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6,386,084	Vox Continental	1,151,538,380	Portable electronic organ	[ "Electronic organs", "Instruments of musicians", "Musical instruments invented in the 1960s" ]	The Vox Continental is a transistorised combo organ that was manufactured between 1962 and 1971 by the British musical equipment manufacturer Vox. It was designed for touring musicians and as an alternative to the heavy Hammond organ. It supports drawbars in a similar manner to the Hammond, and has distinctive reverse-coloured keys. The sound is generated by a series of oscillators, using a frequency divider to span multiple octaves. The first Continentals were produced at Vox's manufacturing plant in Dartford, England; after arranging a deal with the Thomas Organ Company, later models were produced in the US and Italy. The most popular model was the single-manual Continental, but other models were produced, such as the budget Vox Jaguar, various dual-manual organs, and the experimental Guitar Organ and Voxmobile, based on the Vox Continental's internals. The Continental became a popular instrument in the 1960s and 1970s, especially with garage and later new wave bands, and was used by the Beatles, the Animals, the Doors, Iron Butterfly, Elvis Costello, and Madness. After being phased out of production in the early 1970s, the instrument remained a sought-after combo organ by enthusiasts. Japanese manufacturer Korg bought the Vox name, producing a new version of the Vox Continental in 2017, and various modern stage keyboards include an emulation of the organ. ## Description The Continental had two basic designs, each with its own variations. They were the single-manual Continental, and the dual manual model called the Vox Continental II in England and the Vox Super Continental in Italy. Each manual features 49 reverse-colored keys (black naturals and white sharps) similar to a harpsichord. The organ comes with a chrome Z-shaped bolt-on leg stand assembly. The top of the organ is furnished with an orange Rexine cover. The Vox Continental uses six slider-type, metered volume controls called drawbars instead of the stop-tab rocker switches seen on other combo organs. Two of the drawbars on the right hand side control the voices (flute and reed tones), while the four on the left control the footages (corresponding to ranks of pipes on a pipe organ). The stock Continental has 16', 8' and 4' drawbars, with a fourth one labelled "IV" containing a mixture of higher pitches. There is a single-speed, single intensity vibrato whose rate can only be adjusted by removing the lid of the instrument and adjusting a potentiometer. The Continental has no other internal effects. A bass pedalboard was available as an optional extra. Dual-manual models also have a 5 1/3' drawbar on the upper manual, an octave of bass keys and a string bass feature. Later models also supported a percussion feature similar to that on a Hammond. The organ's sound comes from twelve oscillators, one for each note in the chromatic scale along the top octave of the instrument. The signal from each of these is fed into a frequency divider circuit that allows the frequency to be halved, in order to produce the sound an octave lower. This is then halved again for the subsequent octave, and so on down the rest of the instrument's range, except for the lowest note, C, which has a dedicated generator. Each key is connected to four contacts connected to ground; when a key is pressed, it makes a connection to the bus bar which sends a signal to the drawbars to produce a sound. The first Continentals were manufactured with wooden keys covered with plastic key caps. Musicians complained this gave it an unpleasant playing action. Later models switched to using plastic keys connected to metal shafts. ## History The Vox Continental was first manufactured by the Jennings Musical Instruments factory in Dartford, Kent in 1962. Most of the components for the organ were subcontracted to other companies, with Jennings working on the final assembly. The original cabinets were constructed by Heathpoint Timer in Rayleigh, Essex while some of the electrics were made by Kimber-Allen in Swanley, Kent. Jennings sold part of the company to the Royston Group in 1963. Production later moved to Vox Sound in Erith, Kent. The dual-manual Continental II was introduced in 1965. That same year, the single-manual model sold for \$995 (\$ in ). The Vox Jaguar was introduced as a budget version of the Continental the following year, retailing at \$495 (\$ in ), which used rocker tabs instead of drawbars. Only fundamental frequencies could be produced on the Jaguar, as it lacked the circuitry to generate additional harmonics like the Continental. The tabs allowed a choice of "flute", "bright", "brass" and "mellow", a "bass chords" option and the vibrato as found on the Continental. The bottom octave could be switched to a monophonic sub-octave bass generator, which was routed to a separate audio jack. Though the Jaguar superficially resembled the Continental, the sound was significantly different. However it was still popular, particularly in the US. The Jaguar was also sold in DIY kit form, allowing musicians to save money by finishing certain aspects of the assembly on their own. The Continental quickly became popular as it was advertised as part of the British Invasion of the mid-1960s, particularly after being endorsed by the Beatles. In order to increase supply, a licensing deal was signed between Jennings and the Thomas Organ Company in the US in 1966. Later that year, production for the US market was moved to EME in Italy for economic reasons; Thomas held a 30% stake in the EME factory, with Jennings and Royston holding 22%. The Italian Continentals used cheaper plastic keys glued to metal shafts, that were easier to break. There were also some minor cosmetic differences compared to older models, including a different vinyl covering, colours on the drawbar tips and construction of the stand. By 1969, the price of the Continental had dropped to \$599 (\$ as of ). In 1966, Vox produced the Guitar Organ, which put the internals of a Vox Continental in a Vox Phantom guitar body, and used a series of contacts along the frets so that a note would sound when a string was depressed onto a fret. John Lennon was given a sample instrument in the hope he would promote it, but it was never recorded and the instrument never entered full production. In 1967, Thomas manufactured the Voxmobile as a promotional instrument, designed by custom car designer George Barris. It combined a dual-manual Vox Continental with two oversized Vox basses, which were mounted onto a 289 cc Ford Cobra engine. The Continental Baroque was introduced in 1968, which combined the usual Continental manual with a multi-timbral one similar to that on other Thomas organs, and included a built-in amplifier. It sold for \$1,598 (\$ as of ), significantly more than the Super Continental. The additional sounds included banjo, harpsichord and celeste. It was considered unreliable and expensive, and did not sell well. Jennings struggled to retain control of Vox, and chief designer Dick Denney was fired on 19 September 1967, with employees loyal to him leaving shortly afterwards. Royston filed for bankruptcy two years later. The company was bought by Corinthian Securities who attempted to reintroduce a range of Vox Continentals, with the price of the Super Continental reduced from \$999 (\$ as of ) to \$265 (\$ as of ). By then, groups were preferring to use a Hammond organ and Leslie speaker instead of a Vox. Most of the remaining assets were sold at a liquidation sale in 1971. There are no definitive figures for how many Vox Continentals were manufactured. However, estimates based on serial numbers indicate 9,100 single-manual organs were manufactured. Around 4,100 of these come from the UK, followed by 4,000 from Italy and 1,000 in the US. The Vox name was later sold to Rose Morris, who in turn sold it to Korg in 1992. Since then new products carrying the trademark Vox have been primarily for the guitar player, and the Korg trademark appears on most keyboards. In September 2017, Korg released a workstation-style keyboard named in honour of the Vox Continental and highlighting the particular Continental organ sound, competing with contemporary keyboards such as the Nord Electro. The original Vox Continental is still used by collectors of vintage instruments. ## Maintenance The Vox Continental used relatively unstable germanium transistors in its oscillators, which can occasionally drift in pitch and required to be re-tuned. The wooden keys on earlier models are more durable than later plastic ones. The organ is connected to the mains via a round three pin Bulgin connector, which was standard for the time but is no longer in general use because it does not meet modern safety standards. Some technicians have retrofitted the power supply on a Continental to take a standard IEC 60320 C14 "kettle plug" lead. The later US and Italian Continentals have a hinged lid, which allows servicing without having to dismantle the instrument. Because the Continental was designed to be played in concert and used in touring, there are relatively few of them in good condition unless they have been repaired. Several surviving models are missing the original case carrying the stand and volume pedal. ## Clones Several modern keyboards feature emulation of the Vox Continental, including the Nord Stage and Nord C Series, and the Hammond SK series. There are also some software emulations of the instrument, including the Arturia Vox Continental V, a Virtual Studio Technology plugin that uses modelling to accurately recreate the electronics of the original. ## Notable users The instrument was commonly heard in 1960s rock music, and played by the Beatles' John Lennon, the Dave Clark Five's Mike Smith and the Animals' Alan Price. Lennon played the Continental on Rubber Soul's "Think for Yourself", and regularly used it on "I'm Down" as a live set closer, such as their 1965 concert at Shea Stadium. In 2008, this model was sold at auction for \$182,500. Price used it prominently on the Animals' hit arrangement of "The House of the Rising Sun". The Doors' Ray Manzarek played a Vox in combination with a Rhodes Piano Bass early in the group's career, including "Light My Fire". Paul Revere Dick of Paul Revere & the Raiders switched from a Farfisa organ to a Vox, and became endorsed by the company. Other hit singles released in the 1960s and featuring the Vox Continental include the Monkees' "I'm a Believer", Van Morrison's "Brown Eyed Girl", ? and the Mysterians' "96 Tears" and Iron Butterfly's "In-A-Gadda-Da-Vida". Augie Meyers' use of the instrument drove the Sir Douglas Quintet's instantly distinguishable sound. The Grateful Dead's Pigpen switched from the Farfisa to the Continental, before moving on to a Hammond. Tom Constanten also played a Vox Continental during his tenure in the Dead, but did not like playing it and switched to a Hammond as well. Yes' Tony Kaye played a Vox Continental when the group formed in 1968, and disguised it in a Hammond organ style casing on stage, before upgrading to a real one six months later. The Vox Continental was revived during the punk and new wave movements in the late 1970s. It was used by Steve Nieve, keyboard player for Elvis Costello & The Attractions, particularly in the early years up to This Year's Model. It was also used by several 2-Tone groups, including the Specials' Jerry Dammers and Madness' Mike Barson. Benmont Tench of Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers has also frequently used a Vox Continental, and sometimes prefers its "drier, thinner, more cutting sound". On "Don't Do Me Like That", he played one through a Leslie speaker. In the 21st century, the organist Rhys Webb, of the UK band the Horrors can be seen using the Continental.
6,064,795	Straight Outta Lynwood	1,166,052,521	null	[ "\"Weird Al\" Yankovic albums", "2006 albums", "Volcano Entertainment albums" ]	Straight Outta Lynwood is the twelfth studio album by "Weird Al" Yankovic, released on September 26, 2006, the title drawing inspiration from hip hop group N.W.A's Straight Outta Compton. It was the sixth studio album self-produced by Yankovic. The musical styles on the album are built around parodies and pastiches of pop and rock music of the mid-2000s. The album's lead single, "White & Nerdy", is a parody of Chamillionaire's hit single "Ridin'". The single debuted at \#28 on the Billboard Hot 100 and peaked at \#9 the following week; "Canadian Idiot", a parody of Green Day's "American Idiot", also charted, peaking at \#82. The album contains three further parodies, based on "Confessions Part II" by Usher, "Do I Make You Proud" by Taylor Hicks, and Trapped in the Closet by R. Kelly. The other half of the album is original material, containing many "style parodies"—musical imitations of existing artists, such as Brian Wilson, Rage Against the Machine, Sparks, animated musical specials, Cake, and 1980s charity songs. Originally, there were plans for the album's lead single to have been a spoof of James Blunt's hit "You're Beautiful" entitled "You're Pitiful", but Blunt's record label, Atlantic, blocked the commercial release of the parody in spite of Blunt's initial approval. In 2006, the album was released as both a digital download and as a DualDisc (a double-sided optical disc that contained a CD on one side and a DVD on the other) containing both the album and animated music videos for a number of the album's songs. Straight Outta Lynwood was met with mostly positive reviews: Many critics applauded "White & Nerdy" and "Trapped in the Drive-Thru", while some of the other parody songs were met with a more muted response. The album peaked at number 10 on the Billboard 200. "White & Nerdy" became Yankovic's highest-charting single as well as his first Platinum-certified single. The record itself was certified Gold for shipments of over 500,000 copies. ## Production ### Originals On July 5, 2005, recording for Straight Outta Lynwood officially began. By late 2005, six originals—"Pancreas", "Close but No Cigar", "Virus Alert", "Don't Download This Song", "I'll Sue Ya", and "Weasel Stomping Day"—had been recorded. "Weasel Stomping Day" describes, in the style of animated musical specials of the 1960s, a supposedly traditional holiday in which participants don Viking helmets, spread mayonnaise on their lawns, and "snap [the titular animals'] weasely spines in half." "I'll Sue Ya" is a Rage Against the Machine style parody, satirizing frivolous litigation. Yankovic chose to juxtapose the style of Rage Against the Machine with lyrics about lawsuits because he felt that humor could be derived by pairing the anger of the band's music with a topic so vacuous. "Don't Download This Song", a style parody of 1980s charity songs, such as "We are the World", "Hands Across America", and "Do They Know It's Christmas?", "describes the perils of online music file-sharing". According to Yankovic himself, the song takes a moderate approach to the peer-to-peer music download situation, arguing that both sides—people trying to illegally download music and the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA)—can act hypocritically depending on the situation. "Virus Alert" is a style parody of Sparks, specifically their work in the mid-1970s, such as their album Kimono My House (1974). It details "the evil that lurks in your email inbox." "Close but No Cigar" is a style parody of Cake that tells the story of a man who breaks up with his seemingly perfect girlfriends due to the most inconsequential of flaws. The track was inspired by an actual friend of Yankovic's who was never satisfied with any of his dates; Yankovic later explained that "the song was inspired by [the] attitude, that nothing could ever be good enough." The final original recorded, "Pancreas", is a song mainly about the biological functions of the aforementioned organ. The song is an imitation of the musical stylings of Brian Wilson, specifically his work found on the 1966 album Pet Sounds, released by the Beach Boys, and their aborted follow-up album, Smile which Brian Wilson had finally released as a solo record in 2004. Yankovic joked that the reason the song was written was because "my pancreas has given so much to me over the years, I felt like I needed to give something back to it". ### Parodies and polka On February 19, 2006, Yankovic began working on the album's parodies. During these sessions, three parodies were recorded; the first of these, "Canadian Idiot", is a play on "American Idiot" by Green Day. It is a satirical commentary on American nationalism and the stereotypical American view of Canadians. The song is ironic, and Yankovic has stated that the song's anger is a joke and that he loves Canada. Next, Yankovic began working on "Trapped in the Drive-Thru", a parody of R. Kelly's Trapped in the Closet. Yankovic was inspired to pen the spoof after hearing the "brilliant and wonderful and ridiculous" original. Efforts to make the parody more convoluted than the original were first considered but then abandoned by Yankovic; he eventually reasoned, however, that he could make his version "a little more stupid". Thus, the song is an excruciatingly detailed narrative about a couple going to a drive-thru, which was "the most banal thing [Yankovic] could think of at the time." Because the song was three times the length of a normal song, legally, Yankovic would have been required to pay thrice the statutory rate for royalties. This in turn would have forced Yankovic to remove one of his parodies from the album. However, R. Kelly allowed Yankovic to only pay the royalty rate for one song. To round out the first session, Yankovic recorded "Confessions Part III", a play on "Confessions Part II" by Usher. The song purports to be a continuation of the Usher songs "Confessions" and "Confessions Part II", focusing on trivial, silly, strange, and disturbing confessions; Yankovic explained that, "After hearing Usher do [the original songs], I couldn't help but think that maybe he'd left a few things out, that there were a few confessions he had yet to make." After being denied permission to include "You're Pitiful" on the album, Yankovic wrote "Do I Creep You Out" and "White & Nerdy" to take its place, recording both on July 22, 2006. The first of these is a play on "Do I Make You Proud" by Taylor Hicks, in which a singer addresses the object of his affection and stalking; the song was also Yankovic's jab at American Idol, a musical competition show that Hicks had won in May 2006. The final parody written and recorded for the album was "White & Nerdy", a parody of "Ridin'" by Chamillionaire featuring Krayzie Bone. The song describes the life of a white nerd whose wish to "roll with the gangstas" is impeded by his stereotypically white and nerdy behavior; the song is also filled with references to nerd culture. Yankovic later joked that it was a song he "was born to write" due to his association with nerd humor. While Yankovic usually records his songs together with his band, the backing tracks for "White & Nerdy" were completely recorded by guitarist Jim West—who handled the synthesizer production—and Jon "Bermuda" Schwartz—who was tasked with recording the drums. The two musicians recorded their specific tracks at their home studios, and the finished audio tracks were then brought to Westlake Studio in Los Angeles, California, where Yankovic added his vocals. Chamillionaire himself put "White & Nerdy" on his official MySpace page and said that he enjoys the parody. In an interview, he also stated he was pleasantly surprised by Yankovic's rapping ability, saying: "He's actually rapping pretty good on it, it's crazy ... I didn't know he could rap like that." "Polkarama!", a medley of popular hit songs set to a polka beat, was recorded during the second parody session. Yankovic explained that, "if there's a song that I think is really ripe for parody but I just can't think of a clever enough idea, sometimes it'll end up in the polka medley." Regarding their popularity, Yankovic has said, "At this point, it's sort of mandatory for me to do a polka medley. Fans would be rioting in the streets, I think, if I didn't do a polka medley." ### "You're Pitiful" controversy Yankovic had originally wanted to record a parody of James Blunt's hit "You're Beautiful" and release it as the lead single for the album. The parodist had approached Blunt about the spoof, and the singer approved his idea. Yankovic then went into the recording studio on April 12, 2006, and recorded his version, entitled "You're Pitiful". However, Blunt's record company, Atlantic Records, told Yankovic that he could not include the song on his album. Yankovic eventually learned that Atlantic felt "it was 'too early' in James' career for a parody, and that they were afraid that focusing any more attention on 'Beautiful' at that point might lead to the perception of James as a 'one-hit wonder.'" The record company initially stated that they would permit Yankovic to release the parody at a later time. Later, Yankovic discovered that they had different intentions. Since Blunt himself was fine with the parody, Yankovic decided to release "You're Pitiful" as a free digital download on his website, noting that, "if James Blunt himself were objecting I wouldn't even offer my parody for free on my Web site. But since it's a bunch of suits—who are actually going against their own artist's wishes—I have absolutely no problem with it." ### Unused ideas Yankovic had wanted to record a parody of Daniel Powter's "Bad Day" for the album entitled "You Had a Bad Date", but Powter initially refused. Powter then changed his mind "literally the day before [Yankovic] went into the studio to record 'White & Nerdy'", at which point, according to Yankovic, "the train had left the station". T-Pain had also given Yankovic permission to record a parody of "I'm N Luv (Wit A Stripper)" called "I'm in Luv Wit Da Skipper", referencing the character from the 1960s sitcom Gilligan's Island. Yankovic later decided not to record the song, but T-Pain was still thanked in the album's liner notes, and Yankovic still performed the song in the parody medley during his Straight Outta Lynwood Tour. Besides his "Bad Day" and "I'm N Luv (Wit A Stripper)" parodies, Yankovic also claimed to have several "mediocre" ideas such as "Holodeck Girl" (a spoof of "Hollaback Girl" by Gwen Stefani), "IRS" (a play on "S.O.S." by Rihanna), and "HairyBack" (a parody of "SexyBack" by Justin Timberlake). In addition, Nickelback had originally given Yankovic permission to use their song "Photograph" in "Polkarama"; however, Yankovic was unable "to find a way to incorporate the song into ["Polkarama"] where it didn't sound wedged in or tacked on", and he decided not to use it. Yankovic nonetheless thanked Nickelback in the liner notes to Straight Outta Lynwood. ## Title and artwork The title is a takeoff on Straight Outta Compton, an album by N.W.A. Lynwood, California, Yankovic's home town, is a neighboring community to Compton, California. The cover art, inspired by "gangsta imagery", depicts Yankovic, wearing a Lynwood, California, letterman's jacket and holding a pit bull on a leash, in front of a 1967 Chevrolet Impala Convertible Lowrider. All of the images from the album were photographed by Michael Blackwell on April 22, 2006. Blackwell is an Atlanta, Georgia-based photographer who has also taken images of notable hip hop stars as T.I., Lil' Scrappy, and Young Jeezy. The cover features a pit bull named Dough Boy, owned by a local couple that was walking by during the photo shoot. Yankovic had always planned for this album to be titled Straight Outta Lynwood, even when the lead single was going to be "You're Pitiful"; Yankovic had liked the ironic juxtaposition of having a gangsta rap-inspired album cover and title, with "such a toothless ballad for the lead parody". However, the cover ended up being unintentionally appropriate when "White & Nerdy" became the lead track on the album. The numbers and letters on the album cover each have double meanings: "NLY" are the initials of both Yankovic's daughter and his father. The number "27" is an in-joke with Yankovic's fans, but February 7 was also his mother's birthday. The license plate originally read "27 4LIFE" during the photo shoot. The photo featured on the back of the CD case was Yankovic's initial pick to be the album's cover, before the current image was selected. ## Visuals While Yankovic's previous albums usually generated only one or two official music videos, Straight Outta Lynwood spawned nine, and the DualDisc release of the album included videos for all six original songs. Yankovic's record label had suggested he release a DualDisc, and he was in favor of the idea once he realized that he could hire animators to create videos for the original songs to make the release more rewarding for fans who purchased it. At first, Yankovic was unsure whom he would be able to hire, because of the budget, but to his surprise, many notable artists signed on. Bill Plympton created a hand-drawn video for "Don't Download This Song", which preceded the release of the album, and Thomas Lee, best known for his Flash music video "Star Wars Gangsta Rap", animated a video for "I'll Sue Ya". A music video for "Virus Alert" was helmed by David Lovelace (creator of the online animated series "Retarded Animal Babies"); Yankovic admitted to exercising more creative control over this video than the others present on the DVD, citing concern with Lovelace's previous content. John Kricfalusi and Katie Rice animated a video for "Close but No Cigar". Yankovic had long been a fan of Kricfalusi, who is perhaps best known as the creator of the cartoon series Ren & Stimpy. The video "takes an irreverent look at the world of dating as seen thru [sic] the eyes of Cigarettes the cat." Jim Blashfield created a video for "Pancreas" using stock footage from the Prelinger Archives. Finally, Shadowmachine Films released a stop-motion video for "Weasel Stomping Day" that aired on September 24, 2006 as part of "The Munnery", the show's 32nd episode of the Adult Swim TV show Robot Chicken. Subsequent videos were also made for three of the album's parodies. On August 15, 2006, Yankovic announced that he planned to shoot a music video for "White & Nerdy" in the Los Angeles area on August 21, 24, 25, and 27. He posted a solicitation for volunteers to appear in the video on his MySpace blog. The video was filmed in high definition. Originally, it was going to be released on September 18 at 9 PM Pacific Time on AOL.com, but, since the video had been leaked, AOL cancelled the premiere event and uploaded the video early. Soon thereafter, VH1 began airing the video in "large rotation", meaning it was shown roughly 20 times a day. Near the end of 2006, animators at JibJab made a video for "Do I Creep You Out", and Doug Bresler released a video for "Trapped in the Drive Thru" in 2007. In regards to the latter, Bresler's original cut of the video modelled the male in the song after Yankovic. Yankovic later asked that Bresler give the character a more neutral look, noting that if a live action video had been made, he "would almost certainly be playing a character [in the video, and] not 'Weird Al'". Bresler complied, and gave the character a more generic hairstyle. MuchMusic, a 24-hour Canadian cable music and variety television channel, ran a fan-made "Canadian Idiot" video contest on their website, but it was later scrapped due to lack of entries. ## Promotion Following the release of Straight Outta Lynwood, Yankovic undertook the two-year-long Straight Outta Lynwood Tour. Starting on March 10, 2007 and concluding on August 28, 2008, Yankovic played 163 shows across the United States. To promote the album, a promotional website was launched for the single "Don't Download This Song", "dontdownloadthissong.com". The site allowed a user to launch an e-card that included a download and stream of the song, as well as options to email the card to friends. ## Critical reception Chris Carle of IGN awarded the album an 8 out of 10, denoting a "great" release. He called it "another solid record to add to the collection; just the right nostalgic blend of parodies, gross-out songs and polka." Specifically, he selected "White & Nerdy", "Polkarama!", and "Weasel Stomping Day" as the album's stand-out tracks, but felt that original songs like "Pancreas" and "I'll Sue Ya" were either not funny or "late to the party". David Jeffries of AllMusic awarded the record three-and-a-half stars out of five and called it "inspired". He highlighted "White & Nerdy" as a choice single, calling it a "reason to celebrate [Yankovic's] return". Jeffries applauded "Canadian Idiot" and "Trapped in the Drive-Thru", calling both funny, and he also noted that the originals from the album were humorous as well. However, he felt that the Usher and Taylor Hicks parodies were "only mildly humorous" and that some of the original songs "really drag" when compared to the others. Gavin Edwards of Rolling Stone awarded the album three out of five stars and highlighted "Trapped in the Drive-Thru" as the album's best song, writing, "'Weird Al' is funniest when he's singing about food." Al Shipley of Stylus gave the album a "B−" and felt that, while "White & Nerdy" was a solid parody, the other spoofs on the album were not quite up to par. He praised "Pancreas" and "Virus Alert" as the album's best style parodies, comparing the latter to the 1985 single "Dare to Be Stupid", while criticizing "I'll Sue Ya", "Close but No Cigar", and "Don't Download This Song". Shipley concluded that the most hilarious moment on the album was Yankovic singing the lyrics to "Candy Shop" by 50 Cent over a polka beat in "Polkarama!" Scott Shetler of Slant Magazine awarded the album three stars out of five. He felt that in the 2000s, Yankovic's work had gradually declined in quality, but that Straight Outta Lynwood displayed "occasional flashes of genius", such as "White & Nerdy", which he praised for Yankovic's rapping ability. Shetler also felt that "Trapped in the Drive-Thru", was impressive, although he noted it was not as spectacular as it could have been. Once again, "Confessions, Pt. III" and "Do I Creep You Out" were described as "throwaways". However, Shetler wrote that "for once, Yankovic's originals are better than his parodies", highlighting "Pancreas", "I'll Sue Ya", and "Don't Download This Song" as the best songs on the album. ### Accolades Straight Outta Lynwood was nominated for two Grammy Awards in the categories for "Best Comedy Album" and "Best Surround Sound Album". Rolling Stone later named "Trapped in the Drive Thru" as one of the 100 Greatest Songs of 2006, ranking it at 77th, while Blender ranked "White & Nerdy" at number 76 on their Top 100 Songs of 2006. ## Commercial performance Straight Outta Lynwood was released on September 26, 2006. On April 4, 2007, the album was certified gold for shipments exceeding 500,000 copies. The album's lead-off single, "White & Nerdy", was a hit on the Billboard Hot 100, charting at number 9. This made it his highest-charting single, surpassing "Eat It", which had peaked at number 12 in 1984. It also marked the first time that Yankovic had ever cracked the top ten of the Billboard Hot 100. "Canadian Idiot" also charted on the Hot 100, peaking at number 82. On June 15, 2007, "White & Nerdy" was certified gold—his first gold single since "Eat It" in 1984—and on January 31, 2008, the single was certified platinum for selling over 1,000,000 copies, making this the first time that Yankovic had ever achieved this level of certification. In addition, the ringtone for "White & Nerdy" was certified gold. Internationally, the album charted at number 27 on the Australian Albums Chart. "White & Nerdy" also peaked at number 14 on the Swedish singles chart, and number 80 on the UK Singles Chart. In late 2013, Yankovic sued his label, Volcano, and its parent company Sony Music Entertainment, for unpaid publishing royalties from several of his albums, as well as for his track "White & Nerdy". Yankovic claimed thatdespite the song's viral successhe never earned royalties from the single. The initial lawsuit was for \$5 million; Yankovic won the lawsuit and was awarded an undisclosed sum of money from Sony. ## Track listing ## Personnel Credits adapted from CD liner notes, except where noted. Band members - "Weird Al" Yankovic – lead vocals (tracks 1–12), background vocals (tracks 1–11), piano (track 2), harpsichord (track 2), vibraphone (track 2), tannerin (track 2), accordion (tracks 2, 5), harmonica (track 2), bass harmonica (track 2), toy piano (track 2), finger snaps (tracks 2, 5), hand claps (tracks 2, 5, 9, 12), keyboards (tracks 4, 6, 11), bulb horn (track 5), ratchet (track 5), group vocals (track 5), vibraslap (track 9), choir vocals (track 12) - Jim West – keyboard programming (track 1), acoustic guitar (track 2), banjo (tracks 2, 5), ukulele (track 2), finger snaps (tracks 2, 5), hand claps (tracks 2, 5, 9, 12), electric guitar (tracks 3–4, 6–7, 9–12), group vocals (track 5), chorus vocals (track 9), choir vocals (track 12) - Jon "Bermuda" Schwartz – drum programming (tracks 1, 7, 11), drums (tracks 2–6, 8–10, 12), sleigh bells (track 2), tympani (tracks 2, 8), tambourine (tracks 2, 5–6, 9–10, 12), wood blocks (tracks 2, 5, 8), shaker (track 2), jaw harp (tracks 2, 5), siren whistle (tracks 2, 5), slide whistle (track 2, 5), claves (track 2), cabasa (track 2), bicycle bell (track 2), finger snaps (track 2, 5), hand claps (track 2, 5, 9, 12), flexitone (track 5), bird call (track 5), duck call (track 5), group vocals (track 5), whistle (track 6), maracas (track 9), cowbell (track 9), hi-hat sequencing (track 9), chorus vocals (track 9), Simmons drums (track 12), bar chimes (track 12) - Steve Jay – bass guitar (tracks 2–6, 9–10, 12), banjo (track 2), flute (track 2), finger snaps (track 2, 5), hand claps (track 2, 5, 9, 12), bass vocals (tracks 5, 8), group vocals (track 5), synth bass (tracks 7, 11), choir vocals (track 12) Additional musicians - Miles Jay – string bass (tracks 2, 8) - Sarah O'Brien – cello (track 2) - John Dickson – French horn (tracks 2, 12) - Lee Thornburg – trumpet (tracks 2, 6, 9, 12) - Nick Lane – trombone (tracks 2, 6, 8, 12) - Warren Luening – trumpet (track 5) - Joel Peskin – clarinet (track 5) - Tommy Johnson – tuba (track 5) - Kim Bullard – keyboards (tracks 7, 11–12) - Lisa Popeil – female vocals (track 8), background vocals (track 10), choir vocals (track 12) - Angie Jaree – female vocals (track 8), choir vocals (track 12) - Kim Erin – female vocals (track 8), choir vocals (track 12) - Monique Donnelly – female vocals (track 8), background vocals (track 10), choir vocals (track 12) - Suzanne Yankovic – weasel noises (track 8) - Nina Yankovic – weasel noises (track 8) - Bo Yankovic – weasel noises (track 8) - Rubén Valtierra – keyboards (track 10) - Scottie Haskell – background vocals (track 10) - David Joyce – choir vocals (track 12) - Randy Crenshaw – choir vocals (track 12) Technical - Al Yankovic – producer - Jim West – orchestral arrangement (track 8) - Tony Papa – engineer, mixing - Rafael Serrano – engineer - Jason Rankins – assistant engineer - Brian Warwick – assistant engineer - John Adams – assistant engineer - Phillip Ramos – assistant engineer - Bernie Grundman – mastering - Jeff Gilligan – art direction, design - Michael Blackwell – photography - Crystle Streets – styling - Cazzie Mayorga – hair stylist - Walter Barnett – set designer - Emily Harrell – producer (for STIR) ## Charts and certifications ### Charts ### Certifications ### Singles
70,171,166	CSS Pamlico	1,149,453,820	Steamer in the Confederate States Navy	[ "1856 ships", "Gunboats of the Confederate States Navy", "Maritime incidents in April 1862", "Scuttled vessels", "Ships built in New York City" ]	CSS Pamlico was a sidewheel steamer that served in the Confederate States Navy during the early stages of the American Civil War. Originally a passenger vessel on Lake Pontchartrain, she was purchased by Confederate authorities on July 10, 1861, and converted into a gunboat. She participated in two minor naval actions in the vicinities of Horn Island and Ship Island in December, before taking part in two more small battles defending the Pass Christian area in March and April 1862. In late April, Union Navy ships passed the defenses of New Orleans, Louisiana. After ferrying Confederate troops out of the city, Pamlico was burned by her crew on Lake Pontchartrain on April 25 to prevent capture. ## Service history ### Civilian service and conversion A sidewheel steamer, Pamlico was built in 1856 in New York City, and was based out of the New Orleans, Louisiana area. In early July 1861, she was advertised as making passenger trips between the Louisiana towns of Mandeville, Lewisburg, Madisonville, and Covington and the Lake Pontchartrain railhead of the Pontchartrain Railroad. At the outset of the American Civil War in 1861, the breakaway Confederate States of America was at a significant naval disadvantage to the United States of America. While the United States had a functioning navy, the Confederates had to essentially build one from scratch with limited infrastructure and manufacturing abilities. The Confederates began inspecting vessels to determine if they were suitable for acquisition and conversion into gunboats, and Pamlico was purchased on July 10, 1861 for that purpose. Along with Pamlico, the Lake Pontchartrain passenger vessels Arrow and A. G. Brown were seized as well, leading residents of areas on the lakeshore to complain that the Confederate government had taken their means of transportation and communication. A small vessel, Pamlico displaced 218 long tons (221 t). Her other dimensions are unknown. She was commissioned on September 2, and placed under the command of First Lieutenant William G. Dozier. On November 21, 1861, and February 27, 1862, she was reported to be armed with two cannons, but she was also reported to have been armed with three 8-inch (20 cm) smoothbore cannons and a 6.4-inch (16 cm) Brooke rifle; according to naval historian W. Craig Gaines this could represent the addition of two extra cannons rather than an inconsistency between sources. ### Military use Pamlico entered active service immediately after her commissioning, patrolling Mississippi Sound as far east as Horn Island. Together with the gunboat CSS Florida, Pamlico was involved in an attempt to board the steamer USS Montgomery, which was part of the Union blockade, on December 4. The plan was to disable Montgomery with long-range fire from the single rifled cannon each ship carried and then board her; Pamlico carried around 400 soldiers for the boarding. The commander of the Union vessel correctly guessed the Confederate intentions, and Montgomery escaped into the open ocean. Three days later, on a trip westwards from Horn Island, Pamlico spotted the blockading gunboats USS New London and USS De Soto near Mississippi City, Mississippi. The gunboat CSS Oregon, which was transporting powder mill equipment, was at Mississippi City, and together the two ships, under the overall command of Dozier, confronted the Union vessels. The Confederates fired at longer range with their two rifled guns while remaining in shallow waters that the blockading ships could not enter; New London and De Soto later withdrew after the Confederates ignored a challenge for closer combat. The Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships describes Pamlico's involvement in the two December clashes as ineffectual. After the December 7 engagement, Pamlico escorted Oregon to Lake Borgne; on December 20, both gunboats were part of an attempt to escort a blockade runner past the Union blockade that failed when they encountered Union blockaders near Ship Island. On March 25, 1862, Pamlico provided an escort for Oregon to the Pass Christian area. After dropping off supplies, Oregon continued east to scout in the Ship Island area, and encountered New London. Oregon returned to Pamlico, and the two ships advanced towards New London. The two sides fired at each other from a range of 2,000 yards (1,800 m). A round fired from one of Pamlico's 8-inch guns exploded prematurely, leading Dozier to no longer trust the ammunition he had for those guns. After a jammed shot disabled the Brooke rifle on Pamlico, the Confederate ships withdrew, with Pamlico heading to Fort Macomb for repairs to her gun deck and pilothouse. The fighting had lasted about two hours. On April 3, three Union vessels – New London, the steamer USS John P. Jackson, and the troop transport USS Henry Lewis – made an offensive against Pass Christian. Pamlico, Oregon, and the gunboat CSS Carondelet responded. Henry Lewis was temporarily forced to withdraw when she was hit by a Confederate shell, but after an hour of fighting, the Confederates withdrew; Oregon and Carondelet had suffered minor damage. After the Confederate withdrawal, the Union troops on Henry Lewis were able to land and take control of Pass Christian, including destroying a Confederate camp in the area. The three Confederate vessels took up positions on Lake Pontchartrain, where they guarded Chef Menteur Pass and the Rigolets. Some of Pamlico's sailors were taken on April 21 to help crew the ironclad CSS Louisiana. On April 24, Union ships passed the Confederate defenses at Fort Jackson and Fort St. Philip. They then passed further defenses at Chalmette the next day, rendering New Orleans essentially indefensible. Oregon was sunk as a blockship, but the wreck later prevented Pamlico, Arrow, Carondelet, and the gunboat CSS Bienville from escaping. The four Confederate vessels ferried Confederate troops from New Orleans across Lake Pontchartrain to Covington. Their cannons were removed and were sent to the defenses at Vicksburg, Mississippi. Pamlico was burned by her crew on Lake Pontchartrain to prevent capture, on April 25.
9,085,354	2007 Texas Longhorns football team	1,173,139,654	American college football season	[ "2007 Big 12 Conference football season", "2007 in sports in Texas", "Holiday Bowl champion seasons", "Texas Longhorns football seasons" ]	The 2007 Texas Longhorns football team (variously "Texas" or "UT" or the "Horns") represented the University of Texas at Austin in the 2007 NCAA Division I FBS football season. The team was coached by Mack Brown. The Longhorns played their home games in Darrell K Royal–Texas Memorial Stadium (DKR). The Longhorns entered the 2007 season ranked third on all-time college football lists in both total wins and winning percentage. A pre-season ranking by ESPN writer Mark Schlabach had the Longhorns ranked eighth, while College Football News ranked Texas third. The Longhorns came into the season ranked fourth in both the Coaches Poll and AP Poll. During the preceding summer five players had been disciplined for legal infractions, another suspended for NCAA rule violations, and a coach had undergone surgery for cancer. Additional players were suspended during the season. The Longhorns played games against two opponents they had never faced previously: Arkansas State University and the University of Central Florida (UCF). The Longhorns narrowly achieved a victory in their home opener with Arkansas State, and in their first road game of the season, Texas was the inaugural opponent for the UCF Knights in their new stadium. In preseason speculation, games against Texas Christian University (TCU) and Oklahoma (OU) were considered among the top 20 games to watch during the 2007 college football season. The Longhorns lost conference games to the Kansas State Wildcats, the Oklahoma Sooners, and the Texas A&M Aggies. In two close games, they avoided upset attempts by lower-ranked Nebraska and Oklahoma State, the latter game involving a 21-point fourth quarter comeback by the Horns. Texas concluded its season by winning the 2007 Holiday Bowl against the Arizona State Sun Devils—another first-time opponent for Texas—bringing their season record to 10–3. The Horns finished the season ranked tenth in the AP poll and in the USA Today coaches poll. After the season, five UT players entered professional football through the 2008 NFL Draft and four others agreed to sign free-agent contracts with NFL teams. ## Before the 2007 season Mack Brown became the head coach of the Texas Longhorns for the 1998 season. Through 2006, he had a win–loss record of 93–22 and the best winning percentage (80.9%) of any football coach in Longhorn history. The 2004 team had the first Bowl Championship Series win for any Texas team and the 2005 team won the National Championship (the fourth for the UT football program). The 2006 team had 9 wins and 1 loss through November 4, 2006 but starting quarterback Colt McCoy was injured in the 11th game and Texas lost the final two regular season games, including a 12–7 home loss to division rivals Texas A&M. This took the team out of contention for the conference championship, as well as the national championship. Between the 2006 regular season and the bowl season, back-up quarterback Jevan Snead transferred to another school, and Longhorn defensive coordinator Gene Chizik accepted the head-coaching job at Iowa State University. The Longhorns ended up accepting a bowl invitation to the Alamo Bowl against the unranked University of Iowa Hawkeyes, who had finished in eighth place in the Big Ten Conference. Colt McCoy was cleared to play for the Horns and led Texas through a back-and-forth affair to a 26–24 win. The Longhorns finished the season with a record of 10 wins and 3 losses and received a final ranking of 13th in the nation by both the Associated Press AP Poll and the USA Today Coaches Poll Texas entered the 2007 season ranked third in the all-time list of both total wins and winning percentage. They were ranked in the Top 10 by numerous pre-season polls. For instance, a pre-season ranking by ESPN writer Mark Schlabach had the Longhorns ranked eighth; Rivals.com ranked them ninth; College Football News and Real Football 365 both ranked Texas third. The Longhorns came into the season ranked fourth in both the Coaches Poll and AP Poll. ### Facilities and equipment Following the final home game of 2006, construction workers demolished the north end of Darrell K Royal-Texas Memorial Stadium. This section was rebuilt to make the lowest seats closer to the field while planning for luxury boxes and an upper-deck. The lower deck was ready for 2007, while the upper deck and luxury boxes are planned to be ready for 2008. The modifications put the north end zone seats thirty yards closer to the field of play. This results in several game day changes, such as Smokey the Cannon moving to the south end-zone near Bevo. Each 2007 Longhorn football helmet featured a Texas bluebonnet decal. The decal was chosen to honor President Lyndon B. Johnson, Lady Bird Johnson and the Johnson family. Brown said President Johnson used to enjoy discussing football with former UT coach Darrell K Royal, while the first lady was known for her conservation efforts, particularly the spread of native wildflowers. For the second straight year, UT merchandise products were the top-selling products among clients of Collegiate Licensing Company. UT entered into a marketing arrangement with Bluetooth SIG to deploy Bluetooth kiosks throughout the stadium. These kiosks broadcast free game-day information to Bluetooth-enabled cell-phones in the stands. ### Practices and preseason injuries The Longhorns played their 2007 Spring Jamboree Scrimmage on March 31, 2007 and reported for fall practice on August 5, 2007. A public scrimmage scheduled for August 18, 2007 was canceled due to safety concerns related to the weather and to ongoing stadium construction. With rain expected over the weekend and no working pumps to help remove water from the field, Brown held a closed practice indoors instead. During fall practice, receivers Limas Sweed, Billy Pittman, and Jordan Shipley were injured. Sweed suffered a sprain to his left wrist on August 15. Pittman sprained his left shoulder during practice on August 17. Head UT athletic trainer Kenny Boyd said, "We will continue to evaluate [Pittman] and monitor his progress in hopes of getting him back in time for the season opener." Jordan Shipley had to limit his practice due to a strained hamstring. The receiver position was considered one of the deepest positions on the team; coaches said veteran players Quan Cosby (Texas' second-leading receiver) and Nate Jones performed well in training camp. Coach Brown said he expected to be able to play three freshman receivers in 2007: Brandon Collins, Malcolm Williams and James Kirkendoll. On August 29, 2006 Brown announced that Sweed was "probable" for the season opening game, but that Shipley was "doubtful". ### Coaches Prior to the first game of the season, the University of Texas Board of Regents voted unanimously to raise Brown's salary by \$300,000, bringing his annual compensation to \$2.81 million and keeping him among the five highest-paid coaches in college football. The package also includes up to \$3 million in bonuses, including "\$100,000 if he wins the Big 12 Championship and \$450,000 for a national championship, as well as bonuses based on the percent of players who graduate." At the time, Brown's contract extended through the 2016 season and included buy-out clauses should another school attempt to hire Brown. Greg Davis, who entered his 10th season with Texas, was the team's offensive coordinator and quarterbacks coach. Duane Akina was the defensive coordinator, and took the position vacated by Gene Chizik when he left the program. During the 2007 season, Akina performed his job on the sidelines while Larry Mac Duff provided input from the press box. UT running backs coach Ken Rucker announced in August that he had prostate cancer and that he would have surgery on August 27. He coached practices until just prior to surgery and returned to the team before the end of the season. Rucker's health concern coincided with player incidents that created Brown's most tumultuous off-season since arriving at Texas. ### Player suspensions The school suspended a total of seven players for at least a portion of the season. Six were suspended for alleged illegal activities, and one was suspended for a violation of National Collegiate Athletics Association (NCAA) rules. Defensive end Henry Melton and linebacker Sergio Kindle were both arrested during the summer on charges of driving while intoxicated. Freshman defensive tackle Andre (Dre) Jones (who had not yet played for Texas but did join spring practices) and former UT player Robert Joseph were charged with aggravated robbery with a deadly weapon. Jones was one of the team's most highly touted recruits; his high school football career honors included Prep All-American, three-time all-state selection, first-team All-American by Parade Magazine, and Texas 4A Defensive Player of the Year by the Texas Sports Writers Association The university suspended Tyrell Gatewood indefinitely after he was arrested on two drug possession charges. James Henry was arrested on third-degree felony charges of "obstruction or retaliation and tampering or fabricating physical evidence." The University of Texas suspended Billy Pittman for three games because he violated NCAA rules when he accepted the use of a friend's car over the summer. Coach Brown and University of Texas President William Charles Powers Jr. issued statements concerning the importance of team discipline and zero tolerance policy for infractions. ## Schedule ## Players ### Roster ### Watch lists Longhorns listed on preseason All-American or "All-Conference" teams or on award watch lists: - Jamaal Charles - Maxwell Award watch list - Doak Walker Award watch list - Athlon Sports third-team All American - Athlon Sports first-team All Big 12 - Jermichael Finley - Mackey Award watch list - Marcus Griffin - Outland Trophy watch list - Athlon Sports second-team All Big 12 - Robert Killebrew - Athlon Sports third-team All Big 12 - Tony Hills - Lombardi Award watch list - Outland Trophy watch list - Athlon Sports first-team All Big 12 - Drew Kelson - Lott Trophy - Derek Lokey - Lombardi Award watch list - Outland Trophy watch list - Nagurski Trophy watch list - Lott Trophy - Athlon Sports first-team All Big 12 - Colt McCoy - Maxwell Award watch list - CBS Sportsline.com Heisman Trophy Watch - Walter Camp Football Foundation Player of the Year Award watch list - Athlon Sports first-team All Big 12 - Davey O'Brien Award - Manning Award - Roddrick Muckelroy - Athlon Sports second-team All Big 12 - Frank Okam - Lombardi Award watch list - Outland Trophy watch list - Bednarik Award watch list - Athlon Sports first-team All Big 12 - Brian Orakpo - Athlon Sports third-team All Big 12 - Limas Sweed - Biletnikoff Award candidate - Maxwell Award candidate - Walter Camp Football Foundation Player of the Year Award watch list - ESPN Scouts Inc. Top 10 professional prospects list - Athlon Sports second-team All Big 12 ### Recruiting Texas' 2007 recruiting class was rated by Scout.com as third-best in the nation, behind Florida and USC. Of their picks for the top 100 incoming freshman, Texas signed \#8 Tray Allan (offensive lineman), \#14 Curtis Brown (cornerback), \#30 Andre (Dre) Jones (defensive tackle), \#31 John Chiles (wide receiver), and \#81 Russell Carter (defensive end). Carter made the preseason roster as a defensive end while Chiles was listed as a quarterback. Jones was suspended from the team due to legal trouble. ## Game summaries ### Arkansas State The first Longhorn game of the season marked the first-ever meeting between Texas and Arkansas State, an NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision team from the Sun Belt Conference. Pre-game media attention played upon the fact that both schools won national football championships in 1970. Both schools entered the game with a level of controversy attached to their teams. Arkansas State was facing criticism over its team name. The team was nicknamed "Indians" in honor of the Osage Nation that inhabited the area until the 1800s. The NCAA enforced restrictions on the use of Indian mascots, saying that they were derogatory to American Indians. In 2008, the Indians changed their name to the Red Wolves. The University of Texas was dealing with player suspensions, and passed a large pay raise for Mack Brown one week prior to the game. As part of the package, Brown received a \$100,000 special payment upon completion of the game. Two days prior to the game, Las Vegas casinos favored Texas by 39points. Sportswriters John Bridges and Kirk Bohls of the Austin American-Statesman predicted the Longhorns would have a big lead early in the game and that true-freshman quarterback John Chiles would enter the game in the second or third quarter as the backup to Colt McCoy. Redshirt freshman quarterback Sherrod Harris was on the injured list and was not expected to play. Those predictions were off the mark as the Indians almost kept up with the Horns and McCoy stayed in for the entire game. Texas scored a touchdown on its first possession and Arkansas State answered with a field goal. Texas made another touchdown to end the first quarter. Neither team scored in the second quarter. Texas scored seven points in the third quarter, while Arkansas State was scoreless. In the fourth quarter, Arkansas State scored ten points to pull within eight points of Texas. With approximately one minute left to play, Arkansas State attempted an onside kick. State recovered the ball, but a controversial illegal formation penalty forced them to re-kick. On the re-kick, Texas recovered the ball and was able to run out the clock to preserve a 21–13 win. Colt McCoy threw two touchdown passes and two interceptions; he also made two punts. Jamaal Charles accounted for the third touchdown. Starting Longhorn defensive end Brian Orakpo injured his right knee during the game. The team reported Orakpo did not need surgery but that it was uncertain when he would return. Kirk Bohls was among commentators who were unimpressed by the Longhorns performance, saying, "if this becomes the pattern, look for a 7–5 season." On September 5, Arkansas State coach Steve Roberts said he was told by the Big 12 Conference's supervisor of football officials that game officials wrongly overturned ASU's recovery of the onside kick. He said the Big 12 Conference Supervisor of Officials told Arkansas State there had been no illegal formation, that no penalty should have been called, and that Arkansas State should have been awarded possession of the football. A Big 12 Conference spokesman said he could not confirm or deny that such a conversation took place and that any such conversation was confidential. ### TCU The second Longhorn game of the season was the first meeting of the former Southwest Conference (SWC) rivals since the conference disbanded following the 1995 season. Texas held a 60–20–1 (win-lose-tie) record vs. the TCU Horned Frogs. Their most recent meeting was a 27–19 Longhorn victory. In their annual season preview magazine, CBS SportsLine.com selected two Longhorn games — vs. TCU and against OU — as ranking in their 17 "must see" games for 2007. CBS Sportsline.com also selected TCU as one of the potential "BCS Busters" for 2007, saying, "The Horned Frogs will have one of the best defenses in the nation with nine starters back on a squad that allowed only 12.3 points per game last year, including a 12–3 victory over Texas Tech. Garry Patterson has made the Horned Frogs one of the best BCS non-AQ conference schools in the nation, but unlike Utah and Boise State, they had not received the opportunity to play in a Bowl Championship Series bowl. If TCU can get past Texas on Sept. 8, it might finally be time for the Horned Frogs to invade the BCS party." Texas' narrow win versus Arkansas State in week one, together with TCU's victory over Baylor, fueled speculation that the 2007 Horned Frogs might have a chance at an upset victory over the Longhorns. Texas dropped three places to number seven in the AP Poll and the Coaches Poll, while TCU moved up three places to number nineteen. One day prior to the game, Las Vegas casinos picked Texas to win by 91⁄2 points. Both teams were scoreless in the first quarter. In the second quarter, TCU's Torrey Stewart faked a blitz, then dropped back and caught an interception from Colt McCoy before running in for a touchdown. Later in the quarter, McCoy threw a pass that was tipped by a defender and intercepted by David Roach. The Longhorn defense kept the Horned Frogs out of the end zone following the interception, but the Frogs scored on a 19-yard field goal by Chris Manfredini. The first half ended with TCU leading, 10–0. The Longhorns' first second-half drive culminated in a 33-yard touchdown pass to Nate Jones. A fumble by TCU gave Texas good field position, but the Longhorns were stopped on the two-yard line and settled for a game-tying field goal. The Horns held TCU to seventeen yards of offense and no first downs in the quarter. In the fourt quarter, Colt McCoy set up the go-ahead score with a scramble to the TCU one-yard line. Vondrell McGee scored a touchdown two plays later. Texas' next possession resulted in a second field goal by Ryan Bailey. The Longhorn defense held TCU to a three-and-out but TCU's punter fumbled the ball, and Brandon Foster ran the ball in for a touchdown, capping 27 straight points for Texas. The Frogs came back and scored 37-yard field goal by Manfredini and then attempted an onsides kick but Texas recovered the ball. UT's Jamaal Charles made a 39-yard rushing touchdown for the game's final score. Texas won, 34–13. The attendance for the game, 84,621, was the third-largest crowd ever to watch a TCU football game. ### UCF The third game of the season was the first-ever meeting between the Longhorns and the UCF Knights. Texas was the first opponent in the Knights' new stadium, Bright House Networks Stadium, and the game was the first of three scheduled meetings between the schools. The Knights opened their season with an upset of North Carolina State; the victory was their second victory over a BCS opponent and the first time for the Knights to beat a BCS school since 2000. They followed the win with a week off, giving them two weeks to prepare for Texas. It was just the sixth time Texas had played in Florida and was the team's first appearance in the state since 1965. The number six-ranked Longhorns were the highest rank team the Knights had ever played. UCF coach George O'Leary said prior to the game, "When you talk about elite teams, Texas is an elite team from an athletics, traditions and overall standpoint." Several Longhorn players missed the game due to injuries or suspensions. Starting defensive end Brian Orakpo missed his second straight game as a result of suffering a knee sprain against Arkansas State. Starting offensive tackle Adam Ulatoski was listed as doubtful. Backup quarterback Sherrod Harris was also injured and had not seen action since spraining his knee on August 12. Wide receiver Jordan Shipley participated in his first game since a preseason injury. Defensive end Henry Melton, linebacker Sergio Kindle and receiver Billy Pittman were serving the last game of their three-game suspensions. On September 13, Tyrell Gatewood joined Andre Jones and Robert Joseph in receiving an indefinite suspension due to alleged illegal activities. The day prior to the game, sports books in Las Vegas picked Texas to win by 18 points. A sell-out crowd greeted the Longhorns in Florida. UCF received the opening kickoff in their end-zone and took a touchback. UCF was not able to get a first down and before punting the ball to Texas. The Horns drove inside the UCF 20-yard line before being stopped on fourth-and-short and settling for a field goal. On their second possession, the Knights drove the ball down the field for a touchdown and a four-point lead. Shortly thereafter, lightning was spotted near the stadium and both teams were sent into their locker rooms for approximately 15 minutes before play resumed. Texas' first drive after the delay culminated in a six-yard touchdown pass to Nate Jones. When the first quarter ended, the Longhorns had a three-point lead and the Knights had the ball. In the second quarter, the Longhorns and the Knights each fumbled inside the UCF ten-yard line. Texas scored ten points in the quarter to UCF's three. The score at halftime was 20–10, Texas. Texas began the scoring in the third quarter with a 49-yard field goal. UCF needed just five plays to reply with a touchdown and cut Texas' lead to 23–17. After two punts by the Horns and one by the Knights, UCF turned the ball over on downs. On the next play, McCoy threw an interception and UCF's resulting drive culminated in a touchdown to give the Knights a 24–23 lead with 13:38 left in the game. The Longhorns regained the lead with two field goals and a touchdown. A Longhorn attempt at a two-point conversion failed, making the score 35–24. This decision was later criticized by commentators who said that the decision allowed UCF a chance to tie the game. With 2:14 remaining, Longhorn Jamaal Charles committed his second fumble of the game. UCF recovered the ball and completed a touchdown and a two-point conversion to cut Texas' lead to 35–32 with 35 seconds remaining. When the Knights were unable to recover their onside kick attempt, Texas was able to run out the clock and preserve a three-point victory. Jamaal Charles of Texas rushed 22 times for 157 yards and Kevin Smith of UCF rushed 27 times for 150 yards for UCF. McCoy completed 68% of his passes for a total of 227 yards; UCF's Kyle Israel completed 35% of his passes for a total of 133 yards. McCoy's 47 passing attempts tied a UT single-game record. His 32 completions set a new school record, besting the 30 completed by Vince Young during the 2006 Rose Bowl and by Major Applewhite during two 1999 games. Due to his performance in the game, Texas cornerback Brandon Foster was named the Big 12's defensive player of the week. For the second week in a row, Foster scored a touchdown on defense. Foster was recognized by the conference the previous week for his work on special teams, making him the first Longhorn to get back-to-back conference honors since running back Hodges Mitchell in 2000. Kicker Ryan Bailey tied a school record with five field goals. Combined with his previous attempts, the five kicks made him seven-of-nine for the season at that point. ### Rice Prior to the 2007 season, Texas and Rice had competed in football on 89 prior occasions. The series, which began in 1914, is the fourth oldest (by number of games) in Texas history. The Owls were 21-67-1 against Texas heading into the game, including the sixth-longest streak of one college football team winning over another team. After their narrow victory over the UCF Knights, the Longhorns remained in sixth place in the coaches' poll and dropped from sixth to seventh place in the Associated Press poll. Jeff Sagarin, whose computer rankings are used as a component of the Bowl Championship Series rankings, had the Longhorns at number twelve coming into the game. Sagarin's system had Rice ranked as the worst team in Division I-A and 181st in the country, behind many I-AA teams. Four days prior to the game, Las Vegas favored UT by 39 points. The Longhorns suspended special teams player James Henry prior to the game, but three Longhorn players—Billy Pittman, Henry Melton, and Sergio Kindle—were able to rejoin the team after serving three game suspensions. Brian Orakpo missed his third straight game due to an injury received in the season-opening game. The Owls came into the game 0–3 after losing the previous week to Texas Tech by a score of 59–24. The Longhorns started the game on offense and had no success on their first drive. On the first play, Colt McCoy threw an incompletion, and on the second play, Jamaal Charles fumbled the ball to the Owls. The Texas defense held Rice to a field goal attempt, which was no good. Texas scored a touchdown on a 13-play drive that included converting a 4th-and-two situation. The Longhorns extended their lead to 41–0 before Rice scored a touchdown with 18 seconds left in the first half. In the second half, Texas scored two touchdowns and one field goal, and Rice scored one touchdown. Texas won 58–14. McCoy completed 20 of his 29 passing attempts, accumulating 333 yards through the air. For the first time in the season, he did not throw an interception. McCoy and most of the Longhorn starting players were replaced by backups after the first drive of the second half. True freshman quarterback John Chiles made his first appearance as a Texas player in the first quarter, when he participated in a single play. He came out of the game after the play before returning in the third quarter as McCoy's replacement. On his first drive, Chiles led the Longhorns 80 yards to a touchdown, carrying the ball 4 times for 49 yards. He also threw one incomplete pass (one of two he threw in the game) and handed off to Vondrell McGee three times for thirty-one yards. Redshirt freshman Sherrod Harris replaced Chiles for the final two drives of the game. Chiles' strong performance immediately led to media speculation as to how the Longhorns could get him more playing time. McGee was the game's leading rusher, and had 8 carries for 80 yards. Jamaal Charles rushed 14 times for 72 yards, and John Chiles ran 9 times for 72 yards. Limas Sweed was the leading receiver with 5 catches for 139 yards and 2 touchdowns as he set a new career high for receiving yards in a single game. Sergio Kindle injured his knee, and defensive end Eddie Jones injured his shoulder, but neither injury was thought to be serious. ### Kansas State Texas first played Kansas State in 1913 and held a record of 5–4–0 in the series prior to 2007. Since the Kansas State Wildcats belong to the north division of the Big 12 Conference, Texas plays KSU two out of every four years. In the 2006 meeting, fourth-ranked Texas was favored by 16 points over an unranked Kansas State team; Colt McCoy was injured early in the game and KSU went on to defeat Texas 45–42. This defeat snapped the Longhorns' 17-game road winning streak as well as the national-best 21-game conference winning steak. One day prior to the 2007 game, Las Vegas casinos picked Texas to win by 15 points. Kansas State got the ball to start the game and scored a touchdown on their opening drive. Texas answered with a touchdown on a drive that featured backup quarterback John Chiles in the game alongside Colt McCoy for some plays. The first quarter ended with the score tied 7–7. In the second quarter, Kansas State took a 24–14 lead and Colt McCoy was injured and headed to the locker room just before halftime. McCoy came back as the Longhorn quarterback at the start of the third quarter, but Texas was never able to erase the deficit and lost, 41–21. With about two minutes left in the game, McCoy again headed to the locker room early and Chiles led the Longhorns' last drive. McCoy threw for 200 yards and had four interceptions during the worst performance of his college career. Sports Illustrated selected him as one of the season's 10 "Most Disappointing College Players" and noted that his nine interceptions thrown to that point in 2007 were already two more than he threw during the entire 2006 season. Kansas State had no turnovers and scored 21 points on defense and special teams. The Wildcats scored one touchdown on a punt return, one on a kick return, and one on an interception. Previously, Texas had never allowed all three types of scores in a single season. The 41 points were the most scored against Texas in Austin since UCLA handed the Longhorns a 66–3 loss in 1997. The loss to Kansas State was the worst home defeat in the Mack Brown era at Texas. Stewart Mandel of Sports Illustrated listed several factors that contributed to the Longhorns' struggles. He cited the off-field problems as evidence that no UT player has been able to show the superior leadership skills of Vince Young. Mandel said that McCoy, still only a sophomore, had not been able to completely fill that gap and that McCoy's play had not been as good as during 2006. He also said part of the blame should be placed on an offensive line that lost several starters and had not been able to consistently protect McCoy. Finally, he noted that the running game had been "equally inconsistent". The win over UT was the Wildcats' first road victory over a top–ten team in school history. ### Oklahoma The game against the 2007 Oklahoma Sooners football team marked the 102nd meeting of the Red River Shootout, which has been called one of the greatest sports rivalries in college football. It is Texas' second-longest running rivalry, just behind its rivalry with Texas A&M. Prior to 2007, Texas led the