest parallels the Hayfork River. Once SR 3 reaches the town of Hayfork, it travels along Hyampom Road east and snakes through the mountains to Douglas City and the junction with SR 299. From there, SR 3 runs concurrently with SR 299 north to the town of Weaverville. SR 3 then separates from SR 299, providing access to the Whiskeytown-Shasta-Trinity National Recreation Area and Trinity Dam along Lewiston Lake.
SR 3 passes through the towns of Covington Mill, Trinity Center, and Wyntoon before paralleling the Trinity River and Trinity Mountains as Weaverville-Scott Mountain Road and crossing the Scott Mountains and the Pacific Crest Trail into Siskiyou County.
In Siskiyou County, SR 3 passes through Callahan, Etna, Greenview, and Fort Jones as it turns northeast to intersect with Interstate 5 in Yreka. At this point, SR 263 continues in the northerly direction towards SR 96; SR 3 turns east to its northern terminus in the incorporated city of Montague.
SR 3 is part of the California Freeway and Expressway System, and a portion near the northern terminus is part of the National Highway System, a network of highways that are considered essential to the country's economy, defense, and mobility by the Federal Highway Administration. SR 3 is eligible to be included in the State Scenic Highway System, and is officially designated as a scenic highway by the California Department of Transportation for its entire length, meaning that it is a substantial section of highway passing through a "memorable landscape" with no "visual intrusions", where the potential designation has gained popular favor with the community.
The segment of SR 3 from Weaverville to Gazelle Callahan Road forms part of the Trinity Heritage Scenic Byway, a National Forest Scenic Byway.
In 2014, SR 3 had an annual average daily traffic (AADT) of 135 at U.S. Forest Service Road, and 10,000 at Moonlit Oaks Avenue, the latter of which was the highest AADT for the highway.
## History
The short piece from SR 36 north to Peanut was added to the state highway system in 1907 as part of the Peanut Road, which became Route 35 in 1917. Route 35 was extended north from Peanut to Route 20 (SR 299) near Douglas City in 1933, and simultaneously a new Route 82 was created, running from Route 3 (I-5) in the Yreka area southwest to Etna and east to Montague. The gap between Douglas City and Etna was filled in 1959 with an extension of Route 82 south to Route 20 near Weaverville; at the same time, the portion between Weaverville and Yreka was added to the California Freeway and Expressway System, which identifies the main routes of transportation in the state of California. The State Route 3 designation was applied to the Peanut-Montague roadway in the 1964 renumbering. The overlap with temporary I-5 (along the portion where SR 3 runs concurrently with Interstate 5 today) near Yreka was removed when the new I-5 bypass was built; the legislative definition was updated to reflect this in 1974, soon after the building of the bypass.
## Major intersections
## See also
|
23,722,369 |
Linda Martell
| 1,154,819,249 |
American country and R&B music artist
|
[
"1941 births",
"20th-century African-American women singers",
"African-American country musicians",
"American country singer-songwriters",
"American rhythm and blues singers",
"American women country singers",
"Country musicians from South Carolina",
"Fire Records artists",
"Living people",
"People from Batesburg-Leesville, South Carolina",
"Singer-songwriters from South Carolina",
"Vee-Jay Records artists"
] |
Linda Martell (born Thelma Bynem; June 4, 1941) is an American singer. She became the first commercially successful black female artist in the country music field and the first to play the Grand Ole Opry. As one of the first African-American country performers, Martell helped influence the careers of future Nashville artists of color.
Born and raised in South Carolina, Martell listened to country, gospel and R&B music. In her teens, she formed a singing trio with her family titled Linda Martell and the Anglos. During the 1960s, the group recorded a handful of R&B singles and sang alongside other black performers. However, the group had little success and soon parted ways. Performing as a solo act, Martell was discovered singing country music on an air force base. This led to an introduction to producer Shelby Singleton, who signed her to his Nashville label in 1969. The same year, the label released her country cover of "Color Him Father." The song became a charting single on the Billboard charts and her debut album followed in 1970.
Martell made several appearances on country music television programs and released two more singles with Plantation. She also made her first appearance on the Grand Ole Opry during this time. She later performed there 12 times. Following a series of business conflicts with her manager (Duke Raymer) and producer, Martell left her recording contract. She then retired from the country music industry in 1974 following a lack of success. Over the next several decades, she lived in various states and continued performing music. To make a living, she worked in public education and returned to South Carolina in the 1990s.
## Early years
Thelma Bynem was born June 4, 1941 as one of five children born to Clarence and Willie May Bynem in Leesville, South Carolina. Her father was a sharecropper while her mother worked many hours at a chicken slaughterhouse. To avoid helping with sharecropping duties, Martell learned to make dinners for her family when she was seven years old. Her father was also a preacher, which inspired her earliest music. She sang gospel music at church and was also drawn to country music. Clarence Bynem regularly listened to the country music of Hank Williams on WLAC, based out of Nashville, Tennessee. "Until we got into our teens we knew country music and that was it," she told the Courier-Post in 1998. Martell, her sister and cousin then formed a singing trio, which they called The Anglos. The group performed R&B music and sang in areas around Columbia, South Carolina. Local DJ, Charles "Big Saul" Greene convinced her to change her name from Thema Bynem to Linda Martell. "Your name is Linda Martell. You look like Linda. That fits you," Greene told her.
## Career
### 1962–1969: R&B beginnings and musical shift
In 1962, The Anglos took an eight-hour bus ride to Muscle Shoals, Alabama where they recorded their first R&B single. Re-named Linda Martell and the Anglos, Fire Records released "A Little Tear (Was Falling from My Eyes)" the same year. The single was unsuccessful. The group performed regularly. They also sang backup vocals for R&B performers, such as The Drifters and Jimmy Hughes. Linda Martell and the Anglos (sometimes credited as "The Angelos") released several more singles on the Vee-Jay label, such as "Lonely Hours." David Browne of Rolling Stone called the song "simmering, forlorn girl-group pop." The group parted ways after her cousin got married. Her sister left the group soon after and Martell was a solo act for the first time in her career. For several years, she continued singing R&B music.
While singing on a South Carolina air force base, Martell was heard singing country songs by Nashville furniture salesman William "Duke" Rayner. He offered to arrange for a demo record to be made, but Martell originally declined his offers thinking he was a "kook." However, after much encouragement, Martell accepted his proposal and Rayner became her manager. With the recent country music success of Charley Pride, Rayner believed Martell could be accepted within the same industry. "I figured that if I could find a colored girl that could sing country and western, I'd really have something," he told Ebony in 1970. She then flew to Nashville where she met producer Shelby Singleton. With Rayner present as well, Martell recorded a demo record. She also met with Singleton who convinced her to record as a country singer. Martell was surprised at the decision. "I was a little bit shocked! I was mostly doing pop. But he said, 'You gotta go country'," she told Rolling Stone in 2020.
### 1969–1974: Country music success
On May 15, 1969, Martell signed a management contract with Rayner and signed with Singleton's Plantation record label the next day. The Plantation nameplate (whose name derived from slave plantations in the American south) was disliked by Martell. However, she felt she had no choice but to go along with it. Soon after her signing, Singleton found material for Martell to record for the label. Among the first records he found was "Color Him Father", a then-recent pop song by The Winstons. She recorded the song (and ten other tracks) in one 12-hour work session. The song was issued as Martell's first Plantation single in July 1969. It climbed to number 22 on the Billboard Hot Country Songs chart. Its follow-up was Martell's interpretation of "Before the Next Teardrop Falls," which was later covered by Freddy Fender. Martell's version reached number 33 on the Billboard country chart in 1970.
In August 1970, her debut album was released on Plantation Records titled Color Me Country. The record reached number 40 on the Billboard Top Country Albums chart. The album was reviewed favorably by Billboard in 1970, which found her country singing style to be authentic. In later years, AllMusic rated the record three and a half stars with similar commentary. Her final charting single was issued around the same time titled "Bad Case of the Blues."
With her new success, Martell was hired by booking agent, Hubert Long, who helped arrange several entertainment opportunities. She soon made television appearances on The Bill Anderson Show and Hee Haw in 1970. She also made her debut on the Grand Ole Opry radio broadcast after Rayner played her recent record for an official at the company. With her Opry debut, she became the first black female artist to play the show and eventually performed there a total of 12 times. In the American south, she was marketed as the "First Female Negro Country Artist" and was put on package shows with country artists Waylon Jennings and Hank Snow. Martell later recalled that performing as a black country artist was often challenging. She remembered being taunted by white audiences, who often shouted racial slurs while she was performing. "You're gonna run into hecklers, and I did...You felt pretty awful," she told Rolling Stone.
As Martell's country music career progressed "the taunting lessened but never entirely went away," according to Rolling Stone. The name-calling continued to cause her professional conflict, but Martell continued performing nonetheless. She also ran into other professional conflicts. In May 1970, Rayner sued her because he believed he deserved a higher commission. Singleton helped bring attention away from the lawsuit. Singleton also informed Martell that he would not be promoting her as heavily because he found that label-peer Jeannie C. Riley was selling more records. Martell then left her contract with Plantation and cut several tunes for a different label. Singleton found out and threatened to sue the company. "He blackballed me...It ruined my reputation in country music," she recalled in 2020. After several more years of limited success, Martell ultimately chose to retire from the Nashville music industry.
### 1975–present: Other music opportunities and career switch
After leaving Nashville, Martell remained active in other sectors of music. For about two decades, she sang in small clubs in different parts of the United States. This included California, Florida and New York City. In these different places, Martell held various jobs, including entertaining on a cruise ship and opening a record shop. In 1991, she returned to South Carolina to be closer to her children. To make a better living, she became a bus driver for her home region's school district. She also continued to perform in a band on weekends where they entertained functions such as family reunions, weddings and fraternity celebrations. While many residents of her local area were not aware of her former success, co-workers at her school building did. In one high school assembly, a principal spoke of her earlier work: "Others study about black history. We have black history right here in our own school."
In the mid 2000s, Martell retired from her public school career and last performed publicly in 2011 with her band, Eazzy. In January 2014, the Swedish TV program entitled Jills veranda – Nashville (translated as Jill's Porch – Nashville) documented the search for and interview of Martell. The show's hosts traveled to South Carolina to meet Martell, discuss her music and why she abandoned her recording career. The hosts also performed with Martell on some of her songs. She became a topic of conversation in 2020 after country artist Rissi Palmer named her Apple Music podcast after Martell's 1970 album, Color Me Country. She also supports the underrepresented voices of BIPOC artists in country music through the Color Me CountryTM Artist Grant Fund.
`In 2021, a GoFundMe campaign was launched by Martell's granddaughter to create a documentary about her career and struggles as a black performer in Nashville.`
## Artistry and influence
Martell's musical artistry combined elements of country, gospel, and R&B music. Writers at Ebony magazine characterized her voice as having "gutsy, emotional soul," while also having a "background that is rich in gospel and rhythm and blues." Martell herself drew similar connections when discussing the way she approached recording "Color Him Father" in the studio. Writer David Browne commented that she delivered the song in a performance that was "a little bit country and a little bit R&B." When discussing her country style, Martell explained the storytelling aspect of the genre: "Country music tells a story...When you choose a song and you can feel it, that's what made me feel great about what I was singing. I did a lot of country songs, and I loved every one of them. Because they just tell a story." Katie Moulton of the Oxford American also highlighted Martell's country intonation in an article. Moulton also compared her musical delivery to that of torch singers like Dusty Springfield and Dinah Washington.
Martell was among country music's first black artists to have commercial success. Her career in country music helped inspire careers of other black artists in the industry, including Kane Brown and Mickey Guyton. In 2020, Guyton recalled searching on the internet for "black women country singers" and was surprised to find Martell's music. "I didn't even know she existed...I felt really bad when I discovered that I didn’t know," she recounted. Brown reflected similarly: "Color was a thing back then. It's still a thing today, but it was worse back then. She was so brave." Fellow black country artist Rissi Palmer commented to NPR that by creating her 2020 podcast she was "paying homage to the foundation on which my house is built, and that is Linda Martell."
Martell was honored with the Equal Play Award at the 2021 CMT Music Awards. It was given to recognize her work as a female black performer in country music. A tribute during the broadcast was given by Darius Rucker, Carrie Underwood, Rissi Palmer, Rhiannon Giddens, Jennifer Nettles and Mickey Guyton.
## Personal life
Martell has been married twice. At age 19, she first wed drummer Clark Thompson. The couple had three children. In 1966, the pair separated and she later remarried business owner, Ted Jacobs. Jacobs also brought one child from his first marriage and the family lived in Nashville while Martell was signed to Plantation Records. She discussed her domestic life with Ebony magazine in 1970, explaining the challenges associated with being a traveling performer while also being a wife and mother. "I'm used to spending time with my family," she recalled. After leaving the country industry, Jacobs and Martell separated. Jacobs' business partner and Martell then started a romantic relationship. Together, the couple traveled and lived in several states before Martell returned to South Carolina. In 2004, she was diagnosed with breast cancer and underwent radiation treatment. Making a full recovery, she later moved in with one of her children in South Carolina.
## Discography
### Albums
### Singles
## Awards and nominations
!Ref. \|- \| 2021 \| CMT Music Awards \| Equal Play Award \| \| \|-
|
2,920,392 |
HMS Raleigh (1919)
| 1,168,386,906 |
Royal Navy heavy cruiser
|
[
"1919 ships",
"Hawkins-class cruisers",
"Maritime incidents in 1922",
"Maritime incidents in 1926",
"Ships built on the River Clyde",
"Shipwrecks of the Newfoundland and Labrador coast"
] |
HMS Raleigh was one of five Hawkins-class heavy cruisers built for the Royal Navy during the First World War, although the ship was not completed until 1921. She was assigned to the North America and West Indies Station when she commissioned and often served as a flagship. After visiting ports in the Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico and both coasts of the United States and Canada in 1921–1922, Raleigh ran aground off Labrador in August 1922 with the loss of a dozen crewmen. The ship was partially salvaged in place and was demolished with explosives in 1926, although she remains a diveable wreck in very shallow water.
## Design and description
The Hawkins-class cruisers were designed to be able to hunt down commerce raiders in the open ocean, for which they needed a heavy armament, high speed and long range. The ships had an overall length of 605 feet (184.4 m), a beam of 65 feet (19.8 m) and a draught of 19 feet 3 inches (5.9 m) at deep load. They displaced 9,750 long tons (9,910 t) at normal load and 12,190 long tons (12,390 t) at deep load. Their crew consisted of 712 officers and ratings.
The ships were originally designed with 60,000-shaft-horsepower (45,000 kW) propulsion machinery, but the Admiralty decided in 1917 to replace their four coal-fired boilers with more powerful oil-burning ones. This change could only be applied to the three least-advanced ships, including Raleigh, although she was the only one who received the full upgrade. The ship was powered by four Brown-Curtis geared steam turbine sets, each driving one propeller shaft using steam provided by a dozen Yarrow boilers. The turbines were rated at 70,000 shp (52,000 kW) for a speed of 31 knots (57 km/h; 36 mph). When Raleigh ran her sea trials in 1920, she reached, but did not exceed, her designed speed. Raleigh carried enough fuel oil to give her a range of 5,640 nautical miles (10,450 km; 6,490 mi) at 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph).
The main armament of the Hawkins-class ships consisted of seven 7.5-inch (191 mm) Mk VI guns in single mounts protected by 1-inch (25 mm) gun shields. They were arranged with five guns on the centreline, four of which were in superfiring pairs fore and aft of the superstructure, the fifth gun on the quarterdeck, and the last two as wing guns abreast the aft funnel. Their secondary armament consisted of ten 3-inch (76 mm) 20 cwt guns. Six of these were in low-angle mounts, two in casemates between the forward 7.5-inch guns, another pair on platforms abreast the conning tower and the remaining guns on a platform between the funnels, although these last two guns were removed in 1921. The last four served as anti-aircraft (AA) guns and were positioned around the base of the mainmast. The rest of their anti-aircraft suite consisted of a pair of 2-pounder (1.6-inch (40 mm)) AA guns. The ships were also fitted with six 21-inch (533 mm) torpedo tubes, one submerged and two above water on each broadside.
The guns of the first three Hawkins-class ships to be completed, Vindictive, Hawkins and Raleigh, were controlled by a mechanical Mark I Dreyer Fire-control Table. It used data provided by the 15-foot (4.6 m) coincidence rangefinder in the pedestal-type gunnery director positioned under the spotting top at the head of the tripod mast. The ships were also fitted with one 12-foot (3.7 m) and a 9-foot (2.7 m) rangefinder.
The Hawkins class were protected by a full-length waterline armoured belt that covered most of the ships' sides. It was thickest over the boiler and engine rooms, ranging from 1.5 to 3 inches (38 to 76 mm) thick. Their magazines were protected by an additional 0.5 to 1 inch (13 to 25 mm) of armour. There was a 1-inch aft transverse bulkhead and the conning tower was protected by 3-inch armour plates. The ships' deck protection consisted of 1 to 1.5 inches of high-tensile steel.
## Construction and career
Raleigh was named for the Elizabethan explorer and statesman Sir Walter Raleigh and was the sixth ship of her name to serve in the Royal Navy. The ship was laid down by William Beardmore & Company at their shipyard in Dalmuir on 9 December 1915, launched on 28 August 1919 and completed in July 1921. Captain Sir Arthur Bromley was appointed in command on 14 February 1920. Raleigh was intended to serve as the flagship of Vice-Admiral Trevylyan Napier, Commander-in-Chief of the North America and West Indies Station (which became the America and West Indies Station, with the addition of South American waters and the absorption of the Pacific Station), and departed on 26 July, bound for her new base, the Royal Naval Dockyard in the Imperial fortress colony of Bermuda, to rendezvous with the admiral, but he died on 30 July.
Sir William Pakenham, the new commander of the America and West Indies Station, hoisted his flag aboard the ship on 12 August and she departed for Montreal, Quebec, on 1 September. Two months later, Raleigh returned to Bermuda and then visited Jamaica. She passed through the Panama Canal in January 1922 and continued northwards to drop anchor in San Francisco, California, on the 21st. The ship returned to the Bermuda the following month and then visited ports around Chesapeake Bay, including Washington, D.C. in May. Two months later, Raleigh returned to Canada where the general public toured the ship. On 3 August, Pakenham transferred his flag to the light cruiser HMS Calcutta and Raleigh became a private ship.
On 8 August Raleigh was bound for Forteau, Labrador, from Hawke's Bay, Newfoundland, and she entered a heavy fog in the Strait of Belle Isle en route. The ship ran aground at L'Anse Amour, Labrador, that afternoon, 15 minutes after entering the fog. She did not strike with much force, but the strong wind quickly blew her stern onto the rocks, which pounded multiple holes in the hull and gave her an eight-degree list. A dozen sailors died from drowning and hypothermia as the crew abandoned ship. Many men were able to find shelter ashore while the others lit fires to stay warm.
They returned to the ship the following morning to evaluate the ship's condition and to recover personal belongings, only to find a 260-foot-long (79 m) gash in the hull and most personal items ruined by leaking fuel oil. The light cruisers Capetown and Calcutta arrived later that day and fed the crewmen. In the bad weather little could be done immediately and many of the survivors were marched to Forteau to be transported back to Britain. The 18,481-gross register ton (GRT) Canadian ocean liner RMS Empress of France arrived on 10 August to load the crewmen, but her captain refused to do so as he did not have enough provisions for all the men. They had to wait several more days before the brand-new 16,402 GRT ocean liner SS Montrose arrived. Several hundred men were kept back to salvage Raleigh and to protect the wreck from locals intent on the same task. It was stripped of everything useful and the wreck was abandoned in place, still upright. Shortly after their return to the UK, Bromley and his navigator were both court martialled and found negligent in their duty; they were severely reprimanded and dismissed their ship. Their careers over, both men requested retirement.
Embarrassed by the sight of the apparently intact Raleigh visible to every passing ship, the Board of Admiralty deemed the wreck a hazard to shipping in 1926 and ordered it to be refloated. A survey found that this was impossible and the captains of Capetown and Calcutta were ordered to remove as much as possible from the wreck and then demolish the remains so that it was unrecognizable. The crew of the former ship carried out the first task and the latter's crew blew Raleigh's remains apart using depth charges under the command of Captain Andrew Cunningham over five days beginning on 23 September.
Cunningham's men made no effort to recover the pieces of the ship and remains are still plentiful. Royal Canadian Navy dive teams were forced to visit the site in 2003 and 2005 to remove live 7.5-inch ammunition, although there were reports of shells still visible as of 2016.
|
20,765,405 |
Un Poco de Amor
| 1,157,698,481 | null |
[
"1995 songs",
"1996 singles",
"Shakira songs",
"Songs written by Luis Fernando Ochoa",
"Songs written by Shakira",
"Sony Music singles"
] |
"Un Poco de Amor" (English: "A Little Bit of Love") is a song by Colombian singer-songwriter Shakira, taken from her third studio album Pies Descalzos. It was released on May 16, 1996, by Sony Music and Columbia Records as the fourth single from the album. The song was written and produced by Shakira and Luis Fernando Ochoa. "Un Poco de Amor" is a Latin pop song that incorporates reggae elements. Lyrically, it states that Shakira is waiting to find someone who loves her.
Upon its release, "Un Poco de Amor" received generally favorable reviews from music critics, who recognized it as a stand-out track from Pies Descalzos. The song peaked at number 11 on the Billboard Latin Pop Songs and Latin Songs component charts. While less successful than its preceding singles, its performance continued to aid its parent album in becoming her breakthrough record, which eventually attained platinum certifications in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, and the United States.
A Portuguese-language translation of the track titled "Um Pouco de Amor" appeared on Shakira's first remix album The Remixes in 1997. The song has additionally been performed during two of her concert tours to date.
## Background and composition
Shakira released her first official studio album Pies Descalzos in 1995 by Sony Music and Columbia Records. Assuming a prominent position in its production, she co-wrote and co-produced each of the eleven tracks included on the record. Serviced as the fourth single from the project, "Un Poco de Amor" saw additional songwriting and production from Luis Fernando Ochoa. The track is heavily influenced by Latin pop elements, and additionally incorporates reggae styles. Lyrically, it states that Shakira is waiting to find someone who loves her. It became her first track to include phrases in English, performed by the uncredited Colombian reggae singer Howard Glasford.
The accompanying music video for "Un Poco de Amor" was directed by Gustavo Garzón. The clip depicts a black-haired and red-haired Shakira dancing with Glasford, in addition to members of various ethnic groups. The music video received a Billboard Latin Music Award for Pop Video of the Year. A Portuguese version of the song, entitled "Um Pouco de Amor", was included in Shakira's 1997 remix album The Remixes.
## Reception
Upon its release, "Un Poco de Amor" received generally favorable reviews from music critics, who recognized it as a stand-out track from Pies Descalzos. Carlos Quintana of About.com complimented the track for its reggae influences, and placed it among his personal favorites from the record. Similarly, Jose F. Promis from Allmusic praised it for being a "dancehall-lite" track, going on to select the song as an "Allmusic Pick". The song peaked at number 11 on the Billboard Latin Pop Songs and Latin Songs component charts. While less successful than its preceding singles, its performance continued to aid its parent album in becoming her breakthrough record, which eventually attained platinum certifications in Argentina, Brazil, and the United States. Pies Descalzos was also awarded the "Diamond Prism" award in Colombia.
In 1996, "Un Poco de Amor" was included in the reissue of Pies Descalzos, titled Colección de Oro. In 2002, it was featured as the third track for Shakira's first greatest hits album Grandes Éxitos. Its appearance in both records was complimented as being reminiscent of her rise to prominence.
## Live performances
Shakira has performed "Un Poco de Amor" during two of her concert tours thus far. She first performed the track in Mexico City during her Tour Pies Descalzos, which ran from 1996 through 1997. It was also included during the Tour of the Mongoose, held in support of her third studio album Laundry Service. The song was notably absent from her Tour Anfibio, Oral Fixation Tour, The Sun Comes Out World Tour, and El Dorado World Tour.
## Track listing
Remix EP
1. "Un Poco De Amor"
2. "Un Poco De Amor" (Memes Dancehall Posse Mix)
3. "Un Poco De Amor" (The Extended Dancehall 12)
4. "Un Poco De Amor" (Memes Jazz Experience)
5. "Un Poco De Amor" (Instrumental)
## Charts
|
370,334 |
Angel tube station
| 1,160,237,375 |
London Underground station
|
[
"Former City and South London Railway stations",
"Islington",
"Northern line stations",
"Proposed Chelsea-Hackney Line stations",
"Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1901",
"Tube stations in the London Borough of Islington"
] |
Angel is a London Underground station in the Angel area of the London Borough of Islington. It is on the Bank branch of the Northern line, between King's Cross St. Pancras and Old Street stations, in Travelcard Zone 1. The station was originally built by the City & South London Railway (C&SLR) and opened on 17 November 1901. The station served as a terminus until the line was extended to Euston on 12 May 1907.
The station was rebuilt in 1992 to accommodate the large number of passengers using the station. As a result, it has an extra-wide southbound platform, surfaced over the original island platform which served both north- and south-bound trains. The station has the longest escalators on the Underground network, and the fourth-longest in Western Europe.
It is a candidate station on the proposed Crossrail 2 line from north Surrey and south-west London to south-east Hertfordshire.
## Location
On Islington High Street, the station provides access to several nearby Off West End or Fringe theatre venues including the Old Red Lion Theatre, Sadler's Wells Theatre, the King's Head Theatre and the Almeida Theatre. It is the nearest station to City University's main campus, Chapel Market, and the antiques market and dealers of Camden Passage. Between Angel and Old Street is the disused City Road station.
## History
Angel station was originally built by the City & South London Railway (C&SLR), and opened on 17 November 1901 as the northern terminus of a new extension from Moorgate. The station building was designed by Sydney Smith and was on the corner of City Road and Torrens Street. On 12 May 1907, the C&SLR opened a further extension from Angel to Euston and Angel became a through station.
As with many of the C&SLR's stations, it was originally built with a single central island platform serving two tracks in a single tunnel – an arrangement still seen at Clapham North and Clapham Common. Access to the platforms from street level was via three Euston Anderson electric lifts before the rebuilding of the station. When the C&SLR line was closed for tunnel reconstruction in the early 1920s to accommodate larger trains, the station façade was reclad with tiling and the lifts were replaced by new ones from Otis.
### Station rebuilding
For years since its opening, the station regularly suffered from overcrowding and had a very narrow island platform (barely 12 feet (3.7 m) in width), which was considered a major safety issue and caused justified fear among passengers. Consequently, the station was comprehensively rebuilt in the early 1990s. A new section of tunnel was excavated for a new northbound platform, and the southbound platform was rebuilt to occupy the entire width of the original 30-foot (9 m) tunnel, leaving it wider than most deep-level platforms on the system. The lifts and the ground-level building were closed and a new station entrance around the corner in Islington High Street was opened on 10 August 1992, along with the new northbound platform; the enlarged southbound platform opened on 17 September 1992. Because of the distance between the new entrance and the platforms, and their depth, two flights of escalators were required, aligned approximately at a right angle.
## The station today
The station's ticket hall has a sculpture of an Angel by Kevin Boys.
### Escalators
Angel is one of fourteen stations to have only escalator access to the platforms. With a vertical rise of 90 feet (27 m) and a length of 200 feet (61 m), the escalators at Angel station are the longest on the Underground, and in the United Kingdom.
In 2006, a Norwegian national skied down the station's escalator, hitting a top speed of approximately 30 miles per hour (48 km/h), while recording the stunt with a helmet-mounted camera. While the video went viral on sites such as YouTube, it was condemned by London Underground, with a press statement issued stating 'this is a dangerous, stupid and irresponsible act that could have resulted in serious injury or death to not only the individual concerned but also other passengers'.
### Station improvements
The station was refurbished during 2007. Additional CCTV cameras and Help Points were installed, bringing the total to 77 cameras in the station and nine Help Points, the latter upgraded with new induction loops to better aid hearing-impaired passengers. In addition, new communications equipment was introduced and damaged signs were replaced with new ones.
## Former siding
When Angel was first opened, a long dead-end siding was provided for train stabling, converging from the left onto the northbound line just south of the station. This was retained over the years but eventually it was closed on 23 January 1959 (along with the signal box at the south end of the platform) to simplify through running. The siding lay derelict and unused until the rebuilding scheme. Part of the siding was used as the northbound diversion tunnel, which branched off the existing northbound line, cut through into the end of the siding and continued along it until it branched off left to the new northbound platform.
## Services and connections
Train frequencies vary throughout the day, but generally operate every 3–6 minutes between 06:03 and 00:25 in both directions.
London Bus routes and night routes serve the station.
## Future proposals
Angel is a proposed station on the Crossrail 2 (Chelsea-Hackney line) project, providing an interchange between Crossrail 2 and the Northern Line. Depending on the route constructed, it would be between King's Cross St. Pancras and Dalston Junction or Hackney Central. It was officially safeguarded as part of the route in 2007, although there had been proposals for a route for some time previously and safeguarding had been in place since 1991.
## In media
The station's escalators and the southbound platform were featured in the Bollywood hit film Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge.
The station (prior to rebuilding) was the subject of a 1989 edition of the 40 Minutes BBC documentary series titled 'Heart of the Angel'.
|
940,063 |
The X-Files (season 6)
| 1,168,324,829 |
Season of television series The X-Files
|
[
"1998 American television seasons",
"1999 American television seasons",
"The X-Files seasons"
] |
The sixth season of the science fiction television series The X-Files commenced airing on the Fox network in the United States on November 8, 1998, concluding on the same channel on May 16, 1999, and consisted of twenty-two episodes. The season continued from the 1998 feature film and focused heavily on FBI federal agents Fox Mulder (David Duchovny) and Dana Scully's (Gillian Anderson) separation from the X-Files Division and the demise of the Syndicate—a "shadow government" group attempting to cover up the existence of extraterrestrials—in the two-part episode "Two Fathers" and "One Son".
The season was the first to be filmed in Los Angeles, after production was moved from Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. This move was done largely at the behest of Duchovny, who wished to be closer to his wife, Téa Leoni. Series creator Chris Carter opposed the move, although series director Kim Manners and Anderson approved of it, although to a less-vocal degree than Duchovny. The first half of the season also saw Mimi Rogers and Chris Owens' characters—Diana Fowley and Jeffrey Spender, respectively—become recurring characters.
Despite debuting with high viewing figures and ranking as the twelfth most watched television series during the 1998–99 television year, the season saw a slight decrease in ratings from the previous one, a trend that would continue until its final year. The season received mixed to positive reviews from television critics; some critics and fans were alienated by the show, due to the different tone taken by most standalone episodes after the move to Los Angeles. Rather than adhering to the previous style of "monsters of the week", they were often romantic, humorous, or a combination of both.
## Plot overview
In Washington, D.C., Agent Fox Mulder appears before an FBI panel regarding his experiences in Antarctica. Assistant Director Walter Skinner (Mitch Pileggi) tells Mulder that he and Scully have been denied reassignment to the division. Mulder goes to his former basement office, only to discover that Jeffrey Spender (Chris Owens) and Diana Fowley (Mimi Rogers) have been assigned to the X-Files. Going against orders, Mulder and Scully track down an escaped alien in Phoenix, Arizona while Cigarette Smoking Man (William B. Davis) gives chase. Mulder and Scully eventually discover that Cigarette Smoking Man has been using Gibson Praise to locate the creature. Scully brings Gibson to the hospital, where it is determined that he has the alien virus in his blood. Later, Skinner is mysteriously poisoned by a nanorobot infection. The culprit is revealed to be Alex Krycek (Nicholas Lea), a rogue FBI agent who formerly worked for the Syndicate, who continues to control the potentially debilitating nanotechnology in Skinner's system in order to achieve his goals.
Mulder and Scully later learn of reports of rebel aliens burning doctors who were working on Cassandra Spender (Veronica Cartwright), an alien abductee and mother of Jeffrey Spender. Skinner takes Spender to the scene, where Cassandra asks for Mulder. She informs Mulder and Scully that the aliens are here to destroy all life on Earth. She claims that a rebel force of aliens are mutilating their faces to prevent infection by the black oil. Cigarette Smoking Man reveals everything to Diana Fowley, who agrees to help him and betray Mulder. Cassandra later escapes from a hospital and arrives at Mulder's apartment, demanding that he shoot her because she is the embodiment of fifty years of work by the Syndicate—an alien-human hybrid that will trigger colonization if the aliens learn of her existence.
Fowley arrives and forcibly takes Mulder, Cassandra, and Scully to a CDC facility at Fort Marlene. There, Mulder runs into Marita Covarrubias (Laurie Holden). Marita tells Mulder that she was subjected to Syndicate-run black oil vaccine tests. Meanwhile, the Syndicate rendezvous at a checkpoint, preparing to be taken away by the Colonists, who are prepping for invasion. However, they are met by the alien rebels, who incinerate them all, including Cassandra; Cigarette Smoking Man and Fowley escape. Jeffrey Spender is then purportedly killed by Cigarette Smoking Man.
Several months later, a metallic artifact with inscriptions is discovered on the beach of Côte d'Ivoire in Africa. After Mulder examines rubbings of the object, he begins suffering from a headache, seemingly caused by the rubbings. Mulder's condition worsens, but he gains telepathic abilities. Chuck Burks (Bill Dow) tells them that the symbols on the artifact are Navajo. Eventually, Mulder passes into an aggravated delusional state and is placed under observation at a hospital. Hoping to find an answer, Scully rushes to Côte d'Ivoire and finds the massive wreck of a large spacecraft partially buried in the beach.
## Production
### Background
After five successful seasons of The X-Files, series creator Chris Carter wanted to tell the story of the series on a wider scale, which ultimately meant creating a feature film: the 1998 X-Files movie. The film grossed US\$83,898,313 in the US and \$105,278,110 abroad, giving a total worldwide gross of \$189,176,423. In its opening weekend, showing at 2,629 theaters, it earned \$30,138,758 which was 35.9% of its total gross. Initially, the fifth season of The X-Files was supposed to be the show's last. However, the series proved to be so lucrative for Fox that two additional seasons were ordered. Thus, the sixth season of the show began filming.
### Development
After five seasons in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, production of The X-Files moved to Los Angeles. "The Beginning" was the first episode of the series to be filmed in Los Angeles, California. The move was instigated by David Duchovny, who portrayed Mulder, in order to increase his opportunity to find movie work as well as to give him a chance to be nearer to his wife, Téa Leoni. Series creator Chris Carter opposed the move; others, like series director Kim Manners and Gillian Anderson supported the move but were less vocal than Duchovny. Fox network officials eventually made the decision to film in California. According to Andy Meisler, "The very first shot of the season, a long look directly into a bright sun shining on a barren desert, was designed to boldly announce the show's arrival in Southern California." As a result of the move, the episode featured a largely new group of crew members, hired by Carter, Frank Spotnitz and new co-executive producer Michael Watkins; this necessitated the show's new crewmembers spending five weeks, receiving, unpacking, and cataloging filming material from their Vancouver counterparts. Because of the shift from Vancouver to Los Angeles, some fans of the series were alienated. Many accused the show of "Hollywood-izing" the series by adding notable guest stars as well as making the plots simpler and more enjoyable for larger audiences. According to Space.com, a number of fans of the show specifically loved "the moody ambiance filming around Vancouver lent the series [during seasons 1–5]", which the sixth season reportedly lacked.
The move to Los Angeles also meant a drastic price increase for the series. Bruce Harwood, who played Lone Gunman John Fitzgerald Byers noted, "At the time, the exchange rate between Canadian and U.S. dollars was pretty dramatic. Somebody told me that the cost per episode doubled, even tripled, once they moved". In addition, the move further reduced the amount of expensive special effects the series was able to produce. Writer Vince Gilligan explained "everything in Los Angeles is more expensive across the board. [...] It became apparent very quickly to me that we were no longer going to have things such as nuclear submarines descending through the ice and trains exploding in the middle of the woods".
### Crew
Series creator Chris Carter also served as executive producer and showrunner and wrote five episodes. Spotnitz was promoted to executive producer and wrote five episodes, and wrote the story for a further two episodes. Vince Gilligan was promoted to co-executive producer and wrote seven episodes. John Shiban was promoted to producer and wrote six episodes, and wrote the story for one other episode. New writers in the sixth season included David Amann who joined as executive story editor and wrote two episodes, and Jeffrey Bell who also wrote two episodes. Freelance episodes were written by Daniel Arkin and Jim Guttridge, and a further episode was written by Ken Hawryliw, who was the series' property master from 1993 to 1998. Duchovny also wrote his first episode solo, as he previously collaborated with various writers, including Chris Carter, on three other episodes. Other producers included producer Paul Rabwin, co-producer Lori Jo Nemhauser, and Bernadette Caulfield who joined as producer.
Producing-directors for the show included producer Rob Bowman, producer Manners, co-executive producer Michael Watkins, and consulting producer Daniel Sackheim, who together directed the bulk of the season's episodes. Manners directed seven episodes, Bowman directed six, Watkins directed three, and Sackheim directed one. Series creator Chris Carter directed two episodes, while cast member David Duchovny directed his first episode of the series. The remaining two episodes were directed by Peter Markle and Bryan Spicer.
## Cast
### Main cast
#### Starring
- David Duchovny as Special Agent Fox Mulder
- Gillian Anderson as Special Agent Dana Scully
#### Also starring
- Mitch Pileggi as Assistant Director Walter Skinner
- Chris Owens as Jeffrey Spender
- William B. Davis as Cigarette Smoking Man
- Nicholas Lea as Alex Krycek
### Recurring cast
### Guest cast
## Episodes
Episodes marked with a double dagger () are episodes in the series' Alien Mythology arc.
## Reception
### Ratings
The sixth season of The X-Files debuted with "The Beginning" on November 8, 1998. This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 11.9, with a 17 share, meaning that roughly 11.9 percent of all television-equipped households, and 17 percent of households watching television, were tuned in to the episode. The episode was viewed by 20.34 million people, a marked increase from the fifth season's finale, "The End", which was viewed by 18.76 million viewers. However, the debut marked a drastic decrease from the fifth season debut, "Redux", which garnered 27.34 million viewers. As the season continued, ratings continued to drop. The last episode of The X-Files to reach over 20 million viewers was "The Rain King", which attracted 21.24 million. The season hit its nadir with the eighteenth episode, "Milagro", which was viewed by 15.20 million viewers. The season finale, "Biogenesis", earned a Nielsen rating of 9.4, with a 14 share, and was viewed by 15.86 million viewers, marking a 22 percent drop in viewers when compared to the season premiere, and a 15.5 percent drop in viewers when compared to the previous season finale. The season ranked as the twelfth most watched television series during the 1998–1999 season, with an average of 16.39 million viewers.
### Reviews
The season received positive reviews from television critics. However some fans were alienated by the show in its sixth season, due to the different tone taken by most stand-alone episodes after the move to Los Angeles. Rather than adhering to the previous style of "monsters of the week", they were often romantic, humorous, or a combination of both. Several episodes—"Dreamland" and "The Rain King" in particular—were criticized for their reliance on humor or for their lighter stories. Fans on the internet began calling the less-scary episodes "X-Files Lite". Other episodes were derided for their mediocrity. Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique called the episode "Alpha" a "run-of-the-mill monster-of-the-week episode". Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson, in their book Wanting to Believe: A Critical Guide to The X-Files, Millennium & The Lone Gunmen, called the episode "Trevor" "The X-Files at its most generic".
However, not all the sixth-season episodes were poorly received. The season's third episode, "Triangle" was largely lauded as a masterpiece by critics. The episode, which was shot in real time to look like it was filmed in four uninterrupted eleven-minute takes, was called a "classic" standalone episode and one of the "highlights of season six". The "Two Fathers"/"One Son" story-arc, which featured the destruction of the Syndicate, was called one "of the most coherent, [...] almost unbearably tense, hours in the series' run" by one critic. Finally, the Duchovny-penned "The Unnatural", which featured the story of an alien who fell in love with baseball, was praised by critics for its plot, directing, and originality. One review praised Duchovny's directing "excellence" while another referred to its ending as "heartbreaking".
### Accolades
The sixth season earned the series eight Primetime Emmy Award nominations, with one win. It won for Outstanding Makeup for a Series for the episodes "Two Fathers" and "One Son". Gillian Anderson received her fourth and final nomination for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series, and Veronica Cartwright received her second consecutive nomination for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series. Other nominations included Bill Roe for Outstanding Cinematography for a Series, Mark Snow for Outstanding Music Composition for a Series (Dramatic Underscore), Heather MacDougall for Outstanding Single Camera Picture Editing for a Series, Outstanding Art Direction for a Series, and Outstanding Sound Editing for a Series. This was the final season the series received Golden Globe nominations, with Gillian Anderson, David Duchovny and the series as a whole receiving nominations.
## DVD release
|
23,679,864 |
Parkside station
| 1,124,754,175 |
Former elevated LIRR railway station
|
[
"1927 establishments in New York City",
"1962 disestablishments in New York (state)",
"Former Long Island Rail Road stations in New York City",
"Railway stations closed in 1962",
"Railway stations in Queens, New York",
"Railway stations in the United States opened in 1927"
] |
Parkside is a former elevated Long Island Rail Road (LIRR) station on the north side of Metropolitan Avenue on the border of the Rego Park, Forest Hills, and Glendale neighborhoods in Queens, New York City. Opened in 1927, the wooden station was part of the Rockaway Beach Branch and was the northernmost station on the branch before the junction with the Main Line at Rego Park Station and the terminus of the line at Grand Street station in Elmhurst. It also had a connecting spur to the Montauk Branch east towards Richmond Hill station. The station was closed in 1962, twelve years after the LIRR had abandoned the Rockaway portions of the line.
## History
### Opening
Prior to the construction of the station, Rockaway Beach Branch service north of Ozone Park traveled via the Atlantic Branch to Flatbush Terminal, or via the Montauk Branch to Long Island City. Between 1908 and 1911, the branch was extended north past the Montauk Branch to the Main Line; this new grade-separated section was known as the Glendale Cut-off, and allowed service from the branch to operate to Penn Station in Manhattan.
On March 24, 1927, the New York State Transit Commission ordered the LIRR to construct a new station at Metropolitan Avenue along the cut-off to alleviate congestion at the Forest Hills station on the Main Line, and to replace the nearby Glendale and Atlas Yard stations (the current site of The Shops at Atlas Park at Cooper Avenue) on the Montauk Branch. The station was opened on September 15, 1927. It was originally named "Glendale" as a substitute for the former station on the Montauk Branch. It was renamed "Parkside" on October 23, 1927, due to its proximity to Forest Park, after protests over the station name from the local community. The Parkside name is shared with a nearby post office at Metropolitan Avenue and Continental (71st) Avenue.
The opening of the Parkside station helped spawn development in the area, which previously consisted of empty lots and farmland. Over 100 homes were constructed to form the Forest Hills Crest community. The block immediately to the south of the station, bounded by Metropolitan Avenue, Woodhaven Boulevard, and Union Turnpike, became an industrial superblock. In the early expansion plans of the city's Independent Subway System (IND) in the 1930s, Parkside was one of the stations that would have been absorbed into the new subway, connecting to the IND Queens Boulevard Line at its 63rd Drive station in Rego Park, north of the junction with the LIRR Main Line.
### Closure
In 1950, the Rockaway Beach Branch south of Ozone Park closed after the trestle across Jamaica Bay between The Raunt and Broad Channel stations was destroyed by a fire. The city purchased the entire line in 1955, but only the portion south of Liberty Avenue was reactivated for subway service as the IND Rockaway Line. Ridership declined on the remaining portion of the branch and service was reduced. Due to vandalism, the railroad removed the station's southbound track and put both platforms out of service in 1958. The platforms were replaced with a low-level concrete platform in the former trackbed. The Rockaway Beach Branch ceased operations on June 8, 1962, and all stations along the line, including Parkside, were closed.
## Station layout
The station had two tracks and two wooden high-level side platforms, with four small wooden shelters on both platforms. Exit stairs were located on Metropolitan Avenue. No trace of the station exists today.
North of the station, the line veered west to merge with the LIRR Main Line at Whitepot Junction. Just south of the station, near the Union Turnpike overpass, was a junction with the Montauk Branch, which was known as Glendale Junction. A wye from the westbound Montauk Branch track merged with the Rockaway Beach Branch going north, and another from the eastbound Montauk Branch track going south. The Rockaway Beach Branch passed over the Montauk Branch on a wooden trestle.
### Current condition
The Forest Hills Volunteer Ambulance Corps is located in the vicinity of the former station. The former industrial block west of the line is currently a shopping center. The land east of the line south of Metropolitan Avenue where the Parkside-Montauk spur used to be is currently the site of the Metropolitan Avenue Public School Campus built from 2006 to 2010; the northern entrance to the campus is on Metropolitan Avenue, and the school building sits on the former right-of-way of the northern Montauk connection. The bridge above the Montauk Branch has been demolished. The right-of-way south of the demolished bridge, the southern wye and the Montauk branch define the border of a nearby Little League Baseball field complex. Shortly after the opening of the Metropolitan campus in 2010, the trestle and overpass over Metropolitan Avenue near the school were deemed to be structurally unsound. However, no action was taken, and in 2014, a study of the condition of the line found that 20% of the underside of the bridge had exposed reinforcement bars.
|
8,702,096 |
Presidency of George Washington
| 1,170,851,889 |
U.S. presidential administration
|
[
"1780s in the United States",
"1789 establishments in the United States",
"1790s in the United States",
"1797 disestablishments in the United States",
"George Washington",
"Non-interventionism",
"Presidencies of the United States",
"Presidency of George Washington"
] |
The presidency of George Washington began on April 30, 1789, when Washington was inaugurated as the first president of the United States, and ended on March 4, 1797. Washington took office after the 1788–1789 presidential election, the nation's first quadrennial presidential election, in which he was elected unanimously. Washington was re-elected unanimously in the 1792 presidential election, and chose to retire after two terms. He was succeeded by his vice president, John Adams of the Federalist Party.
Washington, who had established his preeminence among the new nation's Founding Fathers through his service as Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War and as president of the 1787 constitutional convention, was widely expected to become the first president of the United States under the new Constitution, though it was his desire to retire from public life. In his first inaugural address, Washington expressed both his reluctance to accept the presidency and his inexperience with the duties of civil administration, but he proved an able leader.
He presided over the establishment of the new federal government, appointing all of the high-ranking officials in the executive and judicial branches, shaping numerous political practices, and establishing the site of the permanent capital of the United States. He supported Alexander Hamilton's economic policies whereby the federal government assumed the debts of the state governments and established the First Bank of the United States, the United States Mint, and the United States Customs Service. Congress passed the Tariff of 1789, the Tariff of 1790, and an excise tax on whiskey to fund the government and, in the case of the tariffs, address the trade imbalance with Britain. Washington personally led federalized soldiers in suppressing the Whiskey Rebellion, which arose in opposition to the administration's taxation policies. He directed the Northwest Indian War, which saw the United States establish control over Native American tribes in the Northwest Territory. In foreign affairs, he assured domestic tranquility and maintained peace with the European powers despite the raging French Revolutionary Wars by issuing the 1793 Proclamation of Neutrality. He also secured two important bilateral treaties, the 1794 Jay Treaty with Great Britain and the 1795 Treaty of San Lorenzo with Spain, both of which fostered trade and helped secure control of the American frontier. To protect American shipping from Barbary pirates and other threats, he re-established the United States Navy with the Naval Act of 1794.
Greatly concerned about the growing partisanship within the government and the detrimental impact political parties could have on the fragile unity of the nation, Washington struggled throughout his eight-year presidency to hold rival factions together. He was, and remains, the only U.S. president never to be formally affiliated with a political party. Despite his efforts, debates over Hamilton's economic policy, the French Revolution, and the Jay Treaty deepened ideological divisions. Those that supported Hamilton formed the Federalist Party, while his opponents coalesced around Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson and formed the Democratic-Republican Party. While criticized for furthering the partisanship he sought to avoid by identifying himself with Hamilton, Washington is nonetheless considered by scholars and political historians as one of the greatest presidents in American history, usually ranking in the top three with Abraham Lincoln and Franklin D. Roosevelt.
## Election of 1788–1789
Following the Philadelphia Constitutional Convention of 1787, a fatigued Washington returned to his estate in Virginia, Mount Vernon. He seemed intent on resuming his retirement and letting others govern the nation with its new frame of government. The American public at large, however, wanted Washington to be the nation's first president. The first U.S. presidential campaign was in essence what today would be called a grassroots effort to convince Washington to accept the office. Letters poured into Mount Vernon – from the people, from former comrades in arms, and from across the Atlantic – informing him of public sentiment and imploring him to accept. Gouverneur Morris urged Washington to accept, writing "[Among the] thirteen horses now about to be coupled together, there are some of every race and character. They will listen to your voice and submit to your control. You therefore must, I say must mount this seat." Alexander Hamilton was one of the most dedicated in his efforts to get Washington to accept the presidency, as he foresaw himself receiving a powerful position in the administration.[^1] The comte de Rochambeau urged Washington to accept, as did the Marquis de Lafayette, who exhorted Washington "not to deny your acceptance of the office of President for the first years." Washington replied, "Let those follow the pursuits of ambition and fame, who have a keener relish for them, or who may have more years, in-store, for the enjoyment." In an October 1788 letter, Washington further expounded on his feelings regarding the election, stating,
> I should unfeignedly rejoice, in case the Electors, by giving their votes to another person would save me from the dreaded dilemma of being forced to accept or refuse... If that may not be–I am, in the next place, earnestly desirous of searching out the truth, and knowing whether there does not exist a probability that the government would be just as happily and effectually carried into execution without my aid."
Less certain was the choice for the vice presidency, which contained little definitive job description in the constitution. The only official role of the vice president was as the president of the United States Senate, a duty unrelated to the executive branch. The Constitution stipulated that the position would be awarded to the runner-up in the presidential election, or the person with the second highest number of electoral votes. Being from Virginia, Washington (who remained neutral on the candidates) assumed that a vice president would be chosen from Massachusetts to ease sectional tensions. In an August 1788 letter, Thomas Jefferson wrote that he considered John Adams, John Hancock, John Jay, James Madison, and John Rutledge to be contenders for the vice presidency. In January 1789, upon hearing that Adams would probably win the vice presidency, Washington wrote to Henry Knox, saying "[I am] entirely satisfied with the arrangement for filling the second office."
Each state's presidential electors gathered in their state's capital on February 4, 1789, to cast their votes for the president. As the election occurred before ratification of the Twelfth Amendment, each elector cast two votes for the presidency, though the electors were not allowed to cast both votes for the same person. Under the terms of the constitution, the individual who won the most electoral votes would become president while the individual with the second-most electoral votes would become vice president. Each state's votes were sealed and delivered to Congress to be counted.
Before the votes were counted, Washington had declared his willingness to serve, and was preparing to leave Mount Vernon for New York City, the nation's temporary capital. On April 6, 1789, the House and Senate, meeting in joint session, counted the electoral votes and certified that Washington had been elected President of the United States with 69 electoral votes. They also certified that Adams, with 34 electoral votes, had been elected as vice president. The other 35 electoral votes were scattered. Informed of his election on April 14, Washington wrote in a letter to Edward Rutledge that in accepting the presidency, he had given up "all expectations of private happiness in this world."
## Start of first presidential and vice-presidential terms
The Congress of the Confederation had set March 4, 1789 as the date for the beginning of operations of the new federal government under the new Constitution. Owing to the formidable difficulties of long-distance travel in 18th-century America, Congress was unable to reach a quorum until April. The House finally achieved a quorum on April 1, and the Senate on April 6, at which time the electoral votes were counted. Washington and Adams were certified as elected.
Adams arrived in New York on April 20, and was inaugurated as vice president on the next day. On his way to New York City, Washington received triumphal welcomes in almost every town he passed through, including Alexandria, Virginia; Georgetown, Maryland; Baltimore; Philadelphia; and Trenton. He arrived in New York City on April 23, where he was greeted by New York Governor George Clinton as well as many congressmen and citizens. Washington was inaugurated as the first President of the United States on April 30, 1789, at Federal Hall in New York, then the nation's capitol. As judges of the federal courts had not yet been appointed, the presidential oath of office was administered by Chancellor Robert Livingston, the highest judicial officer in the state of New York. Washington took the oath on the building's second floor balcony, in view of throngs of people gathered on the streets. The Bible used in the ceremony was from St. John's Lodge No. 1, Ancient York Masons, and was opened at random to Genesis 49:13 ("Zebulun shall dwell at the haven of the sea; and he shall be for an haven of ships; and his border shall be unto Zidon"). Afterward, Livingston shouted "Long live George Washington, President of the United States!" Historian John R. Alden indicates that Washington added the words "so help me God" to the oath prescribed by the constitution.
In his inaugural address (), Washington again touched upon his reluctance to accept the presidency.
## Election of 1792
As the presidential election of 1792 approached, Washington, pleased with the progress his administration had made in establishing a strong, stable federal government, hoped to retire rather than seek a second term. He complained of old age, sickness, the in-fighting plaguing his cabinet, and the increasing hostility of the partisan press. The members of his cabinet—especially Jefferson and Hamilton—worked diligently through the summer and autumn to persuade Washington not to retire. They apprised him of the potential impact the French Revolutionary Wars might have on the country and insisted that only someone with his popularity and moderation could lead the nation effectively during the volatile times ahead. In the end, "Washington never announced his candidacy in the election of 1792," wrote John Ferling in his book on Washington, "he simply never said that he would not consider a second term."
The 1792 elections were the first ones in U.S. history to be contested on anything resembling a partisan basis. In most states, the congressional elections were recognized in some sense as a "struggle between the Treasury department and the republican interest", as Jefferson strategist John Beckley wrote. Because few doubted that Washington would receive the greatest number of electoral votes, the vice presidency became the focus of popular attention. The speculation here also tended to be organized along partisan lines – Hamiltonians supported Adams and Jeffersonians favored New York governor George Clinton. Both were technically candidates for president competing against Washington, as electoral rules of the time required each presidential elector to cast two votes without distinguishing which was for president and which for vice president. The recipient of the most votes would then become president, and the runner-up vice president.
Washington was unanimously re-elected president, receiving 132 electoral votes (one from each elector), and Adams was re-elected vice president, receiving 77 votes. The other 55 electoral votes were divided among: George Clinton (50), Thomas Jefferson (4), and Aaron Burr (1).
Washington's second inauguration took place in the Senate Chamber of Congress Hall in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on March 4, 1793. The presidential oath of office was administered by Supreme Court associate justice William Cushing. Washington's inaugural address was just 135 words, the shortest ever. The short and simple inauguration was viewed in a stark contrast to that of 1789, which was perceived by many as almost a monarchical coronation.
Although his second term began simultaneously with Washington's, John Adams was sworn into office for that term on December 2, 1793, when the Senate reconvened, in the Senate Chamber of Congress Hall. The vice-presidential oath was administered by the president pro tempore of the Senate John Langdon.
## Administration
### Cabinet
The new Constitution empowered the president to appoint executive department heads with the consent of the Senate. Three departments had existed under the Articles of Confederation: the Department of War, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and the Finance Office. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs was re-established on July 27, 1789, and would be renamed to the Department of State in September. The Department of War was retained on August 7, while the Finance Office was renamed as the Department of the Treasury on September 2. Congress also considered establishing a Home Department to oversee Native American affairs, the preservation of government documents, and other matters, but the proposed department's duties were instead folded into the State Department. In September 1789, Congress established the positions of Attorney General, to serve as the chief legal adviser to the president; and Postmaster General, to serve as the head of the postal service. Initially, Washington met individually with the leaders of the executive departments and the Attorney General, but he began to hold joint meetings in 1791, with the first meeting occurring on November 26. The four positions of Secretary of War, Secretary of State, Secretary of the Treasury, and Attorney General became collectively known as the cabinet, and Washington held regular cabinet meetings throughout his second term.
Edmund Randolph became the first Attorney General, while Henry Knox retained his position as head of the Department of War. Washington initially offered the position of Secretary of State to John Jay, who had served as the Secretary of Foreign Affairs since 1784 and acted as the interim Secretary of State. After Jay expressed his preference for a judicial appointment, Washington selected Thomas Jefferson as the first permanent Secretary of State. For the key post of Secretary of the Treasury, which would oversee economic policy, Washington chose Alexander Hamilton, after his first choice, Robert Morris, declined. Morris had recommended Hamilton instead, writing "But, my dear general, you will be no loser by my declining the secretaryship of the Treasury, for I can recommend a far cleverer fellow than I am for your minister of finance in the person of your aide-de-camp, Colonel Hamilton." Washington's initial cabinet consisted of one individual from New England (Knox), one individual from the Mid-Atlantic (Hamilton), and two Southerners (Jefferson and Randolph).
Washington considered himself to be an expert in both foreign affairs and the Department of War, and as such, according to Forrest McDonald, "he was in practice his own Foreign Secretary and War Secretary." Jefferson left the cabinet at the end of 1793, and was replaced by Randolph, while William Bradford took over as Attorney General. Like Jefferson, Randolph tended to favor the French in foreign affairs, but he held very little influence in the cabinet. Knox, Hamilton, and Randolph all left the cabinet during Washington's second term; Randolph was forced to resign during the debate over the Jay Treaty. Timothy Pickering succeeded Knox as Secretary of War, while Oliver Wolcott became Secretary of the Treasury and Charles Lee took the position of Attorney General. In 1795, Pickering became the Secretary of State, and James McHenry replaced Pickering as Secretary of War.
Hamilton and Jefferson had the greatest impact on cabinet deliberations during Washington's first term. Their deep philosophical differences set them against each other from the outset, and they frequently sparred over economic and foreign policy issues. With Jefferson's departure, Hamilton came to dominate the cabinet, and he remained very influential within the administration even after he left the cabinet during Washington's second term to practice law in New York City.
### Vice presidency
During his two vice-presidential terms, Adams attended few cabinet meetings, and the President sought his counsel only infrequently. Nonetheless, the two men, according to Adams biographer, John E. Ferling, "jointly executed many more of the executive branch's ceremonial undertakings than would be likely for a contemporary president and vice-president." In the Senate, Adams played a more active role, particularly during his first term. He often participated in debates in the Senate. On at least one occasion, Adams persuaded senators to vote against legislation he opposed, and he frequently lectured the body on procedural and policy matters. He cast 29 tie-breaking votes.
His first incursion into the legislative realm occurred shortly after he assumed office, during the Senate debates over titles for the president and executive officers of the new government. Although the House of Representatives agreed in short order that the president should be addressed simply as George Washington, President of the United States, the Senate debated the issue at some length. Adams favored the adoption of the style of Highness (as well as the title of Protector of Their [the United States'] Liberties) for the president. Others favored the variant of Electoral Highness or the lesser Excellency. Anti-federalists objected to the monarchical sound of them all. All but three senators eventually agreed upon His Highness the President of the United States and Protector of the Rights of the Same. In the end, Washington yielded to the various objections and the House decided that the title of "Mr. President" would be used.
While Adams brought energy and dedication to the presiding officer's chair, he found the task "not quite adapted to my character." Ever cautious about going beyond the constitutional limits of the vice-presidency or of encroaching upon presidential prerogative, Adams often ended up lamenting what he viewed as the "complete insignificance" of his situation. To his wife Abigail he wrote, "My country has in its wisdom contrived for me the most insignificant office that ever the invention of man . . . or his imagination contrived or his imagination conceived; and as I can do neither good nor evil, I must be borne away by others and meet the common fate."
### First presidential veto
The Constitution granted the president the power to veto legislation, but Washington was reluctant to encroach on legislative affairs, and he only exercised his veto power twice. He exercised his presidential veto power for the first time on April 5, 1792, to stop an apportionment act from becoming law. The bill would have redistributed House seats among the states in a way that Washington considered unconstitutional. After attempting but failing to override the veto, Congress soon wrote new legislation, the Apportionment Act of 1792, which Washington signed into law on April 14.
### Salary
On September 24, 1789, Congress voted to pay the president a salary of \$25,000 a year, and the vice president an annual salary of \$5,000. Washington's salary was equal to two percent of the total federal budget in 1789.
## Judicial appointments
Article Three of the Constitution established the judicial branch of the federal government, but left several issues to the discretion of Congress or the president. Unresolved issues included the size of the Supreme Court, the identity of the first Supreme Court Justices, the number and establishment of federal courts below the Supreme Court, and the relationship between state and federal courts. In September 1789, Congress passed the Judiciary Act of 1789, primarily written by Connecticut Senator Oliver Ellsworth. Through the Judiciary Act, Congress established a six-member Supreme Court, composed of one Chief Justice and five Associate Justices. The act also created thirteen judicial districts, along with district courts and circuit courts for each district.
As the first president, Washington was responsible for appointing the entire Supreme Court. As such, he filled more vacancies on the Court than any other president in American history. On September 24, 1789, Washington nominated John Jay as the first Chief Justice and nominated John Rutledge, William Cushing, James Wilson, John Blair, and Robert Harrison as Associate Justices. All were quickly confirmed by the Senate, but after Harrison declined the appointment, Washington appointed James Iredell in 1790. The Court's first term began on February 2, 1790, at the Royal Exchange in New York City. With no cases on the docket and little pressing business (a few procedural matters decided and 26 attorneys and counselors admitted to the federal bar), the term lasted for only eight days.