series 57–39–5, including the last two consecutive wins. The last match-up was a 28–10 Longhorn victory. Since 1929, the game has been held at the Cotton Bowl in Dallas, Texas typically in mid-October with the State Fair of Texas occurring adjacent to the stadium. CBS Sportsline.com listed the game sixth on its list of games to watch during the 2007 season, saying, "The annual Red River Shootout in Dallas will once again feature two top-ten teams with the winner being the front-runner for not only a Big 12 title but a factor in the national title picture. The game will also feature one of the best match-ups of the year with Limas Sweed and Billy Pittman of the Longhorns facing against Oklahoma's excellent secondary." Like Texas, Oklahoma suffered a defeat one week before the Red River Shootout, losing to the Colorado Buffaloes. Texas' loss pushed it to number 16 in the coaches poll and number 19 in the AP poll; OU fell to number 10 in both polls. The ranking marked Texas' 114th straight week to be listed in the AP poll, the longest active streak in the country and tying the school record. The Longhorns had been ranked 142 straight weeks in the coaches poll, the longest UT streak in any poll and the country's longest active streak in the coaches poll. On the morning of the Red River Shootout, oddsmakers favored Oklahoma to win by 12–13 points. The game was a back-and-forth affair ultimately won by Oklahoma, 28–21. OU's freshman quarterback, Sam Bradford, was 21–of–32 for 244 yards and 3 touchdowns. UT's McCoy was 19–of–26 for 324 yards and two touchdowns, earning the most passing yardage against an Oklahoma team since the 2004-season National Championship Game vs. USC. McCoy threw one interception, and Jamaal Charles lost a fumble inside the Oklahoma five yard-line. For the second straight week, the Texas defense did not cause any turnovers. McCoy, who suffered a concussion the previous week, played the game with his throwing arm bandaged from mid-forearm to biceps and took four sacks and a blind-side late hit after one play had been whistled dead. With the loss, Texas opened conference play 0–2 for the first time since 1956. A bright spot for the Horns was tight end Jermichael Finley, who caught four passes for 149 yards. Jamaal Charles ran for 79 yards and John Chiles carried once for four yards. Counting the sacks to McCoy, Texas had a total of 61 yards rushing. Receiver Limas Sweed left the game early because he re-injured his left wrist. He later had surgery to tighten the ligaments in the wrist but the injury ended his collegiate career. The Austin American-Statesman reported "Quan Cosby likely will move to Sweed's spot at split end, with Nate Jones moving to flanker. The Longhorns likely will decide between Billy Pittman and Jordan Shipley at slot receiver when Texas is in its base, three-receiver set." Defensive end Aaron Lewis fractured his elbow in the game and was taken out of the lineup indefinitely. The Austin American-Statesman reported "A depth chart issued Monday shows Lamarr Houston moving to Lewis' spot at power end, with Brian Orakpo regaining his starting job at quick end. The Longhorns have been dealing with injuries at defensive end all season." Fullback Luke Tiemann also required surgery to repair a broken wrist, but was expected to miss only two games. Jeff Duarte of the Houston Chronicle made note of Charles' fumble, McCoy's interception and the low rushing yardage. He said, "the Texas Longhorns went back and forth with Oklahoma for most of the game Saturday before eventually succumbing to the same problems that have taken them from a Top 10 ranking to the verge of dropping out of the national polls for the first time in seven years." The win kept the Sooners in position to win the south division of the Big12 Conference and could even allow them back into the national championship race. Asked to assess his personal performance after the loss to Kansas State, Colt McCoy said, "I think I've had some bad luck, I'm definitely a better quarterback, definitely more experienced—I've just had some bad luck. Things that can go the wrong way, have gone the wrong way — tipped balls and that stuff." He also said there was room for improvement, "Teams are blitzing us a lot more. We've handled it well for the most part, but there's so many things we can do better... If you ask every person on this offense, they'll tell you there's something individually they can do better." After the loss to Oklahoma, Mack Brown said he did not want to hear about bad luck, "By saying we're unlucky is just a cop-out, this game isn't about luck. If you knock balls loose you should get on them. If you tip balls in the air you should catch them. We're not going to have any excuses." Brown cited the lack of big plays on defense, particularly the lack of forced turnovers, as a problem for Texas. Both Brown and Greg Davis hinted that Jamaal Charles could face less playing time as a result of his problems hanging onto the ball. ### Iowa State Texas first played Iowa State in 1979, and the Longhorns had won all six matchups coming into the 2007 season. Their last meeting in 2006 concluded with a 37–14 Texas victory. The Cyclones football team was coached by Gene Chizik who was co-defensive coordinator for Texas from 2005 to 2006. Like Texas, the Cyclones were 0–2 in conference play, but they had only a 1–5 record overall. Their lone victory of the season had been against Iowa when they made a game-winning 28-yard field goal with :01 remaining. As with Kansas State, Texas plays the Cyclones two out of every four years as part of the Big 12 Conference schedule. Despite losses to Kansas State and Oklahoma, Texas remained in the Top 25 coming into the game with Iowa State. The Horns were number 22 in the USA Today coaches poll and number 23 in the Associated Press media poll. Texas extended its streak in the coaches poll to 143 weeks and its streak in the AP poll to 115 weeks. Mack Brown said that he would not change the game plan in facing Chizik but that he needed to adjust sideline signals and snap counts since they were known to the former Texas co-coordinator. The Austin American-Statesman predicted Iowa State's quarterback Bret Meyer and wide receiver Todd Blythe would pose the biggest threat for the Longhorns. The paper also called the Cyclones the worst team in the Big 12 North and predicted that Texas would be 2–2 in conference play after facing Iowa State and Baylor, the worst team in the south division. The Daily Texan reported that the game offered an opportunity for Gene Chizik to get a "signature win" if his team could beat Texas. Two days prior to the game, oddsmakers favored Texas to win by 16 points. The Longhorns were in control from the beginning and routed Iowa State 56–3, the worst loss for the Cyclones since 1997. Iowa State got the ball to start the game and made a first down with a pass from Bret Meyer to Todd Blythe. The UT defense prevented them from gaining another first down and the Cyclones punted from their own 37 yard-line; Texas took over at their 42 yard-line. On the first play from scrimmage, Colt McCoy scrambled away from a blitz and saw that Jordan Shipley had broken off his route and was 10 yards behind any Cyclone defender. Shipley caught the pass from McCoy and sped away from the Cyclones to score a 58-yard touchdown. From that point, the Longhorns never relinquished the lead. They led 14–3 at the end of the first quarter and 28–3 at halftime. In the second half, Texas added another 28–points, en route to a 56–3 blowout. The Longhorns' success passing the ball eventually gave way to the running game. John Chiles led the Longhorns with 54 yards on 9 carries. McCoy rushed for 50 yards, while Jamaal Charles carried the ball 7 times for 44 yards. The Longhorns finished with 514 total yards – 298 via the air, and 216 on the ground. The Longhorns forced three turnovers, including two interceptions, without surrendering any themselves. Brandon Foster intercepted a pass from Bret Meyer and returned it for a 39-yard touchdown. Deon Beasley also picked off Meyer, who completed only 17 passes for 111 yards and no touchdowns. Texas fullback Antwan Cobb sprained his left anterior cruciate ligament late in the game, an injury that sidelined him for the rest of the season. Cobb's injury left the Longhorns without a true fullback, although they had not utilized the position often during the season. The only other fullback on the team, Luke Tiemann, was expected to miss one more week with a wrist injury. Mack Brown said Chris Ogbonnaya, the second-team tailback, would move to fullback for the Baylor game. Freshman tight end Blaine Irby had taken some practice at fullback and could also be used in that position. Robert Killebrew was benched after committing two personal foul penalties, a consistent problem for him in the 2007 season. Without a veteran fullback, Texas planned to either run the ball out of the shotgun formation or simply focus on the passing game. Representatives from the Holiday Bowl were in attendance. According to the Austin Statesman, one of them said, "We'd love to have Texas, but they're still hoping to wind up at the Fiesta Bowl." In order to reach the Fiesta Bowl, Texas needed Oklahoma to lose two games, giving Texas a spot in the Big 12 Conference Championship game, which Texas would then have to win. Another possibility was for Oklahoma to make it to the National Championship game and Texas being selected for an at-large Bowl Championship Series bid." ### Baylor The game against Baylor was played in Floyd Casey Stadium in Waco, Texas, approximately 100 miles (161 km) north on Interstate 35 from Austin, the home of the University of Texas. Because home UT games are usually a sell-out, Texas games at Baylor have found numerous Texas fans driving to Waco to watch the game. The Longhorns first played the Baylor Bears in 1901 and faced them annually during the days of the Southwest Conference. In the 96 meetings through 2006, Texas' record against the Bears was 70 wins, 22 losses, and 4 ties. The rivalry with Baylor is Texas' third-longest by number of games: only Oklahoma and Texas A&M have faced Texas more times on the football field. Texas won the 2006 meeting 63–31. In the week prior to the 2007 game, Baylor assistant coach Eric Schnupp was charged with a misdemeanor count of disorderly conduct and reckless exposure after he allegedly urinated on the bar of a Waco nightclub. He was suspended indefinitely from the program. Baylor's starting quarterback, Blake Szymanski, was questionable for the game because of a mild concussion he suffered in a game against Kansas. Although Szymanski had been physically cleared to play, back-up quarterbacks Michael Machen and John David Weed were sharing snaps in practice and Baylor coaches said any one of them could get the start against Texas. Two days prior to the game, oddsmakers favored Texas to win by 25 points. The game was initially a close-fought contest; Texas led by only a touchdown before Deon Beasley intercepted a pass at the Baylor 43-yard line with nine minutes remaining in the game. Texas scored two more touchdowns to outlast the Bears in a 31–10 victory. Texas accumulated 293 passing yards, all by McCoy, compared to 284 by Machen and Weed of Baylor. Vondrell McGee was the leading rusher for Texas, contributing 57 of the team's 177 yards. Baylor's Jay Finley was the Bears' leading rusher, but Baylor was held to only 8 yards rushing overall because of the sacks forced by the Texas defense. It was the tenth straight victory for UT over Baylor. ### Nebraska Texas first played the Nebraska Cornhuskers in 1933, and the Longhorns held a 7–4–0 record against Nebraska though 2006. As with Kansas State and Iowa State, Texas plays the Cornhuskers two out of every four years as part of the Big 12 Conference schedule. On the morning of the game, oddsmakers favored Texas to win by 21 points. The weather forecast called for a high of 76 °F (24 °C) and sunshine with winds NNE at 10 miles per hour (16 km/h) to 15 miles per hour (24 km/h). Texas stuck with their passing game for three quarters and was trailed Nebraska most of the way; the Cornhuskers led 17–9 to start the fourth quarter. The Associated Press reported, "Once Texas figured out it should be running against one of the nation's worst run defenses, things turned out all right for the Longhorns." Early in the fourth quarter, McCoy took a hard hit as he scrambled outside the pocket. He was shaken up badly enough to leave the game for a play. John Chiles came in at quarterback; his one play, a zone-read handoff to Jamaal Charles, produced 24 yards. According to the Associated Press recap of the game, "suddenly Texas had figured out how to beat a Cornhuskers' team that had been steamrolled on the ground in recent weeks. Texas only threw three passes in the fourth quarter." Once Texas switched to the zone read offense, they quickly started gaining yards and points. Charles ran for a career-high 290 yards, including 216 yards and three long touchdown runs in the fourth quarter. His tally also set a new record for rushing against the Cornhuskers, surpassing the old record of 247 yards by Oklahoma's Billy Simms. Charles explained "It was my time to show everyone what I can do. When I saw a hole, I blasted through it." Texas finished with 181 yards passing and 364 yards rushing; Nebraska had 315 yards passing and 132 yards rushing. The running back was named the Walter Camp Football Foundation National Offensive Player of the Week. The game was a milestone for one coach and a millstone for another; it was the 100th win for Mack Brown at Texas; and it put more pressure on beleaguered Nebraska coach Bill Callahan. Brown remarked on his victory, "A hundred is nice. I knew the game was going to come down like it did. It didn't surprise me. They made sure that I'll remember it the rest of my life." Callahan was fired five weeks later. ### Oklahoma State From 1916 through 2006, Texas had played the Oklahoma State Cowboys football (OSU) program 21 times and held a 19–2–0 record. Texas came into the 2007 game with a nine-game active winning streak against OSU. The Cowboys' only two victories occurred in 1944 and 1997. The day before the 2007 game, oddsmakers favored Texas to win by 3 points. The pre-game festivities included an appearance by Challenger, the first bald eagle ever trained to free-fly into sports stadiums, and a fly-over by four F-16 Fighting Falcons from the Oklahoma Air National Guard's 138th Fighter Wing piloted by Oklahoma State alumni. In the 2007 game, Oklahoma State took an early lead and led 35–14 at the start of the fourth quarter. For the fourth time in five years, the Longhorns staged a big rally to win the game. This time, Texas overcame a 21-point fourth quarter deficit to win by three points as time expired in the game. It was the biggest fourth-quarter comeback in Texas Longhorn history. Fox Sports selected Jamaal Charles and Jacob Lacey as their players of the game for Texas and Oklahoma State, respectively. Charles averaged 11.3 yards per carry. ESPN remarked, "For the second straight week, Jammal Charles led a late charge for the 15th-ranked Longhorns. He scored two of his three touchdowns in the fourth quarter as Texas (No. 14 AP) outscored Oklahoma State 24–0 in the final 15 minutes." OSU's leading rusher was Dantrell Savage with 102 yards and one touchdown on 23 carries. McCoy was 20 of 28 passing attempts for 283 yards. He had one touchdown pass and three interceptions; he also rushed for 105 yards. Zac Robinson was 30 of 42 for 427 yards, one touchdown, and no interceptions. Robinson's passing yardage broke the school record, previously held by current head-coach Mike Gundy. Together, the teams had 1,170 yards of offense. The 594 yards allowed by Texas was the most in the 2007 season. Oklahoma State ran 87 plays and used 35:11 minutes of ball possession, compared to 70 plays and 24:49 for Texas. The Longhorns suffered several injuries during the game. According to the Austin American-Statesman, "Center Dallas Griffin left the game with a knee injury, linebacker Jared Norton left with a right shoulder injury and Eddie Jones left with a shoulder injury. Brandon Foster injured his chest in the third quarter, and Drew Kelson left the game with a left knee injury." The paper also reported that Griffin's removal from the game may have contributed to several mistakes in snapping the ball to McCoy and that UT might not have been able to win if any of the resulting handling mistakes had been picked up by OSU. ### Texas Tech Texas' rivalry with the Texas Tech Red Raiders began in 1928 and through 2006, the Longhorns were 42–14–0 against Tech. In the 2006 contest, fifth-ranked Texas barely came away with a 35–31 win over an unranked Texas Tech team. Two days before the 2007 game, oddsmakers favored Texas to win by 61⁄2 points. Pre-game speculation continued about what bowl game might select Texas. Various media predictions included the Gator Bowl, Cotton Bowl Classic, and Holiday Bowl. Holiday Bowl executive director Bruce Binkowski said his bowl would be very interested in pitting Texas against the USC Trojans, whom Texas defeated in the 2006 Rose Bowl. A BCS bowl was also still mentioned as a possibility, with Sports Illustrated saying the Orange Bowl could take Texas. Texas Center Dallas Griffin injured his anterior cruciate ligament against Oklahoma State and was out for the season. Griffin was a senior, meaning his career with the Longhorns ended due to the injury. Backup defensive end Eddie Jones and reserve safety Drew Kelson were also out for the game against Texas Tech. Linebackers Jared Norton and Sergio Kindle were listed as "questionable" and "probable", respectively. The Red Raiders were 7–3 on the season and 3–3 in the Big 12 after beating Baylor 37–7 in their most recent game. Quarterback Graham Harrell passed for over 4,000 yards for the second season in a row, becoming the fifth quarterback in NCAA Division I-FBS (formerly Division I-A) to have multiple 4,000-yard seasons. The Austin American-Statesman reported, "Defensively, Texas must hope that the injured are quick healers because it's a given that the Longhorns will need every available body against the Red Raiders. Texas Tech fields the most dynamic passing offense in the country, and the Red Raiders also stay on the field an average of 77.3 plays per game. Tech further frustrates a defense by often going for fourth downs. They've been successful on 14 of 23 fourth-down attempts this season. A year ago, Tech was one of three on fourth downs in a 35-31 loss to Texas." With the game falling on Veterans Day weekend, a pre-game ceremony honored veterans and commemorated the 60th year of Texas' ROTC program. Four army helicopters from Fort Hood flew over the stadium after the national anthem. It was also Senior Day for Texas, with 25 players making their last home game appearance. As a group, they had a 42–6 record coming into the game, which represented the third-highest win total for any Texas class. The temperature at kickoff was 84 degrees. On their first offensive series, the Horns scored a touchdown on a pass from McCoy to Shipley. Their defense held Tech to a field goal. Texas offensive tackle Tony Hills injured his leg and left the game on a cart. Texas scored another touchdown on a run by Vondrell McGee to create a 14–3 lead at the end of the first quarter. Tech's Graham Harrell threw a touchdown pass and Texas answered with a rushing touchdown. On the ensuing kick, Texas used a pooch kick which was tipped by a Texas Tech player. The Longhorns' kickoff team recovered the ball, helping put their offense to rush for another touchdown. Tech brought the game to 28–20 with another touchdown. Texas drove into field goal range but tried to throw a touchdown pass with 11 seconds remaining in the half. The pass was intercepted for a touchback and the Red Raiders ran a short play to end the half. Jamal Charles and tight end Jermichael Finley were injured in the second half but were able to return. In the fourth quarter, McCoy suffered a cut to his head but he did not miss any plays due to the injury. McCoy threw for four touchdowns and ran for two more. Both teams kept running their first team offense until late in the game; they combined for 47 points in the final 12 minutes and each scored a touchdown within the final two minutes of play. Tech attempted two onside kicks in an effort to come from behind, but Texas recovered both kicks. During his post-game press conference, Texas Tech head coach Mike Leach excoriated the officiating crew for incompetence and bias. He speculated that the officials may have favored Texas because the head official lived in Austin, because the officials were incompetent, or because the conference wanted Texas to appear in a BCS bowl because of the increased appearance fees that such a bowl generates for the conference. Jim Vertuno of the Associated Press wrote "Leach was upset officials disallowed two Tech touchdowns in the third quarter. The first was overruled when video replay clearly showed the receiver let the ball hit the ground. On the next play, a touchdown pass was negated by a holding penalty. Leach also wanted, but didn't get, a flag for roughing the quarterback." The Lubbock Avalanche-Journal reported, "Big 12 policy prohibits coaches from commenting publicly about game officials, so Leach's actions leave him open to reprimand, fine or worse." ESPN reported, "Leach's rant will likely draw a fine from the league and possibly a suspension." The Big 12 fined Leach \$10,000, the largest fine in conference history. The win ensured that 2007 was the 10th straight season the Longhorns won nine or more games, a record streak for the Horns. Including Mack Brown's final two seasons at North Carolina, Brown became the only coach in the nation to lead his program to nine or more victories in 12 straight seasons. ### Texas A&M This game marked the 114th meeting between the Aggies and the Texas Longhorns and was the fourth year of a multi-sport rivalry named the Lone Star Showdown. The football rivalry began in 1894 and continues to be the longest-running rivalry for both the Longhorns and the Aggies; it is the third-longest rivalry in NCAA Division I FBS (formerly Division I-A) football. Texas A&M came into the 2007 contest with a 35–73–5 record against Texas. Since the series began in 1894, the game has traditionally been played on Thanksgiving Day or Thanksgiving weekend. The 2007 game marks the fourteenth straight game to be scheduled the day after Thanksgiving. The Aggies scored on their opening possession with a 35-yard touchdown with a screen pass from Stephen McGee to Mike Goodson. The Longhorns mustered two first downs, but were forced to punt. Texas A&M ended their subsequent drive three plays later with a punt of their own. The Longhorns again successfully penetrated into Texas A&M territory, but Mack Brown opted to call a pooch punt by Colt McCoy on fourth down and four from the Aggie 37-yard line. The Aggies answered with an eighteen-play drive that stalled on the Texas-14 yard line and the Aggies had to settle for a 31-yard field goal by Matt Szymanski. The second quarter started with the Longhorns driving only six yards and being forced to punt again. The Aggies continued to press their advantage and drove down the field until Stephen McGee threw an ill-timed pass that was intercepted by Deon Beasley at the Longhorn 25. Two first-downs later, Texas was forced to punt and pinned Texas A&M on their own five yard line. Stephen McGee led the offense with several long passes and the Aggies drove to the Texas 5 but again were held short on 3rd down. On 4th and three, the Aggies faked the field goal and the placeholder, T.J. Sanders, ran the ball in for his first career touchdown giving the Aggies a 17–0 lead. The Longhorns started their next drive on their own 20-yard line, where Colt McCoy threw a 62-yard pass to Jamaal Charles. The drive stalled and the Longhorns had to settle for a field goal and went to halftime trailing their arch-rival, 17–3. The third quarter started with promising drives by both teams, each ending when the ball was intercepted. Brandon Foster ran the Longhorns' interception back to the A&M eight-yard line and Texas scored a touchdown on the next play to pull the Longhorns within seven points. The Aggies drove to the Texas 34 yard line, but the drive stalled out and Texas took over on downs as the fourth-down attempt failed. Colt McCoy fumbled a few plays later to give the ball back to Texas A&M. Five plays later, Stephen McGee scampered into the end zone for a five-yard touchdown to put the Aggies up 24–10. The Longhorns took little time to answer with a touchdown of their own. Quan Cosby returned the following kickoff 91 yards for a touchdown to pull Texas within seven once again. The next drive started on the Aggie 49-yard line, courtesy of a 42-yard kickoff return by E.J. Shankle. The quarter ended on a seven-yard pass to Mike Goodson. The final quarter of play began with A&M still moving the ball. Stephen McGee threw a 44-yard pass to Mike Goodson for a touchdown to put the Aggies ahead by the score of 31–17. The Longhorns again went three and out and were forced to punt. The Aggies went down the field quickly and scored another touchdown on a 66-yard pass completion to Earvin Taylor, putting Texas A&M up by 21 points. Colt McCoy fumbled the ball two plays later, but A&M was forced to punt the ball away three plays after recovering the fumble. McCoy and the Longhorn offense drove the length of the field to score a touchdown, taking only 99 seconds off the clock in the process. The Aggies lost seven yards over the next three plays and were forced again to punt. The Longhorns drove 73 yards from their own 27, converted two fourth downs, and scored a touchdown. Ryan Bailey missed the extra point, but left the Longhorns only down by eight points. The Aggies took possession on their own 33 and ran the clock out to win the game, 38–30. During the postgame celebration, ABC commentator Jack Arute asked Dennis Franchione whether he would return to the team the following year. Coach Franchione responded by asking the announcer to let the players enjoy their victory. At the beginning of the subsequent press conference, Coach Franchione announced his resignation, effective immediately. Shortly thereafter, Texas A&M announced defensive coordinator Gary Darnell would lead the Aggies in their bowl game. ### Holiday Bowl The Longhorns concluded the season in the 2007 Holiday Bowl on December 27 against the Arizona State Sun Devils. With the loss to Texas A&M, the Longhorns fell out of contention for a Bowl Championship Series game; their bowl situation was to be decided largely by the play of other Big 12 teams. Number four Missouri beat number two Kansas to win the Big 12 North Division. Missouri rose to the top spot in the BCS rankings prior to facing Oklahoma in the Big 12 Championship game. Oklahoma won the game to become the Big 12 Conference champion and secure a berth in the 2008 Fiesta Bowl. Even though Missouri defeated Kansas, won their division, and outranked Kansas in the BCS standings (sixth compared to eighth) the Orange Bowl selected Kansas instead of Missouri to play in the 2008 Orange Bowl. The Tigers were invited to play in the 2008 Cotton Bowl Classic; the Cotton Bowl Classic had first pick of Big 12 teams after BCS bowls have made their selections. The Holiday Bowl had the next selection and chose Texas. Arizona State University was ranked number 11 in the BCS standings; they completed a 10–2 regular season and won a share of the Pac-10 Conference Championship. The Sun Devils finished the regular season ranked number 11 in the final BCS rankings, number 11 in Coaches poll and number 12 in the AP rankings while Texas was number 19 in the BCS and number 17 in both the coaches and AP rankings. The Sun Devils were eligible for a BCS bowl themselves, but like Missouri, ASU was left out of the BCS selections. Texas dominated the first quarter and set two Holiday Bowl records. The Longhorns' first score, a two-yard pass from Colt McCoy to nose tackle Derek Lokey, was the quickest in game history, and took place with 13:39 remaining in the first quarter. The Longhorns scored 21 points in the first quarter—two more than previous record-holder SMU scored against BYU in 1980. Texas' defense forced two turnovers and held the Sun Devils scoreless for the period. The game included one of the most bizarre plays of the football season. ASU's Rudy Carpenter fumbled the ball as ASU was close to scoring a touchdown. Chris Jessee, a member of the Longhorns football operations staff and Mack Brown's stepson, stepped onto the field and may or may not have touched the ball as it bounced near the sideline. The ball was recovered by Texas, seemingly preventing an ASU touchdown. However, after a twelve‐minute review, the officials awarded the ball to Arizona State; the Sun Devils scored a touchdown on the next play. The Longhorns won the game, 52–34. The 52 points were the most ever scored by the Longhorns in a bowl game. Joseph Duarte of the Houston Chronicle called the Holiday Bowl the "biggest victory of the season in what could serve as a springboard for a preseason Top 10 ranking next season." ## After the season Two Longhorns were named to postseason All-American lists. Marcus Griffin was selected to the ESPN list and Tony Hills was selected by the Walter Camp Football Foundation. Towards the end of the season, speculation intensified about which players might enter professional football though the 2008 NFL Draft. In November, Jamaal Charles said he would return for his senior season rather than enter professional football in the NFL. In December, sources reported Charles and Jermichael Finley had filed paperwork with the NFL to evaluate their draft potential if they decided to enter professional football in the NFL Draft instead of returning for their senior season. Quan Cosby, who spent three years in professional baseball, was reported to be still deciding whether to file the paperwork. Defensive tackle Roy Miller said he would definitely be back for his senior season. Mack Brown did not comment about specific players but said, "We always try to help our guys get as much information as possible when it comes to the NFL. We encourage and help them go through the process ... All of our underclassmen have told us they will be coming back, but if you're playing well enough to be considered an NFL prospect, going through the process can only help you better understand it and realize what you need to work on to improve your status." Charles said he would not go pro unless he was predicted to be chosen in the first round of the draft. After the Holiday Bowl Charles said, "Right now, I'm probably coming back. I didn't think I did that good in the game. Next year maybe I'll be up for the Heisman. I will come back." From 2000 to 2007, the Longhorns have had seven players taken in the first 10 picks of the NFL draft, more than any other school. On January 2, 2008, Charles announced that he was rescinding his earlier decision and would leave Texas for the NFL. Despite skipping his senior year, Charles ranks fourth on the list of total rushing yards by a UT player, behind Ricky Williams, Cedric Benson, and Earl Campbell, with 3,328 yards. Williams and Campbell each won the Heisman Trophy in their senior seasons. With Charles' departure, quarterback Colt McCoy becomes the leading returning rusher for the Longhorns. Tight end Jermichael Finley also declared he would forgo his senior season to enter the NFL. The draft concluded with five Longhorns selected: Limas Sweed (53rd pick), Jamaal Charles (73rd), Jermichael Finley (91st), Tony Hills (130th), and Frank Okam (151st). In addition, Brandon Foster, Marcus Griffin, Nate Jones and Derek Lokey agreed to sign free-agent contracts with NFL teams. On January 2, 2008, the Longhorns announced that defensive co-coordinator Larry MacDuff would not return for the 2008 season and Duane Akina was demoted to "Assistant Head Coach/Defensive Backs". The Longhorns hired Will Muschamp as defensive coordinator; he will also coach UT's linebackers. Muschamp was defensive coordinator at Auburn University and will earn a \$425,000 salary at Texas. Running backs coach Ken Rucker transferred to a newly created position with the athletic department where he will act as a liaison to high school athletic programs. On January 16, 2008 Texas replaced Rucker by hiring former UT quarterback Major Applewhite.
19,800,112	Barnstokkr	1,037,021,768	Mythological tree	[ "Trees in Germanic mythology" ]	In Norse mythology, Barnstokkr (Old Norse, literally "child-trunk") is a tree that stands in the center of King Völsung's hall. Barnstokkr is attested in chapters 2 and 3 of the Völsunga saga, written in the 13th century from earlier tradition, partially based on events from the 5th century and the 6th century, where, during a banquet, a one-eyed, very tall man appears and thrusts a sword into the tree which only Sigmund is able to pull free. Scholarly theories have been put forth about the implications of Barnstokkr and its relation to other trees in Germanic paganism. ## Völsunga saga Barnstokkr is introduced in chapter 2 of Völsunga saga where King Völsung is described as having "had an excellent palace built in this fashion: a huge tree stood with its trunk in the hall and its branches, with fair blossoms, stretched out through the roof. They called the tree Barnstokk[r]". In chapter 3, King Völsung is holding a marriage feast for his daughter Signy and King Siggeir at King Völsung's hall. At the hall, large fires are kindled in long hearths running the length of the hall, while in the middle of the hall stands the great tree Barnstokkr. That evening, while those attending the feast are sitting by the flaming hearths, they are visited by a one-eyed, very tall man whom they do not recognize. The stranger is wearing a hooded, mottled cape, linen breeches tied around his legs, and is barefooted. Sword in hand, the man walks towards Barnstokkr and his hood hangs low over his head, gray with age. The man brandishes the sword and thrusts it into the trunk of the tree, and the blade sinks to its hilt. Words of welcome fail the crowd. The tall stranger says that he who draws the sword from the trunk shall receive it as a gift, and he who is able to pull free the sword shall never carry a better sword than it. The old man leaves the hall, and nobody knows who he was, or where he went. Everyone stands, trying their hand at pulling free the sword from the trunk of Barnstokkr. The noblest attempt to pull free the sword first followed by those ranked after them. Sigmund, son of King Völsung, takes his turn, and—as if the sword had lain loose for him—he draws it from the trunk. The saga then continues. ## Theories Hilda Ellis Davidson draws links to the sword placed in Barnstokkr to marriage oaths performed with a sword in pre-Christian Germanic societies, noting a potential connection between the carrying of the sword by a young man before the bride at a wedding as a phallic symbol, indicating an association with fertility. Davidson cites records of wedding ceremonies and games in rural districts in Sweden involving trees or "stocks" as late as the 17th century, and cites a custom in Norway "surviving into recent times" for "the bridegroom to plunge his sword into the roof beam, to test the 'luck' of the marriage by the depth of the scar he made". Davidson points out a potential connection between the descriptor apaldr (Old Norse "apple tree") and the birth of King Völsung, which is described earlier in the Völsunga saga as having occurred after Völsung's father Rerir sits atop a burial mound and prays for a son, after which the goddess Frigg has an apple sent to Rerir. Rerir shares the apple with his wife, resulting in his wife's long pregnancy. Davidson states that this mound is presumably the family burial mound, and proposes a link between the tree, fruit, mound, and the birth of a child. Davidson opines that Siggeir's anger at his inability to gain the sword that Odin has plunged into Barnstokkr at first sight appears excessive, and states that there may be an underlying reason for Siggeir's passionate desire for the sword. Davidson notes that the gift of the sword was made at a wedding feast, and states that Barnstokkr likely represents the 'guardian tree', "such as those that used to stand beside many a house in Sweden and Denmark, and which was associated with the 'luck' of the family", and that the 'guardian tree' also had a connection with the birth of children. Davidson cites Jan de Vries in that the name barnstokkr "used in this story was the name given to the trunk of such a tree because it used to be invoked and even clasped by the women of the family at the time of childbirth." Providing examples of historical structures built around trees, or with 'guardian trees' around or in the structure in Germanic areas, Davidson states that the "'luck' of a family must largely depend on the successful bearing and rearing of sons, and there is a general belief that when a guardian tree is destroyed, the family will die out." In connection with this, Davidson theorizes that at the bridal feast, it should have been Siggeir, the bridegroom, who drew the sword from the tree, "and that its possession would symbolize the 'luck' which would come to him with his bride, and the successful continuation of his own line in the sons to be born of the marriage". The sword having been refused to him, Davidson theorizes that this may well have been intended as a deadly insult, and that this lends a tragic air to the scene in the hall. Jesse Byock (1990) states that the name Barnstokkr may not conceivably be the original name of the tree, and instead that it is possible that it may have originally been bran(d)stokkr', the first part of the compound potentially having been brandr, (meaning brand or firebrand), a word sometimes synonymous with "hearth", and pointing to a potential connection to the fire burning within the hall. Byock notes that the tree is called an eik (Old Norse "oak"), which has an unclear meaning as the Icelanders often employed the word as a general word for "tree", and the tree is also referred to as apaldr, which is also a general term for trees. Byock theorizes that the latter reference to an apple tree may imply a further symbolic meaning pointing to the apple tree of the goddess Iðunn, and that the Barnstokkr may be further identified with the world tree Yggdrasil. Andy Orchard (1997) states that the role and placement of Barnstokkr as a "mighty tree, supporting and sprouting through the roof of Völsung's hall" has clear parallels in Norse mythology with the world tree Yggdrasil, particularly in relation to Yggdrasil's position to the hall of Valhalla. Orchard further points out parallels between Sigmund's ability to solely remove the sword from the trunk and King Arthur's drawing of the sword Excalibur. ## Modern influence In Richard Wagner's Der Ring des Nibelungen opera cycle, the tree appears as Barnstock, when the hero Siegmund, with a great tug, pulls from it a sword that he names Nothung. The tree however is in the house of Hunding, who takes the place of Siggeir as husband of Sieglinde and enemy of Siegmund. Barnstokkr has been theorized as English author and philologist J. R. R. Tolkien's immediate source for a scene in his 1954 work The Lord of the Rings depicting the fictional character of Frodo Baggins and his acceptance of the weapon Sting after it has been thrust "deep into a wooden beam". Some of the structures described in Tolkien's Lord of the Rings have been described as "recalling" the position and placement of Barnstokkr in Völsunga saga, which Tolkien was well familiar with. ## See also - Glasir, the golden tree that stands before Valhalla. - Læraðr, a tree that sits atop Valhalla, grazed upon by a goat and a hart. - Sacred tree at Uppsala, an ever green tree before the Temple of Uppsala. - Rama breaking Shiva's bow Pinaka at his wedding with Sita
66,702,503	Saks Fifth Avenue flagship store	1,149,986,963	Department store flagship in Manhattan, New York	[ "1924 establishments in New York City", "1990 establishments in New York City", "Commercial buildings completed in 1924", "Commercial buildings completed in 1990", "Commercial buildings in Manhattan", "Fifth Avenue", "Midtown Manhattan", "New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan", "Postmodern architecture in New York City", "Retail buildings in New York (state)", "Saks Fifth Avenue", "Skyscraper office buildings in Manhattan" ]	The Saks Fifth Avenue flagship store is a department store in Midtown Manhattan, New York City on Fifth Avenue between 49th and 50th Streets. The original 10-story structure at 611 Fifth Avenue has served as the flagship store of Saks Fifth Avenue since its completion in 1924. The store also occupies part of 623 Fifth Avenue, a 36-story tower completed in 1990. The original Saks Fifth Avenue Building was designed by Starrett & van Vleck in the classical style. It contains a facade made of Indiana limestone, brick, and cast-stone, with chamfered corners on Fifth Avenue at 49th and 50th Streets. Saks Fifth Avenue was the first department store on Fifth Avenue to comply with the 1916 Zoning Resolution, with setbacks on its upper floors. The tower addition at 623 Fifth Avenue was designed by Lee Harris Pomeroy Associates and Abramovitz Kingsland Schiff. The tower is partially designed in the style of the original structure. The Saks Fifth Avenue Building was planned in the early 20th century by Horace Saks, head of Saks & Company, which had a flagship store at Herald Square. The building was constructed from 1922 to 1924 as "Saks-Fifth Avenue", a joint venture between Saks and his cousin Bernard Gimbel. Saks Fifth Avenue later became a department store chain in its own right, and the Fifth Avenue store became a flagship location. The original building was designated a New York City Landmark in 1984 to allow the development of the 623 Fifth Avenue tower annex. Over the years, the store has undergone numerous modifications. ## Architecture Saks Fifth Avenue spans two structures: 611 Fifth Avenue, built in 1924, and an extension at 623 Fifth Avenue – a 36-story tower built in 1990. Saks co-developed the tower and operates ten of its floors. The building is abutted by 18 East 50th Street to the east. It is across 50th Street from St. Patrick's Cathedral and across Fifth Avenue from the Rockefeller Center complex, both National Historic Landmarks. Within Rockefeller Center, the British Empire Building and La Maison Francaise are to the west and the International Building is to the northwest; in addition, 608 Fifth Avenue is immediately to the southwest. The building makes up a part of Fifth Avenue's "streetwalls", rows of mid-rise buildings built in the early- to mid-1900s clad in limestone or beige brick. The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission designated the original structure as a city landmark because it contributed to this design aspect of Fifth Avenue. The original structure was designed by Starrett & van Vleck and constructed by the Cauldwell-Wingate Company, with numerous other engineers and contractors. Starrett & van Vleck created a classical exterior matching with the character of Fifth Avenue at the time, as prompted by the Fifth Avenue Association. The association granted the store its 1924 gold medal for "best new building of the year". The architects created a modern interior for the department store and followed a new city zoning law requiring setbacks for buildings' upper floors for Saks' administrative offices. The 36-story 623 Fifth Avenue was designed by a partnership between Lee Harris Pomeroy Associates, hired by Swiss Bank Corporation (the initial building owners), and Abramovitz Kingsland Schiff (staff architects for Saks). The New York City Planning Commission requested a height not much greater than the neighboring Newsweek Building, limiting its floor count and limiting ceiling heights to 8 feet, 8 inches. The tower is often stated to have 36 stories, as the 37th and 38th floors just house mechanical equipment, as does floor 10. The tower also has a basement loading level and sub-basement. ### Exterior #### Original building The 1924 building has ten stories, as well as three facades on 49th Street, Fifth Avenue, and 50th Street. The primary Fifth Avenue elevation is connected to the 49th and 50th Street elevations by chamfered corners, each with about 200 feet (61 m) of street frontage. The exterior utilizes Indiana limestone, brick, and cast stone. The design is a modest version of neoclassical buildings popular in the 1920s, reported at the time as inspired by the architecture of the late English Renaissance and by lesser-known 18th c. London buildings. The three facades are nearly identical except for minor details at ground level. At ground level, the facade is clad with rusticated granite blocks and contains tall display windows. This first level is high-ceilinged; its exterior reads as 1.5 stories tall. The display windows are large plate glass sheets in bronze frames, with narrow sections of marble wall between each window. Annually from October to December, these display windows contain holiday decorations. On Fifth Avenue, the display windows span the block and are only interrupted by two entrances. The presence of twin entrances, while relatively rare for department stores, emphasizes the building's size and full-block Fifth Avenue frontage. The entranceways are rectangular, with carved spiral moldings and topped with a plain cornice. Sets of doors span the lower halves of the entrances, while the upper halves have windows set behind ornate metal grilles. The 49th and 50th Street entrances have original metal canopies hung above the doorways. The canopies read "Saks & Company" between squares with quatrefoil designs; the canopy tops are decorated with a bronze frieze of urns and floral motifs. The eastern end of the 49th Street facade has a loading bay topped with an ornamental bronze cornice. The 49th Street loading bay was for receiving merchandise. A corresponding loading bay on 50th Street was used for shipping and contained an adjacent employee entrance. The main element of the facade is on its second and third floors – a 14-bay-wide order of fluted pilasters supporting an architrave, all constructed of Indiana limestone. The design is flat and restrained, though the pilasters' capitals and the architrave's frieze are ornate and inventive. Another architrave divides the second and third floors, featuring a decorative balustrade. The fourth through sixth stories are less ornate, with a brick exterior and rectangular windows. The fourth-story windows have decorative cast stone surrounds topped by plain panels. Above this story is a sill molding, and the seventh story, also brick-faced but with ornamental stone roundels placed between each of the windows. The story is topped with a cornice and balustrade above. These first through seventh stories feature chamfered bays between the Fifth Avenue and side street facades. The eighth, ninth, and tenth stories are progressively set back from the street fronts. The eighth story is relatively bare, while the ninth has narrow windows surrounded alternatively by slender colonnettes and cast stone rectangular panels. The story is topped with a heavy stone cornice and plain brick parapet. The tenth story has simple windows and a brick exterior, also topped with a cornice and final stone balustrade. #### 623 Fifth Avenue The tower adjacent to the original flagship was originally known as Swiss Bank Tower and 10 East 50th Street and, since 2002, has also been known as 623 Fifth Avenue. All 38 stories of the tower addition are clad in Indiana limestone. The tower and original Saks building are easily viewable from across the street at 30 Rockefeller Plaza and its Top of the Rock observation deck. From there, 623 Fifth Avenue rises symmetrically above Saks, and with a carved-out center, reciprocating the axis of the protruding 30 Rockefeller Plaza. The corners of the tower also contain chamfers that relate to the design of the original store. This section features ribbons of windows only separated by thin limestone spandrels; the rest of the building has standalone or punched windows. The first seven floors of the building, constructed in 1990, feature an exterior mirroring the 1924 Saks building. The bank had favored a modern facade, though the city's Landmarks Preservation Commission desired an extension of the 1924 facade. Both Saks and the offices share street frontage on its 49th and 50th Street facades. The 50th Street facade is a near-identical replication, with only subtle changes in form and detail, and with hand-carved ornamentation. Saks gained two new display windows and an entranceway replicating the original single 50th Street entrance, while Swiss Bank Corporation gained a two-bay-wide and three-story-tall grand entrance. The 49th Street facade at ground-level is more modern, though with a Saks entrance and show windows replicating originals. The facade is pulled back from the street, giving this side a small paved forecourt. On either side of the new Saks entrance are its relocated loading dock and a secondary office tower entrance. ### Interior The original structure had over 400,000 square feet (37,000 m<sup>2</sup>) of floor area, while the tower has 370,000 sq ft (34,000 m<sup>2</sup>). The tower's first through ninth floors are operated by Saks, with a 100,000 sq ft (9,300 m<sup>2</sup>) expansion. The 10th story of the tower has mechanical equipment, while the 11th through 36th floors are office space that is operated separately. #### Department store When the original department store opened, the first through seventh stories were dedicated to sales. There were also four stories of offices and storerooms. The basement was used for shipping and receiving, the eighth story was used for offices, and the ninth and tenth stories for stockrooms and workrooms. The upper floors were subsequently turned into sales space as well. As of 2020, the store spans 600,000 or 650,000 square feet (56,000 or 60,000 m<sup>2</sup>). The main floor is about 53,000 square feet (4,900 m<sup>2</sup>) and includes a handbag department, as well as an escalator to the second floor that was decorated by Rem Koolhaas. The first story has a ceiling height of 18.75 feet (5.72 m), while the other stories have ceiling heights of 14 feet (4.3 m). The building's superstructure is formed by eight sets of columns. Twelve elevators were placed at the eastern end of the building, in the rear. Two enclosed stairways were installed near the Fifth Avenue entrances, and there were service stairs at each of the rear corners. The furnishings were designed in hardwood, while the wall surfaces and columns above contained white finishing. The flat-paneled ceilings had suspended light fixtures and concealed sprinkler pipes. #### Office space Each of the office stories has a ceiling of 8 feet 8 inches (2.64 m). The office tower's two-story lobby is on the 11th and 12th floors, a sky lobby atop the Saks expansion, with four shuttle elevators taking passengers up to this lobby. The lobby originally had a waterfall and 1989 Richard Serra work, Fin, made of curved oxidized iron and weighing 18 tons. The lobby level also has a conference center and cafeteria. As late as 2002, the building had a five-story corporate penthouse for executive offices, with a total of 65,000 square feet (6,000 m<sup>2</sup>). The offices, on floors 32 to 36, had Swiss pearwood-lined walls, while its elevator lobbies and reception areas had cut limestone walls. The space also featured meeting rooms, a kitchen, and a dining room. ## History ### Origin: A. Saks & Co. Andrew Saks was born to a German Jewish family in Baltimore. He worked as a peddler and paper boy before moving to Washington, D.C. where at the age of only 20, and in the still-chaotic and tough economic times of 1867, only two years after the United States prevailed in the American Civil War, he established a men's clothing store with his brother Isadore. A. Saks & Co. occupied a storefront in the Avenue House Hotel building at 517 (300-308) 7th Street, N.W., in what is still Washington's downtown shopping district. Saks annexed the store next door, and in 1887 started building a large new store on the site of the old Avenue Hotel Building at 7th and Market Space (now United States Navy Memorial Plaza). By the 1880s, Saks had expanded his business to Indianapolis and Richmond, Virginia. Saks opened a large department store in 1902 in New York City's Herald Square on 34th Street and Broadway (at 1293-1311 Broadway). Andrew Saks ran the New York store as a family affair with his brother Isadore, and his sons Horace and William. Andrew Saks died in 1912 and his son Horace took over the company's management. Horace Saks wanted to move to the Fifth Avenue shopping district, which had been first developed in 1905 with the opening of the B. Altman and Company Building at 34th Street and which was gradually expanding northward. However, he deferred a relocation of the store during World War I. ### Relocation Saks & Company leased the Buckingham Hotel and Belgravia Apartments, on Fifth Avenue between 49th and 50th Streets, in April 1920 for \$35 million. At the time, the site was described in the Real Estate Record as a "new northern outpost for large retail trade". In June 1921, Starrett & Van Vleck filed plans for a nine-story building on the Fifth Avenue site. Demolition of the two structures began later that year. Further underlining the need for a new store was the fact that, in 1922, the landlord of the Herald Square building doubled the rent. The National Democratic Club occupied the middle of the Saks site, at 617 Fifth Avenue, but the club originally refused a \$1 million offer for its site, which measured 100 by 42 feet (30 by 13 m). As a result, Saks & Company initially sought to construct a U-shaped building wrapping around the clubhouse. Saks merged in April 1923 with Gimbel Brothers, Inc., which was owned by Horace Saks' cousin Bernard Gimbel. Gimbel took over the Herald Square lease, paid off Saks' debt, and bought \$8 million of the company's stock. The Saks Fifth Avenue store became a joint venture between Saks and Gimbel. Saks & Company bought the Democratic Club in May 1923. On September 15, 1924, the Saks Fifth Avenue Building opened at 611 Fifth Avenue, with a full-block avenue frontage south of St. Patrick's Cathedral, facing what would become Rockefeller Center. At the time, The Evening World wrote that it did not consider Saks a department store, contrary to popular belief. The newspaper stated that Saks sold no dry goods or furniture, only dealing in clothing and accessories. The new store did not add any of these departments, only doubling the floor space of the existing departments. The Wall Street Journal projected the new store would ultimately have an annual profit of \$17 million. The store would become known as "Saks-Fifth Avenue" with a hyphen, as compared with the older location, known as "Saks Herald Square" or "Saks 34th Street". ### Operation #### Mid-20th century In 1926, the Saks brothers withdrew from the operation of Saks & Company, stating that the Fifth Avenue store had become "satisfactorily" established. Over subsequent years, several branches of the Saks Fifth Avenue brand were opened, and the Fifth Avenue store became a flagship location. From 1929 to 1969, Sophie Gimbel led the store's custom department. Gimbel, wife of the company president, designed elegant clothes and introduced women's culottes to the American public. On the land underlying the Saks flagship, the Saks Realty Company initially owned the former Democratic Club plot, but the remaining site was owned by the George Kemp Company. In 1935, the Kemp Company bought the Democratic Club plot, thereby obtaining ownership of the entire site. Also in 1935, Saks introduced a ski department with a ski slope and skiing classes. By 1938, Fortune magazine characterized the Fifth Avenue store as upscale, as opposed to "the anthill bargain basement tables on Herald Square", the latter of which ended up closing in the 1960s. An imported-object gift shop, with a separate entrance on 50th Street, opened in 1950. The Fifth Avenue site was sold in 1952 to William Zeckendorf, who the following year sold it to the Rockefeller family. #### Late 20th century In February 1979, Saks announced the flagship store would be extensively remodeled for \$200 million as part of the first major renovation in the flagship's history. Initially, Saks officials planned a nine-story expansion "in the backyard of a former brownstone" behind the existing flagship. The flagship's first escalators would be installed within the expansion, as Saks officials sought to minimize disruption to the main store. These plans brought criticism from observers who worried the expansion would lower the quality of Saks' flagship to that of Bloomingdale's or Macy's. That July, Saks submitted provisional plans to the New York City Planning Commission (CPC) for a 50-story office and residential tower east of its flagship. The lots to the east had been proposed as the site of a tower since the 1950s but had not been developed because of a lack of participation by Saks real estate interests. Work on the expansion proceeded before the tower was approved and, in November 1979, a set of new escalators opened in the rear of the Saks flagship. Project architect Hambrecht Terrell then renovated the second floor with a brick corridor containing shops for notable fashion designers. The third floor was also redesigned with a corridor lined with women's boutiques, and the sixth floor was renovated as a moderately-priced clothing section for the "working woman". Saks entered a joint venture with Rockefeller Center Properties in 1981 to develop the site with a 690,000-square-foot (64,000 m<sup>2</sup>) tower. Under the plan, about a quarter of the space would have been occupied by Saks while the rest would be office space. The store's land lot and the adjoining midblock parcel were in separate zoning districts with different floor area ratios, and so air rights could not be transferred unless the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) designated it as a landmark. According to the CPC chairman's counsel, if the flagship were a city landmark, the tower would be allowed because its development would assist the preservation of the landmark. Saks also supported a landmark designation for its store. Accordingly, the LPC designated Saks Fifth Avenue as a landmark on December 20, 1984. The LPC unanimously approved the tower proposal the following June. After Saks' agreement with Rockefeller Center Properties failed, Galbreath-Ruffin became a partner in the tower project, though Swiss Bank Corporation subsequently bought out Galbreath-Ruffin's stake. A proposal for a 36-story tower was presented by a joint venture of Saks and Swiss Bank in 1986. The former would expand its flagship space into the base of the tower while the latter would use the upper floors as its headquarters. Swiss Bank and Saks spent fourteen months negotiating over the plans. The largest point of contention was the tower addition's 50th Street frontage, which Saks wanted for display windows, but this was ultimately allocated to Swiss Bank for its entrance. The initial plan for the tower's facade was designed by Abramowitz Kingsland Schiff, which had preferred a design with brown and white horizontal bands. Pomeroy took over as main architect after Abramowitz Kingsland Schiff's plan was criticized as Brutalist and out-of-context with surrounding buildings. Work on the midblock site started in 1987, and the tower was completed in 1990. The store's selling floors were expanded into the first through ninth stories of the tower. The additions included a restaurant called Cafe SFA on the eighth floor and a beauty salon and spa at the ninth floor. The tower was able to obtain a prestigious Fifth Avenue address because the skyscraper is on the same land lot as the 1924 store and was built using its air rights. Architectural writer Paul Goldberger criticized the design as bland, saying the Swiss Bank Tower was "so successful at not offending that it ends up having nothing to say". The tower was fully occupied by 1992. The original flagship and the tower addition have a single owner, initially Swiss Bank Corporation, which had leased the ground from Saks for 100 years. Cohen Brothers Realty Corporation acquired the Swiss Bank Tower in 1997. Following Swiss Bank's subsequent merger with UBS, the company moved its offices out of the tower. #### 21st century Starting in the late 1990s, Saks Fifth Avenue extensively renovated its flagship. Saks Fifth Avenue completed the \$125 million renovation of the flagship store in 2003. A year later, Saks' new CEO Fred Wilson announced plans to undo much of the renovation and spend \$150 million to further remodel the flagship. In August 2007, the United States Postal Service began an experimental program selling the "plus" ZIP Code extension to businesses. The first company to do so was Saks Fifth Avenue, which received the ZIP Code of 10022-7463 ("SHOE") for the flagship's eighth-floor shoe department. The building's eighth floor thus became the first instance in the United States in which an individual story of a building had its own ZIP Code. This coincided with the expansion of the shoe department, which had moved from the fourth floor and doubled in size to 8,500 square feet (790 m<sup>2</sup>). As of 2013, the New York flagship store's real estate value was estimated between \$800 million and over \$1 billion. At the time, the flagship generated around 20% of Saks' annual sales, valued at \$620 million. Hudson's Bay Company, which took over the Saks Fifth Avenue chain in 2013, took out a loan the following year. The loan gave the Fifth Avenue store a book value of \$3.7 billion, more than the \$2.9 billion the company had paid for the entire chain. In 2015, Saks began a \$250 million, three-year restoration of the flagship store. The company president desired reinventing the flagship, opening up its floors and closing its Cafe SFA to create a new eatery, the Parisian-style L'Avenue. Saks planned a spiral staircase around a glass elevator, linking its first and second floors. It would move around departments and convert some back-room space to retail space. The main floor, which was renovated to contain a handbag department, was completed in August 2019. The value of the building was recorded at \$1.6 billion in 2019, amid a general decline in the retail sector. A department for children opened in March 2020, the first in the flagship store's history. Additional work was to be completed in 2021, including a men's shoes department and a basement jewelry section. In August 2021, workspace company WeWork announced it would open a location on the Saks flagship's 10th floor. After New York state officials announced in April 2022 that they would issue three casino licenses in Downstate New York, Hudson's Bay Company proposed constructing a casino on the top three stories of the Saks Fifth Avenue flagship store. ## See also - List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan from 14th to 59th Streets
1,478,662	Hyperspace	1,170,794,162	Faster-than-light travel in science fiction	[ "Faster-than-light travel in fiction", "Fictional dimensions", "Science fiction themes", "Space", "Teleportation in fiction" ]	In science fiction, hyperspace (also known as nulspace, subspace, overspace, jumpspace and similar terms) is a concept relating to higher dimensions as well as parallel universes and a faster-than-light (FTL) method of interstellar travel. Its use in science fiction originated in the magazine Amazing Stories Quarterly in 1931 and within several decades it became one of the most popular tropes of science fiction, popularized by its use in the works of authors such as Isaac Asimov and E. C. Tubb, and media franchises such as Star Wars. One of the main reasons for the concept's popularity is the impossibility of faster-than-light travel in ordinary space, which hyperspace allows writers to bypass. In most works, hyperspace is described as a higher dimension through which the shape of our three-dimensional space can be distorted to bring distant points close to each other, similar to the concept of a wormhole; or a shortcut-enabling parallel universe that can be travelled through. Usually it can be traversed – the process often known as "jumping" – through a gadget known as a "hyperdrive"; rubber science is sometimes used to explain it. Many works rely on hyperspace as a convenient background tool enabling FTL travel necessary for the plot, with a small minority making it a central element in their storytelling. While most often used in the context of interstellar travel, a minority of works focus on other plot points, such as the inhabitants of hyperspace, hyperspace as an energy source, or even hyperspace as the afterlife. The term occasionally appears in scientific works in related contexts. ## Concept The basic premise of hyperspace is that vast distances through space can be traversed quickly by taking a kind of shortcut. There are two common models used to explain this shortcut: folding and mapping. In the folding model, hyperspace is a place of higher dimension through which the shape of our three-dimensional space can be distorted to bring distant points close to each other; a common analogy popularized by Robert A. Heinlein's Starman Jones (1953) is that of crumpling two-dimensional paper or cloth in the third dimension, thus bringing points on its surface into contact. In the mapping model, hyperspace is a parallel universe much smaller than ours (but not necessarily the same shape), which can be entered at a point corresponding to one location in ordinary space and exited at a different point corresponding to another location after travelling a much shorter distance than would be necessary in ordinary space. The Science in Science Fiction compares it to being able to step onto a world map at one's current location, walking across the map to a different continent, and then stepping off the map to find oneself at the new location—noting that the hyperspace "map" could have a significantly more complicated shape, as in Bob Shaw's Night Walk (1967). Hyperspace is generally seen as a fictional concept, incompatible with our present-day understanding of the universe (in particular, the theory of relativity). Some science fiction writers attempted quasi-scientific rubber science explanations of this concept. For others, however, it is just a convenient MacGuffin enabling faster-than-light travel necessary for their story without violating the prohibitions against FTL travel in ordinary space imposed by known laws of physics. ### Terminology The term "hyperspace" originated in 19th-century mathematical texts in the context of higher-dimensional space, and it is still occasionally used in academic works in that context, popularized among others by theoretical physicist Michio Kaku's popular science book Hyperspace (1994). The means of accessing hyperspace is often called a "hyperdrive", and navigating hyperspace is typically referred to as "jumping" (as in "the ship will now jump through hyperspace"). A number of related terms (such as imaginary space, Jarnell intersplit, jumpspace, megaflow, N-Space, nulspace, slipstream, overspace, Q-space, subspace, and tau-space) have been used by various writers, although none have gained recognition to rival that of hyperspace. Some works use multiple synonyms; for example, in the Star Trek franchise, the term hyperspace itself is only used briefly in a single 1988 episode ("Coming of Age") of Star Trek: The Next Generation, while a related set of terms – such as subspace, transwarp, and proto-warp – are employed much more often, and most of the travel takes place through the use of a warp drive. Hyperspace travel has also been discussed in the context of wormholes and teleportation, which some writers consider to be similar whereas others view them as separate concepts. ## History Emerging in the early 20th century, within several decades hyperspace became a common element of interstellar space travel stories in science fiction. Kirk Meadowcroft's "The Invisible Bubble" (1928) and John Campbell's Islands of Space (1931) feature the earliest known references to hyperspace, with Campbell, whose story was published in the science fiction magazine Amazing Stories Quarterly, likely being the first writer to use this term in the context of space travel. According to the Historical Dictionary of Science Fiction, the earliest known use of the word "hyper-drive" comes from a preview of Murray Leinster's story "The Manless Worlds" in Thrilling Wonder Stories 1946. Another early work featuring hyperspace was Nelson Bond's The Scientific Pioneer Returns (1940). Isaac Asimov's Foundation series, first published in Astounding starting in 1942, featured a Galactic Empire traversed through hyperspace through the use of a "hyperatomic drive". In Foundation (1951), hyperspace is described as an "...unimaginable region that was neither space nor time, matter nor energy, something nor nothing, one could traverse the length of the Galaxy in the interval between two neighboring instants of time." E. C. Tubb has been credited with playing an important role in the development of hyperspace lore; writing a number of space operas in the early 1950s in which space travel occurs through that medium. He was also one of the first writers to treat hyperspace as a central part of the plot rather than a convenient background gadget that just enables the faster-than-light space travel. In 1963, Philip Harbottle called the concept of hyperspace "a fixture" of the science fiction genre, and in 1977 Brian Ash wrote in The Visual Encyclopedia of Science Fiction that it had become the most popular of all faster-than-light methods of travel. The concept would subsequently be further popularized through its use in the Star Wars franchise. In the 1974 film Dark Star, special effects designer Dan O'Bannon created a visual effect to depict going into hyperspace wherein the stars in space appear to move rapidly toward the camera. This is considered to be the first depiction in cinema history of a ship making the jump into hyperspace. The same effect was later employed in Star Wars (1977) and the "star streaks" are considered one of the visual "staples" of the Star Wars franchise. ## Characteristics Hyperspace is typically described as chaotic and confusing to human senses; often at least unpleasant – transitions to or from hyperspace can cause symptoms such as nausea, for example – and in some cases even hypnotic or dangerous to one's sanity. Visually, hyperspace is often left to the reader's imagination, or depicted as "a swirling gray mist". In some works, it is dark. Exceptions exist; for example, John Russel Fearn's Waters of Eternity (1953) features hyperspace that allows observation of regular space from within. Many stories feature hyperspace as a dangerous, treacherous place where straying from a preset course can be disastrous. In Frederick Pohl's The Mapmakers (1955), navigational errors and the perils of hyperspace are one of the main plot-driving elements, and in K. Houston Brunner's Fiery Pillar (1955), a ship re-emerges within Earth, causing a catastrophic explosion. In some works, travelling or navigating hyperspace requires not only specialized equipment, but physical or psychological modifications of passengers or at least navigators, as seen in Frank Herbert's Dune (1965), Michael Moorcock's The Sundered Worlds (1966), Vonda McIntyre's Aztecs (1977), and David Brin's The Warm Space (1985). While generally associated with science fiction, hyperspace-like concepts exist in some works of fantasy, particularly ones which involve movement between different worlds or dimensions. Such travel, usually done through portals rather than vehicles, is usually explained through the existence of magic. ## Use While mainly designed as means of fast space travel, occasionally, some writers have used the hyperspace concept in more imaginative ways, or as a central element of the story. In Arthur C. Clarke's "Technical Error" (1950), a man is laterally reversed by a brief accidental encounter with "hyperspace". In Robert A. Heinlein's Glory Road (1963) and Robert Silverberg's "Nightwings" (1968), it is used for storage. In George R.R. Martin's FTA (1974) hyperspace travel takes longer than in regular space, and in John E. Stith's Redshift Rendezvous (1990), the twist is that the relativistic effects within it appear at lower velocities. Hyperspace is generally unpopulated, save for the space-faring travellers. Early exceptions include Tubb's Dynasty of Doom (1953), Fearn's Waters of Eternity (1953) and Christopher Grimm's Someone to Watch Over Me (1959), which feature denizens of hyperspace. In The Mystery of Element 117 (1949) by Milton Smith, a window is opened into a new "hyperplane of hyperspace" containing those who have already died on Earth, and similarly, in Bob Shaw's The Palace of Eternity (1969), hyperspace is a form of afterlife, where human minds and memories reside after death. In some works, hyperspace is a source of extremely dangerous energy, threatening to destroy the entire world if mishandled (for instance Eando Binder's The Time Contractor from 1937 or Alfred Bester's "The Push of a Finger" from 1942). The concept of hyperspace travel, or space folding, can be used outside space travel as well, for example in Stephen King's short story "Mrs. Todd's Shortcut" it is a means for an elderly lady to take a shortcut while travelling between two cities. In many stories, a starship cannot enter or leave hyperspace too close to a large concentration of mass, such as a planet or star; this means that hyperspace can only be used after a starship gets to the outside edge of a solar system, so that it must use other means of propulsion to get to and from planets. Other stories require a very large expenditure of energy in order to open a link (sometimes called a jump point) between hyperspace and regular space; this effectively limits access to hyperspace to very large starships, or to large stationary jump gates that can open jump points for smaller vessels. Examples include the "jump" technology in Babylon 5 and the star gate in Arthur C. Clarke's 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968). Just like with the very concept of hyperspace, the reasons given for such restrictions are usually technobabble, but their existence can be an important plot device. Science fiction author Larry Niven published his opinions to that effect in N-Space. According to him, an unrestricted FTL technology would give no limits to what heroes and villains could do. Limiting the places a ship can appear in, or making them more predictable, means that they will meet each other most often around contested planets or space stations, allowing for narratively satisfying battles or other encounters. On the other hand, a less restricted hyperdrive may also allow for dramatic escapes as the pilot "jumps" to hyperspace in the midst of battle to avoid destruction. In 1999 science fiction author James P. Hogan wrote that hyperspace is often treated as a plot-enabling gadget rather than as a fascinating, world-changing item, and that there are next to no works that discuss how hyperspace has been discovered and how such discovery subsequently changed the world. ## See also - Minkowski space - Teleportation in fiction - Wormholes in fiction - Warp (video games)
35,051,866	2006 Ford 400	1,171,703,778	null	[ "2006 NASCAR Nextel Cup Series", "2006 in sports in Florida", "NASCAR races at Homestead-Miami Speedway", "November 2006 sports events in the United States" ]	The 2006 Ford 400 was the thirty-sixth stock car race of the 2006 NASCAR Nextel Cup Series, and the final round of the ten-race season-ending Chase for the Nextel Cup. It was held on November 19, 2006, in Homestead, Florida, at Homestead–Miami Speedway, before a crowd of 80,000 people. The circuit is an intermediate track that holds NASCAR races. Roush Racing's Greg Biffle won the 267-lap race from the 22nd position. Dale Earnhardt, Inc.'s Martin Truex Jr. finished secondm and Joe Gibbs Racing's Denny Hamlin was third. Kasey Kahne won his 12th career pole position by recording the quickest qualifying lap, and he led the first 18 laps before Kyle Busch passed him. He retook first on the 47th lap and led for 90 laps, more than any other driver. Dale Earnhardt Jr. took the lead after not making a pit stop during a caution period and held it until Truex took the lead after Earnhardt had a lengthy pit stop due to a lug nut problem. Biffle took the lead from Riggs, only to lose it to J. J. Yeley during the pit stop rotation, before passing him with twelve laps remaining to win his second race of the season and eleventh of his career. During the race, there were eleven cautions and fifteen lead changes among ten drivers. The race resulted in Jimmie Johnson, the pre-race points leader, winning his first NASCAR Nextel Cup Series Drivers' Championship by 56 points lead over his nearest opponent, Matt Kenseth. Hamlin finished third to end the season as the highest-placed rookie. Chevrolet finished the Manufacturers' Championship with 279 points, 76 more than Dodge and another point ahead of Ford. ## Background The Ford 400 was the 36th of 36 scheduled stock car races of the 2006 NASCAR Nextel Cup Series, and the final round of the ten-race season-ending 2006 Chase for the Nextel Cup. It was held on November 19, 2006, in Homestead, Florida, at Homestead–Miami Speedway, an intermediate track that holds NASCAR races. The race was held on Homestead–Miami Speedway's standard track; a 1.5 mi (2.4 km) four-turn oval track. The track's turns are banked from 18 to 20 degrees, while both the front stretch, the location of the finish line, and the back stretch are banked at three degrees. Before the race, Jimmie Johnson led the Drivers' Championship with 6,332 points, followed by Matt Kenseth. Denny Hamlin and Kevin Harvick tied for third and Dale Earnhardt Jr. completed the top five drivers competing for the 2006 Chase for the Nextel Cup. The final race had a maximum of 195 points available, which meant Kenseth could still win the championship. Johnson had to finish twelfth to become champion because even if Kenseth won, Johnson would still be ahead of him. If Kenseth won and he and Johnson were tied on points, both drivers would have five victories, but Johnson would be the champion because he had more second-place finishes than Kenseth. Jeff Gordon, Jeff Burton, Mark Martin, Kasey Kahne completed the top ten. Chevrolet had already secured the Manufacturers' Championship, and entered the race on 273 points; Dodge was second with 199, followed by Ford with 193. Greg Biffle was the race's defending champion. Johnson, the 2004 championship runner-up, had been second in points entering the past three races at Homestead, and stated his strategy was to finish ahead of his competitors. "I can't express enough how much experience in this sport has helped me as a driver. My fifth year, fifth time being in a championship situation ... We’ve been under pressure and we’ve been in this situation and we are a better, stronger, more mature race team from it. I think the last few months, we’ve been able to show that." Kenseth stated that his only chance of winning his second championship was if Johnson did not finish, and he was pessimistic given his recent poor performance, "He's going to have to have problems, and we're going to have to have a lot of good luck to get in there. We can't do it on performance. We can't run 25th on performance right now." Two drivers made their first attempts to qualify for a race this season. After leaving Formula One in July 2006, Juan Pablo Montoya partook in the Ford 400 for Chip Ganassi Racing in its No. 30 car as preparation for his full-time Nextel Cup Series debut for the 2007 season after team owner Chip Ganassi filed an additional entry for the event. Brewco Motorsports kept Busch Series driver Casey Atwood for Homestead, hoping to qualify for the team's second Nextel Cup Series race, and Atwood's first since racing for Evernham Motorsports in the 2003 season. ## Practice and qualifying Three practice sessions were held before the Sunday race; one on Friday and two on Saturday. The first session lasted 90 minutes, the second 60 minutes and the third 35 minutes. Kurt Busch was fastest in the first practice session with a time of 30.366 seconds, ahead of Elliott Sadler in second, and David Stremme third. Burton, Biffle, Kahne, Brian Vickers, Ryan Newman, Martin, and Scott Riggs rounded out the session's top ten drivers. Dale Jarrett crashed into a trackside wall during the practice session. He used a backup car for the qualifying session later that day. On Friday afternoon, 56 cars entered the qualifier; NASCAR's qualifying procedure allowed 43 to race. Each driver ran two laps, with the starting order set by the competitor's fastest times. Morgan Shepherd withdrew from the race before qualifying because an accident in the first practice session caused irreparable structural damage to his car. Kahne took his sixth pole position of the season, and the 12th of his career with a time of 30.293 seconds, equalling Kurt Busch's total of pole positions won in 2006. He was joined on the grid's front row by Riggs, his Evernham Motorsports teammate, who was 0.007 seconds slower. Kyle Busch, Sadler, Burton, Vickers, Harvick, J. J. Yeley, David Gilliland, and Clint Bowyer completed the top ten starters. Johnson, a Chase for the Nextel Cup driver, qualified 13th, while Kenseth, another chase driver, set the 19th-fastest lap. 43rd-placed qualifier Bill Elliott used a champion's provisional to qualify for the race. On his second lap, Robby Gordon's engine failed, and he changed engines. The twelve drivers who failed to qualify were Ward Burton, Brandon Whitt, Atwood, Kenny Wallace, Todd Kluever, David Ragan, Michael Waltrip, Mike Skinner, Derrike Cope, Kevin Lepage, Carl Long, and Chad Chaffin. After qualifying, Kahne said, "The engine package we brought here is very strong and the Dodge Chargers are working well. We'll see what happens, but it's pretty nice to have all three cars up front." Casey Mears was fastest with a 31.317-second lap in the second practice session on Saturday afternoon. Harvick set the second-quickest lap time and Newman was third. Burton, Scott Wimmer, Kyle Busch, Kahne, Bowyer, Vickers, and Johnson occupied positions four through ten. Hamlin was the highest-placed Chase driver outside of the top ten in 12th, and Earnhardt was 19th-fastest. At the end of the second practice session, Travis Kvapil's engine failed. Later that day, Burton paced the final practice session with a lap of 31.229 seconds; Newman improved his performance for second, Kahne third, Martin fourth, Kenseth fifth, and his championship rival Johnson sixth. Hamlin placed seventh, Robby Gordon eighth, Mears ninth, and Dave Blaney tenth. ### Qualifying results ## Race Live television coverage of the race began at 14:01 Eastern Standard Time (UTC+04:00) in the United States on NBC. Around the start of the race, weather conditions were clear with the air temperature at 70 °F (21 °C). Jenna Edwards, Miss Florida USA 2007, began pre-race ceremonies with an invocation. American Idol season five winner and blues rock singer Taylor Hicks performed the national anthem, and Ford board of directors member Edsel Ford II commanded the drivers to start their engines. During the pace laps, Bowyer and Robby Gordon moved to the back of the grid because of engine changes. The race commenced at 15:11 local time but one lap was deduced from its scheduled distance because NASCAR located debris on the track between the first and second corners. Kahne maintained the lead going into turn one. Kyle Busch passed Riggs for third, but the latter fell to fourth on lap two. Johnson advanced from 15th to eleventh by the start of the fifth lap. Two laps later, Kurt Busch made contact with the backstretch wall as he exited turn two, ricocheted off it, and Bobby Labonte collided with the rear of his car, resulting in the first caution. During the caution, 23 drivers made pit stops to make car adjustments. At the lap-12 restart, Kahne led his teammate Riggs, Burton, and Kyle Busch. Kyle Busch passed Riggs for second on the following lap. Two laps later, the second caution was shown: Kurt Busch lost control of his car after a flat tire caused him to strike the wall exiting turn four, littering debris. Under caution, more drivers made pit stops. Johnson had a frontal hole punctured by debris from Kurt Busch's car repaired. At the lap 19 restart, Kahne was overtaken for the lead by Kyle Busch, and he then fell behind teammate Riggs for third. Montoya sustained a flat left front tire from made minor contact with Mears and Earnhardt on lap 22. Kyle Busch led Riggs by 0.170 seconds by lap 30, as Johnson advanced to 26th after restarting 40th. Johnson had further advanced to 20th place by lap 40. Five laps later, a spring rubber was located on the backstretch groove, prompting the third caution. During the caution, the leaders (including Kyle Busch), made pit stops for car adjustments. At the lap 50-restart, Kahne led the field to racing speed. He extended his lead over Kyle Busch to 0.994 seconds by the 65th lap. Johnson got into tenth on lap 79, and he overtook Harvick for ninth on the lap after a short battle. On lap 94, Earnhardt moved into sixth place, and he then passed Gilliland and Kenseth to advance into fourth. Green flag pit stops began on lap 104, and concluded on lap 109, with Kahne retaining the lead. Kyle Busch got loose and hit a wall, losing some positions, before hitting the turn two wall with his car's right side on lap 116, resulting in the fourth caution. Several drivers, including Kahne, made pit stops for fuel and tires under caution. Earnhardt did not make a pit stop, and led at the lap-120 restart. Biffle passed Martin Truex Jr. for second 11 laps later, as Earnhardt pulled away from the rest of the field after repelling multiple challenges for the lead. Blaney's left rear tire burst on lap 160, scattering debris across the track, prompting the fifth caution. Multiple drivers (including Earnhardt) entered pit road for tire changes and car adjustments during the caution. Earnhardt had a slow stop because of a rear lug nut problem, and Truex led at the restart on lap 166. A sixth caution was issued as Gilliland struck the turn one wall. He then lost control of his car and crashed into a wall two corners later. Some cars made pit stops, but not the top 13 cars. Racing continued on lap 179 as Truex led from Kahne, and Biffle. Johnson drew alongside Kenseth two laps later but was unable to pass for fifth. He was successful on the next lap until Kenseth retook the position on lap 183. Bowyer passed Johnson for sixth on that lap. On lap 188, Robby Gordon crashed exiting turn four and spun 360 degrees as Johnson steered left to avoid hitting him, bringing out the seventh caution. Under the caution, multiple drivers (including Truex), made pit stops for tires and car adjustments. Sadler did not make a pit stop and led at the lap-194 restart. Johnson dropped to 15th as several drivers began to prepare for several green flag laps on the 197th lap. Mike Bliss' engine failed on lap 206, laying oil on the track and causing the eighth caution. Several cars, including Sadler, entered pit road for tires and fuel. Kahne won the race off pit road to retake the lead for the lap 210 restart. Kahne's teammate Riggs overtook him at the start-finish line for the lead on the lap. The following lap, Riggs lost the lead to Kahne. On laps 212 and 213, Biffle passed teammate Kenseth and Riggs to move to second. He overtook Kahne for the lead for the first time on the 214th lap. Earnhardt scraped the wall with his car's right side through turn two on lap 225, but continued in 12th. Johnson moved to eighth place by the 243rd lap, and did not require another pit stop. Lap 247 had the ninth caution; Newman's left-rear tire was cut from contact with Montoya, and he slid through some grass on the backstretch. The leaders (including Biffle) made pit stops for tires under caution. Yeley stayed on the track to lead at the lap 252 restart. That lap, Newman collided with Montoya's rear in turn one, causing the latter to strike the turn one wall and catch fire as he drifted toward the infield due to a ruptured fuel cell. Montoya was uninjured. A tenth caution was displayed for three laps, until race officials showed a red flag for 7 minutes, 58 seconds for track cleanup as cars stopped on the turn three banking. Yeley led at the lap 257 restart, but was quickly passed by Biffle on the inside. On the following lap, Yeley lost second to Kahne. On the 259th lap, Johnson was passed by Harvick for seventh place, and Hamlin overtook Yeley for third. On lap 262, the 11th (and final) caution came out when Mears' engine failed, laying oil on the track. During the caution, Yeley stopped on the backstretch because his car had run out of fuel on the 265th lap. Biffle got the race back underway on the lap 267 restart. That lap, Kahne was passed by Truex for second. Biffle held the lead for the remaining two laps to take his second victory of the season, and the eleventh of his career. Truex finished second, Hamlin third, Kahne fourth, and Harvick fifth. Kenseth took sixth, Riggs came seventh, and Edwards placed eighth. Johnson finished ninth to win his first NASCAR Nextel Cup Series Championship. Bowyer completed the top ten finishers. There were fifteen lead changes among ten drivers during the race. Kahne led the most laps (90) of any driver. Biffle led twice for a total of 47 laps. ### Post-race comments Biffle appeared in victory lane to celebrate his second victory of the season in front of a crowd of 80,000 spectators; the win earned him \$323,800. He said the victory made up for his season struggles and praised his car for assisting him in winning, "It does a lot for us, Everybody knows this has been a tough year for us. It seems like we haven't been in the right place at the right time and then haven't had fast enough race cars and have had mechanical failures." TTruex appreciated that his fast car allowed him to run strongly for most of the race, "It's been a pretty tough season. The last few months we've really come together and had some good runs and just to be able to close the deal, feels really good." Third-placed Hamlin was not upset about not winning the championship, "I figured we just fell back to fifth or sixth in points and who knows where we were going to end up, I was angry at the time, but I settled myself back down. It's been a great year for us," Hamlin said. "I'm ecstatic the way we ran. This is the way I wanted to end the year is with a top-five finish [because] these guys deserve it." Afterward, Johnson began celebrating his first Nextel Cup Series championship. He said of his achievement, "I think we knew in our hearts we could do it all along, we just got into some bad luck at the beginning. That's what let us get the momentum, let us sleep well at night, is because we knew this team was capable of winning a championship. We just had to have some good luck." His crew chief Chad Knaus commented on the pressure the No. 48 team faced, "This team has really come into its own the last year. We've had to battle back from a lot of weird stuff. I'm more happy for my guys than for myself." Kenseth expressed disappointment with his performance during the Chase for the Nextel Cup, but was pleased to be runner-up to Johnson, "If we had run in the Chase like we did in August, we would have been 200 points clear before Homestead, If you look at all the problems people had in the Chase and we didn't have any, that was dragging me down. But this is probably one of the best seasons I've ever had. I won four races, and we could have won eight or nine." After the race, NASCAR officials summoned Newman and his crew chief Matt Borland to meet with them about his accident with Montoya on lap 252 so that they could question the pair about whether the contact was intentional. Montoya said of the crash after leaving the circuit's infield care center, "It's one of those things that happens in racing. The Texaco/Havoline Dodge was a great car today. Everybody worked so hard on this racecar. It's a shame. It's a fast racecar." According to Newman, Montoya's car cut in front of his, "I felt bad for the situation because, obviously, it looked like I was retaliating, but that's not the case. That's what we just talked about." Johnson won the Drivers' Championship with 6,475 points, 56 more than second-placed Matt Kenseth. Hamlin was the highest-placed rookie in third with 6,407 points. Harvick and Earnhardt were fourth and fifth with 6,397 and 6,328 points respectively, and Jeff Gordon, Burton, Kahne, Martin, and Kyle Busch rounded out the top ten drivers in the final Chase for the Nextel Cup standings. Chevrolet won the Manufacturers' Championship with 279 points. Dodge was 76 points behind in second, and Ford was a further point behind in third. The race took three hours, 12 minutes, and 23 seconds to complete, and the margin of victory was 0.389 seconds. ### Race results ## Standings after the race - Note: Only the top ten positions are included for the driver standings. These drivers qualified for the Chase for the Nextel Cup.
1,606,261	Saif Ali Khan	1,173,405,996	Indian actor and film producer	[ "1970 births", "20th-century Indian male actors", "21st-century Indian male actors", "Best Actor National Film Award winners", "Film producers from Delhi", "Film producers from Mumbai", "Filmfare Awards winners", "Hindi film producers", "Indian male film actors", "Indian male television actors", "Indian male voice actors", "International Indian Film Academy Awards winners", "Lawrence School, Sanawar alumni", "Living people", "Male actors from Delhi", "Male actors from Mumbai", "Male actors in Hindi cinema", "People educated at Lockers Park School", "People educated at Winchester College", "People from New Delhi", "Recipients of the Padma Shri in arts", "Saif Ali Khan", "Screen Awards winners", "Tagore family", "Zee Cine Awards winners" ]	Saif Ali Khan Pataudi (; born Sajid Ali Khan Pataudi; 16 August 1970) is an Indian actor and film producer who primarily works in Hindi films. Part of the Pataudi family, he is the son of actress Sharmila Tagore and cricketer Mansoor Ali Khan Pataudi. Khan has won several awards, including a National Film Award and seven Filmfare Awards, and received the Padma Shri, the fourth highest Indian civilian award in 2010. Khan made his acting debut in Parampara (1993). He failed to earn hits with solo lead films in the 90s and had rare successes only in the multi-starrers Yeh Dillagi (1994), Main Khiladi Tu Anari (1994), Kachche Dhaage (1999) and Hum Saath-Saath Hain (1999). It was the 2000s when Khan proved his potential as an established actor starting with the sleeper hit Kya Kehna (2000) and won several accolades for the ensemble romantic comedy-dramas Dil Chahta Hai (2001) and Kal Ho Naa Ho (2003). Further critical and commercial success came with Hum Tum (2004), Parineeta (2005), Salaam Namaste (2005) and Ta Ra Rum Pum (2007). Khan also earned critical acclaim for playing a manipulative businessman in Ek Hasina Thi (2004), an apprentice in the English film Being Cyrus (2006) and an antagonist in Omkara (2006). His biggest hits as lead include Race (2008), Love Aaj Kal (2009), Cocktail (2012) and Race 2 (2013). After another string of under-performing ventures, Khan was appreciated for headlining Netflix's first original Indian series Sacred Games (2018) and the main antagonist in the historical drama Tanhaji (2020), which ranks as his highest grossing release. Khan has been noted for his performances in a range of film genres—from crime dramas to action thrillers and comic romances. In addition to film acting, Khan is a frequent television presenter, stage show performer, and the owner of the production companies Illuminati Films and Black Knight Films. ## Early life and family Khan was born on 16 August 1970 in New Delhi, India to Mansoor Ali Khan Pataudi, a former captain of the Indian national cricket team, and his wife Sharmila Tagore, a film actress. Khan's father, who was the son of the last ruling Nawab of the princely state of Pataudi during the British Raj, received a privy purse from the Government of India under terms worked out in the Political integration of India and was allowed to use the title Nawab of Pataudi until 1971 when the title was abolished. Following Mansur Ali Khan's death in 2011, a symbolic pagri ceremony was held in the village of Pataudi, Haryana to "crown" Khan as the "tenth Nawab of Pataudi", which Khan attended to please the sentiments of the villagers, who wanted him to continue a family tradition. Khan has two younger sisters, jewelry designer Saba Ali Khan and actress Soha Ali Khan, and is the paternal grandson of Iftikhar Ali Khan Pataudi who played for the Indian cricket team in England in 1946, and Sajida Sultan, the Nawab Begum of Bhopal. Hamidullah Khan, the last ruling Nawab of Bhopal was his great-grandfather, and the cricketer Saad Bin Jung is his first cousin. Speaking about his childhood, Khan said that he was exposed to a "life beyond movies", and his mother described him as someone who was "not an easy child [...] He was impulsive [and] spontaneous." Saif grew up a Muslim, but now identifies as agnostic. As a child, he recalls fond memories of watching his father playing cricket in the garden, and has emphasised his father's education and background as having a lasting impression on how family life was conducted. Khan studied at The Lawrence School, Sanawar in Himachal Pradesh and was later sent to Lockers Park School in Hertfordshire at the age of nine. He next enrolled at Winchester College and explained that "I did not take advantage of my tenure [there]. My classmates went on to Oxford and Cambridge, but I was not academically inclined. When I applied myself, which was not often, I stood first. I should have studied harder." After graduating from the boarding school, Khan returned to India and worked for an advertising firm in Delhi for two months. He later appeared in the television commercial for Gwalior Suiting on the insistence of a family friend, and was subsequently cast by director Anand Mahindroo. The project eventually got cancelled but Khan relocated to Mumbai to pursue a career in film; he recalls, "Finally I had some direction and focus. I remember [...] feeling so excited that I could go to Mumbai, stay in my own place and enjoy the adventure of starting my own career." ## Personal life and career ### First marriage, early roles and career struggles (1991–2000) In 1991, Khan was cast as the male lead in Rahul Rawail's romantic drama Bekhudi (1992) alongside debutante Kajol, but after completing the first shooting schedule of the film, he was considered to be unprofessional by Rawail and was replaced by Kamal Sadanah. While filming Bekhudi, Khan met actress Amrita Singh whom he married in October 1991. Singh gave birth to their daughter, Sara Ali Khan (b. 1995) and a son (b. 2001). The couple separated in 2004. In 1993, Khan made his acting debut with Yash Chopra's Parampara. The film, which tells the story of two estranged brothers (played by Aamir Khan and Khan), failed to find a wide audience. In 1993, he appeared opposite Mamta Kulkarni and Shilpa Shirodkar in the box office flops Aashiq Awara and Pehchaan. For his performance in the former, Khan earned the Filmfare Award for Best Male Debut at the 39th Filmfare Awards. Following an appearance in the moderately successful Imtihaan (1994) with Raveena Tandon and Sunny Deol, Khan paired up with Akshay Kumar for next two releases— Yash Raj Films' hit romantic comedy-drama Yeh Dillagi and the action film Main Khiladi Tu Anari. The former was an unofficial remake of the 1954 Hollywood film Sabrina, and depicted a love triangle between a chauffeur's daughter (played by Kajol) and the two sons of her father's employers (played by Kumar and Khan). Main Khiladi Tu Anari (the second film in the Khiladi series) featured Khan as an aspiring actor, and emerged as the fifth highest-grossing film of the year. Bollywood Hungama reported that the success of both films proved a breakthrough for Khan, and his performance in Main Khiladi Tu Anari fetched him his first nomination for the Best Supporting Actor at the Filmfare Awards. The Indian Express singled out his performances in both films, noting his comic timing in the latter as keeping the audience "in splits whenever he appears on screen". Khan's next two releases of the year, the dramas Yaar Gaddar and Aao Pyaar Karen, were unsuccessful. His career observed a steady decline through the 1990s; all nine films he starred—Surakshaa (1995), Ek Tha Raja (1996), Bambai Ka Babu (1996), Tu Chor Main Sipahi (1996), Dil Tera Diwana (1996), Hameshaa (1997), Udaan (1997), Keemat: They Are Back (1998) and Humse Badhkar Kaun (1998)—were commercially unsuccessful. During this time, the critics perceived his career to be over. After four consecutive years of poorly-received films, Khan's career prospects began to improve in 1999; he appeared in four films: Yeh Hai Mumbai Meri Jaan, Kachche Dhaage, Aarzoo and Hum Saath-Saath Hain. The romantic comedy Yeh Hai Mumbai Meri Jaan (alongside Twinkle Khanna) and the romance Aarzoo (alongside Madhuri Dixit and Akshay Kumar) earned little at the box office, but the action-thriller Kachche Dhaage (a story about two estranged brothers becoming the target of a terrorist conspiracy) was Khan's first commercial success since Main Khiladi Tu Anari. Directed by Milan Luthria, the film was generally well received but critics noted that Khan was overshadowed by co-actor Ajay Devgn. The film, however, earned Khan his second Best Supporting Actor nomination at Filmfare. Khan described his final release of the year, the Sooraj Barjatya-directed family drama Hum Saath-Saath Hain, as a "morale-booster". The film featured an ensemble cast (Mohnish Behl, Tabu, Salman Khan, Sonali Bendre and Karisma Kapoor) and emerged as the highest-grossing film of the year, earning over ₹800 million (US\$10 million) worldwide. During the filming of Hum Saath-Saath Hain, Khan was charged with poaching two blackbucks in Kankani along with co-stars Salman, Tabu, Bendre and Neelam Kothari. That year, he also appeared briefly in the David Dhawan-directed comedy Biwi No.1, a box office hit. The drama Kya Kehna by director Kundan Shah was Khan's only release of 2000, in which he played the casanova Rahul Modi. Co-starring alongside Preity Zinta and Chandrachur Singh, Khan compared the portrayal of his character with his own evolving maturity as a father. The film addressed themes of single parenthood and teenage pregnancy and emerged a sleeper hit. The Indian Express believed that Khan "looks debauched enough to be the rogue he plays. He is the only dark aspect in a film that is sunny and bright even at its most tragic." ### Rise to prominence (2001–2004) In 2001, Khan appeared in Eeshwar Nivas' box office flop Love Ke Liye Kuch Bhi Karega, (a film loosely inspired by the 1996 black comedy Fargo) following which he featured alongside Aamir Khan and Akshaye Khanna in Farhan Akhtar's coming-of-age comedy drama Dil Chahta Hai. Depicting the contemporary routine life of Indian affluent youth, it is set in modern-day urban Mumbai and focuses on a major period of transition in the lives of three young friends. Khan played Sameer Mulchandani, a "hopeless romantic", and was particularly drawn to the qualities of his character. Dil Chahta Hai was highly popular with critics and won the National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Hindi; it performed well in the big cities, but failed in the rural areas, which was attributed by critics to the urban-oriented lifestyle it presented. The feature marked a significant turning point in Khan's career, earning him the Filmfare Award for Best Performance in a Comic Role and awards for Best Supporting Actor at the Screen, Zee Cine and International Indian Academy (IIFA) ceremonies. Rediff.com wrote that Khan was able to rise above his "under-sketched character", and the critic Taran Adarsh described him as "excellent", arguing that it was his "career-best performance". Following an appearance in two poorly-received films: Rehnaa Hai Terre Dil Mein (2001) and Na Tum Jaano Na Hum (2002), Khan played a photographer in the second chapter ("No Smoking") of Prawaal Raman's anthology ensemble thriller Darna Mana Hai (2003). The film failed to find a wide audience and earned little at the box office. Bollywood Hungama described his next film, the Nikhil Advani-directed romantic comedy-drama Kal Ho Naa Ho (2003), as a "landmark" in his career. Set in New York City, it was written by Karan Johar and co-starred Jaya Bachchan, Shah Rukh Khan and Preity Zinta. With a worldwide revenue of over ₹860 million (US\$11 million), the film was received favourably by critics, and became India's biggest hit of the year. It also did well internationally and became the highest-grossing film of the year overseas. Khan was cast in the role of Rohit Patel—a carefree young man who falls in love with Zinta's character—after Advani had seen his performance in Dil Chahta Hai. Writing for Outlook, Komal Nahta described Khan as a "natural" and "extremely endearing", and Ram Kamal Mukherjee from Stardust opined that he was successful in displaying "a gamut of emotions". Khan garnered several awards for his performance, including his first Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor, and expressed gratitude to Shah Rukh for teaching "me so much—mainly the responsibility of the main lead". He explained that the film's success led to Yash Raj Films casting him in the 2004 romantic comedy Hum Tum. At the end of the year, he appeared briefly as Cpt. Anuj Nayyar in J. P. Dutta's ensemble box office flop LOC Kargil. In an attempt to avoid typecasting and broaden his range as an actor, Khan starred as Karan Singh Rathod in the thriller Ek Hasina Thi (2004), a character he described as "a Charles Sobhraj-meets-James Bond kind of a guy". The film (which marked the debut of Sriram Raghavan) tells the story of a young woman (played by Urmila Matondkar) who meets with Khan's character, and is subsequently arrested for having links with the underworld. When Khan was initially offered the project, he was unable to do it due to his busy schedule. However, he agreed when Raghavan approached him for the second time, and in preparation for the role, exercised extensively for six months to achieve the physical requirements of his character. Upon release, the film was positively received by critics, with Khan's performing earning praise. Film critic Anupama Chopra wrote that Khan gave "an accomplished performance", whilst The Deccan Herald opined that he was successful in "break[ing] out of the cool dude stereotype" and "hold[ing] his own in a movie that is completely Matondkar's." For his performance, Khan received nominations at the Screen, Zee Cine and IIFA ceremonies. For his next release, Khan featured in a starring role opposite Rani Mukerji in Kunal Kohli's Hum Tum, a romantic comedy about two headstrong individuals who meet at different stages of their lives. He was cast in the role of Karan Kapoor (a young cartoonist and womanizer) after Aamir Khan was unable to do the film; Kohli said, "I realised that the role needed a younger man [...] someone who could present a more youthful picture. Saif has this unique quality, he can play a 21-year old as well as a 29-year old and was ideal for [the film]." With a worldwide revenue of ₹426 million (US\$5.3 million), the film proved one of the biggest commercial successes of the year and Khan's first success in which he played the sole male lead. Rediff.com wrote about his performance: "Saif reprises his urbane self from Dil Chahta Hai and Kal Ho Naa Ho, peppering it with occasional fits of introspection and angst, and marking himself as an actor whose time has come." He won the Filmfare Award for Best Performance in a Comic Role, in addition to his first nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Actor, and was conferred the National Film Award for Best Actor at the 52nd National Film Awards amid much controversy. It marked the beginning of his work with Yash Raj Films, one of the largest production houses in Bollywood. In 2004, Khan began dating model Rosa Catalano whom he separated with three years later. ### Established actor and film production (2005–2010) In 2005, Rediff.com published that Khan had established himself as a leading actor of Hindi cinema with starring roles in the romantic drama Parineeta and the comedy-drama Salaam Namaste. An adaptation of Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay's 1914 Bengali novella by the same name, Parineeta was directed by Pradeep Sarkar, and narrated the love story of an idealist (Lalita, played by Vidya Balan) and a musician (Shekhar, played by Khan), the son of a capitalist businessman. Although the film's producer, Vidhu Vinod Chopra, considered Khan to be too inexperienced for the part, he was persuaded by Sarkar who felt that Khan was perfect for the role. The film garnered critical acclaim upon release and Khan's portrayal earned him his second nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Actor. Derek Elley from Variety wrote, "Khan, who has gradually been developing away from light comedy, again shows smarts as a substantial actor." Siddharth Anand's Salaam Namaste became the first Indian feature to be filmed entirely in Australia and went on to become the year's highest-grossing Bollywood production outside of India with worldwide ticket sales of ₹572 million (US\$7.2 million). The film tells the story of a contemporary cohabiting Indian couple (Khan and Preity Zinta) and their subsequent struggle with an unexpected pregnancy. Khan played the role of Nikhil Arora, a single modern young man who leaves India to make his own life in Melbourne. The critic Taran Adarsh praised Khan for delivering his third successive performance and Khalid Mohamed noted that he "rescues several untidily written scenes with his neat wit and that flustered [...] facial expression." He next played the protagonist in the English language art film, Being Cyrus (2006), co-starring alongside Naseeruddin Shah and Dimple Kapadia. Directed by debutant Homi Adajania, the psychological drama revolves around a dysfunctional Parsi family with who Khan's character moves into. The film received predominantly positive reviews, and Khan was particularly praised. Later in the year, he portrayed the character of Iago in Omkara, the Indian adaptation of William Shakespeare's Othello. Directed by Vishal Bhardwaj, the film is a tragedy of sexual jealousy set against the backdrop of the political system in Uttar Pradesh. The film premiered at the 2006 Cannes Film Festival and was also selected for screening at the Cairo International Film Festival. Omkara was received positively by critics, and Khan went on to receive widespread critical acclaim and accolades, earning the awards for Best Performance in a Negative Role at the Filmfare, Screen, Zee Cine and IIFA ceremonies; his performance was later included in the 2010 issue of the "Top 80 Iconic Performances" by Filmfare. Variety described it as a "powerhouse performance" and wrote that "[i]t is Khan's film through and through, in a performance of rugged, contained malevolence which trades on his previous screen persona as a likable best friend as well as his stint as the manipulative outsider in Being Cyrus. It is smart casting, superbly realized." By 2007, Khan was keen on branching out into film production to "explore various genres of commercial and intellectually stimulating cinema". The critical success of Being Cyrus led him to create Illuminati Films and partner up with producer Dinesh Vijan, someone whom he shared a "like-minded perspective and ideology [...] with regard to cinema". Khan next reunited with producer Vidhu Vinod Chopra in the epic drama Eklavya: The Royal Guard (2007), alongside Amitabh Bachchan, Boman Irani, Sharmila Tagore and Vidya Balan. Set in the state of Rajasthan during the early years of Indian independence, the movie revolves around a jealous and ungrateful ruler and his ailing wife. Although the film did not succeed at the box office, it was chosen as India's official entry to the Oscars. BBC Online described the film as a "cinematic experience" and praised Khan's growth as an actor, particular noting his scene with Bachchan's character. Following an appearance in the poorly-received action-comedy Nehlle Pe Dehlla (a production that had been delayed since 2001), Khan featured opposite Rani Mukerji in the family drama Ta Ra Rum Pum (2007). Directed by Siddharth Anand, it received mixed reviews from critics, but earned over ₹690 million (US\$8.6 million) in India and abroad. Writing for Hindustan Times, Khalid Mohamed praised Khan for displaying a new maturity, but Rajeev Masand thought that neither he nor Mukerji "are able to make much of an impression because their characters are so unidimensional and boring." Khan received further success in 2008, starring in the Abbas–Mustan thriller Race with an ensemble cast including Anil Kapoor, Akshaye Khanna, Bipasha Basu, Katrina Kaif and Sameera Reddy. The feature was loosely adapted from the 1998 American film Goodbye Lover, and became one of the biggest box office hits, earning ₹1.03 billion (US\$13 million) worldwide. CNN-IBN's Rajeev Masand found Khan to be a standout among the ensemble, adding that he has "the least dialogue, but the one who makes the best impression". This was followed by three projects produced by Yash Raj Films: the action-thriller Tashan, the fantasy comedy-drama Thoda Pyaar Thoda Magic, and the animated film Roadside Romeo, all of which were unsuccessful. In 2009, Khan appeared in the romantic drama Sanam Teri Kasam, a production that had been delayed since 2000. The film garnered negative reviews and poor box office returns. Khan's role was small, and not well received. He next starred in his company's first project: Love Aaj Kal (2009), a romantic comedy-drama from the writer-director Imtiaz Ali. Featured opposite Deepika Padukone, the film documented the changing value of relationships among the youth, and Khan played dual roles—the younger part of Rishi Kapoor's character (Veer Singh) and Jai Vardhan Singh, an ambitious architect. Love Aaj Kal received highly positive reviews by critics and became one of the highest-grossing films of the year, earning over ₹1 billion (US\$13 million) worldwide. Gaurav Malani of The Economic Times described his performance as "refreshing natural" and "outstanding". At the 55th Filmfare Awards, Love Aaj Kal was nominated for Best Film and Khan received his fourth nomination for Best Actor. He then starred in the terrorism thriller Kurbaan, alongside Kareena Kapoor, Vivek Oberoi and Dia Mirza. Produced by Dharma Productions, the film marked the directorial debut of Rensil D'Silva and featured Khan in the role of a terrorist. Upon release, Kurbaan was received favourably by critics and Khan's performance was critically acclaimed. A review in The Telegraph praised his "easy transition from a charming lover to a heartless man on a deadly mission." ### Career fluctuations and second marriage (2011–2015) In 2011, he appeared in Prakash Jha's multi-starrer drama Aarakshan. Set in the city of Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, the film deals with the policy of caste-based reservations in government jobs and educational institutions. Khan portrayed the character of Deepak Kumar, a rebellious student who joins the mafia. To prepare for the role, Khan was required to take acting workshops along with the rest of the cast. Prior to its release, the film was banned from releasing in select cities across India due to its controversial subject. While the film received a mixed critical reaction, his performance was generally well received. The following year, Khan produced both of his films. For his first release, he collaborated once again with director Sriram Raghavan, as the protagonist in the action thriller Agent Vinod. Khan described it as his "most ambitious project", but the film opened to mixed reviews and eventually under-performed at the box office grossing ₹400 million (US\$5.0 million) in India on a budget of ₹620 million (US\$7.8 million). In his following release, Homi Adajania's romantic comedy-drama Cocktail, he featured as the software engineer Gautam Kapoor. Set in London, the film follows the story of Khan's character and his relationship with two temperamentally different women—an impulsive party girl (Veronica, played by Padukone) and a submissive girl next door (Meera, played by Diana Penty). Khan described the project as "a love story with a modern sensibility and treatment", and agreed to produce and feature in the film after his role was declined by Imran Khan. Critics were divided in their opinion of the film, but it emerged a financial success grossing over ₹1.2 billion (US\$15 million) worldwide. Gaurav Malani of The Times of India described Khan's performance as "effortless" and noted that he was in his "comfort zone". On 16 October 2012, Khan married actress Kareena Kapoor (after a five-year courtship) in a private ceremony in Bandra, Mumbai, and a reception was later held at The Taj Mahal Palace Hotel and the Lutyens Bungalow Zone in Mumbai and Delhi respectively. The couple have two sons born in 2016 and 2021 respectively. The following year, Khan collaborated with Padukone for the fourth time (alongside Anil Kapoor, John Abraham, Jacqueline Fernandez and Ameesha Patel) in Abbas–Mustan's Race 2 (2013), an ensemble action thriller that served as a sequel to Race (2008). The film received predominantly negative reviews from critics, but with a total collection of ₹1.62 billion (US\$20 million), it proved to be a commercial success. He was next cast as Boris, a "Russian mafia don", in Raj Nidimoru and Krishna D.K.'s Go Goa Gone (described as "India's first zom-com") alongside Kunal Khemu and Vir Das. Khan, who bleached his hair for the film, was particularly drawn to the project for its novel concept and its "action, comedy and violence". The critic Rajeev Masand described the film as "a winning cocktail of laugh-out-loud dialogue and well-timed performances by the three leads", and in particular noted Khan's scene with Khemu's character. His final release of the year was Bullett Raja, a crime drama directed by Tigmanshu Dhulia, and co-starring Jimmy Shergill and Sonakshi Sinha. Khan explained that he found himself challenged playing the role of Raja Mishra (a common man who turns into a gangster) but "totally relied" on Dhulia's guidance. Bullett Raja earned little at the box office and received predominantly negative reviews. Writing for Firstpost, Mihir Fadnavis found Khan to be "miscast" and described his performance as "farcial". In an interview with The Times of India, Khan explained that he regretted starring in the 2014 Sajid Khan-directed comedy Humshakals. Co-starring alongside an ensemble cast (Ritesh Deshmukh, Ram Kapoor, Bipasha Basu, Tamannaah and Esha Gupta), Khan portrayed three different characters in an attempt to "expand my market" and step out of his comfort zone. The Hindustan Times described it as a "dim-witted comedy" and criticised Khan for being "the worst thing about [the film]." He next produced and featured in Happy Ending (2014), a romantic comedy directed by Raj Nidimoru and Krishna D.K. NDTV's Saibal Chatterjee found Khan's character of a struggling writer to be "a breezy rejig of his Hum Tum and Salaam Namaste persona of a decade ago", and noted that "the many collegiate hook-ups and break-ups he pulls off in Happy Ending do not look completely at odds with the film's purpose." Humshakals proved to be a commercial disaster and Happy Ending underperformed at the box office. Following a brief appearance in the comedy Dolly Ki Doli (2015), he appeared alongside Kaif in Kabir Khan's counter-terrorism drama Phantom (2015). Based on the book Mumbai Avengers by Hussain Zaidi, the film is a retelling on the aftermath of the 26/11 Mumbai attacks. Khan was cast as Cpt. Daniyal Khan, a former soldier hired by the RAW agency. Phantom generated controversy when the Central Board of Film Censors deemed that the film represented Pakistan in a negative light and banned the film from releasing there. A review in The Hollywood Reporter noted that Khan was "well cast" and "believable" in his role, and Rachit Gupta of Filmfare described his performance as "a heady mix of bravado and restrained intensity [which] works in parts only." Although Khan was pleased with the film's performance, Phantom was generally perceived to be a box-office failure grossing ₹844 million (US\$11 million) worldwide on a budget of ₹720 million (US\$9.0 million). ### Commercial setbacks and professional expansion (2016–present) During his year-long absence from the screen, Khan actively looked to play different parts, saying: "These are smarter movies, the interaction with them is deeply rewarding... I think I am finally beginning to understand my sense of style as an actor. I am developing my craft, understanding what acting and communication is." He found the role in his second collaboration with director Vishal Bhardwaj, Rangoon (2017), an epic romance set during World War II. Cast alongside Shahid Kapoor and Kangana Ranaut, Khan drew inspirations from the mannerisms of his grandfather and the character Darth Vader to portray filmmaker Rustom "Rusi" Billimoria. Rajeev Masand termed the film "overlong, indulgent to the point of exhaustion", but praised Khan for "imbu[ing] Russi with the swagger and the arrogance of an aristocrat from the forties". He next starred as the protagonist (Roshan Kalra) in the comedy-drama Chef (2017), an official adaptation of the 2014 film of the same name, from the director Raja Krishna Menon. Khan was pleased to work with Menon and identified with the film due to its "modern, slightly unorthodox take on relationships". He borrowed several real-life experiences for his character, and in preparation, trained at the JW Marriott Hotels in Mumbai. The film received generally positive reviews with several commentators believing that it was Khan's best performance to that point. Anupama Chopra wrote: "Khan get[s] his groove back... [He] doesn't play Roshan as a hero having a bad day. He gives us a flawed, fumbling man who is trying to repair the broken chords of his life." As with his last few releases, Rangoon and Chef earned little at the box office leading trade analysts to question his commercial appeal. Following an appearance in the poorly-received black comedy Kaalakaandi (2018) directed by Akshat Verma, Khan appeared as Inspector Sartaj Singh in India's first Netflix original series, the crime thriller Sacred Games, based on Vikram Chandra's novel of the same name. Cast alongside Nawazuddin Siddiqui and Radhika Apte, Khan was drawn by the opportunity to be part of a "creative zone, devoid of certain pressures and constraints that one would associate with the kind of films we normally do." The show received high critical acclaim; Ankur Pathak of HuffPost called it "a sure-shot winner" and took note of Khan's "stellar performance, one that [he] chews on slowly as he disappears into the broken persona of a tormented cop." In his next release, he starred as the businessman Skakun Kothari in Gauravv Chawla's Baazaar, a drama set against the backdrop of Mumbai's stock exchange market. Khan worked with Chawla to provide off-screen inputs, and was attracted to the idea of playing the antagonist describing it as "a devious character" from the Indian epic poetry Mahabharata. The critic Udita Jhunjhunwala of Mint commended Khan for "blending the right amount of wickedness with willfulness", but Namrata Joshi found him to be "stiff [and] stern ... to communicate a rather facetious sense of menace." Baazaar was a box-office failure grossing ₹399 million (US\$5.0 million) worldwide on a budget of ₹340 million (US\$4.3 million). Khan's desire to work in films for artistic merit irrespective of commercial appeal led him to feature as the protagonist in the action-drama Laal Kaptaan (2019). Directed by Navdeep Singh, it is set in the 18th century and tells the story of a sadhu (Khan) who goes on a killing spree with the intention of exacting revenge upon a subedar. Filming in the barren landscape of rural Rajasthan proved physically daunting for Khan, and in preparation for the role, learnt sword-fighting, horse-riding and worked with a dialect coach to speak in a Rajasthani accent. He described it as "the hardest thing I have done so far", and considered the opportunity a critical learning experience that helped him personally and professionally; it eventually failed to do well. The HuffPost praised Khan's decision to choose "morally ambiguous roles", but noted that he was "too wooden, bereft of any allure or mystery." Khan began the new decade with a starring role in Tanhaji (2020), a historical drama directed by Om Raut. Set in the 17th century, it revolves around a Maratha warrior's (played by Devgn) attempt to recapture the Kondhana fortress from a Rajput fort keeper (Khan). He was attracted to the idea of starring in a "larger-than-life" film and was challenged by Raut's insistence on overplaying his character; he explained that the process left him "very enriched" and was pleased with the collaboration. Tanhaji was acclaimed by critics and emerged as a major commercial success grossing over ₹3.67 billion (US\$46 million) worldwide. Reviewing the film for Film Companion, Anupama Chopra found Khan's performance to be the film's prime asset and credited him for playing "the exaggerated evil with a cheeky panache." The Hindustan Times opined that Khan had delivered his best performance to date noting his "moments of mirth with his sinister laugh amid killing people." Tanhaji earned Khan his second Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor. His next release of the year was Jawaani Jaaneman, a comedy-drama about the life of a bachelor (Khan) who discovers that he has a daughter (played by Alaya Furniturewala). The feature was produced under his new company, Black Knight Films, and received generally positive reviews. Kunal Guha of Mumbai Mirror found that the film allowed Khan to "slip into a familiar-yet-age appropriate avatar in a refreshing coming-of-age story." In 2021, Khan firstly appeared as a politician in Amazon Prime Video's web series Tandav created and directed by Ali Abbas Zafar. He has completed work on Varun V Sharma's crime comedy Bunty Aur Babli 2 opposite Mukerji and Pavan Kripalani's horror comedy Bhoot Police alongside Arjun Kapoor, Yami Gautam and Jacqueline Fernandez and reprise his role as Boris in the sequel of Go Goa Gone, entitled Go Goa Gone 2 with Khemu. In 2022, he collaborated with Hrithik Roshan for the film Vikram Vedha. He received praise for playing an honest cop where Saibal Chatterjee wrote "Saif Ali Khan makes a far better Vikram. He inhabits the character of the tough cop with conviction and exudes the external toughness that defines the man and his mission". ## Off-screen work Alongside his acting career, Khan has participated in several concert tours and televised award ceremonies. He performed in his first concert tour, "Temptations 2004", with actors Shah Rukh Khan, Rani Mukerji, Preity Zinta, Arjun Rampal and Priyanka Chopra. Showcased in over 22 countries across the world, it became Bollywood's most prominent international concert to that point. In December 2005, Khan performed alongside the band Parikrama at the Mittal Gardens in New Delhi, and later reunited with them and Strings for "The Royal Stag Mega Music Concert" (a four-city concert tour) two years later. The following year, he was part of the "Heat 2006" world tour, along with Akshay Kumar, Preity Zinta, Sushmita Sen and Celina Jaitley. He later performed along with several other Bollywood personalities at the closing ceremony of the 2006 Commonwealth Games. Since October 2011, Khan has taken the responsibility of managing his father's eye hospital and has also made public appearances to support various other charitable causes. In February 2005, Khan and several other Bollywood actors participated in the 2005 HELP! Telethon Concert to raise money for the victims of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami. He took part in a charity cricket match organised by IIFA at Headingley Cricket Ground in West Yorkshire, England in 2007, and later hosted an event organised by the award ceremony to help raise funds for various charities in 2011. In November 2008, Khan performed in a concert to raise money for the victims of the 2008 Bihar flood and in September 2013, he attended a charity dinner organised by The Venu Eye institute, donating two of his personal belongings to help raise funds for cataract operations. Later that year, he spent time with underprivileged kids during the filming of Bullett Raja. In October 2014, Khan was appointed as an ambassador for Olympic Gold Quest and donated ₹2 million (US\$25,000) to help raise funds for the training of athletes. ## In the media In an interview with Rajeev Masand, Khan described himself as "a very private person". The journalist Roshmila Bhattacharya added, "Unlike most actors, his interests are not limited to box office collections and workout routines. [He] can converse on anything, from philosophy to politics, from sports to books and music." Filmfare wrote that earlier in his career, Khan gained a reputation for being arrogant, but later matured into "one of showbiz's biggest and most respected stars." During his career, he has played roles in both high-profile mainstream productions and lesser-publicised films of independent filmmakers, and has appeared in a range of film genres, although he has found a niche playing roles in romantic comedies. The Tribune wrote that his roles in Dil Chahta Hai (2001), Kal Ho Naa Ho (2003), Hum Tum (2004), Salaam Namaste (2005), Love Aaj Kal (2009) and Cocktail (2012) were "essentially endearing pretty boys", and the success of these films established him as the "poster boy for romantic comedies". Beth Watkins explains the typical role Khan played in romantic comedies and its appeal: > "Perhaps related is his finesse for playing petulant, arrogant, almost insufferable young men in need of reform, which, this being Bollywood, they can easily achieve through the love of a good woman. Does his real-life golden status—with literature, cinema, cricket and royalty in his lineage—make him exceptionally effective at coming across as spoiled?" One of the highest-paid actors in Bollywood, Khan is considered among the most popular and high-profile celebrities in India. He is known to commit heavily to each role and believes in "staying on a sharp learning curve". This commitment, combined with busy schedule and heavy smoking resulted in a health scare in 2007. Analysing his career, the journalist Shomini Sen noted that "[t]he actor was part of some major films in the early 1990s [...] yet critics wrote him of[f] due to lack of a screen presence and poor dialogue delivery." Critics noted that Dil Chahta Hai marked a major turning point for Khan, and credited him for pioneering a movement in actors being part of "a new genre of films which was more urban"; film historian Nasreen Munni Kabir stated that the film helped him find "his own style, combining great comic timing and a natural personality." Sen further explained that "his anglicized upbringing, which initially was a hindrance to his career, became his strongest point." Following his portrayal of a variety of character types in Ek Hasina Thi (2004), Parineeta (2005), Being Cyrus and Omkara (both 2006), Khan was noted for his versatility; India Today attributed his roles in these films to the establishment of a new image for leading actors in Bollywood, and The Tribune published that Khan had successfully "matured, both as an actor of substance and as a bankable star. Starting in 2007, Khan's relationship with Kareena Kapoor became one of the country's most-reported celebrity stories, and they were listed amongst the top celebrity couple endorsers for brands and products worldwide. In a blog published by The Wall Street Journal, Rupa Subramanya described their marriage as India's "wedding and social event of the year". Kapoor gave birth to their son Taimur in December 2016. From 2012 to 2019, Khan has featured on Forbes India's "Celebrity 100", a list based on the income and popularity of India's celebrities. He peaked at the fifteenth position in 2012 and 2014 with an estimated annual earning of ₹642 million (US\$8.0 million) and ₹629 million (US\$7.9 million) respectively. In 2003, Khan placed fourth on Rediff's list of "Top Bollywood Male Stars". He was later ranked second in 2005, sixth in 2006 and seventh in 2007. In March 2011, Khan placed fifth on Rediff's list of "Top 10 Actors of 2000–2010". He was ranked among the top 30 on The Times of India's listing of the "Most Desirable Men" from 2010 to 2015, and has additionally featured in the UK magazine Eastern Eye's "World's Sexiest Asian Men" list in 2008, 2011 and 2012. In 2010 and from 2012 to 2014, Khan was featured as one of the best-dressed male celebrities by the Indian edition of GQ magazine. ## Accolades Among Khan's film awards are a National Film Award for Best Actor and seven Filmfare Awards out of twelve nominations: Best Male Debut for Aashiq Awara (1993), Best Performance in a Comic Role for Dil Chahta Hai (2001) and Hum Tum (2004), Best Supporting Actor for Kal Ho Naa Ho (2003) and Tanhaji (2020), Best Performance in a Negative Role for Omkara (2006) and the "Moto Look of the Year" for Kal Ho Naa Ho (2003). ## See also - List of Indian film actors
27,543,484	Tropical Storm Domoina	1,137,213,468	South-West Indian tropical storm in 1984	[ "1983–84 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season", "1984 disasters in Africa", "1984 in Madagascar", "1984 in Mozambique", "1984 in South Africa", "1984 in Swaziland", "Cyclones in South Africa", "February 1984 events in Africa", "January 1984 events in Africa", "South-West Indian Ocean severe tropical storms", "Tropical cyclones in 1984" ]	Severe Tropical Storm Domoina in 1984 caused 100-year floods in South Africa and record rainfall in Swaziland. The fourth named storm of the season, Domoina developed on January 16 off the northeast coast of Madagascar. With a ridge to the north, the storm tracked generally westward and later southwestward. On January 21, Domoina struck eastern Madagascar, the third storm in six weeks to affect the nation; collectively, the storms caused 242 deaths and \$25 million in damage (1984 USD). After crossing the country, Domoina strengthened in the Mozambique Channel to peak 10-minute sustained winds of 95 km/h (60 mph). On January 28, the storm made landfall in southern Mozambique, and slowly weakened over land. Domoina crossed into Swaziland and later eastern South Africa before dissipating on February 2. In Mozambique, Domoina dropped heavy rainfall in the capital Maputo that accounted for 40% of the annual total. Floods in the country destroyed over 50 small dams and left widespread crop damage just before the summer harvest. Later, the rains caused the worst flooding in over 20 years in Swaziland, which damaged or destroyed more than 100 bridges. Disrupted transport left areas isolated for several days. In South Africa, rainfall peaked at 950 mm (37 in), which flooded 29 river basins, notably the Pongola River which altered its course after the storm. Flooding caused the Pongolapoort Dam to reach 87% of its capacity; when waters were released to maintain the structural integrity, additional flooding occurred in Mozambique, forcing thousands to evacuate. Throughout the region, Domoina caused widespread flooding that damaged houses, roads, and crops, leaving about \$199 million in damage. There were 242 deaths in southeastern Africa. ## Meteorological history In January and February 1984, conditions were favorable for tropical cyclogenesis in the southwest Indian Ocean, including warmer than normal sea surface temperatures and an active monsoon trough. On January 16, a spiral area of convection persisted off the northeast coast of Madagascar, associated with the Intertropical Convergence Zone. That day, it organized enough to warrant a satellite-based Dvorak rating of T2.5, prompting the Réunion Meteorological Service to name it Domoina. Around that time, Météo-France (MFR) estimated winds of about 65 km/h (40 mph). Domoina initially tracked to the west-northwest, passing near Tromelin Island on January 18. Around that time, the storm had begun moving to the southwest, and MFR estimated that it weakened to tropical depression status. On January 19, the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) began warning on Domoina, designating it Tropical Cyclone 14S. The same day, MFR again upgraded Domoina into a moderate tropical storm. On January 21, the storm made landfall just south of Tamatave in southeastern Madagascar. While crossing Madagascar on a westward trajectory, Domonia weakened; JTWC estimated the winds decreased to 55 km/h (35 mph), after earlier estimating winds of 95 km/h (60 mph) before landfall. On January 23, the storm emerged into the Mozambique Channel near Belo, and due to a ridge to the north, it resumed its southwest motion. Domoina executed two small loops off the western coast of Madagascar while progressing generally southwestward. On January 25, MFR estimated that Domonia attained peak 10 minute sustained winds of 95 km/h (60 mph) near Europa Island; this made it a severe tropical storm. Two days later, the JTWC estimated peak 10 minute winds of 100 km/h (60 mph). Early on January 28, Domonia made a second landfall on southeastern Mozambique near peak intensity. It slowly weakened over land while moving across southern Mozambique. The JTWC discontinued advisories on January 29 when the storm was near the border of Mozambique and Swaziland. The next day, Domonia crossed into Swaziland and subsequently into eastern South Africa, weakening into a tropical depression while passing near Durban. At around that time, the system was dissipating, although MFR continued tracking Domonia until February 2, when it dissipated just offshore the east coast of South Africa. ## Impact Throughout its path, Domoina left thousands of people homeless, and caused widespread flooding due to drawing moisture from the Indian Ocean and the Mozambique channel. The rains led to rivers bursting their banks, which isolated tens of thousands of people. In the months before Domoina struck, dry conditions persisted across southeastern Africa. Crossing Madagascar as a moderate tropical storm, Domoina dropped rainfall along its path, reaching 98.8 mm (3.89 in) in Mahanoro on the east coast and 166.8 mm (6.57 in) in Maintirano along the west coast, both over a period of 24 hours. In the latter city, a station recorded winds of 100 km/h (62 mph). The storm caused heavy damage in Marovoay, which was later affected by Cyclone Kamisy. Domoina was the third storm to strike the country in a six-week period, after cyclones Andry and Caboto. The three storms collectively caused 42 deaths and \$25 million in damage, much of it from crop damage. As Domoina made its final landfall in Mozambique, it dropped heavy rainfall reaching 430 mm (17 in) in the town of Goba over a five-day period. Rainfall in the capital Maputo, reaching 300 mm (12 in) over two days, was about 40% of the annual total. After flooding occurred further south in South Africa, waters were released from the Pongolapoort Dam without warning. This caused many farmers to drown in southern Mozambique. Officials later advised residents along the Maputo River to evacuate to higher grounds, and thousands had to leave their houses. The storm flooded the Maputo, Umbeluzi, Incomati river basins, causing widespread power outages. The storm left the capital Maputo without clean water for several days after a pumping station was damaged, and the main harbor in the city was closed. Also in the city, the storm downed hundreds of trees, wrecked roofs, and damaged houses; about 10,000 people were left homeless nationwide. The storm damaged 28 pumping stations nationwide and destroyed over 50 small dams. Floods affected the railroad connecting Maputo to South Africa, disrupted the construction of a dam, and damaged portions of a bridge near Boane. Transport was disrupted in the northern and southern portion of the country. There was widespread crop damage in Mozambique, affecting 350,000 farmers, and flooding about 250,000 ha (620,000 acres) of fields. After an extended drought, many farmers had moved closer to river beds, making their fields more vulnerable. About 119,000 tons of fruits, vegetables, and other crops were wrecked, consisting of much of the summer crop, and about 5,000 cattle died. About 49,000 people lost everything they owned. In the country, the storm caused 109 fatalities, and damage was estimated at \$75 million. Later, the storm dropped heavy rainfall in Swaziland, reaching 906 mm (35.7 in) at Piggs Peak; there, rainfall reached 615 mm (24.2 in) in a one-day period. Described as the worst flooding in over 20 years, the precipitation increased levels along most rivers in the country, some of which rose 30 m (98 ft) in a few hours. The floods washed out or damaged over 100 bridges, and two railways had cuts in their lines. The floods closed at least 20 major roads and the country's primary airport. Most schools nationwide were also closed during the storm. There were initial difficulties in determining the extent of the damage due to cut communications and disrupted transportation. For several days, southeastern Swaziland was only accessible by air travel, while rural parts of the country lost access to fresh water. Thousands of livestock died during the storm, and thousands of acres of croplands were flooded. About 10,000 citrus trees were destroyed, and crop damage was estimated at \$2.5 million. About 500 people were left homeless in the small nation, after many homes were damaged or destroyed. Schools and health clinics were also damaged. The storm's high winds knocked down trees and power lines, leaving power outages. Overall damage was estimated at \$54 million, of which \$47.5 million from infrastructure damage, and Domoina killed 73 people in the country. ### South Africa While Domoina was moving through South Africa, it drew an area of moisture from the northeast, which produced heavy rainfall that peaked at 950 mm (37 in) between Richards Bay and Sodwana Bay. Totals of over 700 mm (28 in) were reported along the upper Umfolozi, Mkuze, Pongola and middle Usutu and Komati rivers, and along the upper and lower Ingwavuma river. Precipitation spread as far south as Durban, but did not penetrate far into the center of the country. An area of about 107,000 km<sup>2</sup> (41,000 sq mi) received 370 mm (15 in) of rainfall. Along the Umfolozi River, a discharge rate of 16,000 m3/s (565,000 ft3/s) was recorded, which was three times the rate of a 100-year flood. The river avulsed, or changed its course, near where it met with the Msunduzi River. High rains in the mountains caused the largest flood to date along the Pongola River. The floodplain downstream of the Pongolapoort Dam was inundated to where the Pongola met the Ututu River, which filled many pans – dry lakes – in the region. Along 29 river locations in eastern South Africa, river heights were estimated to have been 1 in 50 year events. The river flooding moved sediment along many banks, and in one location the sediment reached 10 km (6.2 mi) in length. Due to the widespread flooding and the remoteness of the worst affected areas, there were minimal measurements on the river flow along the Pongola, although above the Pongolapoort dam, levels reached 13,000 m3/s (460,000 ft3/s), which were 18 times higher than the previous record highest. There had been a planned release of water from the Pongolapoort Dam in March 1984 to provide adequate water to the floodplain, but Domoina prevented this from occurring. The dam had its highest hydrology on January 31 and reached 87% of its capacity. Waters from the dam were released on February 2 to prevent the dam from exceeding capacity. With the future threat of Cyclone Imboa, dam levels continued to drop until returning to normal by February 16, despite requests to hold the water to prevent further crop damage. Near the South Africa border with Swaziland, flooding stranded about 80,000 people on tribal lands. One road in the country was converted into a makeshift landing strip to allow helicopters and planes to drop off emergency supplies. A period of heavy rain flooded the Umfolozi River, which destroyed a rail bridge near Mtubatuba and a bridge crossing highway N2. The floods were so strong that they washed a boat from Lake St. Lucia to a point 16 km (9.9 mi) away. At the lake, the floods washed away a dredge and severely damaged a nearly-finished canal from the lake to the Umfolozi River. Widespread crop damage occurred along the Umfolozi river plains after being covered by up to 1 m (3.3 ft) of sediment. The South African Weather Bureau considered Domoina as the "first tropical cyclone in recent history to have caused flooding and extensive damage." Nationwide, the storm caused 60 deaths and damaged the properties of 500,000 people, causing R100 million (1984 ZAR, \$70 million 1984 USD). ## Aftermath In Mozambique, workers assisted people in moving to higher grounds following flooding. Members of the Mozambique Red Cross helped distribute food and clothing to the affected residents, and planes helped drop off supplies to residents in isolated areas. On January 31, the government of Swaziland declared a state of emergency and requested assistance from the international community. South Africa provided two helicopters to the country to survey the affected areas. Various countries and United Nations agencies provided about \$1.01 million in cash and supplies to Swaziland. The United Nations Department of Humanitarian Affairs provided \$20,000. The European Economic Community donated about \$80,000 to purchase tents and blankets. The Lutheran World Federation donated \$20,000 in cash, along with generators and blankets, while World Vision International sent \$10,000 in cash. Within a week, workers reopened most major roads to travel, and by February 24, most roads were reopened. Workers also quickly restored the downed power lines. Relief items were distributed by both air and road in the weeks following the storm, coordinated by the Swaziland Red Cross and assisted by volunteer organizations. In part due to Domoina as well as the previously occurring drought, the economy of Swaziland stagnated through 1985. Following the storm in South Africa, workers restored the original course of the Umfolozi River after it had moved. Officials later purchased a new dredge to remove sediment from Lake St. Lucia, and the canal connecting the lake to the Umfolozi River was later finished. Local governments coordinated relief efforts in the country, including delivering food and providing shelter for those who lost their homes. The South African Red Cross provided food to storm victims, many of whom were beneficiaries of the food program during the extended drought. The South African government declared Natal a disaster area. The country's military provided 25 helicopters to rescue flood victims and donated 3,000 tents. The government later authorized \$85 million to fund repairing damaged rails and roads. The American government donated \$100,000 to the country, mostly to purchase supplies. West Germany also donated about \$231,000, mostly for the feeding program. ## See also - Subtropical Depression Dando – made landfall in southern Mozambique in 2012