As Associate Justices left the court in subsequent years, Washington appointed Thomas Johnson, William Paterson, and Samuel Chase. Jay stepped down as Chief Justice in 1795 and was replaced by Rutledge, who received a recess appointment as Chief Justice. Rutledge served for six months but resigned after his nomination was rejected by the Senate in December 1795; Rutledge had alienated several Senators with his criticism of the Jay Treaty. After the rejection of Rutledge's nomination, Washington appointed Oliver Ellsworth as the third Chief Justice of the United States.
The Judiciary Act also created 13 judicial districts within the 11 states that had then ratified the Constitution, with Massachusetts and Virginia each being divided into two districts. Both North Carolina and Rhode Island were added as judicial districts in 1790 after they ratified the Constitution, as were the subsequent states that Congress admitted to the Union. The act also established circuit courts and district courts within these districts. The circuit courts, which were composed of a district judge and (initially) two Supreme Court justices "riding circuit", had jurisdiction over more serious crimes and civil cases and appellate jurisdiction over the district courts, while the single-judge district courts had jurisdiction primarily over admiralty cases, along with petty crimes and lawsuits involving smaller claims. The circuit courts were grouped into three geographic circuits to which justices were assigned on a rotating basis. Washington appointed 38 judges to the federal district courts during his two terms in office.
## Domestic affairs
### Selection of permanent U.S. capital
The subject of a permanent capital city had been discussed several times, but the Continental Congress could never agree on a site due to regional loyalties and tensions. New York City had served as the nation's temporary capital since 1785 but had never been intended to serve as a permanent capital. The city made numerous improvements in preparation for the new government, and the old City Hall was remodeled by Pierre L'Enfant to become Federal Hall. The Constitution said nothing about where the permanent capital would be. Interest in attracting the capital grew as people realized the commercial benefits and prestige that were at stake. There was much maneuvering by interstate coalitions that were formed and dissolved almost daily, as Congress debated the matter. More than 30 locations, including the Hudson Valley; Trenton, New Jersey; Wilmington, Delaware; Baltimore, Maryland; Norfolk, Virginia; and several locations in Pennsylvania, were proposed as the site of the capital. In 1789, discussions narrowed to a site on the Potomac River near Georgetown, a site on the Susquehanna River near Wrights Ferry (now Columbia, Pennsylvania), and a site on the Delaware River near Germantown, Pennsylvania. Both Pennsylvania sites nearly won congressional approval as the site of the permanent capital, but divisions between Pennsylvania's two senators, along with deft maneuvering by Congressman James Madison, postponed consideration of the topic into 1790.
Washington, Jefferson, and Madison all supported a permanent capital on the Potomac; Hamilton backed a temporary capital in New York City, and a permanent one in Trenton, New Jersey. At the same time, Hamilton's funding proposal, a plan in which the federal government would assume debts incurred by states in waging the Revolutionary War was failing to garner enough support to pass. Jefferson, understanding that Hamilton needed southern votes to pass his funding plan, and keenly aware that the Potomac capital concept would fail without additional northern support, made use of an opportunity provided by an encounter with Hamilton to stage an informal dinner meeting at which interested parties could discuss a "mutual accommodation." The deal subsequently struck, known as the Compromise of 1790, cleared the way for passage, in July 1790, of the Residence Act. The act transferred the federal capital to Philadelphia for 10 years, while a permanent capital along the Potomac was under construction. Hamilton's debt assumption plan became law with the passage of the Funding Act of 1790.
The Residence Act authorized the president to select a specific site along the Potomac for the permanent seat of government. It also authorized him to appoint three commissioners to survey and acquire property for the federal city. Washington announced his selection of a site on January 24, 1791, and planning for the new city began afterward. Washington personally oversaw this effort through the end of his presidency. In September 1791, the commissioners named the nascent city Washington, in the president's honor, and the district Columbia, which was a poetic name for the United States commonly in use at that time.
Construction on the White House (then called the President's House) was begun in 1792. Washington laid the cornerstone for the United States Capitol (then called the Congress House) on September 18, 1793. John Adams, Washington's successor, moved into the White House in November 1800; that same month, Congress held its first session in the Capitol. The following February, Congress approved the District of Columbia Organic Act of 1801, which officially organized the District of Columbia, and, in accordance with the Constitution, named Congress as its exclusive governing authority.
### Tariff of 1789
One of the most pressing issues facing the First Congress during its inaugural session was the issue of how to raise revenue for the federal government. Because direct taxes were politically unfeasible, Congress turned to the tariff as the main source of funding. The tariffs could also protect nascent American manufacturing by increasing the cost of imported goods, many of which came from Britain. Each region sought favorable terms for the duties on various goods. Because the federal government would be unable to even pay the salaries of its officials without passage of the bill, members of Congress were strongly motivated to reach a compromise. In July, Congress finally passed the Tariff of 1789, which Washington signed into law. The act created a uniform impost on goods carried by foreign ships, while also establishing a much smaller tax on goods carried by American-owned ships. The tariffs established by this and later acts would make up the vast majority of government revenue; more than 87 percent of the federal government's revenue between 1789 and 1800 came from import duties.
To enable the federal government to collect the import duties, Congress also passed the Collection Act of 1789, which established the United States Customs Service and designated ports of entry. One year later, the Revenue-Marine was established when Washington signed legislation authorizing construction of ten cutters to enforce federal tariff and trade laws and to prevent smuggling. Until Congress established the Navy Department in 1798, it served as the nation's only armed force afloat. Renamed a century later as the Revenue Cutter Service, it and the U.S. Life-Saving Service were merged in 1915 to form the United States Coast Guard.
### Hamiltonian economic program
After the passage of the Tariff of 1789, various other plans were considered to address the debt issues during the first session of Congress, but none were able to generate widespread support. In September 1789, with no resolution in sight and the close of that session drawing near, Congress directed Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton to prepare a credit report. In his Report on the Public Credit, Hamilton estimated that the state and federal governments had a combined debt of \$79 million; he projected that the federal government's annual income would be \$2.8 million. Drawing on the ideas of Robert Morris and others, Hamilton proposed the most ambitious and far-reaching economic plan that had ever been advanced by an American, calling for the federal assumption of state debt and the mass issuance of federal bonds. Hamilton believed that these measures would restore the ailing economy, ensure a stable and adequate money stock, and make it easier for the federal government to borrow during emergencies such as wars. He also proposed redeeming the promissory notes issued by the Continental Congress during the American Revolution at full value, thereby establishing the precedent that the government would uphold the value of its securities. Hamilton's proposal drew opposition from Madison, who was reluctant to reward the speculators who had bought up many of the promissory notes at a fraction of their value after the Revolutionary War.
Congressional delegations from Virginia, Maryland, and Georgia, which had lower or no debts, and whose citizens would effectively pay a portion of the debt of other states if the federal government assumed it, were disinclined to accept the proposal. Many in Congress argued that the plan was beyond the constitutional power of the new government. James Madison led the effort to block the provision and prevent the plan from gaining approval. Others contended that the debts should be repudiated, and the United States should refuse to pay them. Washington supported Hamilton's plan but refused to become involved in the congressional debate, and opposition mounted in the House of Representatives. The debate over assumption became entangled with the simultaneous debate over the site of the nation's capital. In the Compromise of 1790, Hamilton's assumption plan was adopted as the Funding Act of 1790, as several southern congressmen voted for the bill in exchange for a capital located on the Potomac River.
Later in 1790, Hamilton issued another set of recommendations in his Second Report on Public Credit. The report called for the establishment of a national bank and an excise tax on distilled spirits. Hamilton's proposed national bank would provide credit to fledgling industries, serve as a depository for government funds, and oversee one nationwide currency. In response to Hamilton's proposal, Congress passed the Bank Bill of 1791, establishing the First Bank of the United States. Madison and Attorney General Randolph lobbied Washington to veto the bill as an unconstitutional extension of the federal government's authority. Washington, having ten days to sign or veto the bill, sent their objections to Hamilton for comment. Hamilton persuasively argued that the Constitution granted Congress the power to establish the national bank. He asserted that the Constitution guaranteed "implied as well as express powers", and that government would be paralyzed should the latter not be acknowledged and exercised. After receiving Hamilton's letter, Washington still harbored some doubts, but he nonetheless signed the bill into law that evening.
The following year, Congress passed the Coinage Act of 1792, establishing the United States Mint and the United States dollar, and regulating the coinage of the United States. Historian Samuel Morison points to Hamilton's 1790 bank report as turning Jefferson against Hamilton. Jefferson feared that the creation of the national bank would lead to political, economic, and social inequality, with Northern financial interests dominating American society much as aristocrats dominated European society.
In December 1791, Hamilton published the Report on Manufactures, which recommended numerous policies designed to protect U.S. merchants and industries to increase national wealth, induce artisans to immigrate, cause machinery to be invented, and employ women and children. Hamilton called for federally supervised infrastructure projects, the establishment of state-owned munitions factories and subsidies for privately owned factories, and the imposition of a protective tariff. Though Congress had adopted much of Hamilton's earlier proposals, his manufacturing proposals fell flat, even in the more-industrialized North, as merchant-shipowners had a stake in free trade. There were also questions raised about the constitutionality of these proposals, and opponents such as Jefferson feared that Hamilton's expansive interpretation of the Necessary and Proper Clause would grant Congress the power to legislate on any subject.
In 1792, with their relationship completely ruptured, Jefferson unsuccessfully tried to convince Washington to remove Hamilton, but Washington largely supported Hamilton's ideas, believing that they had led to social and economic stability. Dissonance over Hamilton's proposals also irrevocably broke the relationship between Washington and Madison, who had served as the president's foremost congressional ally during the first year of his presidency. Opponents of Hamilton and the administration won several seats in the 1792 Congressional elections, and Hamilton was unable to win Congressional approval of his ambitious economic proposals afterward.
### Whiskey Rebellion
Despite the additional import duties imposed by the Tariff of 1790, a substantial federal deficit remained – chiefly due to the federal assumption of state revolution-related debts under the Funding Act. By December 1790, Hamilton believed import duties, which were the government's primary source of revenue, had been raised as high as was feasible. He therefore promoted passage of an excise tax on domestically distilled spirits. This was to be the first tax levied by the national government on a domestic product. Both Hamilton and Madison believed that an excise tax on spirits was the least objectionable tax that the government could levy at that time; a direct tax on land would be even more unpopular. The tax had the support of some social reformers, who hoped that the tax would discourage alcohol consumption. The Distilled Spirits Duties Act, commonly known as the "Whiskey Act", became law on March 3, 1791, and went into effect on June 1.
The tax on whiskey was bitterly and fiercely opposed on the frontier from the day it was passed. Western farmers considered it to be both unfair and discriminatory. As the Lower Mississippi River had been closed to American shipping for nearly a decade, farmers in western Pennsylvania were forced to turn their grain into whiskey. The substantial reduction in volume resulting from the distillation of grain into whiskey greatly reduced the cost to transport their crops to the populous east coast, which was the only place where there were markets for their crops. In mid-1794, the government began to crack down on tax evasion, launching prosecutions against dozens of distilleries.
On July 15, 1794, tax collector John Neville and his slaves fired at a militia that had surrounded his house, killing a member of the militia. The next day, a group of militia members seeking Neville fired on a group of federal soldiers, causing casualties on both sides. Following this confrontation, the militia captured a federal marshal and continued to clash with federal forces. As word of this rebellion spread across the frontier, a whole series of loosely organized resistance measures were taken, including robbing the mail, stopping court proceedings, and the threat of an assault on Pittsburgh.
Washington, alarmed by what appeared to be an armed insurrection in Western Pennsylvania, asked his cabinet for written opinions about how to deal with the crisis. Hamilton, Knox and Attorney General Bradford all favored using a militia to crush the rebellion, while Secretary of State Randolph urged peaceful reconciliation. Washington heeded the advice of both factions of his cabinet – he sent commissioners to meet with the rebels, while at the same time preparing soldiers to march into Western Pennsylvania. When the final report of the commissioners recommended the use of the militia to enforce the laws, the president invoked the Militia Law of 1792 to summon the militias of Pennsylvania, Virginia and several other states. The governors sent the troops and Washington took command as Commander-in-Chief.
Washington commanded a militia force of 12,950 men, roughly the same size of the Continental Army he had commanded during the Revolutionary War. Under the personal command of Washington, Hamilton and Revolutionary War hero General Henry "Light-Horse Harry" Lee, the army assembled in Harrisburg and marched into Western Pennsylvania (to what is now Monongahela, Pennsylvania) in October 1794. The insurrection collapsed quickly with little violence, and the resistance movements disbanded. The men arrested for rebellion were imprisoned, where one died, while two were convicted of treason and sentenced to death by hanging. Later, Washington pardoned all the men involved.
The suppression of the Whiskey Rebellion met with widespread popular approval. This was the first time the new government had been directly opposed, and through a clear show of federal authority, Washington established the principle that federal law is the supreme law of the land, and demonstrated that the federal government had both the ability and willingness to suppress violent resistance to the nation's laws. The government's response to the rebellion was, therefore, viewed by the Washington administration as a success, a view that has generally been endorsed by historians.
### Rise of political parties
Initially, Jefferson and Hamilton enjoyed a friendly working relationship. While never close, they seldom clashed during the first year in the Washington administration. Even so, deep philosophical differences soon caused a rift between them, and finally drove them apart. Hamilton believed that a vigorous use of the central government was essential for the task of nation-building. He also believed that "a flourishing merchant economy would sow opportunities for all, resulting in a more philanthropic, knowledgeable and enterprising people." In Jefferson's view, centralized government was "simply European-style tyranny waiting to happen again." He idealized the yeoman farmers, for they "controlled their own destinies, and also a republic that, resting on the yeoman farmer, would keep 'alive that sacred fire' of personal liberty and virtue." These differences gained their clearest expression in the debate about the Bank of the United States.
As a split grew proponents and critics of Hamilton's economic policies, Jefferson and Madison sought to counter the influence of a Hamilton-aligned newspaper, the Gazette of the United States. They convinced Philip Freneau to establish the National Gazette, which recast the national politics not as a battle between Federalists and Anti-Federalists, but as a debate between aristocrats and republicans. By the end of 1792, political observers had begun to note the emergence of two political parties. In May 1792, Hamilton himself wrote, "Mr. Madison cooperating with Mr. Jefferson is at the head of a faction decidedly hostile to me and my administration." Washington sought to alleviate the rising tension between Jefferson and Hamilton, as well as prevent the partisan polarization of national politics, but by the end of 1792 Jefferson and his followers completely distrusted Hamilton. The faction aligned with Hamilton became known as the Federalists, while those aligned with Jefferson and Madison became known as the Republicans (often referred to as the Democratic-Republican Party to avoid confusion with the modern Republican Party). Political leaders of both groups, but especially the Federalists, were reluctant to label their own faction as a political party. Nonetheless, distinct and consistent voting blocs emerged in Congress in 1793. The Democratic-Republicans were strongest in the South, and many of the party's leaders were wealthy Southern slaveowners. The Democratic-Republicans also attracted middle-class Northerners, such as artisans, farmers, and lower-level merchants, who were eager to challenge the power of the local elite. The Federalists had broad support in New England, but in other places they relied on wealthy merchants and landowners.
While economic policies were the original motivating factor in the growing partisan split, foreign policy also became a factor. Though most Americans supported the French Revolution before the Execution of Louis XVI, some of Hamilton's followers began to fear the radical egalitarianism of the revolution as it became increasingly violent. Washington particularly feared British entrance into the war, as he worried that sympathy for France and hatred for Britain would propel the United States into the French Revolutionary Wars, to the ruin of the American economy. In 1793, after Britain entered the French Revolutionary Wars, several Democratic-Republican Societies were formed. These societies, centered on the middle class of several eastern cities, opposed Hamilton's economic policies and supported France. Conservatives came to fear these societies as populist movements that sought to re-make the class order. That same year, the British began seizing American merchantmen who were trading with France, fanning the flames of anti-British sentiment. As Washington continued to seek peace with Great Britain, critics finally began to attack the president himself.
After crushing the Whiskey Rebellion, Washington publicly blamed the Democratic-Republican Societies for the rebellion, and Jefferson began to view Washington as "the head of a party" rather than "the head of a nation." Hamilton's followers, who coalesced into the Federalist Party, were thrilled by Washington's remarks, and the party sought to closely associate itself with Washington. The passage of the Jay Treaty further inflamed partisan warfare, resulting in a hardening of the divisions between the Federalists and the Democratic-Republicans. By 1795–96, election campaigns—federal, state and local—were waged primarily along partisan lines between the two national parties, although local issues continued to affect elections, and party affiliations remained in flux.
### Constitutional amendments
Congress approved 12 amendments to the U.S. Constitution on September 25, 1789, establishing specific constitutional guarantees of personal freedoms and rights, clear limitations on the government's power in judicial and other proceedings, and explicit declarations that all powers not specifically delegated to Congress by the Constitution are reserved for the states or the people, and submitted them to the state legislatures for ratification. Congressional approval of the amendments was led by James Madison. Madison had previously opposed amending the constitution, but he hoped to prevent more far-reaching reforms by passing his own package of constitutional amendments. With the support of Washington, Madison put together a package of relatively uncontroversial amendments that won the backing of both Federalist and Anti-Federalist members of Congress. Congress passed a package of constitutional amendments that were largely based on Madison's original proposals, though some of Madison's ideas were not adopted.
Although some Anti-Federalists continued to call for a new federal constitutional convention and ridiculed them, by December 15, 1791, 10 of the 12 proposed amendments had been ratified by the requisite number of states (then 11), and became Amendments One through Ten of the Constitution; collectively they are known as the Bill of Rights.
On March 4, 1794, in response to the ruling in Chisholm v. Georgia, Congress approved an amendment to the United States Constitution clarifying judicial power over foreign nationals, and limiting the ability of citizens to sue states in federal courts and under federal law, and submitted it to the state legislatures for ratification. The Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution was ratified by the requisite number of states (then 12) on February 7, 1795, to become part of the Constitution.
### Slavery
In 1790, the Pennsylvania Abolition Society engaged in an unprecedented lobbying campaign to abolish slavery. Their efforts faced intense opposition from most southern congressmen, who blocked any attempt to abolish an institution that was important to their plantation economy. After a contentious debate, congressional leaders put the proposals aside without voting on them, setting a precedent in which Congress generally avoided discussing slavery. Congress passed two acts related to slavery during the Washington administration: the Fugitive Slave Act of 1793, which made it a federal crime to assist an escaping slave, and established the legal system by which escaped slaves would be returned to their masters; and the Slave Trade Act of 1794, which limited the United States' involvement in the transportation of slaves by prohibiting the export of slaves from the country.
### Northwest Indian War
Following adoption of the Land Ordinance of 1785, American settlers began freely moving west across the Allegheny Mountains and into the Native American-occupied lands beyond – land Great Britain had ceded to U.S. control at the end of the Revolutionary War (the Northwest Territory). As they did, they encountered unyielding and often violent resistance from a confederation of tribes. In 1789 (before Washington entered office), an agreement that was supposed to address the grievances of the tribes, the Treaty of Fort Harmar, was signed. This new treaty did almost nothing to stop the rash of violence along the frontier from confrontations between settlers and Native Americans and, the following year, Washington directed the United States Army to enforce U.S. sovereignty. Secretary of War Henry Knox ordered Brigadier General Josiah Harmar to launch a major offensive against the Shawnee and Miami Natives living in the region. In October 1790, his force of 1,453 men was assembled near present-day Fort Wayne, Indiana. Harmar committed only 400 of his men under Colonel John Hardin to attack a Native American force of some 1,100 warriors, who easily defeated Hardin's forces. At least 129 soldiers were killed.
Determined to avenge the defeat, the president ordered Major General Arthur St. Clair, who was serving as the governor of the Northwest Territory, to mount a more vigorous effort by the third quarter of 1791. After considerable trouble finding men and supplies, St. Clair was finally ready. At dawn on November 4, 1791, his poorly trained force, accompanied by about 200 camp followers, was camped near the present-day location of Fort Recovery, Ohio. A Native American force consisting of around 2,000 warriors led by Little Turtle, Blue Jacket, and Tecumseh, struck with swift and overwhelming displays of force, and, paralyzing the Americans with fear, soon overran their perimeter. St. Clair's army was almost annihilated during the three-hour encounter. The American casualty rate included 632 of 920 soldiers and officers killed (69%) and 264 wounded. Nearly all of the 200 camp followers were slaughtered, for a total of about 832.
British officials in Upper Canada were delighted and encouraged by the success of the Natives, whom they had been supporting and arming for years, and in 1792 Lieutenant Governor John Graves Simcoe proposed that the entire territory, plus a strip of New York and Vermont be erected into an Indian barrier state. While the British government did not take this proposal up, it did inform the Washington administration that it would not relinquish the Northwest forts, even if the U.S. paid its overdue debts. Also, early in 1794, the British built a new garrison, Fort Miami, along the Maumee River as a show of presence and support for the resistance.
Outraged by news of the defeat, Washington urged Congress to raise an army capable of conducting a successful offense against the Native confederacy, which it did in March 1792 – establishing more Army regiments (the Legion of the United States), adding three-year enlistments, and increasing military pay. The following month the House of Representatives conducted investigative hearings into the debacle. This was the first special Congressional investigation under the federal Constitution. Afterward, Congress passed two Militia Acts: the first empowered the president to call out the militias of the several states; the second required that every free able-bodied white male citizen of the various states, between the ages of 18 and 45, enroll in the militia of the state in which they reside.
Next, Washington put Major General "Mad" Anthony Wayne in command of the Legion of the United States and ordered him to launch a new expedition against Western Confederacy. Wayne spent months training his troops at the army's first formal basic training facility in Legionville, Pennsylvania, in military skills, forest warfare tactics and discipline, then led them west. In late 1793, the Legion began construction of Fort Recovery at the location of St. Clair's defeat; and, on June 30 – July 1, 1794, successfully defended it from a Native American attack led by Little Turtle.
Taking the offensive, the legion marched north through the forest, and, upon reaching the confluence of the Auglaize and Maumee Rivers —about 45 miles (72 km) southwest of Fort Miami— on August 8, built Fort Defiance, a stockade with blockhouse bastions. There he offered peace, which was rejected. Wayne's soldiers advanced toward Fort Miami and on August 20, 1794, encountered Native American confederacy forces led by Blue Jacket, in what has become known as the Battle of Fallen Timbers. The first assault on Wayne's Legion was successful, but were able to regroup quickly and pressed the attack with a bayonet charge. The cavalry outflanked Blue Jacket's warriors, who were easily routed. They fled towards Fort Miami but were surprised to find the gates closed against them. The British commander of the fort refused to assist them, unwilling to start a war with the United States. Wayne's army had won a decisive victory. The soldiers spent several days destroying the nearby Native villages and crops, before withdrawing.
With the door slammed shut on them by their old allies, Native American resistance quickly collapsed. Delegates from the various confederation tribes, 1130 persons total, gathered for a peace conference at Fort Greene Ville in June 1795. The conference lasted for six weeks, resulting, on August 3, 1795, in the Treaty of Greenville between the assembled tribes and the "15 fires of the United States." Under its terms, the tribes ceded most of what is now Ohio for American settlement, recognized the United States (rather than Great Britain) as the ruling power in the region, and turned ten chiefs over to the U.S. government as hostages until all white prisoners were returned. This, along with the recently signed Jay Treaty, which provided for the British withdrawal from pre-Revolutionary War forts in the region it had not yet relinquished, solidified U.S. sovereignty over the Northwest Territory. Believing that the Natives were on the verge of extinction due to uncontrolled white settlement in protected lands, Washington and Knox sought to assimilate them into American society. In the Southwest, Washington pursued this policy of assimilation through treaties such as the Treaty of New York and the Treaty of Holston.
## Foreign affairs
### French Revolution
#### Public debate
With the Storming of the Bastille on July 14, 1789, the French Revolution erupted. The American public, remembering the aid provided by the French during the Revolutionary War, was largely enthusiastic, and hoped for democratic reforms that would solidify the existing Franco-American alliance and transform France into a republican ally against aristocratic and monarchical Great Britain. Shortly after the Bastille fell, the main prison key was turned over to the Marquis de Lafayette, a Frenchman who had served under Washington in the American Revolutionary War. In an expression of optimism about the revolution's chances for success, Lafayette sent the key to Washington, who displayed it prominently in the executive mansion. John Skey Eustace kept him informed of the events of the French Revolution.
In the Caribbean, the revolution destabilized the French colony of Saint-Domingue (present-day Haiti), as it split the government into royalist and revolutionary factions, and aroused the people to demand civil rights for themselves. Sensing an opportunity, the slaves of northern St. Domingue organized and planned a massive rebellion which began on August 22, 1791. Their successful revolution resulted in the establishment of the second independent country in the Americas (after the United States). Soon after the revolt began, the Washington administration, at French request, agreed to send money, arms, and provisions to Saint-Domingue to assist distressed slave-owning colonists. Reacting to reports spread by fleeing Frenchmen of Haitian slaves murdering people, many Southerners believed that a successful slave revolt in Haiti would lead to a massive race war in America. American aid to Saint-Domingue formed part of the US repayment of Revolutionary War loans, and eventually amounted to about \$400,000 and 1,000 military weapons.
From 1790 to 1794, the French Revolution became increasingly radical. In 1792 the revolutionary government declared war on several European nations, including Great Britain, starting the War of the First Coalition. A wave of bloody massacres spread through Paris and other cities late that summer, leaving more than one thousand people dead. On September 21, 1792, France declared itself a republic, and the deposed King Louis XVI was guillotined on January 21, 1793. Then followed a period labeled by some historians as the "Reign of Terror", between the summer of 1793 and the end of July 1794, during which 16,594 official death sentences were carried out against those accused of being enemies of the revolution. Among the executed were persons who had aided the American rebels during the Revolutionary War, such as the navy commander Comte D'Estaing. Lafayette, who was appointed commander-in-chief of the National Guard following the storming of the Bastille, fled France and ended up in captivity in Austria, while Thomas Paine, in France to support the revolutionaries, was imprisoned in Paris.
Though originally most Americans were in support of the revolution, the political debate in the U.S. over the nature of the revolution soon exacerbated pre-existing political divisions and resulted in the alignment of the political elite along pro-French and pro-British lines. Thomas Jefferson became the leader of the pro-French faction that celebrated the revolution's republican ideals. Though originally in support of the revolution, Alexander Hamilton soon led the faction which viewed the revolution with skepticism (believing that "absolute liberty would lead to absolute tyranny") and sought to preserve existing commercial ties with Great Britain. When news reached America that France had declared war on the British, people were divided on whether the U.S. should enter the war on the side of France. Jefferson and his faction wanted to aid the French, while Hamilton and his followers supported neutrality in the conflict. Jeffersonians denounced Hamilton, Vice President Adams, and even the president as friends of Britain, monarchists, and enemies of the republican values that all true Americans cherish. Hamiltonians warned that Jefferson's Republicans would replicate the terrors of the French Revolution in America – "crowd rule" akin to anarchy, and the destruction of "all order and rank in society and government."
#### American neutrality
Although the president, who believed that the United States was too weak and unstable to fight another war with a major European power, wished to avoid any foreign entanglements, a sizable portion of the American public was ready to help the French and their fight for "liberty, equality, and fraternity." In the days immediately following Washington's second inauguration, the revolutionary government of France sent diplomat Edmond-Charles Genêt, called "Citizen Genêt", to America. Genêt's mission was to drum up support for the French cause. Genêt issued letters of marque and reprisal to American ships so they could capture British merchant ships. He attempted to turn popular sentiment towards American involvement in the French war against Britain by creating a network of Democratic-Republican Societies in major cities.
Washington was deeply irritated by this subversive meddling, and when Genêt allowed a French-sponsored warship to sail out of Philadelphia against direct presidential orders, Washington demanded that France recall Genêt. By this time the revolution had taken a more violent approach and Genêt would have been executed had he returned to France. He appealed to Washington, and Washington allowed him to remain, making him the first political refugee to seek sanctuary in the United States. Genêt's actual effectiveness has been contested, with Forrest McDonald writing that "Genêt was almost obsolete by the time he arrived in Charleston on April 8, 1793."
During the Genêt episode, Washington, after consulting his Cabinet, issued a Proclamation of Neutrality on April 22, 1793. In it, he declared the United States neutral in the conflict between Great Britain and France. He also threatened legal proceedings against any American providing assistance to any of the warring countries. Washington eventually recognized that supporting either Great Britain or France was a false dichotomy. He would do neither, thereby shielding the fledgling U.S. from, in his view, unnecessary harm. The Proclamation was formalized into law by the Neutrality Act of 1794.
The public had mixed opinions about Washington's Proclamation of Neutrality. Those who supported Madison and Jefferson were far more likely to be in support of the French Revolution, as they saw it as an opportunity for a nation to achieve liberty from tyrannical rule. Several merchants were extremely happy that the President decided to remain impartial to the revolution. They believed that if the government took a stance on the war, it would ruin their trade relations with the British completely. This economic element was a primary reason for many Federalist supporters wanting to avoid increased conflict with the British. Hamilton supported the Proclamation of Neutrality, defending it both in cabinet meetings, and in newspapers under the pseudonym "Pacificus." He encouraged Washington to issue the Proclamation, lecturing him about the need for a "continuance of the peace, the desire of which may be said to be both universal and ardent."
### Relations with Great Britain
#### Seizures and economic retaliation
Upon going to war against France, the British Royal Navy began intercepting ships of neutral countries bound for French ports. The French imported large amounts of American foodstuffs, and the British hoped to starve the French into defeat by intercepting these shipments. In November 1793, the British government widened the scope of these seizures to include any neutral ships trading with the French West Indies, including those flying the American flag. By the following March, more than 250 U.S. merchant ships had been seized. Americans were outraged, and angry protests erupted in several cities. Many Jeffersonians in Congress demanded a declaration of war, but Congressman James Madison instead called for strong economic retaliation, including an embargo on all trade with Britain. Further inflaming anti-British sentiment in Congress, news arrived while the matter was under debate that the Governor General of British North America, Lord Dorchester, had made an inflammatory speech inciting Native tribes in the Northwest Territory against the Americans.
Congress responded to these "outrages" by passing a 30-day embargo on all shipping, foreign and domestic, in American harbors. In the meantime, the British government had issued an order in council partially repealing effects of the November order. This policy change did not defeat the whole movement for commercial retaliation, but it cooled passions somewhat. The embargo was later renewed for a second month but then was permitted to expire. In response to Britain's more conciliatory policies, Washington named Supreme Court Chief Justice John Jay as special envoy to Great Britain to avoid war. This appointment provoked the ire of Jeffersonians. Although confirmed by a comfortable margin in the U.S. Senate (18–8), debate on the nomination was bitter.
#### Jay Treaty
Jay was instructed by Alexander Hamilton to seek compensation for the seizure of American ships and to clarify the rules governing the British seizure of neutral ships. He was also to insist that the British relinquish their posts in the Northwest. In return, the U.S. would take responsibility for pre-Revolution debts owed to British merchants and subjects. He also asked Jay, if possible, to seek limited access for American ships to the British West Indies. Jay and the British Foreign Secretary, Lord Grenville, began negotiations on July 30, 1794. The treaty that emerged several weeks later, commonly known as the Jay Treaty, was, in Jay's words "equal and fair." Both sides achieved many objectives; several issues were sent to arbitration. For the British, America remained neutral and economically grew closer to Britain. The Americans also guaranteed favorable treatment to British imports. In return, the British agreed to evacuate the western forts, which they had been supposed to do by 1783. They also agreed to open their West Indies ports to smaller American ships, allow small vessels to trade with the French West Indies, and set up a commission that would adjudicate American claims against Britain for seized ships, and British claims against Americans for debts incurred before 1775. As the treaty contained neither concessions on impressment nor a statement of rights for American sailors, another commission was later established to settle both those and boundary issues.
Once the treaty arrived in Philadelphia in March 1795, Washington—who had misgivings about the treaty's terms—kept its contents confidential until June, when a special session of the Senate convened to give its advice and consent. Peter Trubowitz writes that during these several months Washington wrestled with "a strategic dilemma", balancing geopolitics and domestic politics. "If he threw his support behind the treaty, he risked destroying his fragile government from within due to partisan rage. If he shelved the treaty to silence his political detractors, there would likely be war with Great Britain, which had the potential to destroy the government from the outside." Submitted on June 8, debate on the treaty's 27 articles was carried out in secret, and lasted for more than two weeks. Republican senators, who wanted to pressure Britain to the brink of war, denounced the Jay Treaty as an insult to American prestige, and a repudiation of the 1778 treaty with France; New York's Aaron Burr argued point-by-point why the whole agreement should be renegotiated. On June 24, the Senate approved the treaty by a vote of 20–10 – the precise two-thirds majority vote necessary for ratification.
Although the Senate hoped to keep the treaty secret until Washington had decided whether or not to sign it, it was leaked to a Philadelphia editor who printed it in full on June 30. Once the public became aware of the terms of the agreement, in the words of Samuel Morison, "a howl of rage went up that Jay had betrayed his country." The reaction to the treaty was the most negative in the South. Southern planters, who owed the pre-Revolution debts to the British and who were now not going to collect for the slaves who had escaped to them during the Revolutionary War, viewed it as a great indignity. As a result, the Federalists lost most of the support they had among planters. Protests, organized by Republicans, included petitions, incendiary pamphlets, and a series of public meetings held in the larger cities, each of which addressed a memorial to the president. As protests from treaty opponents intensified, Washington's initial neutral position shifted to a solid pro-treaty stance, aided by Hamilton's elaborate analysis of the treaty and his two-dozen newspaper essays promoting it. The British, to promote the signing of the treaty, delivered a letter in which Randolph was revealed to have taken bribes from the French. Randolph was forced to resign from the cabinet; his opposition to the treaty became worthless. On August 24, Washington signed the treaty. There was a temporary lull in the Jay Treaty furor thereafter. By late 1796, the Federalists had gained twice as many signatures in favor of the treaty as had been gathered against. Public opinion had been swayed in favor of the treaty. The following year, it flared up again when the House of Representatives inserted itself into the debate. The new debate was not only over the merits of the treaty, but also about whether the House had the power under the Constitution to refuse to appropriate the money necessary for a treaty already ratified by the Senate and signed by the president. Citing its constitutional fiscal authority (Article I, Section 7), the House requested that the president turn over all documents that related to the treaty, including his instructions to Jay, all correspondence, and all other documents relating to the treaty negotiations. He refused to do so, invoking what later became known as executive privilege, and insisted that the House did not have the Constitutional authority to block treaties. A contentious debate ensued, during which Washington's most vehement opponents in the House publicly called for his impeachment. Through it all, Washington responded to his critics by using his prestige, political skills, and the power of office in a sincere and straightforward fashion to broaden public support for his stance. The Federalists heavily promoted the passage, waging what Forrest McDonald calls "The most intensive campaign of pressure politics the nation had yet known." On April 30, the House voted 51–48 to approve the requisite treaty funding. Jeffersonians carried their campaign against the treaty and "pro-British Federalist policies" into the political campaigns (both state and federal) of 1796, where the political divisions marking the First Party System became crystallized.
The treaty pushed the new nation away from France and towards Great Britain. The French government concluded that it violated the Franco-American treaty of 1778 and that the U.S. government had accepted the treaty despite the overwhelming public sentiment against it. This set up a series of diplomatic and political conflicts over the ensuing four years, culminating in the Quasi-War. The Jay Treaty also helped ensure American control of its own frontier lands. After the signing of the treaty, the British withdrew their support from several Native American tribes, while the Spanish, fearing that the Jay Treaty signaled the creation of an Anglo-American alliance, sought to appease the United States.
### Barbary pirates
Following the end of the Revolutionary War, the ships of the Continental Navy were gradually disposed of, and their crews disbanded. The frigate Alliance, which had fired the last shots of the war in 1783, was also the last ship in the Navy. Many in the Continental Congress wanted to keep the ship in active service, but the lack of funds for repairs and upkeep, coupled with a shift in national priorities, eventually prevailed over sentiment. The ship was sold in August 1785, and the navy disbanded. At around the same time American merchant ships in the Western Mediterranean and Southeastern North Atlantic began having problems with pirates operating from ports along North Africa's so-called Barbary Coast – Algiers, Tripoli, and Tunis. In 1784–85, Algerian pirate ships seized two American ships (Maria and Dauphin) and held their crews for ransom. Thomas Jefferson, then Minister to France, suggested an American naval force to protect American shipping in the Mediterranean, but his recommendations were initially met with indifference, as were later recommendations of John Jay, who proposed building five 40-gun warships. Beginning late in 1786, the Portuguese Navy began blockading Algerian ships from entering the Atlantic Ocean through the Strait of Gibraltar, which provided temporary protection for American merchant ships.
Piracy against American merchant shipping had not been a problem before 1776, when ships from the Thirteen Colonies were protected by British warships and treaties (nor was it a problem during the revolution, as the French Navy assumed the responsibility as part of the alliance treaty). Only after the U.S. achieved its independence did Barbary pirates begin capturing American ships and demanding ransom or tribute. Also, once the French Revolution started, the British Navy began intercepting American merchant ships suspected of trading with France, and France began intercepting American merchant ships suspected of trading with Great Britain. Defenseless, the American government could do little to resist. Even given these events there was great resistance in Congress to the formation of a naval force. Opponents asserted that payment of tribute to the Barbary states was a better solution than building a navy, which they argued would only lead to calls for a navy department, and the staff to operate it. This would then lead to more appropriations of funds, which would eventually spiral out of control, giving birth to a "self-feeding entity." Then, in 1793, a truce negotiated between Portugal and Algiers ended Portugal's blockade of the Strait of Gibraltar, freeing the Barbary pirates to roam the Atlantic. Within months, they had captured 11 American vessels and more than a hundred seamen.
The cumulation of all these events led Washington to request Congress to establish a standing navy. After a contentious debate, Congress passed the Naval Armament Act on March 27, 1794, authorizing construction of six frigates (to be built by Joshua Humphreys). These ships were the first ships of what eventually became the present-day United States Navy. Soon afterward, Congress also authorized funds to obtain a treaty with Algiers and to ransom Americans held captive (199 were alive at that time, including a few survivors from the Maria and the Dauphin). Ratified in September 1795, the final cost of the return of those held captive and peace with Algiers was \$642,000, plus \$21,000 in annual tribute. The president was unhappy with the arrangement, but realized the U.S. had little choice but to agree to it. Treaties were also concluded with Tripoli, in 1796, and Tunis in 1797, each carrying with it an annual U.S. tribute payment obligation for protection from attack. The new Navy would not be deployed until after Washington left office; the first two frigates completed were: United States, launched May 10, 1797; and Constitution, launched October 21, 1797.
### Relations with Spain
In the late 1780s, Georgia grew eager to firm up its trans-Appalachian land claim, and meet citizen demands that the land be developed. The territory claimed by Georgia, which it called the "Yazoo lands", ran west from the Appalachian Mountains to the Mississippi River, and included most of the present-day states of Alabama and Mississippi (between 31° N and 35° N). The southern portion of this region was also claimed by Spain as part of Spanish Florida. One of Georgia's efforts to accomplish its goals for the region was a 1794 plan developed by governor George Mathews and the Georgia General Assembly. It soon became a major political scandal, known as the Yazoo land scandal.
Spain had, since 1763, controlled the lands west of the Mississippi River. Those lands consisted of Spanish Louisiana and New Orleans. Great Britain, from 1763 to 1783, controlled the lands east of the Mississippi, British Florida, north from the Gulf of Mexico. Spain gained possession of British Florida south of 31° N and claimed the rest of it – north to 32° 22′ (the junction of the Mississippi and Yazoo Rivers). Thereafter, Spain attempted to slow the migration of American settlers into the region, and to lure those already there to secede from the United States. Toward this end, in 1784 the Spanish closed New Orleans to American goods coming down the Mississippi, which was the only viable outlet for the goods produced by many American settlers, and began selling weapons to the Native tribes in the Yazoo.
After Washington issued his 1793 Proclamation of Neutrality he became concerned that Spain, which later that year joined Britain in war against France, might work in concert with Britain to incite insurrection in the Yazoo against the U.S., using the opening of trade on the Mississippi as an enticement. At that same time though, mid-1794, Spain was attempting to extract itself from its alliance with the British, and to restore peace with France. As Spain's prime minister, Manuel de Godoy, was attempting to do so, he learned of John Jay's mission to London and became concerned that those negotiations would result in an Anglo-American alliance and an invasion of Spanish possessions in North America. Sensing the need for rapprochement, Godoy sent a request to the U.S. government for a representative empowered to negotiate a new treaty; Washington sent Thomas Pinckney to Spain in June 1795.
Eleven months after the signing of the Jay Treaty, the United States and Spain agreed to the Treaty of San Lorenzo, also known as Pinckney's Treaty. Signed on October 27, 1795, the treaty established intentions of peace and friendship between the U.S. and Spain; established the southern boundary of the U.S. with the Spanish colonies of East Florida and West Florida, with Spain relinquishing its claim on the portion of West Florida north of the 31st parallel; and established the western U.S. border as being along the Mississippi River from the northern U.S. to the 31st parallel.
Perhaps most importantly, Pinckney's Treaty granted both Spanish and American ships unrestricted navigation rights along the entire Mississippi River, as well as duty-free transport for American ships through the Spanish port of New Orleans, opening much of the Ohio River basin for settlement and trade. Agricultural produce could now flow on flatboats down the Ohio River to the Mississippi and on to New Orleans. From there the goods could be shipped around the world. Spain and the United States further agreed to protect the vessels of the other party anywhere within their jurisdictions and to not detain or embargo the other's citizens or vessels.
The final treaty also voided Spanish guarantees of military support that colonial officials had made to Native Americans in the disputed regions, greatly weakening those communities' ability to resist encroachment upon their lands. The treaty represented a major victory for the Washington administration and placated many of the critics of the Jay Treaty. It also enabled and encouraged American settlers to continue their movement west, by making the frontier areas more attractive and lucrative. The region that Spain relinquished its claim to through the treaty was organized by Congress as the Mississippi Territory on April 7, 1798.
## Presidential residences and tours
### Residences
Washington's wife Martha managed the presidential household in the federal capital, in addition to supervising affairs at Mount Vernon. Often referred to as "lady Washington" (the term "First Lady" did not come into common use until the mid-19th century), she also organized weekly public salons, where she met with visiting dignitaries, members of Congress, and citizens from the local community. These receptions made Martha, as Abigail Adams wrote, "the object of Veneration and Respect." Martha coordinated weekly levees for the president as well. Designed to give the public access to the president and to project a dignified public image of the presidency, these receptions also elicited criticism. Opposition newspapers derided them as monarchical and wasteful. Nonetheless, the gatherings became a fixture in the capital's social scene, and continued throughout Washington's presidency.
Washington and his household lived in three executive mansions during his presidency:
### Tours
Washington made three major tours around the country. The first was to New England (1789), the second to Rhode Island and New York City (1790), and the third to the Southern states of Maryland, Virginia, Georgia, North Carolina, and South Carolina (1791). His main goals were to educate himself about "the principal character and internal circumstances" of the different regions of the country, as well as meet "well-informed persons, who might give him useful information and advice on political subjects."
Because he was himself from the South, Washington decided to visit the Northern states first. After Congress went into recess in September 1789, Washington traveled to New England, making his first stop in New Haven, Connecticut. Washington then traveled to Boston, where a large crowd greeted him. From Boston, Washington traveled north, stopping in Marblehead and Salem, Massachusetts. About a week after arriving in Boston, he traveled north to Portsmouth, New Hampshire, and circled back to New York, stopping in Waltham and Lexington. The trip was a success, serving to consolidate his popularity and improve his health. During his time in New England, Washington inspected possible sites for roads and canals and observed textile mills. After Rhode Island ratified the Constitution in 1790, Washington promptly took another tour to visit it. Along with Jefferson and New York governor George Clinton, he first stopped in Newport, Rhode Island, then traveled to Providence, Rhode Island.
In 1791, Washington toured the South, largely to promote national unity amid uproar over Hamilton's economic plan and slavery. The trip began on March 20, 1791, when Washington and a small group of aides began sailing down the Severn River. After sailing through a large storm, they arrived in Annapolis. From Annapolis they traveled to Mount Vernon, and from there to Colchester, Virginia, to Richmond, Virginia. After leaving Richmond, they went to Petersburg, then Emporia, Virginia. They left Virginia and went to Craven County, North Carolina, then New Bern. The group's last stop in North Carolina was Wilmington, after which they traveled to Georgetown, South Carolina, subsequently stopping in Charleston. Washington had never traveled south of North Carolina before 1791, and he was warmly received in Charleston. After South Carolina, Washington and his party arrived in Georgia, going to (among others) Augusta. In late May, the group turned around, stopping at many Revolutionary War battle sites. On June 11, 1791, they arrived back at Mount Vernon.
## States joining the Union
When the federal government began operations under the new form of government in the spring of 1789, two states—North Carolina and Rhode Island—were not yet members of the Union as neither had ratified the Constitution. Both did so while Washington was in office, thereby joining the Union: North Carolina, November 21, 1789; and Rhode Island, May 29, 1790. While North Carolina joined of its own accord, Rhode Island only joined the Union after the federal government threatened to break off trade relations.
Three new states were admitted to the Union (each on an equal footing with the existing states) while Washington was in office: Vermont, on March 4, 1791; Kentucky, on June 1, 1792; and Tennessee, on June 1, 1796.
## Farewell Address and election of 1796
### Farewell Address
As his second term entered its final year in 1796, Washington was exhausted from years of public service. Though he remained in fine mental condition, his physical health had begun to decline. He was also bothered by the constant attacks from the Democratic-Republican press, which had escalated after the signing of the Jay Treaty. Perhaps most importantly, Washington believed that he had accomplished his major goals as president. The nation had a stable economy, a strong grip over its Western territories, and peaceful relations with foreign powers. Against the wishes of most Federalists, who hoped that the president would seek re-election, Washington decided early in 1796 that he would retire unless compelled to run by a national emergency. He delayed a formal announcement until later in the year, but began drafting his Farewell Address.
As was the case with his 1783 decision to resign his military commission, Washington's decision to relinquish his political power voluntarily was a momentous decision, as national leaders of that era in the western world rarely gave up their titles voluntarily. In making the announcement and then following through on it, Washington established a precedent for the democratic transfer of executive power. His departure from office after two terms set a pattern for subsequent U.S. presidents.
In 1792, when Washington had considered retiring after one term, he turned to James Madison for help composing a "valedictory address" to the public. Now, four years later, he turned to Alexander Hamilton for guidance. Over the course of several months, Hamilton and the president collaborated on the form and wording of the address. One of Hamilton's drafts included pointedly sharp criticism of the newspapers and the press of the day, something subsequently not included in the final, finished letter. The final product, wrote Hamilton biographer Marie Hecht, "was a true marriage of minds, the peak of amity and understanding between the two men." Most historians believe that while the language is primarily Hamilton's, the ideas are essentially Washington's. The address was published on September 19, 1796, in David Claypoole's American Daily Advertiser''. It was immediately reprinted in newspapers and as a pamphlet throughout the United States.
Washington makes clear at the outset that he is not running for a third term, and then thanks his fellow citizens for the opportunity to serve as their president. He then writes about the preservation of the Union, the core of American nationhood and which, along with the Constitution, binds all Americans together and provides for the popular well-being. Concerned about the obstacles and potential hazards that lay ahead for the nation, Washington urges the nation's people to cherish and safeguard their hard-won system of republican government despite their many differences.
> The unity of government which constitutes you one people is also now dear to you. It is justly so; for it is a main pillar in the edifice of your real independence, the support of your tranquility at home, your peace abroad, of your safety, of your prosperity, of that very liberty which you so highly prize. But as it is easy to foresee that, from different causes and from different quarters, much pains will be taken, many artifices employed, to weaken in your minds the conviction of this truth; as this is the point in your political fortress against which the batteries of internal and external enemies will be most constantly and actively (though often covertly and insidiously) directed, it is of infinite moment that you should properly estimate the immense value of your national Union to your collective and individual happiness; that you should cherish a cordial, habitual, and immovable attachment to it; accustoming yourselves to think and speak of it as of the palladium of your political safety and prosperity; watching for its preservation with jealous anxiety; discountenancing whatever may suggest even a suspicion that it can in any event be abandoned; and indignantly frowning upon the first dawning of every attempt to alienate any portion of our country from the rest, or to enfeeble the sacred ties which now link together the various parts.
The address is largely a statement of his policies while in office, with some comments mixed in to highlight certain points, in which he builds a case for the steps needed to perpetuate the union, a concept that began to germinate among and between the states during the Revolutionary War. In doing so he lifts a well-formed and functioning Constitution (the rule of law), along with the proper habits and dispositions (both intellectual and religious) of the people as essential. Washington also lays out the greatest threats he sees to the Union, warning Americans to distrust the passions of political factionalism, be wary of foreign interference in the nation's domestic affairs, and avoid an entangling foreign policy.
After Washington died in 1799, the address was reprinted in newspapers, and included in schoolbooks and collections of Washington's writings and biographies throughout the country. A quarter-century later, both Jefferson and Madison placed it on the primary reading list at the University of Virginia, describing it as one of the "best guides" to the "distinctive principles" of American government. It became one of the "great state papers of American history", often read in classrooms and other venues long after Washington left office. The U.S. Senate observes Washington's Birthday (February 22) each year by selecting one of its members, alternating parties, to read the address in legislative session.
Today the address is primarily remembered for its words concerning non-involvement in European wars and politics. For much of the 19th century, the expanse of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans had made it possible for the U.S. to enjoy a kind of "free security" and remain largely detached from Old World conflicts, and social conventions made international travel by incumbent politicians taboo. The restriction began to erode and break down in the early 20th century, as policy makers at the federal level began to reevaluate the nation's role in international affairs. The first international presidential trip was made in 1906 by Theodore Roosevelt, and subsequently, during World War I, Woodrow Wilson made a case for U.S. intervention in the conflict and a U.S. interest in maintaining a peaceful world order. Since then, the U.S. has signed numerous treaties of alliance with foreign nations.
### Election of 1796
Washington's announcement on September 19, 1796, that he would not be a candidate for a third term was, in the words of congressman Fisher Ames, "a signal, like dropping a hat, for the party racers to start." During the ensuing ten weeks, partisans from both factions sprang into action in an intensive and focused effort to influence the outcome of the electoral vote. Like the previous two presidential elections, no candidates were put forward for voters to choose between in 1796. The Constitution provided for the selection of electors, who would then elect a president. The clear favorite of Democratic-Republicans was Thomas Jefferson, although he was very reluctant to run. John Adams was the choice of a large majority of the Federalists.
The Democratic-Republicans in Congress held a nominating caucus and named Jefferson and Aaron Burr as their presidential choices. Jefferson at first declined the nomination, but he agreed to run a few weeks later. Federalist members of Congress held an informal nominating caucus and named Adams and Thomas Pinckney as their candidates for president. The campaign was, for the most part, unorganized and sporadic, confined to newspaper attacks, pamphlets and political rallies; of the four contenders, only Burr actively campaigned.
In early November, France's ambassador to the U.S., Pierre Adet, inserted himself into the political debate on behalf of Jefferson, publishing statements designed to arouse anti-British sentiment and to leave the impression that a Jefferson victory would result in improved relations with France. Then, late in the campaign, Alexander Hamilton, desiring "a more pliant president than Adams", maneuvered to tip the election to Pinckney. He coerced South Carolina Federalist electors, pledged to vote for "favorite son" Pinckney, to scatter their second votes among candidates other than Adams. Hamilton's scheme was undone when several New England state electors heard of it, conferred, and agreed not to vote for Pinckney.
The electoral votes were counted during a Joint Session of Congress on February 8, 1797; Adams won the presidency by a narrow margin, garnering 71 electoral votes to 68 for Jefferson (who became the vice president). The balance of the Electoral College votes were dispersed among: Thomas Pinckney (59), Aaron Burr (30), Samuel Adams (15), Oliver Ellsworth (11), George Clinton (7), John Jay (5), James Iredell (3), John Henry (2), Samuel Johnston (2), George Washington (2), and C. C. Pinckney (1).
## Historical evaluation
George Washington's presidency has generally been viewed as one of the most successful, and he is often considered to be one of the three greatest American presidents ever. When historians began ranking the presidents in 1948, Washington ranked second in Arthur M. Schlesinger Sr.'s poll, and has subsequently been ranked 3rd in the Riders-McIver Poll (1996), and 2nd in the 2017 survey by C-SPAN.
More than 900 books having been written about Washington. Forrest McDonald concluded that "George Washington was indispensable, but only for what he was, not for what he did. He was the symbol of the presidency [but]... Washington had done little in his own right, had often opposed the best measures of his subordinates, and had taken credit for his achievements that he had no share in bringing about." By contrast, in his piece on Washington, Stephen Knott wrote "Literally the 'Father of the Nation,' Washington almost single-handedly created a new government—shaping its institutions, offices, and political practices...Washington's profound achievements built the foundations of a powerful national government that has survived for more than two centuries." Knotts adds that historians generally consider Washington's inability to prevent the outbreak of heated partisan battles to be his greatest failure. Ron Chernow considers Washington's presidency to be "simply breathtaking" writing:
> He had restored American credit and assumed state debt; created a bank, a mint, a coast guard, a customs service, and a diplomatic corps; introduced the first accounting, tax, and budgetary procedures; maintained peace at home and abroad; inaugurated a navy, bolstered the army, and shored up coastal defenses and infrastructure; proved that the country could regulate commerce and negotiate binding treaties; protected frontier settlers, subdued Indian uprisings, and established law and order amid rebellion, scrupulously adhering all the while to the letter of the Constitution ... Most of all he had shown a disbelieving world that republican government could prosper without being spineless or disorderly or reverting to authoritarian rule.
## See also
- Federalist Era, the period of American history during which Washington was President
- List of George Washington articles
- Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution, covers pertinent events from 1785 to 1791
[^1]: , p. 548
|
1,393,739 |
The Brothers Grimm (film)
| 1,169,683,902 |
2005 film by Terry Gilliam
|
[
"2000s American films",
"2000s British films",
"2000s English-language films",
"2000s French-language films",
"2000s German-language films",
"2000s Italian-language films",
"2000s adventure comedy films",
"2000s fantasy comedy films",
"2005 comedy films",
"2005 films",
"2005 horror films",
"American dark fantasy films",
"American fantasy adventure films",
"American fantasy comedy films",
"American werewolf films",
"Atlas Entertainment films",
"British adventure comedy films",
"British fantasy adventure films",
"British werewolf films",
"Crossover films",
"Cultural depictions of the Brothers Grimm",
"Czech adventure films",
"Czech comedy films",
"Dimension Films films",
"Films about brothers",
"Films about exorcism",
"Films about royalty",
"Films about witchcraft",
"Films based on Grimms' Fairy Tales",
"Films based on fairy tales",
"Films directed by Terry Gilliam",
"Films produced by Charles Roven",
"Films scored by Dario Marianelli",
"Films set in Germany",
"Films set in the 1810s",
"Films shot in the Czech Republic",
"Films with screenplays by Ehren Kruger",
"Films with screenplays by Terry Gilliam",
"Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer films",
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The Brothers Grimm is a 2005 fantasy adventure film directed by Terry Gilliam. The film stars Matt Damon, Heath Ledger and Lena Headey in an exaggerated and fictitious portrait of the Brothers Grimm as traveling con-artists in French-occupied Germany, during the early 19th century. The brothers eventually encounter a genuine fairy tale curse which requires courage instead of their usual bogus exorcisms. Supporting characters are played by Peter Stormare, Jonathan Pryce and Monica Bellucci.
In February 2001, Ehren Kruger sold his spec script to Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM). With Gilliam's hiring as director, the script was rewritten by Gilliam and Tony Grisoni but the Writers Guild of America refused to credit them for their work. MGM eventually dropped out as distributor but decided to co-finance The Brothers Grimm with Dimension Films and Summit Entertainment, while Dimension took over distribution duties.
The film was shot in the Czech Republic. Gilliam often had feuds with brothers Bob and Harvey Weinstein, which caused the original theatrical release date to be delayed nearly ten months. The Brothers Grimm was finally released on 26 August 2005 with mixed reviews and grossed \$105.3 million at the worldwide box office.
## Plot
Will and Jake Grimm are traveling con artists who use Jake's knowledge of folklore to fool people into paying them to kill monsters in French-occupied Germany during the early 19th century. In Karlstadt they "kill" a witch's ghost, after tricking the village. Italian torturer Cavaldi takes them to the French General Delatombe. The girls of the small village of Marbaden are going missing and the villagers are convinced that supernatural beings are responsible, Delatombe charges The Brothers to find out who is responsible, on the assumption that it is the work of con-artists like themselves. They soon discover a real supernatural force: a beautiful, yet dangerous, 500-year-old, Thuringian Queen stealing young girls to restore her own beauty.
Long ago, King Childeric I came to the forest to build a city while his Queen experiments with black magic to gain eternal life. The Bubonic plague comes and she builds a high tower to avoid it, while her husband and everyone below her perishes. She did not understand the Plague was carried by wind and soon rotted away as she decayed over the years. Her spell granted her immortal life, but not the youth and beauty to go along with it. Her youthful appearance now only exists in her mirror, the source of her life, as an illusion and nothing more. She needs to drink the blood of twelve young women to regain her beauty, ten have already been reported missing.
The queen is working an enchantment to regain her beauty with the aid of her werewolf huntsman with a magic axe, crow familiars, and various creatures in the forest. The Brothers Grimm, with the help of Angelika, a knowing huntress from the village, and Cavaldi discover her tower in the woods. After another girl goes missing, Cavaldi takes the Grimms and Angelika back to Delatombe. Because they have failed, Cavaldi may kill both of the Grimms, but they convince Delatombe that the magic in the forest is caused by German rebels, and he sends them back, while Cavaldi stays behind with Angelika in the village. Jake gets into the tower, but another girl named Sasha is captured by a mud monster despite Angelika and Cavaldi's efforts to save her.
In the tower, Jake notices twelve crypts in which the twelve victims must lie. When Sasha's body comes up from a well, the werewolf takes her to a tomb. After rescuing Sasha and taking the wolfman's magic axe, the Grimms return to the village but Sasha is a sheepish trance . The magic axe is the only thing of which the trees in the forest are afraid. Delatombe captures the Brothers and believes them to be frauds. French soldiers begin burning down the forest and Cavaldi represses his sympathy for the Brothers, but they are eventually saved by Angelika. The werewolf is revealed to be Angelika's father, who is under the Queen's command by a spell. Angelika is drowned by her father, becoming the twelfth victim. The Brothers reach the tower while the Queen breathes an ice wind which puts out the forest fire. Delatombe notices that the Grimms have escaped and goes after them with Cavaldi. When Cavaldi refuses to kill the Grimms, Delatombe shoots him, but is impaled by Will.
The Mirror Queen's death is caused by Jake shattering the enchanting mirror in the tower. The werewolf transforms into Angelika's father (the woodsman) and destroys the rest of the mirror by jumping out of the window with it and Will, who was trying to destroy the werewolf at all costs. Outside, Cavaldi seems to have survived, having donned the Grimm's faux-magic armor. He recites an Italian curse and the tower falls apart. Jake awakens Angelika with a kiss, which in turn resurrects the other eleven girls and Will. With the menace gone and their daughters returned to them, the villagers of Marbaden celebrate and give their heart-felt thanks to the Brothers Grimm. Cavaldi stays in the village and joins the villagers for the feast. The Grimms decide to pursue a new profession, presumably writing fairy tales.
## Cast
## Production
Ehren Kruger's screenplay was written as a spec script; in February 2001, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM) purchased the script, with Summit Entertainment to co-finance the film. In October 2002, Terry Gilliam entered negotiations to direct, and rewrote Kruger's script alongside frequent collaborator Tony Grisoni. The Writers Guild of America refused to credit Gilliam and Grisoni for their rewrite work, and Kruger received sole credit. After Gilliam's hiring, production was put on fast track for a target November 2004 theatrical release date. MGM had trouble financing the film, and dropped out as main distributor. Weeks later, Bob Weinstein, under his Dimension Films production company, made a deal with MGM and Summit to co-finance The Brothers Grimm, and become the lead distributor. Projected at \$75 million, this was to be Dimension Films' most expensive film ever.
### Casting
Johnny Depp was Gilliam's first choice for Will Grimm, but producer Bob Weinstein believed Depp was not commercially famous enough for the role. Damon joked that Weinstein "was kicking himself because half-way through production, Pirates of the Caribbean came out and Depp was all of a sudden a big sensation". Ledger met Gilliam in November 2002 when Nicola Pecorini recommended the actor to the director, comparing him to Depp. Gilliam intended to cast Ledger opposite Depp. Damon and Ledger were originally cast in opposite roles before they asked to have their characters switched. Damon had wanted to work with Gilliam for years. The actor "grew up loving [Gilliam's] Time Bandits, the way that movie created this weird but totally convincing world". Gilliam elected to have Damon wear a prosthetic nose, but Weinstein said "it would have distracted audiences from Damon's star-studded good looks". Gilliam later reasoned that "it would have been the most expensive nose job ever". Gilliam wanted Samantha Morton for the female lead but was overruled by The Weinsteins who wanted a more conventionally beautiful actress. Robin Williams was originally cast in the role of Cavaldi before dropping out, and was replaced by Peter Stormare. Nicole Kidman turned down the role of the Mirror Queen due to scheduling conflicts.