1,883,147	Siege of Damascus (1148)	1,167,730,842	Muslim victory of the Second Crusade	[ "1140s in the Kingdom of Jerusalem", "1148 in Asia", "Battles involving the Zengid dynasty", "Battles of the Second Crusade", "Burid dynasty", "Conflicts in 1148", "Medieval Damascus", "Sieges involving France", "Sieges involving the Holy Roman Empire", "Sieges involving the Kingdom of Jerusalem", "Sieges involving the Knights Hospitaller", "Sieges involving the Knights Templar", "Sieges of Damascus", "Sieges of the Crusades" ]	The siege of Damascus took place between 24 and 28 July 1148, during the Second Crusade. It ended in a crusader defeat and led to the disintegration of the crusade. The two main Christian forces that marched to the Holy Land in response to Pope Eugene III and Bernard of Clairvaux's call for the Second Crusade were led by Louis VII of France and Conrad III of Germany. Both faced disastrous marches across Anatolia in the months that followed, with most of their armies being destroyed. The original focus of the crusade was Edessa (Urfa), but in Jerusalem, the preferred target of King Baldwin III and the Knights Templar was Damascus. At the Council of Acre, magnates from France, Germany, and the Kingdom of Jerusalem decided to divert the crusade to Damascus. The crusaders decided to attack Damascus from the west, where orchards of Ghouta would provide them with a constant food supply. Having arrived outside the walls of the city, they immediately put it to siege, using wood from the orchards. On 27 July, the crusaders decided to move to the plain on the eastern side of the city, which was less heavily fortified but had much less food and water. Afterwards, the local crusader lords refused to carry on with the siege, and the three kings had no choice but to abandon the city. The entire crusader army retreated back to Jerusalem by 28 July. ## Background The first hostile act between the Crusaders and the Burid rulers of Damascus was in form of raids in 1125, followed by the Battle of Marj al-Saffar in 1126, when the Crusaders defeated the Muslim army in the field but failed in their objective to capture Damascus. In 1129, they attacked Damascus again, when they camped near the Wooden Bridge (Jisr al-Khashab) at Dārayyā southwest of the city, but their siege of the city was unsuccessful, after their foraging expedition south into the Hauran was defeated, in addition to inability to advance due to a sudden thunderstorm and the ensuing fog, meanwhile, according to Michael the Syrian, who may be relying on the lost contemporary chronicle of Basil bar Shumna, Damascus paid 20,000 dinars and offered annual tribute in return for the crusaders' withdrawal. However, the crusaders managed to take Banias instead. In 1140, Mu'in ad-Din Unur visited King Fulk in Jerusalem, following his assistance during Imad ad-Din Zengi's aggression against Damascus, he also handed Banias to the Crusader realm once more. In 1147, Baldwin III marched with his army to capture Bosra, south of Damascus, after an invitation from Altuntash, the emir of Bosra and Salkhad who squabbled with his nominal superior, Mu'in ad-Din Unur, ruler of Damascus. When they arrived at Bosra, the Crusaders' high hopes were dashed to capture it when they found that Altuntash's wife, made of sterner stuff than her husband, had introduced a Damascene garrison into Bosra's citadel. Unwilling to chance a siege close to an enemy host, Baldwin elected to withdraw. ### Second Crusade The two main Christian forces that marched to the Holy Land in response to Pope Eugene III and Bernard of Clairvaux's call for the Second Crusade were led by Louis VII of France and Conrad III of Germany. Conrad's force included Bolesław IV the Curly and Vladislaus II of Bohemia, as well as Frederick of Swabia, his nephew who would become Emperor Frederick I. The crusade had been called after the fall of the County of Edessa on 24 December 1144. The crusaders marched across Europe and arrived at Constantinople in September and October 1147. Both faced disastrous marches across Anatolia in the months that followed, and most of their armies were destroyed. Louis abandoned his troops and travelled by ship to the Principality of Antioch, where his wife Eleanor of Aquitaine's uncle, Raymond, was prince. Raymond expected him to offer military assistance against the Seljuk Turks threatening the principality, but Louis refused and went to Jerusalem to fulfill his crusader vow. Conrad, stricken by illness, had earlier returned to Constantinople, but arrived in Jerusalem a few weeks later in early April 1148. The original focus of the crusade was Edessa, but in Jerusalem, the preferred target of King Baldwin III and the Knights Templar was Damascus. Stephen, King of England did not participate in the second crusade due to internal conflicts. Meanwhile, King David I of Scotland was dissuaded by his subjects from joining the crusade himself. ### Council of Acre The Council of Acre was called with the Haute Cour of Jerusalem at Acre on 24 June. This was the most spectacular meeting of the Cour in its existence: Conrad, Otto of Freising, Henry II, Duke of Austria, Welf VI, future emperor Frederick, and William V, Marquess of Montferrat represented the Holy Roman Empire. Louis, Thierry of Alsace, and various other ecclesiastical and secular lords represented the French. From Jerusalem King Baldwin, Queen Melisende, Patriarch Fulk, Robert de Craon (master of the Knights Templar), Raymond du Puy de Provence (master of the Knights Hospitaller), Manasses of Hierges (constable of Jerusalem), Humphrey II of Toron, Philip of Milly, Walter I Grenier, and Barisan of Ibelin were among those present. Notably, no one from Antioch, Tripoli, or the former County of Edessa attended. Both Louis and Conrad were persuaded to attack Damascus. Some of the barons native to Jerusalem pointed out that it would be unwise to attack Damascus, as the Burid dynasty, though Muslim, were their allies against the Zengid dynasty. Imad ad-Din Zengi had besieged the city in 1140, and Mu'in ad-Din Unur, a Mamluk acting as vizier for the young Mujir ad-Din Abaq, negotiated an alliance with Jerusalem through the chronicler Usama ibn Munqidh. Conrad, Louis, and Baldwin insisted, Damascus was a holy city for Christianity. Like Jerusalem and Antioch, it would be a noteworthy prize in the eyes of European Christians. In July their armies assembled at Tiberias and marched to Damascus, around the Sea of Galilee by way of Banias. There were perhaps 50,000 troops in total. The general view now appears to be that the decision to attack Damascus was somewhat inevitable. Historians, such as Martin Hoch, regard the decision as the logical outcome of Damascene's foreign policy shifting into alignment with the Zengid dynasty. King Baldwin III had previously launched a campaign with the sole objective of capturing the city. This damaged the Burid dynasty's relations with the Kingdom of Jerusalem. ## Fiasco at Damascus The crusaders decided to attack Damascus from the west, where orchards of Ghouta would provide them with a constant food supply. They arrived at Darayya on 23 July, with the army of Jerusalem in the vanguard, followed by Louis and then Conrad in the rearguard. The densely cultivated gardens and orchards would prove to be a serious obstacle for the crusaders. According to William of Tyre, the crusader army was prepared for battle: > At Daria [Darayya], since the city was now so near, the sovereigns drew up their forces in battle formation and assigned the legions to their proper places in the order of march...Because of its supposed familiarity with the country, the division led by the King of Jerusalem was, by common decision of the princes, directed to lead the way and open a path for the legions following. The King of the Franks [Louis VII] and his army was assigned the second place or center that they might aid those ahead if the need arose. By the same authority, the Emperor [Konrad III] was to hold the third or rear position, in readiness to resist the enemy if, perchance an attack should be made from behind. ### 24 July On Saturday 24 July, the crusaders began with an attack in the morning along the banks of the Barada river, as far as al-Rabweh. The Muslims were well prepared and constantly attacked the army advancing through the orchards outside Damascus. These orchards were defended by towers and walls and the crusaders were constantly pelted with arrows and lances along the narrow paths. There was a ferocious combat (pl) in the orchards and narrow roads at Mezzeh, between the Christian force and a mixture of professional troops of Damascus, the ahdath militia and Turkoman mercenaries. William of Tyre reported: > The cavalry forces of the townsmen and those who had come to their assistance realized that our army was coming through the orchards in order to besiege the city and they accordingly approached the stream which flowed into the town. This they did with their bows and their balistas [crossbows] so that they could fight off the Latin army...The emperor [Konrad], in command of the forces following, demanded to know why the army did not advance. He was told the enemy was in possession of the river and would not allow our forces to pass. Enraged at this news, Konrad and his knights galloped swiftly forward through the king's lines and reached the fighters who were trying to win the river. Here all leaped down from their horses and become foot soldiers, as is the custom of the Teutons when a desperate crisis occurs. The historian David Nicolle wrote that William of Tyre did not explain how Conrad was able to bring his forces up from the rear to the front without totally disorganizing the Christian army. Thanks to a charge by Conrad, the crusaders managed to fight their way through and chase the defenders back across the Barada river and into Damascus, in which fortifications were installed to cut off any possible supplies to Damascus from the Beqaa Valley. In the meantime, according to Syrian chronicler Abu Shama: > Despite the multitude of ahdath [militia], Turks, and common people of the town, volunteers and soldiers who had come from the provinces and had joined with them, the Muslims were overwhelmed by the enemy's numbers and were defeated by the infidels. The latter crossed the river, found themselves in the gardens and made camp there...The Franks...cut down trees to make palisades. They destroyed the orchards and passed the night in these tasks. Having arrived outside the walls of the city, the crusaders immediately put it to siege, using wood from the orchards. They attacked the suburbs of Faradis at first, they also began to build their siege position opposite Bab al-Jabiya, where the Barada did not run past Damascus. Inside the city the inhabitants barricaded the major streets, preparing for what they believed to be an inevitable assault. Unur had sought help from Saif ad-Din Ghazi I of Mosul and Nur ad-Din Zangi of Aleppo, and led an attack on the crusader camp; the crusaders were pushed back from the walls into the orchards, where they were prone to ambushes and guerrilla attacks. ### 25 July During the counter-attack on Sunday, 25 July, the Damascus forces took heavy losses which included the 71-year-old lawyer and well known scholar named Yusuf al-Findalawi, the Sufi mystic Al-Halhli and soldier Nur al-Dawlah Shahinshah. By the end of 25 July, the crusaders set up a camp on the Green Field (Maydan al-Akhdar in modern-day Baramkeh), which was a grassy area used by the Damascene cavalry as a training ground. ### 26 July The defenders launched an attack to the north of Damascus to repel the attackers, despite heavy fighting, they managed to clear the area and receive reinforcements from Lebanon and Sayf ad-Din on 26 July onward, including archers from the Beqaa Valley which increased the number of defenders and doubled their supply of arms, according to Ibn al-Qalanisi. During a raid on the crusader camp on 26 July, according to Abu Shama: > A large group of inhabitants and villagers...put to flight all the sentries, killed them, without fear of danger, taking the heads of all the enemy they killed and wanting to touch these trophies. The numbers of heads they gathered was considerable. ### 27 July The crusaders probably intended to concentrate on the eastern and southern edge of the city, by attacking the weakest of the gates, Bab al-Saghir (Small Gate), built only of mud bricks. According to William of Tyre, on 27 July, the crusaders decided to move to the plain on the eastern side of the city, opposite Bab Tuma and Bab Sharqi, which was less heavily fortified but had much less food and water. There were conflicts in both camps: Unur could not trust Saif ad-Din or Nur ad-Din not to conquer the city if their offer of help was accepted; and the crusaders could not agree about who would receive the city if they captured it. Guy I Brisebarre, lord of Beirut, was the suggestion of the local barons of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, but Thierry of Alsace, Count of Flanders, wanted it for himself and was supported by Baldwin, Louis, and Conrad. According to William of Tyre, the resulting dispute contributed to the final failure of the siege: 'for the local barons preferred that the Damascenes should keep their city rather than to see it given to the count', and so did all they could to ensure the siege collapsed. It was recorded by some that Unur had bribed the leaders to move to a less defensible position, and that Unur had promised to break off his alliance with Nur ad-Din if the crusaders went home. ### 28 July Nur ad-Din and Saif ad-Din had by now arrived at Homs and were negotiating with Unur for possession of Damascus, something that neither Unur nor the crusaders wanted. Saif ad-Din apparently also wrote to the crusaders, urging them to return home. With Nur ad-Din in the field it was impossible to return to their better position. The local Crusader lords refused to carry on with the siege, and the three kings had no choice but to abandon the city. First Conrad, then the rest of the army, decided to retreat back to Jerusalem on 28 July, though throughout their retreat they were followed by Muslim archers who constantly harassed them. Historians such as Ralph of Coggeshall, John of Salisbury and the annalist of Würzburg reported that the siege was abandoned when the Templars accepted a bribe, while William of Tyre and Michael the Syrian mentioned that the given coins were made of copper instead of gold. English historian Henry of Huntingdon summed up the whole expedition, by writing: > 1148\. In this year, the armies of the Emperor of Germany and the King of France were annihilated. though ... they had commenced their march under the greatest leaders and in the proudest confidence. But God despised them ... for they abandoned themselves to open fornication ... to robbery and every sort of wickedness. First they were starved by famine, through the false conduct of the Emperor of Constantinople, and afterwards were destroyed by the enemy's sword. King Louis and the emperor took refuge, at Antioch, and afterwards in Jerusalem with the remnant of their followers. And the French king, wishing to do something to restore his reputation, laid siege to Damascus with the aid of the Knights Templars of Jerusalem, and a force drawn from all quarters. But lacking the favor of God, and therefore having no success, he returned to France. ## Aftermath Each of the Christian forces felt betrayed by the other. A new plan was made to attack Ascalon but this was abandoned due to the lack of trust that had resulted from the failed siege. This mutual distrust would linger for a generation due to the defeat, to the ruin of the Christian kingdoms in the Holy Land. Following the battle, Conrad returned to Constantinople to further his alliance with Manuel I Komnenos. As a result of the attack, Damascus no longer trusted the crusaders, and the city was formally handed over to Nur ad-Din in 1154. Bernard of Clairvaux was also humiliated, and when his attempt to call a new crusade failed, he tried to disassociate himself from the fiasco of the Second Crusade altogether. ## Legacy The French Crusader Robert de Brie, who took part in the Siege of Damascus in 1148, is sometimes credited for bringing the Damask rose from Syria to Europe. The Crusaders carved the fleur-de-lis on a stone outside Bab Sharqi, in addition to scattering coins in a ditch there. During the Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon, the French built Mezzeh prison in 1920s, on a hill-top structure that dates back to crusader days, and used it to house anti-colonial fighters and political prisoners.
4,070,802	I Vampiri	1,141,632,628	null	[ "1950s Italian films", "1950s Italian-language films", "1957 films", "1957 horror films", "Films directed by Mario Bava", "Films directed by Riccardo Freda", "Films set in 1957", "Films set in Paris", "Films set in castles", "Films shot in Rome", "Gothic horror films", "Italian black-and-white films", "Italian horror films", "Titanus films" ]	I Vampiri (lit. The Vampires) is a 1957 Italian horror film. The film was directed by Riccardo Freda and completed by the film's cinematographer, Mario Bava. It stars Gianna Maria Canale, Carlo D'Angelo and Dario Michaelis. The film is about a series of murders on young women who are found with their blood drained. The newspapers report on a killer known as the Vampire, which prompts young journalist Pierre Lantin to research the crimes. Lantin investigates the mysterious Du Grand family who lives in a castle occupied by Gisele Du Grand who is in love with Lantin. She lives with her aunt, who hides her face in a veil, as well as the scientist Julian Du Grand, who is trying to find the secret to eternal youth. The film was developed during a growth in the Italian film industry which allowed for the market to expand beyond a local Italian audience and would allow Italian film makers to explore new genres of filmmaking. Freda made a deal with producers at the Italian film studio Titanus to create a low budget horror film by writing a story in one day and filming it in two weeks. The producers agreed and Freda began filming. On the final day of shooting, Freda left the set which led to the cinematographer Mario Bava to direct the rest of the film, which changed various plot points and added the inclusion of stock footage. On the film's release in 1957, it became Italy's first horror film of the sound era. It was not successful in Italy, which Freda interpreted as an audience not interested in horror films made by Italians. The film was released theatrically as The Devil's Commandment and Lust of the Vampire in the United States and United Kingdom respectively. English critics predominantly discuss the film in terms of its cinematography and place in film history. Despite being the first of the Italian horror films, it was not until the British film Dracula (1958) and the international hit Black Sunday were released that a greater amount of horror films began being produced in Italy. ## Plot In 1957 Paris, a series of mysterious killings are committed against young women of the same blood type who are found dead and drained of their blood. The press reported these killings as being performed by a murderer coined "The Vampire". The journalist Pierre Lantin begins to investigate and becomes more involved when his fiancée, the dancer Nora Duval, is kidnapped. As Inspector Chantal examines the crime scene, Lantin arrives predicting that the crime was committed by the Vampire. Lantin investigates the school that the latest murder happened at to search for clues and finds that the woman was being followed by a tall man before the murder. Elsewhere, a man named Joseph begs for "his fix" in a dark room, but is told to go after a woman named Lorette and that he "knows what to do" at Rue Saint Etienne. Joseph arrives at the location and is spotted by Lantin, but manages to get away from him. Joseph arrives at the clinic of Professor Julian Du Grand and demands money to leave town or he will report what is happening to the police. He is strangled by Du Grand's assistant when a shadowed woman named Marguerite arrives and states that if the police track them down, it will be the end of Du Grand's career. A newspaper headline later reveals that Professor Julian Du Grand has died unexpectedly. After a funeral procession for Julian, a group of men arrive and reveal that the body buried was that of Joseph. Joseph's corpse is taken to a castle, where he is experimented on by Julian who is attempting to discover the secret for eternal life. Later, Lorette meets a blind man in the street who asks her to drop off a letter. On dropping the letter off, she is kidnapped and finds herself locked in a bedroom with the skeletons of the Vampire's previous victims. As the police try and track down Lorette's kidnappers, Lantin is reassigned from following the Vampire story and is set to cover a ball at the castle of Du Grand. At the castle, he meets Gisele, who expresses admiration for Lantin as he reminds her of his father. Lantin leaves the party and is pursued by the photographer Donald. Lantin states he does not want to lead on Gisele with her emotions, which leads to Donald re-entering the castle to profess his love for Gisele. Gisele turns him down as her face begins to grow old before his eyes and she reveals that each person killed restores her youth for a short time. Knowing her secret is his death warrant as she reaches for a pistol and murders Donald. Gisele then calls upon Professor Julian to make her eternally young. Julian states that under her fragile emotional state it may not work, but begins an experimental transfer Lorette's youth and beauty to Giselle. Gisele meets Pierre the next day when she is picking up a painting where he spots odd behavior in her such as writing with the wrong hand, which leads him to return to her castle to investigate further. Gisele begins growing ill from her previous experiment and calls upon Professor Du Grand to aid her. As he leaves, Joseph awakens in Du Grand's lab. Pierre triggers an alarm, which has him race out the castle where he meets the disoriented Joseph. Pierre takes Joseph to the police station where he reveals he was the kidnapper of the young women, but the people in the castle are the real murderers. The police arrive looking for Marguerite, but only find Gisele who denies any knowledge of Joseph. Pierre and the police explore the castle without finding clues. On leaving, Gisele begins transforming back into Marguerite before their eyes, prompting for an emergency search of the castle. A gun battle ensues between Du Grand's assistant and the police, leaving the assistant and Du Grand shot. This leads the police to open his grave, where they find Lorette. Lorette is sent home and Inspector Chantal reveals that Giselle confessed to the crimes and died shortly after. ## Production ### Background and development Around the time I Vampiri was in development, Italian film productions had grown exponentially. Italian film productions rose from 25 films in 1945, to 204 in 1954. This growth allowed film makers in Italy to approach new genres and new styles not attempted before. In 1956, the chief executive officer of Titanus, Goffredo Lombardo, stated that Italian film productions should be aimed a European market opposed to just an Italian one. During the production of the film Beatrice Cenci (1956), director Riccardo Freda and his friend, cinematographer Mario Bava discussed the idea of developing a horror film. Horror films had been previously banned in Italy during the 1930s and 1940s, while a new taste for the macabre was developing. Italian film historian Goffredo Fofi stated in 1963 that "ghosts, monsters and the taste for the horrible appears when a society that became wealthy and evolves by industrializing, and are accompanied by a state of well-being which began to exist and expand in Italy only since a few years" Freda's ambition to make a horror film derived from his desire to make films in the fantastique style, feeling that only the Americans and German expressionists were able to make such films in the past. Freda approached film producer Luigi Carpentieri with the idea of the film despite not having a treatment ready. Promising them that he would have something for them by the next day, he returned with a tape of his treatment that was complete with sound effects. Carpentieri phoned Goffredo Lombardo to convince him further. Freda followed up his tape with the promise that his script could pass the censors and could be filmed in 12 days. This convinced the producer who allowed Freda to create what became I Vampiri. I Vampiri was a low-budget production with Donati and Capentieri of Athena and Lombardo's Titanus investing 32 million lire each initially into the film. The initial budget was 97,000,000 Italian lire which increased to 142,000,000 for its post-production and release after the film's format was switched to panoramic CinemaScope. ### Pre-production The screenplay of I Vampiri is credited to Piero Regnoli and the fictional writer and scenarist Rijk Sijöstrom. The story of the film features contributions from Freda, who has only mentioned Regnoli during the writing process. Both Freda and Regnoli have uncredited roles in the film as the autopsy doctor and Mr. Bourgeois respectively. Freda had the film set in the 1950s opposed the 18th or 19th Century to lower the cost of re-creating a period set as well as making the film's plot feel like it could actually happen. The film's story borrows from uncredited stories. This includes the crimes committed by Gianna Maria Canale's character Giselle Du Grand, which are based upon the legend of Elizabeth Bathory who bathed in the blood of virgins to stay young. Another influence that Freda acknowledged was Edgar Allan Poe's short story "The Fall of the House of Usher", with its suggested parallel between decaying, dissipated interiors and the Canale's vampire-like character. Gianna Maria Canale took the female lead in the film, despite not initially wanting the role. The film was the last of her many films she made with Freda. Freda and Canale had first worked together on Il cavaliere misterioso (1948); their relationship led to Freda leaving his wife to go with Canale to Brazil where they made two more films. On their return to Italy, Canale would have the female lead role in nearly all his films including The Iron Swordsman, Sins of Rome and Theodora, Slave Empress. ### Production Filming began in Rome in 1956. The film was a low budget production as Lombardo did not care for horror films. Freda and his crew utilized mostly existing sets with only a single scene at the Aniene river filmed outside the studio. The film was shot in black-and-white by cinematographer Mario Bava, who felt that that style would better suit the special effects in the film and keep the budget down. Bava worked on the special effects on the film without credit. One of his effects involved Gianna Maria Canale aging make-up that would only be revealed when certain coloured lights were revealed on her. This effect had been done previously in older films, such as Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (1931) and contemporary films, including The Man Who Turned to Stone (1957). Freda's deal with his producers failed when he left the set on the 12th day of production. After an argument with the producers, Freda left the production allowing Mario Bava to step in to finish the film in the next two days. Reasons for Freda leaving production differ and range from Freda having a misunderstanding with the producers to Bava stating that Freda was taking too long to make the film. Bava's ending was different than Freda's initial ending, which involved finding the heroine hanged. Among the changes Bava made to finish the film included changing the supporting character of the journalist becoming the lead and removing a subplot about a dismembered criminal who returns to life on being reassembled. Bava also extended other portions of the film with stock footage and montages of newspaper presses. ## Release I Vampiri was released in Italy on 5 April 1957 in San Remo. It grossed a total of 125.3 million Italian lire on its initial theatrical run. The film was not a box office success in either Italy or France. It was released in the U.S. in 1960 in a heavily altered version under the title The Devil's Commandment. This version of the film featured new scenes written by J. V. Rhems and filmed by Ronald Honthauer in New York. In the United Kingdom, the film was released under the title Lust of the Vampire. Mario Bava biographer Tim Lucas wrote in 1992 that another version of the film, also titled Lust of the Vampire, was assembled in the U.S., which incorporated scenes of nudity. ### Home media A photonovel version of I Vampiri was released in Italy. Photonovels were similar to comic strips in that they use a succession of panels and speech captions. The main difference is that they rely on photographs of films as opposed to illustrations. I Vampiri'''s photonovel was titled Quella che voleva amare (English: The One Who Wanted to Be Loved), which appeared in I Vostri Film in August 1958. I Vampiri was released uncut for the first time on DVD in the United States on June 12, 2001 by Image Entertainment. IGN gave a positive review of the DVD, referring to the image quality as "stunning" and that the film was the original cut, "not the butchered Devil's Commandment version aired on late night television over the years." It was also released on DVD as a bonus feature from Arrow Films on their Black Sunday Blu-ray on February 4, 2013. ## Critical reception In a contemporary review, The Monthly Film Bulletin described the film as a "bizarre and grisly Italian effort" that "drags in everything from drug addiction to perpetual youth, crypts to skeletons, but has only a few moments which can claim to be genuinely macabre." The review praised the special effects involving a transition between a young to aged woman and back again, and concluded that "if only story, treatment and performance ... had been comparable, the film might have been really high in its class." Variety described the film as an "attempt at a horror film which doesn't quite come off with only a few moments in succeeding in being chilling." The review concluded that the film was "strictly for devotees of the genre" In Italy, La Stampa noted the surprise that the film avoided being banned by Italian censors and that when the film takes on thriller motives, it achieves some effective moments. In their retrospective review, AllMovie wrote "While I Vampiri is more important for its place in history than for it ultimate effectiveness as a film, it is nevertheless an entertaining horror flick." Danny Shipka, who discussed this film in his book on European exploitation films, noted that the film "set the standard for visual style that would be the foundation for most Italian gothic films of this nature." He also described the film as "a little ponderous and talky" while praising Canale's transformation scenes and the "masterful filming of cobwebs, creaking doors, and decay, along with great lighting". IGN wrote that "anyone interested in the history of [Italian horror cinema] should see the film" and that the film was "showing its age and is incredibly tame compared with the gore shockers that Italy would eventually become famous for". Martyn Conterio, in his book on Black Sunday stated that it would be "pushing it to declare I Vampiri as a neglected masterpiece, but it is a hugely underrated work and very cleverly sets out what a horror film with a modern edge and sensibility could achieve." Louis Paul wrote a negative review of the film in his book Italian Horror Film Directors, opining that the film suffered some damaging influences from neorealistic cinema, which turned on very static scenes. He also opined that the film spends too much time with Dario Michaelis character, and the "mind-numbingly dull and endless police procedural scenes" ## Aftermath and influence Freda felt that I Vampiri did not succeed financially in Italy due to the country's audience reluctance to an Italian interpretation of the horror genre. For Freda's next film, Caltiki – The Immortal Monster, he used an English pseudonym of Robert Hampton to give the impression that the film was not Italian. Freda attempted a Gothic horror film again five years later with his film The Horrible Dr. Hichcock. Other crew members would go on to direct horror films following I Vampiri, such as screenwriter Piero Regnoli, who directed The Playgirls and the Vampire (1960) and Bava, who became the cinematographer on Freda's Caltiki as well as directing Black Sunday (1960). I Vampiri was the first Italian horror film of the sound era, following the lone silent horror film Il mostro di Frankenstein (1920) The film did not start a new wave of Italian horror productions. The British Film Institute stated that it required the international success of Mario Bava's Black Sunday to initiate the start of horror film production in Italy. Italian screenwriter Ernesto Gastaldi suggested that it was when Terence Fisher's film Dracula'' (1958) was released in Italy that a "hailstorm of vampire movies flooded the screens". ## See also - List of horror films of the 1950s - List of Italian films of 1957
30,419,501	Gul Circle MRT station	1,167,927,313	Mass Rapid Transit station in Singapore	[ "Mass Rapid Transit (Singapore) stations", "Railway stations in Singapore opened in 2017" ]	Gul Circle MRT station is an elevated Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) station on the East West line (EWL). Located in Tuas, western Singapore, the station serves the surrounding industries of JTC Space @ Tuas and Mapletree Pioneer Logistic Hub. The station is operated by SMRT Trains. First announced in 2011 as Tuas MRT station, it was constructed as part of the Tuas West Extension (TWE). The station began operations on 18 June 2017. At the height of 33 metres (108 ft), the station is the tallest elevated station in Singapore. The station has a stacked island platform arrangement with provisions for an MRT extension to Tuas South. ## History An extension to Tuas from Joo Koon station was first announced in January 2008 by transport minister Raymond Lim to improve public transport access to Tuas and the Jurong Industrial Estate. The station was eventually announced as Tuas station on 11 January 2011, to be constructed as part of the 7.5-kilometre (4.7 mi) Tuas West Extension (TWE) of the East West line (EWL). The extension consisted of four stations from Tuas Link to this station. Contract 1668 for the design and construction of Tuas Station was awarded to Shanghai Tunnel Engineering Co Ltd in November 2011. The S\$190 million (US\$ million) contract included the construction of 3.05 kilometres (1.90 mi) of elevated MRT viaducts. Construction started at the end of 2011, with a scheduled completion date of 2016. The station was renamed to Gul Circle through a public poll on 13 April 2012. Initially expected to open in 2016, the TWE completion date was pushed to the second quarter of 2017 to allow more time for the testing of the new signalling system implemented for the extension. As announced by the Land Transport Authority (LTA) on 27 April 2017, the station began operations on 18 June that year. Prior to the station's opening, passengers were offered a preview of the station at an open house on 16 June. ## Details Gul Circle station serves the EWL and is between the Joo Koon and Tuas Crescent stations. The official station code is EW30. Being part of the EWL, the station is operated by SMRT Trains. The station operates between 5:26 am and 12:41 am. Train frequencies range from 4 to 5 minutes on peak hours and 8 to 9 minutes on non-peak hours. The three-storey station has a stacked island platform arrangement, with additional side platforms and track provisions for the Tuas South Extension. As the tracks go over the Ayer Rajah Expressway and align with a road viaduct before and after the station respectively, the station has a height of 33 metres (108 ft), making Gul Circle the tallest elevated station in Singapore. As of March 2019, however, there were no plans for the south extension due to the lack of developments in Tuas South at the time. Gul Circle station is located in Tuas along Tuas Road near the junction with Gul Circle and Tuas Avenue 3. Surrounding landmarks of the station include Tuas Fire Station, JTC Space @ Tuas, Mapletree Pioneer Logistic Hub and Raffles Golf Course.
70,382,754	IBM Building, Honolulu	1,135,412,555	Office building in Honolulu, Hawaiʻi	[ "Buildings and structures completed in the 1960s", "Honolulu", "Howard Hughes", "IBM", "Modernist architecture in Hawaii", "Punched card" ]	The IBM Building is an office building at 1240 Ala Moana Boulevard in Honolulu, Hawaiʻi. Designed by Vladimir Ossipoff, the building opened in 1962 as the Honolulu headquarters for American technology company IBM. It is presently owned by Howard Hughes Corporation, serving as a sales center for its surrounding Ward Village development. Construction cost \$1.5 million (equivalent to \$ in ). The building was dedicated on October 10, 1962, in a ceremony attended by officials including William F. Quinn, who was Governor of Hawaii at the time. The roughly cube-shaped massing of the building is distinguished by the honeycomb structure of its concrete brise soleil, inspired by Polynesian culture and also intended to resemble the punched cards used in the computer industry at the time of its construction. The IBM Building and surrounding area were purchased in 2002 by General Growth Properties, and the building was slated for demolition as part of a 2008 redevelopment plan. Public backlash led to its preservation after the planned development area was purchased by Howard Hughes Corporation, which expressed an intent to maintain the IBM Building's name and general appearance. The development company instead renovated the building to use as an information and sales center for Ward Village. It officially reopened in that capacity in 2014. ## History ### Design and construction On February 29, 1960, the Hawaii regional manager of IBM announced that the technology company would erect a new office building on Ala Moana Boulevard. The announcement projected that construction would cost between \$800,000 and \$1.5 million (equivalent to \$ in ) and stated that the building would be either 5 or 7 stories tall when completed. It noted that planning would be completed after an architect and IBM representatives arrived from the contiguous United States, and that construction was scheduled to finish in March 1961. On May 19, 1961, the regional manager stated that the planning process for the building had been finished and that construction would begin the following month. The announcement noted that a "sculptured ribbon-pattern concrete sun screen" would surround the glass curtain wall of the reinforced concrete building's upper floors, and that the building would contain 61,961 square feet (5,756.4 m<sup>2</sup>) of space. The IBM Building was designed by architect Vladimir Ossipoff and built by contractor Hawaiian Dredging & Construction Company for Victoria Ward Limited. IBM planned to occupy the bottom two floors and Victoria Ward half of the sixth, while the remaining space would be leased to other tenants by IBM. Construction of the IBM Building, which began by July 1961, was the first part of a master plan for eastern Kakaʻako that Harland Bartholomew and Associates created for Victoria Ward Limited. In October 1961, a 20-year-old construction worker fell from the fifth floor of the building while moving a sawhorse from one scaffold to another and landed on a pile of lumber; he survived, but broke several bones in the fall. According to Engineering News-Record, construction cost \$1.5 million (equivalent to \$ in ). It was built as part of IBM's US\$18,000,000 (equivalent to about \$174,139,000 in 2022) effort to build imaginative offices around the world. The magazine praised the cheap construction in an October 1962 article, attributing it to IBM's planning and direction of the process. ### Opening The IBM Building opened in 1962 at 1240 Ala Moana Boulevard as the Honolulu headquarters for IBM. The building was dedicated on October 10, 1962, in a ceremony attended by various corporate and military officials as well as members of the public. Then-Governor of Hawaii William F. Quinn attended and spoke at the event, characterizing the building as "a gratifying demonstration of one company's success in years past and faith in the future of the mid-Pacific area". Also attending were Rev. Abraham Akaka and the president of IBM's Federal Systems Division. Though the IBM Building's appearance was initially criticized by Hawaii residents for its perceived austerity and for not fitting into the aesthetic of Hawaii, it became more popular over time. Its simple design gained various accolades in the architectural community, including a 1964 honorable mention from the Hawaii chapter of the American Institute of Architects. Its landscaping was recognized with the 1964 Beautification Award from the Honolulu Chamber of Commerce. ### Changes in ownership In April 2002, General Growth Properties (GGP) made a \$250 million (equivalent to \$ in ) bid to acquire Victoria Ward Limited and its 65 acres (26 ha) of properties in Kakaʻako, including the IBM Building. GGP was additionally the owner of Ala Moana Center, a major competitor of the Ward developments in Kakaʻako. The sale was finalized the following month. In 2008, GGP proposed demolishing the IBM Building as part of a redevelopment plan, intending to create a new mixed-use "urban village" in the area. The building was instead preserved due to public backlash. Howard Hughes Corporation purchased the redevelopment area from GGP in 2010. In October 2011, Howard Hughes announced a revised master plan for the area; by February 2012, the corporation expressed an intent to maintain the IBM Building's name and general appearance. ### Renovation Woods Bagot and Ferraro Choi designed a renovation to make the building a sales center for Howard Hughes Corporation, as part of the development company's master plan for the surrounding Ward Village development. Contractors Jay Kadowaki Inc. and Albert C. Kobayashi Inc. carried out the renovation, and the building officially reopened on January 25, 2014. The construction cost \$24,000,000 and won the Display category at INSIDE Festival in 2015. Howard Hughes built model units in the building for several of its nearby condominiums. The company also utilized the second, third, sixth, and seventh floors while maintaining an information center on the ground floor. The information center was created by completely redesigning the ground floor and replacing walls with windows on all four sides. Solomon Enos was commissioned to paint a mural in the space, and designed an installation depicting Hawaiian goddess Keaomelemele. The parking lot was replaced with a courtyard for outdoor gatherings, including a water feature. A cube-like structure was built onto one side of the building and the rooftop lanai was extended. These changes were criticized by Ossipoff's former partner Sid Snyder as "unsympathetic to the architecture of the building" – Snyder elaborated that he disliked the bright white color and location of the addition – and were also critiqued by the architect's daughter Valerie Ossipoff. ### Post-renovation In 2018, Howard Hughes Corporation announced plans to move remote workers into the building and notified tenants on the fourth floor that they would be taking it over when leases expired at the end of that year. These tenants included IBM, which maintained its last remaining offices in the building on that floor. Honolulu Civil Beat observed that it was unclear whether "IBM Building" would remain the official name of the building once it was no longer occupied by IBM; a Howard Hughes executive declined to comment. In 2019, IBM vacated the building completely, and the sign reading "IBM" was removed from the roof. ## Architecture The six-story IBM Building, which also has rooftop space referred to as a seventh floor, has cuboid massing. It has a concrete brise soleil with a distinctive honeycomb structure. This facade, which was assembled from 1,360 precast pieces of concrete, intended to resemble the punched cards which were used in the computer industry at the time of the building's construction. Architect Vladimir Ossipoff also drew inspiration from Polynesian culture while designing the facade. The angles of the brise soleil were intended to block sunlight, prevent water from pooling, and discourage pigeon nesting without blocking views from the offices. Ossipoff himself described the grille as a key aspect of the building: The building itself is set back from the road, and Ossipoff used berms to make the parking lot less visible. Stairways, elevators, and utilities are clustered at the building's center to reduce obstructions of the office space. ## Significance The IBM Building has been recognized as a key example of the tropical modernism architectural style that was popular at the time of its construction. Vladimir Ossipoff was a key figure in the style's development. In 2008, architect and Yale University Director of Exhibitions Dean Sakamoto described the building as a Honolulu landmark and a marker of the passing of time, comparing it to Aloha Tower and the Hawaii Convention Center. Jeff Nishi, another architect, characterized it as an example of Ossipoff's versatility as an architect. ## See also - Hawai‘i Preparatory Academy - Liljestrand House
52,703,927	Halloween darter	1,162,029,847	Species of fish	[ "Endemic fish of the United States", "Fish described in 2008", "Freshwater fish of the Southeastern United States", "Percina" ]	The Halloween darter (Percina crypta) is a small freshwater fish native to North America. It is found in Georgia and Alabama in the drainage basin of the Apalachicola River, specifically in the Flint River system and the Chattahoochee River system. It prefers shallow, fast-flowing areas with gravel bottoms in small and medium-sized rivers. It was first described in 2008, having not previously been distinguished from the Blackbanded darter (P. nigrofasciata), formerly though to occur in the same watershed. Blackbanded darter has since been split again with Westfall's darter now recognised from the Apalachicola drainage. The species is somewhat variable, being generally blackish dorsally, with some individuals having indistinct saddle-like barring. Males have orange and dark lateral striping while females have dark stripes and a yellowish-green belly. At a maximum standard length of 101 mm (4 in), males are slightly larger than females, and both sexes develop distinctive orange barring on the edge of the first dorsal fin during the breeding season. The Halloween darter has a limited range and a fragmented distribution. The main threat faced by the species is a deterioration in the quality of its habitat. It has been classified as a "vulnerable species" by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. It has been listed as "threatened" in Georgia by the Georgia Department of Natural Resources, and is protected in Alabama under the Nongame Species Regulation of the Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. ## Taxonomy The Halloween darter was described as a new species in 2008 by Mary C. Freeman, Byron J. Freeman, and Noel M. Burkhead. The holotype had been collected in 1994 by B. J. Freeman, J. Devivo, J. W. Garrett, M. J. Zieg, R. E. Jenkins, J. S. Boyce, L. M. Hartle, and M. Flood from the Chattahoochee River near Sautee Nacoochee, Georgia and Nora Mill Dam. The species name crypta is from the Greek root crypt, meaning "hidden" or "concealed". The authors chose this name to reference how the Halloween darter's existence as a separate species was concealed by its similar appearance to the blackbanded darter (P. nigrofasciata); prior to the Halloween darter's description, it was thought that the blackbanded darter was the only species of Percina found in the area of the Apalachicola River. blackbanded darter is now known not to be present in the system at all, after being split again, Percina westfalli is now known to be sympatric with P. crypta. The common name "Halloween darter" was chosen to allude to the orange and black breeding coloration of individuals, as these colors are associated with the Western holiday Halloween. Based on nuclear and mitochondrial DNA, the Halloween darter and blackbanded darter form a clade with nine other members of Percina, identified as the subgenus Hadropterus. The other members of Hadropterus are the Guadalupe darter (P. apristis), the goldline darter (P. aurolineata), the dusky darter (P. sciera), the bronze darter (P. palmaris), the bridled darter (P. kusha), the muscadine darter (P. smithvanizi), the Bankhead darter (P. sipsi), the freckled darter (P. lenticula), and Westfall's darter (P. westfalli). The clade is a polytomy, however, meaning that clearer evolutionary relationships among members was not discernible based on the utilized methods. A 2018 study found no genetic distinction between the Halloween darter and Westfall's darter in the Chattahoochee and Flint Rivers. The latter, described in 1942 from Florida, is sometimes considered a subspecies of the blackbanded darter. ## Description Halloween darters have terete (cylindrical or slightly tapering) bodies, with males longer than females. Males have a maximum standard length of 101 mm (4.0 in), while females have a maximum standard length of 85 mm (3.3 in). Males and females also vary in coloration. Males' heads range in color from a dark, bluish-gray to black, with specks of iridescent green or gold concentrated on their cheeks and opercles (protective coverings of the gills), though also present elsewhere on the head. Its eyes are darkly colored, and the preorbital bar (band of color on the preorbital, or in front of the eye sockets) is black. Both the chin and the lower jaw are bluish-black. Its sides are pale orange with blackish lateral stripes, which may be tinged with iridescent green. Its back is either black or, when possessing distinct saddles, amber or orange with black saddles. Females have dark olive-black tops of the head, with snouts that are a similar color but paler. Females have variable coloration of the cheek and opercle. They can be medium olive-black with yellow crescent-shaped markings or instead with pale yellow stippling (small dots) or mottling. Similar to males, they have iridescent green or gold speckling, though the speckles are concentrated on the opercles or cleithrum (bone that extends from pectoral fin up to the cranium above the gills). Females' eyes are also dark, and their upper and lower jaws range in color from olive-black to pale yellow. Their abdomens are pale yellowish-green, and their bellies are tinted pink. They also have olive-black lateral stripes and dorsal saddles; the color between the dorsal saddles is amber to pale yellow. The Halloween darter can be distinguished from other members of its genus by possessing all the following traits: the branchiostegal membranes (membranes that connect the branchiostegal rays, which support the gill membranes) are slightly connected; the edge of the preopercle (bone between cheek and gill membrane) is not serrated; it usually has seven saddle-shaped color bands on its back; and males and females in breeding coloration have yellowish-orange or orange bands near the edge of their first dorsal fins. ## Distribution and habitat The Halloween darter is endemic to the watershed of the Apalachicola River. This is formed from the confluence of two rivers, the Flint River and the Chattahoochee River. In the Flint River basin, the fish occurs both above and below the fall line, being present in several tributaries including Potato Creek, Lazer Creek, Muckalee Creek and Ichawaynochaway Creek. In the Chattahoochee River basin, it occurs above Lake Lanier in the Appalachian foothills of northeast Georgia, in the Chattahoochee itself, in the Chestatee River and the Sautee Creek. It is also present in the Uchee Creek, a tributary that joins the Chattahoochee River near the fall line in Alabama. This fish is typically found in fast-flowing sections of small and medium-sized rivers over bottoms composed of gravel, cobble or rock, often in areas where hornleaf riverweed (Podostemum ceratophyllum) grows. ## Biology and ecology It is insectivorous, consuming a variety of aquatic insects such as mayfly nymphs and larvae of midges, black flies, and caddisflies. Reproduction occurs in the spring, with spawning occurring in April and May, probably in fast-flowing riffle habitats. Females have a clutch size of 23–335 eggs; clutch size increases with female body size. Ripe egg cells are approximately 1.5 mm in diameter. Offspring hatch in June, with juveniles growing to more than half the maximum adult length by October. They reach sexual maturity at one year old. Lifespans likely do not exceed three years. The Halloween darter is a host species for US federally endangered species of freshwater mussel, the gulf moccasinshell. This mussel releases larvae called glochidia that lodge in the gills of suitable fish to develop into juveniles. Of twenty-four fish species in seven families tested as possible hosts for the gulf moccasinshell's larvae, successful metamorphosis of the larvae only occurred in the Halloween darter and three other darter species. The Halloween darter is also considered a moderately successful host for the larvae of the purple bankclimber mussel, with a metamorphosis success rate of approximately 34%. ## Status and threats This fish has several separate populations, and a total area of occupancy of less than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup> (772 sq mi). The chief threat it faces is a deterioration in the quality of its habitat. It typically occurs in deep, fast-flowing sections of waterway, and damming of the rivers has altered the hydrological conditions and siltation. In the US state of Georgia, its four main populations are isolated from each other due to artificial reservoirs. If any of the four populations were to become extinct, recolonization could not occur naturally from any of the other three. Additionally, increased urbanization, water extraction and waste treatment are affecting the water quality of its habitat. For these reasons, the International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed the conservation status of this fish as being "vulnerable". In 2010, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service was petitioned by a coalition of environmental organizations (Alabama Rivers Alliance, Center for Biological Diversity, Clinch Coalition, Dogwood Alliance, Gulf Restoration Network, Tennessee Forests Council, West Virginia Highlands Conservancy and activists Tierra Curry and Noah Greenwald) to list 404 aquatic species under the Endangered Species Act of 1973, including the Halloween darter. They included the Halloween darter based on the perceived threats of habitat destruction, as well as insufficient regulatory measures currently in place to protect the species. It is not included on the US Endangered Species Act as of 2019, and its listing status is under review. In Georgia, the Halloween darter is listed as a threatened species. In Alabama, it is protected under the Nongame Species Regulation of the Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. This makes it illegal to capture, trade, or kill the fish without a permit. ## See also - Christmas darter
48,374,893	Rideau Cottage	1,172,873,425	House in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada	[ "1867 establishments in Ontario", "Buildings and structures on the National Historic Sites of Canada register", "Federal government buildings in Ottawa", "Government Houses of the British Empire and Commonwealth", "Historic buildings and structures in Ontario", "Houses completed in 1867", "Houses in Ottawa", "Monarchy in Canada", "Official residences in Canada" ]	Rideau Cottage is a historic residential building located on the grounds of Rideau Hall in Ottawa, Ontario. The two-level, 22-room Georgian Revival home is owned by the Canadian Crown and has traditionally been inhabited by people associated with the governor general of Canada, including the viceroy's private secretary. It has been occupied by Prime Minister Justin Trudeau and his family in lieu of 24 Sussex Drive since 2015. ## History Construction on the building, which was based on a design by architect F. P. Rubidge, began in 1866 and concluded in 1867. Though intended in the early days to serve as the residence of the governor general's secretary, the cottage was later designated for use by the government as an official guest house for visiting dignitaries. On his arrival in Canada in 1883, incoming governor general the Marquess of Lansdowne resided at Rideau Cottage while waiting for Rideau Hall to be vacated by the outgoing governor general, the Marquess of Lorne. Other residents included: Lionel and Lilias Massey during Vincent Massey's time as governor general; Georges Vanier, as Aide-de-camp to Governor General Byng; Barbara Uteck, private secretary to the governor general from 2000 to 2006, and her husband, Graham Fraser. Uteck's successor Sheila-Marie Cook resided at Rideau Cottage from 2006 until January 31, 2011. The house was then occupied by private secretary Stephen Wallace, until he vacated the premises on the weekend of 24–25 October 2015. Since October 2015, Justin Trudeau and his family have in Rideau Cottage, while the traditional official residence of the prime minister of Canada, 24 Sussex Drive, was undergoing assessment for repairs and restoration. However Rideau Cottage was never ideal as a residence for the prime minister, as it is too small (so meals are prepared at 24 Sussex Drive which has a larger kitchen) and lacking in security, and furthermore "It doesn't make sense for the Prime Minister to live in the Governor General's backyard". ## Design Rideau Cottage is a two-level, 22-room Georgian Revival building. Originally, the structure had 14 rooms on a single floor. An 1872 remodel, using a different brick, added both the second level and a verandah on three sides of the ground floor. During that remodel, the exterior brick of the first floor was covered in stucco painted to appear like brick. (When the verandah was removed some time later, the stucco remained.) Between 1999 and 2000, the building underwent major renovations to the basement, roof and interior finishes, and the mechanical and electrical systems were upgraded. Outside, the stucco was removed and each brick and joint was individually dyed to give a uniform appearance. It was again renovated in 2013. Rideau Cottage is characterized and distinguished by its symmetry, simple lines, classically inspired central entrance with pedimented porch, sash windows flanked by decorative shutters, and paired chimneys. Rideau Cottage was designated a Recognized Federal Heritage Building on 3 October 1986.
21,040,757	Munir Hussain (commentator)	1,119,455,970	Cricket commentator	[ "1929 births", "2013 deaths", "Cricket historians and writers", "Kalat cricketers", "Pakistani cricket commentators", "Pakistani cricketers", "People from Karachi", "Recipients of Sitara-i-Imtiaz", "Writers from Amritsar" ]	Munir Hussain (29 November 1929 – 29 July 2013) was a cricket commentator, administrator, and journalist from Pakistan who also played a first-class cricket match for Kalat in the 1969–70 season. He was the first to introduce Urdu commentary to cricket, and was the founder of the first Urdu cricket magazine, Akhbar-e-Watan. During the 1970s, Hussain commentated on the game for Pakistan Television (PTV) and Radio Pakistan, and wrote weekly columns on cricket for the Daily Jang for many years. He received many accolades for his work for cricket. ESPNcricinfo writer Saad Shafqat described him as "a pioneering commentator, groundbreaking publisher, Karachi City Cricket Association (KCCA) mandarin, and sagacious elder presence in the nation's cricket circles". He also served as the president of the KCCA. ## Career ### Cricket Hussain was a good seamer with pace who played a lot of club cricket. He made his single first-class appearance, during the 1969–70 Quaid-i-Azam Trophy for Kalat against Quetta. Captaining his team, he scored 12 runs in the match. As a right-arm medium-fast bowler, Hussain took 2 wickets for 64 runs. Former Pakistan captain Imran Khan praised his "nip and direction" – once he bowled to Khan in the practice during the 1980s. ### Commentator The late 1960s, Radio Pakistan and PTV were broadcasting commentary only in English, which was not clearly understandable to most Pakistani cricket fans. Hussain was the first to put forward the idea of having Urdu commentary. He started commentating in Urdu during the 1969 Jang Gold Cup final, a match between National Sports and Clifton Gymkhana played at the Youth Centre, Nazimabad; in the match 13 Pakistani Test cricketers were playing. Hussain started commentating in Urdu commentary which distinguished him from his contemporaries. His distinguished Urdu commentary career spanned several decades, from the 1970s to the 2000s. For cricket coverage between the 1975 and 2003 World Cups, he travelled almost every Test cricket nation. ### Administration and journalism Hussain remained the president of the KCCA for two terms, and a member for many years. He also headed Pakistan Cricket Commentators Club (PCCC) in 2013. He was one of the founders of Jang Cricket Club. Cricket commentator, Chishty Mujahid, paid tribute to his services and said that he was a multifaceted personality as a cricket administrator, commentator, journalist, critic, analyst, organizer and much more. Hussain's first passion was journalism; his earliest successful magazine was Filmasia, dedicated to the Indian and Pakistani film industries. Akhbar-e-Watan, a monthly Urdu cricket magazine, was edited by him from 1977 to 2010. Hussain continuously wrote weekly cricket columns for the Daily Jang, the Pakistan's largest and oldest circulation newspaper, for almost four decades. ## Awards Hussain received the Best Urdu Commentator of the Decade Award for 1985–95. The Pakistan Broadcasting Corporation (PBC) presented him the Lifetime Achievement Award. On the tenth anniversary of the 1992 Cricket World Cup, won by Pakistan, he was also one of the recipients of the PCB's World Cup Legends Award. ## Personal life Hussain was born in November 1929 in Amritsar, Punjab, British Raj (now India). At a very young age, he moved to Karol Bagh – a neighbourhood of Delhi – where he spent the early years of his life. He migrated from Amritsar to Pakistan in 1947. Hussain was married and had four children, two daughters and two sons. Iqbal Munir, one of his sons, is a cricket photojournalist. ## Death Hussain suffered from ulcers and underwent blood transfusion 60 times. Despite suffering from knee arthritis, that limited his mobility, his health was good. Before his death on 29 July 2013, Hussain watched the second Twenty20 International played between Pakistan and the West Indies. He died at the age of 83 from a heart attack in Karachi. His funeral was offered at Abu Bakar Siddiq mosque, DHA Phase-II, and he was buried at Gizri graveyard later that day. Hussain's granddaughter, Khizra, said at his death that "he was so loved that at the funeral we weren't given a chance to cry because people kept telling us stories about him and his generosity." Former captains of the Pakistan cricket team Javed Miandad, Wasim Bari, Rashid Latif, cricket commentator Chishti Mujahid, former KCCA president Sirajul Islam Bukhari, and many other ex-Test cricketers attended his funeral. Miandad, offering his condolences, said that "Hussain had a fan following of his own and served the game with distinction." The interim chairman of the Pakistan Cricket Board, Najam Sethi, said that "he was an informed, easygoing and affable personality; his death will be widely mourned by the journalist and broadcast community as well as the cricketing fraternity across the country".
21,257,084	Action of 10 November 1808	1,056,459,676	Minor naval engagement of the Napoleonic Wars	[ "Conflicts in 1808", "Military history of the Bay of Biscay", "Naval battles involving France", "Naval battles involving the United Kingdom", "Naval battles of the Napoleonic Wars", "November 1808 events" ]	The action of 10 November 1808 was a minor naval engagement of the Napoleonic Wars, in which a British frigate defeated and captured a French frigate in the Bay of Biscay. The action formed part of the blockade of the French Biscay ports during the war by the British Royal Navy, a strategy designed to prevent ships from entering or leaving French harbours, thus eliminating foreign trade with France and damaging the French economy as well as cutting France off from her overseas colonies. The French ship in the action, Thétis, was destined for the French held West Indian island of Martinique with a cargo of flour and military supplies, including over 100 soldiers to reinforce the island's garrison. Thétis had not even cleared the French coast when she was discovered by a patrolling British frigate of the inshore squadron, a unit tasked with watching the entrance to the French Biscay ports, principally Brest, and intercepting any ships seeking to enter or leave the harbours. This frigate, HMS Amethyst chased Thétis and brought her to battle, closing with the French ship but preventing the soldiers aboard Thétis from boarding the British ship and using their superior numbers to overwhelm her with heavy and accurate gunfire. The battle lasted more than six hours and the French suffered over 130 men killed, including the captain and many of the soldiers aboard, before the crew of Amethyst was able to storm and capture Thétis. Within minutes two additional British vessels arrived, attracted by the sound of gunfire, and helped secure the badly damaged Thétis for the journey to Britain. The battle was a blow for the French defenders of Martinique, who were isolated from France and suffering from shortages of military and food supplies. Although another supply frigate broke through the blockade and arrived in December 1808, the island was surrounded by British bases and was invaded and captured in January 1809. Other French colonies were seized over the next two years as the blockade cut off French communications with their overseas territories. Amethyst and her captain Michael Seymour were active in this campaign, capturing a second French frigate, Niémen, at the action of 6 April 1809. ## Background By November 1808, the Napoleonic Wars had lasted five years. Although the French had conquered large swathes of mainland Europe, they were unable to exert any significant influence at sea, where the British Royal Navy had been dominant since the Battle of Trafalgar in October 1805. A vital part of Royal Navy strategy was the implementation of a close blockade of the major French seaports by squadrons of frigates and ships of the line, intended to intercept and capture any ships attempting to enter or leave French harbours. The greatest French Atlantic seaport, and consequently the most important target for the Royal Navy, was Brest, situated on the Northern Biscay coast. Watching Brest were a large number of warships, divided into the inshore squadron designed to watch the coast directly and formed principally of frigates and small fast vessels, and the offshore squadron formed from heavy ships of the line and tasked with intercepting French fleets and battle squadrons spotted by the inshore squadron. The efficiency of the British blockade was such that communication and reinforcement between France and her colonies was dangerous for the ships involved and so was severely limited. This led to shortages and disaffection among the French colonists, especially in the Caribbean, where they were surrounded by hostile British harbours and constantly raided and blockaded by British ships. The island of Martinique was one of the more important French islands in the West Indies, but by late 1808 the island's economy had been crippled by the British blockade, and food stocks, military supplies and morale were all running low. In the summer a French dispatch vessel was intercepted by British warships, warning of the desperate state of the island's defences; similar messages that did reach France safely prompted an urgent response by the French Navy. The frigate Thétis, stationed to the south of Brest at Lorient, was selected to carry supplies to Martinique and given a full complement of 330 men, 40 cannon and a new captain, Jacques Pinsum. Supplies were loaded, including over 1,000 barrels of flour and 106 soldiers to reinforce the garrison at Martinique. Secrecy was tight: to prevent the British discovering Thétis' mission, even the local shore defences were not informed of the frigate's departure early on 10 November 1808. The French efforts to hide the frigate's mission and departure were initially successful: the British ships in the area were unaware of Thétis's intentions before she sailed. They were however prepared for any French movement and were launching regular patrols, in particular two ships under the command of captains Michael Seymour and Frederick Lewis Maitland, HMS Amethyst and HMS Emerald respectively. Both captains were experienced and veteran officers: Seymour had lost an arm at the Glorious First of June 15 years earlier, and they had agreed to hunt together, communicating regularly and with an understanding that all prize money won would be shared equally across both crews. After several weeks sailing in tandem, the frigates separated in early November. ## Battle At 18:42 on 10 November 1808, the garrison of a French defensive gun battery on the island of Groix saw a frigate moving rapidly westwards. As they had not been informed of any French movements at that time, the battery fired two warning shots at the ship to establish her identity. The frigate, Thétis, replied with her recognition signal and the firing stopped, but the sound had attracted the attention of HMS Amethyst, then approaching Groix from the west. Within a few minutes, Seymour's lookouts had spotted the French frigate and Amethyst immediately gave chase. Pinsum followed his orders to avoid combat and made all sail south-west, intending to escape into the Atlantic. By 21:00, Amethyst was close enough to fire her bow-chasers, small guns positioned at the front of the ship, at the French frigate and was attacked in turn from the French stern chasers. Certain that his quarry was an enemy, Seymour launched signal rockets in the hope of attracting attention from other ships of the inshore squadron that might intercept the French ship, and he received answering flashes from the north-east as Captain Sir Thomas Hardy joined the chase in HMS Triumph. By 21:15, Pinsum realised that his heavily laden ship could not outrun Amethyst and reduced his speed, turning sharply in front of the British ship in an attempt to rake her. Seymour was prepared for the manoeuvre and countered it by turning sharply away from Thétis so that the French broadside fell harmlessly into the sea and both frigates performed a complete circle before returning to their previous course. Seymour then swung back towards the French ship, bringing Amethyst alongside and pouring a heavy fire into Thétis, which replied in kind. For 25 minutes, the frigates continued firing on one another from close range as they sailed westwards. At 21:40, Pinsum again attempted to rake Amethyst, trying to cross the British ship's stern as she pulled ahead. Seymour countered by slowing his ship and the French rigging became tangled in the British, the firing continuing as the crews worked to free their ships from one another. Separating a few minutes later, the frigates continued their close-range duel. Amethyst again pulled ahead at 22:05, Seymour successfully crossing the bow of the French ship from port and raking her before swinging back along the starboard side to resume the close range exchange of broadsides. French fire was taking its toll on the British ship, and at 22:20, Amethyst's mizzenmast was shot through and collapsed on the quarterdeck, smashing the wheel and impeding Seymour's command of his ship. Thétis began to pull ahead and Pinsum attempted to rake Amethyst in her disorganised state, turning sharply to starboard but coming to a sudden halt as her own mizzenmast collapsed. With their ability to manoeuvre severely hindered, Amethyst and Thétis gradually closed on one another, Pinsum ordering the soldiers on his frigate to board the British vessel and capture her, while Seymour prepared for the eventuality by loading his cannon with two roundshot and his carronades with double loads of grapeshot. At 23:00, Pinsum suddenly swung his frigate towards Amethyst, the bows colliding and rebounding and the French stern swinging towards the British. At his signal, the soldiers and sailors crowded onto the deck and railings, ready to leap onto the British ship and engage her crew in hand-to-hand combat. With seconds remaining, Seymour ordered his gunners to fire. The double-shotted broadside, fired at point-blank range, killed or wounded over 100 men, including most of the officers. Only four guns were still serviceable on Thétis, which was set alight in three places due to the proximity of the British muzzle flashes. ## Aftermath Amethyst continued firing on Thétis for the next 80 minutes, almost without reply, until 12:20, when the British were able to board and seize Thétis unopposed, the two frigates tangled together by their rigging. Seymour's most immediate problem was to secure his prize. Many of the unwounded prisoners were transferred to Amethyst under guard and at 01:05, the frigates were cut apart by severing the tangled rigging. Ten minutes later, the 74-gun HMS Triumph appeared out of the darkness and at 01:30 a second frigate, HMS Shannon under Captain Philip Broke, arrived, drawn by the gunfire. Together, the three British ships removed the prisoners from Thétis and effected improvised repairs: Thétis had lost her remaining masts shortly after she had been boarded and Amethyst's were in immediate danger of collapse. British casualties in the engagement were severe, with 19 killed and 51 wounded, but French losses were several times larger, with 135 dead, including Pinsum, and 102 wounded. In Britain, Seymour's victory was rewarded: Seymour himself was presented with a commemorative medal, £100 (with £625 to share among the wounded) and the freedoms of Cork and Limerick, although there were suggestions that he should receive a knighthood. In addition, first lieutenant Goddard Blennerhasset was promoted to commander, the junior officers were advanced and Thétis was purchased by the Royal Navy as HMS Brune, the crews of Emerald and Amethyst profiting from the prize money. Four decades later the battle was among the actions recognised by a clasp attached to the Naval General Service Medal, awarded upon application to all British participants still living in 1847. Amethyst had been severely damaged in the engagement and repairs took 71 days to complete at Plymouth. Five months later, Seymour and Maitland were specially selected to hunt the Niémen, en route to Île de France, in the Bay of Biscay. Again, Emerald was absent when the frigate was brought to action and again Seymour was able to capture his opponent after a fierce encounter in the action of 6 April 1809. Although Seymour praised the bravery of Thétis' surviving French officer, Lieutenant Joseph Dedé, Dedé later swore in court that Thétis had not surrendered until after Triumph and Shannon arrived, a statement that contradicts not only British testimony, but also Dedé's own insistence on the night of the battle that he had not seen any other ships during the action. Historian William James suggests that this was a deliberate attempt to appeal to the French naval authorities to avoid responsibility for the defeat. The failure of the supplies and reinforcements carried on Thétis to reach the Caribbean may have had an effect on the outcome of the subsequent invasion of Martinique in January 1809. Except for one reinforcement frigate, Amphitrite, none of the subsequent French efforts to transport supplies or soldiers to Martinique were successful, and a large British expeditionary force was able to overwhelm the island's poorly-supplied defenders in a brief campaign. The tightening blockade also affected other French colonies, preventing the despatch of food and military supplies and contributing to the captures of both Île de France and Guadeloupe in 1810.
241,294	Frilled shark	1,171,175,622	Species of shark	[ "Chlamydoselachidae", "Extant Pleistocene first appearances", "Fish described in 1884" ]	The frilled shark (Chlamydoselachus anguineus) also known as the lizard shark, and the southern African frilled shark (Chlamydoselachus africana) are the two extant species of shark in the family Chlamydoselachidae. The frilled shark is considered a living fossil, because of its primitive, anguilliform (eel-like) physical traits, such as a dark-brown color, amphistyly (the articulation of the jaws to the cranium), and a 2.0 m (6.6 ft)–long body, which has dorsal, pelvic, and anal fins located towards the tail. The common name, frilled shark, derives from the fringed appearance of the six pairs of gill slits at the shark's throat. The two species of frilled shark are distributed throughout regions of the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans, usually in the waters of the outer continental shelf and of the upper continental slope, where the sharks usually live near the ocean floor, near biologically productive areas of the ecosystem. To live on a diet of cephalopods, smaller sharks, and bony fish, the frilled shark practices diel vertical migration to feed at night at the surface of the ocean. When hunting food, the frilled shark curls it’s tail against a rock and moves like an eel, bending and lunging to capture and swallow whole prey with its long and flexible jaws, which are equipped with 300 recurved, needle-like teeth. Reproductively, the two species of frilled shark, C. anguineus and C. africana, are aplacental viviparous animals, born of an egg, without a placenta to the mother shark. Contained within egg capsules, the shark embryos develop in the body of the mother shark; at birth, the infant sharks emerge from their egg capsules in the uterus, where they feed on yolk. Although it has no distinct breeding season, the gestation period of the frilled shark can be up to 3.5 years long, to produce a litter of 2–15 shark pups. Usually caught as bycatch in commercial fishing, the frilled shark has some economic value as a meat and as fishmeal; and has been caught from depths of 1,570 m (5,150 ft), although its occurrence is uncommon below 1,200 m (3,900 ft); whereas in Suruga Bay, Japan, the frilled shark commonly occurs at depths of 50–200 m (160–660 ft). ## Taxonomy and phylogeny The zoologist Ludwig Döderlein first identified, described, and classified the frilled shark as a discrete species of shark. After three years (1879–1881) of marine research in Japan, Döderlein took two specimen sharks to Vienna, but lost the taxonomic manuscript of the research. Three years later, in the Bulletin of the Essex Institute (vol. XVI, 1884) the zoologist Samuel Garman published the first taxonomy of the frilled shark, based upon his observations, measurements, and descriptions of a 1.5-metre (4 ft 11 in)–long female shark from Sagami Bay, Japan. In the article "An Extraordinary Shark" Garman classified the new species of shark within its own genus and family, and named it Chlamydoselachus anguineus (eel-like shark with frills). The Graeco–Latin nomenclature of the frilled shark derives from the Greek chlamy (frill) and selachus (shark), and the Latin anguineus (like an eel); besides its common name, the frilled shark also is known as the "lizard shark" and as the "scaffold shark". The frilled-shark is considered a "living fossil", because its family lineage dates to the Carboniferous period. Initially, marine scientists considered the frilled shark a living, evolutionary representative of the extinct elasmobranchii subclass of cartilaginous fish (rays, sharks, skates, sawfish), because the shark's body featured primitive anatomic traits, such as long jaws with trident-shaped, multi-cusp teeth; amphistyly, the direct articulation of the jaws to the cranium, at a point behind the eyes; and a quasi-cartilaginous notochord (a proto-spinal-column) composed of indistinct vertebrae. From that anatomy, Garman proposed that the frilled shark was related to the cladodont sharks of the Cladoselache genus that existed during the Devonian period (419–359 mya) in the Palaeozoic era (541–251 mya). In contrast to Garman's thesis, the ichthyologist Theodore Gill and the paleontologist Edward Drinker Cope, suggested that the frilled shark's evolutionary tree indicated relation to the Hybodontiformes (hybodonts), which were the dominant species of shark during the Mesozoic era (252–66 mya); and Cope categorized the Chlamydoselachus anguineus species to the fossil genus Xenacanthus that existed from the late Devonian period to the end of the Triassic period of the Mesozoic era. The anatomic traits of body, muscle, and skeleton phylogenically include the frilled shark to the neoselachian clade (modern sharks and rays) which relates it to the cow shark, in the order Hexanchiformes. In addition, a genetic analysis conducted by researchers in 2016 may also suggest that the species is part of the order Hexanchiformes. Nonetheless, as a systematist of biology, the ichthyologist Shigeru Shirai proposed the Chlamydoselachiformes taxonomic order exclusively for the C. anguinesis and the C. africana species of frilled sharks. As a marine animal, the frilled shark is a living fossil because of its relatively unchanged anatomy and physique, since first appearing in the primeval seas of the Late Cretaceous (c. 95 mya) and the Late Jurassic (150 mya) epochs. In evolutionary terms, the frilled shark is an animal species of recent occurrence in the natural history of the Earth; the earliest discoveries of the fossilized teeth of the Chlamydoselachus anguineus species of shark date to the early Pleistocene epoch (2.58–11.70 mya). In 2009, marine biologists identified, described, and classified the Chlamydoselachus africana (southern African frilled shark) of the Atlantic waters of southern Angola and of southern Namibia as a species of frilled shark different from the Chlamydoselachus anguineus identified in 1884. ## Habitat and distribution The habitats of the frilled shark include the waters of the outer continental shelf and the upper-to-middle continental slope, favoring upwellings and other biologically productive areas. Usually, the shiver lives close to the ocean floor, yet its diet of cephalopods, smaller sharks, and bony fish, indicates that the frilled shark practices diel vertical migration, and swims up to feed at night at the surface of the ocean. In their Atlantic- and Pacific-ocean habitats, frilled sharks practice spatial segregation determined by the individual size, the sex, and the reproductive condition of each shark in the shiver. In Suruga Bay, on the Pacific coast of Honshu, Japan, the frilled shark is most common at the depth of 50–200 m (160–660 ft), except in the August-to-November period, when the temperature at the 100 m (330 ft) water-layer exceeds 15 °C (59 °F), and then the sharks swim into deeper, cooler water. In the eastern Atlantic Ocean, the frilled shark occurs off northern Norway, northern Scotland, and western Ireland, ranging from France to Morocco, the archipelago of Madeira, and the coast of Mauritania, in northwest Africa. In the central Atlantic Ocean, the frilled shark has been caught along the region of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, ranging from north of the Azores islands to the Rio Grande Rise, off southern Brazil, and the Vavilov Ridge, off West Africa. Frilled sharks tend to be very solitary organisms; interacting with multiple individuals of their kind is rare. However, in the late 2000s a large capture was made over an underwater seamount of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, hauling in over 30 frilled sharks. The mass capture of a wide variety of male and female specimens emphasized these seamounts as a location for the mating of the species. In the western Atlantic, the frilled shark occurs in the waters of New England and Georgia, in the US, and in the waters of Suriname, in the northeastern coast of South America. In the western Pacific Ocean, the frilled shark ranges from southeastern Honshu, Japan, north to Taiwan, off the coast of China, to the coast of New South Wales, Australia, and the islands of Tasmania and New Zealand. In the central and eastern Pacific Ocean, the frilled shark occurs in the regional waters of Hawaii and the coast of California, in the US, and the northern coast of Chile, in western South America. Although it has been caught at the depth of 1,570 m (5,150 ft), the frilled shark usually does not occur deeper than 1,000 m (3,300 ft). ## Description The eel-like bodies of C. anguineus and C. africana differ anatomically; C. anguineus has a longer head and shorter gill slits, a spinal column with more vertebrae (160–171 vs. 147), and a lower-intestine spiral valve with more turns (35–49 vs. 26–28) than does C. africana. The skin color of either species ranges from uniformly dark-brown to uniformly grey. In addition, C. anguineus has smaller pectoral fins than C. africana, and the mouth is narrower. The recorded, maximum body-length of a male frilled shark is 1.7 m (5.6 ft), and the recorded, maximum body-length of a female frilled shark is 2.0 m (6.6 ft). The head of the frilled shark is broad and flat, with a short, rounded snout. The nostrils are vertical slits, separated by a flap of skin that forms the incurrent opening and the excurrent opening. The moderately large eyes are horizontal ellipsoids, which have no nictitating membrane, which is a protective, third-eyelid. Ligaments articulate the long jaws to the cranium, and the corners of the mouth have neither furrows nor folds. The jaws contain 300 trident-shaped teeth, each needle-tooth has a cusp and two cusplets; the rows of teeth are widely spaced, with 19–28 tooth rows in the upper jaw, and 21–29 tooth rows in the lower jaw. Frilled sharks are able to open jaws and devour food sources that are considerably greater than that of their size, this is a physical trait that is present in gulper eels and viperfish. At the throat, there are six pairs of long gill slits; the first pair of gill slits form a collar, while the extended tips of the gill filaments create a fleshy frill, hence, the frilled shark name of this fish. The pectoral fins are short and rounded; the single, small dorsal fin has a rounded margin, and is positioned at the far end of the body, approximately opposite the anal fin. The pelvic and the anal fins are large, broad, and rounded, and are positioned to the tail-end of the frilled shark's body. The very long caudal fin is a triangular tail that has neither a lower lobe nor a ventral notch in the upper lobe, and has a margin equipped with sharp, chisel-shaped dermal denticles, which the shark can enlarge. The underside of the shark's eel-like body features a pair of long, thick folds of skin, separated by a groove, which run the length of the belly; the function of the ventral skin-folds is unknown. In the female frilled shark, the mid-section is of the body longer, with the pelvic fins located closer to the anal fin. ## Biology and ecology A cartilaginous skeleton and a large liver (filled with low-density lipids) are the mechanical means with which the frilled shark controls and maintains its buoyancy in the deep waters of the ocean. The shark has an open, lateral-line organ system featuring mechanoreceptor hair cells in grooves exposed to the ocean environment; such a basal clade configuration enhances the frilled shark's perception and detection of changes in the movement, the vibration, and the pressure of the surrounding water. Like all animals, the frilled shark is afflicted by parasites, such as the Monorygma tapeworm, the trematoda flatworm, the Otodistomum veliporum, and the Mooleptus rabuka nematode; and by predators, such as other sharks, as indicated by missing tail-tips lost to a hungry attacker. In New Zealand, the Takatika Grit, in the Chatham Islands, yielded frilled-shark, bird, and conifer-cone fossils that dated to the time of the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary (66.043 ± 0.011 mya) which suggested that the sharks lived inland, in shallow bodies of water far from the ocean. The shallow-water frilled shark had larger, stronger teeth, suitable for eating mollusks; scarcity and plenty of food are indicated in the tooth's morphology of sharper points (cusps) oriented into the mouth. From the Late Paleocene epoch (66–56 mya) until the contemporary era, other species of sharks out-matched the Chlamydoselachus sharks in competition for feeding grounds and living space, which restricted their geographic distribution to the deep-water ocean. Regarding the frilled shark's survival of the mass-extinction event which occurred at the Cretaceous–Paleogene time-boundary, one hypothesis proposes that the sharks survived in bodies of shallow water, both inland and on the continental shelf; afterwards, the frilled shark migrated to deep-water habitats. ### Diet The frilled shark eats a diet of cephalopods, Nudibranchs, smaller sharks, and bony fish; 60 percent of the diet is composed of squid varieties, such as the Chiroteuthis, the Histioteuthis, and the Onychoteuthis, the Sthenoteuthis and the Todarodes; and other sharks, as indicated by the stomach contents of a 1.6 m (5.2 ft)–long frilled shark which had swallowed a 590 g (1.30 lb) Japanese catshark (Apristurus japonicus). The high tendency to primarily consume the squids in their habitat can be supported by the frequent observation of beak remnants left behind during digestive processes. Because frilled sharks live on the ocean floor, they may also feed on carrion floating down from the surface. In hunting and eating prey that are tired or exhausted or dying (after spawn), the frilled shark's physiology suggests that it may curve its anguilline body, and brace its rear fins against the water, for leverage to effect a rapid-strike bite that captures the prey. The wide gape of the distended, long jaws allows devouring whole prey that are more than half the size of the frilled shark, itself. The jaws' 300 recurved teeth (19–28 upper rows and 21–29 lower rows) readily snag and capture the soft body and tentacles of a cephalopod, especially with the rows of trident-shaped teeth are rotated outwards, when the jaws are open and protruded. Moreover, unlike the strong bite of sharks with an underslung jaw attached below the cranium, the frilled shark has a relatively weak bite, because of the limited leverage and force possible with long jaws that are directly articulated to the cranium, at a point behind the eyes. The behavior of captive specimen sharks suggests that the frilled shark also hunts with its mouth open, by using the dark-and-light contrast of white teeth and darkness to lure prey into its gaping maw; and also hunts with negative pressure, to suck prey into its maw. Forensic examination of frilled sharks' revealed little-to-no food in their stomachs, which suggests that the frilled shark either has a fast-rate of digestion or goes hungry in the long intervals between feedings. ### Reproduction The extant species of frilled shark, C. anguineus and C. africana, do not have a defined breeding season, because their oceanic habitats register no seasonal influence from the ocean's surface; the male shark reaches sexual maturity when he is 1.0–1.2 m (3.3–3.9 ft) long, and the female shark reaches sexual maturity when she is 1.3–1.5 m (4.3–4.9 ft) long. The mature female shark has two ovaries and a uterus, which is in the right side of her body; ovulation occurs fortnightly; and pregnancy ceases vitellogenesis (yolk formation) and the production of new ova. Both ovulated eggs and early-stage shark embryos are enclosed in chondrichthyes, ellipsoid egg-cases made of a thin, golden-brown membrane. Reproductively, the frilled shark is an ovoviviparous animal born from an encapsulated egg retained within the mother shark's uterus. During gestation, the shark embryos develop in membranous egg-cases contained within the body of the mother shark, when the infant sharks emerge from their egg capsules in the uterus they feed on yolk until birth. The frilled-shark embryo is 3.0 cm (1.2 in) long, has a pointed head, slightly developed jaws, nascent external gills, and possesses all fins. The growth of the jaw for elasmobranchs seem to begin early in the embryonic stage, however, it has been observed not to be the case for frilled sharks. The elongation of the jaws seemed to begin later in embryonic development. This leads to some studies suggesting that the terminal position of their mouth, due to anterior elongation of the jaw, is a derived trait instead of ancestral. When the embryo is 6–8 cm (2.4–3.1 in) long, the mother shark expels the egg capsule, at which developmental stage the frilled shark's external gills are developed. Throughout embryonic development, the size of the yolk sac remains constant, until the shark embryo is 40 cm (16 in) long, whereupon the sac shrinks until disappearing when the embryo has grown to 50 cm (20 in) in length. In the course of pregnancy, the embryo's average rate-of-growth is 1.40 cm (0.55 in) per month until birth, when the shark pups are 40–60 cm (16–24 in) long, therefore, the frilled shark's gestation period can be as long as 3.5 years; at birth, a frilled shark's litter comprises 2–15 pups, with an average litter comprises 6.0 pups. ## Shark and human interaction In pursuit of food, the frilled shark usually is a bycatch of commercial fishing, accidentally caught in the nets used for trawl-, gillnet-, and longline-fishing. In Japan, at Suruga Bay, the frilled shark is usually caught in the gillnets used to catch sea bream and gnomefish, and in the trawl nets used to catch shrimp in the mid-waters of the ocean. Despite being a nuisance fish that damages fishing nets, the economic and commercial value of the frilled shark is as fishmeal and as meat. In 2004, marine biologists first observed the frilled shark (Chlamydoselachus anguineus) at the depth of 873.55 m (2,866.0 ft), in its deep-water habitat at the Blake Plateau, off the southeastern coast of the U.S. In 2007, a Japanese fisherman caught a 1.6 m (5.2 ft)–long female frilled shark at the surface of the ocean and delivered it to the Awashima Marine Park, at Shizuoka city, where the shark died after hours of captivity. In 2014, a trawler fishing-boat caught a 1.5 m (4.9 ft)–long frilled shark in 1.0 km (3,300 ft)–deep water at Lakes Entrance, Victoria, Australia; later, the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) confirmed that the shark was a Chlamydoselachus anguineus, an eel-like shark with a frill. In 2016, consequent to the depletion of food sources caused by commercial overfishing of the feeding areas of the shark's deep-water habitat, and because of the shark's slow rate of reproduction, the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) classified the frilled shark as a fish species under near-threat of extinction, and then reclassified it as a species of Least Concern of extinction. In 2018, the New Zealand Threat Classification System identified the frilled shark as an animal "At Risk — Naturally Uncommon", not easily found living in the wild. ## See also - List of sharks
3,079,824	Steve Dahl	1,171,986,941	American radio personality	[ "1954 births", "20th-century American comedians", "20th-century American composers", "20th-century American guitarists", "20th-century American male musicians", "American columnists", "American comedy musicians", "American male composers", "American male film actors", "American male guitarists", "American male non-fiction writers", "American male singer-songwriters", "American novelty song performers", "American parodists", "American rock guitarists", "American rock singers", "American rock songwriters", "American satirists", "American talk radio hosts", "Comedians from California", "Comedians from Illinois", "Culture of Chicago", "Guitarists from California", "Guitarists from Chicago", "Journalists from California", "Living people", "Male actors from California", "Male actors from Chicago", "Mass media people from Pasadena, California", "Parody musicians", "People from La Cañada Flintridge, California", "Radio personalities from Chicago", "Singer-songwriters from California", "Singer-songwriters from Illinois", "Singers from Chicago" ]	Steven Robert Dahl (born November 20, 1954) is an American radio personality. He is the owner and operator of the Steve Dahl Network, a subscription-based podcasting network. Dahl gained a measure of national attention after organizing and hosting Disco Demolition Night at Comiskey Park. Originally, Dahl broadcast with Detroit stations WABX and WWWW and later with Chicago stations WCKG, WDAI, WLUP, WMVP and WLS. He served as a columnist for the Chicago Tribune in their Live section as the resident "vice advisor" until November 2010. He is also known in Chicago for his longstanding former role as one half of the Steve & Garry team (with Garry Meier), and the two are members of the National Radio Hall of Fame. Dahl is considered an influential shock jock in talk radio. In addition to his radio career, Dahl is a singer, songwriter, and guitarist. His band, Teenage Radiation, recorded and performed a number of song parodies (which he often played on his show throughout the 1980s) and since 1990 he has performed and recorded as Steve Dahl and the Dahlfins. Dahl is also an occasional actor, and has appeared in films such as Grandview, U.S.A., Outing Riley and I Want Someone to Eat Cheese With. ## Early life Dahl grew up in La Cañada, California. He is the son of Roger and Carol Dahl, an electronics parts manufacturer's representative and a homemaker. ## Radio career ### Early radio career In the 9th grade, Dahl began hanging around a local underground radio station, KPPC, in his home state of California. At the age of sixteen, after he started working at the radio station full-time, he unofficially dropped out of high school. Dahl later explained, "I convinced my parents and the school that I would do an independent work-study thing. I never got around to it." At the age of eighteen, he obtained his GED and briefly married a woman he met after she called him on-air to request "Suzanne", a song by Leonard Cohen which told a tale of a troubled relationship. Dahl later explained his short-lived marriage by commenting, "I should have paid more attention to that song." Dahl was told by radio executives that he'd never make it in radio because his voice was too high. At one point, Dahl was so discouraged that he quit for about six months and attempted to pursue a career as a recording engineer. However, this never amounted to anything more than making mix tapes of popular songs for play on airplanes. Throughout this time period, he was making efforts to reconcile with his ex-wife, who by then was dating the program director at the Los Angeles radio station where she worked. He later admitted to stalking her by sleeping in his Subaru outside her house. In 1976, Dahl's ex-wife told him about an opening for a morning show in Detroit, Michigan on WABX. He managed to secure the job, despite the fact that he did not think he was good enough for it (he later learned that the station was owned by the same company his ex-wife worked for). At WABX, Dahl learned as much as he could about what constituted "good radio" and also began experimenting with his content. His popularity increased to the point that he achieved a 7.2 market share. During his time at WABX, Dahl was introduced to Janet Joliat, a junior high school English and drama teacher in a Detroit suburb, who was casually dating a friend of his and was also a listener of his show. The two hit it off after Dahl invited her to a "hump day" broadcast he was doing from the camel area of the Detroit Zoo. WDAI executives in Chicago, attracted by Dahl's 7.1 share, approached him and offered to double his salary to \$50,000 a year. However, Janet did not want to leave her family in Detroit and he did not want to leave her. This prompted Dahl to ask his bosses for \$35,000 a year to stay in Detroit, which they refused. In 1978, after Janet accepted his marriage proposal, Dahl left Detroit for WDAI in Chicago. ### Rude Awakening Dahl began at WDAI Chicago on February 23, 1978 with his solo Steve Dahl's Rude Awakening show, but it never achieved solid ratings despite media attention. Ten months later, on Christmas Eve, 1978, WDAI changed formats from rock to disco and fired Dahl. ### Steve & Garry In March 1979, after a few months without a job, Dahl was hired to do a morning show at WLUP where he met overnight DJ Garry Meier (who was then broadcasting under the pseudonym of "Matthew Meier"). Shortly thereafter, the two began a cross talk that eventually led to Meier being teamed up with Dahl as both sidekick and newsman. Dahl effectively forced Meier to use his actual name by calling him "Garry" on-air accidentally. After openly discussing the subject, again, on-air, Meier officially dropped his pseudonym. #### Disco Demolition Night In response to Dahl's firing from WDAI, Dahl and Meier mocked and heaped scorn on disco records and WDAI (calling it "Disco-D.I.E." mocking the station's slogan, "Disco-D.A.I.") on the air. Dahl pronounced the word disco with 'a contemptuous lisp', in mockery of its homosexual associations. Dahl even recorded and started playing a parody of Rod Stewart's "Da Ya Think I'm Sexy?", which he called "Do You Think I'm Disco?". The song managed to crack the national charts to peak at No. 58 on the Billboard Hot 100 and received airplay across the country. During this same time period, Dahl and Meier, along with Mike Veeck (son of then Chicago White Sox owner Bill Veeck), Jeff Schwartz of WLUP Sales and Dave Logan, the WLUP Promotions Director, came up with a radio promotion and tie-in to the White Sox called Disco Demolition Night which took place on Thursday, July 12, 1979. The concept was to create an event to "end disco once and for all" in the center field of Comiskey Park that night by allowing people to get tickets at the box office if they brought \$0.98 (for WLUP's frequency) and at least one disco record. More than 50,000 fans showed up, many loosely interpreting "disco record" to mean any disc with music by black artists. The records were collected, piled up on the field and blown up. As the second game of the doubleheader was about to begin, the raucous crowd stormed onto the field, refused to leave, and proceeded by setting fires, tearing out seats and pieces of turf, and other damage. American League President Lee MacPhail later declared the second game of the doubleheader a forfeit victory for the visiting Detroit Tigers. Six people reported minor injuries, and thirty-nine were arrested for disorderly conduct. #### Height of collaboration As a result of Disco Demolition Night, Dahl attained national recognition and his popularity increased significantly. He established a syndicate and the Steve & Garry show began airing in Detroit and Milwaukee, where it performed well. However, in February 1981, WLUP fired Dahl, citing "continued assaults on community standards". "It was going on in El Paso and Los Angeles, like, on Monday, and on Friday they fired me," Dahl later said. Meier was offered the opportunity to continue the show by himself, but he refused. During the Iranian Hostage Crisis, Dahl, along with his backing band Teenage Radiation, recorded and released a parody of The Knack's song "My Sharona", called "Ayatollah". Released as a single, it reached No. 12 on the weekly Musicradio survey of Chicago superstation WLS-AM on February 9, 1980. He also made on-the-air prank phone calls to the "Islamic Fried Chicken" (a play on Kentucky Fried Chicken), ordering buckets of chicken for the hostages in the US embassy, for which the State Department later reprimanded him. Dahl also parodied the John Wayne Gacy murders with his song "Another Kid in the Crawl" (to the tune of Pink Floyd's "Another Brick in the Wall"). The playing of the song was stopped after parents of the murdered children called to complain. Dahl and Meier won a local Emmy award for a television special they did in 1981 called, Greetings from Graceland, which was a comedy spoof on the tourist shrine and featured Elvis Presley's "Uncle Vester" selling Elvis cookbooks from the guardhouse. They briefly had a morning television show, called It's Too Early on local Chicago station, WFBN-TV, which nationally syndicated columnist Bob Greene called "the best program on television", "amazing", and "hypnotic" in his June 20, 1983 column. The show was canceled after four weeks on the air because it was deemed "unsuitable for general viewing... in particular for young children" after Dahl was shown fully clothed sitting on a toilet seat reading a newspaper. In 1982, he stated on the air that motorists could allegedly substitute Necco Wafers for coins in automatic toll booths on Chicago's tollways. The Illinois Tollway System later said that approximately a dozen toll machines broke down due to people trying to use the candy to pay tolls. Dahl decided to get a vasectomy in March 1989, which was performed live on the air at a urologist's office in Indiana. According to Arbitron ratings for that survey period, Dahl and Meier's ratings jumped from a tie for seventh place in afternoons to a tie for third place. According to Paul D. Colford, a former writer for Long Island Newsday, Howard Stern listened to tapes of Steve and Garry sent from Chicago by a friend of the chief engineer at WCCC Hartford. Colford claims Stern eventually developed his on-air style as a result of these tapes. Later, Stern was hired at WWWW Detroit (which Dahl had left when he moved to Chicago). #### End of collaboration Steve & Garry moved to WLS, but ultimately returned to WLUP where they stayed until their split in 1993. The alleged reason for the break-up was Dahl's on-the-air comments about Meier's new wife, commercial real-estate broker Cynthia Fircak, while the new couple were on their honeymoon. Meier also blamed Dahl's alcoholism and unpredictable behavior. Dahl, for his part, blamed Fircak for the split, once saying on air "When I met her, I knew the rules had just changed." In 2003, Robert Feder, a columnist for the Chicago Sun-Times, said, "It's the divorce that just keeps on giving: A decade after Steve Dahl and Garry Meier severed their legendary radio partnership, their breakup remains a source of bitterness and anger for them — and continuing fascination for their fans." After the team broke up, Dahl went to Sports Talk WMVP AM and teamed with Chicago sportscaster Bruce Wolf. ### WCKG years Dahl ended up on WCKG, broadcasting an afternoon show on that station. He eventually teamed up with Buzz Kilman, who was Dahl's newsman starting in 1980 on WLUP, and the show was available as a podcast at Dahl's website and streamed live on WCKG's website. Dahl's afternoon show was rated fifth (4.1) among men 25–54 in the winter 2006-2007 ratings report. In 2007, Dahl was named one of the '100 Most Important Radio Talk Show Hosts' by Talkers Magazine. On Friday, August 18, 2006, Dahl was doing a remote broadcast of his show at Oak Street Beachstro, a restaurant on Chicago's Oak Street Beach. Coincidentally, Garry Meier was eating lunch there with friends. After Dahl learned of Meier's presence there, he invited Meier to appear on the air with him, which Meier accepted. Meier wound up staying for the remainder of the show. This event was covered widely throughout the Chicago media that evening. On April 2, 2007, Meier returned to Chicago radio, doing the 8 AM-11 AM show on WCKG. He appeared briefly on Dahl's show that same day. They occasionally contributed to each other's shows, and Meier spent the first hour and a half in studio during Dahl's show on the 28th anniversary of Disco Demolition Night, recounting the events of that night. ### Jack FM Dahl announced on October 29, 2007 that he would move to mornings at WJMK on November 5, 2007 as WCKG changed formats. He was the only live personality at the Jack FM outlet as the rest of the station was pre-programmed and run by computer. Dahl's son Matt was part of the regular WCKG lineup and hosted the show immediately following his father's. However, the WCKG format change, from an FM talk station to an adult contemporary station meant the end of Matt's show on WCKG. Criminal suspect Drew Peterson and his lawyer, Joel Brodsky, called in to Dahl's show on January 23, 2008. Dahl had been lampooning Peterson since the start of the former police officer's notoriety. Brodsky suggested that Dahl host an on-air "dating game" with Peterson the following day, but WJMK managers and Dahl later decided not to go through with it." On December 5, 2008, Dahl announced the end of his show on Jack FM due to low ratings. "They were saying, 'Well, do a couple of weeks, a farewell.'" Dahl said. "I said, 'It's not a farewell. You guys are taking me off the air. I'm not retiring.' ... "I still have two and a half years left on my deal so, quite frankly, I'm not letting them out of it." Dahl also said he was prepared to stay off the air for the remainder of his contract, which was to end in mid-2011 and was said to be worth more than \$1 million annually. After the end of Dahl's final broadcast, Howard Cogan, the normally sarcastic signature voice, Jack, heard on many Jack FM stations, delivered a sincere sendoff to Dahl followed by "Life's Been Good" by Joe Walsh, a long-time friend of Dahl. ### Back to WLS On October 7, 2014, media blogger Robert Feder reported that Dahl would be returning to terrestrial radio on WLS AM 890. Feder wrote: "Dahl, 59, will join the Cumulus Media news/talk station as afternoon personality, from 2 to 6 p.m. Monday though Friday. If all goes as planned, Dahl would start in early November. Sources familiar with the deal said Dahl will continue his subscription podcast venture, with Cumulus Media becoming a partner in the Steve Dahl Network. Under the agreement, Cumulus would provide financial, technical and marketing support, while Dahl would continue to host a separate, 90-minute daily podcast for his paid subscribers." Dahl confirmed Feder's report on October 8 saying "he's eager to get back on the air to become 'part of the daily conversation in Chicago'". Dahl's first day back on WLS was November 3, 2014. His show included an appearance by Ron Magers and a phone interview with Bob Odenkirk. Prior to the show, Dahl said in an email, "My plan for the show is to be funny and get good ratings." Dahl also said that he sees his return as not only a good opportunity to try and re-energize radio, but also as a way to turn people onto his podcast. In October 2018, Dahl confirmed to Feder by email that he was leaving WLS after four years in December 2018, in advance of the major weekday lineup shakeup the station announced would take place in early 2019. Dahl also stated that he intends continue to produce his daily podcasts in partnership with WLS's owner Cumulus Media. His last day on WLS was December 21, 2018. ## Other work ### Podcasts On September 8, 2009, Dahl began doing daily podcasts from a studio in the basement of his home. At the time, Dahl was still under contract with CBS, who had agreed in July 2009 to partner with him to produce a daily, hour long podcast complete with a few commercials. On August 1, 2011, Dahl, no longer under contract with CBS, began the Steve Dahl Network whose 11 unique weekly shows can be either downloaded or streamed via his official website and app or downloaded from iTunes. Originally, there was only just a daily podcast from Dahl; the network, however, has expanded and now includes podcasts by friends among others. In February 2019, the podcast's affiliation with CBS and Cumulus Media ended, with Dahl stating, "I think it was a good partnership and it benefitted both parties when we were still on the air there", and "Now that we are off the air, it really didn't make a lot of sense for either of us to continue the relationship." In addition to podcasting, Steve has maintained a presence with his fans through Facebook, Twitter, blogs, occasional newspaper articles (he wrote a regular column for the Chicago Tribune up until 2011) as well as various television/radio appearances. ### Music In addition to recording parody songs for his radio show with his early band Teenage Radiation, Dahl began recording and playing live performance with a new band in 1990, called Steve Dahl and the Dahlfins. This band has recorded and released several albums, including 1992's Tropical Tides and 1997's Mai Tai Roa Ae. Dahl frequently collaborated with Chicago-based producer Joe Thomas. In the 1990s, they worked with Beach Boy Brian Wilson in co-writing the song "Your Imagination" which appeared as a single and on Wilson's 1998 album Imagination. Dahl provided backup vocals on the song as well. In 2007, backed by Des Moines, Iowa band The Nadas, Dahl embarked on a tour of Chicago-area concert venues. ### Acting Dahl had minor roles in the films Grandview, U.S.A., Outing Riley and I Want Someone to Eat Cheese With. ## Honors On November 9, 2013, Dahl and former partner Meier were both inducted into the National Radio Hall of Fame in recognition of their work together on the "Steve and Garry Show". ## Personal life Currently, Dahl resides in the western suburbs of Chicago with his wife Janet, a non-practicing lawyer, whom he married in 1978. Before law school, she taught junior high for seven years in Bloomfield Hills, Michigan. The couple have three sons. Dahl has served on the Board of Trustees at Columbia College Chicago. Dahl has battled alcoholism throughout his adult life, which he has alluded to a number of times. He has been sober since 1995, the day after a drinking bout at the White Sox home opener, achieving it cold turkey. > It was sort of prompted by the fact that I realized that Patrick (eldest of his three sons) was 14 and I was rapidly approaching a 'Do as I say, not as I do' situation. I didn't think I had a right to comment on [my sons'] behavior based on my behavior. Plus, once I turned 40 (in November 1994) some metabolic thing happened to me and I guess I just got old. In 1999, his wife filed a multimillion-dollar lawsuit against Mancow Muller over lewd comments Muller made about her on his show. In 2001, the case was settled. Although the terms of the deal were not disclosed, it was reportedly seven figures. Also in 1999, Steve Dahl admitted secretly recording conversations among staffers at WCKG because he suspected they were talking about him behind his back. In snippets Dahl has played on his afternoon show, two station employees can be heard mocking him as "Steve Dull" and ridiculing his show. Dahl said, "I did it within my organization to confirm my suspicions. This was in a studio filled with microphones and cameras. Legally, I don't feel they had any expectation of privacy in that case."
37,354,893	2012 Armor All Gold Coast 600	1,163,778,507	Motor race	[ "2012 in V8 Supercars", "Sport on the Gold Coast, Queensland" ]	The 2012 Armor All Gold Coast 600 was a touring car motor race for V8 Supercars. It was the Round 12 of the 2012 International V8 Supercars Championship and the 22nd edition of the event. It occurred from 19 to 21 October at the Surfers Paradise Street Circuit on the Gold Coast, Queensland. Race 22 was won by Triple Eight Race Engineering's Jamie Whincup and Sébastien Bourdais from pole position. Will Davison and Mika Salo of Ford Performance Racing won the following day's second race from fourth place. Whincup took the pole position by posting the fastest lap in the top ten shootout but lost his lead to Salo at the start which was twice red flagged for a total of 50 minutes because of two separate start-line crashes that reduced the distance of the race from 102 to 79 laps. Bourdais challenged Salo over laps 23 and 32 but he could not overtake Salo on both occasions as the latter struggled with acceleration. Whincup later relieved Bourdais and retook the lead, building a six-and-a-half-second advantage that was reduced to nothing when the safety car was deployed for debris retrieval. He held off Jonathon Webb for the rest of Race 22 to win for the 60th time in his career. For Race 23, Whincup took his second consecutive pole position with the fastest lap time of qualifying. His co-driver Bourdais led the first 36 laps from Marc Lieb in second and Will Power in third before his first green flag pit stop for fuel, tyres and was relieved by Whincup. Salo led for the next 20 laps until his own stop and his car was driven by Davison. Tim Slade led the field after a safety car period for debris retrieval and he held it until Davison overtook him for the lead on the 80th lap. Davison maintained the lead for the remainder of the race to take his 13th career victory after holding off Whincup in the final five laps. Whincup increased his Drivers' Championship lead with 3,060 points and Mark Winterbottom moved from third to second with 2,842 points. Craig Lowndes fell to third with 2,812 points and Will Davison's victory in Race 23 maintained him fourth with 2,503 points. In the Teams' Championship, Triple Eight Race Engineering led with 5,900 points over Ford Performance Racing in second with 5,285 points. Stone Brothers Racing and Holden Brothers Racing kept third and fourth with three rounds left in the season. ## Background The 2012 Armor All Gold Coast 600 was the 12th of the 15 touring car rounds of the Australian sedan-based V8 Supercars Championship, the third and final endurance round of the 2012 season, and the 22nd edition of the event. It took place on the weekend of the 19–21 October 2012 at the nine-turn 2.96 km (1.84 mi) temporary Surfers Paradise Street Circuit in Surfers Paradise, Queensland. The 2011 race saw the electronic detection sensors disabled and chicane bollards dismantled to allow drivers to cut those corners after claims of inconsistent decisions, causing the size of those kerbs to be enlarged to address the issue for the 2012 edition. Teams were informed via e-mail that a driver observed cutting the turns would get a pit lane drive-through or a minimum 50-point penalty. After winning the Supercheap Auto Bathurst 1000 with co-driver Paul Dumbrell two weeks earlier, Triple Eight Race Engineering driver Jamie Whincup led the Drivers' Championship with 2,772 points. His teammate Craig Lowndes was 161 points behind in second and Ford Performance Racing's Mark Winterbottom was third with 2,584 points. Winterbottom's teammate Will Davison was fourth with 2,302 points and Shane van Gisbergen of Stone Brothers Racing was fifth with 2,020 points. In the Teams' Championship, Triple Eight Race Engineering led with 5,408 points; Ford Performance Racing was second with 4,886 points. Stone Brothers Racing and Holden Racing Team battled for third and Brad Jones Racing was in fifth place. Whincup and his international co-driver Sébastien Bourdais were the round's defending winners from 2011. All 28 cars which contested the regular V8 Supercar season were entered in the race. Each car was driven by a full-time International V8 Supercar Championship driver, and a mandatory international guest driver who took part in a separate racing series. These guest drivers were recruited from a variety of racing categories, including the IndyCar Series (such as Will Power, partnering Winterbottom and Bourdais again joining Whincup), the World Endurance Championship (such as Darren Turner, partnering James Courtney), the FIA GT1 World Championship (such as Peter Kox, partnering James Moffat), the International Superstars Series (such as Gianni Morbidelli joining Dean Fiore), and the Rolex Sports Car Series (such as Ricky Taylor partnering Greg Ritter). Each international driver was required to complete a minimum of 34 laps out of the scheduled 102 in both races. There were two driver changes for the race. Todd Kelly was deemed unfit to compete in the remainder of the season due to a shoulder injury he picked up at a training camp, which required surgery. His car was driven by Tim Blanchard for the rest of the season, starting from the Gold Coast 600. Garry Rogers Motorsport replaced its regular driver Alexandre Prémat with Greg Ritter at the Gold Coast. At the Bathurst 1000, a poor race from Winterbottom dropped him from second to third in the points standings. Afterwards he admitted his chances of becoming the Drivers' Champion was "on life support" but was aware that an error from Whincup or his international co-driver in the Gold Coast could effect the title. Lowndes's third-place at Bathurst moved him to second in the standings. He spoke of his certainty that Ford Performance Racing would improve, "No doubt FPR would be disappointed. They had two strong cars and one on pole and they didn't get a result. If TeamVodafone were in that position, it'd really annoy us. The championship's far from a foregone conclusion and both Will and Frosty will bounce back very strong." Whincup, the pre-race favourite, argued that Winterbottom and Davison should not be ruled out of the title fight and said he felt they would be a threat at the Gold Coast. Nevertheless, despite feeling demotivated due to burnout, he said that he wanted to race cleanly for the weekend and felt he would be motivated to win the race. ## Race 22 ### Practice A total of four 40-minute practice sessions were held on 19 October, with the second and third sessions restricted to the international co-drivers. The first morning session and the fourth session held in the late afternoon were open to all drivers. Davison lapped fastest in the first practice session at 1-minute, 12.0639 seconds, followed by Ritter, Winterbottom, Lowndes, Courtney, Rick Kelly, Holdsworth, Michael Caruso, Tony D'Alberto and Steve Owen. Ten minutes in, Taz Douglas prompted the session's first stoppage as he struck the turn 2 apex kerb and damaged his Holden Commodore VE2's left-hand side in a collision with the exit concrete wall. David Reynolds removed his car's left-hand side doors as a result of a sudden oversteer putting him into a barrier leaving the same corner and necessitating a second stoppage. The first of the international co-driver sessions was led by Marc Lieb with a lap of 1 minute, 13.0563 seconds set in the final five minutes. Simon Pagenaud, Bourdais, Nick Heidfeld, Ryan Briscoe, Vitantonio Liuzzi, James Hinchcliffe, Turner, David Brabham and Stéphane Sarrazin made up positions two through ten. While the session passed without a major incident, Lucas di Grassi and Justin Wilson ventured onto the turn 11 escape road and Jamie Campbell-Walter went straight into the tyre barrier leaving the final hairpin. Lieb again was fastest of all the international co-drivers with a 1-minute, 12.4763 seconds time on his final lap of the third practice session. Briscoe, Pagenaud, Sarrazin, Richard Lyons, Brabham, Mika Salo, Bourdais, di Grassi and Heidfeld followed in the top ten. During the session, more drivers ventured onto the track's escape roads, and three drivers had crashes. Peter Dumbreck glanced the turn 14 exit barrier and Boris Said lightly touched the tyre barrier with his right-front corner at the exit to turn 9 after a suspected power steering failure. Said's teammate Kox made contact with the turn 14 wall and brought out the session's only red flag. In the final practice session, Caruso recorded the day's fastest lap time, a 1-minute and 11.6912 seconds, with 16 minutes left. Winterbottom, Reynolds, D'Alberto, Davison, Tim Slade, Moffat, Courtney and Lowndes made up positions two through ten. Garth Tander caused the session's sole stoppage when he locked a front wheel and broke his car's left-front suspension over the two kerbs. Jonathon Webb also broke his suspension at the same corner and abandoned his car at the side of the circuit two turns later. After practice, several drivers including Winterbottom and Brabham called for the sensors on the kerbs to be removed because they argued that the presence of the higher kerb made them redundant, "What happens in the drivers' briefing is we all push for things but we don't always get what we are pushing for. There is a lot of outside influence in our sport from certain people who push for something else and shouldn't really be offering their opinion." Winterbottom stated. Courtney expressed his concern that the kerbing would cause tyres to delaminate that was observed in the 2011 event. The sensors were switched off before the first qualifying session on Friday night. ### Qualifying and top ten shootout Qualifying for Race 22 took place on Saturday morning and consisted of a half an hour session followed by an identically timed top ten shootout for the fastest ten qualifiers. Davison lapped fastest in the qualifying session at 1 minute, 11.3620 seconds. Whincup took second on his final lap of the session with Winterbottom third and Kelly fourth. Webb, Courtney, Caruso, d'Alberto, van Gisbergen and Fabian Coulthard were the final five drivers who advanced to the top ten shootout. Two red flags were necessitated for debris on the track and the third was needed to retrieve Moffat's car which stopped at turn 11 with a tailshaft failure. Tander ended his session early with a collision with the rear of David Wall's vehicle. The top ten shootout had each of the ten fastest drivers from the qualifying session complete one fast lap each, in reverse order of their qualifying positions. Whincup took his fifth pole position of the season with a lap of 1 minute, 11.6478 seconds. He was joined on the grid's front row by Davison whose time was 0.2252 seconds slower. Kelly qualified third, Caruso fourth and Webb fifth. Sixth-placed Winterbottom's lap was disrupted by the event's broadcaster Seven Network broadcasting on his radio by accident and believed that his race engineer Campbell Little was trying to provide him with information before being informed that it was the commentary team. Coulthard, seventh, made contact with a wall. D'Alberto qualified eighth. Courtney in ninth had significant rear-brake locking and glanced the turn 11 barrier. Van Gisbergen in tenth lost time when an error put him onto the turn 11 escape road. Behind him, the rest of the grid lined up as Slade, Reynolds, Lowndes, Owen, Russell Ingall, Holdsworth, Moffat, Steven Johnson, Michael Patrizi, Ritter, Jason Bright, Greg Murphy, Karl Reindler, Tander, Blanchard, Douglas, Fiore and Wall. #### Qualifying – Race 22 #### Top ten shootout – Race 22 ### Race Weather conditions at the start of the race at 13:40 Australian Eastern Standard Time (UTC+10:00) were dry, hot and clear with the air temperature at 30 °C (86 °F). Every car was started by its international co-driver. At the standing start, Hinchcliffe, partnering Caruso, made a slow getaway due to his stalling and Liuzzi rammed into his car's rear. Liuzzi, in turn, was hit by Pagenaud. Behind the pair, Taylor had no space to negotiate past and hit the front wheel of Pagenaud's vehicle at more than 100 km/h (62 mph). Taylor was turned onto his roof and barrel rolled several times before finishing upside down. The race was suspended for half an hour while the track was cleared of debris and the stricken vehicles removed. Sarrazin, Heidfeld and Morbidelli began from the pit lane due to technical problems caused by the original start. At the second start, Nicolas Minassian stalled his car and was missed by several drivers until he was collected by Franck Montagny at the rear. Montagny was hurled across the track and into a concrete barrier and the race was suspended for the second time. Another 20 minutes passed until a third start was attempted by series officials. Bourdais was slow to start and Salo passed him for the lead into the first turn. Some drivers cut the corner to ensure that no multi-car accident would occur. Graham Rahal also made a quick start and temporarily held second until Bourdais overtook him at the hairpin. On lap three, Heidfeld passed Power for third. Bourdais sought pass Salo at turn one on the next lap but he backed out of the manoeuvre. That lap, Heidfeld overtook Brabham for eighth as he continued to drive quickly and Lieb attacked Rahal for third. On lap 8, Wilson overtook his teammate Marco Andretti at turn one before Andretti unsuccessfully challenged him at the fourth turn. The battle for third concluded on lap eleven as Lieb got past Rahal at turn four. On lap 13, Heidfeld overtook Lyons for seventh and Lyons immediately came under pressure from Brabham in eighth. As Bourdais gained on Salo for the lead, Morbidelli was hit by Campbell-Walter and crashed into the final corner wall three laps later, prompting the safety car's deployment. The race was restarted on lap 19 with Salo leading, Bourdais second and Lieb third. Turner challenged Rahal for fourth but backed out before the entering the beach chicane. That lap, Kox hit the fence at turn eleven and Andretti struck his car's right-front, which had ricocheted back onto the track. The crash caused the safety car's second deployment. Kox's car was removed by track marshals and Salo retained the lead for the restart at lap 23. On the next lap, Bourdais moved to the inside of Salo at turn one but ran wide through the run-off area at full speed. Bourdais had to cede the lead back to Salo. However, Bourdais did succeed on the inside line on run to the first corner but Salo retook first at turn four. Lieb consequently got involved in the battle for the lead as Salo struggled with acceleration leaving the slower speed corners. Salo got his tyres up to temperature and stabilised the gap from lap 27. On the 31st lap, di Grassi overtook Power at turn four for eighth. Bourdais went to the inside of Salo entering turn one but went straight on at the chicane and gave the position back. On the same lap, Turner was passed by Rahal at the beach chicane for fourth, but he cut the corner and had to cede the place to Turner. This provided Heidfeld with an opportunity to get ahead of Rahal and take over fifth. The first pit stops for fuel, tyres and driver changes began on the 35th lap with Bourdais stopping and was relieved by Whincup. Salo made his stop two laps later and gave the car to Davison. On lap 38, Whincup overtook Davison for the virtual lead. Two laps later, Davison's steering buckled and he crashed into the turn eleven tyre wall. Lowndes passed Kelly for eleventh on the road on the 42nd lap. Courtney short-cut the chicane during a battle with Webb for second place on lap 45 and got ahead of him at the twelfth corner for the position two laps later. Tander and Reynolds caught Courtney and Webb in the battle for second which had Tander unsuccessfully seeking his way past Webb at turn four on the 54th lap. The next lap, Courtney was overtaken by Webb to move into second at turn four. The third safety car was dispatched for debris on the track at the exit to turn eleven and Whincup's lead of six and a half seconds was reduced to nothing. Racing resumed on lap 59 with Whincup first and Webb second. Tander held off Reynolds at turn four and Kelly was passed by Winterbottom at the beach chicane. On lap 60, Slade was overtaken by Winterbottom at turn four. Winterbottom caught Reynolds and attempted to get ahead on the inside of turn four two laps later but Reynolds blocked the pass. He did succeed at the same corner on the 65th lap and he overtook Tander on the inside for fourth in the same area. Reynolds retired with steering damage from contact with Tander at turn eleven on lap 66. On lap 68, Winterbottom advanced to third as he got ahead of Courtney on the inside for turn four. Courtney lost fourth to Tander at the same corner for fourth six laps later and fell to fifth when Slade passed him. Webb drew closer to Whincup but could not pass him as the latter had better acceleration leaving the hairpin and Whincup crossed the start/finish line after 79 laps out of the scheduled 102 laps to claim his 60th career victory. Webb and Lieb finished second and Winterbottom and Power took third. The final finishers were Tander, Slade, Lowndes, Courtney, Kelly, Ingall, van Gisbergen, Patrizi, Bright, Murphy, Douglas, Wall, Johnson, Fiore and Davison. ### Post-race Whincup said he ensured that he did not push on his worn tyres and declared his and Bourdais's happiness over the victory, "It was a crazy start to the race and I am sure it made for good television. It really threw us back in pit lane and we had to work out what to do. Our strategy had to change with the race being shortened. It turned into a one-stop race and everyone was massively on their toes. I didn't have to do much and just sat back and watched it all unfold." Webb explained that it was difficult for him and his co-driver Lieb during the race but he praised his team and the speed of his car. Winterbottom said finishing third was not good enough to help him in the title contest, "You've just got to try and keep winning each race and if you can keep winning it puts pressure on them. Third was a really good effort from the dramas we had ... that could be as good as a win if it all falls into place for you (but) deep down you've got to beat him week-in, week-out. Otherwise it's going to come down to Homebush [final event] and the only way you can beat him is if he doesn't turn up." Regarding his first-lap accident, Taylor was unhurt; he said it was the first time in his career he had been turned upside down in a racing car, "I have never had as many cameras in my face either and unfortunately it is for all the wrong reasons. I feel very bad for the team because they have been so awesome all week. I didn't want it to end like this today – my job as a guest driver was to bring the car back in one piece and that didn't happen" Hinchcliffe explained he felt dizzy and the contact was one of the most hefty of his career, "I had a pretty good launch and then the thing just bogged. I saw cars going by and I was just starting to get the thing going again. Then I had this massive shunt in the rear. It is a tough break and it was a hard hit. I have backed an IndyCar into the wall on an oval and it wasn't quite that hard, but it was hard." Whincup defended the international co-drivers and said V8 Supercars are hard to start but praised those beginning at the front despite their unfamiliarity, "Back in the pack that's what happens but that's part of the sport. I’m sure a lot of the guys after a lot of false starts today will have had a bit of practice and will be much better tomorrow." Tander was investigated for his contact with Reynolds that put the latter out of the event in the closing laps and he incurred a 25 championship points penalty from his season total after Tander admitted he was at fault to the stewards. He retained seventh in the points standings but was now 46 points behind sixth-placed Slade. Following the extensive amount of damage to the No. 3, 11 and 33 cars in the first two attempts to start the event, they were withdrawn from Race 23 as they could not be rebuilt in the Gold Coast. The race result left Whincup with an increased Drivers' Championship lead of 209 points. Lowndes retained second but Winterbottom now tied him with the same number of points (2,713 points). Davison maintained fourth place with 2,353 points and van Gisbergen completed the top five with 2,098 points. In the Teams' Championship, Triple Eight Race Engineering still led with 5,660 points and Ford Performance Racing kept second with 5,006 points. Stone Brothers Racing similarly retained third with 3,727 points. Holden Racing Team (3,640 points) and Brad Jones Racing (3,051 points) rounded out the top five. #### Race 22 – Results ## Race 23 ### Qualifying A single half hour qualifying session, held on Sunday morning, was used to determine the grid for Race 23. A tyre bundle was assembled beforehand to prevent drivers from short-cutting the chicane at turn one. Whincup took his second consecutive pole position and his sixth of the season with a time of 1 minute, 11.1077 seconds in the final five minutes of qualifying to repeat the achievement of clinching pole position for both Gold Coast races for the successive second year. He was joined on the grid's front row by Winterbottom whose best lap time was 0.1455 seconds slower and he had the pole position until Whincup's lap. Webb qualified in third, Davison fourth and Kelly fifth. Courtney, Lowndes, Owen, Moffat and van Gisbergen completed the top ten qualifiers. Slade, Tander, Ingall, Johnson, Holdsworth, Bright, Reynolds, Wall, Fiore, Coulthard, Caruso, Patrizi, Blanchard, Murphy and Douglas rounded out the 25 starters. The session was red flagged five times: the first three were to retrieve debris at the exit of turn 11 and the fourth was to replace a turn one tyre bundle that had been dislodged. The final stoppage was needed because Patrizi attempted to pass Bright on the inside line after Bright short-cut the turn 11 chicane; Patrizi made heavy frontal contact with an outside concrete barrier at turn 12. After qualifying, the No. 91 Tekno Autosports car of Patrizi and di Grassi was withdrawn due to the large amount of structural damage to it. #### Qualifying – Race 23 ### Race Race 23 started at 13:40 local time in clear and hot weather conditions of 30 °C (86 °F). As with the previous event, all of the international co-drivers began in their respective cars. At the start, Kox had a drive shaft failure and several cars narrowly avoided ramming into the rear of him as Bourdais maintained his pole position advantage to lead the field into the first corner. The safety car was dispatched at the end of the first lap to remove Kox's vehicle and it remained on the circuit until the conclusion of the next lap. Bourdais held the lead and had a healthy gap over Lieb and Power in second and third. On lap six, Turner made light contact with Rahal in turn four in his unsuccessful attempt to overtake him for seventh. Lyons put Salo under heavy pressure on the following lap due to a lack of rear tyre grip as Turner managed to pass Rahal to move into seventh. Heidfeld was hit by Sarrazin and spun at turn four on lap 11 but he continued without any clear damage to his vehicle. On lap 13, the safety car was deployed for a second time after Lyons dislodged the top of the tyre wall at turn one during a battle with Turner and Salo over fifth. Half of the field chose to make their compulsory pit stops for tyres under the safety car. Racing resumed at the start of lap 16 and Bourdais maintained the lead from Lieb and Power as the field drove through the first four turns without incident. On lap 17, Morbidelli spun on the exit to the beach chicane but he continued without any significant damage to his car despite some contact with the wall in the area. Sarrazin heavily hit the barrier at the same corner on the following lap and broke his upright rear suspension arm and had to retire his car. Upfront, Bourdais began to pull away from the remainder of the field with a series of fastest lap times in the next five laps to have a five-and-a-half-second advantage by the 25th lap. After his pit stop where he had to replace his front flat-spotted tyres due to brake problems, Salo returned to the top ten on lap 28. On the next lap, Said lost tenth to Briscoe as Power and then overtook Jeroen Bleekemolen for ninth as Power closed up to Lieb and got the gap down to a second. A third deployment of the safety car was necessitated on the 30th lap as a large chunk of concrete was observed lying in the centre of turn three. The race resumed on lap 33 as Bourdais continued to lead from Lieb and Power. That lap, Salo overtook Rahal for claim sixth at turn four and was followed by Briscoe doing the same Rahal. Green flag pit stops for fuel, tyres and driver changes began on the 34th lap. Bourdais made his stop two laps later and Whincup took over the No. 1 car. Salo took the lead as he could reach around lap 60 before making his own stop. In the meantime, Hinchcliffe and Caruso retired on lap 35 when their car had its right-rear wheel sheered as Caruso left the pit stall. On lap 46, Blanchard slid on the exit to the beach chicane but he avoided contact with the wall. Lowndes had a clutch hydraulic issue leaving the beach chicane dropping him behind Courtney for eleventh two laps later. Salo made his stop from the lead for replacement brake rotors on the 56th lap and was relieved by Davison. Brabham led until his lap 62 pit stop where Slade assumed his driving duties. Blanchard retired on lap 69 due to car damage. The safety car was dispatched for the fourth time as debris was observed on the track at turn 11 on lap 72 and Whincup took the opportunity to make a pit stop for fuel. The safety car was withdrawn at the end of the 74th lap with Slade leading. Reynolds and Webb raced alongside each other into turn six during the next lap as Ingall defended from Winterbottom for fifth on lap 76. On the following lap, Winterbottom successfully passed Ingall for fifth on the back straight. Davison made contact with the rear of Slade's car as they battled for the lead through turn one on the 78th lap. On lap 80, Slade was passed on the inside by Davison for the lead entering turn four. That lap, Winterbottom overtook Tander for fourth. Whincup passed Slade on the inside for second at turn four after the two were alongside each other driving towards the chicane. Winterbottom then overtook Slade for third on lap 82. The safety car's fifth and final deployment came on lap 94 after a car door mirror was located in turn eleven. On lap 95, racing continued as Davison was slow to restart and caught out Whincup which closed the field up. Winterbottom and Whincup collided leaving turn 15 on the next lap and the former failed to pass the latter at turn eleven on lap 97. Whincup set the fastest lap of the race on lap 99 with a 1-minute, 12.3001 seconds time as he closed up to Davison. Courtney and Ingall made contact on the same lap, which forced Courtney into the pit lane to replace a front tyre because Ingall's exhaust cut it. Webb set a faster time on the next lap, a 1-minute, 12.2408 seconds. Davison led Whincup by half a second to begin the final lap and held him off for his 13th career victory. Whincup followed half a second later in second and Winterbottom duplicated his Race 22 result in third. Off the podium, Slade took fourth and Tander followed in fifth. Lowndes placed sixth, Ingall seventh and Holdsworth eighth. Van Gisbergen and Coulthard rounded out the top ten. The final classified finishers were Kelly, Johnson, Reynolds, Webb, Wall, Douglas, Courtney, Owen, Fiore and Murphy. Bourdais won the Dan Wheldon International Trophy as the highest-placed international co-driver for the second successive year. ### Post-race Davison said his team was under heavy pressure but praised Salo for helping contribute to his win, "It is fantastic to get another win as it feels like so long since my last one. I actually had to fight much harder than I thought as Tim [Slade] came out in front of me after the last stop which I hadn't thought of. Once I got past him I had to press on but also try and conserve my tyres which thankfully I had the car to do it with really easily." Whincup called his second-place finish "déjà vu" because he duplicated a victory and two pole positions in 2011 and enjoyed the race, "It was really on at that last restart. My tyres were pretty cold on those safety car laps but the car has been excellent and now we head into the last three events." Third-placed Winterbottom said an error in his pit stall cost him time and struggled to exit his box because of other cars around him, "We came out and tried as hard as we could but we used our rear tyres up a bit much getting back to the front. On the restart I tried to have a go at passing Jamie but he held his line and I couldn't do anymore from there." The incidents at the start of both races led to calls for the international co-drivers to be barred from starting races with Holdsworth saying, "That's what happens when all the international drivers start the race. It wasn't Simon's fault, he got a ripper start. But a few of the guys up the front got shockers as they are not used to starting these cars. Holdsworth's co-driver Pagenaud concurred and noted that standing starts was a procedure that many international co-drivers were unfamiliar with, "It's a shame but starting where we did got us into trouble." Liuzzi spoke of his feeling that the narrowness of the Surfers Paradise Street Circuit configuration led to competitors making errors rather than their experience competing in V8 Supercars. Starting from the 2013 season, teams were no longer required to employ a co-driver from the international racing community but were allowed to partner with any co-driver from a national or international championship of their choosing. Slade said he was happy to finish fourth and believed he was "the best of the rest" of all the drivers competing in the Gold Coast. The race results left Whincup as the Drivers' Championship leader with 3,060 points. Winterbottom (2,842 points) moved clear of Lowndes (2,815 points) in the battle for second place and Davison's victory kept him in fourth with 2,503 points. With 2,182 points, Van Gisbergen placed fifth overall. In the Teams' Championship, Triple Eight Racing Engineering retained their lead with 5,900 points. Ford Performance Racing were in second with 5,285 points and Stone Brothers Racing were third with 3,901 points. Holden Brothers Racing stood in fourth with 3,805 points and Brad Jones Racing were fifth with 3,129 points with three rounds left in the season. Despite his victory, Davison said that he admitted his chances of winning the Drivers' Championship were marginal but he vowed to push hard and claim whatever points he could earn for the remainder of the season. A record-braking 182,255 people attended the two-day event. #### Race 23 – Results ## Championship standings after the event Drivers' Championship standings Teams' Championship standings - Note: Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings.