### Filming
The original start date was April 2003, but filming did not begin until 30 June. It was decided to shoot The Brothers Grimm entirely in the Czech Republic over budget constraints. Damon said "this is an \$80 million movie, which would probably cost \$120—\$140 million in America". The majority of filming required sound stages and backlots from Barrandov Studios in Prague. Filming at Barrandov ended on 23 October. Location filming began afterwards, which included the Křivoklát Castle. Along with Alien vs. Predator and Van Helsing, The Brothers Grimm provided work for hundreds of local jobs and contributed over \$300 million into the Czech Republic's economy. Gilliam hired Guy Hendrix Dyas as production designer after he was impressed with Dyas' work on X2. Gilliam often disputed with executive producers Bob and Harvey Weinstein during production. The Weinstein Brothers fired cinematographer and regular Gilliam collaborator Nicola Pecorini after six weeks. Pecorini was then replaced by Newton Thomas Sigel.
"I'm used to riding roughshod over studio executives," Gilliam explained, "but the Weinsteins rode roughshod over me." Gilliam got so upset, filming was shut down for nearly two weeks. Matt Damon reflected on the situation: "I've never been in a situation like that. Terry was spitting rage at the system, at the Weinsteins. You can't try and impose big compromises on a visionary director like him. If you try to force him to do what you want creatively, he'll go nuclear." The feud between Gilliam and the Weinsteins was eventually settled, although Bob Weinstein blamed the entire situation on yellow journalism. Filming was scheduled to end in October, but due to various problems during filming, principal photography did not end until the following 27 November.
Due to the tensions between the filmmaker and the producers during production, Gilliam said in retrospect about the film, "[I]t's not the film they wanted and it's not quite the film I wanted. It's the film that is a result of [...] two groups of people, who aren’t working well together." With regards to the Weinsteins also producing Martin Scorsese's film Gangs of New York (2002), Gilliam stated: "Marty [Scorsese] said almost the exact same quote I said, without us knowing it: 'They took the joy out of filmmaking.'"
### Visual effects
Post-production was severely delayed when Gilliam disagreed with the Weinsteins over the final cut privilege. In the meantime, the conflict lasted so long that Gilliam had enough time to shoot another feature film, Tideland. To create the visual effects, Gilliam awarded the shots to Peerless Camera, the London-based effects studio he founded in the late-1970s with visual effects supervisor Kent Houston. However, two months into filming, Houston said that Peerless "ran into a number of major issues with The Brothers Grimm and with the Weinstein Brothers". He continued that "the main problem was the fact that the number of effects shots had dramatically increased, mainly because of issues that arose during shooting with the physical effects." Meanwhile, the Queen's chamber inside the tower was actually built by the Art Department as 2 sets. One set was resplendent and new while the other was old and decrepit. The sets were joined to each other by the central mirror, a piece of transparent glass giving the illusion that a single set was reflected and used to create the effect.
There were originally to be about 500 effect shots, but it increased to 800. The post-production conflict between Gilliam and the Weinsteins also gave enough time for Peerless to work on another film, The Legend of Zorro. Four different creatures were required for computer animation: a Wolfman, a mud creature, the Mirror Queen, and a living tree. John Paul Docherty, who headed the digital visual effects unit, studied the animation of the computer-generated Morlocks in The Time Machine for the Wolfman. Docherty depicted the Morlocks "as a nice mix between human and animal behaviors". The death of The Mirror Queen was the most complex effect of the film. In the sequence, the Queen turns into hundreds of shards of glass and shatters. With computerized rendering, this could not happen, as the 3D volume of the body suddenly turns into 2D pieces of glass. The problem was eventually solved due to sudden advances that occurred with Softimage XSI software.
## Release
The original theatrical release date was due in November 2004 before being changed many times; the dates had been moved to February 2005, 29 July, 23 November, and finally 26 August. Executive producer Bob Weinstein blamed the pushed back release dates on budgetary concerns. To help promote The Brothers Grimm, a three-minute film trailer was shown at the 2004 Cannes Film Festival, while twenty minutes of footage was shown at the 2005 event. Miramax spent around \$30 million promoting the film.
### Box office
The Brothers Grimm was released in the United States in 3,087 theaters, earning \$15.1 million in its opening weekend in second place behind The 40-Year-Old Virgin. The film eventually grossed \$37,916,267 in the United States and \$67.4 million internationally, coming to a worldwide total of \$105,316,267. The Brothers Grimm was shown at the 62nd Venice International Film Festival on 4 September 2005, while in competition for the Golden Lion, but lost to Brokeback Mountain, also starring Ledger.
### Critical reception
The Brothers Grimm was released to mixed reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 38% based on reviews from 182 critics, with an average score of 5.18/10. The site's consensus states: "The Brothers Grimm is full of beautiful imagery, but the story is labored and less than enchanting." On Metacritic the film has a weighted average score of 51 out of 100 based on 36 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade "C" on scale of A to F.
Roger Ebert called the film "an invention without pattern, chasing itself around the screen without finding a plot. The movie seems like a style in search of a purpose, with a story we might not care about." Stephen Hunter of The Washington Post wrote that "The Brothers Grimm looks terrific, yet it remains essentially inert. You keep waiting for something to happen and after a while your mind wanders from the hollow frenzy up there with all its filigrees and fretwork." Mick LaSalle from the San Francisco Chronicle felt "despite an appealing actor in each role, the entire cast comes across as repellent. Will and Jake Grimm are two guys in the woods, surrounded by computerized animals, putting audiences to sleep all over America." Peter Travers, writing in Rolling Stone magazine, largely enjoyed The Brothers Grimm. He explained that "if you're a Gilliam junkie, as I am, you go with it, even when the script loses its shaky hold on coherence." Travers added, "even when Gilliam flies off the rails, his images stick with you." Gene Seymour of Newsday called the film "a great compound of rip-snorting Gothic fantasy and Python-esque dark comedy".
### Home media
Miramax owns the home video rights, while Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer holds the television rights. The DVD release of The Brothers Grimm released 20 December 2005 includes audio commentary by Gilliam, two "making-of" featurettes, and deleted scenes. The film was released on Blu-ray Disc format in October 2006. Both the DVD and Blu-ray were released by Lionsgate Home Entertainment, under license from Miramax.
### Legacy
The film served as inspiration for the manga series Blue Exorcist.
|
51,618,612 |
John Wayne (song)
| 1,171,742,480 | null |
[
"2016 songs",
"American pop rock songs",
"Cultural depictions of John Wayne",
"Lady Gaga songs",
"Music videos directed by Jonas Åkerlund",
"Song recordings produced by BloodPop",
"Song recordings produced by Lady Gaga",
"Song recordings produced by Mark Ronson",
"Songs about cannabis",
"Songs written by BloodPop",
"Songs written by Josh Homme",
"Songs written by Lady Gaga",
"Songs written by Mark Ronson"
] |
"John Wayne" is a song recorded by American singer Lady Gaga, for her fifth studio album, Joanne (2016). Gaga co-wrote and co-produced the track with Mark Ronson and BloodPop, with additional writing from Josh Homme who also played guitar. "John Wayne" is a pop rock song that features elements of country, disco, funk, and house music. It derives its name from American actor John Wayne, who was known for his roles in Western films. The lyrics talk about Gaga's romantic craving for a wild, blue-collar man and smoking cannabis. Some critics felt that "John Wayne" might portray Gaga's relationship with her ex-fiancé Taylor Kinney.
Reviewers noted the song's tongue-in-cheek lyrics, and some of them criticized its musical composition. The song had minor chart placements in Hungary and the United Kingdom. Jonas Åkerlund directed the song's accompanying music video released on February 8, 2017, through Apple Music. It continues a storyline that started with the videos for singles "Perfect Illusion" and "Million Reasons", and portrays Gaga in different action-packed sequences. The clip received positive feedback for hearkening back to Gaga's older videos, and taking inspiration from action films. Gaga performed "John Wayne" as part of her set at the Victoria's Secret Fashion Show 2016, the 2017 Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival, and at the Joanne World Tour (2017–2018).
## Recording and composition
Lady Gaga recorded "John Wayne" at four locations in the United States. She began recording at Shangri-La Studios, in Malibu, California, with Joshua Blair, assisted by David Covell. They also recorded the song at Pink Duck Studios in Burbank, California, with Justin Smith. He continued recording at Electric Lady Studios in New York City, assisted by Barry McCready. Recording concluded at Dragonfly Recording Studios, in Malibu, assisted by Charley Pollard. Tom Elmhirst mixed the song at Electric Lady Studios, with assistance from Joe Visciano and Brandon Bost. Other personnel included Mark Ronson, who played bass and guitar for the song, BloodPop, who processed the rhythm track and synthesizers and Josh Homme, who played drums and guitar. Homme added a guitar part to the song after Ronson reached out to him.
"John Wayne" is composed in the key of B minor with a tempo of 92 beats per minute. Gaga's vocals span the nodes of A<sub>4</sub> to D<sub>6</sub>, and its chord progression follows a basic sequence of B<sub>5</sub>–A<sub>5</sub>–E–B<sub>5</sub>–A<sub>5</sub>.s It is a pop rock song, which has influences of other genres including country, disco, funk, and house music. According to Mikael Wood of the Los Angeles Times, classifying the genre of the song is difficult as it combines "tinny Euro-house synths, slowed-down funk drums and a boot-scooting bass line straight out of Nashville". The track has "tongue-in-cheek" lyrics, referring to a cowboy in the opening verse: "I just love a cowboy, I know it's bad, but I'm, like, can I just hang off the back of your horse and can you go a little faster?"
The track's lyrics allude to smoking cannabis, and dating working-class men from Republican states, rather than urban men. In an interview with Zane Lowe at Beats 1, Gaga revealed that with "John Wayne" she explored her constant need to chase wild men, and how she keeps getting "bored of the same old John". The song derives its title from John Wayne, an actor who starred in Western films. Sabienna Bowman of Bustle magazine felt that although Wayne did not have any connection with Gaga, his films served as the "perfect metaphor" for the song's protagonist and her craving for wild men. Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone compared "John Wayne"'s lyrics with Paula Cole's "Where Have All the Cowboys Gone?" (1996); in the latter, Cole asks "Where is my John Wayne?" Andrew Unterberger of Billboard speculated that the lyrics, "He called, I cried, we broke," could relate to Gaga's breakup with her fiancé Taylor Kinney. Bustle's S. Atkinson noted that the song portrays an "intense, doomed relationship" comparable to Gaga and Kinney's; she concluded that the song is about Kinney, despite him being neither a blue-collar worker nor from a Republican state.
## Critical reception
While reviewing Joanne, The Atlantic's Spencer Kornhaber wrote that "John Wayne" was an indication of the musical direction the parent album could have gone, with Gaga's fascination with the Western genre. "When she screams 'go FASTER!' in the song's intro, it's one of the album's few examples of Gaga doing what Gaga got famous for, glorifying the extreme," he added. Similar thought was echoed by Andy Gill of The Independent, who found that the "more stolidly rockist fare" and "rock n' roll authenticity" that Gaga sought with Joanne, works best on "John Wayne" and "A-Yo". He believed Homme's "gritty riffing and imaginative lead lines," and "spiky but fluid breaks" made it one of the album highlights. Maeve McDermott of USA Today wrote that "Gaga proves she can still make pop songs that fit Joanne's twangier direction, nailing the balance" on "John Wayne", along with another song, "Diamond Heart", calling them "stadium-sized tracks that sound written with her huge Super Bowl halftime stage in mind".
Daniel Welsh of HuffPost was positive in his review of the track. He called it "one of the more important moments of Joanne, and a welcome relief". Welsh further described "John Wayne" as a stand-out of the album, and complimented Gaga's tongue-in-cheek references in the lyrics. Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine thought that "Gaga's fetishizing of blue-collar men as 'red-state treasure[s]' on 'John Wayne' is delivered with the same swagger she brandished on The Fame Monsters 'Teeth.'"
Mike Schiller of PopMatters had a negative view of "John Wayne" and gave it a 4/10 rating. He said the track has "lot of energy but [it] can't find a memorable melody to save its life". Scott Zuppardo of the same publication was dismissive of the song, writing, "Gaga makes more bubble gum pop, shocking!" Jezebel writer Bobby Finger called the song "silly", while Anna Gaca of Spin described it as "overstuffed". The Chicago Tribune's Greg Kot wrote that the song is an "embarrassing hoedown ... which piles on the bad-boy-goes-to-the-rodeo cliches". Mic writer Mathew Rodriguez felt that the song was a rehash of "4x4" (2013) by Miley Cyrus that "exposes how uncomfortable Gaga feels in her new persona". Time Out said that "John Wayne" took Joanne's country theme "too literally" and panned its title. Writing for Contactmusic.com, Eoin Hanlon said that "John Wayne" and another Joanne track, "Come to Mama", "are possibly some of the worst songs Gaga has ever released".
## Music video
### Development and synopsis
The song's music video, directed by Jonas Åkerlund, premiered on Apple Music on February 8, 2017. Gaga had previously worked with Åkerlund on the "Paparazzi" (2009) and "Telephone" (2010) music videos, and wanted to work with him again. She enlisted him to direct "John Wayne" thinking the song "perfect" for them to work on together. Gaga said, "[Åkerlund] got from me the visions on the song, like falling off the back of a horse but I hold on and carry on enjoying it, or a scene with a guy and me in a car and being reckless to see how reckless love can be. He has a very cinematic approach but doesn't forget to make it a music video."
Serial Pictures production company created the video with Violaine Etienne as executive producer, assisted by Scott Pourroy and Michel Waxman. Åkerlund was helped by Andy Coffing as first assistant director. Other personnel who worked on the video include: Par Ekberg as cinematographer, Emma Fairley as production designer, Matt Nee as the editor and Chimney Pot for the post-production scenes.
The "John Wayne" video begins with a clip from the end of the music video for "Million Reasons". Gaga wears her characteristic Joanne-era outfit: a pale pink suit and matching cowboy hat. Shortly after the video begins, she removes that clothing in favor of more-revealing cowgirl-inspired clothing. It continues with scenes of fast driving in cars and on motorcycles. The video cuts among a variety of exaggerated set pieces, and shots of Gaga dancing and singing. At the end of the video, Gaga is seen firing bullets from the heels of her thigh-high boots. The singer did her own stunts in most of the scenes, including jumping in high-heels from the top of a truck onto the cars.
### Reception and analysis
Several critics noted that the video was comparable to Gaga's earlier music videos. Hunter Harris of New York magazine wrote that the video was "like something from Gaga's The Fame Monster or Born This Way (2011) eras". Andrew Unterberger of Billboard said that the music video for "John Wayne" was like the video for "'Telephone' ... if it used the Grindhouse double-bill as its primary Tarantino influence instead of Natural Born Killers." Kaitlyn Tiffany of The Verge considered the video an "entire B movie in under three minutes". She also felt the video was inspired by 1980s monster movies, the action film Mad Max (1979), as well cowboy films starring Wayne. Tiffany compared the dance sequences to those in Michael Jackson's Thriller (1984), while another writer Lizzie Plaugic recommended watching the last sequences of the video, with all scenes mashed together.
Amy Phillips of Pitchfork wrote, "it's a return to the cheeky, fun maximalism of old Gaga videos", "there's a car chase, lots of fire, explosions, crazy costumes, and jokes. At one point, Gaga shoots bullets from her high heels." Time magazine's Raisa Bruner described the video's content as "return to peak Gaga": "shocking costumes, uninhibited group choreography and over-the-top stunt work for maximum visual impact". She gave the video's direction a positive review: "Gaga and Åkerlund aren't afraid to make the viewer uncomfortable and play with the destructive impacts of violence and passion, which is a good match for the masochism of the song." Spin's Anna Gaca wrote in her review of the video: "This Jonas Åkerlund-directed acid horror Western is a hell-on-wheels bad trip, jam-packed with neon lighting, vampy looks, and 'professional driver on a closed course' stunts." Gaca commented that the video was even more "overstuffed" than the song. At the 2017 Clio Awards, the clip was awarded the Silver Winner category for music videos.
## Live performances
Gaga first performed "John Wayne" live at the Satellite in October 2016, which was the third stop of her Dive Bar Tour, a brief promotional tour of dive bars in the United States. She next performed the song along with "A-Yo" during the Victoria's Secret Fashion Show in November 2016. The singer wore a glittering, black bodysuit with a big leather belt, high platform boots and a black, Swarovski-crystal-embellished hat for "John Wayne". Near the end of the performance, two women came on stage, putting a white leather jacket on the singer, with angel-wing-like white feathers attached to it. The wings enlarged when Gaga walked the runway during the end of the performance.
"John Wayne" was part of Gaga's set list at the 2017 Coachella Festival. She dedicated the track to all the "dangerous men" who come to music festivals. For the Joanne World Tour (2017–2018), Gaga performed "John Wayne" after her first costume change. It was preceded by a video interlude showing Gaga driving a vintage car, spinning up pink dust. After the clip, Gaga returned to the stage wearing black leather fringe costume-made by Alexander Wang, along with a black cowboy hat and over-the-knee boots. Flamethrowers accompanied Gaga and her dancers, spitting fire in the background.
## Credits and personnel
Management
- Stefani Germanotta P/K/A Lady Gaga (BMI) Sony ATV Songs LLC / House of Gaga Publishing, LLC / BIRB Music (ASCAP)
- All rights administered by BMG Rights Management / Songs of Zella (BMI)
- Recorded at Shangri-La Studios, Dragonfly Recording Studio (Malibu, California), Pink Duck Studios, (Burbank, California), Electric Lady Studios (New York City)
- Mixed at Electric Lady Studios (New York City)
- Mastered at Sterling Sound Studios (New York City)
Personnel
- Lady Gaga – vocals, production
- Joshua Blair – recording
- BloodPop – rhythm track, synthesizer, production
- Brandon Bost – mixing assistant
- David Covell – recording assistant
- Tom Elmhirst – mixing engineer
- Josh Homme – drums, guitar
- Barry McCready – recording assistant
- Charley Pollard – recording assistant
- Mark Ronson – bass, guitar, production
- Justin Smith – recording assistant
- Joe Visciano – mixing assistant
Credits adapted from Joanne liner notes.
## Charts
|
52,190,587 |
Macon Library
| 1,059,213,185 |
Branch library of Brooklyn Public Library
|
[
"1907 establishments in New York City",
"Bedford–Stuyvesant, Brooklyn",
"Brooklyn Public Library",
"Carnegie libraries in New York City",
"Libraries in Brooklyn",
"Library buildings completed in 1907",
"Neoclassical architecture in New York (state)"
] |
Macon Library is a branch of the Brooklyn Public Library, located in the Bedford–Stuyvesant neighborhood of Brooklyn, New York City. The branch, opened in 1907, was the borough's eleventh Carnegie library. Richard A. Walker designed Macon in the Classical Revival style and the library was built from red brick and limestone trim with a slate roof at a cost of \$93,481 (). In the 1940s, 1970s, and 2000s, the library underwent major renovations and repairs. Despite the changes, design elements present at the library's opening remain, including some bookshelves, guardrails, and wood paneling. Macon Library houses the African American Heritage Center.
## History
Situated in Bedford–Stuyvesant, Brooklyn, Macon Library was the eleventh Carnegie library–libraries built with a donation from businessman and philanthropist Andrew Carnegie–to be constructed as part of the Brooklyn Public Library system. Costing \$93,481 (\$71,481 for the building and its furnishings plus an additional \$22,000 for the site), the library was designed by Richard A. Walker of Walker & Morris and built in 1907 on a corner lot at the intersection of Macon Street and Lewis Avenue. The library's construction was conducted by Daniel Ryan of Manhattan. In 1906, the New York City Board of Estimate designated \$10,000 for the library's collection. The branch library's opening on July 15, 1907, was attended by 2,000 visitors. Upon its opening, Macon held 10,000 books with the space to expand to 25,000.
The library has undergone a number of repairs and renovations. Between 1948 and 1949, Macon was closed for a repainting, the installation of new windows, the addition of a new heater, and the removal of partitions in its reading areas. Efforts to modernize the library's interior space took place from 1973 to 1977 including an HVAC upgrade, the construction of an auditorium, and the installation of fluorescent lighting. Around 1996, the library was being rehabilitated once again, with efforts underway to improve library accessibility and the building's air conditioning system, and to install a new roof designed to mimic the original roof. The latter project was headed by the architect Leslie Defer. Macon was again renovated between 2006 and 2008 by Sen Architects. The project was intended to bring the library closer to its original appearance by making HVAC systems less visible and replacing the hanging fluorescent lights with lamps like those in the space when it opened. The renovation also included the addition of the African American Heritage Center.
The Brooklyn Public Library announced that Macon Library would be one of the first six libraries in its system to receive exterior digital signage, the first upgrade of exterior signage across the Brooklyn system in over two decades. The project, completed in summer 2017, totaled \$35,000.
## Architecture and features
Macon Library stands two stories tall and is slightly raised above street level. It occupies the majority of the 90-by-100-foot (27 by 30 m) lot upon which it is situated. The building was designed in the Classical Revival architectural style and consists of five bays. While the library was mainly built with red brick, its front entrance is highlighted by a stone border adorned above the front door with a cartouche. The doors and windows are surrounded by an Indiana limestone trim. Macon Library is capped with a dentillated cornice, below which its windows rest, high on the building's facade. The Brooklyn Daily Eagle singled out Macon as one of Brooklyn's best-lighted libraries in 1907. Near the front entrance are two pillars that at one time sported lamps. The building is surrounded by an iron fence and topped with a slate roof.
Inside, the library is divided into two main spaces: alcoves and larger reading areas. The building's main desk is located in the center-front of the floor plan, while its stacks are located in the back, on the first and second floors. On the upper level, the original metal guardrail continues to protect patrons, and the bookcases and wood paneling that was present when Macon opened is also still used. The library's small alcoves contain wooden benches and fireplaces present when the library opened. A series of frescoes and panels with phrases such as Living Brave and Patriotic Men Are Better Than Gold and No Gain Without Pains were inlaid on the mantelpieces above the fireplaces, but the panels with their verbiages are no longer present.
## See also
- List of Brooklyn Public Library branches
|
207,949 |
Isobel Gowdie
| 1,168,229,715 |
Scottish woman who confessed to witchcraft at Auldearn near Nairn during 1662
|
[
"17th-century Scottish people",
"17th-century Scottish women",
"People convicted of witchcraft",
"People from Nairn",
"Shapeshifting",
"Witch trials in Scotland"
] |
Isobel Gowdie was a Scottish woman who confessed to witchcraft at Auldearn near Nairn during 1662. Scant information is available about her age or life and, although she was probably executed in line with the usual practice, it is uncertain whether this was the case or if she was allowed to return to the obscurity of her former life as a cottar’s wife. Her detailed testimony, apparently achieved without the use of violent torture, provides one of the most comprehensive insights into European witchcraft folklore at the end of the era of witch-hunts.
The four confessions she made over a period of six weeks include details of charms and rhymes, claims she was a member of a coven in the service of the Devil and that she met with the fairy queen and king. Lurid information concerning carnal dealings with the Devil were also provided. A combination of demonic and fairy beliefs, the narratives were used by Margaret Murray as the basis for her now mostly discredited theories about cults and witchcraft.
Modern day academics characterise Gowdie, who was illiterate and of a low social status, as a talented narrator with a creative imagination. It is unclear why she came forward or was initially arrested but she may have suffered from ergotism. Since the confessions were transcribed by Robert Pitcairn and first published in 1833, historians have described the material as remarkable or extraordinary and scholars continue to debate the topic in the 21st century.
Gowdie is commemorated outside academia by songs, books, plays and radio broadcasts. The Confession of Isobel Gowdie, a 1990 work for symphony orchestra, was composed by James MacMillan as a requiem for her.
## Background
The early modern period saw the Scottish courts trying many cases of witchcraft and witch hunts began in about 1550. The parliament of Mary, Queen of Scots, passed the Scottish Witchcraft Act in 1563, making convictions for witchcraft subject to capital punishment. Mary's son, James, wrote Daemonologie in 1597 after his involvement with the North Berwick witch trials in 1590 and the Great Scottish Witch Hunt of 1597, a nationwide hunt that started in Aberdeen. In common with other European witch trials, major Scottish witch hunts occurred in batches; historians offer differing opinions as to why this would happen but generally agree that military hostilities and political or economic uncertainty played a part coupled with local ministers and landowners determined to seek convictions. Scotland had been subjected to nearly a century of vigorous oppression although areas in the north of the country had not felt the full brunt of Presbyterianism so a strong belief in fairy traditions and folklore persisted. The Laird of Park, who owned the land where Gowdie lived, was a fervent Covenanter and rejected all traditional superstitions. He had been involved in commissions for witchcraft trials and the deaths of his father, uncle and grandfather were publicly credited as being caused by witchcraft.
Adverse weather conditions caused a sustained period of poor harvests from 1649 until 1653. The execution of King Charles I took place in 1649 and an extensive witch hunt started that year. Charles II was declared the monarch of Scotland in 1660; most historians connect the Great Scottish Witch Hunt of 1661–62, the last but most severe wave of prosecutions, with the Restoration. Writing in 1884, Scottish antiquary Charles Kirkpatrick Sharpe opined "Whatever satisfaction the return of King Charles the Second might afford to the younger females in his dominions, it certainly brought nothing, save torture and destruction, to the unfortunate old women, or witches of Scotland." According to Emma Wilby, a British historian who has undertaken a comprehensive study of Gowdie and her confessions, she was one of probably seven witches tried in Auldearn during this witch hunt.
## Personal life
Records provide no information on Gowdie before her marriage to John Gilbert, who had no involvement in the witchcraft case. Wilby speculates that she would have been brought up in the Auldearn region as she alluded to locations in the area. Likewise no detail is available concerning her age; at the time of her trial in 1662 she may have been aged anywhere from fifteen – although this is unlikely as she claimed to have participated in sexual activities fifteen years before her confession – to well into her thirties or fifties but she was certainly of child-bearing age despite there being no records of her having any children.
Gowdie and her husband lived in the area around Loch Loy, about two miles north of Auldearn. In the 17th century, the sea loch was larger than it is now and was surrounded by woodland, hills and sand dunes. Gowdie's husband was a farm labourer, possibly a cottar, hired by one of the tenants of the Laird of Park; in return for his labour he would have been provided with a cottage and the use of a small parcel of land. According to Wilby, their lifestyle and social status could be compared with present-day developing countries. Unable to read or write, Gowdie possessed a good imagination and the ability to express herself eloquently. Her daily life was spent in basic household chores and tasks such as milking, making bread, weaving yarn or weeding.
## Confessions
Gowdie made four confessions over a period of six weeks; the first is dated 13 April 1662 at Auldearn. It is uncertain why she came forward; the historian John Callow, who authored her Oxford Dictionary of National Biography article, suggests it was because of her involvement in a conspiracy to torment the local minister, Harry Forbes, a zealous extremist who had a fear of witchcraft. Forbes was a witness at each of Gowdie's four interrogations. Accusations against Gowdie would have circulated for a lengthy period before she confessed. She would have been detained in solitary confinement, most probably in the tolbooth in Auldearn, throughout the six-week time span of her confessions.
Her first confession described an encounter with the Devil after she arranged to meet him in the kirk at Auldearn at night. Naming several others who attended including Janet Breadhead and Margret Brodie, she said she renounced her baptism and the Devil put his mark on her shoulder then sucked blood from it. Other meetings took place at several locations, for instance Nairn and Inshoch. She touched on having sexual intercourse with the Devil who she described as a very cold "meikle, blak, roch man". He had forked and cloven feet that were sometimes covered with shoes or boots. Details were given of taking a child's body from a grave and spoiling crops together with information about covens and where they danced. She explained that brooms were laid beside her husband in his bed so he would not notice she was absent. The coven ate and drank the best of food at houses they reached by flying through the air on magical horses and entered via the windows. They were entertained by the Queen of the Fairies, also known as the Queen of Elphame, in her home at Downie Hill which was filled with water bulls that frightened her. Gowdie claimed to have made clay effigies of the Laird of Park's male children to cause them suffering or death and that she had assumed the form of a jackdaw and, with other members of the coven who had transformed into animals like cats and hares, visited the house of Alexander Cumings. Some parts of her testimony, like her description of the king and queen of fairies, has been cut short when the notaries have just noted et cetera, a frequent occurrence when the material was deemed irrelevant or, if it did not comply with the inference the interrogators intended, it was abruptly ended. Alternatively it may have happened when the scribes were unable to keep pace with the volume of information being narrated by Gowdie.
A little over two weeks later, on 3 May 1662, Gowdie's second confession was transcribed. She expanded on details about the coven by providing the nicknames of its members and as many of the spirits that waited on them as she could remember; her own servant spirit, dressed in black, was called the Read Reiver. Claims included having the ability to transform into animals with the individual chants used to turn into a cat, horse or various other animals supplied. Over the duration of all her confessions a total of twenty-seven benevolent or malevolent chants were given, more than in any other British witchcraft case; three were transcribed twice but with significant differences.
Gowdie testified the Devil handmade elf arrows that were then enhanced by small roughly-spoken "elf-boys". The Devil allocated a number of arrows to each coven member with instructions they were to be fired in his name; no bows were supplied so the arrows were flicked by thumb. The witches were not always accurate when they fired the arrows but if the intended target, whether it was a woman, a man or an animal, was touched by the implement, she claimed they would die even if wearing a protective armour. Spells used to inflict illness and torment on Harry Forbes, the minister, were also described.
On 15 May 1662 Gowdie was brought before her interrogators for a third time. Like her first and second confessions, and in common with many other Scottish witchcraft testimonies, the transcript begins by detailing her pact with the Devil after she encountered him and agreed to meet him at Auldearn kirk. Taking the information she provided previously about the elf arrows a step further, she revealed the names of those killed, expressing regret for the deaths she caused and supplied names of other coven members with details of who they had murdered too. She gave an account of the Devil sending her on an errand to Auldearn disguised as a hare. Her narrative went on to describe how while in that form she was chased by a pack of dogs; she escaped from them by running from house to house until eventually she had the opportunity to utter the chant to transform herself back into a human. She added that sometimes the dogs would be able to bite a witch when she took the form of a hare; although the dogs could not kill the shapeshifter, the bite marks and scars would still be evident once the human form was reinstated.
Descriptions of dining with the Devil and his beating of coven members and their responses to it are recounted. Salacious details concerning sexual relations with the Devil together with broad characteristics of his genitalia are chronicled. Continuing on from the tale in her first testimony about the methods undertaken to kill any male children of the Laird of Park, the verse the Devil had taught them to chant while burning the effigies was relayed.
The fourth and final confession, dated 27 May 1662, is, according to the historian Robert Pitcairn who first reproduced Gowdie's testimonies in 1833, basically to confirm the three previous testimonies coupled with an attempt to elicit more information about the members of the coven to enable charges to be brought against them. Forty-one people were arrested as the result of Breadhead and Gowdie's statements.
## Aftermath
The panel of interrogators felt there was ample evidence to secure a conviction against Gowdie so they applied to the Privy Council in Edinburgh seeking a Commission of Justiciary for a local trial to be held. Together with the confession of her accomplice, Janet Breadhead, some or all of Gowdie's confessions were sent with the request. According to Wilby, it is likely the confessions were received in Edinburgh around the middle of June 1662; the Register of the Privy Council for July contains an entry instructing the Sheriff principal of Nairn, Sir Hew Campbell of Calder [Cawdor], and others to arrange local trials for both women.
Gowdie's second testimony has a note on the back dated 10 July 1662 indicating the document had been appraised and the justice department found it germane; a further instruction was added to "Tak ceare of this peaper". On the same document the justice depute, Alexander Colville, added a signed statement beside the witness signatures endorsing the commission. Lord Brodie was likely to have been involved in approving the commission; he was in Edinburgh at the time and he noted in his diary that he had been "excisd in ordouring the depositions of witches". The entry in his diary the following day describes a meeting with Colville when they discussed witches and he mentions "Park's witches". Brodie was highly thought of by the minister and the lairds from the Auldearn area who had asked for his intervention on prior occasions. His relative, the Laird of Lethen, was a witness at Gowdie's interrogations and visited Brodie at the time; he was probably the person who took the trial application to Edinburgh. The pair prayed together petitioning against the Devil and witchcraft.
On 10 April 1662 the Privy Council had issued a proclamation prohibiting torture being used as a means of securing confessions from witches unless it was specifically authorised by the council. This led to a caution frequently being appended to commissions. In Gowdie and Breadhead's case, the Council advised they should be found guilty only if the confessions had been volunteered without torture, that they were sane and without a wish to die.
There is no record of Gowdie being executed although this is not unusual as in 90 per cent of Scottish cases the outcome is unknown due to the local records no longer existing. Wilby hypothesises that once the commission was returned to Auldearn, Gowdie and Breadhead would have been found guilty at a local trial in mid-July, transported by cart to Gallowhill on the outskirts of Nairn where they would have been strangled and burned. Prior to 1678 most Scottish witches tried under a Privy Council commission were convicted and executed; Pitcairn shared the opinion that Gowdie and Breadhead were executed and most modern day academics, like historian Brian P. Levack, agree it would be the likely outcome. The possibility the pair may have been acquitted on the basis of mental impairment has been put forward by some historians; Callow suggests they may have been freed under the clauses attached to the commission and then been permitted to return to "quiet obscurity".
## Modern interpretations
The confessions are a blend of fairy and demonic beliefs without parallel in any other witchcraft case. They are more detailed than most and are inconsistent with much of the folklore and records from the witchtrials. It is unclear whether Gowdie's confessions are the result of psychosis, whether she had fallen under suspicion of witchcraft or sought leniency by confessing. Locally it has been suggested she may have suffered ergotism, which can produce hallucinations and other mental instability. At least two other confessions from the 16th century, those of Andro Mann and Allison Peirson, reported encounters with the Queen of Elphame; later, in 1670, Jean Weir from Edinburgh, also claimed she met the fairy queen.
Gowdie's confessions formed the crux of historian Margaret Murray's thesis about covens consisting of thirteen members; Murray also asserted cults were structured this way throughout Europe although her work was later discredited. Wilby opines there may have been dark shamanic aspects contained in the fairy elements. Despite the Privy Council's April 1662 proclamation, torture was often still employed and Levack speculates some form of it may have been applied to Gowdie; she may have become unbalanced by the imprisonment and lengthy inquisitions. While kept in solitary confinement, she was probably prevented from sleeping and mistreated. Scholars, such as Callow and Diane Purkiss, suggest Gowdie's narratives about sumptuous meals are indicative of a woman who was continually hungry; other details may be evidence of a powerless woman, angry and sexually frustrated by the austerity imposed by the ministers. Church and court records show rape as a recurrent crime during civil unrest and in the mid-16th century; Gowdie described her first carnal experience with the Devil as being in 1647 when soldiers may still have been in the area and Wilby postulates the lurid sexual details may be Gowdie's "fantasy-response to the trauma of rape."
Wilby characterises Gowdie as a survivor of conflicts like the Battle of Auldearn, who experienced the wrath of zealous, bigoted, ministers and local elite that were frightened of witches; she was a skilled story-teller who entertained relatives and friends with narratives of the supernatural. She suggests the tales recorded may have been the result of a talented orator responding to a "rapt audience".
Levack describes Gowdie's initial statement as "one of the most remarkable documents in the history of witchcraft" with academic Julian Goodare referring to her as "one of the most famous of all Scottish witches" whose "extraordinary confessions" include "some of the most remarkable [visionary activities] on record". These modern day descriptions mirror those of Pitcairn in 1833 and George F. Black in 1937 who wrote in the Calendar of Witchcraft in Scotland that "This is the most remarkable witchcraft case on record ... referred to, in more or less detail, in every work relating to witchcraft in Scotland." According to Wilby, the confessions still remain at the forefront of academics debating witchcraft.
## In literature and music
Gowdie and her magic have been remembered in a number of later works of culture. She appears as a character in the biographical novels The Devil's Mistress by novelist and occultist J. W. Brodie-Innes, Isobel by Jane Parkhurst and the fantasy novel Night Plague by Graham Masterton. In the 21st century her story has been the inspiration for plays, radio broadcasts and lectures.
The Confession of Isobel Gowdie is a work for symphony orchestra by the Scottish composer James MacMillan; he believed Gowdie's confession was obtained by torture, and that she was burned at the stake for witchcraft. In a broadcast by BBC Radio 3 in 2010 he styled the composition as his requiem for her. The Sensational Alex Harvey Band song titled 'Isobel Goudie' was one of many songs commemorating her.
The traditional English folk singer Fay Hield has set a selection of Gowdie's transformation chants to music in the song 'Hare Spell' from her 2020 album Wrackline.
The American heavy metal band King 810 features Gowdie's alleged chant in their song Isobel.
## See also
- Cunning folk in Britain
|
48,893,842 |
Warrick House (Meadow Grove, Nebraska)
| 1,118,231,506 |
Historic house in Nebraska, United States
|
[
"Houses completed in 1903",
"Houses in Madison County, Nebraska",
"Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Nebraska",
"National Register of Historic Places in Madison County, Nebraska",
"Queen Anne architecture in Nebraska"
] |
The John Wesley and Grace Shafer Warrick House, also known as the John W. Warrick Sr. House, is a house in the southern part of the city of Meadow Grove, in the northeastern part of the state of Nebraska, in the Midwestern United States. The house was built in the Queen Anne style in 1903 by a prominent Meadow Grove businessman, who made some additions and alterations in the 1920s. The builder, and subsequently his descendants, continuously occupied it into at least the late 20th century.
The house is listed in the National Register of Historic Places, as a well-preserved example of the turn-of-the-century Queen Anne style.
## History
### Meadow Grove established
Among the first white settlers in the area that became Meadow Grove were brothers Perry Vanado Lewis and Van Buren Lewis, who arrived in the area in 1868. In 1872, Van Buren Lewis claimed a quarter-section of land (160 acres, or 65 ha) under the 1862 Homestead Act. Perry Lewis built a dugout on an adjoining quarter-section and, in 1874, planted a grove of cottonwoods and claimed the land under the provisions of the Timber Culture Act.
In 1879, the Fremont, Elkhorn and Missouri Valley Railroad extended its tracks up the Elkhorn Valley by some 60 miles (95 km), from Wisner to Oakdale, crossing the northern part of Madison County. In 1883, Perry Lewis built a gristmill on Buffalo Creek; later that year, his son-in-law Joseph Beech built a grocery store by the gristmill, and a post office named "Gimlet" was established there. The mill attracted farmers from a wide area, and became a social as well as a commercial center.
Believing that the developing settlement needed a better location, Perry Lewis launched the town of Meadow Grove on his timber claim, platting it in 1886–87 and offering free lots to persons who would start new businesses. The store building was moved from the Gimlet site to the new town.
### John W. Warrick
Among the first businesses in Meadow Grove was the Hale Warehouse Company, which dealt in grain and general merchandise. The owner, Virginia native Felix J. Hale, also owned a 400-acre (160 ha) cattle-feeding farm north of the town. In 1887, Hale offered John Wesley Warrick \$100 a month to come to Meadow Grove and manage his operations.
Warrick was born in Elk Creek, Virginia, in 1858. He attended school in Elk Creek until 1878, then taught there for a year. He subsequently worked in the mercantile business, as well as serving for five years as postmaster. In 1887, he accepted Hale's offer and moved to Meadow Grove. Three years later, he married Grace Shafer, whose parents had moved from Ohio to Iowa before settling in the Meadow Grove area in 1872.
Warrick remained with Hale until 1894. In 1895, he established his own grain, lumber, and coal business. Initially, the business had no grain elevator or direct access to the railroad, and grain operations were handled through a "shovel house": grain was brought to the storage facility in wagons, shoveled into it by hand, then hand-shoveled out of storage into wagons for transport to waiting railroad cars. In 1898, Warrick built a modern elevator, with a capacity of 20,000 bushels (700 m<sup>3</sup>).
Warrick prospered and became one of Meadow Grove's most prominent citizens. He sat on the city's school board for over 20 years; served for two decades as Sunday-school superintendent at the local Methodist church; and, when the local Security Bank failed and was reorganized in 1928, he was chosen as one of the directors. In 1931, he brought his son, John Warrick Jr., into his business, renaming it "Warrick and Son".
John Warrick died in 1950; Grace Warrick, in 1951. The family business continued under the operation of John Warrick Jr., and subsequently of his sons John Warrick III and Robert Warrick.
## Warrick House
In 1903, John and Grace Warrick built a house on a four-acre (about one-and-a-half hectares) lot at the southern edge of Meadow Grove. The two-story house was built in the Queen Anne style, at a cost of about \$4,000. A carriage barn, architecturally similar to the house, was built to the southwest of the house at about the same time.
In the early 1920s, the house was raised and a finished basement constructed beneath it. A large porch was added, enclosing the entire first-floor front of the building.
In 1928, John Warrick Jr. used \$5,000 given to him by his father to build a house on the property just south of the senior Warricks. Various Warrick descendants continued to occupy the property as of 1990: Robert Warrick in the main house, John Warrick Jr.'s widow in the house to the south, and John Warrick III next to the carriage barn.
In 1990, the 1903 Warrick House was listed in the National Register of Historic Places, as an "excellent" and well-preserved example of the early-20th-century Queen Anne style.
### Description
The Warrick property is on the west side of Fourth Street. A line of four brick piers, installed in the 1920s and formerly connected by hedges, runs along Fourth.
The house is set in the midst of conifers and deciduous trees, including some that John Warrick Sr. planted at the time of the house's construction in 1903. A brick-and-wood pergola, built on the south side of the house in the 1920s, is no longer extant; nor is a goldfish pond north of the house.
The 19-room house faces eastward. It stands 2+1⁄2 stories tall, atop a red-brick foundation installed as a finished basement in the 1920s. For the first two decades of its existence, the house's front featured a porch that curved onto the south side, supported by classical columns. This porch was extended and enclosed in the 1920s, and a balcony with a railing of spindlework supports constructed atop it.
Originally, the rear (west) entrance of the house led through an enclosed porch. In 1988, a greenhouse was added there.
The north and south sides of the building feature large two-story bay windows. There is a second-floor bay window above the enclosed front porch on the east side. The cross-gabled roof is steeply pitched and wood-shingled. The front (east) and south gables are supported by classical columns.
The interior of the house was finished in a variety of woods. Floors are solid oak throughout. On the first floor are bookshelves, a trestle table, and a writing desk made of walnut taken from trees planted in the yard. As of 1990, many of the original interior furnishings and detailings remained.
A concrete curbed driveway runs westward from Fourth Street to the carriage barn southwest of the house. Built in about 1903, the barn was later converted to a garage. Its architectural style complements that of the house. The steeply-pitched cross-gabled roof is topped with a square cupola; there are windows in the lower gable ends.
|
1,648,352 |
Statute of Uses
| 1,172,813,507 |
Repealed legislation of the Parliament of England
|
[
"1535 in England",
"1536 in law",
"Acts of the Parliament of England (1485–1603)",
"English property law",
"Legal history of England",
"Real property law"
] |
The Statute of Uses (27 Hen. 8. c. 10 — enacted in 1536) was an Act of the Parliament of England that restricted the application of uses in English property law. The Statute ended the practice of creating uses in real property by changing the purely equitable title of beneficiaries of a use into absolute ownership with the right of seisin (possession).
The Statute was conceived by Henry VIII of England as a way to rectify his financial problems by simplifying the law of uses, which moved land outside the royal tax revenue (i.e., through royal fees called feudal incidents), traditionally imposed through seisin. At the time, land could not be passed by a will, and when it devolved to the heir upon death was subject to taxes. Hence, the practice evolved of landowners creating a use of the land to enable it to pass to someone other than their legal heir upon their death, or simply to try and reduce the incidence of taxation.
The King's initial attempt in 1529, which would have removed uses almost completely, were stymied in Parliament by members of the House of Commons, many of whom were landowners (who would lose money) and lawyers (who benefited in fees from the confusing law on uses). Academics disagree on how the Commons were brought around, but an eventual set of bills introduced in 1535 was passed by both the Lords and Commons in 1536.
The Statute invalidated all uses that did not impose an active duty on trustees, with beneficiaries of the use being held as the legal owners of the land, meaning they had to pay tax. The Statute partially led to the Pilgrimage of Grace, and more importantly the development of trusts, but academics disagree as to its effectiveness. While most agree that it was important, with Eric Ives writing that "the effect which its provisions had upon the development of English land law was revolutionary", some say that by allowing uses and devises in certain areas it not only failed to remove the fraudulent element from land law but actively encouraged it.
The Statute of Uses is still valid law in some provinces of Canada.
## Background
The common law of England did not provide for a way to dispose of land held by feudal tenure through wills, only urban land, and instead, uses were applied, which allowed a landowner to give his land to one or more feoffees, to dispose of it or treat it as the original landowner provided. It was viewed with distrust due to the possibility of abuse; Edward Coke wrote that "there were two Inventors of Uses, Fear and Fraud; Fear in Times of Troubles and civil Wars to save their Inheritances from being forfeited; and Fraud to defeat due Debts, lawful Actions, Wards, Escheats, Mortmains etc". With as many as 13 of such feoffees, there was much confusion over the title to land following a lord's death, as evidenced by the case of Sir John Fastolf, which lasted from 1459 to 1476. While this was a problem that needed correcting, the actual motivation of the Statute was not to do so, but instead to bolster the finances of Henry VIII. For several years prior to the Statute, Henry had been struggling with the need to raise revenue; his royal lands did not provide enough, loans and benevolences would have destroyed his personal popularity; as a result, simply increasing the size of his royal lands was the best option. He turned his attention to land law, arguably the most well developed and complex parts of the common law, and sought to reform it to further his aims. This was well-aimed since it was uses that were destroying his income; the royal revenue was traditionally gathered through seisin, which uses completely ignored.
Two bills were drawn up to be submitted to Parliament in 1529. The first, which took note of "grate trobull, vexacion, and unquietness amonges the kynges suggettes for tytyll of londes, tenements, and other heriditamentes as well by intayle as by uses and forgyng of false evidence", was a radical and "drastic" act bill that would have removed uses completely (unless registered at the Court of King's Bench or Court of Common Pleas) and abolished entails "so that all manner of possessions be in state of fee simple from this day forward for ever", although barons and above were allowed entails; in addition, nobody was allowed to buy such land without the king's license. These measures were to obtain the support of the nobility for the second bill, which gave the King wardship over all the land held by noble orphans. When the orphan came of age and asked for the return of the lands, the king was to have a year's revenue from a third of those lands. While this plan was acceptable to barons and other senior nobles, it required passing by the House of Commons. The large landowners in the Commons felt that it prohibited them from making secure wills, while the lawyers saw it as stripping valuable business away from them by simplifying such cases; with these groups making up the majority of Parliament, these plans came to nothing.
The Parliament of 1532 saw another attempt by Henry to push the bill through, but it again met resistance; while the support of the nobility was valuable, it was useless in the Commons. Henry instead sought to appeal to one of the two opposition groups, and picked the lawyers. Many lawyers admitted that the uses made fraud easy and open, and in addition the lawyers of the common law were jealous of the Court of Chancery's equitable jurisdiction, and sought to strip it away. As a result, Henry decided to bring them over to his side by frightening them, listening to a petition against court procedure and lawyers' fees, and openly musing about putting a clause in the draft bills that would fix the amount they could charge; Holdsworth argues that this was the reason the lawyers chose to ally with Henry, and the reason for the Statute's passage. John Bean disagrees, arguing first that many lawyers were landowners, and would have lost more personally than any reduction in fees could have produced, and second that even if they had been convinced, it is unlikely that lawyers made up a majority of the Commons and could have pushed a bill through alone.
## Passage and text
In 1535, three draft bills were presented to Parliament concerning uses and wills, along with one concerning Enrolments. It is from these bills that the Statute of Uses and the succeeding Statute of Enrolments came. The three bills on uses suggested two different ways to deal with the problem. The first proposed severely limiting the situation in which uses could arise, with uses having no legal effect apart from that expressed when they were created. No contract or bargain over land could change the use of that land; anyone who suffered from the breach of such a contract had limited remedies in the courts. While this scheme would have prevented most of the evils of uses, it would also have submitted property law to the common law and limited other, beneficial developments; it would also not stop the practice of getting rid of land through a devise, doing nothing to alleviate the King's financial concerns. The second, and more complex suggestion, was contained in the other two bills on uses. This simply removed the idea of an equitable interest in land, leaving only the idea of a legal interest, and left uses, maintaining the elastic and variable nature of property law rather than submitting it to the more-rigid standards of the common law. Parliament eventually accepted the second idea, and the bill was passed in April 1536 as the Statute of Uses (27 Hen.8 c.10). As such, all uses were invalid except for those that imposed an active duty on a trustee, and the beneficiaries of the use were held to be the legal owners, paying tax as a result.
The Statute of Uses also provided that a widow was not to have both jointure and dower as was made possible by the Statute.
## Impact and aftermath
Most immediately, the Statute partially led to the Pilgrimage of Grace, where rebels demanded not only an end to Henry's religious changes but an abandonment of the Statute. More importantly, the Statute led to the development of the trust as a replacement. While the Statute is believed to have led to the abolition of devises (and this was certainly the King's intent), Robert Megarry argues that it failed in doing so. A feoffment "to the use of such person and persons, and of such estate and estates as I shall appoint by my will" produced a use without formally creating a legal estate; the land was held on a lease, rather than freehold. As a result, it was unaffected by the Statute of Uses, which banned all other methods. Because of this, Megarry argues that not only did it keep devises intact, it gave it power in the common law as well as under equity. The precise aims of the Statute (that the law of property be made more open) was reversed by its impact, which made it far easier to convey property secretly.
Academic assessment of the Statute was initially disparaging, with some saying that it added at most "three words to a conveyance", but it was understood to be important by lawyers of the time and in the modern era. Decades later, both Francis Bacon and Edward Coke gave readings on it. In 1879, Maitland wrote that it was a statute "through which not mere coaches and four, but whole judicial processions with javelin-men and trumpeters have passed and re-passed in triumphal procession... It is not a mere Statute of Uselessness but a Statute of Abuses." On the other hand, William Holdsworth called it "perhaps the most important addition that the legislature has ever made to our private law", with Eric Ives writing that "the importance of the Statute of Uses is beyond doubt. The effect its provisions had on English land law development was revolutionary, and from it have grown the crucial doctrines of the trust".
## Repeal
The whole Act was declared, by section 1 of, and Schedule 1 to, the Law of Property (Amendment) Act 1924, to have been repealed by the Law of Property Act 1922.
The whole Act was repealed by section 207 of, and Schedule 7 to, the Law of Property Act 1925. The repeal of the Statutes of Uses did not affect the operation thereof in regard to dealings taking effect before the commencement of the Law of Property Act 1925.
The Statute of Uses is still valid law in some provinces of Canada.
## See also
- Feu
- Quia Emptores (1290)
- Statute of Wills (1540)
- Statute of Frauds (1677)
- Cestui que
|
596,067 |
Naval battles of the American Revolutionary War
| 1,144,761,500 |
American Revolutionary War battles involving British, French, and U.S. navies
|
[
"American Revolutionary War",
"Anglo-French War (1778–1783)",
"Military history of the Atlantic Ocean",
"Naval battles involving France",
"Naval battles involving Great Britain",
"Naval battles involving the United States",
"Naval battles of the American Revolutionary War"
] |
The American Revolutionary War saw a series of battles involving naval forces of the British Royal Navy and the Continental Navy from 1775, and of the French Navy from 1778 onwards. Although the British enjoyed more numerical victories, these battles culminated in the surrender of the British Army force of Lieutenant-General Earl Charles Cornwallis, an event that led directly to the beginning of serious peace negotiations and the eventual end of the war. From the start of the hostilities, the British North American station under Vice-Admiral Samuel Graves blockaded the major colonial ports and carried raids against patriot communities. Colonial forces could do little to stop these developments due to British naval supremacy. In 1777, colonial privateers made raids into British waters capturing merchant ships, which they took into French and Spanish ports, although both were officially neutral. Seeking to challenge Britain, France signed two treaties with America in February 1778, but stopped short of declaring war on Britain. The risk of a French invasion forced the British to concentrate its forces in the English Channel, leaving its forces in North America vulnerable to attacks.
France officially entered the war on 17 June 1778, and the French ships sent to the Western Hemisphere spent most of the year in the West Indies, and only sailed to the Thirteen Colonies from July until November. In the first Franco-American campaign, a French fleet commanded by Vice-Admiral Comte Charles Henri Hector d'Estaing attempted landings in New York and Newport, but due to a combination of poor coordination and bad weather, d'Estaing and Vice-Admiral Lord Richard Howe naval forces did not engage during 1778. After the French fleet departed, the British turned their attention to the south. In 1779, the French fleet returned to assist American forces attempting to recapture Savannah from British forces, however failing leading the British victors to remain in control till late 1782.
In 1780, another fleet and 6,000 troops commanded by Lieutenant-General Comte Jean-Baptiste de Rochambeau, landed at Newport, and shortly afterwards was blockaded by the British. In early 1781, General George Washington and the comte de Rochambeau planned an attack against the British in the Chesapeake Bay area coordinated with the arrival of a large fleet commanded by Vice-Admiral Comte François Joseph Paul de Grasse from the West Indies. British Vice-Admiral Sir George Brydges Rodney, who had been tracking de Grasse around the West Indies, was alerted to the latter's departure, but was uncertain of the French admiral's destination. Believing that de Grasse would return a portion of his fleet to Europe, Rodney detached Rear-Admiral Sir Samuel Hood and 15 ships of the line with orders to find de Grasse's destination in North America. Rodney, who was ill, sailed for Europe with the rest of his fleet in order to recover, refit his fleet, and to avoid the Atlantic hurricane season.
British naval forces in North America and the West Indies were weaker than the combined fleets of France and Spain, and, after much indecision by British naval commanders, the French fleet gained control over Chesapeake Bay, landing forces near Yorktown. The Royal Navy attempted to dispute this control in the key Battle of the Chesapeake on 5 September but Rear-Admiral Thomas Graves was defeated. Protected from the sea by French ships, Franco-American forces surrounded, besieged and forced the surrender of British forces commanded by General Cornwallis, concluding major operations in North America. When the news reached London, the government of Lord Frederick North fell, and the following Rockingham ministry entered into peace negotiations. These culminated in the Treaty of Paris in 1783, in which King George III recognised the independence of the United States of America.
## Early actions, 1775–1778
### First skirmishes
The Battle of Lexington and Concord on 19 April 1775 drew thousands of militia forces from throughout New England to the towns surrounding Boston. These men remained in the area and their numbers grew, placing the British forces in Boston under siege when they blocked all land access to the peninsula. The British were still able to sail in supplies from Nova Scotia, Providence, and other places because the harbour remained under British naval control. Colonial forces could do nothing to stop these shipments due to the naval supremacy of the British fleet and the complete absence of any sort of rebel armed vessels in the spring of 1775. Nevertheless, while the British were able to resupply the city by sea, the inhabitants and the British forces were on short rations, and prices rose quickly Vice-Admiral Samuel Graves commanded the Royal Navy around occupied Boston under overall leadership of Governor General Thomas Gage. Graves had hired storage on Noddle's Island for a variety of important naval supplies, hay and livestock, which he felt were important to preserve, owing to the "almost impossibility of replacing them at this Juncture".
During the siege, with the supplies in the city running shorter by the day, British troops were sent to the Boston Harbour to raid farms for supplies. Graves, apparently acting on intelligence that the Colonials might make attempts on the islands, posted guard boats near Noddle's Island. These were longboats that included detachments of Marines. Sources disagree as to whether or not any regulars or marines were stationed on Noddle's Island to protect the naval supplies. In response, the Colonials began clearing Noddle's Island and Hog Island of anything useful to the British. Graves on his flagship HMS Preston, taking notice of this, signalled for the guard marines to land on Noddle's island and ordered the armed schooner Diana, under the command of his nephew Lieutenant Thomas Graves, to sail up Chelsea Creek to cut off the colonists' route. This contested action resulted in the loss of two British soldiers and the capture and burning of Diana. This setback prompted Graves to move HMS Somerset, which had been stationed in the shallow waters between Boston and Charlestown, into deeper waters to the east of Boston, where it would have improved manoeuvrability if fired upon from land. He also belatedly sent a detachment of regulars to secure Noddle's Island; the colonists had long before removed or destroyed anything of value on the island.
The need for building materials and other supplies led Admiral Graves to authorise a loyalist merchant to send his two ships Unity and Polly from Boston to Machias in the District of Maine, escorted by the armed schooner Margaretta under the command of James Moore, a midshipman from Graves' flagship Preston. Moore also carried orders to recover what he could from the wreck of HMS Halifax, which had apparently been run aground in Machias Bay by a patriot pilot in February 1775. After a heated negotiation, the Machias townspeople seized the merchant vessels and the schooner after a short battle in which Moore was killed. Jeremiah O'Brien immediately outfitted one of the three captured vessels with breastwork, armed her with the guns and swivels taken from Margaretta and changed her name to Machias Liberty. In July 1775, Jeremiah O'Brien and Benjamin Foster captured two more British armed schooners, Diligent and Tatamagouche, whose officers had been captured when they came ashore near Bucks Harbour. In August 1775, the Provincial Congress formally recognised their efforts, commissioning both Machias Liberty and Diligent into the Massachusetts Navy, with Jeremiah O'Brien as their commander. The community would be a base for privateering until the war's end.
Their resistance, and that of other coastal communities, led Graves to authorise a reprisal expedition in October whose sole significant act was the Burning of Falmouth. On 30 August, Royal Naval Captain James Wallace, commanding Rose fired into the town of Stonington, after the townspeople there prevented Rose's tender from capturing a vessel it had chased into the harbour. Wallace also fired on the town of Bristol, in October, after its townspeople refused to deliver livestock to him. The outrage in the colonies over these action contributed to the passing of legislation by the Second Continental Congress that established the Continental Navy. The US Navy recognises 13 October 1775, as the date of its official establishment — the Second Continental Congress had established the Continental Navy in late 1775. On this day, Congress authorised the purchase of two armed vessels for a cruise against British merchant ships; these ships became Andrew Doria and Cabot. The first ship in commission was Alfred purchased on 4 November and commissioned on 3 December by Captain Dudley Saltonstall. John Adams drafted its first governing regulations, adopted by Congress on 28 November 1775, which remained in effect throughout the Revolution. The Rhode Island resolution, reconsidered by the Continental Congress, passed on 13 December 1775, authorising the building of thirteen frigates within the next three months, five ships of 32 guns, five with 28 guns and three with 24 guns.
### Foundation of the Continental Navy
The desperate shortage of gunpowder available to the Continental Army had led the Congress to organise a naval expedition, one of whose goals was the seizure of the military supplies at Nassau. While the orders issued by the Congress to Esek Hopkins, the fleet captain selected to lead the expedition, included only instructions for patrolling and raiding British naval targets on the Virginia and Carolina coastline, additional instructions may have been given to Hopkins in secret meetings of the Congress' Naval Committee. The instructions that Hopkins issued to his fleet's captains before it sailed from Cape Henlopen, Delaware on February 17, 1776, included instructions to rendezvous at Great Abaco Island in the Bahamas. The fleet that Hopkins launched consisted of: Alfred, Hornet, Wasp, Fly, Andrew Doria, Cabot, Providence, and Columbus. In addition to ships' crews, it carried 200 marines under the command of Samuel Nicholas. In early March, the fleet (reduced by one due to tangled rigging en route) landed marines on the island of New Providence and captured the town of Nassau in the Bahamas. After loading the fleet's ships, (enlarged to include two captured prize ships), with military stores, the fleet sailed north on 17 March, with one ship dispatched to Philadelphia, while the rest of the fleet sailed for the Block Island channel, with Governor Browne and other officials as prisoners. Outbreaks of a variety of diseases, including fevers and smallpox, resulting in significant reductions in crew effectiveness, marked the fleet's cruise.
The return voyage was uneventful until the fleet reached the waters off Long Island. On 4 April, the fleet encountered and captured a prize, Hawk, which was laden with supplies. The next day brought a second prize Bolton, which was also laden with stores that included more armaments and powder. Hoping to catch more easy prizes, Hopkins continued to cruise off Block Island that night, forming the fleet into a scouting formation of two columns. The need to man the prizes further reduced the fighting effectiveness of the fleet's ships. The fleet finally met resistance on April 6, when it encountered the Glasgow, a heavily armed sixth-rate ship. In the ensuing action, the outnumbered Glasgow managed to escape capture, severely damaging the Cabot in the process, wounding her captain, Hopkins' son John Burroughs Hopkins, and killing or wounding eleven others. Andrew Doria'''s Captain Nicholas Biddle described the battle as "helter-skelter". They reached New London on 8 April.
Although Continental Congress President John Hancock praised Hopkins for the fleet's performance, its failure to capture Glasgow gave opponents of the Navy in and out of Congress opportunities for criticism. Nicholas Biddle wrote of the action, "A more imprudent, ill-conducted affair never happened". Abraham Whipple, captain of Columbus, endured rumours and accusations of cowardice for a time, but eventually asked for a court-martial to clear his name. Held on 6 May by a panel consisting of officers who had been on the cruise, he was cleared of cowardice, although he was criticised for errors of judgment. John Hazard, captain of Providence, was not so fortunate. Charged by his subordinate officers with a variety of offences, including neglect of duty during the Glasgow action, he was convicted by court-martial and forced to surrender his commission.
Commodore Hopkins came under scrutiny from Congress over matters unrelated to this action. He had violated his written orders by sailing to Nassau instead of Virginia and the Carolinas, and he had distributed the goods taken during the cruise to Connecticut and Rhode Island without consulting Congress. He was censured for these transgressions, and dismissed from the Navy in January 1778 after further controversies, including the fleet's failure to sail again (a number of its ships suffered from crew shortages, and also became trapped at Providence by the British occupation of Newport late in 1776). American forces were not strong enough to dislodge the British garrison there, which was also supported by British ships using Newport as a base.
On Lake Champlain, Benedict Arnold supervised the construction of 12 vessels to protect access into Hudson River's uppermost navigable reaches from advancing British forces. A British fleet destroyed Arnold's in the Battle of Valcour Island, but the fleet's presence on the lake managed to slow down the British progression enough until winter came before they were able capture Fort Ticonderoga. By mid-1776, a number of ships, ranging up to and including the thirteen frigates approved by Congress, were under construction, but their effectiveness was limited; they were completely outmatched by the mighty Royal Navy, and nearly all were captured or sunk by 1781.
Privateers had some success with 1,697 letters of marque being issued by Congress. Individual states and American agents in Europe and in the Caribbean also issued commissions. Taking duplications into account, various authorities issued more than 2,000 commissions. Lloyd's of London estimated that Yankee privateers captured 2,208 British ships, amounting to almost \$66 million, a significant sum at the time.
## France enters the war, 1778–1780
### French movements
For its first major attempt at co-operation with the Americans, France sent Vice-Admiral Comte Charles Henri Hector d'Estaing, with a fleet of 12 ships of the line and some French Army troops to North America in April 1778, with orders to blockade the British North American fleet in the Delaware River. Although British leaders had early intelligence that d'Estaing was likely headed for North America, political and military differences within the government and navy delayed the British response, allowing him to sail unopposed through the Straits of Gibraltar. It was not until early June that a fleet of 13 ships of the line under the command of Vice-Admiral John Byron left European waters in pursuit. D'Estaing's Atlantic crossing took three months, but Byron (who was called "Foul-weather Jack" due to his repeated bad luck with the weather) was also delayed by bad weather and did not reach New York until mid-August.
The British evacuated Philadelphia to New York City before d'Estaing's arrival, and their North American fleet was no longer in the river when his fleet arrived at Delaware Bay in early July. D'Estaing decided to sail for New York, but its well-defended harbour presented a daunting challenge to the French fleet. Since the French and their American pilots believed his largest ships were unable to cross the sandbar into New York harbour, their leaders decided to deploy their forces against British-occupied Newport, Rhode Island. While d'Estaing was outside the harbour, British Lieutenant-General Sir Henry Clinton and Vice-Admiral Lord Richard Howe dispatched a fleet of transports carrying 2,000 troops to reinforce Newport via Long Island Sound; these reached their destination on 15 July, raising the size of Major General Sir Robert Pigot's garrison to over 6,700 men.
### French arrival at Newport
On 22 July, when the British judged the tide high enough for the French ships to cross the sandbar, d'Estaing sailed instead from his position outside New York harbour. He sailed south initially before turning northeast toward Newport. The British fleet in New York, eight ships of the line under the command of Lord Richard Howe, sailed out after him once they discovered his destination was Newport. D'Estaing arrived off Point Judith on 29 July, and immediately met with Major Generals Nathanael Greene and Gilbert du Motier, marquis de Lafayette, to develop a plan of attack. Major General John Sullivan's proposal was that the Americans would cross over to Aquidneck Island's (Rhode Island) eastern shore from Tiverton, while French troops using Conanicut Island as a staging ground, would cross from the west, cutting off a detachment of British soldiers at Butts Hill on the northern part of the island. The next day, d'Estaing sent frigates into the Sakonnet River (the channel to the east of Aquidneck) and into the main channel leading to Newport.
As allied intentions became clear, General Pigot decided to redeploy his forces in a defensive posture, withdrawing troops from Conanicut Island and from Butts Hill. He also decided to move nearly all livestock into the city, ordered the levelling of orchards to provide a clear line of fire, and destroyed carriages and wagons. The arriving French ships drove several of his supporting ships aground, which were then burned to prevent their capture. As the French worked their way up the channel toward Newport, Pigot ordered the remaining ships scuttled to hamper French access to Newport's harbour. On 8 August d'Estaing moved the bulk of his fleet into Newport Harbour.
On 9 August d'Estaing began disembarking some of his 4,000 troops onto nearby Conanicut Island. The same day, General Sullivan learned that Pigot had abandoned Butts Hill. Contrary to the agreement with d'Estaing, Sullivan then crossed troops over to seize that high ground, concerned that the British might reoccupy it in strength. Although d'Estaing later approved of the action, his initial reaction, and that of some of his officers, was one of disapproval. John Laurens wrote that the action "gave much umbrage to the French officers". Sullivan was en route to a meeting with d'Estaing when the latter learned that Admiral Howe's fleet had arrived.
### Storm damage
Lord Howe's fleet was delayed departing New York by contrary winds, and he arrived off Point Judith on 9 August. Since d'Estaing's fleet outnumbered Howe's, the French admiral, fearful that Howe would be further reinforced and eventually gain a numerical advantage, reboarded the French troops, and sailed out to do battle with Howe on 10 August. As the two fleets prepared to battle and manoeuvreered for position, the weather deteriorated, and a major storm broke out. Raging for two days, the storm scattered both fleets, severely damaging the French flagship. It also frustrated plans by Sullivan to attack Newport without French support on 11 August. While Sullivan awaited the return of the French fleet, he began siege operations, moving closer to the British lines on 15 August and opening trenches to the northeast of the fortified British line north of Newport the next day.
As the two fleets sought to regroup, individual ships encountered enemy ships, and there were several minor naval skirmishes; two French ships (including d'Estaing's flagship), already suffering storm damage, were badly mauled in these encounters. The French fleet regrouped off Delaware, and returned to Newport on 20 August, while the British fleet regrouped at New York.
Despite pressure from his captains to sail immediately for Boston to make repairs, Admiral d'Estaing instead sailed for Newport to inform the Americans he would be unable to assist them. Upon his arrival on 20 August he informed Sullivan, and rejected entreaties that the British could be compelled to surrender in just one or two days with their help. Of the decision, d'Estaing wrote: "It was [...] difficult to persuade oneself that about six thousand men well entrenched and with a fort before which they had dug trenches could be taken either in twenty-four hours or in two days". Any thought of the French fleet remaining at Newport was also opposed by d'Estaing's captains, with whom he had a difficult relationship because of his arrival in the navy at a high rank after service in the French army. D'Estaing sailed for Boston on 22 August.
### D'Estaing reaches Boston
The French decision brought on a wave of anger in the American ranks and its commanders. Although General Greene penned a complaint that John Laurens termed "sensible and spirited", General Sullivan was less diplomatic. In a missive containing much inflammatory language, he called d'Estaing's decision "derogatory to the honor of France", and included further complaints in orders of the day that were later suppressed when cooler heads prevailed. American writers from the ranks called the French decision a "desertion", and noted that they "left us in a most Rascally manner".
The French departure prompted a mass exodus of the American militia, significantly shrinking the American force. On 24 August, Sullivan was alerted by General George Washington that Clinton was assembling a relief force in New York. That evening his council made the decision to withdraw to positions on the northern part of the island. Sullivan continued to seek French assistance, dispatching Lafayette to Boston to negotiate further with d'Estaing.
In the meantime, the British in New York had not been idle. Lord Howe, concerned about the French fleet and further reinforced by the arrival of ships from Byron's storm-tossed squadron, sailed out to catch d'Estaing before he reached Boston. General Clinton organised a force of 4,000 men under Major General Charles Grey, and sailed with it on 26 August, destined for Newport.
The inflammatory writings of General Sullivan arrived before the French fleet reached Boston; Admiral d'Estaing's initial reaction was reported to be a dignified silence. Under pressure from Washington and the Continental Congress, politicians worked to smooth over the incident while d'Estaing was in good spirits when Lafayette arrived in Boston. D'Estaing even offered to march troops overland to support the Americans: "I offered to become a colonel of infantry, under the command of one who three years ago was a lawyer, and who certainly must have been an uncomfortable man for his clients".
General Pigot was harshly criticise by Clinton for failing to await the relief force, which might have successfully entrapped the Americans on the island. He left Newport for England not long after. Newport was abandoned by the British in October 1779 with economy ruined by the war.
### Other actions
The relief force of Clinton and Grey arrived at Newport on 1 September. Given that the threat was over, Clinton instead ordered Grey to raid several communities on the Massachusetts coast. Admiral Howe was unsuccessful in his bid to catch up with d'Estaing, who held a strong position at the Nantasket Roads when Howe arrived there on 30 August. Admiral Byron, who succeeded Howe as head of the New York station in September, was also unsuccessful in blockading d'Estaing: his fleet was scattered by a storm when it arrived off Boston, while d'Estaing sailed away, bound for the West Indies.
The British Navy in New York had not been inactive. Vice-Admiral Sir George Collier engaged in a number of amphibious raids against coastal communities from Chesapeake Bay to Connecticut, and probed at American defences in the Hudson River valley. Coming up the river in force, he supported the key outpost capture of Stony Point, but advanced no further. When Clinton weakened the garrison there to provide men for raiding expeditions, Washington organised a counterstrike. Brigadier General Anthony Wayne led a force that, solely using the bayonet, recaptured Stony Point. The Americans chose not to hold the post, but their morale was dealt a blow later in the year, when their failure to co-operate with the French led to an unsuccessful attempt to dislodge the British from Savannah. Control of Georgia was formally returned to its royal governor, James Wright, in July 1779, but the backcountry would not come under British control until after the 1780 Siege of Charleston. Patriot forces recovered Augusta by siege in 1781, but Savannah remained in British hands until 1782. The damage sustained at Savannah forced Marseillois, Zélé, Sagittaire, Protecteur and Experiment to return to Toulon for repairs.
John Paul Jones in April 1778 led a raid on the western English town of Whitehaven, representing the first engagement by American forces outside of North America.
## Yorktown Campaign
### French and American planning for 1781
French military planners had to balance competing demands for the 1781 campaign. After the unsuccessful American attempts of co-operation leading to failed assaults at Rhode Island and Savannah, they realised more active participation in North America was needed. However, they also needed to co-ordinate their actions with Spain, where there was potential interest in making an assault on the British stronghold of Jamaica. It turned out that the Spanish were not interested in operations against Jamaica until after they had dealt with an expected British attempt to reinforce besieged Gibraltar, and merely wanted to be informed of the movements of the West Indies fleet.
As the French fleet was preparing to depart Brest, France in March 1781, several important decisions were made. The West Indies fleet, led by the Rear-Admiral Comte François Joseph Paul de Grasse, after operations in the Windward Islands, was directed to go to Cap-Français (present-day Cap-Haïtien, Haiti) to determine what resources would be required to assist Spanish operations. Because of a lack of transports, France also promised six million livres to support the American war effort instead of providing additional troops. The French fleet at Newport was given a new commander, the Comte Jacques-Melchior de Barras Saint-Laurent. He was ordered to take the Newport fleet to harass British shipping off Nova Scotia and Newfoundland, and the French army at Newport was ordered to combine with Washington's army outside New York. In orders that were deliberately not fully shared with General Washington, De Grasse was instructed to assist in North American operations after his stop at Cap-Français. The French Lieutenant-General Comte Jean-Baptiste de Rochambeau, was instructed to tell Washington that de Grasse might be able to assist, without making any commitment (Washington learned from John Laurens, stationed in Paris, that de Grasse had discretion to come north).
### Opening moves
In December 1780, General Clinton sent Brigadier General Benedict Arnold (who had changed sides the previous September) with about 1,700 troops to Virginia to carry out raiding and to fortify Portsmouth. Washington responded by sending the Marquis de Lafayette south with a small army to oppose Arnold. Seeking to trap Arnold between Lafayette's army and a French naval detachment, Washington sought the Admiral Chevalier Destouches, the commander of the French fleet at Newport for help. Destouches was restrained by the larger British North American fleet anchored at Gardiner's Bay off the eastern end of Long Island, and was unable to help.
In early February, after receiving reports of British ships damaged by a storm, Destouches decided to send a naval expedition from his base in Newport. On 9 February, Captain Arnaud de Gardeur de Tilley sailed from Newport with three ships (ship of the line Eveille and frigates Surveillante and Gentile). When de Tilley arrived off Portsmouth four days later, Arnold retreated his ships, which had shallower drafts, up the Elizabeth River, where the larger French ships could not follow. Unable to attack Arnold's position, de Tilley could only return to Newport. On the way back, the French captured HMS Romulus, a 44-gun frigate sent to investigate their movements. This success and the pleas of General Washington, permitted Destouches to launch a full-scale operation. On 8 March, Washington was in Newport when Destouches sailed with his entire fleet, carrying 1,200 troops for use in land operations when they arrived in the Chesapeake.
Vice-Admiral Mariot Arbuthnot, the British fleet commander in North America, was aware that Destouches was planning something, but did not learn of Destouches' sailing until 10 March, and immediately led his fleet out of Gardiner Bay in pursuit. He had the advantage of favourable winds, and reached Cape Henry on 16 March, slightly ahead of Destouches. Although suffering a tactical defeat, Arbuthnot was able to pull into Chesapeake Bay, thus frustrating the original intent of Destouches' mission, forcing the French fleet to return to Newport. After transports delivered 2,000 men to reinforce Arnold, Arbuthnot returned to New York. He resigned his post as station chief in July and left for England, ending a stormy, difficult, and unproductive relationship with General Clinton.
### Arrival of the fleets
The French fleet sailed from Brest on 22 March. The British fleet was busy with preparations to resupply Gibraltar, and did not attempt to oppose the departure. After the French fleet sailed, the packet ship Concorde sailed for Newport, carrying the comte de Barras, Rochambeau's orders, and credits for the six million livres. In a separate dispatch sent later, Admiral de Grasse also made two important requests. The first was that he be notified at Cap-Français of the situation in North America so that he could decide how he might be able to assist in operations there, and the second was that he be supplied with 30 pilots familiar with North American waters.
On 21 May Generals George Washington and the comte de Rochambeau, respectively the commanders of the American and French armies in North America, met to discuss potential operations against the British. They considered either an assault or siege on the principal British base at New York City, or operations against the British forces in Virginia. Since either of these options would require the assistance of the French fleet then in the West Indies, a ship was dispatched to meet with de Grasse who was expected at Cap-Français, outlining the possibilities and requesting his assistance. Rochambeau, in a private note to de Grasse, indicated that his preference was for an operation against Virginia. The two generals then moved their forces to White Plains, New York to study New York's defences and await news from de Grasse.
De Grasse arrived at Cap-Français on 15 August. He immediately dispatched his response, which was that he would make for the Chesapeake. Taking on 3,200 troops, he sailed from Cap-Français with his entire fleet, 28 ships of the line. Sailing outside the normal shipping lanes to avoid notice, he arrived at the mouth of Chesapeake Bay on 30 August and disembarked the troops to assist in the land blockade of Cornwallis. Two British frigates that were supposed to be on patrol outside the bay were trapped inside the bay by de Grasse's arrival; this prevented the British in New York from learning the full strength of de Grasse's fleet until it was too late.
British Vice-Admiral Sir George Brydges Rodney had been warned that de Grasse was planning to take at least part of his fleet north. Although he had some clues that he might take his whole fleet (he was aware of the number of pilots de Grasse had requested, for example), he assumed that de Grasse would not leave the French convoy at Cap-Français, and that part of his fleet would escort it to France. So Rodney accordingly divided his fleet, sending Rear-Admiral Sir Samuel Hood north with 15 ships of the line and orders to find de Grasse's destination in North America and report to New York. Rodney, who was ill, took the rest of the fleet back to Britain in order to recover, refit his fleet, and to avoid the Atlantic hurricane season. Hood sailed from Antigua on 10 August, five days after de Grasse. During the voyage, one of his ships became separated and was captured by a privateer.
Sailing more directly than de Grasse, Hood's fleet arrived off the entrance to the Chesapeake on 25 August. Finding no French ships there, he then sailed on to New York to meet with Rear-Admiral Sir Thomas Graves, in command of the North American station following Arbuthnot's departure, whom had spent several weeks trying to intercept a convoy organised by John Laurens to bring much-needed supplies and hard currency from France to Boston. When Hood arrived at New York, he found that Graves was in port (having failed to intercept the convoy), but had only five ships of the line that were ready for battle.
De Grasse had notified his counterpart in Newport, the comte de Barras Saint-Laurent, of his intentions and his planned arrival date. De Barras sailed from Newport on 27 August with 8 ships of the line, 4 frigates, and 18 transports carrying French armaments and siege equipment. He deliberately sailed via a circuitous route to minimise the possibility of an encounter with the British, should they sail from New York in pursuit. Washington and Rochambeau, in the meantime, had crossed the Hudson on 24 August, leaving some troops behind as a ruse to delay any potential move on the part of General Clinton to mobilise assistance for Cornwallis.
News of de Barras' departure led the British to realise that the Chesapeake was the probable target of the French fleets. By 31 August Graves had moved his ships over the bar at New York harbour. Taking command of the combined fleet, now 19 ships, Graves sailed south, and arrived at the mouth of the Chesapeake on 5 September. His progress was slow; the poor condition of some of the West Indies ships (contrary to claims by Admiral Hood that his fleet was fit for a month of service) necessitated repairs en route. Graves was also concerned about some ships in his own fleet; Europe in particular had difficulty manoeuvring. The squadrons' clash started with Marseillois exchanging shots with the 64-gun HMS Intrepid, under Captain Anthony Molloy.
## Aftermath
The British retreat in disarray set off a flurry of panic among the Loyalist population. The news of the defeat was also not received well in London. King George III wrote (well before learning of Cornwallis's surrender) that "after the knowledge of the defeat of our fleet [...] I nearly think the empire ruined".
The French success at completely encircling Cornwallis left them firmly in control of Chesapeake Bay. In addition to capturing a number of smaller British vessels, de Grasse and de Barras assigned their smaller vessels to assist in the transport of Washington's and Rochambeau's forces from Head of Elk, Maryland to Yorktown.
It was not until 23 September that Graves and Clinton learned that the French fleet in the Chesapeake numbered 36 ships. This news came from a dispatch sneaked out by Cornwallis on the 17th, accompanied by a plea for help: "If you cannot relieve me very soon, you must be prepared to hear the worst". After effecting repairs in New York, Admiral Graves sailed from New York on 19 October with 25 ships of the line and transports carrying 7,000 troops to relieve Cornwallis. It was two days after Cornwallis surrendered at Yorktown. General Washington acknowledge to de Grasse the importance of his role in the victory: "You will have observed that, whatever efforts are made by the land armies, the navy must have the casting vote in the present contest". The eventual surrender of Cornwallis led to peace two years later and British recognition of the independent United States of America.
Admiral de Grasse returned with his fleet to the West Indies. In a major engagement that suspended Franco-Spanish plans for the capture of Jamaica in 1782, he was defeated and taken prisoner by Rodney in the Battle of the Saintes. His flagship Ville de Paris'' was lost at sea in a storm while being conducted back to England as part of a fleet commanded by Admiral Graves. Despite the controversy over his conduct in this battle, Graves continued to serve, rising to full admiral and receiving an Irish peerage.
## See also
- Quasi War
- War of 1812
|
60,610,101 |
Jeff's Gourmet Sausage Factory
| 1,171,956,890 |
Sausage factory and restaurant in Los Angeles
|
[
"1999 establishments in California",
"Fleischig restaurants",
"Jewish delicatessens in the United States",
"Jews and Judaism in Los Angeles",
"Restaurants established in 1999",
"Restaurants in Los Angeles",
"Sausage companies of the United States"
] |
Jeff's Gourmet Sausage Factory is a glatt kosher sausage factory and restaurant in Los Angeles, California. Established in 1999 in a small storefront in the Pico-Robertson district, it serves a variety of Eastern European Jewish– and Mediterranean-style sausages, hamburgers, and deli sandwiches and wraps. All of its meats are prepared in-house.
In 2015, owner Jeff Rohatiner opened the first glatt kosher hot dog stand at Dodger Stadium. Jeff's was able to survive permanent closure during the COVID-19 pandemic by cutting down its menu.
## History
### Initial opening and later years
Jeff's Gourmet Sausage Factory is a kosher, fleishig restaurant established in 1999, located in Los Angeles, California, where it is surrounded by many other such restaurants as a part of the Pico-Robertson neighborhood. The eatery was founded by Jeff Rohatiner, who grew up in the Los Angeles Jewish community and earned a degree in hotel management from the University of Nevada, Las Vegas; Rohatiner had had a sausage-making hobby and wanted to allow other kosher-keeping Jews to enjoy the same quality of hot dog as non-Jews. He said he opened his restaurant because "nobody was being creative in the kosher meat business," so he figured that a fresh take on the food would be appreciated in the community. Rohatiner's inspiration also came in part from stories he had heard about his zayde (grandfather), who was known for making delicatessen-style meats.
Rohatiner opened Jeff's Gourmet in a small storefront on Pico Boulevard in the Pico-Robertson Jewish district. Jeff's Gourmet is certified glatt kosher by OK Kosher Certification (OK). In accordance with standard kosher-restaurant policy, Jeff's is closed on Friday afternoon and Shabbat (the Sabbath). While its customer base is largely Orthodox and Modern Orthodox, Jeff's Gourmet also appeals to Conservative and Progressive Jewish families and individuals who may or may not keep kosher.
### Dodger Stadium concession
In July 2015, Rohatiner opened the first glatt kosher hot dog stand at Dodger Stadium of the Los Angeles Dodgers. While Hebrew National hot dogs had previously been sold in the stadium, they do not have the stricter kosher certification preferred by Orthodox customers. Located in the right-field plaza beside Tommy Lasorda's Trattoria, the stand sells hot dogs, jalapeño hot dogs, and sweet Italian sausage sandwiches, along with beer and bottled water. The stand is open during every home game except those that take place on Friday, Shabbat, and Jewish holidays.
A story about the new stand was featured on Los Angeles's local KCAL-TV/KCBS-TV CBS News station, in which Rohatiner was quoted as confirming its certification by a rabbi. The Dodgers' Executive Vice President, Lon Rosen, mentioned that they had had "a lot of fans asking for it, and when fans ask for it, we try to serve our fan base the best we can."
### Effects of the COVID-19 pandemic
The global COVID-19 pandemic greatly affected the sausage factory. After a full five-week-long period of closure, Rohatiner chose to reopen but drastically cut down the menu and seating; attempting to look out for the health of him and his employees, he also decreased hours and staff present for any given shift. Rohatiner noted that it had been "impossible to operate under the circumstances," and he considered not reopening at all. The "roller coaster" of the pandemic forced a transition to a business model that focused more on takeout and delivery options than they ever had before.
The pandemic also made Jeff's unable to provide kosher hot dogs in Dodger Stadium for the 2021 season. The official Major League Baseball website said that "We are unable to offer Jeff's Gourmet until further notice." In June, however, they were able to reopen.
## Menu
Jeff's Gourmet's full menu—which was put on hold in 2021—includes a variety of prepared Eastern European– and Mediterranean-style sausages. All of its meats are made in-house, including kielbasa, veal bratwurst, Italian sausage, boerewors sausage, and delicatessen meats such as corned beef, roast beef, salami, and pastrami. Sausages are made from whole cuts of beef, lamb, chicken, turkey, and veal, which are then ground with fruits and spices. Those meats were among the forty-odd that Rohatiner produced, which included fifteen sausages and eight deli-style meats. All sausages are served on buns.
Vacuum-packed prepared sausages were also available for sale. The restaurant provides catering, fulfills mail orders, and sells sausages in bulk. However, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, Rohatiner was forced to cut back; Jeff's made the decision to greatly shrink the menu, going to just seven meats. This shift also saw the end of indoor seating, with takeout and delivery becoming the business's new focus. Only a few outdoor tables remain as the dine-in option.
## Reception
Jeff's has received positive reviews in both the Jewish and non-Jewish media. Featured extensively in LA's The Jewish Journal of Greater Los Angeles, Jeff's Gourmet was also the subject of multiple local secular papers' articles, including a 2010 rave review in the Los Angeles Times that spoke passionately about the sausages and sandwiches.
Rohatiner is locally known as a sausage-making expert. In 2022, the Vegas Stats & Information Network included Jeff's in its recommendations for people visiting Los Angeles for Super Bowl LVI.
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905,830 |
Dan Fouts
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American football player and broadcaster (born 1951)
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"1951 births",
"American Conference Pro Bowl players",
"American atheists",
"American football quarterbacks",
"College football announcers",
"Living people",
"Marin Catholic High School alumni",
"National Football League Offensive Player of the Year Award winners",
"National Football League announcers",
"National Football League players with retired numbers",
"Oregon Ducks football players",
"People from Sisters, Oregon",
"Players of American football from San Francisco",
"Pro Football Hall of Fame inductees",
"San Diego Chargers players",
"St. Ignatius College Preparatory alumni"
] |
Daniel Francis Fouts (born June 10, 1951) is an American former professional football quarterback who played for the San Diego Chargers of the National Football League (NFL) throughout his 15-season career (1973–1987). After a relatively undistinguished first five seasons in the league, Fouts came to prominence as the on-field leader during the Chargers' Air Coryell period. He led the league in passing every year from 1979 to 1982, passing for over 4,000 yards in the first three of these —no previous quarterback had posted consecutive 4,000-yard seasons. Fouts was voted a Pro Bowler six times, first-team All-Pro twice, and Offensive Player of the Year in 1982. He was named a member of the NFL 1980s All-Decade Team, and elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1993, his first year of eligibility.
Fouts played college football for the Oregon Ducks, breaking numerous records and later being inducted into the Oregon Sports Hall of Fame and the University of Oregon Hall of Fame. He was a third-round draft pick of the Chargers in 1973, brought in to back up veteran Johnny Unitas. Fouts struggled during his first three season in the league while playing for losing teams. His form began to improve in 1976, when Bill Walsh spent a year in San Diego as his offensive coordinator, but discontentment over the direction of the team and the restrictions of the NFL's free agency rules led Fouts to refuse to play through the majority of 1977.
Early in 1978, Don Coryell became the new head coach of the Chargers and installed the pass-oriented offensive scheme that would become known as Air Coryell. Fouts, given license to throw with an unprecedented frequency, produced record-breaking numbers during the rest of his career. He led the NFL in passing yards four straight years from 1979 to 1982 (still a record), and became the first player in history to throw for 4,000 yards in three consecutive seasons, breaking the NFL single-season record for passing yards each time. He set career records for the most 300-yard games and 400-yard games. Fouts was rewarded with six Pro Bowl selections (1979–1982, 1983, 1985) and four All-Pro selections (first team in 1979 and 1982, second team in 1980 and 1985). In the strike-shortened 1982 season, he passed for 2,883 yards in only nine games, winning the AP Offensive Player of the Year and PFWA NFL MVP honors.
Fouts led the Chargers to three consecutive AFC West division titles (1979–1981) and a further playoff appearance in 1982. He was the winning quarterback in the Epic in Miami game, breaking a playoff record with 433 passing yards. The Chargers advanced to the AFC championship game twice during his career, but never reached the Super Bowl. Fouts is widely considered among the best quarterbacks in NFL history to never reach a Super Bowl.
Fouts was a color analyst for NFL games on CBS television and Westwood One radio. He is the son of Bay Area Radio Hall of Famer Bob Fouts.
## Early life and high school career
Dan Fouts was born in San Francisco on June 10, 1951, to Julie and Bob Fouts, the fourth of five children. His father was a sports broadcaster who commentated on games for the San Francisco 49ers of the National Football League (NFL) for over 20 years. As a child, Dan acted as a stat-keeper for Bob and worked for the 49ers as a ballboy. One of his first sporting heroes was John Brodie, the 49ers' starting quarterback of that time. When, at the age of 11, Fouts asked his parents' permission to play football, they told him that he would have to be a quarterback, as he had shown a good throwing arm while playing Little League baseball. He played Pop Warner football for the Drake Junior Pirates, where his coach described him as an "outstanding quarterback" in 1964.
Fouts attended Marin Catholic High School, located just north of San Francisco in Kentfield, California, for his two first years, and started some games as a sophomore in the fall of 1966. While he temporarily lost the starting job after play described as "extremely jittery" by a local newspaper, an end of season report from the same paper stated that he should improve with better protection. Fouts, playing on an 0–6 team, finished the season with nine interceptions and only one touchdown. He also played varsity basketball as a forward. Fouts transferred to St. Ignatius College Preparatory (San Francisco) for his final two years of high school. In 1967, St. Ignatius were champions of the West Catholic Athletic League with a 6–0 record, and Fouts was named to the WCAL All-Star first-team. He nearly reversed his touchdown to interceptions ratio, with 16 touchdowns and two interceptions. St. Ignatius went 5–1 in Fouts' senior year; he passed much less as his team focused more on their running game.
### Statistics
## College career
Fouts was somewhat of an unknown when he accepted a scholarship offer from the University of Oregon to play for the Ducks in Eugene. He started for the freshman team during his first year there (1969). In 1970, he began the season on the bench behind veteran quarterback/punter Tom Blanchard. In the opening game, a 31–24 victory over California, Fouts came off the bench and completed 12 of 19 passes for 166 yards and two touchdowns, including the game-winner in the final two minutes. Fouts and Blanchard combined to set a new Pacific-8 Conference record with 424 passing yards. After another relief appearance the following week, Fouts got his first chance to start in week 3, going up against Stanford and their quarterback Jim Plunkett with Blanchard out injured. Fouts and Plunkett would contest the AFC championship game ten years later. Plunkett's Stanford won this first meeting 33–10, though Fouts set school records with 27 completions, 51 attempts and 271 yards. Two weeks later, Fouts threw the winning 15-yard touchdown with 30 seconds to play, and Oregon beat UCLA 41–40. In week 5, Fouts tied a school record with four touchdowns in an easy win over Idaho; he repeated the feat against Air Force three weeks later, while setting an Oregon single-game passing yards record (396) that would last until 1989. Fouts finished the season ranked second in the Pacific-8 Conference for completions, completion percentage and passing touchdowns (behind Plunkett each times) and third in passing yards, though his 24 interceptions were tied for most in the conference. He passed for 16 touchdowns while running for 4 more, and his season total of 2,390 passing yards was an Oregon record that stood until 1986. UPI named him an honorable mention in their season-ending all-coast team.
Fouts entered his junior year (1971) as an established and highly-rated starter. That season, he had over 100 fewer attempts than the previous season, in part because of the form of running back Ahmad Rashad, who led the Pacific-8 in rushing attempts and yards. Fouts was third in the conference in attempts, completions and passing yards. He posted an improved touchdowns to interceptions ratio of 9–11, with his interceptions total being the lowest among Pacific-8 quarterbacks who played in every game. In 1972, with Rashad having graduated, Fouts again became the main focus of the offense. He broke the Oregon record for career passing yardage in an early-season win over Arizona, but his team struggled for much of the season, conceding 60 points in consecutive games and going into their finale against with a 3–7 record. In his last college game, Fouts threw a 65-yard touchdown, and Oregon beat Oregon State for the first time in nine years. Fouts was named to the All-Pac-8 team, and finished second in the conference behind Stanford's Mike Boryla in attempts, completions, touchdowns and interceptions. Fouts had less help up front, and his passing to receiver Greg Sprecht accounted for most of the Ducks offense during a trying season. At the time, Fouts ranked second in conference history in career passing and total offense behind Plunkett. He set 19 Oregon records, including those for career passing yardage (5,995) and total offense (5,871), and was inducted into the university's hall of fame in 1992.
### Statistics
## Professional career
### 1973–1975: Early struggles
Fouts was selected in the third round of the 1973 NFL Draft by the San Diego Chargers, using the 64th overall pick. The sixth quarterback taken in the draft, he was brought in to back up his childhood idol, Johnny Unitas, who had joined the Chargers during the offseason after 17 years with the Baltimore Colts. Fouts broke his collarbone playing in the Coaches All-America Game, and then held out for more money before signing with the Chargers. He missed the first three preseason games while still recovering from his injury. Unitas soon picked up a career-ending shoulder injury, causing Fouts to see extensive action as a rookie. His first appearance came in week 4, entering a game at Pittsburgh at the start of the second half, with the Chargers trailing 38–0. Fouts led three touchdown drives, and the game finished 38–21; His first career touchdown pass was a 13-yarder to Jerry LeVias. The following week, Fouts made his first start, completing 12 of 30 passes for 183 yards, two touchdowns and an interception as the Chargers lost 27–17 to Oakland, earning positive reviews for his performance. He struggled in his next game, intercepted four times during a 41–0 home loss to Atlanta. By the end of the 1973 season, Fouts was 0–5–1 as a starter, with six touchdowns against 13 interceptions, while completing fewer than 45% of his passes. His passer rating of 46.0 was well below the league average of 64.9.
Unitas announced his retirement before the 1974 season, paving the way for Fouts to stake a claim to the starting job. He started the first eleven games, before a broken thumb ended his season. Fouts went 3–8 in those games, posted an improved passer rating of 61.4; half of his season total of 8 touchdown passes came in a single week 8 game with Cleveland, completing 12 passes of 21 for 333 yards as the Chargers won 36–35. While Fouts again finished the season with a completion percentage below 50%, his yards per completion of 15.1 led the NFL.
Fouts increased his completion percentage in 1975 (to 54.4%), but threw only two touchdowns against 10 interceptions, while going 2–7 as a starter. In a week 3 game with the Raiders, Fouts completed 3 of 13 passes for 29 yards, no touchdowns and two interceptions, while getting sacked five times for 51 yards; he finished the game with a passer rating of zero, the only such rating of his 15-year career. Fouts was booed when he was announced at the start of that game, and struggled with injuries throughout the season (first a sore ankle, then a concussion), though his replacements also struggled.
### 1976–1977: Improvement and holdout
In 1976, the Chargers brought in Bill Walsh from Cincinnati to be their offensive coordinator. He stayed in the post for a season before moving on to be the head coach at Stanford. Fouts would later say, "Walsh really got me into the position to be an effective quarterback". Fouts also gained a new wide receiver when the Chargers traded for seven-year veteran Charlie Joiner. Joiner went on to spend 11 years with Fouts in San Diego, with over 9,000 receiving yards and 47 touchdowns as a Charger. Fouts later described the receiver as a security blanket, saying: "I don't think he ever dropped any, at least any that were thrown that he could catch."
Fouts began the 1976 season by throwing six touchdown and no interceptions in the first three games, all wins. In a week 3, 43–24 victory over Don Coryell's St. Louis Cardinals, Fouts went 15 of 18 for 259 yards, 4 touchdowns and no interceptions. This gave him a perfect passer rating of 158.3; as of 2022, Fouts is the only Charger to post such a rating. Fouts was the league's No. 1 rated passer at that stage, though the defenses he had faced were not highly rated. The remainder of the season did not go as well for the Chargers, who were shut out four times and finished 6–8, or for Fouts, who started thirteen games and played in all fourteen, despite fans calling for backup Clint Longley to have more playing time. Nonetheless, he finished with new career highs in passing yards (2,535), completion percentage (57.8%), and touchdowns (14); he threw 15 interceptions, at a new career-low interception percentage of 4.2%. Fouts finished with a passer rating of 75.4 for the season, above the league average of 67.0. San Diego sports journalist Jack Murphy described 1976 as a year of "much growth" for Fouts, and the departing Walsh predicted that he would have a fine career in the league.
San Diego acquired quarterback James Harris from the Los Angeles Rams during the offseason, with head coach Tommy Prothro stating that he wanted depth at the injury-prone position. Harris's contract was speculated to pay him approximately \$170,000, compared to \$82,500 for Fouts. The following month, Fouts was one of 17 players testifying against the NFL in an antitrust settlement. Fouts expressed a desire to leave San Diego, and complained at a new collective bargaining agreement; the agreement meant the Chargers had only to match the offer of another team to prevent him from leaving. There was speculation that Fouts was disgruntled due to Harris's signing and contract, but Fouts himself said that he wanted to play in a Super Bowl, and that the Chargers were not of that caliber; he stated that he would retire if he was not allowed to leave San Diego. Fouts refused to report to training camp, During the lengthy holdout that followed, Fouts attacked Prothro as "the farthest thing from a head coach you'll ever find ... he's snowing people into thinking he knows what he's doing."
On November 15, the NFL grievance committee rejected an attempt by Fouts to become a free agent. Chargers Owner Gene Klein said that Fouts had been given bad advice by his lawyer, and would be welcomed back to the team. Fouts reported to the team on November 17, 125 days late, having accrued \$62,500 in fines. He returned to a 5–5 team who had recently lost Harris to injury, and started from week 11 onwards. Fouts threw 4 touchdowns and 1 interception in the first two games, both wins, then no touchdowns and five interceptions in the following two, both defeats.
### 1978–1986: Leader of Air Coryell
#### 1978 season
The Chargers drafted wide receiver John Jefferson in the first round of the 1978 draft, and he caught two touchdown passes from Fouts in his debut, as the Chargers beat Seattle in week 1 of the 1978 season. San Diego lost their next three and Prothro resigned, to be replaced by Coryell. He installed the explosive offensive system that would become known as Air Coryell during an eight-year reign as Chargers head coach, led on the field by Fouts.
San Diego lost three of Coryell's first four games, slipping to a 2–6 record at the midway point of the season. They won their next four games in a row; In the third of these, Fouts threw a 14-yard touchdown to Jefferson as time expired in overtime, to beat Kansas City 29–23. Fouts missed the return match with the Chiefs through injury, and the Chargers were shut out. He returned for the final three games, winning all of them to give him seven consecutive victories as a starter; he passed frequently during these three games, throwing for over 900 yards and 9 touchdowns, while the Chargers averaged over 40 points per game. Fouts earned praise for his performances during the strong finish.
The Chargers finished 9–7, missing the playoffs. As a team, they led the league in passing yards. Fouts himself was sixth in the NFL with 2,999 passing yards, first in yards per attempt (7.9), fourth in completion percentage (58.8%) and touchdowns (24), and third in passer rating (83.0). He threw more touchdowns than interceptions for the first time in his career (24–20), and combined frequently with Jefferson, who led the league with 13 touchdown receptions. That season, the NFL had adopted a rule change to free up the passing game, prohibiting defenders from making contact with receivers past five yards from the line of scrimmage.
#### 1979 season
The Chargers finished 12–4 in 1979, winning the AFC West and reaching the playoffs for the first time since 1965. The offseason featured the arrival of another major target for Fouts. Tight end Kellen Winslow, the Chargers' 1st-round pick in the 1979 Draft, missed half of his rookie season with a broken leg, but played a huge role in the Charger offense from 1980 through to a major knee injury in 1984. Winslow is credited with revolutionizing the tight end position through his pass-catching ability.
Fouts started every game in 1979. From week 6 to week 9, he set an NFL record with four consecutive 300-yard games, although the Chargers only won two of these. Fouts later posted three consecutive passer ratings of over 100. San Diego ended the regular season as both their AFC West champions and the No. 1 seed in the AFC, as Fouts reached the playoffs for the first time, seven years into his career.
Fouts finished the season with 4,082 yards passing, breaking Joe Namath's record of 4,007, albeit from two extra games. He led the league in completion percentage with 62.6%, and ranked third with a passer rating of 82.6. He posted an even ratio of touchdowns to interceptions (24–24). Fouts tied another Namath record with six total 300-yard games. In the end of season awards, he finished second behind Earl Campbell for both AP NFL MVP (outvoted 34–27) and AP Offensive Player of the Year (outvoted 39–34), while being named to the AFC Pro Bowl and 1st-team All-Pro teams. Both Jefferson and Joiner had 1,000-yard receiving seasons, two of the twelve players to reach that milestone league-wide.
San Diego's return to the playoffs ended in disappointment, losing 17–14 at home to the wildcard Houston Oilers. Fouts completed 25 of 47 passes for 333 yards, no touchdowns and five interceptions. Fouts said after the game, "We just made too many mistakes, that's all. We didn't play very well and they did." It was revealed after the game that Houston defensive coordinator Ed Biles had managed to crack the code San Diego used to signal their offensive plays to Fouts, giving them prior warning of the coming plays and potentially accounting in part for Fouts' struggles.
#### 1980 season
San Diego repeated as division champions in 1980 with an 11–5 record. Fouts had an eventful game in the week 2 matchup with Oakland. He turned the ball over on five consecutive possessions in the 3rd quarter, with four interceptions and a fumble that was run back for a touchdown, but eventually threw a 24-yard touchdown to Jefferson in overtime as the Chargers won 30–24. Fouts finished the game with 29 completions from 44 attempts for 387 yards, with 3 touchdowns and 5 interceptions. The 387 yards were a new single-game franchise record for the Chargers. Fouts himself would break the record once more four weeks later, with 388 yards in a 38–24 loss to the Raiders; the following week, he broke it again, this time passing for 444 yards in a 44–7 victory over the Giants. This last total would prove to be the joint-most of his career. San Diego and Oakland had a tight race for the AFC West title, which the Chargers eventually edged on tiebreakers.
For the second consecutive season, Fouts broke the passing yardage record, finishing with 4,715 yards, over 500 ahead of his nearest rival. This time, he also broke Namath's yards per game record by averaging 294.7. His marks for attempts (589) and completions (348) were NFL records, and he posted a new personal best with 30 touchdowns (against 24 interceptions) and with a passer rating of 84.7. He had eight 300+ yard passing games, breaking a record he'd tied the previous season. Fouts was voted a 2nd-team All-Pro, and made his second Pro Bowl. Jefferson, Winslow and Joiner, his leading receivers, dominated the receiving yardage charts, finishing 1st, 2nd and 4th respectively, with over 1,100 yards each. Jefferson led the league in touchdown catches, and Winslow came top in receptions. They were the first trio of teammates to each have 1,000 receiving yards in the same season. Joiner said of Fouts at this point, "Dan has definitely matured over the last four years. His quickness of release is better, he's improved at reading defenses, he's better at going to the receiver who's open."
San Diego was again the No. 1 seed in the AFC playoffs, and hosted the Buffalo Bills in the divisional playoffs. The Chargers trailed 14–3 early in the game, and 14–13 with a little over two minutes to play, facing a 3rd and 10 at midfield. Fouts then found little-used wide receiver Ron Smith for what would prove to be the game-winning touchdown. Fouts finished 22 of 37, for 314 yards, 1 touchdown and 2 interceptions. Jefferson and Joiner were among those praising his leadership and toughness after the come-from-behind win. The following week, San Diego hosted Oakland for their third meeting of the season, with a place in the Super Bowl at stake. Fouts had a mixed first half, as he threw two touchdown passes to Joiner and two red zone interceptions. Joiner's second touchdown began a comeback attempt from 28–7 behind that eventually fell short; Oakland won 34–27, and went on to triumph in Super Bowl XV. Fouts finished the game having completed 22 of 45 passes for 336 yards, 2 touchdowns and 2 interceptions.
#### 1981 season
While San Diego won their third consecutive division title in 1981, they had to contend with early-season unrest, with both Jefferson and key defensive end Fred Dean holding out for better pay. Both players were traded early in the season, to the disapproval of numerous other Chargers. Jefferson's replacement, Wes Chandler, had made one Pro Bowl with the New Orleans Saints, and would go on to make three more with the Chargers. Without Dean, the defense slipped from 6th to 27th in the 28-team league, leaving Fouts and the offense as the unit more likely to lead San Diego to victories.
Fouts began the season by posting a near-perfect passer rating of 157.1, completing 19 of 25 for 330 yards, 3 touchdowns and no interceptions in an easy 44–14 win over Cleveland. The Chargers reached a 6–3 record before back to back one-sided defeats left them two games off the division lead. In week 12, the Chargers went to Oakland and beat the defending Super Bowl champions 55–21. Fouts threw touchdown passes on six consecutive drives, including four to Winslow in a ten minute-period sandwiching halftime. The six touchdown passes were the most of Fouts's career, and remain a Chargers record as of 2022. The win was the first of four over the final five weeks of the regular season, as the Chargers recovered to take the division title on tiebreakers over Denver, with a 10–6 record.
Fouts was consistent, passing for between 252 and 352 yards in every regular season game bar the finale. With 4,802 yards (nearly 900 yards ahead of his nearest rival), he broke the single-season record for the 3rd consecutive season, as well as breaking the records for yards per game (300.1), attempts (609) and completions (360) for the second time. He posted the best touchdown to interception ratio of his career (33–17), led the league in touchdown passes for the first time, and made his third Pro Bowl. At this point, Fouts was responsible for over half of the five 4,000-yard passing seasons in NFL history, posting his third in a row. Fouts again had three 1,000-yard receivers, with Joiner, Chandler (including his yards with the Saints before he was traded) and Winslow (again the league's leader in receptions) all crossing the mark. He benefitted from a stable, veteran offensive line (Billy Shields, Doug Wilkerson, Don Macek, Ed White and Russ Washington), who enabled Fouts to be sacked on a career-low 3% of his pass attempts.
San Diego faced the Dolphins in the divisional playoffs, winning the Epic in Miami 41–38. In a dominant 1st quarter, the Chargers led 24–0 when Fouts threw an 8-yard touchdown pass to James Brooks. Miami scored 24 points of their own to tie the score in the 3rd quarter, before Fouts restored the lead with a 25-yard touchdown to Winslow. The Dolphins responded with the next 14 points, and were close to scoring again when they lost a fumble at the San Diego 18 with five minutes to play. Fouts completed 7 of 8 passes for 75 yards on the ensuing drive, ending with a 9-yard touchdown pass that was intended for Winslow but caught instead by Brooks, with 58 seconds to play. The game went into overtime, where Fouts completed back-to-back passes of 20 yards to Chandler and 39 yards to Joiner, and Benirschke won the game with a 29-yard field goal nearly 14 minutes into the extra period. Fouts, who described the game as the best he'd ever played in, finished with 33 completions from 53 attempts for 433 yards (all setting new NFL playoff records), with 3 touchdowns and 1 interception. The Epic in Miami set playoff records for the most combined points, yards, passing yards and completions, and is widely considered one of the greatest NFL games played.
The Chargers faced the Bengals in Cincinnati in the AFC championship game. The game, known as the Freezer Bowl, was played in frigid conditions, with a temperature of −9 °F (−22.8 °C), in contrast to the 88 °F (31.1 °C) conditions in Miami the previous week. Fouts struggled to grip the ball, completing 15 of 28 passes for 185 yards, 1 touchdown and 2 interceptions as the Chargers were defeated 27–7, missing out on a Super Bowl appearance by one game for the second consecutive season.
#### 1982 season
In 1982, the Chargers started 1–1 before an NFL players strike interrupted the regular season, and reduced it to nine games in total when it resumed in November. Fouts did not support the strike action before it began, but trained extensively with his teammates while it was ongoing.
When play resumed, the Chargers lost their first game back, then won their next two going into a road meeting with the defending Super Bowl champion 49ers. In a passing duel with Joe Montana, Fouts threw five touchdowns, including a game-winner to running back Chuck Muncie with three minutes left. The Chargers won 41–37; Fouts finished with 33 completions from 48 attempts, for 444 yards (tying his career high), 5 touchdowns and no interceptions. The teams set an NFL record with 65 completions, while combining for 810 passing yards. The following week, San Diego faced the other participant from the previous Super Bowl, beating Cincinnati 50–34 at Jack Murphy Stadium. Fouts went 25 of 40 for 435 yards, 1 touchdown and 2 interceptions. He become the first player in NFL history to post back-to-back 400-yard games. The teams combined for 66 completions, breaking the NFL record set in the Chargers' previous game, and 883 passing yards, setting a new record. The Chargers eventually qualified for the playoffs for the fourth straight year, with a 6–3 record.
While the truncated season prevented Fouts from again breaking the passing yardage record in 1982, he did set a new yards per game record for the third consecutive year, this time with 320.3 per game. He led the league in passing yards (2,883), touchdowns (17, tied with Montana), and yards per attempt (8.7, which would prove to be the best of his career). His passer rating of 93.3, second-best in the league, would stand as a career-high, and he was named 1st-team All-Pro for the second time, as well as being voted to a fourth successive Pro Bowl. Fouts won the Associated Press Offensive Player of the Year Award with 43 of the available 80 votes, but finished runner-up in NFL MVP voting with 33, two behind Washington kicker Mark Moseley. He did win a league MVP award from the PFWA, as well as the player-awarded Jim Thorpe Trophy. Fouts was again well protected by the same quintet of offensive linemen as the previous year. This time, none of the five missed a game, and Fouts was sacked on 3.5% of pass plays. From Fouts' receivers, Winslow caught the second-most passes in the league, while Chandler, despite missing a game, finished as the only 1,000-yard receiver in the league.
San Diego traveled to Pittsburgh in the first round of the playoffs. The Steelers led 28–17 in the final quarter, but Fouts finished consecutive drives with touchdown passes to Winslow, the first coming on 4th down, the second with one minute to play. These were enough to give the Chargers a 31–28 victory. Fouts completed 27 of 43 passes for 333 yards, 3 touchdowns and no interceptions, producing a passer rating of 112.5, his best in a playoff game. In the second round of the playoffs, the Chargers faced the Dolphins in the Orange Bowl, the same venue as their famous match from the previous season. The rematch proved to be one-sided, with Miami winning 34–13. Fouts completed 15 of 34 passes for 191 yards, 1 touchdown and 5 interceptions. This proved to be the last playoff game of his career, meaning that he had thrown five interceptions in both his first and final playoff games.
#### Later seasons
Fouts was a free agent in 1983. While negotiating with the Chargers, he also considered an offer to play for a proposed San Diego-based franchise in the new USFL. Ultimately, Fouts opted to sign a six-year contract with the Chargers, stating that he wanted to win a Super Bowl. The contract was reported to pay upward of \$1 million per year, making it one of the most lucrative in pro football. Fouts played for five more seasons, but missed time through injury in each of those, and would not return to the playoffs.
In 1983, the Chargers went 6–10 while conceding the most points in the league. Fouts started the first seven games, throwing for at least 300 yards in five of them, but was kept out of the next five by a shoulder injury, ending a run of consecutive starts that stretched back to 1978. After returning for three games, Fouts reaggravated the injury and missed the finale. He went 5–5 as a starter, led the league in yards per game for the fifth straight year with 297.5, and made his fifth straight Pro Bowl. He threw 20 touchdowns and 15 interceptions and produced a career-high 8.8 yards per attempt, while his completion percentage (63.2%) and passer rating (92.5) were both the second best marks of his career.
San Diego started 4–2 in 1984, but faded from that point, finishing 7–9. Fouts had his fourth career 400-yard game in a week 8 loss to the Raiders. In week 12, he set career highs for attempts and completions, going 37 of 56 for 380 yards, 4 touchdowns and 1 interception while leading the Chargers back from a 28–14 4th quarter deficit to a 34–28 overtime upset of Dan Marino and the previously unbeaten Miami Dolphins. Fouts started the first thirteen games of the season, before injuring his groin and missing the remaining three. He went 6–7 as a starter, with 19 touchdowns and 17 interceptions. His yards per attempt slipped to 7.4, while his passer rating of 83.4 was his worst since 1979. Fouts still averaged 287.7 yards per game, but was eclipsed by Marino, who surpassed Fouts' single-season record with 5,084 passing yards and his run of five straight Pro Bowl appearances came to an end.
In 1985, the Chargers finished 8–8. The contrast between their offense and defense was stark, as they led the league in points scored, yards gained, first downs, passing yards and passing touchdowns, but were last in yards conceded, first downs conceded and passing yards conceded. As a result, Fouts took part in numerous high-scoring shootouts. In week 2, he threw for 440 yards and 4 touchdowns; his backup Mark Herrmann added a further touchdown pass, but Seattle had 5 of their own and won 49–35. The following week, Fouts passed for 344 yards and a further 4 touchdown, which was enough for a 44–41 win over Cincinnati. Fouts was knocked out of a week 4 game in Cleveland with knee ligament damage, and underwent arthroscopic surgery to repair it. On his third start after returning, Fouts threw for 436 yards and 4 touchdowns in a 40–34 overtime win against the Raiders. It was the sixth 400-yard game of his career, a new NFL record. Fouts started the final game on the bench with a cracked fibula, though he did have a one-play cameo appearance, coming on to hand the ball off while Herrmann was winded. Fouts went 7–5 as a starter. Despite throwing no passes in his final appearance, he topped the league in yards per game for the sixth time in his career, with 259.9. His yards per attempt rebounded to 8.5, and he led the league in that category for the third time. He posted the best touchdown percentage in the league for the only time in his career, with 6.3% of his passes going for touchdowns. His touchdowns to interceptions ratio (27–20) and passer rating (88.1) were both improved after the previous year, and he earned a sixth Pro Bowl berth, as well as 2nd-Team All-Pro honors. Fouts nearly had three 1,000 receivers again, as Chandler and running back Lionel James both reached the mark, while Joiner was short by 68 yards.
1986 began well for the Chargers, who defeated Miami 50–28, with Fouts throwing 3 touchdowns and no interceptions. This was to prove both the last 3-touchdown game of Fouts' career, and the last win of the Don Coryell era. The Chargers lost their next seven games, with Fouts throwing 6 touchdowns and 19 interceptions before being sidelined by a pair of concussions. Coryell, who had been expected to stand down at the end of the season, instead announced his resignation on October 29, amid rumors that he had been pressured into the decision. Assistant coach Al Saunders was promoted to take his place. Fouts missed three games due to the concussions, and one more with a sore shoulder; he finished the season 3–9 as a starter, and saw a major drop in statistical performance. His touchdown total was less than his interception total (16–22) for the first time since 1977, his completion percentage of 58.6% was his worst since 1976, and his passer rating dropped to 71.4, his worst since 1975 and below the NFL average of 74.1.
### 1987: Final season and retirement
Fouts played one full season after Coryell's resignation. He entered 1987 without his longest serving receiver, Joiner retiring as the record-holder in career receptions and yards. The Chargers lost their first game and won their second before the season was interrupted by a players' strike, which caused the week 3 games to be canceled and the following three weeks to feature teams made up largely of replacement players. While Fouts was not part of the players union and did not picket with his teammates, he nonetheless refused to play for the Chargers while the strike was ongoing, noting that he would be risking injury behind an inexperienced offensive line. The replacement Chargers won all three of their games, meaning that Fouts and the other regulars came back to a 4–1 team, standing atop the AFC West.
In his first game back, Fouts completed 24 of 34 for 293 yards, 2 touchdowns and no interceptions as San Diego beat the Chiefs 42–21. Three narrow victories followed, and the Chargers had a league-best 8–1 record. However, they lost all six of their remaining games while scoring only five offensive touchdowns, and missed the playoffs. Fouts played only briefly in the first of these defeats due to a calf injury, and missed the finale with a slightly torn rotator cuff. His 254th and final touchdown pass came in week 14, a 15-yarder to James in the final quarter of a 20–16 loss to Pittsburgh, while posting his 51st and final 300-yard game, a record at the time and almost double the next highest. The following week, he played his final game, a 20–7 home defeat to the Indianapolis Colts. Fouts completed 22 of 37 passes for 257 yards, no touchdowns and 3 interceptions. He scored the only Chargers touchdown of the game himself, on a 1-yard run.
Statistically, Fouts had a similar campaign to the previous year. He was 5–5 as a starter, throwing 10 touchdowns and 15 interceptions, while his passer rating dropped slightly to 70.0. He was sacked significantly more frequently, with 24 sacks occurring on 6.2% of pass attempts, his highest percentage since 1977.
Fouts announced his retirement on March 24, 1988, at his home in Rancho Santa Fe. He cited the wear and tear on his body as the main reason. He was 36 years old at the time, and second only to Fran Tarkenton in terms of NFL career passing yards, trailing by about 4,000 yards despite attempting 863 fewer passes. Fouts ranked fourth in career passing touchdowns with 254. Reflecting on his career, he said, "We had so much confidence in what we were doing and we had a lot of fun."
### Legacy and playing style
Fouts threw for 43,040 yards and 254 touchdowns while starting 171 games over fifteen seasons in San Diego. He rushed for 476 yards and 13 touchdowns. The Chargers retired his No. 14 jersey during a ceremony at Jack Murphy Stadium on November 27, 1988, during halftime of a game against San Francisco. At the time, he was the only Charger to have his number retired. At the time of his retirement, Fouts was credited with 42 team records, as well as seven league records. San Diego found Fouts difficult to replace, as they made 14 quarterback changes in barely five seasons before settling on Stan Humphries as a long-term starter. Several of Fouts' club records lasted well into the 21st century: Philip Rivers broke his career passing touchdowns record in 2015 and career passing yardage record in 2016, while Justin Herbert surpassed Fouts' 1981 single season passing yardage record 40 years later with the benefit of one extra regular season game.
While he played five full seasons before the arrival of Coryell in San Diego, and a further one after he left, Fouts is primarily remembered as the quarterback of the Air Coryell offense, which led the league in passing yards seven times in an eight season span (1978–1983, 1985). When Fouts was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1993, he chose Coryell to present him, and stated during his acceptance speech that he would not have become a Hall of Fame quarterback without his former coach.
Coryell described Fouts as a superior quarterback, writing "He had quick feet and could get back and make decisions. He wasn't afraid to pull the trigger and let the ball go." Fouts was able to make up to five reads before deciding on a pass target. Bill Walsh, who went on to be a Hall of Fame head coach after leaving San Diego, said "Dan Fouts had a cool, steel-like nerve and courage ... He took a lot of beatings, a lot of pounding, but continued to play, hurt or otherwise. He played more physical football than anybody on his team, including the linebackers". Fouts rarely used the shotgun, feeling more able to read defenses at the line. After taking the snap, he would drop back a shorter distance than most quarterbacks and often delay until the last second to give his receivers time to get open, tendencies that led him to take a number of hits throughout his career.
Despite going to the playoffs from 1979 through 1982 and playing in two AFC championship games, the Chargers never went to the Super Bowl under Fouts. He frequently appears on lists of the best quarterbacks not to win a Super Bowl or play in one. The San Diego defense was often blamed for their defeats. While Fouts' offense remained consistently strong under Coryell, leading the league in total yardage five times in eight seasons from 1978 to 1985, the defense dropped from 6th in 1980 to 27th in 1981, and remained in the bottom five for the next four seasons. This slump coincided with the trade of Dean, an All-Pro sack specialist, to the San Francisco 49ers in a contract dispute. Dean would win UPI NFC Defensive Player of the Year (while playing in only 11 games) that year en route to a Super Bowl victory and help the 49ers to another Super Bowl title three years later, and later be inducted into the Hall of Fame. "I can't say how much it affected us, because we did make it to the AFC championship game," said Chargers' All-Pro defensive lineman Gary "Big Hands" Johnson of the loss of Dean. "But I could say if we had more pass rush from the corner, it might've been different." U-T San Diego in 2013 called the trade "perhaps the biggest blunder in franchise history."
## NFL career statistics
## Accomplishments
### Honors
Fouts' jersey number 14 retired by the Chargers in 1988. At the time, he was the only Charger to have his number retired.
He has been inducted into numerous halls of fame in the years following his retirement. This began in 1989, when the San Diego Hall of Champions placed him in the Breitbard Hall of Fame, which honors San Diego's finest athletes both on and off the playing surface. In 1992, he was inducted into the University of Oregon Hall of Fame as one of the inaugural class, then the State of Oregon Sports Hall of Fame. Fouts was enshrined into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1993, his first year of eligibility. Later that year, he was inducted into the Chargers Hall of Fame, together with Joiner.
Fouts was named the 2nd-team quarterback for the NFL 1980s All-Decade Team in 1990, receiving 1 full vote out of 26. In 1999, he was ranked number 92 on The Sporting News list of the 100 Greatest Football Players. He was one of the twenty quarterbacks listed as finalists for the NFL 100th Anniversary All-Time Team, though he was not among the ten who made the team. In 2009, Fouts was named by fans as the "Greatest Charger Of All Time" in voting for the Chargers 50th anniversary team.
### NFL records
Following are NFL records set by Fouts, both active records and those since broke. Records highlighted in gold are still standing. Note that the succeeding record holder may not be the current holder.
### Chargers records
Following are Chargers franchise records held by Fouts:
- Passing yards per game, season: 320.3 (1982)
- Passing touchdowns, game: 6 (11/22/81 vs. Oakland)
- Passer rating, game (min 15 attempts): 158.3 (9/26/76 vs. St. Louis)
- Passing touchdowns, playoff game: 3 (twice, tied with Philip Rivers)
- Passing yards, playoff game: 433 (1/2/82 vs. Miami, also 2nd, 3rd and 4th places with 336 and 333 (twice))
- Passing attempts, playoff game: 53 (1/2/82 vs. Miami)
- Completions, playoff game: 33 (1/2/82 vs. Miami)
- Interceptions, career: 242
## Broadcasting
### Television
While announcing his retirement, Fouts stated his desire to work as a commentator, starting from the upcoming 1988 season. He did an audition tape for CBS, working with Dick Stockton, and officially joined the NFL on CBS team as an analyst in March of that year. Over the course of the next six seasons, he was primarily partnered with Verne Lundquist. CBS were outbid by Fox and lost their NFL coverage rights in 1994. Fouts then switched to the CBS-affiliated KPIX-TV in his hometown of San Francisco, where he worked as the sports director and a sports anchor. In the fall of 1997, Fouts returned to network television as an analyst, this time working college football games for ABC Sports alongside play-by-play man Brent Musburger.