29,029,028	Royal Stoa (Jerusalem)	1,139,743,536	Ancient basilica constructed by Herod the Great	[ "Ancient history of Jerusalem", "Buildings and structures completed in the 1st century BC", "Buildings and structures demolished in the 1st century", "Former buildings and structures in Jerusalem", "Herod the Great", "Temple Mount" ]	The Royal Stoa (Hebrew: הסטיו המלכותי, romanized: Ha-stav ha-Malkhuti; also known as the Royal Colonnade, Royal Portico, Royal Cloisters, Royal Basilica or Stoa Basileia) was an ancient basilica constructed by Herod the Great during his renovation of the Temple Mount at the end of the first century BCE. Probably Herod's most magnificent secular construction, the three-aisled structure was described by Josephus as deserving "to be mentioned better than any other under the sun." A center of public and commercial activity, the Royal Stoa was the likely location of Jesus' cleansing of the Temple recounted in the New Testament. The Royal Stoa overlooked Jerusalem's residential and commercial quarters, and at its southwestern corner was the place from which a ram's horn was blown to announce the start of holy days. The Royal Stoa was destroyed by the Roman army during the sack of Jerusalem in 70 CE. Its site is currently inaccessible to archaeologists since it is occupied by the Al-Aqsa Mosque. However, artifacts from the Stoa have been recovered both from excavations at the foot of the platform and in secondary use in later constructions. This evidence has confirmed details given in the accounts of the historian Josephus, and has also allowed comparison of the Royal Stoa's decoration with that used in other, contemporaneous monumental buildings. ## History ### Construction Herod's reconstruction of the Second Temple was one of his principal building projects. Construction began during the last quarter of the first century BCE. It was both a monumental architectural feat and an important political achievement. Herod invested a great deal of effort in the expansion of the Temple platform, especially at its southern side where the Temple Mount descends into the Tyropoeon and Kidron valleys. This expansion along the southern edge of the esplanade served as a base upon which the Royal Stoa was erected. The building was basilical in form, but open on one side, which led it to being described as a portico, a stoa or cloisters in various sources. It was likely Herod's most magnificent secular edifice. The historian Josephus praised the Royal Stoa as "more worthy of mention than any other [structure] under the sun", and described the building in detail: > This cloister had pillars that stood in four rows one over against the other all along, for the fourth row was interwoven into the wall, which [also was built of stone]; and the thickness of each pillar was such, that three men might, with their arms extended, fathom it round, and join their hands again, while its length was 27 feet (Greek: πόδες), with a double spiral at its basis; and the number of all the pillars [in that court] was a hundred and sixty-two. Their chapiters were made with sculptures after the Corinthian order [...] These four rows of pillars included three intervals for walking in the middle of this cloister; two of which walks were made parallel to each other, and were contrived after the same manner; the breadth of each of them was 30 feet (Greek: πόδες), the length was 1 furlong (Greek: στάδιον), and the height 50 feet (Greek: πόδες); but the breadth of the middle part of the cloister was one and a half of the other, and the height was double, for it was much higher than those on each side; but the roofs were adorned with deep sculptures in wood, representing many sorts of figures. The middle was much higher than the rest, and the wall of the front was adorned with beams, resting upon pillars, that were interwoven into it, and that front was all of polished stone... A basilica with four rows of columns running lengthwise, each made of 40 columns, the Royal Stoa thus contained three parallel aisles, with a central aisle measuring 14.8 metres (49 ft) in breadth and two flanking aisles measuring 9.9 metres (32 ft) in breadth each, for a total breadth of 35 metres (115 ft). Each column was approximately 1.5 metres (4.9 ft) in diameter and, according to Josephus, 30 feet (9.9 metres) tall. The central hall was twice as tall as the aisles, probably nearly 33 metres (108 ft) tall. Israeli archaeologist Ehud Netzer estimates the Royal Stoa was roughly 33 metres (108 ft) wide and 240 metres (790 ft) long, though Josephus wrote that the Royal Cloisters ran the entire length of the Southern Wall, which wall measures 922 feet (281 m). This distance was known to the Greeks as stadion (translated by others as "furlong"). The central aisle had a higher ceiling than the side-aisles. Light was provided by clerestory windows in the upper part of the central hall. It is also possible that an apse stood at the eastern wall of the Stoa. Josephus describes the columns as Corinthian in style and Corinthian capitals have indeed been found in excavations along the mount's southern wall, as well as reused in later Roman, Byzantine and Islamic structures. The ceilings were ornamented with deeply cut wood-carvings while other parts of the interior were apparently covered with stucco. The southernmost row of columns was incorporated into the southern wall of the Temple mount, while the northern side opened onto the plaza in the middle of which stood the Temple. From the outside, the southern wall was distinguished from the retaining wall of the platform by a series of pilasters running along the length of the superstructure. The main entry to the Stoa from the city was via a monumental staircase which led up from the Tyropoeon Valley and then across Robinson's Arch, passing over the street and shops below. The Royal Stoa was built upon the artificially raised portion of the Temple Mount platform. Arches underneath supported the columns of the Stoa, and provided service areas for the structures above. The Huldah Gates at the bottom of the southern wall led through corridors beneath the Stoa, rising to the Temple plaza, and served as the main entrance to the Temple compound for worshipers. Additional passages led to storage areas, and possibly provided secondary access to the Stoa and the Temple beyond. An arched overpass on the eastern side of the Temple Mount led to a gate which opened into the so-called Solomon's Stables just beneath the eastern end of the Stoa. It is widely assumed that at least part of this area was used as a storage area in conjunction with business conducted in the Stoa. The expansion of the Temple Mount platform and the erection of the Royal Stoa required Herod's engineers to overcome the difficult topographic conditions. It was thus necessary to build 35 metres (115 ft) tall foundations above the slope of the Tyropoeon valley and equivalent 40 metres (130 ft) tall foundations above the Kidron. The great effort invested in the construction of the Royal Stoa is a testimony of its immense importance to Herod and his status on the Temple Mount. Unlike his predecessors, the Hasmonean kings who had also served as High Priests, Herod was not of the priestly caste and was therefore unable to participate in priestly rituals. A client king appointed by the Romans, lacking legitimacy and unpopular with his subjects, Herod had initiated the Temple reconstruction to win favour among the Jews, but was forbidden from even entering the inner sanctum of his crowning achievement. It was thus the monumental Royal Stoa which gave Herod his rightful status on the Mount, a showcase of his majesty and grandeur. Today, the al-Aqsa Mosque is partially built over the site where once stood the Royal Cloisters, and now measures 56 metres (184 ft) in breadth. Archaeologist R.W. Hamilton wrote during excavations and repairs of the al-Aqsa Mosque between 1938 and 1942 that his team uncovered a marble pavement some 50 to 80 cm (20 to 31 in) beneath the current floor of the mosque and which pavement belonged to an earlier structure. Hamilton wrote that "some 19 m (62 ft) short of the present north wall of the mosque the bedding of the marble pavement came to an end," suggesting that the original structure measured 37 metres (121 ft) in breadth. ### Purpose Every major Roman city had a basilica which was used for banking, law courts, and other commercial transactions. In Jerusalem, the Royal Stoa was the center of this activity. In the forty years prior to the Great Revolt it served as the seat of the Sanhedrin, Judaism's supreme judicial court, which was moved from the Chamber of Stone to the "Shop" (Chanuyot in the Talmud), referring to the commercial activities conducted in the Stoa. A fragment of a monumental inscription found near the eastern Huldah gates below the Stoa refers to the Zeqenim (elders) and may indicate the Sanhedrin's meeting place near the gates or in the Stoa above.This center of commercial activity within sight of the Temple was considered irreverent to many devout Jews. It was also a site of commerce related to the Temple ritual, where sacrificial doves could be bought and coins bearing prohibited images could be exchanged. It is therefore a likely location for Jesus' confrontation with the dove sellers and money changers which is related in chapter 21 of the Gospel of Matthew. Special coinage was used for sacred contributions and other purposes. The Israel Antiquities Authority's numismatist Donald T. Ariel has proposed that the Royal Stoa as the site for a mint, run by the priesthood. During the Great Revolt against Rome, this may have been the site where silver shekels were produced. The stoa's convenient proximity to the Temple's silver stores and the area's use for other commercial purposes argue for identification of the stoa as the location of minting operations. Other "Revolt" coinage was in base metal, and these may have been struck elsewhere in Jerusalem. Above the basilica, either on a parapet or tower, was a place from which a trumpet or ram's horn would be blown to signal the start of the Sabbath and holy days. On the pavement below the southwest corner of the Royal Stoa complex, a piece of stone coping was found which bears a dedicatory inscription which reads "to the Place of Trumpeting". This location overlooked most of Jerusalem's neighborhoods, and the recovery of the inscription confirms that the southwest corner is the site where the trumpeting took place. ### Destruction > And now the Romans, judging that it was in vain to spare what was round about the holy house, burnt all those places, as also the remains of the cloisters and the gates, two excepted; the one on the east side, and the other on the south; both which, however, they burnt afterward... The soldiers also came to the rest of the cloisters that were in the outer [court of the] temple, whither the women and children, and a great mixed multitude of the people, fled, in number about six thousand. But before Caesar had determined any thing about these people, or given the commanders any orders relating to them, the soldiers were in such a rage, that they set that cloister on fire; by which means it came to pass that some of these were destroyed by throwing themselves down headlong, and some were burnt in the cloisters themselves. Nor did any one of them escape with his life. The Great Revolt and the subsequent sacking of Jerusalem in 70 CE brought about the destruction of Herod's Temple, including the Royal Stoa, by members of the Roman X Fretensis, XII Fulminata, XV Apollinaris and V Macedonica legions under the command of emperor Vespasian's son Titus. It is likely that the stoa was modified during the initial phases of the revolt when the Temple Mount was fortified, first by Simon Bar Giora and then by John of Gischala. The main entry at Robinson's Arch was destroyed and towers built. Excavated remains of the Stoa provide evidence of its demise in a great fire. Chemical analysis of the remains has shown that some of the materials underwent transformations requiring a minimum temperature of 800 K (980 °F)—a result of sustained, high-temperature burning consistent with Josephus's account of destruction in a large conflagration. Some remains also contain the mineral apatite, a component of bone, though its origins, human or animal, are unknown. ## Temple Mount excavations The site of the Royal Stoa is currently occupied by the Al-Aqsa Mosque, Islam's third-holiest shrine, and is therefore unavailable for archaeological exploration. Between 1968 and 1978, however, professor Benjamin Mazar of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem carried out excavations at the foot of the southern wall. These uncovered over 400 architectural fragments in the destruction debris below the site of the Stoa, some of which were incorporated in secondary use in later Byzantine and Umayyad construction. Despite their fragmentary nature, these provide some of the largest and richest Second-Temple era assemblages ever found, a testament to the splendor described by Josephus.Finds include Corinthian capitals, Doric friezes and modillion cornices. The motifs featured on the fragments found occasionally match patterns witnessed in other Second-Temple era public buildings unearthed in the region, while others reflect unique architectural characteristics. These include floral motifs, rosettes, cable patterns similar to finds in the Hauran region of southern Syria and acanthus leaves featured in Roman architecture. ## See also - Herod's Temple - Herod's renovation of the Temple Mount - Herodian architecture - other building projects undertaken by Herod - Trumpeting Place Inscription - an inscribed stone unearthed nearby - Al-Aqsa Mosque - Mosque currently occupying the site of the Royal Stoa
42,173,713	K-141 (Kansas highway)	1,108,346,903	Highway in Kansas	[ "State highways in Kansas", "Transportation in Ellsworth County, Kansas" ]	K-141 is a 13.47-mile-long (21.68 km) north–south state highway in Ellsworth County in central Kansas. The highway connects K-4 west of Marquette and K-140 northeast of Carneiro with Kanopolis Lake. The entire length of K-141 is a part of the Prairie Trail Scenic Byway, which was designated to highlight the history, culture, and nature of the area. The highway is a two-lane road its entire length. Before state highways were numbered in Kansas, there were auto trails. The northern terminus follows the former Golden Belt. On August 16, 1955, K-141 was designated as a state highway. Between 1961 and 1963, the alignment was straightened and realigned to cross the Kanopolis Dam. On October 13, 1967, U.S. Route 40 (US-40) was rerouted onto Interstate 70 (I-70) from Dorrance to Salina. At that time K-141 was extended from its northern terminus eastward along old US-40 to Salina. This extension was brief because on November 27, 1968, old US-40 from Ellsworth eastward to Salina was designated K-140 and K-141 was truncated to end at the new K-140, its original northern terminus. ## Route description K-141 is a north–south route with a total length of 13.47 miles (21.68 km). The entire route travels primarily through rural grassland. The entire length of K-141 is a section of the Prairie Trail Scenic Byway, which runs from Canton to the northern terminus of K-141. The highway's southern terminus is at K-4 west of the city of Marquette. From there, the highway heads north for about 2.25 miles (3.62 km) through rural farmlands before curving slightly in a north-northwest direction. K-141 continues 0.3 miles (0.48 km) then intersects Langley Point Road, which connects the highway to South Shore State Park. The highway begins to travel along the top of Kanopolis Dam. Immediately after crossing the dam, the highway curve slightly northwest before gently turning back to a northerly direction as it passes the unincorporated community of Venango. K-141 continues traveling in a northward direction through small rolling hills covered with a mix of grasslands and farmlands for 2.9 miles (4.7 km) then shifts slightly west. The highway continues for about 2.9 miles (4.7 km) then veers to the northeast and crosses over Spring Creek and Union Pacific Railroad tracks. K-141 then turns back north and reaches its northern terminus at K-140 northeast of the unincorporated community of Carneiro. The Kansas Department of Transportation (KDOT) tracks the traffic levels on its highways, and in 2019, they determined that on average the traffic varied from 505 vehicles per day slightly north of the southern terminus to 530 vehicles per day near the intersection of Avenue M. K-141 is not included in the National Highway System. From the southern terminus northward five miles (8.0 km) it is paved with full design bituminous pavement, the next five miles (8.0 km) is paved with partial design bituminous pavement and the final 3.47 miles (5.58 km) is paved with full design bituminous pavement. ## History ### Early roads and establishment Before state highways were numbered in Kansas there were auto trails, which were an informal network of marked routes that existed in the United States and Canada in the early part of the 20th century. The northern terminus follows the former Golden Belt, an auto trail that went from Denver east to Kansas City. Slightly south of the southern terminus was the route of the former Bee Line, an auto trail that went from Scott City east to Herington. On October 6, 1954, the Kansas State Highway Commission (SHC), now known as KDOT, passed a resolution to make Kanopolis Lake Road a state highway as soon as Ellsworth County had brought it up to state highway standards. Then in a resolution on August 16, 1955, it was designated K-141 as the county had finished required projects. When first established the highway turned east onto Avenue T, southeast of the Kanopolis Lake Dam. After about 0.5 miles (0.80 km) it turned north at and began to follow 29th Road. It then turned east onto Avenue R then north onto 30th Road 0.5 miles (0.80 km) later. It then curved west onto Avenue M then met its current alignment about two miles (3.2 km) later. ### Realignment In July 1958, the state park director requested that K-141 should be relocated further west to better serve Kanopolis State Park. The SHC immediately directed their staff to begin surveys and a feasibility study. On November 23, 1959, the SHC authorized right-of-way acquisition for a four-mile-long (6.4 km) section of the reroute from Kanopolis Lake dam north, as well as a 0.8-mile-long (1.3 km) section of K-241. On December 24, 1959, the last of three surveys was started on the section from the dam north to US-40, and was expected to be completed by January 15, 1960. In October 1960, bids were accepted on the section from the dam northward 4.1 miles (6.6 km). By late January 1961, culverts were being installed on the new alignment of K-141. The section from the dam northward roughly 4.1 miles (6.6 km) was completed in late 1961. On March 8, 1962, bids were taken on the section from the north end of the dam south to K-4. In early May 1962, a work order was issued for the section over the dam and south to K-4. Martin and Ade Incorporated of Gypsum got the contract for grading at a cost of \$122,597.58 (equivalent to \$ in 2023), and Russell Ralph Company Incorporated of Topeka got the contract for building the bridge at a cost of \$42,522.39 (equivalent to \$ in 2023). The dam was widened 11 feet (3.4 m) to support the new road. On June 7, 1962, bids were taken for the section from US-40 south 3.8 miles (6.1 km). At the end of June 1962, the work order was issued on that section from US-40 south. Martin and Ade Incorporated of Gypsum was awarded the grading contract at a cost of \$113,669.96 (equivalent to \$ in 2023), and Ralph W. Forkner Construction Company of Clay Center was awarded the contract for a bridge over the railroad at a cost of \$75,726.60 (equivalent to \$ in 2023). By the end of December 1962, the section over the dam was almost completed, as well as an additional nine miles (14 km) of the new alignment. In September 1962, a work order was issued to pave the new section from K-4 northward 5.6 miles (9.0 km). San-Ore Construction Company of McPherson completed the surfacing at a cost of \$254,366.70 (equivalent to \$ in 2023). In early June 1963, a work order was issued on the final surfacing project on the section from US-40 southward four miles (6.4 km). San-Ore Construction Company of McPherson completed the surfacing at a cost of \$146,432.50 (equivalent to \$ in 2023). The new route was constructed with a bridge over the Union Pacific Railroad track, which eliminated the former at-grade crossing. The new alignment also moved the junction with US-40 slightly east. ### Temporary extension By 1965, I-70 was extended west from Salina to Dorrance. On October 13, 1967, US-40 was rerouted to overlap the newly constructed section of I-70 from Dorrance to Salina. At that time, K-141 was extended from its northern terminus eastward along old US-40 to Salina. The former alignment of US-40 from Ellsworth to Salina was designated as K-140 on November 27, 1968, while K-141 was truncated to its original northern terminus (now at K-140). ## Major intersections
290,195	Elizabeth Warren	1,173,893,088	American politician (born 1949)	[ "1949 births", "21st-century American politicians", "21st-century American women politicians", "American Methodists", "American legal scholars", "American people of English descent", "American people of German descent", "American people who self-identify as being of Cherokee descent", "American women academics", "American women lawyers", "American women legal scholars", "Articles containing video clips", "Candidates in the 2020 United States presidential election", "Competitive debaters", "Democratic Party United States senators from Massachusetts", "Elizabeth Warren", "Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Female United States senators", "Female candidates for President of the United States", "Harvard Law School faculty", "Living people", "Massachusetts Democrats", "Members of the American Law Institute", "Methodists from Massachusetts", "Native American-related controversies", "Northwest Classen High School alumni", "People of the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau", "Politicians from Cambridge, Massachusetts", "Politicians from Oklahoma City", "Progressivism in the United States", "Rutgers School of Law–Newark alumni", "Rutgers School of Law–Newark faculty", "University of Houston alumni", "University of Houston faculty", "University of Michigan Law School faculty", "University of Pennsylvania Law School faculty", "University of Texas School of Law faculty" ]	Elizabeth Ann Warren (née Herring; born June 22, 1949) is an American politician and former law professor who is the senior United States senator from Massachusetts, serving since 2013. A member of the Democratic Party and regarded as a progressive, Warren has focused on consumer protection, equitable economic opportunity, and the social safety net while in the Senate. Warren was a candidate in the 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries, ultimately finishing third. Born and raised in Oklahoma, Warren is a graduate of the University of Houston and Rutgers Law School and has taught law at several universities, including the University of Houston, the University of Texas at Austin, the University of Pennsylvania, and Harvard University. She was one of the most influential professors in commercial and bankruptcy law before beginning her political career. Warren has written 12 books and more than 100 articles. Warren's first foray into public policy began in 1995, when she worked to oppose what eventually became a 2005 act restricting bankruptcy access for individuals. During the late 2000s, her national profile grew after her forceful public stances in favor of more stringent banking regulations after the financial crisis of 2007–2008. She served as chair of the Congressional Oversight Panel of the Troubled Asset Relief Program, and proposed and established the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau, for which she served as the first special advisor under President Barack Obama. In 2012, Warren defeated incumbent Republican Scott Brown and became the first female U.S. senator from Massachusetts. She won re-election by a wide margin in 2018, defeating Republican nominee Geoff Diehl. On February 9, 2019, Warren announced her candidacy in the 2020 United States presidential election. She was briefly considered the front-runner for the Democratic nomination in late 2019, but support for her campaign dwindled. She withdrew from the race on March 5, 2020, after Super Tuesday. ## Early life and education Warren was born Elizabeth Ann Herring in Oklahoma City on June 22, 1949. She is the fourth child of Pauline Louise (née Reed, 1912–1995), a homemaker, and Donald Jones Herring (1911–1997), a U.S. Army flight instructor during World War II, both of whom were members of the evangelical branch of the Protestant Methodist Church. Warren has described her early family life as teetering "on the ragged edge of the middle class" and "kind of hanging on at the edges by our fingernails." She and her three older brothers were raised Methodist. Warren lived in Norman, Oklahoma, until she was 11 years old, when her family moved back to Oklahoma City. When she was 12, her father, then a salesman at Montgomery Ward, had a heart attack, which led to many medical bills as well as a pay cut because he could not do his previous work. After leaving his sales job, he worked as a maintenance man for an apartment building. Eventually, the family's car was repossessed because they failed to make loan payments. To help the family finances, her mother found work in the catalog-order department at Sears. When she was 13, Warren started waiting tables at her aunt's restaurant. Warren became a star member of the debate team at Northwest Classen High School and won the state high school debating championship. She also won a debate scholarship to George Washington University (GWU) at the age of 16. She initially aspired to be a teacher, but left GWU after two years in 1968 to marry James Robert "Jim" Warren, whom she had met in high school. Warren and her husband moved to Houston, where he was employed by IBM. She enrolled in the University of Houston and graduated in 1970 with a Bachelor of Science degree in speech pathology and audiology. The Warrens moved to New Jersey when Jim received a job transfer. She soon became pregnant and decided to stay at home to care for their daughter, Amelia. After Amelia turned two, Warren enrolled at Rutgers Law School. She received her Juris Doctor in 1976 and passed the bar examination shortly thereafter. Shortly before graduating, Warren became pregnant with their second child, Alexander. ## Career In 1970, after obtaining a degree in speech pathology and audiology, but before enrolling in law school, Warren taught children with disabilities for a year in a public school. During law school, she worked as a summer associate at Cadwalader, Wickersham & Taft. After receiving her Juris Doctor and passing the bar examination, Warren offered legal services from home, writing wills and doing real estate closings. In the late 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s, Warren taught law at several American universities while researching issues related to bankruptcy and middle-class personal finance. She became involved with public work in bankruptcy regulation and consumer protection in the mid-1990s. ### Academic Warren began her career in academia as a lecturer at Rutgers University, Newark School of Law (1977–1978). She then moved to the University of Houston Law Center (1978–1983), where she became an associate dean in 1980 and obtained tenure in 1981. She taught at the University of Texas School of Law as visiting associate professor in 1981 and returned as a full professor two years later (staying from 1983 to 1987). She was a research associate at the Population Research Center of the University of Texas at Austin from 1983 to 1987 and was also a visiting professor at the University of Michigan in 1985. During this period, Warren also taught Sunday school. Warren's earliest academic work was heavily influenced by the law and economics movement, which aimed to apply neoclassical economic theory to the study of law with an emphasis on economic efficiency. One of her articles, published in 1980 in the Notre Dame Law Review, argued that public utilities were over-regulated and that automatic utility rate increases should be instituted. But Warren soon became a proponent of on-the-ground research into how people respond to laws. Her work analyzing court records and interviewing judges, lawyers, and debtors, established her as a rising star in the field of bankruptcy law. According to Warren and economists who follow her work, one of her key insights was that rising bankruptcy rates were caused not by profligate consumer spending but by middle-class families' attempts to buy homes in good school districts. Warren worked in this field alongside colleagues Teresa A. Sullivan and Jay Westbrook, and the trio published their research in the book As We Forgive Our Debtors in 1989. Warren later recalled that she had begun her research believing that most people filing for bankruptcy were either working the system or had been irresponsible in incurring debts, but that she concluded that such abuse was in fact rare and that the legal framework for bankruptcy was poorly designed, describing the way the research challenged her fundamental beliefs as "worse than disillusionment" and "like being shocked at a deep-down level". In 2004, she published an article in the Washington University Law Review in which she argued that correlating middle-class struggles with over-consumption was a fallacy. Warren joined the University of Pennsylvania Law School as a full professor in 1987 and obtained an endowed chair in 1990, becoming the William A. Schnader Professor of Commercial Law. In 1992, she taught for a year at Harvard Law School as the Robert Braucher Visiting Professor of Commercial Law. In 1995, Warren left Penn to become Leo Gottlieb Professor of Law at Harvard Law School. In 1996, she became the highest-paid professor at Harvard University who was not an administrator, with a \$181,300 salary and total compensation of \$291,876, including moving expenses and an allowance in lieu of benefits contributions. As of 2011, she was Harvard's only tenured law professor who had attended law school at an American public university. Warren was a highly influential law professor. She published in many fields, but her expertise was in bankruptcy and commercial law. From 2005 to 2009, Warren was among the three most-cited scholars in those fields. She began to rise in prominence in 2004 with an appearance on the Dr. Phil show, and published several books including The Two-Income Trap. ### Advisory roles In 1995, the National Bankruptcy Review Commission's chair, former congressman Mike Synar, asked Warren to advise the commission. Synar had been a debate opponent of Warren's during their school years. She helped draft the commission's report and worked for several years to oppose legislation intended to severely restrict consumers' right to file for bankruptcy. Warren and others opposing the legislation were not successful; in 2005, Congress passed the Bankruptcy Abuse Prevention and Consumer Protection Act of 2005, which curtailed consumers' ability to file for bankruptcy. From 2006 to 2010, Warren was a member of the FDIC (Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation) Advisory Committee on Economic Inclusion. She is a member of the National Bankruptcy Conference, an independent organization that advises the U.S. Congress on bankruptcy law, a former vice president of the American Law Institute and a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Warren's scholarship and public advocacy were the impetus for establishing the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau in 2011.'''' ### TARP oversight On November 14, 2008, U.S. Senate majority leader Harry Reid appointed Warren to chair the five-member Congressional Oversight Panel created to oversee the implementation of the Emergency Economic Stabilization Act. The panel released monthly oversight reports evaluating the government bailout and related programs. During Warren's tenure, these reports covered foreclosure mitigation, consumer and small business lending, commercial real estate, AIG, bank stress tests, the impact of the Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP) on the financial markets, government guarantees, the automotive industry and other topics. ### Consumer Financial Protection Bureau Warren was an early advocate for creating a new Consumer Financial Protection Bureau (CFPB). The bureau was established by the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, signed into law by President Obama in July 2010. In September 2010, Obama named Warren Assistant to the President and Special Advisor to the Secretary of the Treasury on the CFPB to set up the new agency. While liberal groups and consumer advocacy groups urged Obama to formally nominate Warren as the agency's director, financial institutions and Republican members of Congress strongly opposed her, believing she would be an overly zealous regulator. Reportedly convinced that Warren could not win Senate confirmation as the bureau's first director, in January 2012, Obama appointed former Ohio attorney general Richard Cordray to the post in a recess appointment over Republican senators' objections. ### Political affiliation A close high-school friend told Politico in 2019 that in high school Warren was a "diehard conservative" and that she had since done a "180-degree turn and an about-face". One of her colleagues at the University of Texas in Austin said that at university in the early 1980s Warren was "sometimes surprisingly anti-consumer in her attitude". Gary L. Francione, who had been a colleague of hers at the University of Pennsylvania, recalled in 2019 that when he heard her speak at the time she was becoming politically prominent, he "almost fell off [his] chair... She's definitely changed". Warren was registered as a Republican from 1991 to 1996 and voted Republican for many years. "I was a Republican because I thought that those were the people who best supported markets", she has said. But she has also said that in the six presidential elections before 1996 she voted for the Republican nominee only once, in 1976, for Gerald Ford. Warren has said that she began to vote Democratic in 1995 because she no longer believed that the Republicans were the party who best supported markets, but she has said she has voted for both parties because she believed neither should dominate. According to Warren, she left the Republican Party because it is no longer "principled in its conservative approach to economics and to markets" and is instead tilting the playing field in favor of large financial institutions and against middle-class American families. ## U.S. Senate (2013–present) ### Elections #### 2012 On September 14, 2011, Warren declared her intention to run for the Democratic nomination for the 2012 election in Massachusetts for the U.S. Senate. Republican Scott Brown had won the seat in a 2010 special election after Ted Kennedy's death. A week later, a video of Warren speaking in Andover went viral on the Internet. In it, Warren responds to the charge that asking the rich to pay more taxes is "class warfare" by saying that no one grew rich in the U.S. without depending on infrastructure paid for by the rest of society: > There is nobody in this country who got rich on his own. Nobody. ... You moved your goods to market on the roads the rest of us paid for; you hired workers the rest of us paid to educate; you were safe in your factory because of police forces and fire forces that the rest of us paid for. You didn't have to worry that marauding bands would come and seize everything at your factory, and hire someone to protect against this, because of the work the rest of us did. Now look, you built a factory and it turned into something terrific, or a great idea. God bless. Keep a big hunk of it. But part of the underlying social contract is, you take a hunk of that and pay forward for the next kid who comes along. President Obama later echoed her sentiments in a 2012 election campaign speech. Warren ran unopposed for the Democratic nomination and won it on June 2, 2012, at the state Democratic convention with a record 95.77% of the votes of delegates. She encountered significant opposition from business interests. In August, the political director for the U.S. Chamber of Commerce commented that "no other candidate in 2012 represents a greater threat to free enterprise than Professor Warren". Warren nonetheless raised \$39 million for her campaign, more than any other Senate candidate in 2012, and showed, according to The New York Times, "that it was possible to run against the big banks without Wall Street money and still win". Warren received a prime-time speaking slot at the 2012 Democratic National Convention on September 5, 2012. She positioned herself as a champion of a beleaguered middle class that "has been chipped, squeezed, and hammered". According to Warren, "People feel like the system is rigged against them. And here's the painful part: They're right. The system is rigged." Warren said Wall Street CEOs "wrecked our economy and destroyed millions of jobs" and that they "still strut around congress, no shame, demanding favors, and acting like we should thank them". #### 2018 On January 6, 2017, in an email to supporters, Warren announced that she would be running for a second term as a U.S. senator from Massachusetts, writing, "The people of Massachusetts didn't send me to Washington to roll over and play dead while Donald Trump and his team of billionaires, bigots, and Wall Street bankers crush the working people of our Commonwealth and this country. ... This is no time to quit." In the 2018 election, Warren defeated Republican nominee Geoff Diehl, 60% to 36%. ### Tenure On November 6, 2012, Warren defeated Brown with 53.7% of the vote. She is the first woman ever elected to the U.S. Senate from Massachusetts, as part of a sitting U.S. Senate that had 20 women senators in office, which was the most in Senate history at the time, following the November 2012 elections. In December 2012, Warren was assigned a seat on the Senate Banking Committee, which oversees the implementation of Dodd–Frank and other regulation of the banking industry. Vice President Joe Biden swore Warren in on January 3, 2013. At Warren's first Banking Committee hearing in February 2013, she pressed several banking regulators to say when they had last taken a Wall Street bank to trial and said, "I'm really concerned that 'too big to fail' has become 'too big for trial'." Videos of Warren's questioning amassed more than one million views in a matter of days. At a March Banking Committee hearing, Warren asked Treasury Department officials why criminal charges were not brought against HSBC for its money laundering practices. Warren compared money laundering to drug possession, saying: "If you're caught with an ounce of cocaine, the chances are good you're going to go to jail ... But evidently, if you launder nearly a billion dollars for drug cartels and violate our international sanctions, your company pays a fine and you go home and sleep in your own bed at night." In May 2013, Warren sent letters to the Justice Department, the Securities and Exchange Commission, and the Federal Reserve questioning their decisions that settling would be more fruitful than going to court. Also in May, saying that students should get "the same great deal that banks get", Warren introduced the Bank on Student Loans Fairness Act, which would allow students to take out government education loans at the same rate that banks pay to borrow from the federal government, 0.75%. Independent senator Bernie Sanders endorsed her bill, saying: "The only thing wrong with this bill is that [she] thought of it and I didn't". During the 2014 election cycle, Warren was a top Democratic fundraiser. After the election, Warren was appointed to become the first-ever Strategic Adviser of the Democratic Policy and Communications Committee, a position created for her. The appointment added to speculation that Warren would run for president in 2016. In early 2015, President Obama urged Congress to approve the Trans-Pacific Partnership, a proposed free trade agreement between the United States and 11 Asian and South American countries. Warren criticized the TPP, arguing that the dispute resolution mechanism in the agreement and labor protections for American workers therein were insufficient; her objections were in turn criticized by Obama. Saying "despite the progress we've made since 2008, the biggest banks continue to threaten our economy", in July 2015 Warren, John McCain, Maria Cantwell, and Angus King reintroduced the 21st Century Glass–Steagall Act, a modern version of the Banking Act of 1933. The legislation was intended to reduce the American taxpayer's risk in the financial system and the likelihood of future financial crises. In a September 20, 2016, hearing, Warren called on Wells Fargo CEO John Stumpf to resign, adding that he should be "criminally investigated" over Wells Fargo's opening of two million checking and credit-card accounts without the customers' consent. In December 2016, Warren gained a seat on the Senate Armed Services Committee, which The Boston Globe called "a high-profile perch on one of the chamber's most powerful committees" that would "fuel speculation about a possible 2020 bid for president". During the debate on Senator Jeff Sessions's nomination for United States attorney general in February 2017, Warren quoted a letter Coretta Scott King had written Senator Strom Thurmond in 1986 when Sessions was nominated for a federal judgeship. King wrote, "Mr. Sessions has used the awesome power of his office to chill the free exercise of the vote by black citizens in the district he now seeks to serve as a federal judge. This simply cannot be allowed to happen." Senate Republicans voted that by reading the letter from King, Warren had violated Senate Rule 19, which prohibits impugning another senator's character. This prohibited Warren from further participating in the debate on Sessions's nomination, and Warren instead read King's letter while streaming live online. In rebuking Warren, Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell said on the Senate floor, "She was warned. She was given an explanation. Nevertheless, she persisted." McConnell's language became a slogan for Warren and others. On October 3, 2017, during Wells Fargo chief executive Timothy J. Sloan's appearance before the Senate Banking Committee, Warren called on him to resign, saying, "At best you were incompetent, at worst you were complicit." On July 17, 2019, Warren and Representative Al Lawson introduced legislation that would make low-income college students eligible for benefits under the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) according to the College Student Hunger Act of 2019. In November 2020, Warren was named a candidate for Secretary of the Treasury in the Biden Administration. Warren was at the Capitol to participate in the 2021 United States Electoral College vote count when Trump supporters attacked the Capitol. She called it an "attempted coup and act of insurrection egged on by a corrupt president to overthrow our democracy", and the perpetrators "domestic terrorists." The day after the attack, Warren joined the entire Massachusetts Congressional delegation to call for Trump's immediate removal from office through the invocation of the Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution or impeachment. ### Role in the 2016 presidential election In the run-up to the 2016 United States presidential election, supporters put Warren forward as a possible presidential candidate, but she repeatedly said she would not run for president in 2016. In October 2013, she joined the other 15 women Democratic senators in signing a letter that encouraged Hillary Clinton to run. There was much speculation about Warren being added to the Democratic ticket as a vice-presidential candidate. On June 9, 2016, after the California Democratic primary, Warren formally endorsed Clinton for president. In response to questions when she endorsed Clinton, Warren said that she believed herself to be ready to be vice president, but she was not being vetted. On July 7, CNN reported that Warren was on a five-person short list to be Clinton's running mate. Clinton eventually chose Tim Kaine. Until her June endorsement, Warren was neutral during the Democratic primary but made public statements that she was cheering Bernie Sanders on. In June, Warren endorsed and campaigned for Clinton. She called Donald Trump, the presumptive Republican nominee, dishonest, uncaring, and "a loser". ### Committee assignments #### Current - Committee on Armed Services - Subcommittee on Emerging Threats and Capabilities - Subcommittee on Personnel (chair) - Subcommittee on Strategic Forces - Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs - Subcommittee on Economic Policy (chair) - Subcommittee on Financial Institutions and Consumer Protection - Subcommittee on Securities, Insurance, and Investment - Committee on Finance - Subcommittee on Health Care - Subcommittee on Social Security, Pensions, and Family Policy - Subcommittee on Taxation and IRS Oversight - Special Committee on Aging #### Previous - Committee on Energy and Natural Resources (2015-2017) - Committee on Health, Education, Labor and Pensions (2013-2021) ## 2020 presidential campaign At a town hall meeting in Holyoke, Massachusetts, on September 29, 2018, Warren said she would "take a hard look" at running for president in the 2020 election after the 2018 United States elections concluded. On December 31, 2018, Warren announced that she was forming an exploratory committee to run for president. On February 9, 2019, Warren officially announced her candidacy at a rally in Lawrence, Massachusetts, at the site of the 1912 Bread and Roses strike. A longtime critic of President Trump, Warren called him a "symptom of a larger problem [that has resulted in] a rigged system that props up the rich and powerful and kicks dirt on everyone else". Warren staged her first campaign event in Lawrence to demonstrate the constituency groups she hopes to appeal to, including working class families, union members, women, and new immigrants. She called for major changes in government: > It won't be enough to just undo the terrible acts of this administration. We can't afford to just tinker around the edges—a tax credit here, a regulation there. Our fight is for big, structural change. This is the fight of our lives. The fight to build an America where dreams are possible, an America that works for everyone. Following her candidacy announcement, Warren became known for the number and depth of her policy proposals, including plans to assist family farms by addressing the advantages held by large agricultural conglomerates, plans to reduce student loan debt and offer free tuition at public colleges, a plan to make large corporations pay more in taxes and better regulate large technology companies, several proposals inspired by opposition to President Trump, a plan to utilize economic patriotism, and plans to address opioid addiction. One of her signature plans was a wealth tax, dubbed the "Ultra-Millionaire Tax", on fortunes over \$50 million. Warren was credited with popularizing the idea of a wealth tax with Americans, leading competitor Bernie Sanders to release a wealth tax plan. After several defeats at the polls, including the Democratic primary in her home state of Massachusetts, Warren ended her campaign on March 5, 2020. ### Polls In early June 2019, Warren placed second in some polls, with Joe Biden in first place and Bernie Sanders in third. In the following weeks her poll numbers steadily increased, and a September Iowa poll placed her in the lead with 22% to Biden's 20%. The Iowa poll also rated the number of voters at least considering voting for each candidate; Warren scored 71% to Biden's 60%. Poll respondents also gave her a higher "enthusiasm" rating, with 32% of her backers extremely enthusiastic to Biden's 22%. An October 24 Quinnipiac poll placed Warren in the lead at 28%, with Biden at 21% and Sanders at 15%. When asked which candidate had the best policy ideas, 30% of respondents named Warren, with Sanders at 20% and Biden 15%. Sanders was most often named as the candidate who "cares most about people like you," with Warren in second place and Biden third. Sanders also placed first at 28% when respondents were asked which candidate was the most honest, followed by Warren and Biden at 15% each. ### Funding The Los Angeles Times reported that of the front-runners in the presidential race, only Sanders and Warren have previously won an election with almost exclusively small online contributions, and that no presidential primary in recent history has had two of the top three candidates refuse to use bundlers or hold private fundraisers with wealthy donors. In January 2019, Warren said that she took no PAC money. In October 2019, Warren announced that her campaign would not accept contributions of more than \$200 from executives at banks, large tech companies, private equity firms, or hedge funds, in addition to her previous refusal to accept donations of over \$200 from fossil fuel or pharmaceutical executives. In the third quarter of 2019, Warren's campaign raised \$24.6 million, just less than the \$25.3 million Sanders's campaign raised and well ahead of Joe Biden, the front-runner in the polls, who raised \$15.2 million. Warren's average donation was \$26; Sanders's was \$18. In February 2020, Warren began accepting support from Super PACs, after failing to convince other Democratic presidential candidates to join her in disavowing them. ### Public appearances As of September 2019, Warren had attended 128 town halls. She is known for remaining afterward to talk with audience members and for the large numbers of selfies she has taken with them. On September 17, over 20,000 people attended a Warren rally at New York City's Washington Square Park. After her speech long lines formed with people waiting as long as four hours for selfies. Due to the impeachment trial of Donald Trump, Warren was unable to make final campaign stops in person and opted to send her dog, Bailey Warren, to meet with voters in Iowa. ### Vice-presidential speculation In June 2020, CNN reported that Warren was among the top four vice-presidential choices for Joe Biden, the presumptive Democratic presidential nominee, along with Mayor Keisha Lance Bottoms, Representative Val Demings, and Senator Kamala Harris. Kamala Harris was officially announced as Biden's running mate on August 11, 2020. On August 13, The New York Times reported that Warren was one of Biden's four finalists along with Harris, Susan Rice, and Gretchen Whitmer. In late April, CNBC reported that big-money donors were pressuring Biden not to choose Warren, preferring other candidates purportedly on his list, such as Harris, Whitmer, and Amy Klobuchar. ## Personal life Warren and her first husband divorced in 1978, and two years later, Warren married law professor Bruce H. Mann on July 12, 1980, but kept her first husband's surname. Warren has three grandchildren through her daughter Amelia. On April 23, 2020, Warren announced on Twitter that her eldest brother, Don Reed Herring, had died of COVID-19 two days earlier. On October 1, 2021, she announced that her brother, John Herring, had died of cancer. As of 2019, according to Forbes Magazine, Warren's net worth was \$12 million. ## Political positions Warren is widely regarded as a progressive. In 2012, the British magazine New Statesman named Warren among the "top 20 U.S. progressives". Warren supports worker representation on corporations' board of directors, breaking up monopolies, stiffening sentences for white-collar crime, a Medicare for All plan to provide health insurance for all Americans, and a higher minimum wage. Warren was highly critical of the Trump administration. She expressed concerns over what she says were Trump's conflicts of interest. The Presidential Conflicts of Interest Act, written by Warren, was first read in the Senate in January 2017. Warren was highly critical of Trump's immigration policies. In 2018, she called for abolishing U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE). Warren has criticized U.S. involvement in the Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen in support of Yemen's government against the Houthis. In January 2019, Warren criticized Trump's decision to withdraw U.S. troops from Syria and Afghanistan. She agreed that U.S. troops should be withdrawn from Syria and Afghanistan but said such withdrawals should be part of a "coordinated" plan formed with U.S. allies. In April 2019, after reading the Mueller report, Warren called on the House of Representatives to begin impeachment proceedings against Trump, saying, "The Mueller report lays out facts showing that a hostile foreign government attacked our 2016 election to help Donald Trump and Donald Trump welcomed that help. Once elected, Donald Trump obstructed the investigation into that attack." After the June 24, 2022, ruling in which the Supreme Court overturned Roe v. Wade, Warren wrote a New York Times op-ed requesting that President Biden unblock "critical resources and authority that states and the federal government can use to meet the surge in demand for reproductive health services". On March 13, 2023, Warren presented a detailed analysis of the collapse of Silicon Valley Bank on March 10, 2023, and provided possible solutions to avoid further bank failures, in The New York Times. ## Ancestry and Native American issues According to Warren and her brothers, older family members told them during their childhood that they had some Native American ancestry. In 2012, she said that "being Native American has been part of my story, I guess, since the day I was born". In 1984, Warren contributed recipes to a Native American cookbook and identified herself as Cherokee. During Warren's first Senate race in 2012, her opponent, Scott Brown, speculated that she had fabricated Native ancestry to gain advantage on the employment market and used Warren's ancestry in several attack ads. Warren has denied that her alleged heritage gave her any advantages in her schooling or her career. Several colleagues and employers (including Harvard) have said her reported ethnic status played no role in her hiring. From 1995 to 2004, her employer, Harvard Law School, listed her as a Native American in its federal affirmative action forms; Warren later said she was unaware of this. The Washington Post reported that in 1986, Warren identified her race as "American Indian" on a State Bar of Texas write-in form used for statistical information gathering, but added that there was "no indication it was used for professional advancement". A 2018 Boston Globe investigation found that her reported ethnicity played no role in her rise in the academic legal profession, and concluded there was "clear evidence, in documents and interviews, that her claim to Native American ethnicity was never considered by the Harvard Law faculty, which voted resoundingly to hire her, or by those who hired her to four prior positions at other law schools", and that "Warren was viewed as a white woman by the hiring committees at every institution that employed her". In February 2019, Warren apologized for having identified as Native American. Throughout his presidency, former president Donald Trump mocked Warren for her assertions of Native American ancestry, and pejoratively called her "Pocahontas". At a July 2018 Montana rally, he promised that if he debated Warren, he would pay \$1 million to her favorite charity if she took a DNA test and "it shows you're an Indian". In October 2018, Warren released an analysis of a DNA test by geneticist Carlos D. Bustamante that found her ancestry to be mostly European but "strongly support[ed] the existence of an unadmixed Native American ancestor", likely "in the range of 6 to 10 generations ago". Other geneticists, while not disputing the test's validity, found the underlying science "flawed" due to the lack of Native Americans in the United States in the database. Geneticists Krystal Tsosie and Matthew Anderson called the interpretation of the test "problematic", citing, among other reasons, "Warren’s motives, and the genetic variants informing the comparison". They added: "because Bustamante used Indigenous individuals from Central and South America as a reference group to compare Warren’s DNA, we believe he should have stated only that Warren potentially had an 'Indigenous' ancestor 6-10 generations ago, not conclusively a 'Native American' one. The distinction might seem hypercritical to most, but to the sovereign tribal nations of the United States it’s an important one." After publicizing Bustamante's interpretation of the test, Warren asked Trump to donate the money to the National Indigenous Women's Resource Center. Trump responded: "I didn't say that. I think you better read it again". The Cherokee Nation called the use of DNA testing to determine Native American heritage "inappropriate and wrong". According to Politico, "Warren's past claims of American Indian ancestry garnered fierce criticism from both sides of the aisle", with "tribal leaders calling out Warren for claiming a heritage she did not culturally belong to." During a January 2019 public appearance in Sioux City, Iowa, Warren was asked by an attendee, "Why did you undergo the DNA testing and give Donald more fodder to be a bully?" She responded in part, "I am not a person of color; I am not a citizen of a tribe. Tribal citizenship is very different from ancestry. Tribes, and only tribes, determine tribal citizenship, and I respect that difference." She later privately contacted leadership of the Cherokee Nation to apologize "for furthering confusion over issues of tribal sovereignty and citizenship and for any harm her announcement caused". Cherokee Nation executive director of communications Julie Hubbard said that Warren understands "that being a Cherokee Nation tribal citizen is rooted in centuries of culture and laws not through DNA tests". Warren apologized again in August 2019 before a Native American Forum in Iowa. In February 2019, Warren received a standing ovation during a surprise visit to a Native American conference, where she was introduced by freshman Representative Deb Haaland (D-NM), one of the first two Native American women elected to the U.S. Congress. Haaland endorsed Warren for president in July 2019, calling her "a great partner for Indian Country". ## Honors and awards In 2009, The Boston Globe named Warren the Bostonian of the Year and the Women's Bar Association of Massachusetts honored her with the Lelia J. Robinson Award. The National Law Journal has repeatedly named Warren one of the Fifty Most Influential Women Attorneys in America, and in 2010 named her one of the 40 most influential attorneys of the decade. Also in 2009, Warren became the first professor in Harvard's history to win the law school's Sacks–Freund Teaching Award for a second time. In 2011, she delivered the commencement address at Rutgers Law School, her alma mater, and received an honorary Doctor of Laws degree and membership in the Order of the Coif. In 2011, Warren was inducted into the Oklahoma Hall of Fame. In January 2012, New Statesman magazine named her one of the "top 20 U.S. progressives". Warren was named one of Time magazine's 100 Most Influential People in the World in 2009, 2010, 2015, and 2017. In 2018, the Women's History Month theme in the United States was "Nevertheless, She Persisted: Honoring Women Who Fight All Forms of Discrimination Against Women", referring to McConnell's remark about Warren. ## In popular culture - Warren has appeared in the documentary films Maxed Out (2007), Michael Moore's Capitalism: A Love Story (2009), Heist: Who Stole the American Dream? (2011), and Makers: Women Who Make America (2013). - In 2017, Kate McKinnon played Warren on Saturday Night Live. McKinnon continued her impression of Warren in 2019 and 2020, during the 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries. On the March 7, 2020, episode, Warren appeared as herself in the cold open alongside McKinnon's impression of her, and together they opened the show. - In 2019, Warren wrote the entry on Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez for that year's Time 100. - Warren's popularity is the basis of a wide array of merchandise sold in her name, much of which incorporates Mitch McConnell's remark "Nevertheless, she persisted", including an action figure of Warren. - Musician Jonathan Mann has written songs about Warren, including "She Persisted". ## Political protégés Warren has mentored several people who have gone on to hold notable political office. U.S. Representative Katie Porter, a former law student of Warren's, is considered a protégée of Warren. Porter co-chaired Warren's presidential campaign. Another of Warren's political protégés is Boston Mayor Michelle Wu, who was a law student of Warren's and worked on her 2012 Senate campaign before running for Boston City Council herself in 2013. Suffolk County Sheriff Steven W. Tompkins got his start in politics working on Warren's 2012 Senate campaign. During his law school career, former U.S. Representative Joe Kennedy III considered Warren a mentor. A number of Warren acolytes serve in the Biden administration, including Bharat Ramamurti (a former economic policy advisor to Warren). ## Books and other works In 2004, Warren and her daughter, Amelia Tyagi, wrote The Two-Income Trap: Why Middle-Class Mothers and Fathers Are Going Broke. In the book they state that at that time, a fully employed worker earned less inflation-adjusted income than a fully employed worker had 30 years earlier. Although families spent less at that time on clothing, appliances, and other forms of consumption, the costs of core expenses such as mortgages, health care, transportation, and child care had increased dramatically. According to the authors, the result was that even families with two income earners were no longer able to save and incurred ever greater debt. In an article in The New York Times, Jeff Madrick said of the book: > The authors find that it is not the free-spending young or the incapacitated elderly who are declaring bankruptcy so much as families with children ... their main thesis is undeniable. Typical families often cannot afford the high-quality education, health care, and neighborhoods required to be middle class today. More clearly than anyone else, I think, Ms. Warren and Ms. Tyagi have shown how little attention the nation and our government have paid to the way Americans really live. In 2005, Warren and David Himmelstein published a study on bankruptcy and medical bills that found that half of all families filing for bankruptcy did so in the aftermath of a serious medical problem. They say that three-quarters of such families had medical insurance. The study was widely cited in policy debates, but some have challenged its methods and offered alternative interpretations of the data, suggesting that only 17% of bankruptcies are directly attributable to medical expenses. Metropolitan Books published Warren's book A Fighting Chance in April 2014. According to a Boston Globe review, "the book's title refers to a time she says is now gone, when even families of modest means who worked hard and played by the rules had at a fair shot at the American dream." In April 2017, Warren published her 11th book, This Fight Is Our Fight: The Battle to Save America's Middle Class'', in which she explores the plight of the American middle class and argues that the federal government needs to do more to help working families with stronger social programs and increased investment in education. Publications Selected articles Books - (with Teresa A. Sullivan and Jay Westbrook) - (with Teresa A. Sullivan and Jay Westbrook) - (with Amelia Warren Tyagi) - (with Amelia Warren Tyagi) - (with Lynn M. LoPucki, Daniel Keating, Ronald Mann, and Normal Goldenberg) - (with Jay Westbrook) - (with Lynn M. LoPucki) ## See also - List of people who received an electoral vote in the United States Electoral College - Progressivism in the United States - Women in the United States Senate
21,922,547	1956 World Professional Match-play Championship	1,165,531,220	Snooker tournament	[ "1956 in English sport", "1956 in snooker", "Sport in Blackpool", "World Professional Match-play Championship", "World Snooker Championships" ]	The 1956 World Professional Match-play Championship was a snooker tournament that took place from 9 January to 10 March 1956 with the final being held at the Tower Circus in Blackpool, England from 5 to 10 March. Fred Davis won his eighth and last world snooker title by defeating John Pulman by 38 to 35 in the final. Pulman led 31–29 going into the last day of the final on 10 March, but Davis won 8 of the first 10 frames on that day to take a winning lead of 37–33. The event, organised by the Professional Billiards Players' Association, is now recognised as an edition of the World Snooker Championship. There were four participants. Rex Williams made the highest break of the tournament with 141, a championship record, in frame 48 of his semi-final match against Fred Davis in Aston. Pulman defeated Jackie Rea in the other semi-final, which was held in Belfast. ## Background The World Snooker Championship is a professional tournament and the official world championship of the game of snooker. The sport was developed in the late 19th century by British Army soldiers stationed in India. Professional English billiards player and billiard hall manager Joe Davis noticed the increasing popularity of snooker compared to billiards in the 1920s, and with Birmingham-based billiards equipment manager Bill Camkin, persuaded the Billiards Association and Control Council (BACC) to recognise an official professional snooker championship in the 1926–27 season. In 1927, the final of the first professional snooker championship was held at Camkin's Hall; Davis won the tournament by beating Tom Dennis in the final. The annual competition was not titled the World Championship until 1935, but the 1927 tournament is now referred to as the first World Snooker Championship. Davis also won the title each year until 1940, when the contest was cancelled during World War II, and again when the championship resumed in 1946, accumulating a total of 15 titles before retiring from the event. In 1952, the World Professional Match-play Championship was created following a dispute between the Professional Billiards Players' Association (PBPA) and the BACC. In response to player complaints that the BACC was taking too large a percentage of income from the tournament, the BACC claimed that the championship "has always been, and in theory is to be, regarded as an affair of honour and a test of merit", and that "every effort is made to arrange terms advantageous to the professionals competing in the championship, compatible with securing an equitable return for the promoters of it, the B.A.& C.C." The PBPA members established an alternative competition which became known as the World Professional Match-play Championship, now recognised as world championships. There were four entrants for the 1956 World Professional Match-play Championship: John Pulman, Jackie Rea, Rex Williams, and Fred Davis, who had won the world championship in 1948, 1949 and 1951, and the four previous editions of the World Professional Match-play Championship, each year from 1952 to 1955. Joe Davis and Walter Donaldson played in the 1955/1956 News of the World Snooker Tournament, that took place from October 1955 to February 1956, but did not enter the Match-play Championship. ## Summary ### Semi-finals John Pulman and Jackie Rea played in the first semi-final, at the R.A.O.B. Club, Belfast, from 9 to 13 January 1956. Pulman won the first three , making a 55 in the second frame and a 70 in the third frame. He finished the first 4–2 ahead, and led 7–5 at the end of the first day. Each player won three frames in the second day's afternoon session. Rea added the first of the evening, before Pulman took four consecutive frames to lead 14–9, compiling a break of 87 in the process. Rea made a break of 89 in winning the 24th frame. Pulman extended his lead to six frames by winning the first two of the third day, and was still six ahead at 18–12 by the session's conclusion, and his lead over the evening to eight frames, at 22–14. On the fourth day, Pulman won seven of the twelve frames to lead 29–19, including four of the six in the afternoon session. The correspondent for the Northern Whig commented that "the snooker was not of very good quality ... Pulman impressed as the more consistent player of the two. Rea being far too impetuous at times and breaking down when he should have scored from good positions." Pulman secured victory at 31–25 after winning the second and third frames on the final day, and finished 36–25 ahead after were played. The second semi-final, between Fred Davis and Rex Williams, was staged from 23 to 27 January at the Holte Hotel, Aston. Williams took the first frame, and, after Davis had won the second, moved into a 3–1 lead. A break of 90 from Davis reduced the deficit to one frame, and the match was level when Davis added the sixth frame. In the second session, Davis compiled a break of 102 in the seventh frame of the match, and won the following five frames for a 9–3 lead at the end of the first day. The players each won three frames on the second afternoon, and also on the second evening, leaving Davis 15–9 ahead. The day's highest break was a 54 made by Davis in frame fifteen, but Williams won that frame by 82 points to 54. Davis opened up an 11-frame lead by taking the first five frames on day three, and extended this to twelve at 24–12 by the end of the day, having made a 104 break in the evening session. His lead was increased to 14 frames by adding the first two frames of the fourth day, before Williams reduced the gap to ten frames at 19–29, compiling a 141 break in the 48th frame. This stood as the highest break ever recorded in a version of the world snooker championship, until it was bettered by one point by Williams in 1965. On the last day, Williams took four of the first five frames, but Davis achieved a winning margin at 31–23. Following the dead frames played, the score was 35–26. ### Final The final was over 73 frames, and was played from 5 to 10 March at the Tower Circus, Blackpool. Davis won the opening frame and took a 4–2 lead during the afternoon session, making a break of 96 in the fourth frame. Pulman, who compiled a break of 85 in the ninth frame, led 7–5 after the opening day. After the second afternoon session, the players were level at 9–9, Davis having compiled a 104 break in the 18th frame. Davis won the first frame on the second evening, but Pulman then claimed five consecutive frames to lead 14–10 after the second day. Davis reduced his deficit to two frames at 19–17 after the third day, during which he made his second century break of the final, a 102, in the afternoon session. Pulman won four of the six frames on the fourth afternoon, to lead 23–19. In the evening, Davis took the first three frames and the fifth frame, leaving Pulman 25–23 ahead. The following day, the scores were level at both 25–25 and 27–27. Pulman constructed a 104 break in the fourth frame of the afternoon. He won four of the six evening frames, to take a 31–29 lead into the last day. On the sixth day, Davis won five of the six frames in the afternoon session to lead 34–32. He then added three of the first four frames in the evening to achieve a winning margin at 37–33. After dead frames, the final score was 38–35. According to authors Luke Williams and Paul Gadsby, "It was, Pulman admitted, the bitterest disappointment of his career." Snooker commentor Ted Lowe wrote in 1984 that Pulman "looked like a winner ... when leading 31–29 at the start of the final day but experience told and Fred ended up champion". In 2012, snooker historian Clive Everton claimed that Pulman "in retrospect believed that it had done him no good to spend two hours in bed with the daughter of a snooker dignitary just prior to the resumption of play [on the last day]". It was the last of eight world snooker titles won by Davis, who chose not to enter the 1957 World Professional Match-play Championship. ## Schedule ## Main draw Match results are shown below. Winning players and scores are denoted in bold text. ## Final Available details about the final are below.