In 2000, Fouts moved into a commentary role on ABC's Monday Night Football, alongside MNF anchor Al Michaels and comedian Dennis Miller. He had a three-year contract, but ABC dropped both Fouts and Miller from the show in 2002, after only two seasons. Fouts stayed with ABC, returning to college football and working alongside acclaimed veteran announcer Keith Jackson. After Jackson's retirement from ABC in 2006, Fouts partnered with Tim Brant.
ABC declined to renew the contracts of either Fouts or Brant in 2008. It was reported in USA Today later that year that Fouts was returning to CBS for NFL games, where he would work with a variety of play-by-play announcers including Don Criqui, Bill Macatee and Dick Enberg. In 2009, he was moved to partner with Enberg as the number 3 broadcasting team for the NFL on CBS. Ian Eagle replaced Enberg as Fouts' partner the following season, and the new pair remained in the number three slot until 2014, when they were elevated to the number two team behind Jim Nantz and Phil Simms (and later, Tony Romo). Fouts and Eagle were often called "The Bird and the Beard". While with CBS, Fouts also covered Chargers preseason games carried throughout Southern California.
In April 2020 it was announced that CBS had parted ways with Fouts.
### Other media
In 1998, Fouts made his big-screen debut, portraying himself in the football comedy The Waterboy, starring Adam Sandler. Fouts and Musburger appeared late in the film as ABC Sports' broadcast team for the fictitious New Year's Day "Bourbon Bowl" game.
Fouts did color commentary for the football video game NFL GameDay 2004, released in 2003. He partnered with long-time announcer Enberg.
During his second stint at CBS, Fouts also called NFL games for Westwood One radio, including Super Bowl 50.
## Life outside football
Fouts married his first wife, public health major Julianne Mehl, in 1977. The pair had met at the University of Oregon. They later divorced, and Fouts was married for the second time in 1994, to Jeri Martin. He had two children from the first marriage and two from the second. His first son Dominic died of cancer in 2012. The family set up the Dominic Fouts Memorial Cancer Fund, with Dan Fouts as an adviser.
He lives with his wife in Oregon, the state of his alma mater, in a two-story home he had constructed from logs in the 1970s. The house is situated in the mountains near Sisters.
Described as a private person away from football, Fouts enjoyed fishing, skiing and racquetball during his playing career. He is also a keen golfer, who has appeared at numerous charity events.
## See also
- Bay Area Sports Hall of Fame
- List of National Football League annual pass completion percentage leaders
|
294,791 |
Steven Moffat
| 1,172,828,403 |
Scottish television writer and producer
|
[
"1961 births",
"20th-century British screenwriters",
"21st-century British screenwriters",
"Alumni of the University of Glasgow",
"BAFTA winners (people)",
"BBC television producers",
"British male television writers",
"Hugo Award-winning writers",
"Living people",
"Officers of the Order of the British Empire",
"Primetime Emmy Award winners",
"Scottish atheists",
"Scottish comedy writers",
"Scottish science fiction writers",
"Scottish television producers",
"Scottish television writers",
"Showrunners",
"Writers from Paisley, Renfrewshire"
] |
Steven William Moffat (/ˈmɒfət/; born 18 November 1961) is a Scottish television writer, television producer and screenwriter. He is best known for his work as showrunner, writer and executive producer of the science fiction television series Doctor Who and the contemporary crime drama television series Sherlock, based on Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes stories. In the 2015 Birthday Honours, Moffat was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) for his services to drama.
Born in Paisley, Scotland, Moffat, the son of a teacher, was formerly a teacher himself. His first television work was the teen drama series Press Gang. His first sitcom, Joking Apart, was inspired by the breakdown of his first marriage. Later in the 1990s, he wrote Chalk, inspired by his own experience as an English teacher. Moffat, a lifelong fan of Doctor Who, wrote the comedic sketch episode The Curse of Fatal Death for the Comic Relief charity telethon, which aired in early 1999. His early-2000s sitcom Coupling was based upon the development of his relationship with television producer Sue Vertue.
In March 2004, Moffat was announced as one of the writers for the revived Doctor Who TV series. He wrote six episodes under executive producer Russell T Davies, which aired from 2005 to 2008. Moffat's scripts during this era won him three Hugo Awards, a BAFTA Craft Award, and a BAFTA Cymru Award. Between episodes, he wrote and produced the modern-day drama series Jekyll, based on the novella Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde. In May 2008, it was announced that Moffat would succeed Davies as showrunner, lead writer and executive producer of Doctor Who. Around the same time, he dropped his contract with film director Steven Spielberg for a film trilogy based on artist Hergé's character Tintin. Part of the lone script he wrote was used in Spielberg's film The Adventures of Tintin, eventually released in 2011.
Production on Sherlock's unaired pilot episode began in January 2009, while series 5 of Doctor Who—Moffat's first series as executive producer—began production the following July. Moffat won another Hugo for his writing as a Doctor Who showrunner, while his work as a Sherlock showrunner won him a BAFTA Craft Award and two Primetime Emmy Awards. In January 2016, Moffat announced he would be stepping down from running Doctor Who after six series. Sherlock's fourth and most recent series aired in January 2017. Moffat's last Doctor Who episode, "Twice Upon a Time", aired at Christmas in 2017. In March 2019, Moffat began production on Dracula, based on Bram Stoker's novel, which was commissioned by BBC One and Netflix and was first broadcast on BBC One in January 2020.
## Early life
Moffat was born in Paisley, Scotland, where he attended Camphill High School. He studied at the University of Glasgow, where he was involved with the student television station Glasgow University Student Television. After gaining a Master of Arts degree in English from Glasgow, he worked as a teacher for three and a half years at Cowdenknowes High School, Greenock. In the 1980s he wrote a play entitled War Zones (performed at the 1985 Glasgow Mayfest and the Edinburgh Festival Fringe) and a musical called Knifer. He is an atheist.
## Career
### Press Gang
Moffat's father Bill was a head teacher at Thorn Primary School in Johnstone, Renfrewshire; when the school was used for Harry Secombe's Highway in the late 1980s, Bill mentioned to the producers that he had an idea for a television series about a school newspaper. The producers asked for a sample script, to which Bill agreed on the condition his son Steven write it. Producer Sandra Hastie said that it was "the best ever first script" that she had read. The resulting series was titled Press Gang, starring Julia Sawalha and Dexter Fletcher, and it ran for five series on ITV between 1989 and 1993, with Moffat writing all forty-three episodes. The programme won a BAFTA award in its second series.
During production of the second series of Press Gang, Moffat was experiencing an unhappy personal life as a result of the break-up of his first marriage. The producer was secretly phoning his friends at home to check on his state. His wife's new lover was represented in the episode "The Big Finish?" by the character Brian Magboy (Simon Schatzberger), a name inspired by Brian: Maggie's boy. Moffat brought in the character so that all sorts of unfortunate things would happen to him, such as having a typewriter dropped on his foot.
### Joking Apart
By 1990, Moffat had written two series of Press Gang, but the programme's high cost along with organisational changes at backers Central Independent Television cast its future in doubt. As Moffat wondered what to do next and worried about his future employment, Bob Spiers, Press Gang's primary director, suggested that he meet with producer Andre Ptaszynski to discuss writing a sitcom. Inspired by his experience working in education, Moffat's initial proposal was a programme similar to what became Chalk, a sitcom set in a school that eventually aired in 1997. During the pitch meeting at the Groucho Club, Ptaszynski realised that Moffat was talking passionately about his impending divorce and suggested that he write about that instead of a school sitcom. Taking Ptaszynski's advice, Moffat's new idea was about "a sitcom writer whose wife leaves him". Moffat wrote two series of Joking Apart, which was directed by Spiers and starred Robert Bathurst and Fiona Gillies. The show won the Bronze Rose of Montreux and was entered for the Emmys.
He wrote three episodes of Murder Most Horrid, an anthology series of comedic tales starring Dawn French. The first ("Overkill", directed by Spiers) was identified by the BBC as a "highlight" of the series. His other two episodes were "Dying Live" (dir. Dewi Humphreys) and "Elvis, Jesus and Zack" (dir. Tony Dow).
### Doctor Who short fiction
Moffat has been a fan of Doctor Who since childhood. In 1995, he contributed a segment to Paul Cornell's Virgin New Adventures novel Human Nature. His first solo Doctor Who work was a short story, "Continuity Errors", published in the 1996 Virgin Books anthology Decalog 3: Consequences.
### Chalk
Between marriages, Moffat claims that he "shagged [his] way round television studios like a mechanical digger." According to an interview with The New York Times, Moffat met television producer Sue Vertue at the Edinburgh Television Festival in 1996. Vertue had been working for Tiger Aspect, a production company run by Peter Bennett-Jones. Bennett-Jones and his friend and former colleague Andre Ptaszynski, who had worked with Moffat on Joking Apart, told Moffat and Vertue that each fancied the other. A relationship blossomed and they left their respective production companies to join Hartswood Films, run by Beryl Vertue, Sue's mother. The couple have two children together: Joshua and Louis Oliver.
Before Moffat left Pola Jones for Hartswood, Ptaszynski produced Chalk, the series that the writer had pitched to him at the beginning of the decade. Set in a comprehensive school and starring David Bamber as manic deputy head Eric Slatt and Nicola Walker as Suzy Travis, the show was based on Moffat's three years as an English teacher. The studio audience responded so positively to the first series when it was taped that the BBC commissioned a second series before the first had aired. However, it was met less enthusiastically by critics upon transmission in February 1997, who had taken exception to the BBC's publicity department comparing the show to the highly respected Fawlty Towers. In an interview in the early 2000s, Moffat refuses to even name the series, joking that he might get attacked in the street.
After production wrapped on Chalk in 1997, Moffat announced to the cast that he was marrying Vertue.
### The Curse of Fatal Death
In late 1998, Moffat was approached by Vertue, a producer of Comic Relief, to write a comedic sketch based on the Doctor Who TV series to be aired across Comic Relief's 1999 telethon in several parts on BBC One. The sketch, The Curse of Fatal Death, was written from December 1998 to February 1999, recorded in February, and broadcast in March.
### Coupling
When Vertue asked Moffat for a sitcom, he decided to base it around the evolution of their own relationship. Coupling, produced by Vertue, was first broadcast on BBC Two in 2000. Moffat's first son Joshua was born around 2000, and his second son Louis was born around 2002. Though he had no ambition to be a father, he instantly loved his sons when they were delivered. Coupling ran for four series totalling 28 episodes until 2004, all written by Moffat. He also wrote the original, unbroadcast pilot episode for the U.S. version, also titled Coupling, although this was less successful and was cancelled after four episodes on the NBC network. Moffat blamed its failure on an unprecedented level of network interference.
### Doctor Who in the Russell T Davies era and Jekyll
In December 2003, Moffat received an email offering him to write for Doctor Who, following the announcement of the revival of the series in September. His involvement with the series was announced in March 2004. He wrote six episodes under executive producer Russell T Davies for the 2005 through 2008 series, which were produced from December 2004 to March 2008. Moffat won the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation, Short Form for the two-part story "The Empty Child" and "The Doctor Dances" (both 2005), as well as the episodes "The Girl in the Fireplace" (2006) and "Blink" (2007). "Blink" also gained him the BAFTA Craft Award for Best Writer, and a BAFTA Cymru Award for Best Screenwriter.
Between Doctor Who episodes, Moffat wrote and produced Jekyll, a modern-day drama series based on the Robert Louis Stevenson novella Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde, meaning he nearly missed out on writing for the 2007 series of Doctor Who. Written late in the series' run, he quickly based "Blink" on his previously-written Doctor Who short story from 2005, "What I Did on My Christmas Holidays by Sally Sparrow", as "a desperate way to keep a toehold" in the 2007 series. Jekyll aired on BBC One from June 2007.
In March 2008, Davies said that he often rewrote scripts from other writers, but did not "touch a word" of Moffat's episodes.
### Doctor Who and Sherlock
In October 2007, Reuters reported that Moffat would be scripting a trilogy of films based on Belgian artist Hergé's character Tintin for directors Steven Spielberg and Peter Jackson.
In May 2008, the BBC announced that Moffat would be succeeding Davies as lead writer and executive producer of Doctor Who for the show's fifth series, to be broadcast in 2010, although Davies had initiated discussions with Moffat regarding this as far back as July 2007. He had intended to complete work on the Tintin trilogy before resuming work on Doctor Who, but delays caused by the intervening 2007–2008 Writers Guild of America strike meant he could only submit part of a script for the first film. Moffat told The Guardian in 2012 that Spielberg was "lovely" about his decision to walk away from his three-film Tintin contract to return to Doctor Who. The script for the first film in the trilogy, The Adventures of Tintin (released in 2011), was completed by Edgar Wright and Joe Cornish, with a part of Moffat's script used in the film.
During their journeys from London to Cardiff for Doctor Who, Moffat and writer Mark Gatiss conceived a contemporary update of author Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes stories called Sherlock. Vertue advised them to work on the project rather than spend years discussing it. A 60-minute pilot, written by Moffat, was filmed in January 2009. The pilot was not aired but a three-episode series of 90-minute television films produced by Hartswood was commissioned.
Production on Moffat's time in charge of Doctor Who began in July 2009. As executive producer and lead writer, he was significantly involved in casting both Matt Smith as the Eleventh Doctor and Peter Capaldi as the Twelfth Doctor. As Doctor Who showrunner, Moffat won another Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation, Short Form for writing the two-part story "The Pandorica Opens" and "The Big Bang" (both 2010). As showrunner for Sherlock , he won a BAFTA Craft Award for Best Writer for "A Scandal in Belgravia" (2012), a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Miniseries, Movie or a Dramatic Special for "His Last Vow" (2014), and a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Television Movie for executive producing "The Abominable Bride" (2016).
In June 2015, Moffat was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire for his services to drama. In January 2016, Moffat announced he was stepping down as Doctor Who lead writer and executive producer after the 2017 series, his sixth series as showrunner, with Chris Chibnall succeeding him at the start of the eleventh series for broadcast in 2018. The fourth and most recent series of Sherlock finished production around August 2016, and aired in January 2017. "Twice Upon a Time"—the 2017 Doctor Who Christmas special, and Moffat's last episode as lead writer and showrunner—finished production in July 2017 and broadcast on Christmas that year.
### Dracula
In October 2018, BBC One and Netflix officially commissioned Dracula, a TV series written and created by Moffat and Gatiss based on Bram Stoker's 1897 novel Dracula. In March 2019, Moffat revealed that the first night of production was about to start. The series began airing New Year's Day 2020, and was broadcast over three consecutive days. The three episodes were released on Netflix on 4 January 2020.
### The Unfriend
On 13 February 2020, Chichester Festival Theatre announced that the play The Unfriend, written by Moffat, was intended to have its world premiere as part of the 2020 Festival Theatre season in the Minerva Theatre. However, due to the COVID-19 pandemic the play's opening night was postponed until 26 May 2022. It was directed by Mark Gatiss and featured Amanda Abbington, Frances Barber, Reece Shearsmith, and Michael Simkins. Following a successful run in Chichester, the play transferred to the Criterion Theatre, London, in January 2023.
## Writing credits
### Television
### Film
### Stage
## Awards and nominations
## Novels
## See also
\*: Category:Works by Steven Moffat
|
38,828,912 |
2012–13 Hershey Bears season
| 1,172,917,643 |
Hockey team season
|
[
"2012–13 AHL season",
"2012–13 in American ice hockey by team",
"Hershey Bears"
] |
The 2012–13 Hershey Bears season was the franchise's 75th season in the American Hockey League, starting on October 13, 2012, and ending on May 8, 2013, when they were eliminated during the first round of the Calder Cup playoffs.
Due to the 2012–13 National Hockey League lockout, Washington Capitals coach Adam Oates served as co-coach of the Bears alongside head coach Mark French until November. Several Washington players also played with the Bears for a time, including defenseman Dmitry Orlov and goaltender Braden Holtby, who recorded four season shutouts.
The Bears experienced major offensive problems at the start of the season, resulting in the team's worst 17-game start in eight years. But the team saw more success as the season progressed, including a seven-game road winning streak from November 28 to January 11, and a seven-game point streak from January 26 to February 15. The Bears participated in the 2013 AHL Outdoor Classic, but lost to the Wilkes-Barre/Scranton Penguins.
Hershey was eliminated from the playoffs by the Providence Bruins despite winning the first two games in a best-of-five series, marking only the tenth time this had occurred in league history. Afterward, it was announced that French would not be retained for a fifth season as head coach. The 2012–13 season drew a club-record home attendance average of 10,046, only the fifth time a club's average had surpassed 10,000 in recorded league history.
## Off-season
After several years of roster stability, the Hershey Bears lost several players during the off-season, including Keith Aucoin, Chris Bourque, Andrew Carroll, Sean Collins, Cody Eakin, Kyle Greentree, Christian Hanson, D. J. King, Jacob Micflikier, Graham Mink, Zach Miskovic, and Joel Rechlicz. The team obtained several new players through free agency, including Alex Berry, Matt Beaudoin, Matt Clackson, Jon DiSalvatore, Jon Kalinski, Steven Oleksy, Garrett Stafford, Ryan Stoa, and Jeff Taffe. Rookies Stan Galiev and Cameron Schilling joined the team, Mattias Sjögren returned from the Swedish Elite League, and Hershey also obtained Zach Hamill in a trade that sent Bourque to the Boston Bruins organization. Bears coach Mark French said the new roster made the season feel like "a change in era".
Like all American Hockey League teams, the Hershey Bears saw changes at the start of the season due to the National Hockey League lockout. Washington Capitals goaltender Braden Holtby and defenseman Dmitry Orlov joined the Bears roster due to the lockout, and Capitals head coach Adam Oates became co-coach of the Hershey team along with French. Oates' coaching staff also joined Oates and the team, including assistant coaches Calle Johansson and Tim Hunter, and video coach Brett Leonhardt. Bears goaltender Sergey Kostenko started the regular season on injured reserve due to off-season shoulder surgery, and winger Danick Paquette required surgery after breaking his right forearm during an October 6 exhibition game against the Wilkes-Barre/Scranton Penguins.
## Regular season
### October
Hershey began its regular season with major offensive problems. They were outshot in 17 of their first 18 games, and were held to one or fewer goals in seven of those games. Their 6–10–1–0 start was the lowest total through 17 games since 2004–05, which was the last season they failed to make the playoffs. After losing their season opener to the Syracuse Crunch, the Bears beat the Binghamton Senators on October 19 despite being outshot 44 to 21. Hershey lost their first home game on October 20, falling 8–7 to the Rochester Americans; the 15-goal total marked the most combined goals from a Bears home opener, up from the previous record of 12 in 1987. Hershey center Ryan Potulny exited the game with an undisclosed injury, and would not return until November 16 after a nine-game absence. The team's defense improved in subsequent games, allowing two goals or fewer in four of their next five matches.
Hershey lost 2–1 in overtime against Binghamton on October 21. The game would have gone to a shootout, but under the first usage of the AHL's new video replay system at Giant Center, a Senators goal that had been overturned with 6.5 seconds left in overtime was restored. The Bears were held to a single goal in a second straight game in a 3–1 loss to Connecticut Whale on October 26, but the next day saw their first home win and first shutout victory of the season. They defeated the Albany Devils 3–0 and Holtby, who had been sidelined since the previous week by an upper body injury, made 35 saves. Forward T.J. Syner was recalled from the ECHL's Reading Royals and made his Hershey debut in that game. The Bears finished the month with a 3–2 victory against the Penguins on October 28, marking their first winning streak of the season. Orlov would miss the next four games due to an upper body injury, not returning until November 11.
### November
Hershey defeated the Springfield Falcons 3–2 in a shootout on November 2, in which Boyd Kane and Matt Pope scored their first regulation goals of the season, and Galiev made the game-winner in the seventh round of the shootout, his first professional shootout attempt. In a subsequent 3–2 loss against the Bridgeport Sound Tigers on November 5, the Bears allowed a season-high 11 power plays, four of which were five-on-three. Hershey had 50 total penalty minutes in the game, compared to 115 minutes total in their first eight games. Stoa suffered an upper body injury that left him scratched until January 5. The Bears went 3-for-7 on the power play during a 3–1 victory against the Penguins on November 9, ending a 0-for-18 power play stretch; Holtby made 38 saves in the game. The Bears lost their next match 2–1 against the St. John's IceCaps on November 10. They were outshot 27 to 19, making a total of 359 to 266 for the season and putting them 29th out of 30 in the league in shots.
Hershey's offensive problems continued in a 3–1 loss against the Portland Pirates on November 11, in which they struggled to get the puck out of their zone and through the neutral zone. Holtby, who made 31 saves, said afterward, "We just seemed to look dead the last couple games." Kalinski suffered a hand injury and would not return until December 27. The Bears fell to Syracuse again on November 16. The 6–1 game, the most lopsided defeat of the season, was their third consecutive loss and third straight home game with only one goal. Hershey broke a three-game losing streak on November 17 with a 4–1 against the Penguins, where Garrett Mitchell scored two goals, including Hershey's first successful penalty shot since February 27, 2010. The team had surrendered two goals or fewer in eight of their past 14 games. But Hershey lost their next two games, including a 4–0 shutout loss to the Wilkes-Barre/Scranton on November 21. The Binghamton-based Internet radio Power Play Post Show reported from an anonymous source that Penguins head coach John Hynes put a \$200 bounty on Bears defenseman Oleksy for that game, a claim Hynes strongly denied.
After the November 21 game, Oates announced he and his assistant coaches would no longer coach the Bears, giving full control of the team back to French and assistant coach Troy Mann. Hershey's offensive problems continued with a 3–1 loss against the Adirondack Phantoms, where they went 0-for-7 on the power play and saw their points percentage drop to .382, the worst in the Eastern Conference. However, they won five of their next six games starting with a 4–2 victory over the Toronto Marlies on November 25. The Bears' subsequent 5–2 win against the Norfolk Admirals on November 28 marked the start of a seven-game road winning streak that would not end until January 11. It was also just the second time in 19 games that they outshot their opponent, with 35 shots to Norfolk's 26. DiSalatore made two of the goals. The Norfolk match was Kane's 310th game with Hershey, placing him 39th in the teams' all-time games played list. The Bears won a third consecutive game against Bridgeport on November 30, against leading in shots 32 to 24. They won 5–2, scoring four goals in the third period, a season high for goals in a single period.
### December
The Bears opened the month with a 5–1 loss against Norfolk on December 1, even though the Admirals allowed nine power plays. On December 4, DiSalvatore and Potulny were formally named alternate captains, ending the practice of rotating alternates throughout the season. Orlov suffered an upper body injury during Hershey's 2–1 victory against Norfolk on December 6, and did not return to Hershey until March 9. The Bears also won 5–4 against Wilkes-Barre/Scranton after Kevin Marshall, who had been a healthy scratch the day before, made his first Hershey goal in overtime for the win. The Bears lost 3–2 against the Hamilton Bulldogs, with Potulny scoring both Hershey goals, including a power play goal that ended the team's recent 0-for-19 power play record.
Hershey next won 2–1 against St. John's on December 11, in which Holtby the eighth goaltender in Hershey history to reach 70 victories. Taffe had two assists, tying him with Aucoin for second in the league for assists, and both Hershey goals came on the power play, marking the first time since November 9 they scored more than one power play goal in a game. Holtby had three shutout victories in the next five games, starting with a 4–0 win against St. John's on December 12. The Bears scored two power plays, marking the first time since the season's three opening games that the Bears scored power plays in three consecutive matches. Paquette and Kostenko were reassigned to ECHL's Reading Royals, and rookie winger Stanislav Galiev was recalled from Reading to the Bears. Holtby's next 4–0 shutout victory against Norfolk on December 19 moved him to fifth place in career Hershey shutouts with 13, and seventh place in regular season wins with 72.
Hershey went 0-for-9 in the power play in their subsequent 1–0 loss to Springfield on December 22, which ended a seven-game point streak for Taffe. Holtby's 2–0 shutout against Scranton on December 26 brought his record to 12–9–1, tying him for third in the league for wins; his four shutouts of the season tied him for second in the league. During a five-game span he stopped 154 of 158 shots, a .975 save percentage. With their sixth straight road win on December 27 against Wilkes-Barre/Scranton, Hershey saw a streak of 21 straight successful penalty kills end with a power play goal by the Penguins' Paul Thompson. Hershey lost their next three games, during which they went 0-for-11 on the power play. Although his shutout streak ended, Holtby made 89 combined saves during the losing streak. He was named AHL Goaltender of the Month for December, during which he had a .943 save percentage and allowed one goal or fewer in six of 10 starts.
### January
With the end of the NHL lockout on January 6, Holtby and Schilling left Hershey for the Washington Capitals, which cleared the way for goaltender Philipp Grubauer to rejoin the Bears from ECHL's Reading Royals. The end of the lockout was believed to ultimately benefit Hershey because they retained more of their roster than most other AHL clubs. Tomáš Kundrátek scored two goals for Hershey in their 4–3 win against Bridgeport on January 8, including the unassisted game-winner with 25.6 seconds left in overtime. Dany Sabourin made 35 saves, marking his third straight win as starting goaltender. Hershey's seven-game road winning streak ended with a 1–0 loss to the Penguins on January 11, in which Taffe, Potulny and Evan Barlow all suffered lower body injuries. Despite their absences, the Bears beat Connecticut 4–3 the next day, where the line of Kalinski, Mitchell and Barry Almeida combined for two goals and six points. Hershey beat the Whale again on January 13 in a 5–0 shutout, scoring four goals in the first period including three power plays, which equaled 11.1 percent of their 27 power plays of the season thus far. Tom Poti scored one of the power play goals; it marked his first game since January 12, 2011 for the Washington Capitals due to a fractured pelvis that threatened to end his career.
The Bears won their third consecutive game on January 16 with a shootout victory over the Worcester Sharks. Grubauer stopped four of five shootout attempts by the Sharks, while Mitchell and Potulny scored on the shootout for the win. But that game was followed by a season-high four-game losing streak, which included a 2–1 overtime loss to Wilkes-Barre/Scranton at the AHL Outdoor Classic on January 20. Before a crowd of 17,311 at Hersheypark Stadium, Hershey kept the Penguins scoreless for two periods before they tied it in the third, then Paul Thompson scored a game-winning breakaway goal 1:19 into overtime. Their fourth straight loss against Binghamton on January 26 briefly took the Bears out of playoff contention in the Eastern Conference. The Bears ranked 22nd in the league for scoring, averaging 2.53 goals per game, and were last in league for shots on goal per game at 25.21. Their record was 0-for-15 when trailing in two periods, and 12 of their games so far had been one-goal decisions. However, the January 26 loss also started a seven-game point streak for the Bears, which included three wins and four overtime losses, three of which in a shootout. On January 31, the Bears obtained winger Peter LeBlanc in a trade for Beaudoin to the Chicago Blackhawks, and also received Casey Wellman in a trade for Hamill to the Florida Panthers.
### February
Hershey broke their four-game losing streak with a 2–1 victory against the Manchester Monarchs on February 2, making a season-high 44 shots on goal. LeBlanc and Wellman combined for 10 shots in their Hershey debuts, and LeBlanc scored one of the two goals. Hershey lost the next day to the Penguins, falling 2–1 in overtime after allowing a power play goal with 10.8 seconds left in overtime. In a 3–2 shootout win against the Lake Erie Monsters on February 5, Sabourin made 35 saves and the Bears killed seven power plays. They also defeated Binghamton 4–3 on February 9, scoring on two of eight power plays, better than their 1-for-11 power play record going into the game. Hershey lost 4–3 in a shootout against Norfolk on February 10, despite scoring three goals in the third period. Potulny made two of the goals, including the last with 34.4 seconds in regulation, marking his second multi-goal game of the season. Stoa also scored his second two-goal game of the season in the Bears' subsequent 4–3 loss against Norfolk on February 10, which marked the team's third consecutive shootout loss.
Hershey's seven-game point streak ended on February 16 with a 2–1 loss against Toronto. It was also their eighth one-goal game, tying them with the Houston Aeros for the season's most one-goal contests in the league. In a 4–1 win against Rochester the next day, Grubauer blocked 35 shots, marking his personal high in the American Hockey League and the third time this season he held an opponent to one goal in regulation. The Bears defeated Binghamton 5–4 in a shootout on February 22, rallying from a two-goal deficit in the third period and killing nine of the Senators' 10 power plays. The victory was one of only two victories, both shootouts, in the past 18 games where Hershey trailed after two periods. Taffe scored two power play goals for his first two-goal game for the Bears, and McNeill's three assists move his career points total to 146, making him eighth in all-time scoring among Hershey defensemen. Grubauer earned his AHL shutout for the Bears with a 3–0 win February 23 against Adirondack, making a season high-tying 40 saves. The game brought Hershey's penalty kill record in 10 games to 42-for-46, or 91.3 percent, bringing their overall penalty kill to eighth best in the league. The Bears lost 6–4 in Albany on February 24, which was also the third straight game Hershey scored two power play goals. They were scored by Stol and Potulny, who had each had five goals in their last six and seven games, respectively. Wellman also scored two goals in the game.
### March
The Bears won their first three contests from March 1 to 3. Although it marked their fourth three-game winning streak of the season, it was their first time winning on three consecutive days, and first winning three in a row at home.
`The streak started with a 3–2 victory against the Penguins, scoring three goals in the first half of the first period. They were outshot 34 to 15, which tied for Bears' lowest total shots in a game. Grubauer was recalled to the Washington Capitals on March 7 to substitute for an ill Michal Neuvirth. He stopped 40 of 45 shots in 5–2 loss to the New York Islanders in his first NHL start on March 9, and was returned to the Bears the next day after Neuvirth recovered. The Bears' lost their next three straight games, including two back-to-back losses against Norfolk in which they were held to one goal. Those losses placed them in danger of losing playoff contention, tying them with Connecticut for seventh, with Albany and Manchester each one point behind. It was also the first time this season the Bears lost a game in regulation that it led after two periods. The team's losing streak ended with a 1–0 victory against Bridgeport on March 17, when Mitchell scored a game-winning overtime goal.`
Hershey faced a challenging schedule for the end of its regular season, with only three of the last 14 games scheduled for home. This marked the fewest in team history, with a previous low of five games in the final 14 of 2002–03. The team also experienced significant roster changes in March, with Orlov, Oleksy and Schilling all being recalled to the Washington Capitals. Almeida and Kostenko were reassigned to the Reading Royals, Nicolas Deschamps joined the Bears roster, and Kevin Marshall was for defenseman Chay Genoway. Capitals winger Joey Crabb also cleared waivers and was assigned to Hershey on March 23. The Bears ended a two-game losing streak with a 4–1 victory over Worcester on March 24, but lost 5–3 on March 29 to Albany, who had just lost six consecutive games. Grubauer was replaced by Sabourin after surrendering three shots on seven goals. Hershey defeated Providence 3–2 the next day, rallying with two goals in the final 12 minutes. It marked the first time this season the Bears had won a game after trailing for two periods.
### April
April brought further roster changes for the Hershey Bears, with Joel Rechlicz rejoining the team in exchange for Matt Clackson, and Stafford being traded for winger Dane Byers. Forward Michael Latta was also traded to Hershey, meaning the team had added seven new players to the roster via trades since January 31. The April trades were intended to add forward speed and depth to the team, but a late NHL trade deadline resulting from the lockout left only nine james to meld the new players into the line-up. After beating Syracuse 4–1 on April 5, Hershey fell into a four-game losing slump that briefly knocked them out of playoff contention. The first of those games, a 2–1 loss against Syracuse at home, drew a season-high attendance of 10,943. However, by April 12, a loss against Providence knocked them into ninth place, and last place in the East Division. Another loss the next day to Manchester left them tied with the Monarchs for last place at 75 points, a full four points behind Connecticut and Norfolk to get back into the running for the playoffs.
The Bears ended their win drought with a 5–3 victory against Portland. After having gone one-for-18 on the power play in the previous five games, Hershey scored a season-high five power play goals against the Pirates, including a hat trick by Crabb. Taffe recorded five assists, the team's season-high points total for a single game. Another victory against Adirondack on April 19 placed Herhsey back into playoff contention, tying them with Manchester, Norfolk and Connecticut at 79 points in the race for the final two spots. The Bears clinched the eighth and final seed by defeating Manchester 4–2 in their final regular season game on April 21. Taffe finished the regular season the second-highest scorer in the league with 18 goals, finishing behind the Rockford IceHogs' Brandon Pirri at 22 goals. Taffe and Pirri tied for the league high in assists at 53. Taffe was also named the team's Most Valuable Player and made the AHL's 2012-13 second all-star squad. The Bears finished the regular season with a home attendance total of 381,764 and a club-record average of 10,046. This marked only the fifth time an AHL club had averaged more than 10,000 since records started being kept in 1962, and the first time since the then-Philadelphia Phantoms in 1999–2000. Boyd Kane was named the club's Man of the Year.
## Calder Cup playoffs
The Bears faced the top-seeded Providence Bruins in the best-of-five first round, marking the eighth consecutive year Hershey made the Calder Cup playoffs. It also marked the sixth AHL playoff meeting between the two teams, with Hershey winning four of the previous five, losing only in the 1949 finals. The Bruins led the league in wins (5) and points (105) for the 2012–13 regular season, and no team had beaten the AHL's regular season points leader in the first round of the playoffs since the Cornwall Aces in 1996. The Providence roster featured three former Hershey forwards: Chris Bourque, Christian Hanson and Graham Mink. Defenseman Patrick McNeill did not play for Hershey during the playoff series due to veteran roster limit issues.
Hershey won the first game 5–2 on April 26, with Crabb opening scoring with a power play goal, and the Bears taking a 4–0 lead by the second period, resulting in Providence goaltender Niklas Svedberg being pulled from the game. The victory marked Hershey's first game one win in a playoff series since defeating Manchester in the 2009–10 Eastern Conference finals. The Bears also won their second game 5–4 on April 28, with Grubauer making 54 saves, eight short of matching the team's playoff record. The Bruins allowed 64 shots, which were six short of Hershey's highest in a playoff game. Hershey was losing 4–3 in the third, their first time trailing in the series, but Grubauer was pulled for an extra attacker and Crabb tied the game with 91 seconds in regulation, allowing DiSalvatore to score the game-winner in overtime on a power play. Hershey's 5-for-10 power play record ranked the highest in the Calder Cup playoffs at the time.
If the Bruins were swept, it would have marked the first time an overall top-seed was swept from the opening round of the playoffs since the Cleveland Barons ousted the Buffalo Bisons in 1954. But the Bruins fought off elimination with a 5–1 victory in game three on May 4, where Bourque scored two goals and one assists against his former team. Despite scoring the first goal for the third straight game, Hershey failed to score on any of its six power plays, including a five-on-three that lasted a full two minutes. Providence also won a dramatic fourth game on May 5. Trailing 4–3 in the third period, the Bruins stunned Hershey by scoring two goals in the final four minutes, including Carter Camper completing a hat trick with his game-winner with 64 seconds left in the game. Hershey were eliminated from the playoffs after losing the fifth and final game by 3–2. Crabb tied the game 2–2 in the third with his fifth goal of the series, but Bruins forward Jamie Tardif broke the tie at 9:20 of the period. The Bears finished the period with a six-on-four advantage but could not score.
This marked the third consecutive year Hershey was eliminated in the first round of the Calder Cup playoffs. They became the tenth team in AHL history to be eliminated after winning the first two games of a best-of-five series; the last was the Lowell Lock Monsters, who lost to St. John's Maple Leafs in 2002. The road team won every game of the Bears and Bruins series. The only other time that had happened in AHL history was in 1995, when the Fredericton Canadiens eliminated the St. John's Maple Leafs. Hershey finished the season with a league-worst average of 26.42 shots on goal per game, and a total of 204 goals, the team's lowest since 2003–04.
## Post season
On May 17, Bears President Doug Yingst and Washington Capitals General Manager George McPhee announced they would not renew the contract of head coach Mark French. French spent four seasons with Hershey, making the playoffs every time and winning the Calder Cup in 2009. He was the fifth winningest Hershey Bears coach at 180 wins, which was one win behind the fourth winningest, John Paddock. French subsequently became head coach of KHL Medveščak Zagreb for the Kontinental Hockey League. Several people were identified as possible candidates to succeed French, including Troy Mann, Paul Jerrard, Mike Stothers, Eric Veilleux and Larry Courville. After a search, it was announced on June 18 that Mike Haviland had been chosen for the position. Yingst said Haviland was chosen because it was believed he could improve Hershey's home record and create a tougher, more aggressive, "in your face" team. Haviland had applied for the Washington Capitals head coach position the year prior, but Oates was selected instead.
After four years as Hershey's assistant coach, Mann accepted a job as head coach of ECHL's Bakersfield Condors on June 21. Mann had reinterviewed for his position with the Bears and felt it went well, but said he faced a deadline to accept the Bakersfield job and could not turn it down. Ryan Mougenel was signed as Mann's replacement on July 5. He had previously worked with Haviland, when Mougenel was alternate captain on and Haviland was head coach of the ECHL's Atlantic City Boardwalk Bullies in 2002–03, the year the team won the Kelly Cup.
The post season saw several players depart the Hershey Bears line-up. Immediately after Hershey was eliminated from the playoffs, the Washington Capitals recalled Joey Crabb and Tom Wilson for their Stanley Cup run; Crabb later signed with NHL's Florida Panthers. After 365 games with Hershey and playing as captain since 2001, Boyd Kane left the Hershey Bears for Medveščak Zagreb in Croatia, reuniting with French. Sabourin left the Bears for the Graz 99ers of the Austrian Hockey League, and McNeill, who was limited to 47 games in the 2012–13 season due to veteran roster limits, signed a one-year two-way contract with the Columbus Blue Jackets. Potulny signed with the KHL's Avangard Omsk, Pope joined the Aalborg Pirates in Denmark, and Sjögren departed for the Linköpings Hockey Club in the Swedish Hockey League.
Byers, Rechlicz, Stoa, Syner and Wellar were all re-signed for the 2013–14 season, and Deschamps and LeBlanc received qualifying offers from the Washington Capitals. It was announced June 14 that Taffe re-signed with the Bears. The Swedish Hockey League had announced one month earlier that Taffe had signed a contract with them, but Taffe said that announcement had been premature, and he wanted to keep his family in North America. In July, the Bears signed four free agents to one-year contracts: defenseman Tyson Strachan, winger Matt Watkins, forward Derek Whitmore and goaltender David Leggio. For the 2013–14 season, Hershey signed defenseman David Kolomatis, Nate Schmidt, and Jaynen Rissling, as well as goaltender Riley Gill, and forwards Josh Brittain, Dustin Gazley, Brandon Segal, and Jamie Johnson, a former linemate of Taffe's with the Rochester Americans.
## Standings
`indicates team has clinched division and a playoff spot`
` indicates team has clinched a playoff spot`
` indicates team has been eliminated from playoff contention`
### Divisional standings
### Conference standings
Divisions: AT – Atlantic, NE – Northeast, ET – East
## Schedule and results
### Regular season
### Playoffs
## Player statistics
### Skaters
Note: GP = Games played; G = Goals; A = Assists; Pts = Points; +/− = Plus/minus; PIM = Penalty minutes
Updated as of May 8, 2013
<sup>†</sup>Denotes player spent time with another team before joining team. Stats reflect time with the team only.
<sup>‡</sup>Left the team mid-season
<sup>\*</sup>Rookie
### Goaltenders
Note: GP = Games played; TOI = Time on ice; W = Wins; L = Losses; GA = Goals against; GAA = Goals against average; SV = Saves; SA = Shots against; SV% = Save percentage; SO = Shutouts; G = Goals; A = Assists; PIM = Penalty minutes
Updated as of May 8, 2013
<sup>‡</sup>Left the team mid-season
<sup>\*</sup>Rookie
## Milestones
|
33,472,603 |
Thanksgiving (Family Guy)
| 1,166,560,416 | null |
[
"2011 American television episodes",
"Family Guy (season 10) episodes",
"Thanksgiving television episodes"
] |
"Thanksgiving" is the sixth episode of the tenth season of the animated comedy series Family Guy. It originally aired on Fox in the United States on November 20, 2011. The episode follows the Griffin family, and several of their neighbors, as they celebrate the Thanksgiving holiday. As they sit down for dinner, they are shocked to see that Kevin Swanson, son of Joe and Bonnie Swanson, has returned from Iraq.
The episode was written by Patrick Meighan and directed by Jerry Langford. It received mostly mixed reviews from critics for its storyline, and many cultural references. According to Nielsen ratings, it was viewed in 6.04 million homes in its original airing. The episode featured guest performances by Max Burkholder, Jackson Douglas, Kevin Durand, Karen Strassman, Colin Ford, Zachary Gordon, Scott Grimes, Julie Hagerty, Jonathan Morgan Heit, Christine Lakin and Patrick Stewart, along with several recurring guest voice actors for the series.
## Plot
As the Thanksgiving holiday begins, Lois invites Glenn and Ida Quagmire, the Swansons, Mayor Adam West, and Carter, Babs and Carol Pewterschmidt to join the Griffin family in a Thanksgiving dinner. Tensions are still high between Ida, Quagmire and Brian since Ida's sex reassignment surgery and her one-night stand with Brian the previous year.
Once the guests arrive, they then begin eating their meal, when suddenly another guest arrives at the door. It is revealed to be Kevin Swanson, the son of Joe and Bonnie Swanson, whom they had presumed had died fighting in the war in Iraq. Overjoyed, they ask why the army had reported that he had died in action. Kevin then tells them a story that he was in a coma following a bomb that had been placed inside a turkey during Thanksgiving years before. Later, while having dessert, Kevin voices his distaste of the war, and reveals several inconsistencies about his time in Iraq. Kevin then tells his father that he had actually gone A.W.O.L., and because most of his unit was killed in the bombing but he miraculously survived, he faked his own death in order to leave the war and return home. Joe arrests him for the crime of desertion and handcuffs him with the rest of the family criticizing him for lying about being a war hero.
Brian asks Kevin to explain why he deserted the army, with Kevin telling him that he had grown tired of the war, and had befriended many of the Iraqis, leading him to want to try to escape. Kevin and the family then begin fighting over the United States's occupation of Iraq, with Brian sympathizing with him, and several others, including Ida, herself a war veteran, disagreeing with Kevin's choice to desert the army. Before being taken to jail, Kevin reminds his father of a time when he let a homeless man get away with stealing a can of tomato soup to feed his hungry family, for whom he had felt sorry. Emotional and sympathetic, Joe agrees to let his son off the hook, and the two make amends.
As the family goes to finish eating dinner, another man resembling Kevin, but with a deeper voice, enters the house and declares the other Kevin to be an imposter, but Peter abruptly ends the episode by nonchalantly declaring "Guys, I don't think we have time for this".
## Production and development
The episode was directed by series regular Jerry Langford, shortly after the conclusion of the ninth production season, in his first episode of the season. Langford joined the series in its seventh season, directing the episode "Tales of a Third Grade Nothing". The episode was written by series regular Patrick Meighan, who joined the show as a writer in its fourth season, writing the episode "8 Simple Rules for Buying My Teenage Daughter". Series regulars Peter Shin and James Purdum served as supervising directors, with Andrew Goldberg, Alex Carter, Spencer Porter, Anthony Blasucci, Mike Desilets, and Deepak Sethi serving as staff writers for the episode. Composer Ron Jones, who has worked on the series since its inception, returned to compose the music for "Thanksgiving".
The role of Kevin Swanson has been portrayed by several people, including actor Jon Cryer, in the second season episode "There's Something About Paulie". In subsequent appearances, Kevin was voiced by series creator and executive producer Seth MacFarlane, until his eventual disappearance from the series, when it was revealed that he had supposedly died in Iraq. Actor Scott Grimes, who notably portrays the character Steve Smith in MacFarlane's second animated series American Dad!, took over the role of Kevin in the episode.
In addition to Grimes and the regular cast, actor Max Burkholder, actor Jackson Douglas, actor Kevin Durand, voice actor Colin Ford, actor Zachary Gordon, actress and model Julie Hagerty, actor Jonathan Morgan Heit, actress Christine Lakin and actor Patrick Stewart guest starred in the episode. Recurring guest voice actors Alexandra Breckenridge, actor Chris Cox, writer Mike Desilets, actor Ralph Garman, writer Gary Janetti, writer Danny Smith, writer Alec Sulkin, and writer John Viener also made minor appearances throughout the episode. Recurring guest cast members Adam West, Jennifer Tilly and Patrick Warburton also appeared in the episode as Mayor Adam West, Bonnie Swanson, and Joe Swanson respectively.
## Cultural references
As the Griffin family prepare to sit down for their dinner, baby Stewie is shown watching television, with the annual Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade taking place on the screen. Stewie notices a hot air balloon in the parade resembling himself. After the family decides to go to the Griffin family's backyard to play football, Joe approaches his son to encourage him to beat the other team. Joe then references the 2009 war film The Hurt Locker, with Kevin responding with disdain for the film, despite supposedly being in a coma during its release. Joe also goes on to point out that Kevin is wearing an Ed Hardy t-shirt, which also became popularized during his supposed coma, and despite Kevin telling his father that he flew straight home after he awoke. Later during dinner, when Kevin reveals that he went A.W.O.L., Peter makes an off the wall reference, causing the episode to cut to a room showing several of the show's editors, who become confused about what cutaway to play on the screen. They then decide to play a clip involving several characters from The Wizard of Oz, including the Cowardly Lion, who is shown to be actress Lindsay Lohan's gynecologist.
## Reception
"Thanksgiving" was broadcast on November 20, 2011, as a part of an animated television night on Fox, and was preceded by The Simpsons and Allen Gregory, and followed by Family Guy creator and executive producer Seth MacFarlane's second show, American Dad!. It was watched by 6.04 million viewers, according to Nielsen ratings, despite airing simultaneously with the American Music Awards on ABC, The Amazing Race on CBS and Sunday Night Football on NBC. The episode also acquired a 3.1/7 rating in the 18–49 demographic, beating The Simpsons, Allen Gregory, American Dad!, in addition to significantly edging out all three shows in total viewership. The episode's ratings increased slightly from the previous week's episode, "Back to the Pilot".
Reviews of the episode were mostly mixed. Kevin McFarland of The A.V. Club wrote of the episode, "I had a hard time listening to the characters spout out opinions, since none of them really made sense as character views and felt distinctly like the writers just wanted a place to dump their liberalisms – I don't want to only call out Seth MacFarlane because he didn't write this episode, but considering the little bit I know about the show's writer's room, it's pretty safe to assume he has final say on this sort of thing, especially given his 9/11 experience." He also compared the A-story to the television series South Park, noting, "It's very clear that South Park benefits from the short turnaround time between production and air, because it allows that show to comment very quickly on current events, and stay timely. Family Guy seems to do the exact opposite, waiting an extraordinarily long time to weigh in on a serious issue it doesn’t satirize for comedy." He ended his review by commenting, "After last week's bright spot, I knew we were headed back down for another helping of the usual misery, but this week offered neither a surprise nor an all-out failure, just expected, bland mediocrity." He graded the episode as a C. In a much more positive review, Terren R. Moore of Ology, writing, "It's just funny, and it's got a lot of ways of achieving that funniness, and it's definitely true that the show isn't always in its best form, but "Thanksgiving" shows that Family Guy refuses to be dead yet." He also praised the episode for giving each character their own part in the episode, adding, "while most of the story revolves around Joe, Kevin, and Peter, the three kids and Brian also get time in as well." Moore also stated his enjoyment of the cultural references in the episode, stating, "It's all good fun, and the cutaways are also top notch, including Peter's First Holiday and The Cowardly Lion as Lindsay Lohan's gynecologist. I nearly fell out when Peter described his probably-black coworker who turned out to be a white guy, which I should have seen coming because it's very Family Guy, but still managed to get a laugh out of me." He gave the episode a nine out of ten.
|
15,866,835 |
Graudenz-class cruiser
| 1,167,464,134 |
Class of light cruisers of the German Imperial Navy
|
[
"Cruiser classes",
"Graudenz-class cruisers",
"Ship classes of the French Navy",
"World War I cruisers of Germany"
] |
The Graudenz class of light cruisers was a class of two ships built for the Imperial German Navy. The class comprised SMS Graudenz and SMS Regensburg. The ships both were laid down in 1912, launched in October 1913 and April 1914 and commissioned in August 1914 and January 1915, respectively. They were armed with a main battery of twelve 10.5 cm (4.1 in) guns, though over the course of their careers, they were rearmed with seven more powerful 15 cm (5.9 in) guns. They displaced 6,382 t (6,281 long tons) at full load and were rated at a top speed of 27.5 knots (50.9 km/h; 31.6 mph)
Both ships saw extensive service during World War I, primarily in the reconnaissance forces of the High Seas Fleet. They participated in several raids on the British coast, screening for the battlecruisers of I Scouting Group. Regensburg saw heavy combat at the Battle of Jutland, the largest naval battle of the war; Graudenz had been damaged by a mine and was in dock for repairs at the time of the battle. Both were involved in the Wilhelmshaven mutiny at the end of the war. Following Germany's defeat, Graudenz was ceded to Italy and served as Ancona until 1937, when she was sold for scrap. Regensburg was transferred to France, where she served as Strasbourg until 1936, when she was converted into a barracks ship. She was ultimately scuttled in Lorient to protect the German U-boat pens there.
## Design
### General characteristics and machinery
The ships of the Graudenz class were 139 meters (456 ft) long at the waterline and 142.70 m (468 ft 2 in) long overall. They had a beam of 13.80 m (45 ft 3 in) and a draft of 5.75 m (18 ft 10 in) forward and 6.08 m (19 ft 11 in) aft. They displaced 4,912 metric tons (4,834 long tons) as designed and 6,382 t (6,281 long tons) at full load. The ships' hulls were constructed with longitudinal steel frames and contained seventeen watertight compartments and a double bottom that extended for forty-seven percent of the length of the keel.
The two vessels each had a standard crew of twenty-one officers and 364 enlisted men. While serving as a second command flagship or a flotilla leader, they had an additional three officers and fourteen enlisted men for the commander's staff. They carried a number of smaller boats, including one picket boat, one barge, one cutter, two yawls, and two dinghies. The German Navy regarded the ships as good sea boats, with slight weather helm and gentle motion in a swell. The cruisers were maneuverable, but were slow going into a turn. Steering was controlled by a single large rudder. They lost speed only slightly in a head sea, but lost up to sixty percent in hard turns. They had a transverse metacentric height of .79 m (2 ft 7 in).
The ships' propulsion system consisted of two sets of Marine-type steam turbines, each of which drove a three-bladed screw 3.50 m (11 ft 6 in) in diameter. Each turbine was divided into its own engine room. They were designed to give 26,000 shaft horsepower (19,000 kW). These were powered by ten coal-fired Marine-type water-tube boilers and two oil-fired double-ended boilers, divided into four boiler rooms on the centerline. These gave the ship a top speed of 27.5 knots (50.9 km/h; 31.6 mph). The ships carried 1,280 t (1,260 long tons) of coal, and an additional 375 t (369 long tons) of fuel oil that gave them a range of approximately 5,500 nautical miles (10,200 km; 6,300 mi) at 12 knots (22 km/h; 14 mph). At 25 knots (46 km/h; 29 mph), the range fell considerably, to 1,000 nmi (1,900 km; 1,200 mi). Each ship had two turbo generators and one diesel generator with a combined output of 260 kilowatts (350 hp) at 220 Volts.
### Armament and armor
The ships were armed with twelve 10.5 cm (4.1 in) SK L/45 guns in single pedestal mounts. Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle, eight were located amidships, four on either side, and two in a superfiring pair aft. The guns had a maximum elevation of 30 degrees, which allowed them to engage targets out to 12,700 m (13,900 yd). These were replaced with seven 15 cm (5.9 in) SK L/45 guns and two 8.8 cm (3.5 in) SK L/45 anti-aircraft guns in 1916 for Graudenz and 1917 for Regensburg. They were also equipped with a pair of 50 cm (19.7 in) torpedo tubes with five torpedoes; the tubes were submerged in the hull on the broadside. Two deck-mounted launchers were added for Graudenz when the gun armament was upgraded; Regensburg had her submerged tubes removed and four deck mounted launchers installed. Both ships could also carry 120 mines.
The ships were protected by a waterline armored belt that was 60 mm (2.4 in) thick amidships and 18 mm (0.71 in) thick on the bow. The stern was unarmored. The deck was covered with up to 60 mm thick armor plate forward, 40 mm (1.6 in) thick amidships, and 20 mm (0.79 in) thick aft. Sloped armor 40 mm thick connected the deck and belt armor. The conning tower had 100 mm (3.9 in) thick sides and a 20 mm thick roof. A rangefinder was added with 30 mm (1.2 in) thick steel plating. The main battery guns had 50 mm (2 in) thick gun shields.
## Service history
### Graudenz
Graudenz saw extensive service during World War I, including serving as part of the reconnaissance screen for the battlecruisers of I Scouting Group during the raid on Scarborough, Hartlepool and Whitby in December 1914. The ship also took part in the Battle of Dogger Bank in January 1915, and the Battle of the Gulf of Riga in August 1915. She had been damaged by a mine and was unable to participate in the Battle of Jutland in May 1916. She was assigned to the planned final operation of the High Seas Fleet in October 1918, weeks before the end of the war, but a major mutiny forced the cancellation of the plan. After the end of the war, the ship was ceded to Italy as a war prize and commissioned into the Italian Navy as Ancona; she remained in service until 1937 when she was stricken and broken up for scrap.
### Regensburg
Regensburg served in the reconnaissance forces of the High Seas Fleet during World War I. She saw significant action at the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916, where she served as the leader of the torpedo boat flotillas that screened for the I Scouting Group battlecruisers. Like Graudenz, Regensburg was to have participated in the final sortie of the German fleet at the end of the war, and was involved in the mutiny that forced the cancellation of the plan. After the end of the war, she was ceded to France in 1920 and renamed Strasbourg. In 1928 she took part in the Arctic rescue operations searching for the Airship Italia. Removed from service in 1936, she was used as a barracks ship in Lorient until 1944, when she was seized by the Germans and scuttled in the harbor to protect the U-boat pens there.
|
36,269,567 |
2012 Tour de France, Stage 11 to Stage 20
| 1,162,201,991 |
Stage 11 to Stage 20 of the 2012 Tour de France
|
[
"2012 Tour de France",
"Tour de France stages"
] |
Stage 11 of the 2012 Tour de France was contested on 12 July and the race concluded with Stage 20 on 22 July. The second half of the race was situated entirely within France; starting with a mountain stage from Albertville to La Toussuire-Les Sybelles – incorporating two hors catégorie climbs during the stage – before the customary race-concluding stage finish on the Champs-Élysées in Paris.
Following his victory in the ninth stage individual time trial, rider Bradley Wiggins held the lead into the second half of the race. He maintained his race lead throughout the second half of the race, holding a lead of 2 minutes and 5 seconds – transpiring from stage 9 – until the race's final individual time trial, held on the penultimate day of the race. Wiggins won the stage by 1 minute and 16 seconds ahead of his team-mate Chris Froome, and Wiggins ultimately held his lead into Paris the following day to win the race overall by 3 minutes and 21 seconds, to become the first rider from Great Britain to win a Grand Tour race. Froome finished second, while the final podium was completed by former Vuelta a España winner Vincenzo Nibali, riding for the team, who was the only other rider to finish within 10 minutes of Wiggins' final overall time.
Only Wiggins' team-mate Mark Cavendish was able to win more than one stage during the second half of the race, winning two of the final three stages including a fourth consecutive final stage victory in Paris. This victory allowed him to become the most prolific sprinter at the Tour de France with 23 stage victories, surpassing the record of 22 which had been held for 48 years by France's André Darrigade. Three French riders – Pierre Rolland, Pierrick Fédrigo and Thomas Voeckler – each took a stage victory during the second half of the race, with Voeckler's victory in the queen stage helping in part for him to become the eventual winner of the mountains classification. Other stage victories were taken by David Millar, André Greipel, Luis León Sánchez and Alejandro Valverde.
During the fourteenth stage of the race, Wiggins neutralised the peloton on the descent from the Mur de Péguère climb, after carpet tacks were found to be responsible for around thirty punctures on the climb itself. Among those delayed was the defending champion Cadel Evans, who suffered three punctures on the climb and had lost around two minutes before Wiggins called a truce in the main field, allowing the breakaway to finish the stage over eighteen minutes clear of the pack. Following the raid of the team hotel during the first rest day, the second rest day was marked by a positive drugs test by rider Fränk Schleck, the third-placed rider from the 2011 race. Schleck quit the race after traces of xipamide, a banned sulfonamide diuretic drug, were found in the A-sample of his urine, and was later confirmed by the B-sample.
## Classification standings
## Stage 11
12 July 2012 — Albertville to La Toussuire-Les Sybelles, 148 km (92.0 mi)
The stage was spent entirely in the Alps with two hors catégorie climbs – the Col de la Madeleine after 40 km (24.9 mi) and the Col de la Croix de Fer after 93 km (57.8 mi); both of which had summits at 2,000 m (6,562 ft) or higher – before the finish at La Toussuire-Les Sybelles. The Col de la Croix de Fer was the highest point reached in the Alps in the 2012 Tour, so the leader across the summit would win the Souvenir Henri Desgrange. The finish was a first-category climb of 18 km (11.2 mi) at an average gradient of 6.1%. Much like the previous day, a large breakaway was formed after several different groups advanced clear of the main field as they approached the first climb of the day, at the Col de la Madeleine.
In total, there were 28 riders in the group at one point; at the top of the climb, the pace picked up and the group splintered into several mini-groups as 's Peter Velits scored the maximum points on offer for the climb, followed closely by rider Fredrik Kessiakoff. Velits and Kessiakoff pulled out a 45-second advantage on the descent, but eight riders eventually bridged the gap and rejoined the duo before the Col de la Croix de Fer. had two riders in the group, with Christophe Kern setting the pace for team-mate Pierre Rolland, and the tempo was again splitting the group up. Back in the peloton, young rider classification leader Tejay van Garderen () attacked on the climb, as the benchmark for a later move by his team-mate Cadel Evans. They acquired a 30-second lead at one point before brought Bradley Wiggins back up to them. Kessiakoff just bettered Rolland for the mountains points atop the Col de la Croix de Fer, with the peloton around two minutes behind.
The group containing Wiggins and other overall contenders dropped a minute further back on the early parts of the Col du Mollard, where the breakaway consisted of Velits, Rolland, 's Chris Anker Sørensen and Robert Kišerlovski of , with 's Vasil Kiryienka later joining up. Rolland crashed on the descent from the climb, having taken first place points over the summit, while Sørensen was in difficulty to stay with the lead. rider Vincenzo Nibali tried to breach the peloton on two occasions on the final climb, catching up with 's Jurgen Van den Broeck who had escaped with eighth stage winner, 's Thibaut Pinot. Evans cracked on the climb, losing time to Wiggins, team-mate Chris Froome and other contenders. Froome put Wiggins into difficulty at one point, but backed the pace down via his team radio. Up front, Rolland was the last remaining rider of the breakaway, and soloed to his second Tour stage win, and his team's second stage win in a row. Pinot led the yellow jersey group across the line almost a minute down, while Evans lost almost 90 seconds on Wiggins, Froome and Nibali, who filled the top three places overall at the conclusion of the stage.
## Stage 12
13 July 2012 — Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne to Annonay–Davézieux, 226 km (140.4 mi)
With a parcours of 226 km (140.4 mi), the twelfth stage was the longest of the Tour; the race left the Alps but only after a pair of first-category climbs – the 1,188 m (3,898 ft) Col du Grand Cucheron and the 1,134 m (3,720 ft) Col du Granier – in the first 80 km (49.7 mi), although there was also a third-category climb of the Côte d'Ardoix within the final 20 km (12.4 mi), before the finish in Annonay-Davézieux. As had been the case in the previous two stages, there was another large breakaway group that set the tempo outside of the peloton in the early running. At its maximum, the group contained nineteen riders, but it had been reduced to eleven by the time the group reached the foot of the opening climb, the Col du Grand Cucheron.
Robert Kišerlovski of took the maximum points on offer for the climb, to help protect the lead of the classification, held by team-mate Fredrik Kessiakoff. rider David Moncoutié tried to bridge the gap to reach the lead group, but crashed heavily on the descent from the climb. He had to abandon the race with abrasions. Kišerlovski also took maximum points on the Col du Granier, which made Kessiakoff's lead safe for another day. After reaching the mid-stage feeding zone in Saint-Joseph-de-Rivière, the lead group split and five riders – David Millar of , rider Jean-Christophe Péraud, 's Egoi Martínez, Kišerlovski and Cyril Gautier, looking to give a third win in a row – accelerated away to a near 13-minute lead at its maximum. With none of the riders being in overall contention, the peloton let the group go and decided not to chase them down before the finish.