37,413	Astrid Lindgren	1,172,822,731	Swedish children's writer (1907–2002)	[ "1907 births", "2002 deaths", "20th-century Swedish novelists", "20th-century Swedish screenwriters", "20th-century Swedish women writers", "Animal welfare workers", "Astrid Lindgren", "Children's rights activists", "Children's songwriters", "Hans Christian Andersen Award for Writing winners", "Litteris et Artibus recipients", "Memory of the World Register", "People from Vimmerby Municipality", "Recipients of the Illis quorum", "Selma Lagerlöf Prize winners", "Sommar (radio program) hosts", "Swedish Social Democratic Party", "Swedish children's writers", "Swedish eurosceptics", "Swedish fantasy writers", "Swedish pacifists", "Swedish satirists", "Swedish women children's writers", "Swedish women radio presenters", "Swedish women screenwriters", "Swedish-language writers", "Women science fiction and fantasy writers", "Writers from Småland" ]	Astrid Anna Emilia Lindgren (; ; 14 November 1907 – 28 January 2002) was a Swedish writer of fiction and screenplays. She is best known for several children's book series, featuring Pippi Longstocking, Emil of Lönneberga, Karlsson-on-the-Roof, and the Six Bullerby Children (Children of Noisy Village in the US), and for the children's fantasy novels Mio, My Son, Ronia the Robber's Daughter, and The Brothers Lionheart. Lindgren worked on the Children's Literature Editorial Board at the Rabén & Sjögren publishing house in Stockholm and wrote more than 30 books for children. In 2017, she was calculated to be the world's 18th most translated author. Lindgren had by 2010 sold roughly 167 million books worldwide. In 1994, she was awarded the Right Livelihood Award for "her unique authorship dedicated to the rights of children and respect for their individuality." Her opposition to corporal punishment of children resulted in the world's first law on the matter in 1979, while her campaigning for animal welfare led to a new law, Lex Lindgren, in time for her 80th birthday. ## Biography Astrid Lindgren was born on 14 November 1907. She grew up in Näs, near Vimmerby, Småland, Sweden. She was the daughter of Samuel August Ericsson and Hanna Jonsson . Lindgren had two sisters, Stina [sv] and Ingegerd [sv], and a brother, Gunnar Ericsson [sv], who became a member of the Swedish parliament. Upon finishing school, Lindgren took a job with the local newspaper, Vimmerby Tidning, in Vimmerby. She had a relationship with the chief editor and became pregnant, causing a local scandal. She moved to the capital city of Stockholm and learnt the skills of a secretary. There she gave birth to her only son, Lars, who was fostered for four years and then returned to her. He died in 1986. Starting in 1928, Lindgren worked as secretary at Sweden's Royal Automobile Club (Kungliga Automobil Klubben). In 1931, she married her boss, Sture Lindgren (1898–1952). In 1934, Lindgren gave birth to her second child, Karin. Lindgren died in her home in central Stockholm on 28 January 2002 at the age of 94. Her funeral took place in the Storkyrkan in Gamla stan. Among those attending were King Carl XVI Gustaf with Queen Silvia and others of the royal family, and Prime Minister Göran Persson. The ceremony was described in Dagens Nyheter as "the closest you can get to a state funeral." ## Career Lindgren worked as a journalist and secretary before becoming a full-time author. In the early 1940s, she worked as a secretary for criminalist Harry Söderman; the Norsk biografisk leksikon cites this experience as an inspiration for her fictional detective Bill Bergson. In 1944, Lindgren won second prize in a competition held by the book publishing company Rabén & Sjögren, with the novel Britt-Marie lättar sitt hjärta (The Confidences of Britt-Marie). In 1945 she won first prize in the same competition with the chapter book Pippi Långstrump (Pippi Longstocking), which had been rejected by the book publishing company Bonniers. (Rabén & Sjögren published it with illustrations by Ingrid Vang Nyman, the latter's debut in Sweden.) Since then it has become one of the most beloved children's books in the world and has been translated into at least 100 languages. While Lindgren almost immediately became a much appreciated writer, the irreverent attitude towards adult authority that distinguishes many of her characters has occasionally drawn the ire of conservatives. She wrote what became the 1950 book Kati in America as a series of short pieces for the Swedish women's magazine Damernas Värld. In 1956, the inaugural year of the Deutscher Jugendliteraturpreis, the German-language edition of Mio, min Mio (Mio, My Son) won the Children's book award. In 1958, Lindgren received the second Hans Christian Andersen Medal for Rasmus på luffen (Rasmus and the Vagabond), a 1956 novel developed from her screenplay and filmed in 1955. The biennial International Board on Books for Young People, now considered the highest lifetime recognition available to creators of children's books, soon came to be called the Little Nobel Prize. In her career she wrote more than 30 books for children. In 2017, she was calculated to be the world's 18th most translated author. By 2010, she had sold roughly 167 million books worldwide. ## Politics In 1976, a scandal arose in Sweden when it was publicised that Lindgren's marginal tax rate had risen to 102 percent. This was to be known as the "Pomperipossa effect", from a story she published in Expressen on 3 March 1976, titled Pomperipossa in Monismania, attacking the government and its taxation policies. It was a satirical allegory in response to the marginal tax rate Lindgren had incurred in 1976, which required self-employed individuals to pay both regular income tax and employers' deductions. In a stormy tax debate, she attracted criticism from Social Democrats and others. She responded by raising the issue of the lack of women involved in the Social Democrats' campaign. In that year's general election, the Social Democratic government was voted out for the first time in 44 years, and the Lindgren tax debate was one of several controversies that may have contributed to the result. Another controversy involved Ingmar Bergman's farewell letter to Sweden, after charges had been made against him of tax evasion. Lindgren nevertheless remained a Social Democrat for the rest of her life. In 1978, when she received the Peace Prize of the German Book Trade, Lindgren spoke against corporal punishment of children in a speech entitled Never Violence!. After that she teamed up with scientists, journalists and politicians to promote non-violent upbringing. In 1979, a law was introduced in Sweden prohibiting violence against children in response to her demands. Until then there was no such law anywhere in the world. From 1985 to 1989, Lindgren, with the veterinarian Kristina Forslund, wrote articles concerning animal protection and mass production in the Swedish newspapers Expressen and Dagens Nyheter. They wanted to launch an awareness campaign to promote better animal treatment in factory farming. Eventually their activities led to a new law which was called Lex Lindgren and was presented to Lindgren on her 80th birthday. During that time it was the strictest law concerning animal welfare in the world. However, Lindgren and Forslund were unsatisfied with it. Not enough had been done and only minor changes occurred. The articles Forslund and Lindgren wrote were later published in the book Min ko vill ha roligt (My cow wants to have fun). Lindgren was well known both for her support for children's and animal rights and for her opposition to corporal punishment and the EU. In 1994, she received the Right Livelihood Award, "For her commitment to justice, non-violence and understanding of minorities as well as her love and caring for nature." She was a member of the freedom of speech-promoting, anti-imperialist organization Folket i Bild/Kulturfront. ## Honors and memorials In 1967, the publisher Rabén & Sjögren established an annual literary prize, the Astrid Lindgren Prize, to mark her 60th birthday. The prize—40,000 Swedish kronor—is awarded to a Swedish-language children's writer every year on Lindgren's birthday in November. In 1995, she was awarded the Illis quorum gold medal by the Swedish government. On her 90th birthday, she was pronounced International Swede of the Year 1997. In its entry on Scandinavian fantasy, The Encyclopedia of Fantasy named Lindgren the foremost Swedish contributor to modern children's fantasy. Its entry on Lindgren stated that "Her niche in children's fantasy remains both secure and exalted. Her stories and images can never be forgotten." Following Lindgren's death, the government of Sweden instituted the Astrid Lindgren Memorial Award in her memory. The award is the world's largest monetary award for children's and youth literature, in the amount of five million Swedish kronor. The collection of Lindgren's original manuscripts in the Royal Library in Stockholm was placed on UNESCO's Memory of the World Register in 2005. On 6 April 2011, Sweden's central bank Sveriges Riksbank announced that Lindgren's portrait would feature on the 20 kronor banknote, beginning in 2014–2015. The banknote had before that featured the Swedish author Selma Lagerlöf. In 2018, Pernille Fischer Christensen directed the film Becoming Astrid (Swedish: Unga Astrid), a biographical drama about Lindgren's early life. ### Asteroid Lindgren Asteroid 3204 Lindgren, discovered in 1978 by Soviet astronomer Nikolai Chernykh, was named after her. The name of the Swedish microsatellite Astrid 1, launched on 24 January 1995, was originally selected only as a common Swedish female name, but within a short time it was decided to name the payload instruments after characters in Lindgren's books: PIPPI (Prelude in Planetary Particle Imaging), EMIL (Electron Measurements – In-situ and Lightweight), and MIO (Miniature Imaging Optics). ### Astrid's Wellspring In memory of Lindgren, a memorial sculpture was created next to her childhood home, named Källa Astrid ("Astrid's Wellspring" in English). It is situated at the spot where Lindgren first heard fairy tales. The sculpture consists of an artistic representation of a young person's head (1.37 m high), flattened on top, in the corner of a square pond, and, just above the water, a ring of rosehip thorn. Lindgren's childhood home is near the statue and open to the public. Just 100 metres (330 ft) from Astrid's Wellspring is a museum in her memory. The author is buried in Vimmerby, the Astrid Lindgren's World theme park is located. The children's museum Junibacken, in Stockholm, was opened in June 1996 with the main theme of the permanent exhibition being devoted to Lindgren; at the heart of the museum is a theme train ride through the world of Lindgren's novels. ## Works ### Translations By 2012, Lindgren's books had been translated into 95 different languages or variants. The first chapter of Ronja the Robber's Daughter has in addition been translated into Latin. By 1997, some 3,000 editions of her books had been issued internationally. By the time of her death, her books had sold a total of 80 million copies. By 2010 that had risen to around 167 million books worldwide. ### Filmography The adaptation of Lindgren's books for film started with Rolf Husberg's 1947 Bill Bergson, Master Detective. This was followed in 1949 by Per Gunvall's adaptation of Pippi Longstocking, and then by many others. ## See also - List of Swedish language writers
26,605,867	Battle of Chochiwon	1,164,314,014	Part of the Korean War	[ "Battles and operations of the Korean War in 1950", "Battles of the Korean War", "Battles of the Korean War involving North Korea", "Battles of the Korean War involving the United States", "History of Sejong City", "Tank battles involving the United States" ]	The Battle of Chochiwon was an early engagement between United States and North Korean forces during the Korean War, taking place in the villages of Chonui and Chochiwon in western South Korea on July 10–12, 1950. After three days of intense fighting, the battle ended in a North Korean victory. The United States Army's 21st Infantry Regiment, 24th Infantry Division was assigned to delay two advancing North Korean People's Army divisions following communist victories at Osan, Pyongtaek, and Chonan earlier in the month. The regiment deployed along roads and railroads between the two villages, attempting to slow the advance as much as possible. Aided by air strikes, U.S. Army units were able to inflict substantial damage on the North Korean armor and other vehicles but were overwhelmed by North Korean infantry. The two understrength U.S. battalions fought in several engagements over the three days and suffered massive losses in personnel and equipment, but were able to delay the North Korean forces for several days, allowing the remainder of the 24th Infantry Division to set up blocking positions along the Kum River near the city of Taejon. ## Background ### Outbreak of war On the night of June 25, 1950, 10 divisions of the North Korean People's Army launched a full-scale invasion of the nation's neighbor to the south, the Republic of Korea. Advancing with 89,000 men in six columns, the North Koreans caught the South Korean Army by surprise, resulting in a disastrous rout for the South Koreans who were disorganized, ill-equipped, and unprepared for war. Numerically superior, North Korean forces destroyed isolated resistance, pushing steadily down the peninsula against the South Koreans who could muster just 38,000 men to the front line to oppose them. The majority of the South Korean forces retreated in the face of the invasion; by June 28, the North Koreans had captured the capital Seoul and forced the government and its shattered forces to withdraw further southward. Meanwhile, the United Nations Security Council voted to send assistance to the collapsing country, and United States President Harry S. Truman subsequently ordered ground troops into the nation. However, U.S. forces in the Far East had been steadily decreasing since the end of World War II, five years earlier. At the time, the closest force was the 24th Infantry Division of the Eighth United States Army, stationed in Japan under the command of William F. Dean. Tellingly, the division was under strength, and most of its equipment was antiquated due to reductions in military spending. Yet despite these deficiencies, the division was ordered into South Korea, tasked with taking the initial "shock" of the North Korean advances until the rest of the Eighth Army could arrive and establish a defense. ### Early engagements The plan was to airlift one battalion of the 24th Infantry Division into South Korea via C-54 Skymaster transport aircraft and quickly block advancing North Korean forces while the remainder of the division was transported on ships. The 21st Infantry Regiment was identified as the most combat-ready of the 24th Infantry Division's three regiments, and the 21st Infantry's 1st Battalion was selected because its commander, Lieutenant Colonel Charles B. Smith, was the most experienced, having commanded a battalion at the Battle of Guadalcanal during World War II. On July 5, Task Force Smith engaged North Korean forces at the Battle of Osan, delaying over 5,000 North Korean infantry for seven hours before being routed and forced back. During that time, the U.S. 34th Infantry Regiment set up a line between the villages of Pyongtaek and Ansong, 10 miles (16 km) south of Osan, to fight the next delaying action against the advancing North Korean forces. The 34th Infantry Regiment was similarly unprepared for a fight; in the ensuing action, most of the regiment withdrew to Chonan without engaging the enemy. The 1st Battalion, left alone against the North Koreans, resisted their advance in the brief and disastrous Battle of Pyongtaek. The 34th Infantry was unable to stop North Korean armor. After a 30-minute fight, the 34th mounted a disorganized retreat in which many soldiers abandoned equipment and retreated without resisting the North Korean forces. The Pyongtaek—Ansong line was unable to delay the North Korean force significantly or inflict heavy casualties on them. The regiment subsequently retreated to Chonan, where, the next night, the 3rd Battalion was heavily engaged in another delaying action. The 34th Infantry lost its commander, Colonel Robert R. Martin, and two-thirds of its 3rd Battalion's strength. The exhausted 34th Infantry Regiment retreated to the Kum River, near the 24th Infantry Division's headquarters. The 24th Infantry Division would make one final delaying action before it would be forced to make its final stand around Taejon, the only major defensible city left before the Pusan Perimeter being established by the Eighth Army. ## Battle Having pushed back U.S. forces at Osan, Pyongtaek, and Chonan, the North Korean 4th Infantry Division, supported by elements of the 105th Armored Division, continued its advance down the Osan—Chonan road, up to 12,000 men strong under division commander Lee Kwon Mu in two infantry regiments supported by dozens of tanks. Behind it, the North Korean 3rd Infantry Division had yet to engage the American forces. ### Airstrikes By July 7, the 21st Infantry Regiment had been established at Chochiwon, one of two roads to the Kum River and Taejon. The regiment was ordered to keep the road through the region open so supplies and ammunition could flow through it to the 34th Infantry Regiment on the front lines. The Americans spent several days unloading supplies from locomotives in the village. After blowing up all bridges north of the town, 1st Battalion was established on the Chochiwon road at Chonui, 12 miles (19 km) south of Chonan. Supporting it were one battery of 155-mm howitzers from the 11th Field Artillery Battalion and A Company of the 78th Heavy Tank Battalion with M24 Chaffee light tanks, as well as B Company of the 3rd Engineer Combat Battalion which was assigned to construct roadblocks and prepare bridges for demolition. Around mid-afternoon on July 9, observers with the 1st Battalion, 21st Infantry, spotted a column of 200 vehicles led by 11 North Korean T-34 tanks, subsequently calling for an airstrike. For the next few hours, the U.S. Air Force ravaged the North Korean column with repeated bombings and strafing, and by sunset, half of the vehicles were destroyed or burning, and a large portion of the infantry had also been killed. The next day, a similar airstrike by B-26 Invaders, F-80 and F-82 Twin Mustang aircraft of the Fifth Air Force took place around Pyongtaek, with 38 North Korean tanks, seven half-tracks and 117 other trucks destroyed, in addition to a large number of infantry. Much of the village of Chonui was left burning, although South Korean soldiers and civilians had already abandoned it. In addition, the airstrikes caused some of the largest losses of North Korean armor of the war and were a major blow against the T-34 tanks, which had been so successful during previous encounters. ### Fight at Chonui Meanwhile, the 1st Battalion, 21st Infantry, back at Chonui remained understrength. Half of the force had constituted Task Force Smith at Osan. B and C Companies were thus still refitting at Chochiwon, leaving A and D Companies to hold the line with a handful of replacements to fill the extra positions. The battalion numbered around 500 men in total. The 1st Battalion emplaced on hills overlooking the south road of Chonui, northwest of Chochiwon, and prepared to meet and delay the advancing North Korean forces, while the 3rd Battalion emplaced behind it in reserve. Around 0555 on July 10, the Americans began to detect North Korean movement through the morning fog. Fifteen minutes after daybreak, a whistle blew, immediately followed by small arms fire on the American positions. American forces at first fired indiscriminately into the fog until the regimental commander, Richard W. Stephens, stopped them. At 0700, the 1st Battalion then came under heavy mortar fire, and A Company on the leftmost ridge was assailed with fire from higher ground by North Korean forces of the 4th Infantry Division. The American forces began using 4.2-inch mortars on the North Korean positions to prevent them from advancing directly on their positions. Around 0800, the fog began to lift, and the Americans spotted four T-34 tanks in the village and subsequently called for another airstrike. North Korean forces, meanwhile, flanked the American positions under cover of fog. The Koreans passed around the Americans' right flank and attacked the mortar positions in the rear. T-34 tanks also joined in the fight and also passed around the American flanks while obscured by the fog. Around 0900, the North Korean forces in Chonui initiated a frontal assault on the 1st Battalion, 21st Infantry's positions. An observer with the unit called in artillery and pushed back the North Korean infantry inflicting heavy casualties on the assaulting force. By 1100, the North Korean infantry, supported by several T-34s, was pressing on A Company's position, which was undermanned. At 1125, the requested airstrike came in; American aircraft rocketed the T-34s to no effect while strafing the Korean forces attacking A Company. The aircraft were able to push back the attack for several minutes before running out of ammunition and being forced to leave. The North Korean troops immediately resumed their assault. One of A Company's platoons, under the command of Lieutenant Ray Bixler, faced most of the pressure of the North Korean assault. Tank fire had destroyed the American wire communications to their artillery, which began to fall on their own positions, believing that they had been overrun with North Koreans before Stephens could call it off. In the meantime, at 1135, Bixler's platoon was surrounded and destroyed; most of the platoon's men were killed in their foxholes by the North Korean infantry. Following this, men on the right flank began deserting their positions regardless of Stephens' efforts to keep them there. Finally, at 1205, Stephens ordered his men to withdraw. American forces had great difficulty retreating through the wet rice paddies, and a disorganized retreat followed as they attempted to pull back. During the retreat, several U.S. aircraft returned and, mistaking the soldiers of the 1st Battalion, 21st Infantry for North Koreans, began to strafe them. The aircraft inflicted no casualties, but the battalion overall had suffered 20 percent casualties, with 33 killed and 35 wounded during the engagement, as well as 14 killed in the mortar company. ### American counterattack As the 1st Battalion retreated, Stephens ordered the 3rd Battalion to counterattack the North Koreans on the ridge to regain the position. The American attack was aggressive, and the 3rd Battalion regained most of the ground, rescuing 10 Americans captured in the first attack in the process. During the attack, the 3rd Battalion uncovered evidence of North Korean war crimes; six men from the 1st Battalion's heavy mortar company were discovered executed, with their hands tied behind their backs. Several M24 Chaffee light tanks, newly arrived from Pusan, were brought in the 3rd Battalion's assault, the first use of U.S. armor in the war. The M24s disabled a T-34 while suffering two destroyed throughout the day. During this time, the North Korean 4th Division pressed southward, bypassing Chonui to the west. Following it was the North Korean 3rd Infantry Division, one day behind, granting the Americans time to rest and prepare new defenses. The 3rd Battalion held the position until just before 2400 when it withdrew to its previous position with most of the equipment that had been lost by the 1st Battalion earlier in the day. At that position, the men discovered North Korean forces occupying its old foxholes, and K Company engaged in a one-hour firefight to drive them off. Meanwhile, 1st Battalion withdrew south to new blocking positions 2 miles (3.2 km) outside of Chochiwon. At 0630 on July 11, four T-34s advanced on the 3rd Battalion's position, passing through a minefield without suffering any casualties. Following the tanks, about 1,000 North Korean infantry of the North Korean 3rd Infantry Division conducted a double envelopment of the battalion, setting up roadblocks in its rear to prevent resupply and evacuation of wounded. Simultaneously, heavy mortar fire struck the battalion's command post, destroying its communications center and ammunition stocks and inflicting heavy casualties. American forward observers were unable to communicate with the artillery due to the lack of communications equipment. The attack by the North Koreans was well coordinated, and North Korean forces driven from the position in the night had likely been able to gather intelligence about the battalion's position. In the ensuing fight, American forces were overwhelmed again, fighting in desperate hand-to-hand combat. North Korean machine guns continued to assault the American lines, and Americans who had expended their ammunition were forced to use their weapons as clubs. Of 667 men in the 3rd Battalion, over 60 percent became casualties, including the battalion commander, Lieutenant Colonel Carl Jensen, and much of the battalion staff. Shattered, the 3rd Battalion was forced to withdraw in small groups, many of its soldiers already captured or forced to escape on foot through the countryside back to American lines. Most of the retreating men were also captured. Remaining soldiers formed a provisional company of 150 for the retreat. Ninety percent of the battalion's equipment, including weapons and helmets, was lost. Another four of the M24 tanks were also destroyed without disabling any of the North Korean T34s. ### Chochiwon falls Under Smith, the 1st Battalion emplaced on hills overlooking the road into Chochiwon, resting the night of July 11 with no contact from the North Koreans until the next day. Just after dawn on July 12, the American battalion first encountered North Korean patrols. This was followed by an attack on their left flank by a North Korean force estimated as battalion-sized at 0930. Soon afterward, some 2,000 North Koreans began a direct assault on the 1st Battalion's position, supported by heavy artillery. Stephens decided the understrength battalion, with its large percentage of replacements, could not hold its position long and ordered it to withdraw. Smith subsequently moved the battalion from the line one company at a time, and the retreat was orderly. By nightfall, the entire regiment had moved by truck to a blocking position at Taepyong-ni, across the Kum River close to Taejon. In the meantime, U.S. forces on the westerly Kongju road fought a series of minor engagements to delay North Korean forces traveling down that road before retreating across the Kum River. ## Aftermath The U.S. 21st Infantry Regiment suffered 228 killed, 61 wounded, 215 captured, and 27 missing in the battle; a total of 531 casualties. Of those, 130 of the captured and 20 of the missing died. Additionally, 23 other American units engaged in the region suffered 31 killed, 79 wounded, 15 captured, and 9 missing; in total, a further 134 casualties. This brought the total number of casualties for the three days to 665 and made Chochiwon the bloodiest battle for American forces yet in the conflict, greater than the casualty counts at Osan, Pyongtaek, and Chonan combined. The loss of materiel was also great, with the 21st Infantry Regiment losing enough equipment and materiel to outfit two rifle battalions and enough clothing to equip 975 men. Against these losses, North Korean casualties could not be estimated due to a lack of communication among fighting units, which limited the value of American signals intelligence. Despite these losses, the U.S. 21st Infantry Regiment was praised for its efforts to defend Chochiwon and Chonui. Roy Appleman, a historian for the U.S. Army, called it "the most impressive performance yet of American troops in Korea." Indeed, the regiment delayed North Korean forces for three days in the fighting, despite suffering heavily in casualties and equipment losses, and in doing so, the action bought enough time for the rest of the 24th Infantry Division to set up defenses around Taejon. The 21st Infantry Regiment subsequently joined the 34th Infantry Regiment and the 19th Infantry Regiment in setting up positions along the Kum River near Taejon. The 24th Infantry Division would again be overrun and forced to retreat during the Battle of Taejon there over the next week. However, the delaying actions of the division would give the U.S. forces in Pusan time to set up the Pusan Perimeter, where the North Korean and UN forces would fight for several months in the Battle of Pusan Perimeter, eventually defeating the North Korean Army.
54,079,706	Aberdeen F.C.–Rangers F.C. rivalry	1,167,935,307	Football rivalry	[ "1905 establishments in Scotland", "Aberdeen F.C.", "Football derbies in Scotland", "Rangers F.C.", "Recurring sporting events established in 1905" ]	The Aberdeen–Rangers rivalry refers to football matches and related activity involving the Scottish football clubs Aberdeen F.C. and Rangers F.C. Unlike Rangers' Old Firm rivalry with Glasgow neighbours Celtic dating back to the 1900s, the feud with Aberdeen is a comparatively modern phenomenon which developed from the 1970s on a competitive sporting basis but escalated into hostility on the pitch and in the stands, with the animosity continuing into the 21st century. The rivalry was at its peak during the 1980s and early 1990s when Aberdeen became a force in Scottish football. The two clubs battled for the national championship and met in several cup finals, with various incidents occurring on and off the field. The intensity diminished from the late 1990s as the fortunes of the clubs diverged, with Rangers dominant and Aberdeen unable to match them, as had been the case for much of their history, although the behaviour of players and supporters on occasion showed there remained some animosity between the clubs. In mid-2012, Rangers ceased to be a member of the top division of Scottish football due to serious financial issues, and in their absence Aberdeen emerged as the main challengers to Celtic. When Rangers returned in 2016, they and Aberdeen were again on a more equal footing with the matches between them being of great significance to their league fate; the clubs' fortunes gradually diverged until the 2020–21 Scottish Premiership season, when Rangers won the title for the first time in a decade with an unbeaten campaign including four wins over Aberdeen, who accumulated barely half as many points and finished fourth. ## Background Since the introduction of nationwide football in Scotland, the relationship between Rangers and Aberdeen had been unremarkable. In addition to being based in cities of different size and character 150 miles apart on opposite sides of Scotland, their stature did not bear comparison; Rangers, backed by a huge fan base, were dominant in the domestic game along with their rivals Celtic almost from the inception of the Scottish Football League in the 1890s, with the rivalry between the Glasgow clubs, which became known as the Old Firm fuelled by elements involving religion, national identity and ethnic background, while Aberdeen (who joined the league in 1905) were only one of several smaller clubs across the country who occasionally enjoyed good league runs or reached cup finals. The Reds had secured just one national title by 1975 compared to 36 for Rangers, with two Scottish Cup wins to Rangers' 20 and one League Cup to Rangers' seven. The clubs had met twice in finals: the 1947 League Cup Final which was won 4–0 by Rangers, and the 1953 Scottish Cup Final which Rangers won after a replay in front of a crowd of 113,700. They had also contested the final of the wartime 1946 Southern League Cup, won by Aberdeen, which although taking place after the conflict ended, remained unofficial. The match was watched by a crowd of 135,000 at Hampden Park. The established situation changed somewhat in the late 1970s when Aberdeen began to offer a major challenge to the Old Firm under managers Ally MacLeod, Billy McNeill and then most significantly Alex Ferguson. At the same time, the introduction of the new Premier Division format – a smaller number of clubs playing one another four times – provided double the number of direct confrontations as before. ### 1970s battles An early indication of Aberdeen's improvement was their victory in the 1976–77 Scottish League Cup under Ally MacLeod (who was soon to become Scotland coach) after earlier beating Rangers 5–1 in the semi-final. They had also won a Scottish Cup tie at Ibrox for the first time ever in March 1975, but went no further in that competition, whereas Rangers recovered to finish as league champions in the league title in the last season of the old format, signalling an end to Celtic's decade of dominance, and in 1975–76 lifted all the domestic trophies in a treble, the third in their history. In 1977–78, new manager Billy McNeill led Aberdeen to runners–up spot (two points behind Rangers) in the Premier Division, and to the final of the Scottish Cup where they lost 2–1 to Rangers, contributing to another treble for the Light Blues. This strong performance under McNeill contributed to the former Celtic captain being recruited by his old club during summer 1978, leaving Aberdeen searching for a new manager once again. McNeill's replacement, Alex Ferguson, was a boyhood Rangers fan from Govan who had played for the club for two years in the 1960s before being shown the door abruptly after a poor performance in the 1969 Scottish Cup Final. Like McNeill, Ferguson came with a growing reputation; however, he had also been fired from his previous role at St Mirren for misconduct. At the same point, Rangers manager Jock Wallace, who had been at the helm for six years and led his side to both of those treble wins, resigned unexpectedly after serious disputes with the previous boss Willie Waddell who had become the club's general manager. Rangers turned to their retiring team captain, John Greig, to take the reins in his first managerial role. ### Aberdeen's rise The clubs met in the 1978–79 Scottish League Cup Final which Rangers won, scoring the winner in the last minute after Aberdeen had earlier been controversially reduced to 10 men; Doug Rougvie was sent off after a clash with Derek Johnstone – Alex Ferguson backed Rougvie's version of events that Johnstone had used simulation to have him dismissed. Ferguson felt a sense of injustice at the outcome in what was his first major final as a manager, and from that point on he instilled a siege mentality in his players, many of whom were from the Glasgow area including defensive stalwarts Willie Miller and Alex McLeish. He stated publicly that Aberdeen were unfairly treated compared to the big Glasgow clubs while also deflecting attention and pressure onto opponents (a trick learned during his time as a Rangers player from Celtic manager Jock Stein) and onto himself prior to big matches. Ferguson was particularly determined to conquer his old club. Aberdeen eliminated Rangers from the next edition of the League Cup (although they lost the final to another emerging power, Dundee United) and went on to become champions of the 1979–80 Scottish Premier Division after Ferguson took the decision to drop the club's top scorer Joe Harper from the team. Rangers gained some revenge in the semi-final of the same season's Scottish Cup, but when the teams next faced off in the League Cup it was Aberdeen who prevailed; Rangers would win that trophy the following year, in addition to the 1980–81 Scottish Cup, overcoming Dundee United in both finals. Ferguson's Aberdeen were then beginning an unprecedented spell of success, with two further league titles and three consecutive Scottish Cups among the trophies won, including victories over Rangers in the finals of 1982 (4–1) – a week after a 4–0 victory in their final league meeting, a futile effort to snatch the title from Celtic on goal difference – and 1983 (1–0). In a post-match television interview following the latter fixture, played just ten days after Aberdeen had defeated Real Madrid to win the European Cup Winners' Cup, Ferguson publicly lambasted his players for their level of performance and continued in the same manner back in the dressing room, such were the high standards he demanded against Rangers – he later apologised. He also admitted that his main reason for wanting his team to beat Rangers more comprehensively was his sense of vengeance for the treatment he received at Ibrox over his marriage to his Catholic wife, Cathy, regarding the final as a chance to "put the knife in them.". By contrast, Rangers were struggling financially and endured one of the worst runs in their history under managers John Greig and the returning Jock Wallace (having tried unsuccessfully to tempt Ferguson back to Ibrox). They failed to win the league from 1978 until 1987, finished below Aberdeen for seven successive seasons, and collected only four domestic cups from sixteen available in the period. One achievement of Wallace's second spell was utilising the talents of Ally McCoist more effectively than Greig had done, and the striker would go on to become the club's all-time top goalscorer (including 14 in matches against Aberdeen). At that time the previously quiet city of Aberdeen was also experiencing an economic boom relating to North Sea oil whereas most of the traditional industries in the city of Glasgow were in terminal decline, so they were no longer the poor relation in the distant north. Additionally, the rise of hooliganism in that era involved clashes between Rangers' Inter City Firm and Aberdeen's Soccer Casuals with both mobs ready to travel across the country in their hundreds, intent on causing trouble in the other's territory. On-field events increased the tensions, such as Willie Johnston's stamp on John McMaster's neck in 1980 requiring mouth-to-mouth resuscitation, a particularly violent match at Ibrox in 1985 which also involved fans invading the pitch, and various other clashes featuring multiple red cards. All these factors contributed to a fiery atmosphere among players and fans whenever the clubs met. ### Rangers revival A turning point was in 1986–87, when Alex Ferguson left Aberdeen to join Manchester United and Graeme Souness became Rangers manager with new financial backing from David Holmes and then David Murray. The Glasgow club began entice several top English players to move north due to Souness's connections and with the incentives of big wages and the prospect of European football (English clubs were banned following the Heysel Stadium disaster in 1985). Rangers finally regained the league championship – clinching the 1986–87 title with a draw at Pittodrie, followed by a pitch invasion by their celebrating fans – while Aberdeen failed to win a cup or finish in the top two places for the first time in eight years. This was the start of a sustained period of great success for Rangers, though Aberdeen would remain a significant opponent during the next decade. Relations between the clubs reached a new low in 1988 following Neil Simpson's brutal challenge on Ian Durrant (at the time regarded as one of Scotland's biggest emerging talents) which almost ended his career, caused him to miss almost three years of football and forced him to adjust his playing style to compensate for his damaged knee ligaments. That incident took place during a league match a few weeks before the second of three hard-fought Scottish League Cup finals between them. Some Aberdeen fans took to singing distasteful songs about Durrant's injury (as well as the 1971 Ibrox disaster) which in turn led to insulting comments from Rangers players in books and in the club's match programme, promoting an official apology. Aberdeen supporters also grew irritated with the increasing gulf in wealth between the clubs, with Rangers able to acquire their players (Davie Dodds and Robertson and later Wright and Snelders) seemingly at will. Away from football, the city of Glasgow also experienced an economic recovery while Aberdeen suffered the effects of an oil recession. ### Blue dominance With Celtic in a period of turmoil and unable to compete with their old enemy, Aberdeen tried in vain to match Rangers as they became ever more dominant. In five out of six title-winning seasons for Graeme Souness and Walter Smith's sides between 1989 and 1994, Aberdeen finished runners-up, with the closest finish occurring in 1990–91 when Mark Hateley scored twice in a winner-takes-all clash at Ibrox Stadium on the final day to win the title by two points – as well as a missed opportunity for Aberdeen at the time, in retrospect it was something of a pivotal event for Scottish football as the Gers became increasingly dominant in the following years, while no teams outwith Rangers and Celtic have come as close to winning the title since. Aberdeen, managed at that time by Alex Smith, were victorious on their next visit to Glasgow in September 1991 but would not win at Ibrox again for 26 years. Rangers eliminated Aberdeen from the early stage of knockout competitions twice in quick succession (1990–91 Scottish League Cup, 1991–92 Scottish Cup) on their way to winning them, and both the 1992 Scottish League Cup Final and the 1993 Scottish Cup Final finished Rangers 2, Aberdeen 1. Aberdeen supporters' frustration at the situation occasionally manifested as acts of violence, with Ally McCoist having a golf ball impregnated with nails thrown at him during a fixture at Pittodrie in 1993, and Mark Hateley being assaulted as he left Aberdeen's stadium following a match the following year. For their part, Rangers fans attacked a car containing Willie Miller's family as it was driven up to the stadium for the 1993 Scottish Cup Final, having observed the Aberdeen badge on its windscreen. The only interruption to the Glasgow club's dominance, and the final season of any real competitive significance to the rivalry in that era, was in 1995–96 when Aberdeen won the League Cup after eliminating Rangers in the semi-final (it would be their last trophy for 19 years); however that same season Rangers clinched the League for the eighth year running with a home win over third-placed Aberdeen, with Paul Gascoigne scoring a hat-trick. In the late 1990s Celtic re-emerged as Rangers' principal sporting rival while Aberdeen collapsed as a force, finishing near the foot of the table far more often than towards the top. Outwith the matches themselves, an Aberdeen supporter disgraced himself in April 1999 when he ran from the away fans' section at Ibrox to assault comedian Andy Cameron who was performing a routine on the pitch prior to kick-off – he was banned by the club and fined at court. The most recent showpiece event between the clubs was the 2000 Scottish Cup Final which Rangers won 4–0, but that effectively ceased to be a contest in the opening minutes when Aberdeen (bottom of the league so expected to lose to champions Rangers in any event) had to deploy striker Robbie Winters in goal when Jim Leighton was injured with no substitute keeper on the bench. One of the goalscorers was former Dons striker Billy Dodds who had been a makeweight in the transfer of Winters but rediscovered his form at Dundee United and was quickly signed by Rangers. ### 21st century Crowd disorder and player indiscipline kept the hostile spirit of the rivalry alive in the early 21st century, with various instances of minute silences being disrupted, red cards being shown to players, missiles being thrown inside the stadia (including seats) and the continued presence of the respective 'casual' hooligan firms. Two specific incidents of note were Fernando Ricksen's ban on video evidence after a kung-fu kick on Darren Young was missed by the referee during a 2000–01 fixture, and riot police being deployed at Pittodrie in January 2002 with home fans having run onto the pitch to confront away supporters who had thrown coins at Winters. Former Dons hero Alex McLeish had just become Rangers boss, and was initially applauded onto the field by Aberdeen followers before events took an unpleasant turn. In the aftermath of that disturbance, which took place during a live television broadcast across the UK, the authorities decided that matches between the clubs would no longer take place on weekend evenings to minimise the chance of spectators engaging in disorder having spent the whole day drinking alcohol; a similar decision had been made on Old Firm games a few years prior. Later events included Aberdeen securing third place for the first time in a decade on the last day at Pittodrie in 2006–07, Nacho Novo being sent off as Rangers lost the league crown on the last day at the same venue the following season, Kyle Lafferty feigning injury to get Charlie Mulgrew dismissed in 2009, and an outbreak of organised hooligan violence by an Aberdeen faction at Ibrox subway station in 2012. In 2012 Rangers' holding-company were liquidated and the new company that bought the team, the business and assets from the administrators did not achieve the transfer of Rangers' league place – Aberdeen plus all other SPL clubs except Kilmarnock voted against it. Rangers were accepted into the fourth tier of the Scottish football league system which meant that no matches were played between the rivals for four years. In the interim Aberdeen won the 2013–14 Scottish League Cup. ### Rangers return Rangers returned to the Scottish Premiership for the 2016–17 season. In the build-up to their first meeting of the season at Pittodrie, Rangers' manager Mark Warburton described Aberdeen fans' hatred towards his club as "Quite sad". On the day of the match, the Rangers team bus was found to have been vandalised, with offensive references to the Ibrox Disaster and Ian Durrant. Banners were also observed in the city claiming that Rangers followers "Let your club die", referencing their commercial liquidation four years earlier. In the aftermath of their second meeting in Aberdeen during April 2017, several arrests were made. Before their final match of that season, Warburton's successor Pedro Caixinha chose to comment on his opponents, suggesting that they may need to rebuild after finishing as runners-up for three successive seasons; the Aberdeen manager Derek McInnes, a former Gers player, responded that Rangers should be embarrassed to rank below his team due to the disparity in their financial resources. Aberdeen won that match to finally break a 43-game winless streak at Ibrox, and finished ahead of Rangers for the first time since 1986 (excepting Rangers' years in lower divisions). They also reached the season's two cup finals, losing both to Celtic (who had beaten Rangers in the semi-final of each). The two clubs were closely matched during the 2017–18 season, battling for second place for much of the campaign after failing to keep pace with eventual champions Celtic. Neither could build a lasting lead over the other, with Rangers' general inconsistency negating their nine-point superiority from the meetings with Aberdeen. The matter was not settled until the final matchday of the season, when Rangers quickly fell 3–0 behind away to Hibernian (for whom a six-goal victory would snatch third position from the opponents) then scored five without reply, only to be pegged back in the final minutes for a dramatic 5–5 finish. However that outcome mattered little after Aberdeen won 1–0 at Celtic Park (the first Scottish team to win there since 2015, having lost all of their previous 25 league visits), meaning Rangers could not catch the Dons regardless of their own result. By then, the Gers had already arranged for Steven Gerrard to become their next manager. Rangers and Aberdeen were drawn to meet in the semi-final of the 2018–19 Scottish League Cup on 28 October 2018 at Hampden Park, their first meeting outwith the league in 14 years and the first at a neutral venue since 2000. The build-up was dominated by administrative disputes surrounding the scheduling and venue (that fixture and the other semi-final between Celtic and Heart of Midlothian were initially both planned for the same stadium on the same day) and then ratios of tickets available to each club. Aberdeen won the match 1–0 to progress to the final, with the only goal scored by midfielder Lewis Ferguson whose father Derek and uncle Barry were both former Rangers players in the same position. Aberdeen won by the same scoreline in the next league meeting at Ibrox to end a brief spell for Rangers at the top of the table, with both teams having a player sent off. Rangers won 4–2 at Pittodrie in February 2019, Gerrard's first win over McInnes at the fourth attempt; Alfredo Morelos scored twice but was then shown a red card (as he had been in the two previous league clashes that season) along with Scott McKenna, scorer of Aberdeen's winner in Glasgow. In early March, with the clubs having not played in a cup for so long, they were drawn together in a second such meeting in the same season, in the quarter-final of the 2018–19 Scottish Cup at Pittodrie. That match finished 1–1, requiring a replay and the winners knowing they would face Celtic; Aberdeen progressed with a 2–0 victory at Ibrox, their first Scottish Cup win at that venue since 1975. With another league meeting to come, this meant there would be seven fixtures between them in 2018–19 – only the third season ever to feature so many matches, and the first instance since 1979–80. That seventh meeting at the end of April 2019 was won 2–0 by Rangers to confirm runners-up spot in the Premiership, and with Celtic having won the Scottish Cup semi-final convincingly and secured the title by a large margin, both Rangers and Aberdeen were left without a major trophy for another year, but with the Glasgow club finishing higher for the first time since 2012. The indications that Rangers had once again become significantly more powerful than Aberdeen were reinforced when they won 5–0 in their first meeting of the 2019–20 season at Ibrox, the widest winning margin in 15 years. Rangers also took a two-goal lead in the next match at Pittodrie, but this time Aberdeen fought back for a 2–2 draw, a result that, along with the following fixture at Ibrox three months later which ended goalless, negatively impacted the Glasgow club's title challenge in which few points were being dropped by either Rangers or eventual champions Celtic. The following season Rangers made no such mistakes, beating Aberdeen three times as part of a 32-match unbeaten run which saw them confirmed as title winners in early March 2021, a first major trophy in a decade; at that point Aberdeen had 39 fewer points and were in a battle to finish third. While Gerrard had proven his coaching abilities, McInnes was dismissed a day later, a decision not directly relating to Rangers' win but a gradual decline from the standards his team had set a few years earlier. Rangers went on to complete an unbeaten league season (dropping only 12 points across the 38 fixtures), confirmed with a 4–0 win over Aberdeen on the final day; the Dons finished fourth. The 2022–23 Scottish League Cup semi-final between the clubs was a close affair, Rangers coming from behind to win 2–1 after extra time at Hampden (their equaliser coming from Ryan Jack and the winner set up by Scott Wright, both former Aberdeen men). Towards the end of the league campaign, Aberdeen won 2–0 at Pittodrie, a result which helped them to secure 3rd place in the Premiership while denting Rangers' faint hopes of catching Celtic for the title. 18 arrests were later made in relation to disorder surrounding the match, and Rangers issued a statement condeming the abusive chanting by some home supporters. The last meeting of the season was a 1–0 win at Ibrox for Rangers, who finished runners-up seven points behind their local rivals but 35 ahead of Aberdeen. ## Supporter attitudes The majority of Aberdeen supporters consider Rangers to be their main rival (some sing proudly "We hate Rangers more than you [do]" towards Celtic counterparts), with no other professional clubs nearby and the closest opponents Dundee United and Inverness CT usually focusing on their own local grudges (Dundee derby and Highland derby respectively). Aberdeen's 'New Firm' battles with Dundee United became a redundant concept when both clubs faded almost entirely from prominence in Scottish football after the early 1990s. Rangers managers Walter Smith and Steven Gerrard, and captain Richard Gough, have been among those who have expressed a belief that the Aberdeen players raise their performance in the Rangers fixtures while making insufficient effort in other matches. Aberdeen were beaten heavily by Celtic on several occasions between 1999 and 2010 (including a 9–0, two 7–0s and two 6–0s) but avoided any truly embarrassing results against Rangers with most scorelines fairly close, even in seasons where Rangers had a much stronger team – albeit 5–0 wins were recorded in 2000, 2004 and 2019. Conversely, an observation has been made that in their own weaker spells, Rangers players seem to find extra reserves to ensure they get a good result against Aberdeen. Rangers fans' main focus of enmity has always been Celtic, and they often seek to downplay the significance of the Aberdeen games by dismissing them as an irrelevant opponent, but many supporters maintain a distrust of the Dons due to the incidents of the past and are only too willing to reciprocate any animosity shown towards them. Although Aberdeen's years of weak performances led to less significance being placed on their meetings in terms of league position (with a match report on the Rangers website in 2002 describing the beaten Aberdeen team as "A pathetic shadow of the side they used to be"), the fixture remains one of the highlights of the Scottish football calendar. The struggle for Rangers to regain their dominant position in the Scottish game following their financial collapse, with Aberdeen having become the most credible challenger to Celtic in their absence (finishing second for the two prior seasons), added a renewed competitive edge to the encounters upon the return of the Glasgow club to the top division. Following the July 2017 UK Supreme Court ruling that Rangers' use of £47 million-worth of EBT payments to employees over nine years were undeclared taxable earnings, Aberdeen supporters made clear their desire for the Glasgow club to be punished with the removal of honours won during the period although it would have no direct benefit to their club. After the Scottish Football Association and the Scottish Professional Football League declared that no new review of the circumstances would be forthcoming, the chairman Stewart Milne expressed his desire for the matter to be put to rest. The animosity between the supporters, particularly by Aberdeen's towards Rangers, was still evident in 2023: a fixture at Pittodrie with little direct importance (more than 20 points separated the teams in the league table) was marked by offensive chanting, missiles being thrown at opposing fans and windows of coaches being smashed; 18 arrests were made in the subsequent investigation. ## Personnel with both clubs A number of players have played for both clubs during the acknowledged years of their rivalry, although direct transfers are fairly rare. An unusual deal between the clubs was the exchange/loan move of Ricky Foster and Andrius Velicka in 2010 – striker Velicka hardly featured for the Dons and was released, but full-back Foster (who had been almost ever-present in his previous four seasons at Aberdeen) played regularly for the Gers, including in the Champions League, and won a SPL winner's medal. On returning to Pittodrie he was made captain, which was not well received by some fans. In 2011, based on his own experiences two decades earlier, David Robertson advised Sone Aluko to expect a hostile reaction from fans when he signed for Rangers a short time after leaving Aberdeen. As it transpired, Aluko played in just one fixture between the clubs (at Ibrox) which passed without major incident for the player before he returned to England after the financial collapse of Rangers. In summer 2017, Aberdeen captain Ryan Jack allowed his contract to expire and left on a free transfer, signing for Rangers a few days later; he was immediately targeted for abuse online by supporters of his former club. In November of the same year, before he had played for Rangers at Pittodrie, Jack was selected to make his full Scotland debut in a friendly which happened to take place in Aberdeen. In the opening stages of the match he was jeered and booed whenever he touched the ball by some of the crowd; other fans responded to this by cheering and applauding him. When Rangers did visit Aberdeen, Jack was sent off for a bad tackle, although his team won the match. ### Derek McInnes Former Rangers midfielder Derek McInnes became manager of Aberdeen in 2013. His connection with his previous club led him being linked to a move to Ibrox whenever a change in leadership would occur, but the Pittodrie chairman Stewart Milne expressed his reluctance to allow any approach. McInnes, who stated on several occasions that he was happy at Aberdeen, was also offered advice from Alex Ferguson on dealing with cup finals. In early December 2017, the two clubs played in the league twice in four days, with Rangers (led by caretaker manager Graeme Murty) winning home and away to close a six-point deficit and overtake Aberdeen in the standings. The matches took place amidst constant media attention as to whether McInnes was about to become the Rangers boss. McInnes did not make excuses that the ongoing speculation impacted Aberdeen's preparation for those important fixtures, or that it was behind their general form (which had suffered a downturn after Rangers dismissed Pedro Caixinha), but he did express his irritation that the matter had dragged on for so long. On 5 December, Rangers did make a formal approach to speak with McInnes, but this was refused by Milne, and after internal discussions it was announced that he would remain with Aberdeen. McInnes was dismissed by Aberdeen on 8 March 2021, a day after Rangers were confirmed as Scottish champions for the first time in a decade under manager Steven Gerrard, appointed six months after the Glasgow club approached McInnes. ### List of personnel List applies since the advent of the Scottish Premier Division in 1975. Prior to this, Dave Smith, Alex Willoughby and Jim Forrest were among the prominent players with both clubs. ## Head to head record Clear distinctions can be made between the decades of the rivalry: the 1970s/1980s when Aberdeen were the stronger team; the 1980s/1990s when Rangers became dominant but Aberdeen offered a challenge; the 1990s/2000s when Rangers were almost unbeatable; the 2000s/2010s (up to 2012) when that trend continued but fewer games were played, and the period from 2016 when matches resumed after a four-year hiatus. There are three reasons for the reduction in matches: league reconstruction; Rangers' years in the lower leagues after being liquidated; and the two clubs never being paired in a cup tie between 2004 and 2018. There were eight occasions when a potential cup final between the sides narrowly failed to materialise despite both reaching the semi-finals, with the draw always keeping them apart and either one or both falling at that stage. That sequence ended in 2018–19, when they were drawn together in both cups. Since inception of Scottish Premier Division in 1975 ## Trophy table The comparative totals of trophies won by the two clubs (and runners-up) in each decade of the rivalry are shown below. Since inception of Scottish Premier Division in 1975 ## Notable fixtures All cup ties between the clubs since 1975 are listed below, in addition to some league fixtures which had some significant bearing on the clubs' end of season placing, or on the rivalry itself (Durrant/Simpson match in 1988, riot police match in 2002, Lafferty/Mulgrew match in 2009). General sources:
7,174,753	Nevada State Route 564	1,160,792,137	Highway in Nevada	[ "State highways in Nevada", "Streets in Henderson, Nevada" ]	State Route 564 (SR 564) is an east–west highway in Clark County, Nevada, in the southeast portion of the Las Vegas Valley. The route travels through the city of Henderson, traveling from the junction of Interstate 215 (I-215) and I-11 south and I-515 north, also part of U.S. Route 93 (US 93) and US 95, to Lake Las Vegas, ending near Lake Mead. The route was designated in 2002, replacing a portion of SR 146. ## Route description State Route 564 begins as a continuation of the Las Vegas Beltway, starting where I-215 ends at its junction with I-11 and I-515, which are concurrent with US 93 and US 95. From there, the route travels east along Lake Mead Parkway, a major arterial roadway, towards downtown Henderson and intersects the Boulder Highway (SR 582). SR 564 continues northeast through Henderson's residential neighborhoods and turns east just west of Lake Mead National Recreation Area. SR 564 enters the park, at a point southeast of Lake Las Vegas, and terminates at the end of state maintenance, while the road continues east. Around 52,500 vehicles travel on the highway near its western terminus on average each day. ## History In the late 1970s, the highways in the state highway system were renumbered. SR 41 was split into two state routes. SR 146 started from I-15 to US 93/US 95 in Henderson. SR 147 started from US 93/US 95 to North Las Vegas. A limited access highway alignment from US 93/US 95 started construction in 1985–1986. An interchange was built for SR 146 in 1989–1990, and the highway was completed by 1995–1996. The designation I-515 was added to the highway. In the same period, SR 147's designation was removed from eastern section of Lake Mead Drive, and replaced by SR 146. As the Las Vegas Beltway (I-215) was being constructed in the late 1990s, the last five miles (8.0 km) between Lake Mead Drive (now Saint Rose Parkway) and Interstate 515 were constructed on the SR 146 alignment. This left SR 146 in two separate segments. The eastern segment of SR 146 was reassigned to SR 564 by 2002. I-215 from SR 146 to SR 564's western terminus was completed in October 2005. ## Major intersections ## See also