None of the quintet attacked each other, and they remained as one into the final 5 km (3.1 mi) of the stage. Kišerlovski played his hand first, launching an attack with 3.5 km (2.2 mi) remaining, but Péraud closed down the move almost immediately; a secondary move took Martínez and Gautier out of the equation for the stage victory. Péraud accelerated again and Millar latched onto his wheel with Kišerlovski unable to follow the pair. Millar took the front inside the final 1 km (0.6 mi), but Péraud remained on his wheel until just before 200 m (660 ft) to go; he launched his attack, but Millar beat him to the line for his fourth individual stage victory at the Tour – his first since 2003 – and the fourth different British rider to take a stage win at the 2012 Tour. The peloton was led across the line almost eight minutes down by the top two in the points classification, 's Matthew Goss and 's Peter Sagan. Sagan protested the sprint finish of Goss, feeling that he had impeded him in the closing metres. Race officials agreed with Sagan and demoted Goss to seventh – helped in part by a one-second time gap between them and the rest of the field – and penalised him 30 points in the classification, and 30 seconds overall.
## Stage 13
14 July 2012 — Saint-Paul-Trois-Châteaux to Cap d'Agde, 217 km (134.8 mi)
This transitional stage took the Tour to the Mediterranean. The day's only categorised climb over Mont-Saint-Clair at Sète and the wind off the sea were two potential disruptions to the race in the final 28 km (17.4 mi) of the stage. For the celebration of Bastille Day, the breakaway had extensive French representation, with five of the eight-rider move – rider Samuel Dumoulin, 's Mathieu Ladagnous, Jimmy Engoulvent of , Maxime Bouet () and Jérôme Pineau, representing the team – from the country. The group was rounded out by Pablo Urtasun of , 's Michael Mørkøv and rider Roy Curvers.
The octet made their escape in the opening 20 km (12.4 mi) of the stage, and their advantage eventually stemmed to a maximum of almost 10 minutes at the 35 km (21.7 mi) mark, before sent riders forward to the front of the peloton in order to bring the gap down. Urtasun led the group across the line at the stage's intermediate sprint point in Mas-de-Londres, but behind, points classification leader Peter Sagan () was able to launch his sprint for the line before 's sprinter Matthew Goss did so, and extended his lead in the standings as a result. Pineau looked to go clear with 65 km (40.4 mi) to go, but his move was anticipated by Mørkøv, before he attacked of his own accord. Mørkøv held a one-minute advantage over his former breakaway companions all the way to the foot of the Mont-Saint-Clair, but the peloton were able to close the advantage to them all before the summit of the climb.
's Cadel Evans and rider Jurgen Van den Broeck both attacked on the Mont-Saint-Clair, and their accelerated pace ripped the peloton apart, with many riders falling off the back of the peloton. Around 25 riders remained in the lead group, with only Sagan and Van Den Broeck's team-mate André Greipel out of the sprinters making the group. Further moves came from rider Alexander Vinokourov, Michael Albasini of , and 's Luis León Sánchez, but they were closed down by – looking after Greipel for the finish – and for race leader Bradley Wiggins. Wiggins led out team-mate Edvald Boasson Hagen for the sprint, but Greipel launched his own off his wheel and managed to fend off a quick-finishing Sagan to take his third stage win of the Tour by half a wheel, the first such feat by a German rider since Erik Zabel in 2001.
## Stage 14
15 July 2012 — Limoux to Foix, 191 km (118.7 mi)
The race entered the lower Pyrenees with two first-category climbs; the 1,517 m (4,977 ft) Port de Lers and the Mur de Péguère, reaching an elevation of 1,375 m (4,511 ft). The Mur de Péguère was featuring for the first time in the Tour de France; with sections of the climb in excess of 16%. Small attacks set the course of the early running of the stage, with the field remaining as a whole for the first hour of racing after the attacks were closed down shortly after. It was not until a quarter of the way through the stage – some 50 km (31.1 mi) in – that a move was allowed to be established on the road, when eleven riders went clear including the points classification leader Peter Sagan of , who was looking to extend his points advantage over his rivals André Greipel () and rider Matthew Goss.
By the time that Sagan had crossed over the intermediate sprint line first, at Tarascon-sur-Ariège, the leaders' advantage was already over thirteen minutes, and was increasing by the kilometre due to the wet conditions on the roads. At the Port de Lers, the eleven riders were fifteen minutes clear when Cyril Gautier () developed a problem with his bike and had to stop for a change of equipment, losing around 40 seconds to his ten companions. He would not bridge back to them, and ultimately lost fourteen minutes to them by the stage finish. 's Luis León Sánchez attacked on the Mur de Péguère, with only Philippe Gilbert (), rider Gorka Izagirre and Sandy Casar of able to follow originally. Sagan later brought himself back up to the group, before Casar pulled a few seconds clear over the summit.
At the summit of the climb, carpet tacks were thrown onto the road causing as many as thirty riders to puncture, including Gilbert's team-mates Cadel Evans and Steve Cummings, while race leader Bradley Wiggins () changed his bike as a precaution. As a result, Wiggins called a temporary halt to the racing on the descent. At this time, Pierre Rolland () attacked and gained a two-minute margin over the peloton, but a combination of the tempo set by and , and Rolland realising the situation behind – later apologising for his actions – meant that he was brought back to the field, and they continued to slowly roll towards the finish in Foix. At the front, Sánchez attacked with around 11.5 km (7.1 mi) remaining, and eventually soloed his way to a fourth career stage victory at the Tour. Sagan led home a group of four riders almost a minute behind, while the peloton eventually crossed the line over eighteen minutes behind Sánchez.
## Stage 15
16 July 2012 — Samatan to Pau, 158.5 km (98.5 mi)
The stage ran through the foothills of the Pyrenees, in the Gers and Pyrénées-Atlantiques departments. There were three minor climbs in the final third of the stage, which was expected to suit the remaining sprinters. Like the previous day, small attacks set the course of the early running of the stage, with the field remaining as a whole for the first hour of racing after the attacks were unsuccessful. The most prominent of these was a five-rider move, involving 's Bert Grabsch, rider David Millar, Andriy Hryvko of , Rui Costa () and Yukiya Arashiro, representing . The peloton did not allow them to gain an advantage of more than 30 seconds, and they were eventually brought back to the main field at the 60 km (37.3 mi) mark.
Another five-rider group formed immediately thereafter, consisting of Christian Vande Velde (), Arashiro's team-mate Thomas Voeckler, 's Pierrick Fédrigo, rider Samuel Dumoulin and Dries Devenyns of . rider Nicki Sørensen chased the quintet down for around 20 km (12.4 mi), and eventually made the group a sextet, after his team set the tempo in the main field for a while. The peloton had reduced the gap to the leaders to around five minutes at one point, but eventually decided to allow the breakaway to battle it out for stage honours. Voeckler took maximum points on all three categorised climbs prior to the closing 10 km (6.2 mi), before Sørensen launched the first sustained attacks prior to the finish. However, Fédrigo and Vande Velde gained some ground with their attack at 6.5 km (4.0 mi) to go, and they contested the sprint in Pau; Vande Velde tried to launch his sprint first, but Fédrigo saw the move and remained in front, to take his second stage win in Pau – after a previous victory in 2010 – and fourth of his career. The remaining members of the breakaway came in before the main field, with 's André Greipel leading them home 11' 50" down on Fédrigo.
## Stage 16
18 July 2012 — Pau to Bagnères-de-Luchon, 197 km (122.4 mi)
After the second and final rest day, the race entered the high mountains with the queen stage crossing two hors catégorie climbs – the Col d'Aubisque and the Col du Tourmalet – followed by the first-category climbs of the Col d'Aspin and the Col de Peyresourde, completing the so-called "Circle of Death", before dropping down to the finish in Bagnères-de-Luchon. The first rider over the Tourmalet – the highest point reached in both the Pyrenees and the 2012 Tour as a whole at 2,115 m (6,939 ft) – received the Souvenir Jacques Goddet.
Almost forty riders – around a quarter of the race's peloton at the start of the stage – made it into the early breakaway after around 25 km (15.5 mi), including three riders in the lower reaches of the top twenty placings overall, mountains classification leader Fredrik Kessiakoff () and stage-winners Thomas Voeckler of and rider Pierrick Fédrigo. Voeckler and Kessiakoff led the group over the top of the Col d'Aubisque, with the group remaining together until the foot of the Col du Tourmalet. Here, the group started to fragment after 's Dan Martin accelerated with Kessiakoff and 's Laurens ten Dam in tow. rider George Hincapie, Chris Anker Sørensen of and 's Brice Feillu later joined the group up front, but only Voeckler and Feillu remained together at the top of the climb, where Voeckler further cut into Kessiakoff's polka-dot jersey lead. The peloton crossed the summit around ten minutes later.
Voeckler and Feillu had an advantage of almost two minutes at the bottom of the Col d'Aspin, while Martin – on his own after being the last to be dropped by the French pairing out front – was joined by Hincapie and six other riders. With added pressure from Sørensen and rider Jens Voigt, Kessiakoff was dropped by the group, and aided the efforts for Voeckler to take the lead in the mountains classification. Back in the peloton, the tempo set by and was reducing the numbers in the group, and eventually, 's Cadel Evans lost contact on the climb. However, with team-mates around him, he was able to rejoin the group before the final climb of the Col de Peyresourde. A third of the way up the climb, Voeckler left his companion Feillu behind, and set off on a solo attack. Evans again fell off the back of the group, as Vincenzo Nibali () decided to make a preliminary attack on his rivals, 's Bradley Wiggins and Chris Froome.
Wiggins and Froome were able to make their way back up to Nibali, sandwiching him with Froome on the front and Wiggins at the back of the trio. Voeckler cemented his mountains classification lead by reaching the summit of the Col de Peyresourde first, with the remaining riders of the breakaway spread out between him and the group of Wiggins, Froome and Nibali. Sørensen trailed Voeckler by a minute-and-a-half. Nibali attacked twice more on the steepest part of the climb, but Wiggins shadowed the move and kept himself up with Nibali. At the front, Voeckler descended towards the finish in Bagnères-de-Luchon with a 1' 40" lead over Sørensen, and held the lead to the end for his second stage win of the race, and repeated his 2010 stage victory in the town. Sørensen remained 1' 40" behind in second, while rider Gorka Izagirre bested Alexander Vinokourov () for third place. Nibali, Wiggins and Froome came in seven minutes after Voeckler, while Evans lost almost five minutes to the trio, falling from fourth to seventh in the general classification behind rider Jurgen Van den Broeck, 's Haimar Zubeldia and his own team-mate Tejay van Garderen. rider Jan Ghyselinck finished four seconds outside the stage's cutoff time, but he was given a reprieve by the comissaires to continue in the Tour, making him the new lanterne rouge.
## Stage 17
19 July 2012 — Bagnères-de-Luchon to Peyragudes, 143.5 km (89.2 mi)
The final day in the mountains saw the race cross the first-category Col de Menté and the second-category Col des Ares before reaching the last hors catégorie climb of the Tour, the Port de Balès. The race then dropped down, before returning over the uncategorised Col de Peyresourde – crossing the summit for the second consecutive day – followed by a summit finish at the Peyragudes ski resort. With a scheduled parcours of 143.5 km (89.2 mi), the stage was the shortest of the mountain stages of the 2012 Tour.
Small attacks set the course of the early running of the stage, with the field remaining as a whole for the first half-hour of racing after several attacks were closed down before a gap could be established. It was not until the Col de Menté that the early foundations of a breakaway were laid with the two mountains classification combatants, 's Thomas Voeckler and Fredrik Kessiakoff of again battling it out for points; Voeckler prevailed ahead of Kessiakoff. The two riders were also a part of a seven-rider breakaway that formed on the descent from the climb. The group was also bolstered for a time by rider Vincenzo Nibali, third place in the general classification behind duo Bradley Wiggins and Chris Froome, but he eventually sat up from the group as the breakaway was not likely to be given an advantage if Nibali was in the group.
A ten-rider chase group formed behind the leaders, and eventually joined up with them around halfway through the stage. Voeckler bettered Kessiakoff at the Côte de Burs, to extend his lead in the classification; the peloton were around three minutes behind, but closing gradually. Following a move by a pair of riders, Rui Costa () attacked out of the group as a set-up for his team leader Alejandro Valverde, who followed his move several kilometres later. Costa paced him for a time before Valverde went clear on his own, and built up a 35-second lead at the summit of the Port de Balès, while the peloton had closed by half a minute to trail him by around two-and-a-half minutes. The peloton caught the group of chasers including Voeckler, rider Levi Leipheimer and Blel Kadri of , on the descent with only Valverde remaining ahead as they hit the Col de Peyresourde.
For the second ascent of the Col de Peyresourde during the race, the riders would take the climb in the opposite direction from what they had done on the previous day, before a slight descent and then the final climb to Peyragudes. Valverde held a lead of 1' 20" at the top of the uncategorised pass, with only a handful of riders remaining with the group of the maillot jaune, including the top four in the general classification. Valverde was holding his own off the front, and the gap was fluctuating between 1' 20" and 1' 30" for several kilometres as they neared the summit, which came at the flamme rouge point. 's Jurgen Van den Broeck tried to attack, but was pulled back by the Froome and Wiggins tandem, which then accelerated away from their rivals and set off after Valverde. Ultimately, they came up short due to Froome having to wait three times for Wiggins as the race leader was several metres behind his domestique on certain parts of the climb. Valverde achieved his fourth career stage victory at the Tour, nineteen seconds ahead of Froome and Wiggins, who in turn extended their advantage over the rest of the field.
## Stage 18
20 July 2012 — Blagnac to Brive-la-Gaillarde, 222.5 km (138.3 mi)
Despite being ranked a "flat stage", there were four ranked climbs during the day which had the potential to produce a successful break from the peloton. In the early kilometres of the stage, a group of six riders instigated the first breakaway of the day, but after the peloton allowed them to create an advantage on the roads, they were brought back to the confines of the peloton not long later. There was then an uneventful period in the action, with no major attacks going off the front, until the first categorised climb of the day, at the Côte de Saint-Georges.
On the climb itself, rider Nick Nuyens and 's Yukiya Arashiro attacked up the hill, before they were joined by fourteen other riders to create the second major breakaway of the day's stage. The best-placed rider amongst the group was Rui Costa of the – just under half an hour behind the race leader Bradley Wiggins of – who was fresh from his set-up work for team-mate Alejandro Valverde the previous day. Around halfway through the stage, the advantage between the sixteen leaders and the main field reached its highest point of the day, at the 3' 30" mark, before and set the tempo to start bringing the leaders back to the peloton. In the peloton, several riders fell to the ground after a dog ran into their path, slowing the pace as a whole. Among those involved was 's Philippe Gilbert, who had to be restrained when back on his feet. sent their riders forward to set the pace on the front of the group in the hopes of setting Peter Sagan up for a fourth stage victory of the race, and the gap reduced under two minutes inside of 50 km (31.1 mi) remaining.
At the head of the race, 's David Millar attacked on the Côte de Souillac, where moves from Arashiro and Wiggins' team-mate Edvald Boasson Hagen followed not long later. Five riders – rider Adam Hansen, Alexander Vinokourov of , Nuyens, Luca Paolini () and 's Jérémy Roy – came together at the bottom of the Côte de Lissac-sur-Couze, before Nuyens and Roy were dropped on the climb. They were replaced in the group by 's Nicolas Roche, rider Andreas Klöden and Luis León Sánchez of , with the six riders remaining together off the front into the finishing straight in Brive-la-Gaillarde. Roche and Sánchez attacked for the line, but both riders were usurped by the finish of sprinter Mark Cavendish following a lead-out from Boasson Hagen. Cavendish went around the outside of the pairing and took his 22nd Tour stage victory on the line, matching the tallies of Lance Armstrong, and André Darrigade for fourth place in the all-time Tour stage wins list, and tying Darrigade's record for victories by a sprinter. 's Matthew Goss and Sagan also managed to get ahead of Sánchez and Roche in the closing stages, for second and third places respectively, but were around ten lengths behind Cavendish at the finish.
## Stage 19
21 July 2012 — Bonneval to Chartres, 53.5 km (33.2 mi), (ITT)
The penultimate stage of the Tour was the final individual time trial with good roads into the centre of the city of Chartres. With other noted specialists within the time trial discipline having already abandoned the race, the top two riders in the general classification – pairing Bradley Wiggins and Chris Froome – were expected to be the favourites for the stage, having finished first and second in the ninth stage time trial. As was customary of time trial stages, the riders set off in reverse order from where they were ranked in the general classification at the end of the previous stage. Thus, Jimmy Engoulvent of , who, in 153rd place, trailed overall leader Wiggins by 3 hours, 49 minutes and 9 seconds, was the first rider to set off on the stage.
Engoulvent recorded a time of 1 hour, 12 minutes and 49 seconds for the course as he was first to reach the line; but his lead was short-lived as several minutes later, rider Julien Fouchard went round the course over two minutes quicker than the time of Engoulvent. 's Johan Vansummeren was the first rider to record a time below 1 hour and 10 minutes with a time of 1 hour, 9 minutes and 24 seconds, before rider Patrick Gretsch recorded a time almost three minutes quicker, having passed the two riders that started directly before him – at one-minute intervals – on the course, and another on the finish line. Gretsch's time held for a considerable amount of time – around 2 hours – and was ultimately good enough for him to place sixth in the final stage results. It was not until the 88th rider to start the course that his time was beaten. Luis León Sánchez of set the best time at each of the three intermediate time-checks along the 53.5 km (33.2 mi) parcours and eventually crossed the finish line in a time of 1 hour, 6 minutes and 3 seconds, to surpass Gretsch's time by thirty-eight seconds.
The Spanish national champion's time held right into the final riders to take to the course, now at three-minute intervals for the last 14 riders. 's Tejay van Garderen, the holder of the white jersey for the young rider classification leader, went beneath Sánchez's time at the first split, but faded on the rest of the course and eventually finished 44 seconds outside of his time in third place. He had already passed his team-mate Cadel Evans, who had started three minutes ahead, on course, and the Boulder, Colorado native later dedicated his performance to the victims of the shooting in nearby Aurora. Only Froome and Wiggins beat the time of van Garderen at the first time-point, with Wiggins beating Froome by a dozen seconds; Wiggins continued to extend his lead on course, holding a 54-second buffer at the second time-check, and 1' 15" at the third. Froome crossed the line in a time of 1 hour, 5 minutes and 29 seconds to beat Sánchez's time by 34 seconds, but Wiggins achieved his second stage win of the race, adding one second to his advantage between the third time-check and the finish; punching the air as he crossed the finish line. The only change in positions for the general classification inside the top ten was Evans being passed for sixth place by 's Haimar Zubeldia – despite nearly hitting a barrier during his pass through the course – by a margin of eight seconds.
## Stage 20
22 July 2012 — Rambouillet to Paris (Champs-Élysées), 120 km (74.6 mi)
The Tour concluded with the now-customary stage finish on the Champs-Élysées in Paris. The stage had an easy start – with two fourth-category climbs 5 km (3.1 mi) apart, inside the first third of the stage – before eight high-speed laps, followed by the finish, which was expected to result in a sprint for the line. In keeping with tradition, the final stage began at a slow pace, and was a largely ceremonial procession through the suburbs of Paris. Shortly after the riders reached the circuit in the centre of the city, racing began in earnest, and after various unsuccessful attempts, the main break was initiated by Jens Voigt () and 's Danilo Hondo with around 40 km (24.9 mi) to go.
Hondo led the field across the final intermediate sprint point of the race, with Voigt just behind. Hondo did not remain out front however, as Voigt was eventually joined by ten other riders to form the breakaway, with their advantage eventually reaching a maximum of around thirty seconds in the closing stages. Hondo later crashed on the final lap, along with rider Mikaël Cherel, but both riders eventually remounted to finish the stage. As the peloton closed down the leaders' advantage, mainly through the work of , and , the breakaway lost members, until they were all caught with 3 km (1.9 mi) remaining. The lead-out train for Mark Cavendish (), which included race leader Wiggins, held the lead of the race through the final corners, and he won the final stage for the fourth successive year, becoming the first incumbent world champion to win on the Champs-Élysées. His 23rd stage victory allowed him to move into fourth place on the all-time Tour stage wins list, while the leaders of the four classifications finished in the peloton to secure their victories, and the traditional prize-giving was made shortly after the race.
|
64,558,157 |
Hurricane Dolores (2015)
| 1,173,077,098 |
Category 4 Pacific hurricane in 2015
|
[
"2015 Pacific hurricane season",
"Hurricanes in Arizona",
"Hurricanes in California",
"Pacific hurricanes in Mexico",
"Tropical cyclones in 2015"
] |
Hurricane Dolores was a powerful and moderately damaging tropical cyclone whose remnants brought record-breaking heavy rains and strong winds to California. The seventh named storm, fourth hurricane, and third major hurricane of the record-breaking 2015 Pacific hurricane season, Dolores formed from a tropical wave on July 11. The system gradually strengthened, attaining hurricane status on July 13. Dolores rapidly intensified as it neared the Baja California peninsula, finally peaking as a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir–Simpson scale with winds of 130 mph (215 km/h) on July 15. An eyewall replacement cycle began and cooler sea-surface temperatures rapidly weakened the hurricane, and Dolores weakened to a tropical storm two days later. On July 18, Dolores degenerated into a remnant low west of the Baja California peninsula.
The proximity of Dolores to Mexico led to tropical storm watches being issued for parts of the coastline. Those were later discontinued as Dolores began tracking westward away from land areas. Hurricane conditions were reported on Socorro Island, an island in the open Pacific owned by Mexico. Though the hurricane itself brought minimal damage to Baja California, its remnants caused major damage to some Californian cities and surrounding areas in the Southwestern United States. Heavy rain totaling up to four inches in San Diego and Los Angeles counties broke historic records. High rainfall rates caused a bridge on Interstate 10 to collapse and injure one person, and a road was washed out on California State Route 78 near the California–Arizona border. One person was killed by a lightning strike in Kern County, California. The heavy rains also caused flooding and mudslides. Three tornadoes were reported, and damage totaled more than \$50 million.
## Meteorological history
The possibility of tropical cyclogenesis from a tropical disturbance south of Mexico was first mentioned by the National Hurricane Center (NHC) on July 6. A westward-moving tropical wave crossed Central America and entered the Eastern Pacific on July 8. The next day, the wave spawned a weak area of low pressure while south of Guatemala. On July 10, the disturbance quickly organized, with convection, or thunderstorms, more concentrated near the center of the low. Early on July 11, satellite images showed that the disturbance was consolidating into a tropical depression. Consequently, at 12:00 UTC, the NHC declared the system Tropical Depression Five-E while located roughly 345 mi (555 km) south-southeast of Acapulco, Mexico. The depression gradually organized, developing banding features around the eastern portion of the system. Late that day, the depression attained tropical storm intensity and received the name Dolores, as a small central dense overcast developed near the low-level circulation center. Additionally, a ship near northeastern quadrant reported sustained winds at 40 mph (64 km/h). Despite environmental conditions that were nearly ideal and largely favorable for strengthening, moderate northwesterly wind shear caused by an upper-level trough initially prevented much intensification. The storm slowly strengthened on July 11 while moving northwestward, several hundred miles off the coast of Southwestern Mexico. The cloud pattern of the storm grew more and more organized throughout July 12, with symmetric and organized convection over the center, signalling less impediment from the shear, though outflow remained restricted over the western portion of the system.
Dolores attained hurricane status at 21:00 UTC on July 13 as it turned westward away from the Mexican coastline, with a ragged eye developing alongside more convective banding. As wind shear northwest of the storm began relaxing, spiraling bands began developing over the western portion of the storm's center. Dolores continued to gradually organize and intensify, though dry air entrainments briefly halted intensification. However, soon afterward, at 00:00 UTC on July 15, Dolores rapidly intensified into a Category 2 hurricane, with the eye becoming more apparent on satellite imagery and very cold cloud tops developing near the center of circulation. Six hours later, Dolores peaked as a Category 4 hurricane with winds of 130 mph (215 km/h) and a minimum pressure of 946 mbar (hPa; 27.94 inHg). Dolores became the earliest occurrence of the third Category 4 hurricane in the Pacific basin, overcoming Hurricane Frank, which became a Category 4 hurricane on July 17, 1992.
The strengthening trend was short-lived, however, as the cloud tops in the eyewall began to warm soon after it achieved peak intensity. As Dolores approached Socorro Island, the cyclone underwent an eyewall replacement cycle and began to steadily weaken. The storm exhibited winds of 105 mph (170 km/h) as it passed within 20 mi (32 km) of the island. After completing the cycle on July 16, Dolores exhibited annular characteristics, with a symmetric and wide eye. The NHC described the eyewall as thick and "donut-shaped". Re-strengthening did not commence, as Dolores had moved over cooler sea surface temperatures. Cloud tops briefly cooled, usually signaling the redevelopment of strong thunderstorms, but dry air had started to mix into the circulation. Throughout the early hours of July 17, Dolores's structure continued to decay, with an eye no longer apparent and convection waning. By 12:00 UTC, Dolores had deteriorated into a tropical storm, with no convection near its center. With increasing northerly shear, the system eventually degenerated into a post-tropical remnant low about 300 mi (480 km) west of the Baja California coast on July 18. The remnant low slowly curved southward, before dissipating on July 22, a few hundred miles west of San Diego, California.
## Preparations and impact
### Mexico
Due to the threat of tropical storm-force winds reaching the coast, Tropical Storm Watches were issued by the Government of Mexico for parts of the southwestern coast of the country, from Lázaro Cárdenas to Cabo Corrientes. These watches were discontinued on July 13 when Dolores pulled out to sea. Rainbands occasionally reached the coast of Mexico, causing some heavy rain. Twenty-four hour rainfall amounts up to 3.9 in (100 mm) were reported in the states of Jalisco and Nayarit along the coast, while even recorded as far north as Chihuahua, peaking at around 7.9 to 11.8 in (200 to 300 mm) on the southwestern border of Chihuahua and Sonora. However, rainfall amounts were lower on the Baja California Peninsula, where only 2.0 in (50 mm) of rain fell.
As the eye of Dolores passed just northeast of Socorro Island, an automated weather station on the island recorded sustained hurricane-force winds. The station reported 1-minute sustained winds of 79 mph (128 km/h), with a wind gust of 115 mph (185 km/h).
### United States
As a tropical cyclone, Dolores produced no impacts in the United States. However, a surge of moisture associated with the remnants of the cyclone moved northward ahead of a trough off the Californian coast between July 17 and 18. The interaction of the moisture with the trough brought record–breaking rainfall and heavy thunderstorms to Southern California, including major cities such as San Diego and Los Angeles. Record monthly rainfall totals include 1.70 in (43 mm) in San Diego, 1.30 in (33 mm) in Los Angeles, and 1.16 in (29.5 mm) in Paso Robles. In the foothills and mountains of east San Diego County, rainfall exceeded 4 in (100 mm). This rain assisted firefighters in containing the North Fire, but also resulted in debris flows and rock slides that damaged about 90 homes and submerged cars. The San Diego River reached levels of 8.9 ft (2.7 m)—just below flood stage—and overflowed its banks in a few areas.
Flash flooding occurred in Moreno Valley, Perris, and La Mesa, while a microburst occurred in Tierrasanta. A haboob was also recorded in Anza-Borrego Desert State Park. The Los Angeles Angels game against the Boston Red Sox on July 19 was rained out, marking the first occurrence of an Angels game being rained out since 1995. The San Diego Padres also postponed their baseball game against the Colorado Rockies, their first ever rainout in July. Strong winds blew over a semi truck as well as power poles and lines on Interstate 40 near the California-Nevada border, obstructing the road in both directions and causing \$75,000 in damage. Three EF0 tornadoes were also reported, including one in San Bernardino County and another in Lassen County, although they produced no damage. In Kern County, a 62-year-old man was killed by a lightning strike. A bridge along Interstate 10 near Desert Center was washed out, injuring one; damage to the bridge was placed at \$50 million. Urban flooding in the Moreno Valley caused more than \$100,000. In Reche Canyon, residents were unable to leave their homes due to flooded roadways. Portions of California Highway 60 were also impassable. A portion of State Route 78 southwest of Cibola was washed out, with damage totaling \$50,000. Hail the size of golf balls was recorded in Bear Valley, Alpine County, damaging a police vehicle. Overall, losses across California reached more than \$50 million.
## See also
- Weather of 2015
- Tropical cyclones in 2015
- List of Category 4 Pacific hurricanes
- Other storms with the same name
- List of California hurricanes
- Hurricane Genevieve (2020) – Took an identical track and its remnants brought heavy rain to southern California.
- Hurricane Kay (2022) – Took an identical track, and its remnants brought rain to some parts of Southern California.
|
844,813 |
M-14 (Michigan highway)
| 1,166,367,596 |
State highway in Washtenaw and Wayne counties in Michigan, United States
|
[
"Freeways and expressways in Michigan",
"State highways in Michigan",
"Transportation in Washtenaw County, Michigan",
"Transportation in Wayne County, Michigan"
] |
M-14 is an east–west state trunkline highway in the southeastern portion of the US state of Michigan. Entirely freeway, it runs for 22.250 miles (35.808 km) to connect Ann Arbor with Detroit by way of a connection with Interstate 96 (I-96). The western terminus is at a partial interchange with I-94 west of Ann Arbor. From there, the freeway curves around the north side of Ann Arbor and runs concurrently with US Highway 23 (US 23). East of that section, M-14 passes through woodlands and fields in Washtenaw County. In Wayne County, the freeway returns to a suburban area of mixed residential neighborhoods and light industrial areas. It crosses two different rivers and a pair of rail lines as it approaches Detroit's inner suburbs, where it terminates at an interchange between I-96 and I-275.
When the state's highway system was first signed in 1919, there was a different M-14 that ran the length of the Lower Peninsula of Michigan. This was later replaced by a pair of different US Highways in the 1920s and 1930s. Another M-14 was designated that lasted until the 1940s. The current highway dates back to 1956 when it was designated along a series of roads that previously carried US 12. During the 1960s and 1970s, M-14 was moved to the freeway alignment it currently uses; sections of the former route are still maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation (MDOT) as unsigned highways.
## Route description
The western terminus of M-14 is west of Ann Arbor, at exit 171 on I-94. This is a partial interchange; only traffic from eastbound I-94 can access eastbound M-14, and traffic from westbound M-14 must follow westbound I-94. From this junction, M-14 runs northeasterly through suburban Scio Township. The freeway is bordered by residential subdivisions to the southeast and woodlands to the northwest. M-14 curves around to the east through an interchange that has ramps that connect Miller and Maple roads; the ramps connect to Maple Road through a pair of roundabouts. As it approaches the Huron River, the freeway has an interchange with Business US 23 (Bus. US 23); the two highways merge and run concurrently to the north over the river. Bus. US 23/M-14 then has an unusual right-in/right-out interchange that uses short connector roads to provide access to Barton Drive on the north side of the river. The freeway then continues north to an interchange with US 23. The business loop ends there, and M-14 turns eastward to follow the US 23 freeway around the north side of Ann Arbor.
The US 23/M-14 freeway runs for about one mile (1.6 km) before US 23 turns southward to run between Ann Arbor and Ypsilanti while M-14 continues east through Ann Arbor Township past Domino's Farms, the office complex for Domino's Pizza that was to be the home to Tom Monaghan's Leaning Tower of Pizza. East of that complex, M-14 runs through woodlands and fields north of the community of Dixboro. The freeway turns northeasterly after the interchange with M-153. At the Napier Road underpass, M-14 crosses into Wayne County.
Once across the county line, the M-14 freeway runs through residential subdivisions from the western Detroit suburbs. There is an interchange for Beck Road and M-14 expands to six lanes, turning back to the east. The freeway crosses a rail line operated by CSX Transportation The freeway passes Ford Motor Company's Sheldon Road Plant near the Sheldon Road interchange. There is a crossing for another CSX rail line near the bridges over the River Rouge by the St. Johns Golf Course. The freeway through this area curves around a bit north of its previous course. As M-14 nears the Livonia city line, it meets an interchange with I-96 and I-275 that marks the eastern terminus of M-14 in Plymouth Township.
M-14 is maintained by MDOT like other state highways in Michigan. As a part of these maintenance responsibilities, the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadways under its jurisdiction. These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic, which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway. MDOT's surveys in 2010 showed that the highest traffic levels along M-14 were the 86,500 vehicles daily east of the Sheldon Road interchange in Plymouth Township; the lowest counts were the 26,641 vehicles per day west of the Miller Road interchange. All of M-14 has been listed on the National Highway System, a network of roads important to the country's economy, defense, and mobility.
## History
### Previous designations
In July 1919, M-14 was signed on a north–south route that ran most of the length of the Lower Peninsula, beginning at the Ohio state line south of Hudson to end three miles (4.8 km) south of downtown Cheboygan. It mostly followed the path of present-day US 127, I-75 and M-27. This edition of M-14 was truncated in November 1926 when the US Highway System was formed. From the Jackson area north to Lansing, it was US 127; from Lansing to Cheboygan, it was US 27. In 1930, US 127 was rerouted to replace the remainder of M-14 when US 223 was created. Right afterwards, M-14 was designated from Battle Creek to Edmore. This designation of M-14 was eliminated when M-66 was rerouted to replace it in the mid-1940s.
### Current designation
In 1956, the portion of US 12 from the west side of Ann Arbor into Detroit was rerouted from surface streets to new stretches of freeways running south of Ann Arbor and Ypsilanti. The former route of US 12, much of which was known as Plymouth Road, was retained as a trunkline and redesignated M-14. In 1964, a northern bypass connecting US 23 with M-153 was completed, and M-14 was rerouted onto the new freeway; the highway still ran through Ann Arbor along routes now designated Bus. US 23 and Business Loop I-94. The following year, the freeway was extended to its present western terminus at I-94, and M-14 is removed from the business routes and transferred to the expressway.
In 1977, when the Jeffries Freeway (I-96) was completed, M-14 was shortened to have its eastern terminus at I-275 exit 28 in Plymouth Township, and the portion of Plymouth Road within the city of Detroit was returned to local control. The portion of Plymouth Road–Ann Arbor Road between I-275 and the city boundary with Redford Township was retained as an unsigned trunkline, maintained by the state to this day. In 1979, the final segment of the M-14 freeway, between M-153 and I-275 was completed. The former route of M-14 in Washtenaw County along Plymouth–Ann Arbor Road was returned to local control. The portion of Ann Arbor Road from the Wayne County line east to I-275 also became an unsigned state trunkline, also still maintained by MDOT.
## Exit list
## See also
|
134,404 |
Hilton Head Island, South Carolina
| 1,171,101,213 | null |
[
"Barrier islands of South Carolina",
"Gullah country",
"Gullah culture",
"Gullah history",
"Hilton Head Island, South Carolina",
"Hilton Head Island–Beaufort micropolitan area",
"Islands of Beaufort County, South Carolina",
"Islands of South Carolina",
"Populated coastal places in South Carolina",
"Seaside resorts in the United States",
"South Carolina Sea Islands",
"Towns in Beaufort County, South Carolina",
"Towns in South Carolina"
] |
Hilton Head Island, often referred to as simply Hilton Head, is a Lowcountry resort town and barrier island in Beaufort County, South Carolina, United States. It is 20 miles (32 km) northeast of Savannah, Georgia, and 95 miles (153 km) southwest of Charleston. The island is named after Captain William Hilton, who in 1663 identified a headland near the entrance to Port Royal Sound, which mapmakers named "Hilton's Headland." The island features 12 miles (19 km) of beachfront on the Atlantic Ocean and is a popular vacation destination. In 2004, an estimated 2.25 million visitors infused more than \$1.5 billion into the local economy. The year-round population was 37,661 at the 2020 census, although during the peak of summer vacation season the population can swell to 150,000. Hilton Head Island is the largest city within the Hilton Head Island-Bluffton-Port Royal, SC Metropolitan Statistical Area, which had a population of 215,908 in 2020.
The island has a rich history that started with seasonal occupation by Native Americans thousands of years ago and continued with European exploration and the Sea Island Cotton trade. It became an important base of operations for the Union blockade of the Southern ports during the Civil War. Once the island fell to Union troops, hundreds of ex-slaves flocked to Hilton Head, which is still home to many of their descendants, who are known as the Gullah (or Geechee). They have managed to hold on to much of their ethnic and cultural identity.
The Town of Hilton Head Island incorporated as a municipality in 1983 and is well known for its eco-friendly development. The town's Natural Resources Division enforces the Land Management Ordinance which minimizes the impact of development and governs the style of buildings and how they are situated amongst existing trees. As a result, Hilton Head Island enjoys an unusual amount of tree cover relative to the amount of development. Approximately 70% of the island, including most of the tourist areas, is located inside gated communities. However, the town maintains several public beach access points, including one for the exclusive use of town residents, who have approved several multimillion-dollar land-buying bond referendums to control commercial growth.
Hilton Head Island offers an unusual number of cultural opportunities for a community its size, including plays at the Arts Center of Coastal Carolina, the 120-member full chorus of the Hilton Head Choral Society, the Hilton Head Symphony Orchestra, an annual outdoor, tented wine tasting event on the east coast, and several other annual community festivals. It also hosts the RBC Heritage, a PGA Tour tournament played on the Harbour Town Golf Links in Sea Pines Resort.
## History
### New World discovery
The Sea Pines shell ring can be seen near the east entrance to the Sea Pines Forest Preserve. The ring, one of at least 50 known to exist, is 150 feet (46 m) in diameter and is believed to be over 4,000 years old. Archeologists believe that the ring was a refuse heap, created by Indians who lived in the interior of the ring, which was kept clear and used as a common area. Two other shell rings on Hilton Head were destroyed when the shells were removed and used to make tabby for roads and buildings. The Green's Shell Enclosure, Sea Pines, and Skull Creek shell rings are listed in the National Register of Historic Places and are protected by law.
Since the beginning of recorded history in the New World, the waters around Hilton Head Island have been known, occupied and fought for in turn by the English, Spanish, French, and Scots.
A Spanish expedition led by Francisco Cordillo explored the area in 1521, initiating European contact with local tribes. In 1663, Captain William Hilton sailed on the Adventure from Barbados to explore lands granted by King Charles II of England to the eight Lords Proprietor. In his travels, he identified a headland near the entrance to Port Royal Sound. He named it "Hilton's Head" after himself. He stayed for several days, making note of the trees, crops, "sweet water", and "clear sweet air".
### 17th to 19th centuries
In 1698, Hilton Head Island was granted as part of a barony to John Bayley of Ballingclough, County of Tipperary, Kingdom of Ireland. Another John Bayley, son of the first, appointed Alexander Trench as the island's first retail agent. For a time, Hilton Head was known as Trench's Island. In 1729, Trench sold some land to John Gascoine which Gascoine named "John's Island" after himself. The land later came to be known as Jenkin's Island after another owner.
In the mid-1740s, the South Carolina provincial half-galley Beaufort was stationed in a cove at the southern tip of Hilton Head to guard against intrusions by the Spanish of St. Augustine. The point and cove are named after Captain David Cutler Braddock, commander of the Beaufort. Captain Braddock was a mariner and privateer of note in Colonial times. Earlier, he had been placed in command of the Georgia schooner Norfolk by James Oglethorpe, founder of Georgia, and helped chase the Spanish back to St. Augustine after their failed 1742 invasion of St. Simons Island. After relocating to Savannah in 1746, he served two terms in the Georgia Commons House of Assembly while earning a living as a highly active privateer. He drew a well-known chart of the Florida Keys while on a privateering venture in 1756. The chart is in the Library of Congress.
During the revolution there was only a very small population of farmers living on Hilton Head Island. This population was exclusively Loyalist, remaining allied to Parliament and the King throughout the entirety of the revolution. However, after the revolution they chose to simply "stay on" in South Carolina and make the best of living under the new republican form of government. In 1788, a small Episcopal church called the Zion Chapel of Ease was constructed for plantation owners. The chapel's old cemetery, located near the corner of William Hilton Parkway and Mathews Drive (Folly Field), is all that remains. Charles Davant, a prominent island planter during the Revolutionary War, is memorialized there. Davant was shot by Captain Martinangel of Daufuskie Island in 1781. This location is also home to the oldest intact structure on Hilton Head Island, the Baynard Mausoleum, which was built in 1846.
William Elliott II of Myrtle Bank Plantation grew the first crop of Sea Island Cotton in South Carolina on Hilton Head Island in 1790.
During the Civil War, Fort Walker was a Confederate fort in what is now Port Royal Plantation. The fort was a station for Confederate troops, and its guns helped protect the 2-mile wide (3 km) entrance to Port Royal Sound, which is fed by two slow-moving and navigable rivers, the Broad River and the Beaufort River. It was vital to the Sea Island Cotton trade and the southern economy. On October 29, 1861, the largest fleet ever assembled in North America moved south to seize it. In the Battle of Port Royal, the fort came under attack by the U.S. Navy, and on November 7, 1861, it fell to over 12,000 Union troops. The fort was renamed Fort Welles, in honor of Gideon Welles, the Secretary of the Navy.
Hilton Head Island had tremendous significance in the Civil War and became an important base of operations for the Union blockade of the Southern ports, particularly Savannah and Charleston. The Union also built a military hospital on Hilton Head Island with a 1,200-foot (370 m) frontage and a floor area of 60,000 square feet (6,000 m<sup>2</sup>).
Hundreds of ex-slaves flocked to Hilton Head Island, where they could buy land, go to school, live in government housing, and serve in what was called the First Regiment of South Carolina Volunteers (although in the beginning, many were "recruited" at the point of a bayonet). A community called Mitchelville (in honor of General Ormsby M. Mitchel) was constructed on the north end of the island to house them.
In an order from May 15 of 1865, Major General Quincy Adams Gillmore, who was commanding the Department of the South with headquarters at Hilton Head declared that "the people of the black race are free citizens of the United States," whose rights must be respected accorindlgy. He issued an additional order while based in Hilton Head saying that any plantation owners who were found to have not informed African-Americans of their new status as free people would be "made liable to the pains and penalties of disloyalty, and their lands subject to confiscation" under the act establishing the Freedmen's Bureau. Martin Delany, the only black officer to reach the rank of major in the United States military during the Civil War, was also stationed at Hilton Head during this time.
The Leamington Lighthouse, also known as the Hilton Head Rear Range Lighthouse, was built in the 1870s on the southern edge of what is now Palmetto Dunes Oceanfront Resort.
In 1890, the wealthy shipping magnate William P. Clyde purchased 9,000 acres on Hilton Head Island for use as a private hunting preserve.
On August 27, 1893, the Sea Islands Hurricane made landfall near Savannah, with a storm surge of 16 feet (5 m), and swept north across South Carolina, killing over 1,000 people and leaving tens of thousands homeless.
### 20th and 21st centuries
An experimental steam cannon guarding Port Royal Sound was built around 1900, in what is now Port Royal Plantation. The cannon was fixed but its propulsion system allowed for long-range shots for the time.
In 1931, Wall Street tycoon, physicist, and patron of scientific research Alfred Lee Loomis, along with his brother-in-law and partner Landon K. Thorne, purchased 17,000 acres (69 km<sup>2</sup>) on the island (over 63% of the total landmass) for about \$120,000 to be used as a private game reserve. On the Atlantic coast of the island, large concrete gun platforms were built to defend against a possible invasion by the Axis powers of World War II. Platforms like these can be found all along the Eastern Seaboard. The Mounted Beach Patrol and Dog Training Center on Hilton Head Island trained U.S. Coast Guard Beach Patrol personnel to use horses and dogs to protect the southeastern coastline of the U.S.
In the early 1950s, three lumber mills contributed to the logging of 19,000 acres (77 km<sup>2</sup>) of the island. The island population was only 300 residents. Before 1956, access to Hilton Head was limited to private boats and a state-operated ferry. The island's economy centered on shipbuilding, cotton, lumbering, and fishing.
The James F. Byrnes Bridge was built in 1956. It was a two-lane toll swing bridge constructed at a cost of \$1.5 million that opened the island to automobile traffic from the mainland. The swing bridge was hit by a barge in 1974, which shut down all vehicle traffic to the island until the Army Corps of Engineers built and manned a pontoon bridge while the bridge was being repaired. The swing bridge was replaced by the current four-lane bridge in 1982.
The beginning of Hilton Head as a resort started in 1956 with Charles E. Fraser developing Sea Pines Resort. Soon, other developments followed, such as Hilton Head Plantation, Palmetto Dunes Plantation, Shipyard Plantation, and Port Royal Plantation, imitating Sea Pines' architecture and landscaping. Sea Pines, however, continued to stand out by creating a unique locality within the plantation, called Harbour Town, anchored by a recognizable lighthouse. Fraser was a committed environmentalist who changed the whole configuration of the marina at Harbour Town to save an ancient live oak. It came to be known as the Liberty Oak, known to generations of children who watched singer and songwriter Gregg Russell perform under the tree for over 25 years. Fraser was buried next to the tree when he died in 2002.
The Heritage Golf Classic was first played in Sea Pines Resort in 1969 and has been a regular stop on the PGA Tour ever since. Also in 1969, the Hilton Head Island Community Association successfully fought off the development of a BASF chemical complex on the shores of Victoria Bluff (now Colleton River Plantation). Soon after, the association and other concerned citizens "south of the Broad" fought the development of off-shore oil platforms by Brown & Root (a division of Halliburton) and ten-story tall liquefied natural gas shipping spheres by Chicago Bridge & Iron. These events helped to energize the community, and the Chamber of Commerce started drumming up support for the town to incorporate as a municipality. After the Four Seasons Resort (now Hilton Head Resort) was built along William Hilton Parkway, a referendum of incorporation was passed in May 1983, where Hilton Head Island became a town.
The Land Management Ordinance was passed by the Town Council in 1987. Disney's Hilton Head Island Resort opened in 1996, and the Cross Island Parkway opened in January 1997. An indoor smoking ban in bars, restaurants, and public places took effect on May 1, 2007. Shelter Cove Towne Centre opened in 2014.
Fort Howell, Fort Mitchel, the Zion Cemetery and Baynard Mausoleum, Cherry Hill School, Daufuskie Island Historic District, Fish Haul Archaeological Site, Green's Shell Enclosure, Hilton Head Range Rear Light, Sea Pines, Skull Creek, SS William Lawrence Shipwreck Site, and Stoney-Baynard Plantation are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
## Geography
### Topography
Hilton Head Island is a shoe-shaped island that lies 20 miles (32 km) by air northeast of Savannah, Georgia, and 90 miles (140 km) south of Charleston.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 69.2 square miles (179.1 km<sup>2</sup>), of which 41.4 square miles (107.1 km<sup>2</sup>) is land, and 27.8 square miles (71.9 km<sup>2</sup>), or 40.17%, is water.
### Barrier island
Hilton Head Island is sometimes referred to as the second largest barrier island on the Eastern Seaboard after Long Island (which is not a barrier island but two glacial moraines). Technically, however, Hilton Head Island is only a half barrier island. The north end of the island is a sea island dating to the Pleistocene epoch, and the south end is a barrier island that appeared as recently as the Holocene epoch. Broad Creek, which is a land-locked tidal marsh, separates the two halves of the island.
The terrain of a barrier island is determined by a dynamic beach system with offshore bars, pounding surf, and shifting beaches; as well as grassy dunes behind the beach, maritime forests with wetlands in the interiors, and salt or tidal marshes on the lee side, facing the mainland. A typical barrier island has a headland, a beach and surf zone, and a sand spit.
### Wildlife
The Hilton Head Island area is home to a vast array of wildlife, including alligators, deer, loggerhead sea turtles, manatees, hundreds of species of birds, and dolphins.
The Coastal Discovery Museum, in conjunction with the South Carolina Department of Natural Resources, patrols the beaches from May through October as part of the Sea Turtle Protection Project. The purpose of the project is to inventory and monitor nesting locations, and if necessary, move them to more suitable locations. During the summer months, the museum sponsors the Turtle Talk & Walk, which is a special tour designed to educate the public about this endangered species. To protect loggerhead sea turtles, a town ordinance stipulates that artificial lighting must be shielded so that it cannot be seen from the beach, or it must be turned off by 10:00 p.m. from May 1 to October 31 each year. The waters around Hilton Head Island are one of the few places on Earth where dolphins routinely use a technique called "strand feeding", whereby schools of fish are herded up onto mud banks, and the dolphins lie on their side while they feed before sliding back down into the water.
Particularly prominent in the ocean waters surrounding Hilton Head Island, the stingray serves as a fascination and painful natural encounter for many beachgoers. Small stingrays inhabit the quieter, shallow region of ocean floor just beyond the break of the surf, typically buried beneath a thin layer of sand. Stingrays are a type of demersal, cartilaginous fish common to the South Carolina coast as well as other areas on the Atlantic shoreline. Typically, stingrays avoid contact with humans unless they are accidentally stepped upon, a situation often ending in a stingray injury, where the stingray punctures the human with its poisonous barb. While these injuries are extremely painful, they are not usually life-threatening as long as they are properly attended to by a medical professional.
The saltmarsh estuaries of Hilton Head Island are the feeding grounds, breeding grounds, and nurseries for many saltwater species of game fish, sport fish, and marine mammals. The dense plankton population gives the coastal water its murky brown-green coloration.
Plankton support marine life including oysters, shrimp and other invertebrates, and bait-fish species including menhaden and mullet, which in turn support larger fish and mammal species that populate the local waterways. Popular sport fish in the Hilton Head Island area include the red drum (or spot tail bass), spotted sea trout, sheepshead, cobia, tarpon, and various shark species.
### Climate
Hilton Head Island has a humid subtropical climate - Köppen climate classification Cfa, represented with humid, warm summers and mild winters.
## Demographics
### 2020 census
As of the 2020 United States census, there were 37,661 people, 17,513 households, and 11,692 families residing in the town.
### 2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 37,099 people, 16,535 households, and 10,700 families residing in the town, occupying a land area of 42.06 square miles (109 km<sup>2</sup>). The population density was 882.0 inhabitants per square mile (340.5/km<sup>2</sup>). There were 33,602 housing units at an average density of 798.9 per square mile (308.5/km<sup>2</sup>).
Although the town occupies most of the land area of the island, it is not coterminous with it; there is a small part near the main access road from the mainland, William Hilton Parkway, which is not incorporated into the town. Hilton Head (the island) therefore has a slightly higher population (48,407 in Census 2000, defined as the Hilton Head Island Urban Cluster) and a larger land area (42.65 sq mi or 110.5 km<sup>2</sup>) than the town. The Hilton Head Island-Bluffton Beaufort Metropolitan Statistical Area, which includes Beaufort and Jasper counties, had a 2012 estimated year-round population of 193,882.
The racial makeup of the town was 82.9% White, 7.5% African American, 0.2% Native American, 0.9% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 7.3% from other races, and 1.2% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 15.8% of the population.
Of the 16,535 households, 18.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 54.7% were married couples living together, 6.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 35.3% were non-families. 28.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 14.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.23 and the average family size was 2.66.
In the town, the population was spread out, with 18% under the age of 20, 4.4% from 20 to 24, 20.4% from 25 to 44, 28.4% from 45 to 64, and 28.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 50.9 years. For every 100 females, there were 103.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 105.5 males.
According to a 2014 estimate, the median income for a household in the town was \$68,437, and the median income for a family was \$85,296. Males had a median income of \$51,463 versus \$36,743 for females. The per capita income for the town was \$45,116. About 5.4% of families and 9.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 16.9% of those under age 18 and 3.9% of those age 65 or over.
### Ancestry/ethnicity
The largest self-identified ancestry/ethnic groups on Hilton Head Island as of 2020 are:
## Economy
According to Hilton Head Island's 2021 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the town are:
## Parks and recreation
### Public beach access
- Alder Lane Beach Access – 22 metered spaces
- Burkes Beach Access – 13 metered spaces and additional free spaces located slightly farther from the beach.
- Coligny Beach Park — parking is free — some parking reserved for annual beach passes from 8:00 a.m. to 3:00 p.m.
- Driessen Beach Park – 207 long term parking spaces — some parking reserved for annual beach passes from 8:00 a.m. to 3:00 p.m.
- Fish Haul Park — parking is free
- Folly Field Beach Park – 51 metered spaces
- Islanders Beach Park — annual beach pass parking only
- Mitchelville Beach Park — parking is free
### Island parks
- Alder Lane Beach Access
- Audubon Newhall Preserve
- Barker Field
- Burkes Beach Access
- Broad Creek Boat Ramp
- Chaplin Community Park
- Coligny Beach Park
- Compass Rose Park
- Cordillo Tennis Courts
- Crossings Park & Bristol Sports Arena
- Driessen Beach Park
- Fish Haul Creek Park
- Folly Field Beach Park
- Green Shell Park
- Hilton Head Park (Old Schoolhouse Park)
- Islanders Beach Park
- Jarvis Creek Park
- Marshland Road Boat Landing
- Old House Creek Dock
- Sea Pines Forest Preserve
- Shelter Cove Community Park
- Xeriscape Garden
## Government
The Town of Hilton Head Island incorporated as a municipality in 1983 and has jurisdiction over the entire island except Mariner's Cove, Blue Heron Point, and Windmill Harbor. The Town of Hilton Head Island has a Council-Manager form of government. The Town Manager is the chief executive officer and head of the administrative branch and is responsible to the municipal council for the proper administration of all the affairs of the town. The Town Council exercises all powers not specifically delegated to the Town Manager. The Mayor has the same powers, duties, and responsibilities as a member of the Town Council. Also, the Mayor establishes the agenda for Town Council meetings, calls special meetings, executes contracts, deeds, resolutions, and proclamations not designated to the Town Manager, and represents the town at ceremonial functions.
Town departments include Building & Fire Codes, Business License, Code Enforcement, Finance, Fire & Rescue, Human Resources, Legal, Municipal Court, Planning, and Public Projects & Facilities.
The town had a budget of \$74,753,260 for fiscal year 2006/2007. It consists of three separate fiscal accounting funds: the General Fund, the Capital Projects Fund, and the Debt Service Fund. The General Fund is the operating fund for the town and accounts for all financial resources of the town except the Capital Projects Fund and the Debt Service Fund. The Capital Projects Fund is used to acquire land and facilities, and improve public facilities, including roads, bike paths, fire stations, vehicle replacement, drainage improvements, and park development. The Debt Service Fund accounts for the accumulation of resources and the payment of debt.
On June 5, 2007, the Town Council approved a \$93,154,110 budget for fiscal year 2007/2008 on the first reading with a vote of 6–0. The most recent budget, for the 2010/2011 fiscal year is \$74,299,720
Office holders as of December 2020:
## Education
### Schools
#### Public schools
- Hilton Head Island Early Childhood Center (Pre K — K)
- Hilton Head Island School for the Creative Arts (Grades 1–5)
- Hilton Head Island International Baccalaureate Elementary School (Grades 1–5)
- Hilton Head Island Middle School
- Hilton Head Island High School
#### Private schools
- Hilton Head Preparatory School
- Hilton Head Christian Academy
- St. Francis Catholic School
- Heritage Academy
- Sea Pines Montessori Academy
- The Island Academy of Hilton Head
### Library
Hilton Head has a public library, a branch of the Beaufort County Library.
## Infrastructure
### Airport
Hilton Head Island is served by the Hilton Head Airport which is owned by Beaufort County. American Airlines, Delta Air Lines, and United Airlines serve the airport. In the first half of 2019, the airport saw a 225% increase in passengers arriving and departing, when compared with the same time period one year prior. This was attributed to new air service and added seat capacity, made possible by the airport's 2018 runway expansion.
Savannah/Hilton Head International Airport is in nearby Savannah, Georgia.
### Emergency services
Hilton Head Island Fire & Rescue began operations July 1, 1993, as a consolidation of the former Sea Pines Forest Beach Fire Department, the Hilton Head Island Fire District, and the Hilton Head Island Rescue Squad. There are seven fire stations on Hilton Head Island.
Police services are contracted through Beaufort County Sheriff's Office. The island is equipped with an enhanced 9-1-1 system.
### Public transportation
Hilton Head Island is served seasonally by The Breeze public trolley service which is provided by the Lowcountry Regional Transit Authority.
## Notable people
- Arthur Blank, owner NFL Atlanta Falcons and Home Depot, has a house in Sea Pines Resort
- William P. Clyde, owner and president of the Clyde Steamship Company
- Patricia Cornwell, crime fiction author of Hornet's Nest (set in Charlotte) and others, a NY Times Best Selling Author
- Cranford Hollow, alternative country and rock band
- Bobby Cremins, former NCAA men's basketball coach, currently resides in Charleston, but maintains a home in Hilton Head
- Wilbur Cross, author
- Dan Driessen, former Major League Baseball player; Cincinnati Reds and others
- Jim Ferree, golfer on PGA Tour and Senior PGA Tour
- Trevor Hall, reggae/folk rock singer-songwriter on Now 40, was raised in Hilton Head
- Ryan Hartman, professional hockey player
- Darrell Hedric, former head basketball coach at Miami University (Ohio), former NBA scout
- John Jakes, author of historical fiction like North and South (set in Charleston), resides in Hilton Head, a NY Times Best Selling Author
- Michael Jordan, former NBA player, had a house on Hilton Head from 1988 to 1999
- John V. Lindsay, former mayor of New York City, died in Hilton Head on December 19, 2000
- John Mellencamp, Rock and Roll Hall of Fame singer-songwriter from Bloomington, Indiana
- Mark Messier, Canadian former NHL hockey player, part-time resident of Hilton Head
- Garry Moore, television variety-show and game-show host
- Charles W. G. Rich, U.S. Army lieutenant general
- Gregg Russell, children's singer, performed under the old oak tree in Harbour Town since 1976
- Serge Savard, former Montreal Canadiens defenseman and general manager
- Duncan Sheik, singer-songwriter of the 1997 Grammy-nominated song "Barely Breathing", writer of the hit Broadway show Spring Awakening, was raised in Hilton Head
- Stan Smith, tennis pro, 1972 Wimbledon, 1971 US Open and Davis Cup champion
- Col. Benjamin H. Vandervoort, WWII hero, died in his home on Hilton Head in 1990 at the age of 75
- Kathryn R. Wall: author of mystery novels
- Lois Rhame West, First Lady of South Carolina (1971–1975), first woman to chair the Muscular Dystrophy Association
- Jayson Williams: former NBA basketball player, owns a home on Hilton Head
## In popular culture
Mentioned on pages 123,130,131, and 224 of the late Pat Conroy's 1972 novel The Water Is Wide. The novel is set on Daufuskie Island, fictionalized as Yamacraw Island. It is mentioned in the museum going up the stairs of the Harbour Town Lighthouse.
## See also
- List of municipalities in South Carolina
|
5,032,070 |
Gavin Mahon
| 1,164,049,821 |
English association football player (born 1977)
|
[
"1977 births",
"Brentford F.C. players",
"Crystal Palace F.C. players",
"English Football League players",
"English men's footballers",
"Footballers from Birmingham, West Midlands",
"Hereford United F.C. players",
"Living people",
"Men's association football midfielders",
"Notts County F.C. players",
"Portsmouth F.C. players",
"Premier League players",
"Queens Park Rangers F.C. players",
"Stevenage F.C. players",
"Tamworth F.C. players",
"Watford F.C. players",
"Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C. players"
] |
Gavin Andrew Mahon (born 2 January 1977) is an English former professional footballer who played as a defensive midfielder.
Mahon started his career as a trainee at Wolverhampton Wanderers, although he did not make any first-team appearances for the club. In July 1996, he joined Hereford United on a free transfer, and went on to play two-and-a-half years of regular first-team football. Mahon signed for Brentford in November 1998, for a fee that increased to £130,000. He helped the club earn promotion from Division Three during the 1998–99 season, and made 166 appearances for the west London club. He joined Watford for £150,000 in March 2002, and captained the club to promotion into the Premier League.
Mahon then signed for Queens Park Rangers ahead of the 2008–09 season, following a successful loan spell the previous season. Injuries hampered the latter stages of his QPR career, and he was briefly loaned out to Crystal Palace in March 2011, although he did not make any appearances for the club. Mahon signed for Notts County on a free transfer in August 2011. He was loaned to Stevenage in February 2013, for the remainder of the 2012–13 season. Mahon left Notts County at the end of the season, and briefly joined Portsmouth in October 2013 for a one-month spell. He signed for Tamworth in December 2013, playing for the club for the rest of the 2013–14 season in what was the final playing role of his football career.
## Playing career
### Early career
Mahon began his career with Wolverhampton Wanderers, where he progressed through the club's youth academy and played regularly for the youth team. He was released by Wolves at the end of the 1995–96 season, having made no first-team appearances. In July 1996, he signed for Hereford United of Division Three on a free transfer, making his first professional appearance in the club's 1–0 victory against Doncaster Rovers on 24 August 1996. Mahon scored the first goal of his career during the same season, in a 3–0 victory against Rochdale. He played seven times during the early stages of the season, although did not make any further first-team appearances from November onwards, with Hereford suffering relegation to the Conference National at the end of the season. Mahon remained at Hereford for the 1997–98 season, playing in all 42 league matches as Hereford finished the season in sixth-place.
### Brentford
In November 1998, Mahon signed for Division Three club Brentford, joining for a nominal fee of £50,000, which eventually increased to £130,000 under the terms of the deal. Mahon debted for Brentford in the club's 2–1 defeat to Leyton Orient at Brisbane Road on 21 November 1998, and played regularly in central midfield. He scored his first goal for Brentford in the club's first match of 1999, scoring the third goal in a 3–1 victory against Barnet at Griffin Park. Brentford earned promotion to Division Two as champions in Mahon's first season there, winning the league by four points. He made 32 appearances during the season, contributing with four goals. The 1999–00 season was Mahon's first full season with the west London club, making 44 appearances in all competitions and scoring three times, as Brentford consolidated their place in Division Two with a mid-table finish.
Mahon played regularly during the 2000–01 season, making 51 appearances in league and cup competitions, as Brentford once again finished in mid-table. He scored once that season, scoring the equalising goal in an away game against Bristol City in December 2000, a match that Brentford went on to win 2–1. He was also named in the starting line-up for the first competitive final of his career, as Brentford lost 2–1 to Port Vale in the Football League Trophy final. Mahon received the first red card of his career that season; he was sent-off in the 83rd-minute in a 1–0 home defeat to Swindon Town on 11 April 2002. His fourth consecutive season at Brentford started with the club producing an eight-match unbeaten start to the season. He made 39 appearances during the season, and was named Brentford's Player of the Year for the season despite leaving the west London club three months before the end of the season. During his three-and-a-half years at Brentford, Mahon made 166 appearances in all competitions, scoring eight goals.
### Watford
In March 2002, Mahon signed for Division One club Watford for an initial fee of £150,000. The move came about as a result of Watford reserve team manager Ray Lewington, who had previously signed Mahon at Brentford, recommending the player to new manager Gianluca Vialli. Vialli subsequently went to watch him play, and opted to make Mahon his first signing for the club. On signing for Watford, Mahon stated – "As soon as I knew Watford were interested I was ready to jump at the chance". He made his Watford debut on 9 March 2002, playing the whole match in a 2–0 away victory against Crystal Palace. Mahon made a further five appearances for the club during the remainder of the 2001–02 season. Ahead of the 2002–03 season, under the management of Lewington once again following Vialli's sacking, Mahon was one of several players who took a voluntary pay cut as a result Watford's financial troubles. Shortly before the start of pre-season, Watford stated that Mahon was going to miss the opening months of the new season after sustaining a knee injury in May 2002. After playing in the reserve team for two months to gain fitness, Mahon returned to the first team in the club's 2–1 victory against Burnley at Vicarage Road on 30 November 2002, and made 22 appearances during the season. Five of those appearances were in Watford's FA Cup run, as they lost 2–1 in the semi-final to Southampton at Villa Park.
Mahon played in the club's opening game of the 2003–04 season, a 1–0 home victory over AFC Bournemouth in the League Cup, and played in every game during the first two months of the season. An injury in the club's 1–0 away victory against Crewe Alexandra on 4 October 2003 ultimately ruled Mahon out for two months. In January 2004, Mahon scored his first goal for Watford, scoring with a header to give the club a brief lead over Premier League club Chelsea in the third round of the FA Cup, in an eventual 2–2 draw. He added to his goal tally twice during the second half of the season, in home matches against Sunderland and Derby County respectively. The goals meant Mahon had scored three times during a season that produced another mid-table finish, making 36 appearances in all competitions. Shortly after the season had finished, he was voted as the club's Player of the Season. Two months into the 2004–05 season, in October 2004, Mahon signed a new three-year contract extension with the club, keeping him at Watford until 2007. On Mahon signing the new deal, Lewington stated – "I've known Gavin a long time and it doesn't surprise me that he's become a very important part of our squad". He made 51 appearances during the season. Watford narrowly avoided relegation by two points under the new management of Aidy Boothroyd, after picking up seven points from their final three matches.
Following the departure of previous captain Sean Dyche, Mahon was appointed club captain ahead of the 2005–06 season. Mahon scored his first goal of the season in a 3–1 home victory against Burnley on 20 August 2005 Watford reached the play-offs that season, with Mahon playing in all three matches as Watford defeated Crystal Palace 3–0 on aggregate in the semi-finals, before defeating Leeds United by a 3–0 scoreline in the final at the Millennium Stadium on 21 May 2006. The victory meant Watford had earned promotion to the Premier League in Mahon's first season as captain, during which he made 43 appearances. Mahon signed a two-year contract extension with the club on 18 July 2006. He subsequently started in the club's first game since their return to the Premier League, playing the whole match as Watford lost 2–1 to Everton at Goodison Park. Mahon made 38 appearances during the season, scoring once with a "fierce volley" in a 4–2 victory against Portsmouth, a goal that was nominated for April's Goal of the Month award. Watford were relegated back to the Championship after finishing in 20th position. The club made the FA Cup semi-final that season, losing 4–1 to Manchester United at Villa Park, with Mahon playing in three of Watford's five FA Cup ties.
With the club back in the Championship for the 2007–08 season, Mahon continued to play regularly during the first half of the season, making 19 appearances. In December 2007, manager Aidy Boothroyd told Mahon that he wanted to build a squad that was ready for the Premier League, and that Mahon did not feature in his future plans. Mahon stated – "I said to Aidy that I wanted to stay, at least until the end of the season. I wanted to get a second promotion in three years on my CV. Aidy explained his reasons why, and I have no grudges with him for that". Mahon left Watford when the club were in first place in the Championship, although they would ultimately finish in sixth position. Boothroyd later stated that he regretted letting Mahon leave "too early". During his five-and-a-half-year spell with Watford, Mahon made 215 appearances and scored seven goals.
### Queens Park Rangers
Mahon subsequently joined Championship rivals Queens Park Rangers on an 'emergency loan' basis on 31 December 2007, with a view to a permanent transfer at the end of the season. QPR beat "four or five other Championship sides" to his signature. Watford received an initial payment of £200,000 for Mahon, with an additional £50,000 due on further clauses. Although disappointed by his exit at Watford, Mahon stated it was "a very exciting time to be joining" QPR, and that "the ambition and drive of the board and the new investors really impressed me and I'm delighted to be here". He made his debut a day after signing, coming on as a 67th-minute substitute in the club's 3–1 victory against Leicester City at Loftus Road. Mahon scored his first goal for the club on 12 February 2008, the opening goal of the match as QPR squandered a two-goal lead to lose 4–2 at home to Burnley. He made 17 appearances during the second half of the season, with QPR finishing the season in 14th place. Mahon signed for the club on a permanent basis at the end of the season.
Under the new management of Iain Dowie, Mahon and QPR began the 2008–09 season with five victories in their first six matches. Mahon scored his first goal of the season in a 1–0 home victory against Cardiff City on 8 November 2008, coming on as a 67th-minute substitute, before scoring a headed goal against a nine-man Cardiff team with 10 minutes remaining. The goal was highlighted in the BBC documentary The Four Year Plan, as joint-owner Flavio Briatore ordered sporting director Gianni Paladini into "going down to the touchline to order caretaker manager Gareth Ainsworth to bring Gavin Mahon off the bench. Mahon promptly scores a last gasp winner and Briatore, his football genius now proven, erupts in a mixture of self-righteous anger and joy in the directors' box". His second goal of the season came in April 2009, scoring with a diving header to equalise in a match QPR had trailed by two goals to Sheffield Wednesday, with Mahon atoning for his earlier own goal. QPR went on to win the match 3–2, all of their goals coming in the last half-hour of the match. He played under three different managers during the season, making 40 appearances as the club finished in mid-table.
Mahon started in QPR's opening game of the 2009–10 season on 8 August 2009, playing the whole match as the club drew 1–1 at home to Blackpool. He played regularly in the opening months of the season, making nine appearances in all competitions, scoring once, with QPR winning seven of the games. He suffered a knee injury in November 2009, which would ultimately rule him out for the remainder of the season. With Mahon's contract expiring at the end of the season, manager Neil Warnock stated – "He'll probably come back and do a pre-season with us and try and show me what he can do. I've always liked Gavin, we've just got to wait and see who's available". Despite being released at the 2009–10 season, he re-joined the club in October 2010 on a one-month contract, describing the move as being "like a trial". Although he did not make any further first-team appearances for QPR, the monthly deal was extended on four occasions.
He joined Championship club Crystal Palace on loan until the end of the 2010–11 season on 24 March 2011. He did not make any appearances during the loan spell and returned to his parent club in May 2011. A month after his return, Mahon was one of eight players to be released by QPR. During his time at the club, he scored four goals in 66 appearances.
### Notts County
Ahead of the 2011–12 season, Mahon joined former club Watford for pre-season training in order to regain fitness ahead of the new season. Although no transfer materialised, he played for Watford against Brentford in a friendly at the end of July 2011, and stated he "really appreciated the opportunity" Watford gave him to train with the club.
Two weeks into the new season, on 25 August 2011, Mahon signed for League One club Notts County on an initial pay-as-you-play deal. He made his debut for the club two days later as Notts County lost 2–0 away to Preston North End. Mahon impressed manager Martin Allen during his first month with the club, and Allen wished to secure a longer deal for the player – "The manager called me a few weeks ago and said he'd like to try to extend the deal to the end of the season". Mahon signed an 18-month contract with Notts County on 13 October 2012, keeping him contracted to the club until the summer of 2013. He was described as a "pivotal" player in Notts County's season, and went on to make 34 appearances as they missed out on a play-off place on goal difference. At the end of the season, Notts County stated they wanted to retain Mahon's services, and the player was offered a new one-year contract, which he signed on 28 June 2012.
Mahon began his second season at Notts County playing predominantly as a substitute, making six starting appearances and a further nine as a substitute during the first half of the season. In November 2012, it was revealed that Mahon was the subject of loan bids from two League Two clubs in the form of Bristol Rovers and Port Vale. He rejected the opportunity of going out on loan after Notts County manager Keith Curle told him there was still of chance of him regaining his first-team place. However, two weeks later, Mahon stated he was prepared to leave Meadow Lane if he did not play more games – "You do think like that sometimes, when you travel halfway across the country to get splinters in your backside, but that's football, you have to wait for your chance to come. I told him the last thing I want to do is leave a club like Notts, but when you get to my age you have got to play, especially if you want to go on and play next season".
In February 2013, Mahon joined fellow League One club Stevenage on a loan agreement for the remainder of the 2012–13 season. He made his Stevenage debut in the club's 2–1 away defeat to Shrewsbury Town on 23 February, playing the whole match. Mahon made nine appearances for the club during the two-month loan spell. Mahon was released by Notts County at the end of the 2012–13 season.
### Portsmouth
Mahon was without a club for the first two months of the 2013–14 season, eventually signing for League Two club Portsmouth on a one-month contract on 4 October 2013. He made his Portsmouth debut four days after signing, playing the whole match in a 2–1 Football League Trophy away win at Oxford United. Mahon was sent-off in a 2–1 defeat to former club Stevenage in an FA Cup tie on 9 November 2013, receiving a straight red card for an elbow on Filipe Morais. He made three appearances during his time at Portsmouth, leaving upon the expiry of his contract on 28 November 2013.
### Tamworth
In December 2013, Mahon joined Conference Premier club Tamworth on a short-term deal until the end of the 2013–14 season. He made his debut for Tamworth in the club's 2–0 home victory over Halifax Town on 4 January 2014, playing the whole match. Mahon played regularly for Tamworth during the second half of the season, starting in all of the 23 games he played in. He left Tamworth upon the expiry of his contract in May 2014.
Ahead of the 2014–15 season, Mahon was invited to spend time on trial at Barnet, and he played in a pre-season friendly fixture against Peterborough United in July 2014. No transfer materialised and Mahon subsequently retired from playing, opting to work for a sports consultancy company.
## Style of play
Mahon was predominantly deployed as a defensive midfielder throughout his career. He was described by his former teammate at Notts County, Alan Judge, as being a "pivotal point" in the centre of midfield due to his desire to play the ball on the floor, as well as being calm on the ball.
## Personal life
Mahon has two children called Mia and Alfie. He supports Birmingham City.
After his retirement from playing, Mahon joined the Stellar Group, a sports consultancy company. He undertakes the role of Football Intermediary, a position to help pass on his knowledge and understanding to younger players.
## Career statistics
## Honours
Brentford
- Football League Third Division: 1998–99
Watford
- Football League Championship play-offs: 2006
Individual
- Watford Player of the Year: 2003–04
|
23,799,523 |
Kill the Lights (Britney Spears song)
| 1,152,422,330 |
2008 song by Britney Spears
|
[
"2008 songs",
"Animated music videos",
"Britney Spears songs",
"Song recordings produced by Danja (record producer)",
"Songs about the media",
"Songs written by Danja (record producer)",
"Songs written by Jim Beanz",
"Songs written by Marcella Araica"
] |
"Kill the Lights" is a song recorded by American singer Britney Spears, taken from her sixth studio album Circus (2008). It was written by Nathaniel Hills, James Washington, Luke Boyd and Marcella Araica, who previously worked with Spears on Blackout (2007). "Kill the Lights" is a R&B and dance-pop song produced by Danja, that alludes to the singer's relationship with the paparazzi and the news media, while also addressing the consequences of becoming a celebrity. "Kill the Lights" received mostly positive reviews from music critics, who considered it a futuristic and sexy sequel to Spears' "Piece of Me" (2007), although they described her vocals as heavily produced.
Despite not being released as a single, "Kill the Lights" managed to peak at number eleven on the Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100, while appearing on the Pop 100 and Pop 100 Airplay component charts. It also reached number sixty-nine on the Hot Canadian Digital Singles chart. A music video for the song directed by PUNY, portrays Spears avoiding the paparazzi and visiting another planet. "Kill the Lights" was included on a promotional CD of Spears' fragrance Circus Fantasy, and was featured on the fourth season of MTV's The Hills.
## Background
It was confirmed in 2008 that Spears was in the process of recording her sixth studio album. Spears' manager Larry Rudolph confirmed the singer would spend "her summer in the recording studio" to work on it. Despite no official album confirmation at the time, Rudolph revealed they were happy with her progress and that she had been working with a range of producers, such as Sean Garrett, Guy Sigsworth, Danja and Bloodshy & Avant. Danja later reported that he worked on the tracks at Chalice Recording Studios in Los Angeles, and Spears recorded them at Glenwood Place Studios in Burbank. He credited "Hans Zimmer's scores, such as Pirates of the Caribbean soundtracks" as a primary source of inspiration. Among the songs produced, "Kill the Lights" and "Blur" were included on the standard edition of Spears' sixth studio album, Circus (2008), while "Rock Boy" was included on the deluxe edition of it. The song appeared on a six-song mix of Circus that was released on November 13, 2008. "Kill the Lights" was co-written by Nathaniel "Danja" Hills, Marcella Araica, Luke Boyd and James Washington, who previously worked with the singer on her fifth studio album, Blackout (2007). On July 27, 2009, it was revealed through Spears' official website that "Radar" would be released as the fourth single from the album, despite rumors confirming the release of "Kill the Lights". The song was, however, included on a promotional CD of Spears' fragrance Circus Fantasy, along with the Junior Vasquez Club Circus Remix of "Circus".
## Music and lyrics
"Kill the Lights" is a R&B and dance-pop song that alludes to Spears conflict with the paparazzi, which is perceived in lines such as "Mr. Photographer / I think I'm ready for my close-up / Tonight / Make sure you catch me from my good side". Jon Pareles of The New York Times said the song features "amid electronic blips and ominous artificial strings and horns", while Spears "alternately invites photographers closer and fends them off. 'They all wanna see', she warns prospective stars. 'Is life going to get the best of you?'". "Kill the Lights" features a similar theme to Spears' "Piece of Me" (2007) and was considered its sequel, while Caryn Ganz of Rolling Stone said the song "recalls the synth crush of 2007's Blackout." The song begins with a quote from Orson Welles' infamous radio adaptation of War of the Worlds, ('Ladies and gentlemen, we interrupt our program of dance music to bring you a special bulletin from the Intercontinental Radio News...') Music critics criticized the fact that Spears is introduced by Danja as "Our very own Pop princess / Now Queen of Pop", commenting that the honorific nickname "Queen of Pop" is attributed to American recording artist Madonna, while describing her vocals as heavily produced.
## Critical reception
"Kill the Lights" received mostly positive reviews from music critics. A review by The Sun described "Kill the Lights" as "a brilliant disco banger", while Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic said that "Kill the Lights" was a great "sleek and sexy" song, that should have been on Blackout instead of Circus. Anna Dimond of TV Guide commented that "Kill the Lights" shows that "even a pop star needs alone time. Especially with her special someone," and Jam!'s Darryl Sterdan considered it as a "futuristic and vaguely ominous dance-floor filler". John Murphy of musicOMH noted the song is "seemingly an open letter to Spears' paparazzi photographer ex-boyfriend with lines like 'Mr Photographer, I think I'm ready for my close-up' and 'is that money in your pocket, or are you just pleased to see me'", while Ben Rayner of the Toronto Star compared it to "Womanizer" (2008), saying both have "the same swaggering beat hits". Alexis Petridis of The Guardian gave the song a negative review, saying it "attempts to raise the kind of ire found on 'Blackout', but falls flat."
## Commercial performance
On the dated week of December 20, 2008, "Kill the Lights" debuted on several Billboard component charts based on digital downloads, while its parent album Circus topped the Billboard 200. In the United States, the song reached number sixty-nine on Pop 100, while reaching number seventy-two on Pop 100 Airplay. The song also debuted on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart at number eleven. In Canada, "Kill the Lights" debuted on the Hot Digital Singles chart at number sixty-nine.
## Music video
On February 10, 2009, a fan fiction contest was launched on Spears' official website. The winner of the contest would get to see their story becoming a plot for an official music video of a song. Later, it was revealed that Argentine Eliana Moyano had won the contest with her concept for "Kill the Lights" revealed on February 11, 2009, titled "Known Everywhere", while an exclusive preview was released on May 18, 2009. The animated music video, directed by PUNY, debuted on July 27, 2009, and was released for purchase via iTunes on September 4, 2009. The video begins with an animated Danja saying his introduction of the song, while paparazzi are in the background taking several pictures. Then, we see an animated Spears jumping into her rocket ship, flying and avoiding several paparazzi that are following her. She hides on another planet, turning all the lights of it on as she walks, and escaping the paparazzi that later appear to stalk her. However, Spears manages to avoid them, flying away into space in her rocket ship again, but this time exploding the planet and "killing all the lights" of it maneuvering a joystick.
## Usage in media
"Kill the Lights" was featured on the fourth season of MTV's The Hills, during a scene where Lauren Conrad and Lo Bosworth are talking about Heidi Montag while at the salon.
## Track listings
- Circus Fantasy promo CD single
1. "Circus" (Junior Vasquez Club Circus Mix) – 9:01
2. "Kill the Lights" – 3:59
## Credits and personnel
Credits for "Kill the Lights" are adapted from Circus liner notes.
Technical
- Produced for Danjahandz Productions.
- Recorded at Glenwood Place Studios in Burbank, California.
- Additional recording and audio mixing at Chalice Recording Studios in Los Angeles, California.
- Vocal production on behalf of Sunset Entertainment Group/Unlimited Inc.
Personnel
- Britney Spears — lead vocals, background vocals
- Nathaniel "Danja" Hills — producer, songwriting, background vocals
- Marcela "Ms. Lago" Araica — songwriting, mixing, vocal recording
- James Washington — songwriting, vocal production
- Luke Boyd — songwriting
- Jared Newcomb — assisted vocal recording
- Ron Taylor — Pro Tools editing
## Charts
|
8,368,714 |
Die Hand Die Verletzt
| 1,170,103,181 | null |
[
"1995 American television episodes",
"Television episodes about Satanism",
"Television episodes about demons",
"Television episodes about human sacrifice",
"Television episodes about rape",
"Television episodes directed by Kim Manners",
"Television episodes set in New Hampshire",
"The X-Files (season 2) episodes"
] |
"Die Hand Die Verletzt" is the fourteenth episode of the second season of the science fiction television series The X-Files. It premiered on the Fox network on January 27, 1995. It was written by Glen Morgan and James Wong, directed by Kim Manners, and featured guest appearances by Susan Blommaert, Dan Butler, and Heather McComb. The episode is a "Monster-of-the-Week" story, unconnected to the series' wider mythology. "Die Hand Die Verletzt" earned a Nielsen household rating of 10.7, being watched by 10.2 million households in its initial broadcast. The episode received positive reviews, with many critics praising its writing. The title translates from German as "the hand that wounds."
The X-Files series centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder (David Duchovny) and Dana Scully (Gillian Anderson) who work on cases linked to the paranormal, called X-Files. In this episode Mulder and Scully are called to Milford Haven, New Hampshire to investigate the death of a teenager who seems to have died during an occult ritual of some sort. As a result of their arrival in town a few of the local high school's faculty, who were raised as members of a secretive Satanic cult but whose zeal has waned, decide they should take steps to conceal their past activities. Matters are further complicated when the devil seems to have decided to personally interfere.
"Die Hand Die Verletzt" uses the lapsed devil-worshipers as a way to parody insincere followers of mainstream religions. When confronted with proof of their religion's claims the school faculty members are mostly worried about how their obligations could impact their secular lives, several being either scared or annoyed by the prospect of having to become devout. This was the last episode written by Morgan and Wong before they left to create Space: Above and Beyond. They decided to add several in-jokes with The X-Files creative team. The episode has several scenes involving animals, each filmed with living creatures. In one such scene frogs rain from the sky. Actor Dan Butler has been quoted as being terrified of an anaconda used during one scene.
## Plot
In the fictional town of Milford Haven, New Hampshire, a group of high school faculty members meet to discuss various social events. The adults initially appear to be socially conservative, debating the suitability of letting students perform Jesus Christ Superstar. However, when the group ends the meeting in a prayer, they recite a Satanic chant.
Later, a group of students go out into the woods at night to play with black magic, an attempt to "score" on the part of the boys in the group. The experiment causes unexplainable things to happen, and all but one of the teenagers flee. The remaining teen's mutilated body is discovered the next day, leading Fox Mulder (David Duchovny) and Dana Scully (Gillian Anderson) to investigate. Locals—including the Satanists—claim that the teens have unleashed a demonic force with their rituals; a theory which is given validity by strange occurrences, such as frogs falling from the sky and water in the drinking fountain draining counter-clockwise, contrary to the Coriolis effect. Unknown to the agents, substitute teacher Mrs. Phyllis Paddock (Susan Blommaert) is behind the murder, keeping the eyes and heart of the victim in her desk. One of the faculty members, Jim Ausbury (Dan Butler) suspects one of the other Satanists killed the boy, but they believe it was an outside force.
While dissecting a pig fetus in science class, Ausbury's stepdaughter, Shannon (Heather McComb), suffers a breakdown when she hallucinates the cadaver as alive. Meeting with Mulder and Scully, Shannon tearfully tells them that Ausbury and the other Satanists repeatedly raped and impregnated her during their rituals, sacrificing her babies. A shocked Ausbury denies the accusations. Shannon stays after school to make up her assignment of dissecting the pig. Paddock takes her bracelet and uses it as part of a spell that causes Shannon to slit her wrists. When Ausbury learns that the Satanists plan to use Shannon as a scapegoat, he admits the sect's existence to Mulder. He confirms that rituals did happen while Shannon was present, but insists that exposure to sensational media coverage led her to "remember" the sexual abuse. Meanwhile, Scully researches Paddock and finds that no one knows anything about her or her background. During a sudden power outage, Paddock steals Scully's pen and uses it to impersonate her in a call to Mulder, pretending to be in trouble. Mulder handcuffs Ausbury in the basement to prevent his possible escape, then leaves to help Scully. Soon after, a giant snake appears, controlled by Paddock, and devours Ausbury.
Mulder finds out that Scully never called him. The two find Paddock seemingly attacked by the remaining Satanists, and go to search for them. The Satanists capture the two agents, convinced that they need to perform a sacrifice to regain favor with the Devil and make up for their diluted faith before it is too late. As they are about to kill Mulder and Scully, Paddock causes them to instead kill themselves, confirming that their attempt was indeed too late. The agents escape their bonds and find Paddock missing, with only a parting message on the chalkboard stating, "Goodbye. It's been nice working with you."
## Production
### Writing
"Die Hand Die Verletzt", which was written by co-executive producers Glen Morgan and James Wong, was based on Morgan's idea to feature a snake eating a man in an episode. Morgan and co-writer James Wong left the series after this episode to produce the Fox series Space: Above and Beyond. The line written by Mrs. Paddock on a chalkboard at the end of the episode, "It's been nice working with you," also acted as a goodbye to the crew of the show. The two later returned to the show in the fourth season.
Series creator Chris Carter described the episode as "a cautionary tale about playing with fire, playing with things bigger and badder than you might imagine". In an interview, he also praised the purposefully clashing tones of the entry, noting that it begins almost comical, with the PTC saying Satanic prayers and toads raining from the skies. However, as it goes on, it becomes increasingly dark.
Some of the names used in this episode are popular culture or in-references of some sort. Crowley High School, the setting for most of the action, is a reference to British occultist Aleister Crowley. Mrs. Paddock's name was based on the toad demon Paddock in the first scene of Shakespeare's play MacBeth. The character names Deborah Brown and Paul Vitaris were based on fans of the series who were active on the internet. In fact, the inspiration for Vitaris was a Cinefantastique critic and reviewer named Paula Vitaris. The episode's title means "The hand that wounds" in German. The title is taken from a part of the prayer said at the beginning, which, in its entirety is "Sein ist die Hand, die verletzt", meaning "His is the hand that wounds".
### Directing and filming
"Die Hand Die Verletzt" was directed by Kim Manners, making it his first contribution to the series. (Manners would go on to be a prolific director, who directed many of the series' episodes). Originally, another director was supposed to helm this episode, but plans fell through and Manners was hired. The producers for the show were initially concerned about bringing Manners on board, as the director subscribed to the philosophy of Stephen J. Cannell, who strongly believed that writers and directors should work together to cast characters, select filming locations, and shoot episodes. According to Morgan, many at the time believe that this school of thought was "a lesser kind" of directing. However, Morgan was a champion for Manners, and thanks to the former's lobbying, the show finally allowed Manners to direct an episode.
The producers initially considered using fake frogs for the scene where they fall from the sky, but the "fake ones looked too bad and didn't hop away after command", according to Carter. As such, real frogs were brought in and dropped on the actors from a short distance, with camera angles being employed to make it look like they were falling from much higher. Shooting the scene in which the snake goes down the stairs proved to be a challenge, as the creature kept falling onto the floor after slithering down the steps. Actor Dan Butler was terrified of the animal, and he was unable to talk while shooting the scene in the basement. However, Butler's ophidiophobia had an up-side: the show's art department did not need to apply fake sweat to his face.
## Themes
Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson, in their book Wanting to Believe: A Critical Guide to The X-Files, Millennium & The Lone Gunmen, proposed that the episode is a parody of organized religion, most specifically those who follow a religion, but only pay it lip service. The two argue that the principal joke in the episode is "to look at the way religious faith has been so watered down and paid nothing but lip service, its rituals and doctrines reinterpreted so that only what's comfortable is adhered to." This parody, however, is turned on its head: the followers paying lip service in "Die Hand Die Verletzt" are not stereotypical Christians, but rather, devil worshippers. Shearman and Pearson compare Mrs. Paddock—which the episode insinuates to be the devil incarnate—coming to Milford Haven, New Hampshire to judge his followers to St. Paul "coming back and taking a pop at all fair weather Christians who only affirm their faith at their own convenience."
Emily VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club noted the recurring motif of doors. She highlighted various examples—such as the light emanating behind the door in the beginning of the episode, the door in which Mrs. Paddock hides when she kills people, and the door to Mr. Ausbury's basement in which the Satanic rituals took place—noting that "there's the whole notion of opening a door to another world and letting an ancient evil into our own".
## Reception
### Ratings
"Die Hand Die Verletzt" premiered on the Fox network on January 27, 1995. The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 10.7, with an 18 share. Nielsen ratings are audience measurement systems that determine the audience size and composition of television programming in the U.S. This means that roughly 10.7 percent of all television-equipped households, and 18 percent of households watching television, were watching the episode. It was viewed by 10.2 million households and over 17.7 million viewers. The episode later debuted in the United Kingdom on May 23, 1995 on Sky One.
### Reviews
"Die Hand Die Verletzt" received early praise from critics. Entertainment Weekly gave "Die Hand Die Verletzt" an "A−", noting that, in the episode, "Mulder and Scully largely step aside in this wacky, wicked effort chock-full of stunning imagery and wry comment." The magazine praised Blommaert's acting, calling her "juicily diabolical". Paul Cornell, Martin Day, and Keith Topping, in their book X-Treme Possibilities, gave the episode mostly positive reviews, although they criticized the ending. Day applauded the episode's themes of "loss of faith ... ritual abuse [and] repressed memories", along with the "great set pieces", and the plot twists. However, he was slightly critical that the episode did not have a solid conclusion, and that the identity of Mrs. Paddock was never revealed. Cornell was even more critical about the lack of closure, calling it "a vast unanswered question" and "very troubling in a show that's concerned with seeing the truth". However, he too was also complimentary towards the set pieces, calling them "groovy".
Later reviews were also complimentary. Emily VanDerWerff gave the episode an "A" and called it "a good example of the show heading in a different direction but still largely feeling like the same show." She praised the episode for being "fun [and] creepy". VanDerWerff also praised the final scene, noting that "rare that Mulder and Scully completely get played, but they do here, and it makes the episode an even better sick joke." Ultimately, she praised the "sick sense of humor", the "outright left turns into demented darkness", and "the horrifying visuals". Shearman and Pearson awarded the episode five stars out of five, citing the "very good" conceit about organized religion, the humor, and the "great set pieces" as positive factors.
Nick De Semlyen and James White of Empire named it the fourth "greatest" episode of the series, describing it as a "thoroughly dark and creepy episode". Katie Anderson of Cinefantastique named the scene in which Shannon begins hallucinating that the pig fetus that she is dissecting is alive and screaming the fifth "Scariest Moment" in The X-Files. Connie Ogle from PopMatters ranked the members of the Satanic PTA as some of the "greatest" monsters-of-the-week, writing, "You don’t want to cross the Satan-worshiping teachers at this high school, but there are more vengeful evil forces to displease."
C. Eugene Emery, Jr. wrote in Skeptical Inquirer that: "In one scene, Mulder expressed amazement on the counterclockwise motion of the water draining from a fountain. He stated that the motion of the water should be clockwise because of the effect of the Coriolis force in the area. The writers presented incorrect scientific data since it was normal for water to drain in such a motion. Was it an honest mistake, or was it a deliberate attempt to spook viewers?"
|
65,291 |
Finwë and Míriel
| 1,147,382,102 | null |
[
"Characters in The Silmarillion",
"Fictional kings",
"Fictional married couples",
"High Elves (Middle-earth)",
"Literary characters introduced in 1977",
"Noldor"
] |
Finwë () and Míriel are fictional characters from J. R. R. Tolkien's legendarium. Finwë is the first King of the Noldor Elves; he leads his people on the journey from Middle-earth to Valinor in the blessed realm of Aman. His first wife is Míriel, who, uniquely among immortal Elves, dies while giving birth to their only child Fëanor, creator of the Silmarils; her spirit later serves the godlike Vala queen Vairë. Finwë is the first person to be murdered in Valinor: he is killed by the Dark Lord Morgoth, who is intent on stealing the Silmarils. The event sets off the Flight of the Noldor from Valinor back to Beleriand in Middle-earth, and its disastrous consequences.
Tolkien commented on the importance of the story of Finwë and Míriel on his legendarium, stating that had Finwë chosen differently, the whole course of Middle-earth's history would have been better. Tolkien called Míriel's decision to let go of life disastrous; he associated it with the Biblical Fall of man. Scholars have debated whether Finwë and Míriel were to blame for the subsequent disastrous history of the Elves in Middle-earth. They have remarked that Míriel was extremely skilful in craftsmanship, and passed on her skill to her son Fëanor: his true name, Curufinwë, means "Skill-Finwë" in one of Tolkien's constructed languages, Quenya. They have commented, too, on the lasting consequences of Míriel's death, through Fëanor's uncontrolled and divisive actions.
## Fictional history
### In Middle-earth
Among the Elves who first awoke at Cuiviénen, a bay on the Sea of Helcar in the East of Middle-earth, the Noldor are the "Deep-Elves", always interested in knowledge, skill, and understanding; their leader is Finwë. The godlike Valar ask the Elves to come and live with them in their blessed realm of Valinor. The Elves are doubtful about this, so the Vala Oromë picks three leaders of the Elves, Elwë, Finwë, and Ingwë, to come and see Valinor for themselves. Delighted by what they see, the three ambassadors return to their people and invite them to make the journey to Valinor. The Fair-Elves of Ingwë go and stay; the Deep-Elves of Finwë go, still wishing to live in Middle-earth; while the Elves of Elwë are divided, and though they set out together, many do not complete the journey. The ambassadors become the Kings of their respective peoples.
### In Valinor
Finwë marries Míriel, the most skilful of the Noldor in needlework and weaving. Míriel gives birth to their only child, Curufinwë, commonly called Fëanor; he inherits her skill, becoming the most gifted and brilliant of all the Noldor, the mightiest in crafts, especially the making of jewels.
Míriel, an immortal elf, is so exhausted by the birth, "consumed in spirit and body" by the fiery creative energy of her son Fëanor, that she wilfully gives up her spirit. She thus becomes the first sentient being in the blessed realm of Aman to experience death. This leaves Finwë on his own, not through his own choice; such a thing had never occurred before, and he chooses to remarry. His second wife is Indis of the Vanyar, the Fair-Elves of Ingwë. She bears him two sons: Fingolfin and Finarfin, and two daughters: Findis and Írimë, their names echoing his.
Fëanor comes to resent Finwë's other sons, his half-brothers; there is constant strife between them. Fëanor makes the Silmarils, three star-like jewels that embody some of the light of the Two Trees of Valinor.
During the Dark Lord Melkor's attempt to corrupt the Noldor, Finwë tries to exert a moderating influence over his people and lead them back to the Valar. When Fëanor is exiled from the Elvish city of Tirion after he openly threatens Fingolfin, Finwë goes with him to their northern fortress, Formenos. There he is the first to be murdered in Valinor when Melkor, seeking the Silmarils, kills him at the doors of Formenos. This directly leads to the Flight of the Noldor, the disastrous rebellion of the Noldor against the Valar, which in turn leads the First Kinslaying, when Elves killed other Elves.
### In the Halls of Mandos
After their deaths, Finwë and Míriel meet again in the Halls of Mandos, the place where the shades of dead Elves go in Aman. The Valar had allowed Finwë to remarry, given that Míriel had made clear she would never again live in a body; they did not want an Elf to have two living wives. As with Elves killed in battle, the Valar offer Finwë the choice to live again; he decides instead to let Míriel have this chance. Míriel feels that there is no longer a place for her among the Noldor, since Finwë had remarried, and declines the offer. She chooses to become an eternal assistant to Vairë, the weaver of the godlike Valar: she helps to weave the tapestries of time for the duration of the world's existence.
## Analysis
### Creative power
Megan Fontenot, writing on Tor.com, notes that when Míriel says she will have no more children after the effort of having Fëanor, Finwë "becomes depressed", but ultimately gets the Vala Manwë to do as Míriel wishes, and let her go to the garden of Lórien, in the South of Aman, which is the realm of the Vala Irmo, the master of dreams. There she falls asleep and her spirit departs for the Halls of Mandos. Finwë visits her and calls her names, but she does not return. Fontenot comments that Tolkien's drafts of the tale of Míriel are complex. One strand of Tolkien's accounts of her tells that her needlework is so fine that just one piece would be worth more than a kingdom; Tolkien likens her creative power to that of the Vala Yavanna, she who loves all trees and plants that grow in the earth. In Fontenot's view, Míriel's creativity "celebrates and amplifies the beauty already present in the world around her. Her art doesn't hoard light and beauty". Further, Fontenot writes, it is significant that Yavanna made the Two Trees of Valinor, while Míriel made Fëanor, who made the Silmarils, which captured some of the light of the Two Trees.
### Important choices
Some of Tolkien's drafts of the story describe similarities of character between Fëanor and Míriel. Tolkien calls both of them determined, hardly ever changing their mind once they had said they would do something. In another draft, Tolkien adds that Míriel was both "proud and obdurate"; the mention of pride directly echoes Fëanor's ill-fated oath.
Tolkien rewrote the tale of Finwë and Míriel several times, as it assumed "an extraordinary importance in [his] later work on The Silmarillion". The Silmarillion, prepared by Christopher Tolkien from his father's unpublished writings, only briefly mentions the tale of Finwë and Míriel; Tolkien may have intended to incorporate a fuller version. In Tolkien's works, Elves are immortal, their shades going to the Halls of Mandos after death, and marriage is forever. Tolkien noted that had Finwë chosen differently, the whole history of Middle-earth would have changed for the better, thus making his choice a pivotal event in the mythology; it showed the importance Tolkien attached to unbreakable relationships.
### Skill of mother and son
The Tolkien scholar Verlyn Flieger comments that Míriel's death has deep-running consequences through her son Fëanor's "unchecked nature". She notes that his usual name means "Spirit of Fire", and that it is not his true name, which is Curufinwë (Quenya: Curu, "Skill", and his father's name); in her view, the use of an epithet implies a strong emphasis on his fire element. The first thing his fire consumes is Míriel's body; The Silmarillion says she is "consumed in spirit and body". The poet and essayist Melanie Rawls writes that Fëanor's consuming nature, always taking things in, is "a negative-feminine trait", implying a disharmony of the genders. Flieger writes that his fire then drives his creativity, making the beautiful letters of the Fëanorian script, and jewels, including, fatefully, the Silmarils. She states that Tolkien, choosing his words very carefully, calls Fëanor two things. Firstly, he uses the word "subtle", by etymology from Latin sub-tela, "under the warp (of a weaving)", hence the crosswise weft threads that go against the grain, a dangerous part of the fabric of life. Secondly, he applies the word "skilled", by etymology from Indo-European skel-, "to cut", like the Noldor as a whole tending to cause division among the Elves. His choices, and the Silmarils, do in fact lead to division and war, to the Kinslaying of Elf by Elf, the theft of the Telerin Elves' ships in Aman, and in turn to further disasters across the sea in Beleriand.
Both Matthew Dickerson in The J. R. R. Tolkien Encyclopedia and Elizabeth Solopova in A Companion to J. R. R. Tolkien note that The Silmarillion emphasises Míriel's skill, naming her in early versions Byrde, later Serindë, "the broideress"; she passes on her "surpassing skill" in craftsmanship to her only son. Solopova suggests a possible link to Tolkien's study of the Middle English word burde, conventionally meaning "lady, damsel"; he proposed that it derived from Old English borde, "embroidery" and pointed out that in Old Norse and Old English poetry, stock terms for "woman" included "weaver" and "embroideress".
### "A strange case"
Tolkien mentions in a letter "a strange case of an Elf (Míriel mother of Fëanor) that tried to die, which had disastrous results, leading to the 'Fall' of the High-elves"; he discusses it in the context of the Fall of Man. Dickerson writes that while Fëanor is held responsible by the Valar, "neither Finwë nor Míriel is blameless". He states that no reason is given in The Silmarillion for Míriel's decision, beyond the enormous amount of energy, "enough for many children", that she put into Fëanor. However, he notes that Morgoth had already worked his evil on the Elves when they were still at Cuiviénen, where they first awakened, in the east of Middle-earth, sowing "the seeds of despair"; this might, he suggests, have contributed to Míriel's loss of hope. Tolkien wrote in Laws and Customs Among the Eldar that "Niënna came to Manwë, and she said: 'Lord of Aman, it is now made clear that the death of Míriel was an evil of Arda Marred, for with the coming hither of the Eldar the Shadow hath found an entrance even into Aman.'"
Fontenot notes that Tolkien's drafts differ widely in how long Míriel lives after Fëanor's birth, and hence in whether she can influence his ill humour directly. This in turn affects the issue of how far Finwë and Míriel can be blamed for the consequences of Fëanor's actions. It is a question that the Valar debate amongst themselves.
### Philosophical themes
The scholar of religion Amelia Rutledge identifies what she calls Pauline constructs (like the language used by Paul the Apostle in the Bible) in the legalistic wording relating to the tale of Finwë and Míriel. She notes that Elizabeth Whittingham and Douglas Kane discuss instead the eschatology relating to the tale. Whittingham considers what she calls "some of the most interesting glimpses of Tolkien as sub-creator" in his stories and essays on the nature of mortal Men and immortal Elves, exploring the question of death and immortality raised by the voluntary death of Míriel. Kane discusses Mandos's Second Prophecy, with an illustration of "The spirit of Míriel appearing before Mandos and Manwë, and taking a last look at Finwë".
## House of Finwë
|
8,543,614 |
Donald Glover
| 1,173,873,635 |
American actor, rapper, writer and producer (born 1983)
|
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"21st-century American male actors",
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"Southern hip hop musicians",
"Television producers from California",
"Television producers from Georgia (U.S. state)",
"Tisch School of the Arts alumni",
"Writers Guild of America Award winners"
] |
Donald McKinley Glover Jr. (/ˈɡlʌvər/; born September 25, 1983), also known by his stage name Childish Gambino (/ɡæmˈbiːnoʊ/), is an American actor, comedian, singer, rapper, writer, director, and producer. After working in Derrick Comedy while studying at New York University, Glover was hired at age 23 by Tina Fey as a writer for the NBC sitcom 30 Rock. He later rose to fame for portraying college student Troy Barnes on the NBC sitcom Community from 2009 to 2014. From 2016 to 2022, Glover starred in the FX series Atlanta, which he created and occasionally directed. For his work on Atlanta, Glover won various accolades, including two Primetime Emmy Awards and two Golden Globe Awards.
Glover has starred in several successful films including the supernatural horror The Lazarus Effect (2015), the comedy-drama Magic Mike XXL (2015), and the science fiction film The Martian (2015). He played Aaron Davis / The Prowler in the superhero films Spider-Man: Homecoming (2017) and Spider-Man: Across the Spider-Verse (2023), and played Lando Calrissian in the space western Solo: A Star Wars Story (2018). He also provided the voice of adult Simba in The Lion King (2019). Glover is also a filmmaker, and starred in and produced the short film Guava Island (2019). In 2023, he co-created the comedy thriller television series Swarm. Glover is also credited as a principal inspiration for the creation of the Marvel Comics superhero Miles Morales / Spider-Man, whom Glover would consequently voice in the animated series Ultimate Spider-Man.
Following independently released albums and mixtapes, Glover signed with Glassnote Records in 2011, and released his first studio album, Camp, that year. In 2013, he followed this with his second album, Because the Internet. Glover's third album, "Awaken, My Love!" (2016), spawned the single "Redbone", which peaked at number twelve on the Billboard Hot 100 and eventually earned him his first Grammy Award. In 2018, Glover released "This Is America", which debuted at number-one on the Hot 100, and won four Grammy Awards, including for Song and Record of the Year. Glover's fourth album, 3.15.20, was released in 2020.
## Early life
Donald McKinley Glover Jr. was born at Edwards Air Force Base in Edwards, California, on September 25, 1983, and was raised in Stone Mountain, Georgia, where his father was stationed. His mother, Beverly (née Smith), is a retired daycare provider, and his father, Donald Glover Sr., was a postal worker. His parents served as foster parents for 14 years. Glover was raised as a Jehovah's Witness, but he is no longer religious. His younger brother, Stephen, would later become a writer and producer who collaborates with him. He has a sister named Brianne.
Glover attended Avondale High School and DeKalb School of the Arts, and was voted "Most Likely to Write for The Simpsons" in his high school yearbook. In 2006, he graduated from the New York University Tisch School of the Arts with a degree in Dramatic Writing. While at Tisch, he self-produced the independent mixtape The Younger I Get, which has not been released and has been disowned by Glover for being the "too-raw ramblings" of what he calls a "decrepit Drake". He began DJing and producing electronic music under the moniker MC DJ (later as mcDJ) remixing Sufjan Stevens' album Illinois (2005).
## Career
### 2006–2010: Derrick Comedy, Community, and mixtapes
In 2006 Glover caught the attention of producer David Miner after Glover sent writing samples including a spec script that he had written for The Simpsons. Miner and Tina Fey were impressed by Glover's work and hired him to become a writer for the NBC sitcom 30 Rock. From 2006 to 2009 Glover wrote for 30 Rock, in which he also had occasional appearances. He and his co-writers were presented with the Writers Guild of America Award for Best Comedy Series in 2008 for his work on the third season. In 2008, Glover unsuccessfully auditioned to play President Barack Obama on the sketch comedy program Saturday Night Live; the role went to cast member Fred Armisen. While attending NYU, Glover became a member of the sketch comedy group Derrick Comedy, having appeared in their sketches on YouTube since 2006, along with Dominic Dierkes, Meggie McFadden, DC Pierson, and Dan Eckman. The group wrote and starred in a feature-length film, Mystery Team, a comedy about amateur teenage detectives; it premiered at the Sundance Film Festival in 2009. With a limited release, the fans requested the film in their local theaters.
Glover starred as former high school jock Troy Barnes on Dan Harmon's NBC sitcom Community, which premiered in September 2009. Glover did not return as a full-time cast member for the show's fifth season, appearing only in the first five episodes. Despite speculation that he was leaving to pursue his music career, a series of hand-written notes that Glover posted to Instagram revealed that his reasons were more personal, citing a need for projects that offered him more independence as he worked through some personal issues. Although Harmon approached Glover about returning to the show for its sixth season, Glover declined, feeling that his character's return would not serve the show, the audience, or himself as an actor.
Glover's stage name, Childish Gambino, which he used to start his musical career, came from a Wu-Tang Clan name generator. In June 2008, he released the independent mixtape Sick Boi. In September 2009, he released his second mixtape Poindexter. A pair of mixtapes titled I Am Just a Rapper and I Am Just A Rapper 2, were released in close succession in 2010, and Culdesac, his third mixtape, was released in July of that year. In March 2010, Glover performed a 30-minute set on the stand-up showcase program Comedy Central Presents.
In May 2010, a fan suggested Glover for the role of Spider-Man/Peter Parker in The Amazing Spider-Man film, encouraging his supporters to retweet the hashtag "#donald4spiderman". The campaign sparked a viral response on Twitter. The call for Glover to audition for the role was supported by Spider-Man creator Stan Lee. However, Glover did not audition, and the role went to Andrew Garfield. He later revealed that he was never contacted by Sony Pictures. Comics writer Brian Michael Bendis, who announced Miles Morales, an African-American version of Spider-Man, a year later, said he had conceived of the character before Glover's campaign went viral. Bendis gave credit to Glover for influencing the new hero's looks for Spider-Man; Bendis said, "I saw him in the costume [on Community] and thought, 'I would like to read that book.'" Glover later voiced this incarnation of Spider-Man on the Ultimate Spider-Man animated series.
Glover received the Rising Comedy Star award at the Just for Laughs festival in July 2010, and was featured in Gap's 2010 holiday advertising campaign.
### 2011–2014: Camp and Because the Internet
His first extended play, titled EP, was released as a free digital download in March 2011. A music video for the song "Freaks and Geeks" was released in that month and Glover hosted the MTVU Woodie Awards at South By Southwest. Glover commenced his nationwide IAMDONALD Tour in April. The tour was a one-man live show that consisted of rap, comedy, and video segments. Glover appeared at the 2011 Bonnaroo Music Festival as both Childish Gambino and as a comedian, performing a set with Bill Bailey. His one-hour stand-up special, Weirdo, aired on Comedy Central in November 2011.
For his 2011 debut studio album, Glover approached Community's score composer, Ludwig Göransson for production assistance; Göransson has become his most frequent collaborator. Prior to its release, Glover signed with Glassnote Records and embarked on The Sign-Up Tour. The album titled Camp, was released on November 15, 2011, backed by his debut single "Bonfire" and "Heartbeat", which peaked at number eighteen on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles and number fifty-four on Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs. Camp debuted at number eleven on the Billboard 200, selling 52,000 copies in the first week, and was generally well received by critics, with PopMatters writer Steve Lepore finding it to be "undoubtedly one of the best records of any genre to come out in 2011". His Camp Gambino tour was scheduled to commence in March 2012, but was postponed to April after he fractured his foot.
Glover released the songs "Eat Your Vegetables" and "Fuck Your Blog" through his website in April and May 2012. Throughout May and June, he premiered tracks from his sixth mixtape, Royalty, which was released as a free digital download in July. The album featured several artists, including his brother Stephen, under the alias Steve G. Lover III. The single "Trouble" by British artist Leona Lewis from her album Glassheart (2012) featured Gambino with a guest rap performance. The song peaked at number seven on the UK Singles Chart, making it his first UK Top 10 single. In November 2012, Göransson stated that he and Glover were in the studio generating new ideas for the next album which was to be "bigger" and "with more people involved". In 2013, Glover signed a deal to create a music-themed show for FX titled Atlanta, in which he would star, write, and serve as an executive producer. Although several networks were interested in picking up his half-hour comedy, he chose FX due to their willingness to work around his touring schedule. Glover had a supporting role in the romantic comedy The To Do List (2013), which performed below expectations, and guest starred in two episodes of the comedy-drama television series Girls in early 2013, as a Republican who is the brief love interest to Lena Dunham's character.
His second studio album, Because the Internet, finished recording in October 2013 and was released in December, debuting at number seven on the Billboard 200 chart. Because the Internet yielded the singles "3005", "Crawl" and "Sweatpants". "3005" peaked at number eight on the UK R&B Chart and sixty-four on the Billboard Hot 100. To promote the album, Glover wrote a short film Clapping for the Wrong Reasons which stars himself, Chance the Rapper, and Danielle Fishel among others. Directed by Hiro Murai, it was released prior the album's release and serves as its prelude. Additionally, a 72-page screenplay designed to sync up with the album was also released. The Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) certified "Heartbeat" Gold for shipping 500,000 copies in June 2014 – making it Glover's first Gold certification. Because The Internet was also certified Gold. From February to May 2014, he embarked on The Deep Web Tour.
Glover directed the music video for the song "The Pressure" by Jhené Aiko, whose previous single, "Bed Peace", had featured a guest appearance by him. On October 2, he released a mixtape titled STN MTN and the following day an EP titled Kauai, which spawned the single "Sober". While STN MTN was a free download, the proceeds of Kauai went to law enforcement policies, maintenance and preservation of Kauai island. Glover described them as a joint project and the "first concept mixtape ever" that continues the story told in Camp and Because the Internet. At the 57th Annual Grammy Awards, Glover received his first Grammy nominations in Best Rap Album for Because the Internet and Best Rap Performance for "3005".
### 2015–2017: Film roles, Atlanta, and "Awaken, My Love!"
Glover appeared in three films in 2015. In The Lazarus Effect, he played a scientist working with a team of researchers who bring dead people back to life with disastrous consequences. Next, Glover played a singer in the comedy-drama Magic Mike XXL and performed a cover of the Bruno Mars song "Marry You" in the film, which was included in the soundtrack. His third release that year was Ridley Scott's science fiction adaptation The Martian, featuring Glover as a Jet Propulsion Laboratory astrodynamicist who helps rescue an astronaut, played by Matt Damon, stranded on Mars. Glover contributed to the soundtrack of Creed (2015), a film in the Rocky film series, providing vocals to the song "Waiting For My Moment" and co-writing another titled "Breathe".
After being in development since August 2013, FX ordered the Atlanta series in December 2014, announcing a 10-episode season in October 2015, which premiered on September 6, 2016, to widespread critical acclaim. Glover writes, occasionally directs, executive produces, and stars in the series as Earnest "Earn" Marks, a Princeton dropout who manages his rapper cousin as they navigate through the Atlanta hip hop scene. For his work on the show, Glover has earned various accolades, including Golden Globe Awards for Best Television Series – Musical or Comedy and Best Actor – Television Series Musical or Comedy and Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series and Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series, making him the first black person to win an Emmy for the latter category. Due to the success of the series, FX signed Glover to an exclusive deal to write and produce more shows for the network. The first of these shows was an animated series featuring the Marvel Comics character Deadpool, which was set to premiere in 2018 but was later canceled due to creative differences. Glover later posted an unofficial and unproduced script to his Twitter account, stating he was not "too busy to work on Deadpool", ending media speculation.
In September 2016, Glover held three musical performances, known as the "Pharos Experience", in Joshua Tree, California, where he debuted songs from his third studio album "Awaken, My Love!". The album was released in December, charting at number five on the Billboard 200 and was later certified platinum accumulating 1,000,000 certified units. It was considered a bold departure from his usual hip hop style as it primarily featured Glover singing rather than rapping, and saw him draw influences from psychedelic soul, funk and R&B music, particularly of the funk band Funkadelic. "Awaken, My Love!" produced the singles "Me and Your Mama", "Redbone" (which peaked at number twelve on the Billboard Hot 100), and "Terrified". Its vinyl release featured a virtual reality headset and an accompanying app that allowed owners to access virtual reality live performances from the Pharos Experience. The album was positively received by music critics and was nominated for both the 2018 Grammy Award for Album of the Year and Best Urban Contemporary Album, while "Redbone" won Best Traditional R&B Performance and received nominations for Record of the Year and Best R&B Song. Glover performed "Terrified" at the award show's 60th ceremony.
In 2017, Glover appeared as criminal Aaron Davis in the superhero film Spider-Man: Homecoming (2017). Davis is the uncle of the Miles Morales version of Spider-Man, whom Glover had voiced in the Ultimate Spider-Man animated series. The casting was described as "a surprise treat for fans" by the film's director Jon Watts, aware of his 2010 campaign to portray the superhero. In April 2017, Time named Glover in its annual "100 Most Influential People in the World". Tina Fey wrote the entry for Glover, stating that he "embodies his generation's belief that people can be whatever they want and change what it is they want, at any time".
Glover announced his intention to retire the Childish Gambino stage name in June 2017, telling the audience at Governors Ball Music Festival, "I'll see you for the last Gambino album" before walking off stage. He further explained his decision in an interview, feeling his musical career was no longer "necessary" and added "There's nothing worse than like a third sequel" and "I like it when something's good and when it comes back there's a reason to come back, there's a reason to do that."
### 2018–2020: "This Is America" and 3.15.20
Glover signed with RCA Records in January 2018, which Glover called "a necessary change of pace". In May 2018, he released a single titled "This Is America" while performing as both host and musical guest on Saturday Night Live. The song debuted at number one, becoming both Glover's first number one and top ten single in the United States. It features him singing and rapping, drawing influence from trap music. The lyrics addressed a variety of topics including gun violence and being black in the United States, while its controversial video, directed by Japanese filmmaker and frequent collaborator Hiro Murai, showed Glover with a firearm shooting at a choir. "This is America" won the Grammy for Song of the Year, Best Music Video, Best Rap/Sung Performance and Record of the Year, becoming the first rap song to win the latter.
While filming Atlanta's second season, Glover portrayed a young version of Lando Calrissian in Solo: A Star Wars Story (2018), causing him to miss appearances in some episodes; Calrissian was previously played by Billy Dee Williams in two films in the original Star Wars trilogy. Despite the film's turbulent production and poor box office returns, Glover's performance was praised, particularly by critic Stephanie Zacharek for his "unruly, charismatic elegance". In July 2018, Glover released the Summer Pack extended play containing the songs "Summertime Magic" and "Feels Like Summer", the former of which was originally meant to be the lead single from Glover's forthcoming fourth studio album. "Summertime Magic" debuted at forty-four on the Billboard Hot 100. Glover began his fifth concert tour, This Is America Tour in September, announcing it would be his last during its opening show in Atlanta. Two previously unreleased songs, "Algorhythm" and "All Night", were made available to people who bought tickets to the tour.
In February 2018, Glover approached New Regency, without a script, about a project he would like to work on while he had free time between Solo promotional duties and his This Is America Tour. Due to his previous success, they accepted his offer quickly and Amazon Studios agreed to distribute the film. Guava Island, the resulting film written by Stephen Glover and directed by Hiro Murai, was filmed in Cuba. It stars Glover as a musician who decides to throw a festival on his homeland, with Rihanna co-starring as his partner and muse. It was released in 2019 through Amazon Prime Video to generally favorable critical appraisal after premiering at Coachella. Glover provided guest vocals to the track "Monster" on 21 Savage's 2018 album I Am \> I Was, reflecting on his negative feelings toward the music industry and why he wants to retire from music. He partnered with Adidas Originals to reimagine three pairs of classic Adidas sneakers, which were launched in April 2019 under the "Donald Glover Presents" line and were promoted by a series of advertisements starring comedian Mo'Nique.
Days after headlining Coachella in April 2019, Glover premiered a new song, "Algorythm", through the mobile app Pharos AR. The augmented reality application allows users to open the virtual Pharos world with other players. During his headlining performance at the 2019 Outside Lands Music and Arts Festival, Glover drew "the biggest crowd that Outside Lands has ever had" and also announced that it was "the second to last show that we'll be doing" before retiring the Childish Gambino pseudonym. When asked on Jimmy Kimmel Live! about the status of retiring, Glover said he was unsure and may continue to perform after the This Is America Tour. Glover was expected to release another album per the RCA Records contract he signed in January 2018.
Glover provided the voice for adult Simba, the titular protagonist and lion prince turned king in The Lion King (2019), a remake of the 1994 Disney film of the same name. Glover praised the director, Jon Favreau, for the way he constructed the timeless story and asked him to re-record his lines as he connected to the film's story line more personally after his father's death. Glover sang on the film's soundtrack and on the curated album The Lion King: The Gift, featuring songs inspired by the film. Despite receiving mixed reviews, the film grossed \$1.6 billion worldwide, making it one of the highest-grossing films of all time. In December 2019, Glover endorsed 2020 Democratic candidate Andrew Yang and joined his campaign as a creative consultant.
On March 15, 2020, Glover streamed his surprise fourth album on his website Donald Glover Presents, where it played on a loop for twelve hours until it was taken down. 21 Savage and Ariana Grande feature on the album. The album was released on digital services the following week under the name 3.15.20. It was well received by music critics and debuted at number 13 on the Billboard 200. In November 2020, in a rare appearance on his Twitter account, Glover opined that seasons 3 and 4 of Atlanta would be on the caliber of The Sopranos and that his next musical project would be his "biggest by far".
### 2021–present: Return to television and Swarm
In 2021, Glover signed an overall deal with Amazon Studios. It was announced that he would be producing and starring in a television reboot of Doug Liman's 2005 film Mr. & Mrs. Smith, with Maya Erskine co-starring. In April 2021, Glover tweeted that he was in the midst of writing a trilogy of feature films.
In February 2022, both seasons 3 and 4 of Atlanta had completed filming, with season 3 premiering on March 24 and the final season on September 15. In March, Glover announced that he was working on a Disney+ Star Wars series based on Lando Calrissian.
In December 2022, it was announced that Glover would star and produce a feature set in Sony Pictures' Spider-Man universe. The film currently has no title but is said to revolve around the Hypno-Hustler.
He is also the creator of the television series Swarm, starring Dominique Fishback, Damson Idris, and Chloe Bailey, about a Beyoncé-esque character. Serving as a director and executive producer, the series is the first project from his deal with Amazon Studios.
In an October 2022 interview with Variety, Community creator Dan Harmon said that he believes Glover would be in the upcoming Sony Pictures and Peacock produced Community film. "I think that Donald is coming, based on word of mouth, but it's just the deal isn't official or wasn't official. It would be difficult to really commit to doing this thing without Donald," Harmon said. "So I believe he is coming back." In April 2023, Glover confirmed he would be returning for the Community movie.
In July 2023, it was announced that Glover and his brother Stephen would replace Justin Simien as the head writers of the upcoming Star Wars series Lando.
## Influences
In an interview with The Guardian, Glover stated, "I'm influenced by LCD Soundsystem as much as Ghostface Killah. A lot of the rap shows I saw as a kid were boring, but if you went to a Rage Against the Machine show or a Justice show, the kids were losing their minds. Kids just want to go nuts, Odd Future know that. People want to experience something physical." Glover also cites hip-hop duo Outkast and trio Migos, and funk band Funkadelic as being influences.
Glover has influenced a number of younger musicians and actors. Rapper Vince Staples has praised Glover's ability to "[do] something different every time".
## Personal life
Glover began dating Michelle White in 2015. They have three sons, born in early 2016, January 2018, and 2020.
Glover is known as a private person and rarely posts on social media or does interviews unless for promotional work. In an interview with The New Yorker, he stated that social media made him feel "less human" and that he only visits online discussion pages in which he can stay anonymous and communicate with people who understand what he is saying.
On December 17, 2018, during the final stop for the This Is America Tour, Glover announced that his father had died. He said, "I lost my father a couple weeks ago and I wanted to play him some of the new songs but he didn't want to hear them, because he was like, 'I know they're going to be great.'"
## Discography
- Camp (2011)
- Because the Internet (2013)
- "Awaken, My Love!" (2016)
- 3.15.20 (2020)
## Tours
Comedy tours
- IAMDONALD Tour (2011)
Musical tours
- The Sign-Up Tour (2011)
- Camp Gambino Tour (2012)
- Deep Web Tour (2014)
- This Is America Tour (2018)
## Filmography
### Film
### Short films
### Television
### Music videos
### Web
|
9,340,452 |
Pelagic stingray
| 1,136,223,954 |
Species of cartilaginous fish
|
[
"Cosmopolitan fish",
"Dasyatidae",
"Fish described in 1832",
"Taxa named by Charles Lucien Bonaparte"
] |
The pelagic stingray (Pteroplatytrygon violacea) is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae, and the sole member of its genus. It is characterized by the wedge-like shape of its pectoral fin disc, which is much wider than long, as well as by the pointed teeth in both sexes, whip-like tail with extremely long tail spine, and uniform violet to blue-green coloration. It generally reaches 59 cm (23 in) in width. The pelagic stingray has a worldwide distribution in waters warmer than 19 °C (66 °F), and migrates seasonally to spend the summer closer to the continental shelf and at higher latitudes. The only stingray that almost exclusively inhabits the open ocean, this species is typically found in surface waters down to a depth of 100 m (330 ft). As a consequence of its midwater habits, its swimming style has evolved to feature more of a flapping motion of the pectoral fins, as opposed to the disc margin undulations used by other, bottom-dwelling stingrays.
The diet of the pelagic stingray consists of free-swimming invertebrates and bony fishes. It is an active hunter, using its pectoral fins to trap and move food to its mouth, and has been known to take advantage of seasonal feeding opportunities such as spawning squid. Like other stingrays, it is aplacental viviparous, meaning that the embryos are sustained initially by yolk and later by histotroph ("uterine milk"). With a short gestation period of 2–4 months, females may bear two litters of 4–13 pups per year. Birthing generally occurs in warm water near the equator, with the exception of the Mediterranean, with the timing varying between regions. Rarely encountered except by fishery workers, the pelagic stingray can inflict a severe, even fatal wound with its tail spine. This species is caught as bycatch throughout its range; it is of little economic value and usually discarded, often with high mortality. However, there is evidence that its numbers are increasing, perhaps owing to the heavy fishing of its natural predators and competitors (e.g., sharks). Along with the pelagic stingray's global distribution and prolific life history, this has led the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) to assess it as of Least Concern.
## Taxonomy and phylogeny
The pelagic stingray was originally described by French naturalist Charles Lucien Bonaparte in the 1832 third volume of Iconografia della fauna italica per le quattro classi degli animali vertebrati. He named it Trygon violacea, from the Latin viola ("purple"), and designated two specimens collected off Italy as the species syntypes. The genus Trygon has since been synonymized with Dasyatis. In 1910, American zoologist Henry Weed Fowler placed the pelagic stingray in the newly created subgenus Pteroplatytrygon, from the Greek pteron ("fin"), platus ("broad"), and trygon ("stingray"). Later authors elevated Pteroplatytrygon to the rank of full genus, though some taxonomists dispute whether this species is distinct enough to warrant separation from Dasyatis.
Lisa Rosenberger's 2001 phylogenetic analysis, based on morphology, found that the pelagic stingray is one of the more basal members of its family, being the sister taxon to a clade that contains Pastinachus, Dasyatis, and Indo-Pacific Himantura species. Other common names for the pelagic stingray include the blue stingray and the violet stingray.
## Distribution and habitat
The distribution of the pelagic stingray extends nearly worldwide in tropical to warm-temperate pelagic waters, between the latitudes of 52°N and 50°S. In the western Atlantic, it has been reported from the Grand Banks of Newfoundland to North Carolina, the northern Gulf of Mexico, and the Lesser Antilles, Brazil and Uruguay. In the eastern Atlantic, this species has been recorded from the North Sea to Madeira, including the Mediterranean, as well as around Cape Verde, in the Gulf of Guinea and off South Africa. In the Pacific, it is known from Japan to Australia and New Zealand in the west, British Columbia to Chile in the east, and around many oceanic islands including Hawaii, the Galápagos, and Easter Island. There have been no reports of this species from much of the Indian Ocean, but it is known to be common in the southwestern portion and around Indonesia.
Unique amongst stingrays in inhabiting the open ocean rather than the sea floor, the pelagic stingray is generally found from the surface to a depth of 100 m (330 ft) over deep water. It has also been caught at a depth of 330–381 m (1,083–1,250 ft) over the Kyushu–Palau Ridge, indicating that it at least occasionally approaches the bottom. This species prefers water temperatures above 19 °C (66 °F), and will die if the temperature drops to 15 °C (59 °F).
The pelagic stingray performs seasonal migrations following warm water masses. In the northwestern Atlantic, it is found in or near the Gulf Stream from December to April, and moves north of the Stream to gather near the continental shelf from July to September. A similar migration seems to occur in the Mediterranean, though the specifics are unknown. In the Pacific, this species apparently spends the winter in oceanic waters near the equator and move into higher latitudes and towards the coast in spring. Two Pacific populations are known: one migrates from near Central America to California, and the other from the central Pacific to as far as Japan and British Columbia. Off southeastern Brazil, pelagic stingrays are displaced towards the coast by upwellings of cold water in late spring and summer; in some years they may even be pushed into inshore waters less than 45 m (148 ft) deep.
## Description
The pelagic stingray has a very thick, distinctively wedge-shaped pectoral fin disc one-third wider than long, with broadly curved leading margins, rather angular outer corners, and nearly straight trailing margins. The snout is short with a rounded tip. The eyes are minute and, unlike in other stingrays, do not protrude above the body; the spiracles (paired respiratory openings) follow immediate behind. There is a short but broad curtain of skin between the nostrils, with a weakly fringed rear margin. The mouth is small and gently arched, with deep furrows at the corners and a tiny projection at the center of the upper jaw that fits into an indentation on the lower jaw. There are anywhere from 0 to 15 forked papillae (nipple-like structures) in a row across the floor of the mouth. There are 25–34 upper tooth rows and 25–31 lower tooth rows; the teeth of both sexes have single, pointed cusps, but those of adult males are longer and sharper than those of adult females. The margins of the pelvic fins are nearly straight in front and become rounded at the tips and in back.
The whip-like tail measures up to twice as long as the disc; it is thick at the base and tapers significantly to the extremely long, serrated spine placed approximately one-third to halfway along its length. Two spines may be present if a replacement grows in before the original drops off. Posterior to the spine origin, there is a low ventral fin fold that does not reach to the spine tip. Young rays are completely smooth-skinned; with age small prickles appear over the center of the back, as well as a row of small thorns along the midline from between the eyes to the origin of the spine. This species is a plain dark purple to blue-green above, extending onto the tail fold, and a slightly lighter shade below. When captured and handled, it exudes a thick black mucus that covers its body. The pelagic stingray typically grows to 1.3 m (4.3 ft) long and 59 cm (23 in) across. The largest individuals on record are from a captive rearing experiment conducted from 1995 to 2000, in which a male reached 68 cm (27 in) across and 12 kg (26 lb), and a female 94 cm (37 in) across and 49 kg (108 lb).
## Biology and ecology
In adopting a midwater lifestyle, the pelagic stingray exhibits several characteristics different from those of its bottom-dwelling relatives. While most stingrays propel themselves by undulating their disc margins, this species swims by oscillating (flapping) its pectoral fins in a manner approaching the "underwater flying" employed by eagle rays. Oscillatory fin motions generate lift, thus improving cruising efficiency in open water at a cost to maneuverability. The pelagic stingray is adept at swimming backwards, which may compensate for the lower fine control offered by its swimming mode.
Vision seems to be more important to the pelagic ray in finding food than in other stingrays. Compared to other members of its family, this species has less than one-third the density of electroreceptive ampullae of Lorenzini on its underside. The ampullae also cover a smaller area, though not as small as in eagle rays, and are more evenly distributed between the ventral and dorsal surfaces. This ray can detect an electric field of well under 1 nV/cm at a distance of up to 30 cm (12 in), and may be able to pick up the minute electric fields produced by moving sea water. The lateral line of the pelagic stingray, a complex system of mechanoreceptors that detect nearby movement and ocean currents, remains similar to other stingrays in covering a greater area on the ventral than the dorsal surface. However, this species is less responsive to mechanical than to visual stimuli.
Pelagic stingrays may segregate by sex, vertically in that males are found in deeper water than females, and perhaps horizontally as well. Captive individuals often act highly aggressively towards ocean sunfish (Mola mola), biting and harassing them, particularly if they are hungry. This species is preyed upon by oceanic whitetip sharks (Carcharhinus longimanus), great white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias), toothed whales, and other large, ocean-going carnivores. Its all-around dark coloration likely serves to camouflage it against its featureless habitat. The venom on its tail spine is also quite potent, causing it to be avoided by other fishes. Known parasites of this species include the tapeworms Acanthobothrium benedeni, A. crassicolle, and A. filicolle, Rhinebothrium baeri and R. palombii, and Tetragonocephalum uarnak, and the monogenean Entobdella diadema.
### Feeding
The pelagic stingray is an active predator that captures prey by wrapping its pectoral fins around it, before manipulating it to the mouth. It is the only stingray in which both sexes have pointed teeth, for grasping and cutting into slippery prey. A wide variety of organisms are represented in its diet: crustaceans including amphipods, krill, and larval crabs, molluscs including squid, octopus, and pteropods, bony fishes including herring, mackerel, sea horses and filefish, comb jellies and medusae, and polychaete worms. Off California, pelagic stingrays hunt large mating aggregations of squid that form from November to April. Off Brazil, this species follows groups of Atlantic cutlassfish (Trichiurus lepturus) towards the coast in January and February, with both predators seeking small schooling fishes. Juvenile rays consume 6–7% of their body weight in food per day, which declines to just above 1% in adults.
### Life history
Like other stingrays, the pelagic stingray is aplacental viviparous: the developing embryos are at first nourished by yolk, which is later supplanted by histotroph ("uterine milk", containing proteins, lipids, and mucus); the mother delivers the histotroph through numerous thread-like extensions of the uterine epithelium called "trophonemata", which feed into the enlarged spiracles of the embryo. Females have only one functional ovary and uterus, on the left, and may produce two litters per year. Mating occurs from March to June in the northwestern Atlantic, and in late spring in the southwestern Atlantic. Females are capable of storing sperm internally for more than a year, allowing them to wait for favorable environmental conditions in which to gestate their young. When first passed into the uterus, a batch of fertilized eggs are contained in a single membraneous capsule tapered at both ends. Shortly after, the capsule ruptures to release the eggs, and is expelled from the uterus. The gestation period may be the shortest of any shark or ray, lasting only 2–4 months, during which time the embryos increase a hundredfold in mass.
In the Pacific, females give birth in winter from November to March in a nursery area near Central America, prior to their northward migration. Similarly, in the northwestern Atlantic, birthing seems to occur in winter when the females are in warm southerly waters, possibly off the West Indies. However, records also exist of two possibly anomalous females that were pregnant much earlier in the year and would have given birth in August or September, before their southward migration. In the southwestern Atlantic, birthing occurs in summer around January, again in warmer water towards the equator. As opposed to other regions, in the Mediterranean females give birth in summer before moving to warmer waters. The litter size ranges from 4 to 13 (average six), and does not increase with the size of the female. Newborns measure 15–25 cm (5.9–9.8 in) across. Rays in captivity, with ample food, grow at an average annual rate of 8.1 cm (3.2 in) (disc width), while rays in the wild grow at an average annual rate of only 1.6 cm (0.63 in). The food intake and growth rate of adults are highest in January–February and July–August, and lowest in March–April and October–November. Males reach sexual maturity at 37–50 cm (15–20 in) across and two years of age, and females at 39–50 cm (15–20 in) and three years of age. This species may live up to 10–12 years. One of the most prolific rays, its intrinsic population growth rate is up to 31% a year.
## Human interactions
The pelagic stingray is not aggressive and rarely encountered because of its habitat preferences, but its very long tail spine demands extreme caution be exercised in handling it. It has been responsible for two known fatalities: a worker on a tuna longliner who was impaled by a captured ray, and another fishery worker who succumbed to tetanus days after being stung. This species has been kept in public aquariums for almost a century.
Caught as bycatch in drifting longliners for tunas, billfishes and pelagic sharks, it is usually discarded due to its low commercial value. Rays incidentally caught on longlines suffer high mortality, as fishers are wary of being stung and remove the rays from the hooks by smashing them against the side of the boat, causing severe damage to the mouth and jaws. The extent of this bycatch has yet to be quantified. Surveys in the Pacific suggest that pelagic stingray numbers have increased since the 1950s, possibly due to commercial fisheries depleting the dominant predators in the ecosystem, such as sharks and tuna. The lack of population declines, coupled with its wide distribution and high reproductive rate, has led the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) to list this species under Least Concern. In June 2018 the New Zealand Department of Conservation classified the pelagic stingray as "Not Threatened" with the qualifier "Secure Overseas" under the New Zealand Threat Classification System.
Recent research has been conducted into reducing pelagic stingray bycatch on longlines by switching to larger and/or "C"-shaped hooks.
|
49,666,179 |
Wayzata Bay Center
| 1,151,914,422 | null |
[
"1964 establishments in Minnesota",
"2011 disestablishments in Minnesota",
"Defunct shopping malls in the United States",
"Demolished shopping malls in the United States",
"Shopping malls disestablished in 2011",
"Shopping malls established in 1964",
"Shopping malls in Hennepin County, Minnesota",
"Tourist attractions in Hennepin County, Minnesota",
"Wayzata, Minnesota"
] |
Wayzata Bay Center was an enclosed shopping mall in Wayzata, Minnesota, a suburb of the Twin Cities. Wayzata Bay Center once comprised 127,000 square feet (12,000 m<sup>2</sup>) of retail space, with approximately 30 stores on one level, but closed in 2011 after the city of Wayzata agreed upon constructing a new facility on the same land. The mall was once owned by Madison Marquette until residents of the city purchased the mall for \$16 million in December 2004.
Opened in 1967, Wayzata Bay Center was constructed in two phases; the first phase was completed in 1964 while the second phase was completed in 1967. The mall initially featured several regional retailers, along with small businesses, but eventually made way for various national chains, including The Original Pancake House and True Value. After increasing vacancies throughout the center in the 2000s, a Minnesota construction firm purchased the center from United Properties for \$16 million in 2009. Following the firm's purchase in 2011, the mall was shut and torn down to make way for a mixed-use retail and residential community center.
## History
Wayzata Bay Center was constructed in two different phases in Wayzata, Minnesota. The center was built on top of several wetlands, which were filled in with dirt and concrete to create land suitable for development. The northern phase of the mall was completed in 1964 while the southern phase of the mall was finished in 1967.
The construction of the center cost \$1.5 million, contained 1,200 parking spaces, and was anchored by a Country Club Market grocery store. For many years, the mall offered a seasonal shuttle that ferried shoppers around the facilities; this service was discontinued in the late 1990s. The mall did not receive any significant remodeling or renovations until 1980, when four outparcels were constructed in the parking lot of the mall. The outparcels were housed by several restaurants and a Goodyear location.
From 2002 to 2004 the vacancy rate at the mall climbed from 13 percent to 33 percent. In June 2004, the City of Wayzata announced plans to tear down half of the mall, renovate the remaining half, and construct four condominium buildings on the property. Within the same plan included the possible addition of a grocery store to the mall; Madison Marquette hinted at the opening of a Whole Foods Market or a Trader Joe's store. However, these plans fell through when Madison Marquette sold the mall. Owners of The Foursome, a tenant of Wayzata Bay Center since 1967, purchased the mall in December of the same year after the mall's previous owner, a German-based developer, abandoned any redevelopment plans for the site. After the redevelopment of the mall was approved in 2008, The Foursome closed its 30,000-square-foot (2,800 m<sup>2</sup>) location and moved to nearby Plymouth, Minnesota. Several other businesses closed in 2009, resulting in an even higher vacancy rate at Wayzata Bay Center.
## Closure
Despite regularly hosting several local events and art shows throughout the years, significant discussion of the mall's closure occurred in 2004 and 2005. The mall's owner at the time, Madison Marquette, announced plans to "upgrade and enhance" the shopping center, to appear more attractive to businesses and customers. The supposed enhancement plans included removing the enclosed spaces of the mall, but these plans were never carried out.
After talks of closure for years, Wayzata Bay Center closed its doors on August 15, 2011. Demolition began shortly after in April 2012, when all stores in the mall had either relocated or closed. The Original Pancake House, a restaurant, was the final tenant to close in the mall. The restaurant, a tenant of the center since 1994, relocated to neighboring Plymouth, while Adele's Frozen Custard, a tenant in the mall since 2009, closed their Wayzata location entirely. Among the mall's other final tenants were a True Value hardware store, a jewelry store, a health food store, and a furniture store.
When the center was demolished, development began for a senior living facility with mixed retail and office space use. After several months of delays and halts from the city council, construction of the development began in June 2013. The new development, entitled The Promenade, is expected to be fully completed in 2016. When the new project was complete, Presbyterian Homes, the company that purchased the land for redevelopment, referred to the project as "ambitious" and thanked the City of Wayzata for their cooperation throughout the process. The new development consists of several different uses, including senior housing, condominiums, a boutique hotel, and office and retail space.
|
47,041,833 |
Morning/Evening
| 1,121,774,551 | null |
[
"2015 albums",
"Albums produced by Kieran Hebden",
"Four Tet albums",
"Text Records albums"
] |
Morning/Evening is the eighth album by British electronic musician Kieran Hebden, released under his alias Four Tet in 2015 by Hebden's own Text Records and via the online music store Bandcamp. As a child, Hebden had inherited a collection of Hindu devotional music from his late grandfather but did not listen to it until his maternal grandmother died during the making of his 2013 album, Beautiful Rewind. After sampling the voice of Indian playback singer Lata Mangeshkar, Hebden was inspired to make a record with a similar structure to Indian music, particularly the raga mode and decided to break the album into a "Morning Side" and an "Evening Side". Alongside the sampled vocals, Morning/Evening contains complex drum programming, electronic sounds and manipulated found sounds.
Morning/Evening was announced in May 2015, with an expected release date of July 2015. It was made available to stream and download from Hebden's Bandcamp page on 21 June 2015 to celebrate the summer solstice. Music critics praised Hebden for continuing to release challenging and unique electronic music. The physical release of Morning/Evening became Hebden's second highest-charting album, peaking at number 48 in the UK Albums Chart.
## Recording and composition
Kieran Hebden, who is of Indian descent, acquired a collection of Hindu devotional music from his late grandfather when he was ten years old but had never listened to it. When his maternal grandmother died during the making of his 2013 album Beautiful Rewind, Hebden played some of the records and began experimenting by looping a vocal sample of Indian playback singer Lata Mangeshkar for three days before deciding to base an album around it. Hebden wanted to make a record with a similar structure to Indian music, particularly the raga mode, and decided to divide the album into a "Morning Side" and an "Evening Side" since many ragas relate to certain times of the day. Hebden also drew influences from English electronic music group Autechre and early electronic music, including American electronic composer Morton Subotnick's 1967 composition Silver Apples of the Moon, and wanted the album's production to sound like a low fidelity recording, while maintaining moments of high fidelity.
Morning/Evening contains two tracks of electronic sounds and "skittering" drum programming with a total running time of 40 minutes. "Morning Side" features prominent vocal samples from Mangeshkar's performance of "Main Teri Chhoti Behana Hoon", recorded for the 1983 Hindi-language feature film Souten, coupled with complex drum programming and arpeggiated synthesizers. "Evening Side", which also features a sample of filmi music, begins with guitar, drones and "sparse" keyboards. It contains a conclusion that features a garage rhythm, with Hebden wanting the end of the album to feature "the most hectic, percussive part" to emphasise an evening's relationship with nightclubs. The song fades out "to implicate that the music went to infinity." Hebden recorded the album between August 2014 and February 2015, using a laptop running the digital audio workstation Ableton Live to control VST synthesizers and manipulate found sounds.
## Release
Hebden announced Morning/Evening on 6 May 2015 with a release date of July 2015. Although no marketing campaign was used, Hebden performed the album for the first time at the Mayfield Depot in Manchester as part of The Warehouse Project on 17 June 2015. He decided to issue the album early, making it available to stream and download from his page at online music store Bandcamp on 21 June 2015 to celebrate the summer solstice because he thought it was "a lovely day". He included tracks from Morning/Evening in his live set at the 2015 Electric Forest Festival in Rothbury, Michigan. It was released on compact disc and vinyl on 10 July by Hebden's label, Text Records. Morning/Evening entered the UK Albums Chart during the week commencing 23 July 2015 and became Hebden's second highest-charting album, peaking at number 48.
## Reception
At Metacritic, which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, Morning/Evening received an average score of 77 based on 17 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Exclaim! reviewer Chad Barnes called it "a gorgeous, daring album", saying that "Hebden spins intricate sonic gold while subtly exploring a range of moods and moments on the complex, constantly morphing compositions". Kitty Empire, writing for The Observer, said that it was a "low key treat" that contained "effortless prettiness." Pitchfork reviewer Andy Beta called the album "daring and expansive" and said that "the scope and ambition of Morning/Evening is profound, and will hopefully inspire producers to take bigger chances and not be satisfied with pop- or club-friendly lengths." NME called "Morning Side" "one of the most moving pieces of music Hebden has ever put his name to" and said the album ranked "alongside Four Tet's very best work." Critic Nina Corcoran of Consequence of Sound said that "Hebden has done what he does best: create an atmosphere so encompassing that you lose sight of wherever you are while you're listening". Spin's Dan Weiss called the album "ambitious" and "beautiful in its own right, if you’re patient."
In his review for PopMatters, Casey Hardmeyer called the album both "classic Four Tet" and "a step in a new direction for the veteran producer". Hardmeyer felt the vocal sample on "Morning Side" was too prominent in the mix, saying that "Side two, 'Evening Side', is where Hebden really shines", and praised Hebden for continuing to release challenging and unique music "in an electronica landscape that's increasingly devoid of it". XLR8R's Chas Reynolds said that while the album's "narrative ambivalence" might not make Morning/Evening Hebden's most "immediate" record, it lent Morning/Evening a "near infinite replay value". AllMusic's Andy Kellman said that the album "isn't among the most substantive Four Tet albums, but it does reward repeated casual listening." Angus Finlayson, reviewing the album for Resident Advisor, called the album "the prettiest Four Tet record in some time" and said that "in its best moments, Morning/Evening is perfectly paced." Finlayson highlighted the "vagueness" of the record's "disparate material" but concluded that "even with these faults [...] Hebden has brought a refreshing addition to his discography."
## Track listing
## Personnel
Credits are adapted from the album's liner notes.
- Kieran Hebden – music, production
Additional personnel
- Matt Cooper – design
- Jason Evans – photography, design
## Charts
|
25,788,953 |
Baby (Justin Bieber song)
| 1,164,341,301 |
2010 song by Justin Bieber featuring Ludacris
|
[
"2009 songs",
"2010 YouTube videos",
"2010 singles",
"2010s Island Records singles",
"Compositions in E-flat major",
"Justin Bieber songs",
"Lucas Grabeel songs",
"Ludacris songs",
"Number-one singles in Scotland",
"SNEP Top Singles number-one singles",
"Song recordings produced by Tricky Stewart",
"Songs written by Christina Milian",
"Songs written by Justin Bieber",
"Songs written by Ludacris",
"Songs written by The-Dream",
"Songs written by Tricky Stewart"
] |
"Baby" is a song by Canadian singer Justin Bieber, featuring American rapper Ludacris. It was released as the lead single on Bieber's debut album, My World 2.0. The track was written by Bieber, Ludacris, Christina Milian, Tricky Stewart (who worked with Bieber on a previous single "One Time"), and R&B singer The-Dream, with production helmed by the latter two.
It was available for digital download on January 18, 2010. The song received airplay directly after release, officially impacting mainstream and rhythmic radio on January 26, 2010. The song received positive reviews from critics who complimented the song's effective lyrics and chorus and commended Ludacris' part and the song's ability to have an urban twist. It is widely regarded as one of the defining songs of modern-day popular music and continues to find audiences globally.
The song was a commercial success, peaking at number one in France and Scotland, and charting in the top ten of the United Kingdom, Canada, the United States, Australia, Norway, Japan, Ireland, Hungary, Belgium (Flanders), Slovakia and New Zealand. "Baby" was the fourth most successful single of 2010 in France. The accompanying music video takes place in a mall/bowling-alley setting. The video features several cameos such as Drake, Lil Twist and Tinashe, in which Bieber chases after a girl. As of May 2013, the song has sold 3.9 million digital downloads in the United States and is certified 12x Platinum in the country.
The official music video is the 39th most-viewed video on YouTube and, as of December 2021, is the fourth-most-disliked YouTube video and the second-most-disliked YouTube music video. It had been the most-viewed YouTube video from July 16, 2010, when it surpassed the music video for "Bad Romance" by Lady Gaga, until November 24, 2012, when it was surpassed by the music video for "Gangnam Style" by Psy. Bieber performed the song several times, including on Saturday Night Live, and the ninth season of American Idol. Bieber also performed an acoustic rendition of the remix version with Drake at the 2010 Juno Awards. The official remix in the United Kingdom features British hip-hop artist Chipmunk.
## Background and writing
"Baby" was written by Bieber with Christopher "Tricky" Stewart and Terius "The-Dream" Nash, both of whom worked with Bieber on "One Time", R&B singer and The-Dream's then-wife Christina Milian and labelmate, Ludacris. When asked how the collaboration initially came about, Bieber said, "[Ludacris and I] both live in Atlanta. I met him a year prior to this and we figured it was a perfect collaboration for him, so we invited him out to do it." A few days before the release of the single, Bieber posted an acoustic version of the song to his YouTube with his guitarist Dan Kanter, similar to the way he did with "Favorite Girl". Billboard said that: "Bieber delivers his characteristically clean vocals with conviction: "My first love broke my heart for the first time / and I'm like, 'baby, baby, baby, no!' I thought you'd always be mine." Also in a review of the acoustic version Bill Lamb of About.com said that, "I think the vocals here will convince some that Justin Bieber really does have the vocal chops."
## Style and composition
The song is predominantly upbeat, featuring Bieber's R&B vocals over a backdrop containing a dance infused beat, full of keyboard and "disco string" synths. The song is played at a tempo of 130 BPM and is composed in the key of E♭ major with Bieber's vocal range spanning from the low-note of G<sub>3</sub> to the high-note of C<sub>5</sub>. According to Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone, the song "blends winks at Fifties doo-wop with hip-hop chants", comparing the style and the lyrics "My first love broke my heart for the first time/And I was like/Baby, baby, baby, ooooh/I thought you'd always be mine" to fifties ballads like "Tears on My Pillow", "Why Do Fools Fall in Love" and "Earth Angel". Lyrically, Bieber's lines explain his distress over his lost love, and promise to get it back, featured in lines like, "And I wanna play it cool/But I'm losin' you.../I'm in pieces/So come and fix me...". The chorus features the distinct and repetitive "baby, baby, baby, ohhhh (nooooo)" hook. After the second verse, Ludacris comes in with the verse-rap, an anecdote of young love when he was thirteen, as it runs "When I was 13/I had my first love/She had me going crazy/Oh, I was star-struck/She woke me up daily/Don't need no Starbucks...".
## Critical reception
Nick Levine of Digital Spy felt the song was "no great departure from what he's given us before", but felt the production of Tricky and The-Dream helped give the song a "simple", "big" chorus about "puppy love" that works.
Melanie Bertoldi of Billboard said, "The midtempo number's undeniably contagious chorus should keep Bieber's tween fan base satisfied, and Ludacris' brief cameo adds a welcome urban twist." Bertoli went on to say, "The matchup adds a layer of maturity to Bieber's repertoire and should further solidify his growing presence on the charts."
Rap-Up magazine said that "the sweet pop fare gets a little street cred courtesy of the teen sensation's labelmate Ludacris."
Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone appreciated the song's vintage doo-wop and fifties aesthetic and hip-hop chants, and said the song included "one of the catchiest choruses concocted by the-Dream and Tricky Stewart, the duo behind "Umbrella" and "Single Ladies."
Luke O'Neill of Boston Globe had mixed thoughts about the song calling Ludacris' cameo "goofy", and said, the song "effects a musical anachronism, albeit a catchy one, but in this sped-up recycling moment all styles all at once are grist for the mill."
## Chart performance
In the United States, "Baby" debuted at number five on the Billboard Hot 100, becoming Bieber's highest-charting single in the US. Bieber then went on to surpass this chart position when "Boyfriend" debuted at number two in April 2012. The song was also Ludacris's biggest song to date, solo or featuring, since 2007's "Glamorous". "Baby" was beaten out as the week's highest debut by Taylor Swift's "Today Was a Fairytale", which debuted at number two. The debuting of the pair of songs was just the third time in history that the Hot 100 had two new top-five debuts. The instance had last happened in 2003 when American Idol's Ruben Studdard and Clay Aiken's debut singles charted at number one and two.
During its first week of radio impact, the song had over 1400 spins, and was the top gainer for mainstream and rhythmic radio formats.
The song debuted at thirty-three on the Pop Songs chart on the week labeled February 13, 2010. The song missed out becoming the greatest gainer by one spot, which was Kesha's "Blah Blah Blah". However the following week, the song did collect greatest gainer recognition, jumping to twenty-five on the chart, and has since peaked at sixteen. On August 2, 2010, the song was certified double-platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America for shipments of 2,000,000 units.
As of May 2013, the song had sold 3.9 million digital downloads in the United States. With the inclusion of streaming in the RIAA certifications in 2013, the song became the highest certificated single of all time at 12× Platinum (surpassing "Candle in the Wind 1997" by Elton John at 11× Platinum).
"Baby" debuted and peaked on the Canadian Hot 100 at number three, becoming his highest-charting single at the time. On the issue dated February 8, 2010, the song debuted in Australia on the official ARIA Singles Chart at number thirty-seven. After twelve weeks of ascending and descending the charts the single reached a peak of three. "Baby" has since been certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) for shipments of 70,000 units.
In New Zealand, the song entered the chart at nineteen. After weeks of ascending and descending the charts, "Baby" reached a peak of four. The song dropped to the number five position the following week and after weeks of fluctuating around the chart it attained the number four position once again. It has since been certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand (RIANZ).
The song peaked at number three on the UK Singles Chart on the issue date March 14, 2010. The following week, "Baby" fell to number four, but climbed back to its previous peak position of three on the issue date March 28, 2010. In the process of climbing the charts, "Baby" gained a new peak of two on the R&B Singles Chart.
By June 2012, Baby had sold 442,432 copies in the United Kingdom.
## Music video
Filming for the music video began during the week of January 25, 2010, in Los Angeles. It was filmed at Universal CityWalk and Lucky Strike Lanes, by director Ray Kay, who had previously directed videos for Beyoncé Knowles, Lady Gaga, Alexandra Burke, and Cheryl Cole, among others. Ludacris said that the video "is like a 2010 version of Michael Jackson's "The Way You Make Me Feel"." Bieber said that the video "will capture the song's message of trying to woo back a girl." In explaining the concept of the video, Bieber said, "It starts off, I really like this girl, but we didn't [get] along; we couldn't be together. Basically I want her back and [I'm] kind of going through the whole thing. I'm chasing her around, trying to get her, and she's kind of playing hard to get, but I'm persistent. I keep going." The video premiered exclusively on Vevo on Friday, February 19, 2010. Singer and actress Jasmine Villegas portrays Bieber's love interest in the video. Bieber's friends, Young Money artists Drake and Lil Twist also appeared in the video, along with Tinashe and jerkin' crew The Rangers.
The video takes place in a mall-like setting with a bowling alley and more. After the video was released, MTV commented on the video being the new version of "The Way You Make Me Feel" saying, "..and the choreography does use a few of Jackson's less-suggestive moves." The MTV review goes on saying, "most of the video takes place in the bowling alley, there are also scenes of Bieber in other settings, hanging out with Luda, doing the moonwalk, messing with his hair and mugging for the camera. During the video Biebers friends and Villegas friends have several dance offs and Villegas eventually smiles at him. Regardless of his crush's apparent frustration with him, Bieber eventually wins her over. The video concludes with the pair walking off into the night holding hands."
Billboard reviewed the video, saying, "Those new dance moves he's showing off can only mean one thing: all over the world, tweens' hearts are melting right now." In July 2010, the video became the most viewed video in YouTube history until it was surpassed by Psy's hit single, "Gangnam Style", in November 2012.
The video received 7.7 million views within its first seven days.
As of August 2020, the video has received over 2.2 billion views on the video-sharing website YouTube. It was also the most disliked video of all time (briefly surpassed by "Friday" by Rebecca Black upon that video's release in 2011). Baby'''s music video held the record for the most disliked video for over 7 years, until it was surpassed in December 2018 by YouTube Rewind 2018: Everyone Controls Rewind (the current most disliked video). The video currently sits as the fourth most disliked YouTube video.
## Live performances
Bieber first premiered the song performing on the MuchMusic series Live at Much on December 28, 2009. He sang the song on VH1's Pepsi Super Bowl Fan Jam, along with other performers Rihanna, JoJo and Timbaland, and on CBS' The Early Show as a part of their Super Bowl programming. He performed the song the first time with Ludacris on BET's SOS: Saving Ourselves – Help for Haiti Telethon, on February 6, 2010, which also aired on VH1, and MTV. During the chorus, he changed the lyrics to "Baby, baby, Haiti", to show support for the cause, and the reason everyone came together for the show. In the week of his album release, he performed the song on The View and 106 & Park. Bieber also performed the song at the 2010 Kids Choice Awards on March 27. Bieber performed the song along with "U Smile" on the eighteenth episode of season thirty five of Saturday Night Live. Bieber performed an acoustic rendition of the song along with a freestyle by good friend Drake at the 2010 Juno Awards. In April 2010, Bieber noted that due to his voice changing, he could no longer hit all the notes in "Baby", and for live performances, the key is lowered. Bieber performed the song live in Sydney, Australia on April 26, 2010, in the Sunrise studios after his public performance was cancelled. Bieber also performed the song on May 11, 2010, on The Oprah Winfrey Show. Bieber performed the song on June 4, 2010, on the Today Show along with "Never Say Never", "Somebody to Love", and "One Time". He performed the song with "Somebody to Love" at the 2010 MuchMusic Video Awards.
## Cover versions
Jazz pianist Jacky Terrasson covered "Baby" with his trio on his 2012 album Gouache.
The song was also covered by Relient K in 2011 for their cover album Is For Karaoke.
## Parody versions
Yes We Canberra released a parody version satirising then Opposition leader Tony Abbott during the lead-up to the 2010 Australian federal election.
In the 2012 film Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Dog Days'', Greg Heffley's older brother Rodrick (portrayed by Devon Bostick) performs a hard rock cover of the song with his band, Löded Diper, in an attempt to impress his love interest Heather Hills (older sister of Greg's love interest, Holly) during her Sweet 16th party. His performance causes the event to end in disaster.
In the Annoying Orange episode, "OMG" (parody of TMZ), there is a clip of Justin Bieberry (portrayal of Bieber) singing a parody version called "Gravy".
## Track listing
## Charts
### Weekly charts
### Monthly charts
### Year-end charts
## Certifications and sales
## Release history
## See also
- List of most-viewed YouTube videos
- List of most-disliked YouTube videos
|
44,102,273 |
Zach Eflin
| 1,173,095,271 |
American baseball player (born 1994)
|
[
"1994 births",
"Arizona League Padres players",
"Baseball players at the 2015 Pan American Games",
"Baseball players from Orlando, Florida",
"Christians from Florida",
"Clearwater Threshers players",
"Florida Complex League Phillies players",
"Fort Wayne TinCaps players",
"Lake Elsinore Storm players",
"Lehigh Valley IronPigs players",
"Living people",
"Major League Baseball pitchers",
"Medalists at the 2015 Pan American Games",
"Pan American Games medalists in baseball",
"Pan American Games silver medalists for the United States",
"Philadelphia Phillies players",
"Reading Fightin Phils players",
"Sportspeople from Seminole County, Florida",
"Tampa Bay Rays players",
"United States national baseball team players"
] |
Zachary Adams Eflin (born April 8, 1994) is an American professional baseball pitcher for the Tampa Bay Rays of Major League Baseball (MLB). He has previously played in MLB for the Philadelphia Phillies.
The San Diego Padres selected Eflin in the first round (33rd overall) of the 2012 MLB draft, and he spent three seasons in the Padres' minor league system. In December 2014, Eflin was traded twice in the course of 24 hours, first to the Los Angeles Dodgers as part of a package for all-star outfielder Matt Kemp, and then to the Phillies as part of a package for franchise star Jimmy Rollins. Eflin made his MLB debut with the Phillies in and bounced between the major league and minor league levels for several seasons. Beginning in 2019, he landed in the major leagues and became an anchor of the Phillies' starting rotation in 2019–21 seasons, but a right knee contusion resulted in a stint on the 60-day injured list, and Eflin was moved to the bullpen after his return in September 2022. He signed with the Rays as a free agent after the 2022 season.
Eflin relies heavily on a sinking fastball that he pairs with a slider and curveball. Although he has experimented with being a power pitcher, he relies more on his command and pitching to contact. He is a Christian and credits his faith as having helped him through a challenging upbringing that included several family tragedies.
## Early life
Eflin was born in Orlando, Florida. Eflin's older sister Ashley died of leukemia at age seven. Another sister, Candace, Eflin has said, is his greatest inspiration. Candace has had special needs since birth (global developmental delay). Growing up, Eflin says he leaned heavily on his Christian faith; his paternal grandfather has been a pastor for 60 years.
Eflin attended Paul J. Hagerty High School in Oviedo, Florida, where he played baseball. His junior year of high school, Eflin planned to quit the baseball team to join the golf team, but he ultimately abandoned that plan. While he was in high school, he grew seven inches and became a dominant starting pitcher who attracted attention from colleges and professional scouts. In his senior year, he had an 0.51 earned run average (ERA) and 59 strikeouts in 43 innings pitched. Although Eflin signed a National Letter of Intent (NLI) to attend UCF on a college baseball scholarship, he ultimately signed with the San Diego Padres after being drafted.
## Career
### San Diego Padres
Following his high school career, the San Diego Padres selected Eflin in the first round, with the 33rd overall selection, of the 2012 MLB draft. Rather than enroll at UCF, Eflin signed with the Padres, receiving a \$1.2 million signing bonus. Eflin began his professional career in 2012 with the AZL Padres in the Arizona Fall League, with a win–loss record of 0–1 and a 7.71 ERA in seven innings. He missed time after he contracted mononucleosis. After his first season, scouts thought that he had a good chance to have a strong career in the major leagues, but injury concerns had already begun to mount.
The next year, in his first full professional season, he pitched for the Fort Wayne TinCaps of the Class A Midwest League. Eflin posted a 7–6 record and a league-leading 2.73 ERA. He recorded 86 strikeouts in 118+2⁄3 innings. After the season, baseball analyst Keith Law ranked Eflin the eighth-best prospect in the Padres' minor league system, noting he was at a more advanced stage of development as a pitcher than two of the higher-ranked pitching prospects but might have a slightly lower ceiling. In 2014, Eflin pitched for the Lake Elsinore Storm of the Class A-Advanced California League, and he finished the season with a 10–7 win–loss record and a 3.80 ERA, with 93 strikeouts in 128 innings. After the season, he was ranked the number five prospect in the Padres' system, recognized by scouts for his "stellar control" who avoided issuing walks to opposing hitters.
### Philadelphia Phillies
#### Prospect (2015–2017)
On December 18, 2014, the Padres traded Eflin, Joe Wieland, and Yasmani Grandal to the Los Angeles Dodgers in exchange for all-star outfielder Matt Kemp, Tim Federowicz, and cash. Less than 24 hours later, Eflin came to the Phillies with Tom Windle from the Los Angeles Dodgers in a trade that moved Jimmy Rollins, the longest-tenured athlete in all of Philadelphia sports, the Phillies' all-time hits leader, and the face of the franchise for more than a decade, to Los Angeles. The trade was the first move in what Phillies general manager Rubén Amaro Jr. characterized an "arduous rebuilding process", The Phillies had zeroed in on Eflin on the advice of Gorman Heimueller, a former Phillies instructor working in the Padres organization, who said that Eflin "had a lead-pipe sinker and the makings to pitch at the top of a rotation once he could master the slider." During spring training in 2021, Eflin—the last player acquired during Amaro's 2015 rebuilding efforts still to be in the Phillies organization—reflected on the trade as a turning point for his career, noting that the moment made it feel "like someone wanted me more."
After Baseball America named him the fourth-best prospect in the Phillies minor league system prior to the 2015 season, the Phillies invited Eflin to spring training as a non-roster player before assigning him to the Class AA Reading Fightin Phils. Eflin spent the 2015 season in the Eastern League as part of a starting rotation that included top Phillies prospects Aaron Nola, Jesse Biddle, Ben Lively, and Windle, the anticipated cornerstones of a new Phillies pitching staff. He finished the 2015 season with an 8–6 record with a 3.69 ERA and a 1.21 WHIP (tied for ninth in the league), with 68 strikeouts in 131+2⁄3 innings pitched. He was the April 12 Eastern League Pitcher of the Week, and a mid-season Eastern League All Star. After the season, he pitched for Team USA in the 2015 Pan American Games, which won the silver medal. 2015 marked the first time Eflin would work with catcher Andrew Knapp, with whom he developed a strong rapport that lasted once both reached the major leagues; although Knapp has been the Phillies' backup catcher, he often plays when Eflin pitches, and Eflin has recorded better statistics with Knapp behind the plate than other Phillies' catchers. Eflin has said of Knapp, "Sometimes, I feel like he knows me better than myself ... A great thing about Knappy is he cares a lot more about the pitch calling and defensive catching than he does hitting. I’m not saying he doesn’t care about hitting, but his main goal is to be a catcher that pitchers trust."
Eflin received another invitation to spring training in 2016. Eflin began the 2016 season with the Lehigh Valley IronPigs of the Class AAA International League, and was named the league's Pitcher of the Week on April 18. With Lehigh Valley, he was 5–2 with a 2.90 ERA and 55 strikeouts in 68+1⁄3 innings. Eflin made his MLB debut on June 14, 2016, at 22 years of age (making him the fourth-youngest pitcher to debut for the Phillies since 2000), allowing eight earned runs by the Toronto Blue Jays in 2+2⁄3 innings on nine hits, three of which were home runs. Eflin's game score of five was the sixth-worst debut in major league history, and worst in Phillies franchise history. Eflin rebounded with two complete games in the month of July, including a Maddux shutout of the Atlanta Braves. The Phillies placed Eflin on the disabled list on August 9 due to patellar tendinopathy in both knees, and he underwent a pair of season-ending knee surgeries in August and September, respectively. In 2016 with the Phillies, he was 3–5 with a 5.54 ERA, and 31 strikeouts in 63+1⁄3 innings.
Eflin began the 2017 season on the 10-day disabled list in an effort to continue recovery from both knees. He was activated on April 11 and optioned to Triple-A. He was the April 17, 2017 International League Pitcher of the Week. On April 18, he was recalled by the Phillies to replace an injured Clay Buchholz in the rotation. His season debut was the same night against the New York Mets, and he began a 29-inning streak of not allowing any runs to opposing hitters that spanned four starts. At the end of May, he returned to the minor leagues, and in June, he missed time due to an injured elbow. In 2017 with the Phillies, he was 1–5 with a 6.16 ERA, and 35 strikeouts in 64+1⁄3 innings, following a strong start to the season by struggling to its finish. That season—his time split between Lehigh Valley, the Class A-Advanced Clearwater Threshers, and the GCL Phillies—he combined to go 2–4 with a 3.74 ERA and 50 strikeouts in 55+1⁄3 minor league innings.
#### Major league starter (2018–2022)
Eflin once again opened the 2018 season in Triple-A Lehigh Valley, but he returned to the major leagues by the end of April. Armed with a new approach on the mound, he recorded career-high strikeout totals throughout the season and spent almost the entire remainder of the season with the big-league club. For the season, Eflin was 11–8 with a 4.36 ERA, and 123 strikeouts in 128 innings. With Lehigh Valley, he was 2–2 with a 4.05 ERA and 15 strikeouts in 20 innings. From 2019 onward, Eflin remained entirely in the major leagues. He began the 2019 season in the starting rotation before being placed on the disabled list on May 31 with a back injury. In 2019 with the Phillies, Eflin was 10–13 with a 4.13 ERA. In 28 starts, he pitched two complete games (leading the National League) and one shutout. In total, he pitched 163+1⁄3 innings and gave up 28 home runs, eighth most in the National League. During the 2018 and 2019 seasons, Phillies manager Gabe Kapler and pitching coach Chris Young advised Eflin to try to be a power pitcher, overpowering hitters with high fastballs and hard breaking pitches. Although the approach initially showed signs of success, leading to speculation he could be an all-star candidate, he eventually began to struggle before suffering an injury midway through the season and losing his spot in the Phillies' starting rotation. He eventually abandoned that approach, returning to focus on his sinker and not being afraid to pitch to contact during the abbreviated 2020 season. He also, for the first time in his career, became more aggressive in throwing a curveball that became central to his repertoire. He ultimately made 11 starts in 2020, and the Phillies won eight of them; he also posted a career-best 10.9 strikeouts per nine innings to accompany a 3.97 ERA and 4–2 record.
Entering the 2021 season, analysts, coaches, and teammates suggested Eflin could be a candidate for a breakout season near the top of the Phillies' starting rotation. New Phillies pitching coach Caleb Cotham said in his opening press conferences that the Phillies' starting rotation has three potential candidates for the Cy Young Award, which the media has interpreted to mean Nola, Zack Wheeler, and Eflin. Eflin worked to a 4–7 record and 4.17 ERA with 99 strikeouts in 18 starts for the Phillies in 2021. On September 8, 2021, it was announced that Eflin would undergo season-ending knee surgery to repair a tear in his right patellar tendon.
In the 2022 regular season he was 3–5 with one save and a 4.04 ERA over 75.2 innings in 20 games (13 starts). But later Eflin suffered a right knee contusion and he was placed on the 60-day injured list. After he was reactivated in September, Eflin was moved to bullpen, and he had a 3.38 ERA over 10 2/3 playoff innings in 10 games, and earned a save in Phillies' series-clinching win over Cardinals in Game 2 of the NL Wild Card Series.
On November 7, 2022, two days after Phillies lost the 2022 World Series, Eflin declined his end of the mutual option for 2023 season, and became a free agent for the first time in his career, receiving a \$150,000 buyout.
### Tampa Bay Rays
On December 13, 2022, the Tampa Bay Rays signed Eflin to a three-year, \$40 million contract. This was the largest free agent deal in Rays history, topping the five-year, \$35 million contract given to Wilson Álvarez before their inaugural 1998 season. Eflin was reportedly offered the exact same contract terms by the division-rival Boston Red Sox, but declined, citing his Orlando roots and the opportunity to work with Rays pitching coach Kyle Snyder.
## Pitcher profile
Eflin was a middle-of-the-rotation starting pitcher when with the Phillies, and is known for relying on a sinker (93 miles per hour (150 km/h)) and slider (88 miles per hour (142 km/h)) combination in pursuit of groundball outs and for having strong command of his pitches, issuing few walks. Long prone to pitch to contact, in 2018, Eflin began to throw harder, aiming to blow pitches past hitters and record strikeouts. He moved away from that approach after struggling in 2019, and, by 2020, he had largely returned to his roots in terms of how he approached batters. In 2020, he began to incorporate a 79 miles per hour (127 km/h) curveball more regularly in his repertoire, diminishing his reliance on a changeup. This decision helped him record more strikeouts and fueled expectations entering the 2021 season that he could be a number one starting pitcher. He has had a history of knee injuries, however, and has never pitched more than 163+1⁄3 innings in a single season—he has acknowledged that his durability is a concern.
## Personal life
Eflin married his longtime girlfriend Lauren Dennen in December 2020. They have three children together, a daughter born October 9, 2021 and twin girls born March 2023. He has done work to support pediatric patients in Philadelphia hospitals, including appearances at sleepovers in the Phillies' clubhouse.
|
15,772,360 |
Stone Street (Manhattan)
| 1,169,352,402 |
Street in Manhattan, New York
|
[
"Financial District, Manhattan",
"Historic districts in Lower Manhattan",
"Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in New York City",
"New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan",
"New York City designated historic districts",
"Streets in Manhattan"
] |
Stone Street is a short street in the Financial District of Manhattan in New York City. It runs in two sections between Whitehall Street in the west and Hanover Square in the east. The street originally ran as one continuous roadway from Whitehall Street to Hanover Square, but the section between Broad Street and Coenties Alley was eliminated in 1980 to make way for the Goldman Sachs building at 85 Broad Street. The one-block-long western section between Whitehall and Broad Streets carries vehicular traffic, while the two-block-long eastern section between Coenties Alley and Hanover Square is a pedestrian zone.
Stone Street is one of New York's oldest streets, incorporating two 17th-century roads in the Dutch colony of New Amsterdam. In 1658 it became the first cobbled street in New Amsterdam. Following the British conquest of the colony, the street was called Duke Street before being renamed Stone Street, for its cobblestone paving, in 1794. Many of the early structures around Stone Street were destroyed in the Great Fire of 1835, after which Stone Street was redeveloped with stores and lofts for dry-goods merchants and importers. Following many decades of neglect, Stone Street was restored in the late 20th century and the eastern section became a restaurant area.
Stone Street contains several prominent structures, including 1 Hanover Square, a National Historic Landmark. The eastern portion of the street and the surrounding buildings are designated as the Stone Street Historic District, which is both listed on the National Register of Historic Places and protected by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission. In addition, the remaining portions of the street are part of the Financial District's street layout, a city landmark.
## Description
Stone Street runs in two sections within the Financial District of Manhattan in New York City. The western section carries eastbound traffic for one block between Whitehall Street in the west and Broad Street in the east. The intersection of Stone and Whitehall Streets, facing the Alexander Hamilton U.S. Custom House, has entrances to the New York City Subway's South Ferry/Whitehall Street station, served by the .
The eastern section runs two blocks between Coenties Alley, in the west. to the intersection with William Street and the western section of Hanover Square, in the east. Mill Lane, a short alley that dates to the area's 17th-century colonial development, diverges from the northern sidewalk of Stone Street between Coenties Alley and William Street. During the summer, these two blocks are pedestrian-only, with outdoor dining.
The block from Broad Street to Coenties Alley was closed in 1980 and removed from the street grid. The former path of Stone Street is preserved in the curved lobby of the 85 Broad Street skyscraper, which occupies the site. The public corridor contains a stone floor as well as LED "arches" extending above the corridor. In addition, remnants of curbs were placed where Stone and Broad Streets historically intersected. The corridor exists because, when 85 Broad Street was being constructed, its developers had wanted to completely remove that section of Stone Street, but the city government had opposed the removal. Both remaining sections of the street are preserved as part of the New Amsterdam street grid, a New York City designated landmark. Outside the eastern facade of 85 Broad Street is a plaque showing a map of Stone Street's historic path.
## History
### Early development
#### Dutch colonial era
Stone Street is one of New York's oldest streets, having been built not long after the Dutch West India Company established New Amsterdam in 1624. It contains parts of two colonial streets: Breuers Straet (literally "Brewers Street"), from Whitehall to Broad Streets, and Hoogh Straet (literally "High Street"), from Broad to Hanover Square. The streets formed a longer road running from Peck Slip Ferry at what is now South Street Seaport; they were originally connected by a bridge spanning an inlet in the middle of Broad Street. The original street surface is about 6.5 to 7 feet (2.0 to 2.1 m) beneath the modern street.
Breuers Straet (renamed Straet van de Graft in 1655 and Brouwer Straet by 1668) was named after the breweries along the street. David T. Valentine subsequently wrote that, from the occupations of the residents, "it is to be inferred that this was one of the best streets of the town". In March 1657, residents of Breuers Straet filed a petition to pave the street with cobblestone, funding the project with their own money. The petition was approved and, in 1658, Breuers Straet became the first cobbled street in New Amsterdam.
Hoogh Straet was so named because it was on a low embankment flanked by the East River to the south and a swamp, called Bloemmaert's or the Company Vly, to the north. Hoogh Straet continued northeast of Hanover Square, along what is now the northern side of Pearl Street, to modern-day Wall Street; On Hoogh Straet, the Dutch West India Company had laid out two rows of land lots by 1642, which were granted to property owners including Wessel Evertsen, Thomas Willett, and Richard Smith. Around 1656, Hoogh Straet was shifted about 20 to 25 feet (6.1 to 7.6 m) northward, to align it with Breuers Straet. Some time afterward, Hoogh Straet was paved, although the date of this paving is unknown. The Castello Plan of 1660 indicated that many structures on both streets were gable-roofed houses.
#### British and post-colonial era
The British took over New Amsterdam in 1664 and renamed New York. Subsequently, Hoogh Straet was translated to High Street by 1677, and Breuers Straet became Stony (Stone) Street by 1695. Valentine wrote that Brouwer Street had "eleven buildings of a good character" in 1674. By the late 17th century, High Street had become known as the "English Quarter" after many British merchants moved to the area, attracted by its proximity to the Coenties Slip fish market and Old Slip meat market. Artisans, merchants, and printer William Bradford were recorded as residents in 1703. At least eight high-profile colonial families owned land in the surrounding area, and several Jewish families were also recorded as landowners. A gutter was added to Stone Street in 1704 to allow better drainage.
High Street was called Duke Street, for the Duke of York, during most of the 18th century. The street surface was graded in 1771. A census of residents in 1789 found that High Street was home to an attorney, rabbi, shopkeepers, maritime industry workers, and craftsmen. Following the American Revolutionary War, New Yorkers sought to change the names of locales and structures that reflected British rule. The section west of Broad Street was already known as Stone Street, but the city's common council approved extending the name to Duke Street as well. Subsequently, Duke Street was renamed Stone Street in 1794. The street was also widened during this time.
At the beginning of the 19th century, after Lower Manhattan was expanded via landfill, the area became increasingly commercial and many residences on and around Stone Street were subdivided. Some landowners also built vaults under Stone Street's sidewalk. In 1811, the common council approved petitions to widen Stone Street, and the street was expanded by about 4 feet (1.2 m) for \$150,000. By the 1820s, some structures on Stone Street were being built specifically for commercial use; these were likely made of brick with brownstone trimming. At the time, the street's sidewalk contained brownstone slabs and bluestone-tiled curbs. In addition, there were complaints the street was dirty, as the wooden sewers frequently needed to be replaced or fixed. A brick and stone sewer was authorized in 1830, and funds to build the new sewers and repave the street were issued in 1831.
### Great Fire and reconstruction
Most of the area's structures were damaged or destroyed on December 16, 1835, when the Great Fire of New York started at a nearby warehouse and spread through the neighborhood by high winds. The fire covered 13 acres (53,000 m<sup>2</sup>) and destroyed almost 700 buildings in the First Ward. Immediately after the fire, real estate prices in the neighborhood increased drastically, prompting the area's wealthy residents to sell off their land. Over 600 new buildings were built in the First Ward in 1836, including numerous four-story Greek Revival commercial buildings on Stone Street. The designs of Stone Street's Greek Revival buildings were devised by professional architects, who either sold the plans to builders or supervised the construction themselves. Specific architects and builders have not been identified for any particular structure.
Residents petitioned the city government to widen Stone Street in 1835, and the city started the project three years later. The work was completed at an unknown date, bringing the street's width to 35 feet (11 m). A layer of fill was added during this project, raising the level of Stone Street. The Italianate-style brownstone building at 1 Hanover Square, on the southern sidewalk of Stone Street at the street's eastern end, was completed in 1854 and was gradually expanded into three of the neighboring commercial buildings through the 1910s. Relatively few modifications were made to buildings on Stone Street during the late 19th century, and most of the street's commercial buildings were still four stories tall. During the 1890s, mid-rise buildings of six to eight stories were built or expanded at 22, 31–35, 40, and 54 Stone Street. Additionally, in March 1890, Stone Street was repaved in Belgian blocks.
### Early and mid-20th century
Among the major 19th-century landowners on Stone Street was Amos R. Eno, who acquired several structures on and near Stone Street between 1842 and his 1898 death. Amos R. Eno's son, Amos F. Eno, hired C. P. H. Gilbert in 1903 to remodel the building at 57 Stone Street in the Dutch Colonial Revival style and, in 1908, rehired Gilbert for a similar renovation at 55 Stone Street. Between these two renovations merchant Henry Schaefer hired Edward L. Tilton to redesign 53 Stone Street in the same style. Other major structures in the area included an 18-story building at 24–26 Stone Street, built around 1905. as well as an 11-story building at 1 William Street, completed in 1907.
Following World War I, numerous mid-rise buildings were built on Stone Street, some of which were erected by marine insurance companies. Underwriting firm Chubb & Son hired Arthur C. Jackson in 1919 to design a neo-Renaissance facade for the existing structure at 54 Stone Street. A group of eight-story buildings at 25, 27–29, and 39–43 Stone Street were built from 1918 to 1921. William H. McGee & Company hired William Neil Smith to design a neo-Gothic office building at 59–61 Stone Street and a private club called the Block Hall at 45–47 Stone Street. A five-story warehouse at 42 Stone Street, one of the area's oldest buildings, burned down in 1924 and was replaced with a six-story building in 1930. In subsequent years, most structures on Stone Street remained relatively unchanged. According to pictures taken in 1940, some structures had received minor modifications to their exteriors.
In the late 1950s and early 1960s, two skyscrapers were completed at the western end of Stone Street, although neither structure had its main address on the street. The 32-story structure at 2 Broadway was completed in 1959 at the northeastern corner of Stone and Whitehall Streets, while the 23-story structure at 1 Whitehall Street was completed in 1962 at the southeastern corner of the same intersection. Financial firm Lehman Brothers purchased the site bounded by Broad, South William, and Pearl Streets and Coenties Alley during the late 1960s. The firm wanted to close Stone Street to make way for a 38-story headquarters. The site was cleared, but amid a poor real estate market, the building plan was scrapped in 1970 and the vacant lot became parking space. In subsequent years, the vacant block of Stone Street had become neglected and was accumulating trash.
### Splitting and restoration
Archeologists started excavating the vacant Lehman site, the Stadt Huys Block, in 1979 after development resumed on the site. The following year, the site's owner Galbreath-Ruffin started developing the 30-story tower at 85 Broad Street. To make way for the skyscraper, the block of Stone Street from Broad Street to Coenties Alley was closed in 1980 and subsequently removed. Following pressure from the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) and New York City Planning Commission (CPC), the building's footprint was relocated to preserve Stone Street's path. That structure was completed in 1983. Some structures were also demolished or reduced in size during this time.
By the 1990s, Stone Street was rundown, and developer Tony Goldman had bought several buildings on the street, intending to restore the street's character. In 1996, the LPC designated the eastern portion of the street and the surrounding buildings as the Stone Street Historic District. The historic district was also added to the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) in 1999. The LPC, city agencies, and Downtown Alliance collectively contributed \$1.8 million toward the renovation of Stone Street, while the street's property owners donated \$170,000 for the restoration of basement vaults beneath the sidewalk. Old-style lampposts and about 23,000 cobblestones were installed to change the street's character to attract commercial investment. The work was completed in 2000, and the eastern section of Stone Street became a busy restaurant district during the following decade.
## Architecture
### Stone Street Historic District
The Stone Street Historic District is both a city-designated and NRHP district, covering two city blocks adjacent to Stone Street. The city and NRHP districts carry the same boundaries, running from Coenties Alley to Mill Lane on the northern sidewalk and from Coenties Alley to Hanover Square on the southern sidewalk. The historic district largely contains several restaurants and bars. The Stone Street Historic District contains one of three large groupings of 1830s-era Greek Revival structures in Lower Manhattan, the others being the Fraunces Tavern and South Street Seaport historic districts.
The district's Greek Revival buildings are 20 to 30 feet (6.1 to 9.1 m) wide by 70 to 80 feet (21 to 24 m) deep, These occupy their full land lots, which are irregularly shaped because of the curved path of Stone Street, and contain a secondary address on South William Street in the north or Pearl Street to the south. Architecturally, the ground-level storefronts of these structures contain smooth granite piers in a trabeated configuration. The storefront openings are typically reached by two or three granite steps leading from the street; outside the storefronts, there are also iron hatches leading to the buildings' basements. The upper stories were clad in brick and had sash windows, brick cornices, and sloped roofs. Party walls, which protrude slightly above the roofs, divide each neighboring building. Some buildings have minor additional decorative features, such as the granite piers and lintels at 51–55 Stone Street.
Several commercial buildings were subsequently remodeled in various styles. The seven-story building at 59–61 Stone Street (also respectively 9–11 South William Street) contains a neo-Gothic facade with a mansard roof. The four-story neo-Dutch Renaissance facades at 57 Stone Street and 13 South William Street contain stepped gables, a limestone base, and a honey-colored brick cladding on its upper stories. The structures at 53–55 Stone Street resemble the other Greek Revival structures on their Stone Street facades but have neo-Dutch Renaissance facades along the opposite end at 17–19 South William Street. The Block Hall at 45–47 Stone Street, built in 1928 as a private clubhouse, has a dark brick facade of seven stories on Stone Street and four-and-a-half on South William Street. The loft building on 54 Stone Street was remodeled with neo-Renaissance detail on its seven-story facade at Pearl Street, though the six-story Stone Street facade retains Greek Revival detail. At the eastern end of Stone Street is 1 Hanover Square, which occupies the southern sidewalk at 60–66 Stone Street. It consists of a brownstone building on Hanover Square and three Greek Revival commercial lofts. 1 Hanover Square, the onetime headquarters of the New York Cotton Exchange serves as the headquarters of the India House club and contains restaurant and bar space. It is the last of the Italianate commercial structures that once were common in Lower Manhattan. 1 Hanover Square is also an individual city landmark and a National Historic Landmark.
### Other structures
1 William Street, on the northern sidewalk at 63–67 Stone Street opposite 1 Hanover Square, is an individual city landmark. Built in 1907 for J. & W. Seligman, it was subsequently occupied by Lehman Brothers and Banca Commerciale Italiana. The building is an individual landmark, but excluded from the Stone Street Historic District.
The site between Broad Street and Coenties Alley is occupied by 85 Broad Street, a skyscraper completed in 1983. The structure was designed by Skidmore, Owings & Merrill (SOM) and is 32 stories tall.
## See also
- List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan below 14th Street
- National Register of Historic Places listings in Manhattan below 14th Street
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