12,958	Giuseppe Verdi	1,170,550,513	Italian opera composer (1813–1901)	[ "1813 births", "1901 deaths", "19th-century Italian male musicians", "19th-century classical composers", "Classical composers of church music", "Deputies of Legislature VIII of the Kingdom of Italy", "Giuseppe Verdi", "Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour", "Grand Officers of the Legion of Honour", "Italian Romantic composers", "Italian classical composers", "Italian male classical composers", "Italian opera composers", "Italian philanthropists", "Italian unification", "Knights of the Legion of Honour", "Male opera composers", "Members of the Senate of the Kingdom of Italy", "People from Busseto", "Recipients of the Order of Saint Stanislaus (Russian), 1st class", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)" ]	Giuseppe Fortunino Francesco Verdi (; 9 or 10 October 1813 – 27 January 1901) was an Italian composer best known for his operas. He was born near Busseto to a provincial family of moderate means, receiving a musical education with the help of a local patron. Verdi came to dominate the Italian opera scene after the era of Gioachino Rossini, Vincenzo Bellini, and Gaetano Donizetti, whose works significantly influenced him. In his early operas, Verdi demonstrated a sympathy with the Risorgimento movement which sought the unification of Italy. He also participated briefly as an elected politician. The chorus "Va, pensiero" from his early opera Nabucco (1842), and similar choruses in later operas, were much in the spirit of the unification movement, and the composer himself became esteemed as a representative of these ideals. An intensely private person, Verdi did not seek to ingratiate himself with popular movements. As he became professionally successful, he was able to reduce his operatic workload and sought to establish himself as a landowner in his native region. He surprised the musical world by returning, after his success with the opera Aida (1871), with three late masterpieces: his Requiem (1874), and the operas Otello (1887) and Falstaff (1893). His operas remain extremely popular, especially the three peaks of his 'middle period': Rigoletto, Il trovatore and La traviata. The bicentenary of his birth in 2013 was widely celebrated in broadcasts and performances. ## Life ### Childhood and education Verdi, the first child of Carlo Giuseppe Verdi (1785–1867) and Luigia Uttini (1787–1851), was born at their home in Le Roncole, a village near Busseto, then in the Département Taro and within the borders of the First French Empire following the annexation of the Duchy of Parma and Piacenza in 1808. The baptismal register, prepared on 11 October 1813, lists his parents Carlo and Luigia as "innkeeper" and "spinner" respectively. Additionally, it lists Verdi as being "born yesterday", but since days were often considered to begin at sunset, this could have meant either 9 or 10 October. Following his mother, Verdi always celebrated his birthday on 9 October, the day he himself believed he was born. Verdi had a younger sister, Giuseppa, who died aged 17 in 1833. She is said to have been his closest friend during childhood. From the age of four, Verdi was given private lessons in Latin and Italian by the village schoolmaster, Baistrocchi, and at six he attended the local school. After learning to play the organ, he showed so much interest in music that his parents finally provided him with a spinet. Verdi's gift for music was already apparent by 1820–21 when he began his association with the local church, serving in the choir, acting as an altar boy for a while, and taking organ lessons. After Baistrocchi's death, Verdi, at the age of eight, became the official paid organist. The music historian Roger Parker points out that both of Verdi's parents "belonged to families of small landowners and traders, certainly not the illiterate peasants from which Verdi later liked to present himself as having emerged... Carlo Verdi was energetic in furthering his son's education...something which Verdi tended to hide in later life... [T]he picture emerges of youthful precocity eagerly nurtured by an ambitious father and of a sustained, sophisticated and elaborate formal education." In 1823, when he was 10, Verdi's parents arranged for the boy to attend school in Busseto, enrolling him in a Ginnasio—an upper school for boys—run by Don Pietro Seletti, while they continued to run their inn at Le Roncole. Verdi returned to Busseto regularly to play the organ on Sundays, covering the distance of several kilometres on foot. At age 11, Verdi received schooling in Italian, Latin, the humanities, and rhetoric. By the time he was 12, he began lessons with Ferdinando Provesi, maestro di cappella at San Bartolomeo, director of the municipal music school and co-director of the local Società Filarmonica (Philharmonic Society). Verdi later stated: "From the ages of 13 to 18 I wrote a motley assortment of pieces: marches for band by the hundred, perhaps as many little sinfonie that were used in church, in the theatre and at concerts, five or six concertos and sets of variations for pianoforte, which I played myself at concerts, many serenades, cantatas (arias, duets, very many trios) and various pieces of church music, of which I remember only a Stabat Mater." This information comes from the Autobiographical Sketch which Verdi dictated to the publisher Giulio Ricordi late in life, in 1879, and remains the leading source for his early life and career. Written, understandably, with the benefit of hindsight, it is not always reliable when dealing with issues more contentious than those of his childhood. The other director of the Philharmonic Society was , a wholesale grocer and distiller, who was described by a contemporary as a "manic dilettante" of music. The young Verdi did not immediately become involved with the Philharmonic. By June 1827, he had graduated with honours from the Ginnasio and was able to focus solely on music under Provesi. By chance, when he was 13, Verdi was asked to step in as a replacement to play in what became his first public event in his home town; he was an immediate success mostly playing his own music to the surprise of many and receiving strong local recognition. By 1829–30, Verdi had established himself as a leader of the Philharmonic: "none of us could rival him" reported the secretary of the organisation, Giuseppe Demaldè. An eight-movement cantata, I deliri di Saul, based on a drama by Vittorio Alfieri, was written by Verdi when he was 15 and performed in Bergamo. It was acclaimed by both Demaldè and Barezzi, who commented: "He shows a vivid imagination, a philosophical outlook, and sound judgment in the arrangement of instrumental parts." In late 1829, Verdi had completed his studies with Provesi, who declared that he had no more to teach him. At the time, Verdi had been giving singing and piano lessons to Barezzi's daughter Margherita; by 1831, they were unofficially engaged. Verdi set his sights on Milan, then the cultural capital of northern Italy, where he applied unsuccessfully to study at the Conservatory. Barezzi made arrangements for him to become a private pupil of , who had been maestro concertatore at La Scala, and who described Verdi's compositions as "very promising". Lavigna encouraged Verdi to take out a subscription to La Scala, where he heard Maria Malibran in operas by Gioachino Rossini and Vincenzo Bellini. Verdi began making connections in the Milanese world of music that were to stand him in good stead. These included an introduction by Lavigna to an amateur choral group, the Società Filarmonica, led by Pietro Massini. Attending the Società frequently in 1834, Verdi soon found himself functioning as rehearsal director (for Rossini's La cenerentola) and continuo player. It was Massini who encouraged him to write his first opera, originally titled Rocester, to a libretto by the journalist Antonio Piazza. ### 1834–1842: First operas `List of compositions by Giuseppe Verdi` In mid-1834, Verdi sought to acquire Provesi's former post in Busseto but without success. But with Barezzi's help he did obtain the secular post of maestro di musica. He taught, gave lessons, and conducted the Philharmonic for several months before returning to Milan in early 1835. By the following July, he obtained his certification from Lavigna. Eventually in 1835 Verdi became director of the Busseto school with a three-year contract. He married Margherita in May 1836, and by March 1837, she had given birth to their first child, Virginia Maria Luigia on 26 March 1837. Icilio Romano followed on 11 July 1838. Both the children died young, Virginia on 12 August 1838, Icilio on 22 October 1839. In 1837, the young composer asked for Massini's assistance to stage his opera in Milan. The La Scala impresario, Bartolomeo Merelli, agreed to put on Oberto (as the reworked opera was now called, with a libretto rewritten by Temistocle Solera) in November 1839. It achieved a respectable 13 additional performances, following which Merelli offered Verdi a contract for three more works. While Verdi was working on his second opera Un giorno di regno, Margherita died of encephalitis at the age of 26. Verdi adored his wife and children and was devastated by their early deaths. Un giorno, a comedy, was premiered only a few months later. It was a flop and only given the one performance. Following its failure, it is claimed Verdi vowed never to compose again, but in his Sketch he recounts how Merelli persuaded him to write a new opera. Verdi was to claim that he gradually began to work on the music for Nabucco, the libretto of which had originally been rejected by the composer Otto Nicolai: "This verse today, tomorrow that, here a note, there a whole phrase, and little by little the opera was written", he later recalled. By the autumn of 1841 it was complete, originally under the title Nabucodonosor. Well received at its first performance on 9 March 1842, Nabucco underpinned Verdi's success until his retirement from the theatre, twenty-nine operas (including some revised and updated versions) later. At its revival in La Scala for the 1842 autumn season it was given an unprecedented (and later unequalled) total of 57 performances; within three years it had reached (among other venues) Vienna, Lisbon, Barcelona, Berlin, Paris and Hamburg; in 1848 it was heard in New York, in 1850 in Buenos Aires. Porter comments that "similar accounts...could be provided to show how widely and rapidly all [Verdi's] other successful operas were disseminated." ### 1842–1849 A period of hard work for Verdi—with the creation of twenty operas (excluding revisions and translations)—followed over the next sixteen years, culminating in Un ballo in maschera. This period was not without its frustrations and setbacks for the young composer, and he was frequently demoralised. In April 1845, in connection with I due Foscari, he wrote: "I am happy, no matter what reception it gets, and I am utterly indifferent to everything. I cannot wait for these next three years to pass. I have to write six operas, then addio to everything." In 1858 Verdi complained: "Since Nabucco, you may say, I have never had one hour of peace. Sixteen years in the galleys." After the initial success of Nabucco, Verdi settled in Milan, making a number of influential acquaintances. He attended the Salotto Maffei, Countess Clara Maffei's salons in Milan, becoming her lifelong friend and correspondent. A revival of Nabucco followed in 1842 at La Scala where it received a run of fifty-seven performances, and this led to a commission from Merelli for a new opera for the 1843 season. I Lombardi alla prima crociata was based on a libretto by Solera and premiered in February 1843. Inevitably, comparisons were made with Nabucco; but one contemporary writer noted: "If [Nabucco] created this young man's reputation, I Lombardi served to confirm it." Verdi paid close attention to his financial contracts, making sure he was appropriately remunerated as his popularity increased. For I Lombardi and Ernani (1844) in Venice he was paid 12,000 lire (including supervision of the productions); Attila and Macbeth (1847), each brought him 18,000 lire. His contracts with the publishers Ricordi in 1847 were very specific about the amounts he was to receive for new works, first productions, musical arrangements, and so on. He began to use his growing prosperity to invest in land near his birthplace. In 1844 he purchased Il Pulgaro, 62 acres (23 hectares) of farmland with a farmhouse and outbuildings, providing a home for his parents from May 1844. Later that year, he also bought the Palazzo Cavalli (now known as the Palazzo Orlandi) on the via Roma, Busseto's main street. In May 1848, Verdi signed a contract for land and houses at Sant'Agata in Busseto, which had once belonged to his family. It was here he built his own house, completed in 1880, now known as the Villa Verdi, where he lived from 1851 until his death. In March 1843, Verdi visited Vienna (where Gaetano Donizetti was musical director) to oversee a production of Nabucco. The older composer, recognising Verdi's talent, noted in a letter of January 1844: "I am very, very happy to give way to people of talent like Verdi... Nothing will prevent the good Verdi from soon reaching one of the most honourable positions in the cohort of composers." Verdi travelled on to Parma, where the Teatro Regio di Parma was producing Nabucco with Strepponi in the cast. For Verdi the performances were a personal triumph in his native region, especially as his father, Carlo, attended the first performance. Verdi remained in Parma for some weeks beyond his intended departure date. This fuelled speculation that the delay was due to Verdi's interest in Giuseppina Strepponi (who stated that their relationship began in 1843). Strepponi was in fact known for her amorous relationships (and many illegitimate children) and her history was an awkward factor in their relationship until they eventually agreed on marriage. After successful stagings of Nabucco in Venice (with twenty-five performances in the 1842/43 season), Verdi began negotiations with the impresario of La Fenice to stage I Lombardi, and to write a new opera. Eventually, Victor Hugo's Hernani was chosen, with Francesco Maria Piave as librettist. Ernani was successfully premiered in 1844 and within six months had been performed at twenty other theatres in Italy, and also in Vienna. The writer Andrew Porter notes that for the next ten years, Verdi's life "reads like a travel diary—a timetable of visits...to bring new operas to the stage or to supervise local premieres". La Scala premiered none of these new works, except for Giovanna d'Arco. Verdi "never forgave the Milanese for their reception of Un giorno di regno". During this period, Verdi began to work more consistently with his librettists. He relied on Piave again for I due Foscari, performed in Rome in November 1844, then on Solera once more for Giovanna d'Arco, at La Scala in February 1845, while in August that year he was able to work with Salvadore Cammarano on Alzira for the Teatro di San Carlo in Naples. Solera and Piave worked together on Attila for La Fenice (March 1846). In April 1844, Verdi took on Emanuele Muzio, eight years his junior, as a pupil and amanuensis. He had known him since about 1828 as another of Barezzi's protégés. Muzio, who in fact was Verdi's only pupil, became indispensable to the composer. He reported to Barezzi that Verdi "has a breadth of spirit, of generosity, a wisdom". In November 1846, Muzio wrote of Verdi: "If you could see us, I seem more like a friend, rather than his pupil. We are always together at dinner, in the cafes, when we play cards...; all in all, he doesn't go anywhere without me at his side; in the house we have a big table and we both write there together, and so I always have his advice." Muzio was to remain associated with Verdi, assisting in the preparation of scores and transcriptions, and later conducting many of his works in their premiere performances in the US and elsewhere outside Italy. He was chosen by Verdi as one of the executors of his will, but predeceased the composer in 1890. After a period of illness Verdi began work on Macbeth in September 1846. He dedicated the opera to Barezzi: "I have long intended to dedicate an opera to you, as you have been a father, a benefactor and a friend for me. It was a duty I should have fulfilled sooner if imperious circumstances had not prevented me. Now, I send you Macbeth, which I prize above all my other operas, and therefore deem worthier to present to you." In 1997 Martin Chusid wrote that Macbeth was the only one of Verdi's operas of his "early period" to remain regularly in the international repertoire, although in the 21st century Nabucco has also entered the lists. Strepponi's voice declined and her engagements dried up in the 1845 to 1846 period, and she returned to live in Milan whilst retaining contact with Verdi as his "supporter, promoter, unofficial adviser, and occasional secretary" until she decided to move to Paris in October 1846. Before she left Verdi gave her a letter that pledged his love. On the envelope, Strepponi wrote: "5 or 6 October 1846. They shall lay this letter on my heart when they bury me." Verdi had completed I masnadieri for London by May 1847 except for the orchestration. This he left until the opera was in rehearsal, since he wanted to hear "la [Jenny] Lind and modify her role to suit her more exactly". Verdi agreed to conduct the premiere on 22 July 1847 at Her Majesty's Theatre, as well as the second performance. Queen Victoria and Prince Albert attended the first performance, and for the most part, the press was generous in its praise. For the next two years, except for two visits to Italy during periods of political unrest, Verdi was based in Paris. Within a week of returning to Paris in July 1847, he received his first commission from the Paris Opéra. Verdi agreed to adapt I Lombardi to a new French libretto; the result was Jérusalem, which contained significant changes to the music and structure of the work (including an extensive ballet scene) to meet Parisian expectations. Verdi was awarded the Order of Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. To satisfy his contracts with the publisher , Verdi dashed off Il Corsaro. Budden comments "In no other opera of his does Verdi appear to have taken so little interest before it was staged." On hearing the news of the "Cinque Giornate", the "Five Days" of street fighting that took place between 18 and 22 March 1848 and temporarily drove the Austrians out of Milan, Verdi travelled there, arriving on 5 April. He discovered that Piave was now "Citizen Piave" of the newly proclaimed Republic of San Marco. Writing a patriotic letter to him in Venice, Verdi concluded "Banish every petty municipal idea! We must all extend a fraternal hand, and Italy will yet become the first nation of the world...I am drunk with joy! Imagine that there are no more Germans here!!" Verdi had been admonished by the poet Giuseppe Giusti for turning away from patriotic subjects, the poet pleading with him to "do what you can to nourish the [sorrow of the Italian people], to strengthen it, and direct it to its goal." Cammarano suggested adapting Joseph Méry's 1828 play La Bataille de Toulouse, which he described as a story "that should stir every man with an Italian soul in his breast". The premiere was set for late January 1849. Verdi travelled to Rome before the end of 1848. He found that city on the verge of becoming a (short-lived) republic, which commenced within days of La battaglia di Legnanos enthusiastically received premiere. In the spirit of the time were the tenor hero's final words, "Whoever dies for the fatherland cannot be evil-minded". Verdi had intended to return to Italy in early 1848, but was prevented by work and illness, as well as, most probably, by his increasing attachment to Strepponi. Verdi and Strepponi left Paris in July 1849, the immediate cause being an outbreak of cholera, and Verdi went directly to Busseto to continue work on completing his latest opera, Luisa Miller, for a production in Naples later in the year. ### 1849–1853: Fame Verdi was committed to the publisher Giovanni Ricordi for an opera—which became Stiffelio—for Trieste in the Spring of 1850; and, subsequently, following negotiations with La Fenice, developed a libretto with Piave and wrote the music for Rigoletto (based on Victor Hugo's Le roi s'amuse) for Venice in March 1851. This was the first of a sequence of three operas (followed by Il trovatore and La traviata) which were to cement his fame as a master of opera. The failure of Stiffelio (attributable not least to the censors of the time taking offence at the taboo subject of the supposed adultery of a clergyman's wife and interfering with the text and roles) incited Verdi to take pains to rework it, although even in the completely recycled version of Aroldo (1857) it still failed to please. Rigoletto, with its intended murder of royalty, and its sordid attributes, also upset the censors. Verdi would not compromise: > What does the sack matter to the police? Are they worried about the effect it will produce?...Do they think they know better than I?...I see the hero has been made no longer ugly and hunchbacked!! Why? A singing hunchback...why not?...I think it splendid to show this character as outwardly deformed and ridiculous, and inwardly passionate and full of love. I chose the subject for these very qualities...if they are removed I can no longer set it to music. Verdi substituted a Duke for the King, and the public response and subsequent success of the opera all over Italy and Europe fully vindicated the composer. Aware that the melody of the Duke's song "La donna è mobile" ("Woman is fickle") would become a popular hit, Verdi excluded it from orchestral rehearsals for the opera, and rehearsed the tenor separately. For several months Verdi was preoccupied with family matters. These stemmed from the way in which the citizens of Busseto were treating Giuseppina Strepponi, with whom he was living openly in an unmarried relationship. She was shunned in the town and at church, and while Verdi appeared indifferent, she was certainly not. Furthermore, Verdi was concerned about the administration of his newly acquired property at Sant'Agata. A growing estrangement between Verdi and his parents was perhaps also attributable to Strepponi (the suggestion that this situation was sparked by the birth of a child to Verdi and Strepponi which was given away as a foundling lacks any firm evidence). In January 1851, Verdi broke off relations with his parents, and in April they were ordered to leave Sant'Agata; Verdi found new premises for them and helped them financially to settle into their new home. It may not be coincidental that all six Verdi operas written in the period 1849–53 (La battaglia, Luisa Miller, Stiffelio, Rigoletto, Il trovatore and La traviata), have, uniquely in his oeuvre, heroines who are, in the opera critic Joseph Kerman's words, "women who come to grief because of sexual transgression, actual or perceived". Kerman, like the psychologist Gerald Mendelssohn, sees this choice of subjects as being influenced by Verdi's uneasy passion for Strepponi. Verdi and Strepponi moved into Sant'Agata on 1 May 1851. May also brought an offer for a new opera from La Fenice, which Verdi eventually realised as La traviata. That was followed by an agreement with the Rome Opera company to present Il trovatore for January 1853. Verdi now had sufficient earnings to retire, had he wished to. He had reached a stage where he could develop his operas as he wished, rather than be dependent on commissions from third parties. Il trovatore was in fact the first opera he wrote without a specific commission (apart from Oberto). At around the same time he began to consider creating an opera from Shakespeare's King Lear. After first (1850) seeking a libretto from Cammarano (which never appeared), Verdi later (1857) commissioned one from Antonio Somma, but this proved intractable, and no music was ever written. Verdi began work on Il trovatore after the death of his mother in June 1851. The fact that this is "the one opera of Verdi's which focuses on a mother rather than a father" is perhaps related to her death. In the winter of 1851–52 Verdi decided to go to Paris with Strepponi, where he concluded an agreement with the Opéra to write what became Les vêpres siciliennes, his first original work in the style of grand opera. In February 1852, the couple attended a performance of Alexander Dumas fils's play The Lady of the Camellias; Verdi immediately began to compose music for what would later become La traviata. After his visit to Rome for Il trovatore in January 1853, Verdi worked on completing La traviata, but with little hope of its success, due to his lack of confidence in any of the singers engaged for the season. Furthermore, the management insisted that the opera be given a historical, not a contemporary setting. The premiere in March 1853 was indeed a failure: Verdi wrote: "Was the fault mine or the singers'? Time will tell." Subsequent productions (following some rewriting) throughout Europe over the following two years fully vindicated the composer; Roger Parker has written "Il trovatore consistently remains one of the three or four most popular operas in the Verdian repertoire: but it has never pleased the critics". ### 1853–1860: Consolidation In the eleven years up to and including Traviata, Verdi had written sixteen operas. Over the next eighteen years (up to Aida), he wrote only six new works for the stage. Verdi was happy to return to Sant'Agata and, in February 1856, was reporting a "total abandonment of music; a little reading; some light occupation with agriculture and horses; that's all". A couple of months later, writing in the same vein to Countess Maffei he stated: "I'm not doing anything. I don't read. I don't write. I walk in the fields from morning to evening, trying to recover, so far without success, from the stomach trouble caused me by I vespri siciliani. Cursed operas!" An 1858 letter by Strepponi to the publisher Léon Escudier describes the kind of lifestyle that increasingly appealed to the composer: "His love for the country has become a mania, madness, rage, and fury—anything you like that is exaggerated. He gets up almost with the dawn, to go and examine the wheat, the maize, the vines, etc....Fortunately our tastes for this sort of life coincide, except in the matter of sunrise, which he likes to see up and dressed, and I from my bed." Nonetheless on 15 May, Verdi signed a contract with La Fenice for an opera for the following spring. This was to be Simon Boccanegra. The couple stayed in Paris until January 1857 to deal with these proposals, and also the offer to stage the translated version of Il trovatore as a grand opera. Verdi and Strepponi travelled to Venice in March for the premiere of Simon Boccanegra, which turned out to be "a fiasco" (as Verdi reported, although on the second and third nights, the reception improved considerably). With Strepponi, Verdi went to Naples early in January 1858 to work with Somma on the libretto of the opera Gustave III, which over a year later would become Un ballo in maschera. By this time, Verdi had begun to write about Strepponi as "my wife" and she was signing her letters as "Giuseppina Verdi". Verdi raged against the stringent requirements of the Neapolitan censor stating: "I'm drowning in a sea of troubles. It's almost certain that the censors will forbid our libretto." With no hope of seeing his Gustavo III staged as written, he broke his contract. This resulted in litigation and counter-litigation; with the legal issues resolved, Verdi was free to present the libretto and musical outline of Gustave III to the Rome Opera. There, the censors demanded further changes; at this point, the opera took the title Un ballo in maschera. Arriving in Sant'Agata in March 1859 Verdi and Strepponi found the nearby city of Piacenza occupied by about 6,000 Austrian troops who had made it their base, to combat the rise of Italian interest in unification in the Piedmont region. In the ensuing Second Italian War of Independence the Austrians abandoned the region and began to leave Lombardy, although they remained in control of the Venice region under the terms of the armistice signed at Villafranca. Verdi was disgusted at this outcome: "[W]here then is the independence of Italy, so long hoped for and promised?...Venice is not Italian? After so many victories, what an outcome... It is enough to drive one mad" he wrote to Clara Maffei. Verdi and Strepponi now decided on marriage; they travelled to Collonges-sous-Salève, a village then part of Piedmont. On 29 August 1859 the couple were married there, with only the coachman who had driven them there and the church bell-ringer as witnesses. At the end of 1859, Verdi wrote to his friend Cesare De Sanctis "[Since completing Ballo] I have not made any more music, I have not seen any more music, I have not thought anymore about music. I don't even know what colour my last opera is, and I almost don't remember it." He began to remodel Sant'Agata, which took most of 1860 to complete and on which he continued to work for the next twenty years. This included major work on a square room that became his workroom, his bedroom, and his office. ### Politics Having achieved some fame and prosperity, Verdi began in 1859 to take an active interest in Italian politics. His early commitment to the Risorgimento movement is difficult to estimate accurately; in the words of the music historian Philip Gossett "myths intensifying and exaggerating [such] sentiment began circulating" during the nineteenth century. An example is the claim that when the "Va, pensiero" chorus in Nabucco was first sung in Milan, the audience, responding with nationalistic fervour, demanded an encore. As encores were expressly forbidden by the government at the time, such a gesture would have been extremely significant. But in fact the piece encored was not "Va, pensiero" but the hymn "Immenso Jehova". The growth of the "identification of Verdi's music with Italian nationalist politics" perhaps began in the 1840s. In 1848, the nationalist leader Giuseppe Mazzini (whom Verdi had met in London the previous year) requested Verdi (who complied) to write a patriotic hymn. The opera historian Charles Osborne describes the 1849 La battaglia di Legnano as "an opera with a purpose" and maintains that "while parts of Verdi's earlier operas had frequently been taken up by the fighters of the Risorgimento...this time the composer had given the movement its own opera" It was not until 1859 in Naples, and only then spreading throughout Italy, that the slogan "Viva Verdi" was used as an acronym for Viva Vittorio Emanuele Re D'Italia (Viva Victor Emmanuel King of Italy), (who was then king of Piedmont). After Italy was unified in 1861, many of Verdi's early operas were increasingly re-interpreted as Risorgimento works with hidden Revolutionary messages that perhaps had not been originally intended by either the composer or his librettists. In 1859, Verdi was elected as a member of the new provincial council, and was appointed to head a group of five who would meet with King Vittorio Emanuele II in Turin. They were enthusiastically greeted along the way and in Turin Verdi himself received much of the publicity. On 17 October Verdi met with Cavour, the architect of the initial stages of Italian unification. Later that year the government of Emilia was subsumed under the United Provinces of Central Italy, and Verdi's political life temporarily came to an end. Whilst still maintaining nationalist feelings, he declined in 1860 the office of provincial council member to which he had been elected in absentia. Cavour however was anxious to convince a man of Verdi's stature that running for political office was essential to strengthening and securing Italy's future. The composer confided to Piave some years later that "I accepted on the condition that after a few months I would resign." Verdi was elected on 3 February 1861 for the town of Borgo San Donnino (Fidenza) to the Parliament of Piedmont-Sardinia in Turin (which from March 1861 became the Parliament of the Kingdom of Italy), but following the death of Cavour in 1861, which deeply distressed him, he scarcely attended. Later, in 1874, Verdi was appointed a member of the Italian Senate, but did not participate in its activities. ### 1860–1887: from La forza to Otello In the months following the staging of Ballo, Verdi was approached by several opera companies seeking a new work or making offers to stage one of his existing ones, but refused them all. But when, in December 1860, an approach was made from Saint Petersburg's Imperial Theatre, the offer of 60,000 francs plus all expenses was doubtless a strong incentive. Verdi came up with the idea of adapting the 1835 Spanish play Don Alvaro o la fuerza del sino by Angel Saavedra, which became La forza del destino, with Piave writing the libretto. The Verdis arrived in St. Petersburg in December 1861 for the premiere, but casting problems meant that it had to be postponed. Returning via Paris from Russia on 24 February 1862, Verdi met two young Italian writers, the twenty-year-old Arrigo Boito and Franco Faccio. Verdi had been invited to write a piece of music for the 1862 International Exhibition in London, and charged Boito with writing a text, which became the Inno delle nazioni. Boito, as a supporter of the grand opera of Giacomo Meyerbeer and an opera composer in his own right, was later in the 1860s critical of Verdi's "reliance on formula rather than form", incurring the composer's wrath. Nevertheless, he was to become Verdi's close collaborator in his final operas. The St. Petersburg premiere of La forza finally took place in September 1862, and Verdi received the Order of St. Stanislaus. A revival of Macbeth in Paris in 1865 was not a success, but he obtained a commission for a new work, Don Carlos, based on the play Don Carlos by Friedrich Schiller. He and Giuseppina spent late 1866 and much of 1867 in Paris, where they heard, and did not warm to, Giacomo Meyerbeer's last opera, L'Africaine, and Richard Wagner's overture to Tannhäuser. The opera's premiere in 1867 drew mixed comments. While the critic Théophile Gautier praised the work, the composer Georges Bizet was disappointed at Verdi's changing style: "Verdi is no longer Italian. He is following Wagner." During the 1860s and 1870s, Verdi paid great attention to his estate around Busseto, purchasing additional land, dealing with unsatisfactory (in one case, embezzling) stewards, installing irrigation, and coping with variable harvests and economic slumps. In 1867, both Verdi's father Carlo, with whom he had restored good relations, and his early patron and father-in-law Antonio Barezzi, died. Verdi and Giuseppina decided to adopt Carlo's great-niece Filomena Maria Verdi, then seven years old, as their own child. She was to marry in 1878 the son of Verdi's friend and lawyer Angelo Carrara and her family became eventually the heirs of Verdi's estate. Aida was commissioned by the Egyptian government for the opera house built by the Khedive Isma'il Pasha to celebrate the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869. The opera house actually opened with a production of Rigoletto. The prose libretto in French by Camille du Locle, based on a scenario by the Egyptologist Auguste Mariette, was transformed to Italian verse by Antonio Ghislanzoni. Verdi was offered the enormous sum of 150,000 francs for the opera (even though he confessed that Ancient Egypt was "a civilization I have never been able to admire"), and it was first performed in Cairo in 1871. Verdi spent much of 1872 and 1873 supervising the Italian productions of Aida at Milan, Parma and Naples, effectively acting as producer and demanding high standards and adequate rehearsal time. During the rehearsals for the Naples production he wrote his string quartet, the only chamber music by him to survive, and the only major work in the form by an Italian of the 19th century. In 1869, Verdi had been asked to compose a section for a requiem mass in memory of Rossini. He compiled and completed the requiem, but its performance was abandoned (and its premiere did not take place until 1988). Five years later, Verdi reworked his "Libera Me" section of the Rossini Requiem and made it a part of his Requiem honouring Alessandro Manzoni, who had died in 1873. The complete Requiem was first performed at the cathedral in Milan on the anniversary of Manzoni's death on 22 May 1874. The spinto soprano Teresa Stolz (1834–1902), who had sung in La Scala productions from 1865 onwards, was the soloist in the first and many later performances of the Requiem; in February 1872, she had created Aida in its European premiere in Milan. She became closely associated personally with Verdi (exactly how closely remains conjectural), to Giuseppina Verdi's initial disquiet; but the women were reconciled and Stolz remained a companion of Verdi after Giuseppina's death in 1897 until his own death. Verdi conducted his Requiem in Paris, London and Vienna in 1875 and in Cologne in 1876. It seemed that it would be his last work. In the words of his biographer John Rosselli, it "confirmed him as the unique presiding genius of Italian music. No fellow composer...came near him in popularity or reputation". Verdi, now in his sixties, initially seemed to withdraw into retirement. He deliberately shied away from opportunities to publicise himself or to become involved with new productions of his works, but secretly he began work on Otello, which Boito (to whom the composer had been reconciled by Ricordi) had proposed to him privately in 1879. The composition was delayed by a revision of Simon Boccanegra which Verdi undertook with Boito, produced in 1881, and a revision of Don Carlos. Even when Otello was virtually completed, Verdi teased "Shall I finish it? Shall I have it performed? Hard to tell, even for me." As news leaked out, Verdi was pressed by opera houses across Europe with enquiries; eventually the opera was triumphantly premiered at La Scala in February 1887. ### 1887–1901: Falstaff and last years Following the success of Otello Verdi commented, "After having relentlessly massacred so many heroes and heroines, I have at last the right to laugh a little." He had considered a variety of comic subjects but had found none of them wholly suitable and confided his ambition to Boito. The librettist said nothing at the time but secretly began work on a libretto based on The Merry Wives of Windsor with additional material taken from Henry IV, Part 1 and Part 2. Verdi received the draft libretto probably in early July 1889 after he had just read Shakespeare's play: "Benissimo! Benissimo!... No one could have done better than you", he wrote back to Boito. But he still had doubts: his age, his health (which he admits to being good) and his ability to complete the project: "If I were not to finish the music?". If the project failed, it would have been a waste of Boito's time, and have distracted him from completing his own new opera. Finally on 10 July 1889 he wrote again: "So be it! So let's do Falstaff! For now, let's not think of obstacles, of age, of illnesses!" Verdi emphasised the need for secrecy, but continued "If you are in the mood, then start to write." Later he wrote to Boito: "What joy to be able to say to the public: HERE WE ARE AGAIN!!! COME AND SEE US!" The first performance of Falstaff took place at La Scala on 9 February 1893. For the first night, official ticket prices were thirty times higher than usual. Royalty, aristocracy, critics and leading figures from the arts all over Europe were present. The performance was a huge success; numbers were encored, and at the end the applause for Verdi and the cast lasted an hour. That was followed by a tumultuous welcome when the composer, his wife and Boito arrived at the Grand Hotel de Milan. Even more hectic scenes ensued when he went to Rome in May for the opera's premiere at the Teatro Costanzi, when crowds of well-wishers at the railway station initially forced Verdi to take refuge in a tool-shed. He witnessed the performance from the Royal Box at the side of King Umberto and the Queen. In his last years Verdi undertook a number of philanthropic ventures, publishing in 1894 a song for the benefit of earthquake victims in Sicily, and from 1895 onwards planning, building and endowing a rest-home for retired musicians in Milan, the Casa di Riposo per Musicisti, and building a hospital at Villanova sull'Arda, close to Busseto. His last major composition, the choral set of Four sacred pieces, was published in 1898. In 1900 he was deeply upset at the assassination of King Umberto and sketched a setting of a poem in his memory but was unable to complete it. While staying at the Grand Hotel, Verdi suffered a stroke on 21 January 1901. He gradually grew more feeble over the next week, during which Stolz cared for him, and died on 27 January at the age of 87. Verdi was initially buried in a private ceremony at Milan's Cimitero Monumentale. A month later, his body was moved to the crypt of the Casa di Riposo. On this occasion, "Va, pensiero" from Nabucco was conducted by Arturo Toscanini with a chorus of 820 singers. A huge crowd was in attendance, estimated at 300,000. Boito wrote to a friend, in words which recall the mysterious final scene of Don Carlos, "[Verdi] sleeps like a King of Spain in his Escurial, under a bronze slab that completely covers him." ## Personality Not all of Verdi's personal qualities were amiable. John Rosselli concluded after writing his biography that "I do not very much like the man Verdi, in particular the autocratic rentier-cum-estate owner, part-time composer, and seemingly full-time grumbler and reactionary critic of the later years", yet admits that like other writers, he must "admire him, warts and all...a deep integrity runs beneath his life, and can be felt even when he is being unreasonable or wrong." Budden suggests that "With Verdi...the man and the artist on many ways developed side by side." Ungainly and awkward in society in his early years, "as he became a man of property and underwent the civilizing influence of Giuseppina,...[he] acquired assurance and authority." He also learnt to keep himself to himself, never discussing his private life and maintaining, when it suited him, legends about his supposed 'peasant' origins, his materialism and his indifference to criticism. Gerald Mendelsohn describes the composer as "an intensely private man who deeply resented efforts to inquire into his personal affairs. He regarded journalists and would-be biographers, as well as his neighbors in Busseto and the operatic public at large, as an intrusive lot, against whose prying attentions he needed constantly to defend himself." Verdi was never explicit about his religious beliefs. Anti-clerical by nature in his early years, he nonetheless built a chapel at Sant'Agata but is little recorded as attending church. Strepponi wrote in 1871 "I won't say [Verdi] is an atheist, but he is not much of a believer." Rosselli comments that in the Requiem "The prospect of Hell appears to rule...[the Requiem] is troubled to the end," and offers little consolation. ## Music ### Spirit The writer Friedrich Schiller (four of whose plays were adapted as operas by Verdi) distinguished two types of artist in his 1795 essay On Naïve and Sentimental Poetry. The philosopher Isaiah Berlin ranked Verdi in the 'naïve' category—"They are not...self-conscious. They do not...stand aside to contemplate their creations and express their own feelings....They are able...if they have genius, to embody their vision fully." (The 'sentimentals' seek to recreate nature and natural feelings on their own terms—Berlin instances Richard Wagner—"offering not peace, but a sword".) Verdi's operas are not written according to an aesthetic theory, or with a purpose to change the tastes of their audiences. In conversation with a German visitor in 1887 he is recorded as saying that, whilst "there was much to be admired in [Wagner's operas] Tannhäuser and Lohengrin...in his recent operas [Wagner] seemed to be overstepping the bounds of what can be expressed in music. For him "philosophical" music was incomprehensible." Although Verdi's works belong, as Rosselli admits "to the most artificial of genres...[they] ring emotionally true: truth and directness make them exciting, often hugely so." ### Periods The earliest study of Verdi's music, published in 1859 by the Italian critic Abramo Basevi, already distinguished four periods in Verdi's music. The early, 'grandiose' period, ended according to Basevi with La battaglia di Legnano (1849), and a 'personal' style began with the next opera Luisa Miller. These two operas are generally agreed today by critics to mark the division between Verdi's 'early' and 'middle' periods. The 'middle' period is felt to end with La traviata (1853) and Les vêpres siciliennes (1855), with a 'late' period commencing with Simon Boccanegra (1857) running through to Aida (1871). The last two operas, Otello and Falstaff, together with the Requiem and the Four Sacred Pieces, then represent a 'final' period. #### Early period Verdi was to claim in his Sketch that during his early training with Lavigna "I did nothing but canons and fugues...No-one taught me orchestration or how to handle dramatic music." He is known to have written a variety of music for the Busseto Philharmonic society, including vocal music, band music and chamber works, (and including an alternative overture to Rossini's Barber of Seville) but few of these works survive. (He may have given instructions before his death to destroy his early works). Verdi uses in his early operas (and, in his own stylized versions, throughout his later work) the standard elements of Italian opera content of the period, referred to by the opera writer Julian Budden as the 'Code Rossini', after the composer who established through his work and popularity the accepted templates of these forms; they were also used by the composers dominant during Verdi's early career, Bellini, Donizetti and Saverio Mercadante. Amongst the essential elements are the aria, the duet, the ensemble, and the finale sequence of an act. The aria format, centred on a soloist, typically involved three sections; a slow introduction, marked typically cantabile or adagio, a tempo di mezzo which might involve chorus or other characters, and a cabaletta, an opportunity for bravura singing for the soloist. The duet was similarly formatted. Finales, covering climactic sequences of action, used the various forces of soloists, ensemble and chorus, usually culminating with an exciting stretto section. Verdi was to develop these and the other formulae of the generation preceding him with increasing sophistication during his career. The operas of the early period show Verdi learning by doing and gradually establishing mastery over the different elements of opera. Oberto is poorly structured, and the orchestration of the first operas is generally simple, sometimes even basic. The musicologist Richard Taruskin suggested "the most striking effect in the early Verdi operas, and the one most obviously allied to the mood of the Risorgimento, was the big choral number sung—crudely or sublimely, according to the ear of the beholder—in unison. The success of "Va, pensiero" in Nabucco (which Rossini approvingly denoted as "a grand aria sung by sopranos, contraltos, tenors and basses"), was replicated in the similar "O Signor, dal tetto natio" in I lombardi and in 1844 in the chorus "Si ridesti il Leon di Castiglia" in Ernani, the battle hymn of the conspirators seeking freedom. In I due Foscari Verdi first uses recurring themes identified with main characters; here and in future operas the accent moves away from the 'oratorio' characteristics of the first operas towards individual action and intrigue. From this period onwards Verdi also develops his instinct for "tinta" (literally 'colour'), a term which he used for characterising elements of an individual opera score—Parker gives as an example "the rising 6th that begins so many lyric pieces in Ernani". Macbeth, even in its original 1847 version, shows many original touches; characterization by key (the Macbeths themselves generally singing in sharp keys, the witches in flat keys), a preponderance of minor key music, and highly original orchestration. In the 'dagger scene' and the duet following the murder of Duncan, the forms transcend the 'Code Rossini' and propel the drama in a compelling fashion. Verdi was to comment in 1868 that Rossini and his followers missed "the golden thread that binds all the parts together and, rather than a set of numbers without coherence, makes an opera". Tinta was for Verdi this "golden thread", an essential unifying factor in his works. #### Middle period The writer David Kimbell states that in Luisa Miller and Stiffelio (the earliest operas of this period) there appears to be a "growing freedom in the large scale structure...and an acute attention to fine detail". Others echo those feelings. Julian Budden expresses the impact of Rigoletto and its place in Verdi's output as follows: "Just after 1850 at the age of 38, Verdi closed the door on a period of Italian opera with Rigoletto. The so-called ottocento in music is finished. Verdi will continue to draw on certain of its forms for the next few operas, but in a totally new spirit." One example of Verdi's wish to move away from "standard forms" appears in his feelings about the structure of Il trovatore. To his librettist, Cammarano, Verdi plainly states in a letter of April 1851 that if there were no standard forms—"cavatinas, duets, trios, choruses, finales, etc. ... and if you could avoid beginning with an opening chorus....", he would be quite happy. Two external factors had their impacts on Verdi's compositions of this period. One is that with increasing reputation and financial security he no longer needed to commit himself to the productive treadmill, had more freedom to choose his own subjects, and had more time to develop them according to his own ideas. In the years 1849 to 1859 he wrote eight new operas, compared with fourteen in the previous ten years. Another factor was the changed political situation; the failure of the 1848 revolutions led both to some diminution of the Risorgimento ethos (at least initially) and a significant increase in theatre censorship. This is reflected both in Verdi's choices of plots dealing more with personal relationships than political conflict, and in a (partly consequent) dramatic reduction in the operas of this period in the number of choruses (of the type which had first made him famous)—not only are there on average 40% fewer choruses in the 'middle' period operas compared to the 'early' period', but whereas virtually all the 'early' operas commence with a chorus, only one (Luisa Miller) of the 'middle' period operas begin this way. Instead, Verdi experiments with a variety of means, e.g. a stage band (Rigoletto), an aria for bass (Stiffelio), a party scene (La traviata). Chusid also notes Verdi's increasing tendency to replace full-scale overtures with shorter orchestral introductions. Parker comments that La traviata, the last opera of the 'middle' period, is "again a new adventure. It gestures towards a level of 'realism'...the contemporary world of waltzes pervades the score, and the heroine's death from disease is graphically depicted in the music." Verdi's increasing command of musical highlighting of changing moods and relationships is exemplified in Act III of Rigoletto, where Duke's flippant song "La donna è mobile" is followed immediately by the quartet "Bella figlia dell'amore", contrasting the rapacious Duke and his inamorata with the (concealed) indignant Rigoletto and his grieving daughter. Taruskin asserts this is "the most famous ensemble Verdi ever composed". #### Late period `Chusid notes Strepponi's description of the operas of the 1860s and 1870s as being "modern" whereas Verdi described the pre-1849 works as "the cavatina operas", as further indication that "Verdi became increasingly dissatisfied with the older, familiar conventions of his predecessors that he had adopted at the outset of his career," Parker sees a physical differentiation of the operas from Les vêpres siciliennes (1855) to Aida (1871) is that they are significantly longer, and with larger cast-lists, than previous works. They also reflect a shift towards the French genre of grand opera, notable in more colorful orchestration, counterpointing of serious and comic scenes, and greater spectacle. The opportunities of transforming Italian opera by utilising such resources appealed to him. For a commission from the Paris Opéra he expressly demanded a libretto from Eugène Scribe, the favorite librettist of Meyerbeer, telling him: "I want—in fact, I must have—a grandiose, impassioned and original subject." The result was Les vêpres siciliennes, and the scenarios of Simon Boccanegra (1857), Un ballo in maschera (1859), La forza del destino (1862), Don Carlos (1867) and Aida (1871) all meet the same criteria. Porter notes that Un ballo marks an almost complete synthesis of Verdi's style with the grand opera hallmarks, such that "huge spectacle is not mere decoration but essential to the drama...musical and theatrical lines remain taut [and] the characters still sing as warmly, passionately and personally as in Il trovatore."` When the composer Ferdinand Hiller asked Verdi whether he preferred Aida or Don Carlos, Verdi replied that Aida had "more bite and (if you'll forgive the word), more theatricality". During the rehearsals for the Naples production of Aida Verdi amused himself by writing his only string quartet, a sprightly work which shows in its last movement that he had not lost the skill for fugue-writing that he had learned with Lavigna. #### Final works Verdi's three last major works continued to show new development in conveying drama and emotion. The first to appear, in 1874 was his Requiem, scored for operatic forces but by no means an "opera in ecclesiastical dress" (the words in which Hans von Bülow condemned it before even hearing it). Although in the Requiem Verdi puts to use many of the techniques he learned in opera, its musical forms and emotions are not those of the stage. Verdi's tone painting at the opening of the Requiem is vividly described by the Italian composer Ildebrando Pizzetti, writing in 1941: "in [the words] murmured by an invisible crowd over the slow swaying of a few simple chords, you straightaway sense the fear and sadness of a vast multitude before the mystery of death. In the [following] Et lux perpetuum the melody spreads it wings...before falling back on itself...you hear a sigh for consolation and eternal peace." By the time Otello premièred in 1887, more than 15 years after Aida, the operas of Verdi's (predeceased) contemporary Richard Wagner had begun their ascendancy in popular taste, and many sought or identified Wagnerian aspects in Verdi's latest composition. Budden points out that there is little in the music of Otello that relates either to the verismo opera of the younger Italian composers, and little if anything which can be construed as a homage to the New German School. Nonetheless there is still much originality, building on the strengths which Verdi had already demonstrated; the powerful storm which opens the opera in medias res, the recollection of the love duet of Act I in Otello's dying words (more an aspect of tinta than leitmotif), imaginative touches of harmony in Iago's "Era la notte" (Act II). Finally, six years later, appeared Falstaff, Verdi's only comedy apart from the early, ill-fated Un giorno di regno. In this work Roger Parker writes that: "The listener is bombarded by a stunning diversity of rhythms, orchestral textures, melodic motifs and harmonic devices. Passages that in earlier times would have furnished material for an entire number here crowd in on each other, shouldering themselves unceremoniously to the fore in bewildering succession". Rosselli comments: "In Otello Verdi had miniaturized the forms of romantic Italian opera; in Falstaff he miniaturized himself...[M]oments...crystallize a feeling...as though an aria or duet had been precipitated into a phrase." ## Legacy ### Reception Although Verdi's operas brought him a popular following, not all contemporary critics approved of his work. The English critic Henry Chorley allowed in 1846 that "he is the only modern man...having a style—for better or worse", but found all his output unacceptable. "[His] faults [are] grave ones, calculated to destroy and degrade taste beyond those of any Italian composer in the long list" wrote Chorley, whilst conceding that "howsoever incomplete may have been his training, howsoever mistaken his aspirations may have proved...he has aspired." But by the time of Verdi's death, 55 years later, his reputation was assured, and the 1910 edition of Grove's Dictionary pronounced him "one of the greatest and most popular opera composers of the nineteenth century". Verdi had no pupils apart from Muzio and no school of composers sought to follow his style which, however much it reflected his own musical direction, was rooted in the period of his own youth. By the time of his death, verismo was the accepted style of young Italian composers. The New York Metropolitan Opera frequently staged Rigoletto, Trovatore and Traviata during this period and featured Aida in every season from 1898 to 1945. Interest in the operas reawakened in mid-1920s Germany and this sparked a revival in England and elsewhere. From the 1930s onward there began to appear scholarly biographies and publications of documentation and correspondence. In 1959 the Instituto di Studi Verdiani (from 1989 the Istituto Nazionale di Studi Verdiani) was founded in Parma and became a leading centre for research and publication of Verdi studies, and in the 1970s the American Institute for Verdi Studies was founded at New York University. ### Nationalism in the operas Historians have debated how political Verdi's operas were. In particular, the Chorus of the Hebrew Slaves (known as Va, pensiero) from the third act of the opera Nabucco was used an anthem for Italian patriots, who were seeking to unify their country and free it from foreign control in the years up to 1861 (the chorus's theme of exiles singing about their homeland, and its lines such as O mia patria, si bella e perduta / "O my country, so lovely and so lost" were thought to have resonated with many Italians). Beginning in Naples in 1859 and spreading throughout Italy, the slogan "Viva VERDI" was used as an acronym for Viva Vittorio Emanuele Re D'I'talia (Long live Victor Emmanuel King of Italy), referring to Victor Emmanuel II. Marco Pizzo argues that after 1815, music became a political tool, and many songwriters expressed ideals of freedom and equality. Pizzo claims that Verdi was part of this movement, for his operas were inspired by the love of country, the struggle for Italian independence, and speak to the sacrifice of patriots and exiles. George Martin claims Verdi was "the greatest artist" of the Risorgimento. "Throughout his work its values, its issues recur constantly, and he expressed them with great power". But Mary Ann Smart argues that music critics at the time seldom mentioned any political themes. Likewise, Roger Parker argues that the political dimension of Verdi's operas was exaggerated by nationalistic historians looking for a hero in the late 19th century. From the 1850s onwards, Verdi's operas displayed few patriotic themes because of the heavy censorship by the absolutist regime in power. Verdi later became disillusioned by politics, but he was personally active part in the political world of events of the Risorgimento and was elected to the first Italian parliament in 1861. ### Memorials and cultural portrayals Three Italian conservatories, the Milan Conservatory and those in Turin and Como, are named after Verdi, as are many Italian theatres. Verdi's hometown of Busseto displays Luigi Secchi's statue of a seated Verdi in 1913, next to the Teatro Verdi built in his honour in the 1850s. It is one of many statues to the composer in Italy. The Giuseppe Verdi Monument, a 1906 marble memorial, sculpted by Pasquale Civiletti, is located in Verdi Square in Manhattan, New York City. The monument includes a statue of Verdi himself and life-sized statues of four characters from his operas, (Aida, Otello, and Falstaff from the operas of the same names, and Leonora from La forza del destino). Verdi has been the subject of a number of film and stage works. These include the 1938 film directed by Carmine Gallone, Giuseppe Verdi, starring Fosco Giachetti; the 1982 miniseries, The Life of Verdi, directed by Renato Castellani, where Verdi was played by Ronald Pickup, with narration by Burt Lancaster in the English version; and the 1985 play After Aida, by Julian Mitchell (1985). He is a character in the 2011 opera Risorgimento! by Italian composer Lorenzo Ferrero, written to commemorate the 150th anniversary of Italian unification of 1861. ### Verdi today Verdi's operas are frequently staged around the world. All of his operas are available in recordings in a number of versions, and on DVD – Naxos Records offers a complete boxed set. Modern productions may differ substantially from those originally envisaged by the composer. Jonathan Miller's 1982 version of Rigoletto for English National Opera, set in the world of modern American mafiosi, received critical plaudits. But the same company's staging in 2002 of Un ballo in maschera as A Masked Ball, directed by Calixto Bieito, including "satanic sex rituals, homosexual rape, [and] a demonic dwarf", got a general critical thumbs down. Meanwhile, the music of Verdi can still evoke a range of cultural and political resonances. Excerpts from the Requiem were featured at the funeral of Diana, Princess of Wales in 1997. On 12 March 2011 during a performance of Nabucco at the Opera di Roma celebrating 150 years of Italian unification, the conductor Riccardo Muti paused after "Va pensiero" and turned to address the audience (which included the then Italian Prime Minister, Silvio Berlusconi) to complain about cuts in state funding of culture; the audience then joined in a repeat of the chorus. In 2014, the pop singer Katy Perry appeared at the Grammy Award wearing a dress designed by Valentino, embroidered with the music of "Dell'invito trascorsa è già l'ora" from the start of La traviata. The bicentenary of Verdi's birth in 2013 was celebrated in numerous events around the world, both in performances and broadcasts.
1,882,040	Stig Inge Bjørnebye	1,170,910,905	Norwegian footballer (born 1969)	[ "1969 births", "1994 FIFA World Cup players", "1998 FIFA World Cup players", "Association football scouts", "Blackburn Rovers F.C. non-playing staff", "Blackburn Rovers F.C. players", "Brøndby IF players", "Danish Superliga players", "Eliteserien players", "Expatriate men's footballers in Denmark", "Expatriate men's footballers in England", "Footballers from Innlandet", "IK Start managers", "Kongsvinger IL Toppfotball players", "Liverpool F.C. players", "Living people", "Men's association football fullbacks", "Norway men's international footballers", "Norway men's under-21 international footballers", "Norway men's youth international footballers", "Norwegian expatriate men's footballers", "Norwegian expatriate sportspeople in Denmark", "Norwegian expatriate sportspeople in England", "Norwegian football managers", "Norwegian men's footballers", "People from Elverum", "Premier League players", "Rosenborg BK players", "Strømmen IF players", "UEFA Euro 2000 players" ]	Stig Inge Bjørnebye (born 11 December 1969) is a Norwegian former professional footballer who played in Norway, England, and Denmark, most notably for Liverpool, and is currently the sports director of the Danish football club AGF Aarhus. His preferred position was left back, which he occupied for domestic clubs and the national team. Bjørnebye was appointed assistant manager of Norway in 2003, relinquishing the role three years later to succeed Tom Nordlie as manager of IK Start. He was the sports director of Rosenborg Ballklub from March 2015 until November 2019. For club and country, Bjørnebye was noted for his precise deliveries from the flanks. Described as a "solid, no-nonsense full-back", Bjørnebye played competitive football for 16 years, and appeared in 194 Premier League matches, until injury compelled retirement in March 2003. He represented the Norwegian national team in the 1994 and 1998 FIFA World Cup and the Euro 2000 and was capped 75 times, scoring once. ## Club career Stig Inge Bjørnebye was born in Elverum, the son of skier Jo Inge Bjørnebye, who competed in the 1968 and 1972 Winter Olympics. As a child, Bjørnebye exhibited an interest in emulating his father by becoming a ski jumper. His footballing career began as a youth player with home club Elverum IL, before joining Strømmen IF in the late 1980s. He moved to Kongsvinger IL in 1989, establishing himself as a first-team regular in the Norwegian top division. After three seasons with Kongsvinger, he transferred to Rosenborg in 1992, where he in his inaugural season won the Norwegian top division and the Norwegian Cup, in the final of which he scored the deciding goal against Lillestrøm SK. His performances merited inclusion in the national team and attracted the attention of Liverpool's manager Graeme Souness, who bought Bjørnebye for £600,000 less than one year after moving to Rosenborg. Signed as a replacement for David Burrows, Bjørnebye debuted inauspiciously on 19 December 1992 in a 5–1 defeat to Coventry City. Initial difficulties adapting to the Premier League caused many fans to question his displays on the pitch and he returned to Norway on loan to Rosenborg in 1994. Bjørnebye's experiences as a Reds' player in the 1994–95 season, under the management of Roy Evans, were markedly more successful than that of previous campaigns. He gained a regular place in the senior team, supplanting the left back position from Julian Dicks, and featured in the 2–1 win against Bolton Wanderers in the final of the 1995 League Cup Final on 2 April 1995. Subsequent injury, a broken leg sustained on 5 April 1995 in a 3–1 win match against Southampton, terminated his season and he was replaced by Steve Harkness. Unavailable for several months, Bjørnebye appeared just twice for Liverpool in the 1995–96 season. Recovery and injuries to other left back candidates enabled Bjørnebye to reclaim his place the following season, in which he scored his first goal for Liverpool on 17 August 1996 in a 3–3 draw against Middlesbrough. He contributed to the club's most convincing title challenge since the inception of the Premier League by supplying club strikers Stan Collymore and Robbie Fowler with precise crosses. He was ultimately included in the PFA Team of the Year with Steve McManaman and Mark Wright. The acquisition of Steve Staunton and arrival of Gérard Houllier in the 1998–99 season, limited Bjørnebye's first-team opportunities, leading to his effective marginalisation. Bjørnebye affirmed his recurring determination to stay at Liverpool that season, remarking "If I didn't have any fight in my stomach I'd have left Liverpool at least three times before". Unable to displace Staunton and Dominic Matteo, Bjørnebye agreed to a loan move to Danish side Brøndby IF in 2000, who finished second in the Danish Superliga with Bjørnebye on the team. He decided to permanently leave Liverpool after returning from the European Championship, accepting a £300,000 transfer to Blackburn Rovers that reunited him with former manager Graeme Souness. Promotion to the Premier League was achieved in his first year with Rovers, in the process, Bjørnebye scored his only goal for the club on 11 November 2000, in a 2–2 draw against Portsmouth. His final trophy was gained when Blackburn defeated Tottenham Hotspur 2–1 in the 2002 League Cup Final. Successive injuries after the cup victory disrupted and eventually ended his career as a footballer. While preparing for the 2002–03 season, Bjørnebye fractured his eye socket in a training accident. He complained of double vision, underwent surgery, and was rendered unavailable for seven months. Further injury inflicted during a League Cup match on 17 December 2002, in a 2–0 win against Wigan Athletic escalated, while Bjørnebye was recovering in Norway, necessitating emergency surgery to avert the possibility of foot amputation. Bjørnebye announced his retirement on 11 March 2003. Blackburn manager Graeme Souness reacted to the decision with a statement: > It's a very sad day. As far as I am concerned it could hardly be worse for Stig is the consummate dedicated professional. He is as good a professional as any I have worked with, I couldn’t name anybody better and he is [a] fine role model and a proper, proper human being. Stig has had a wonderful career, it's a great shame that it has to end with a freak training-ground accident as he felt, quite rightly, that he could have played longer. ## International career Bjørnebye was capped 75 times by Norway, scoring once – an olympic goal in a 1–0 friendly against the United States on 8 September 1993. Having represented his country at youth, under-21, and "B" level, Bjørnebye debuted for the senior team on 31 May 1989 against Austria. The majority of his caps were collected during Egil Olsen's eight-year tenure as manager of Norway. Under Olsen's guidance, Norway employed a "long ball" policy that was contingent on the height of Olsen's squad. The tactic of directing long passes to the tall winger Jostein Flo, principally delivered by Bjørnebye, became popularly referred to in Norway as the "Flo Pass" (Flo-pasningen). Although criticised for employing the long-ball approach and maintaining a defensively-orientated mentality, Olsen secured qualification for the World Cups of 1994 and 1998. Bjørnebye participated in both tournaments – seven matches in total. He decided to retire from international football after the 1998 World Cup, intending to focus on his domestic career and family. Bjørnebye unexpectedly reversed his decision after Nils Johan Semb persuaded him to return to the squad for Euro 2000. Unused in Norway's 1–0 win against Spain on 13 June 2000, Bjørnebye was first introduced to the competition in the second match of the group stage, in a 0–1 loss on 18 June 2000 against Yugoslavia, as a 35-minute substitute for his Liverpool colleague Vegard Heggem. He retained his place, featuring in the goalless draw against Slovenia on 21 June 2000, which eliminated Norway from the tournament. His final international match was in a 1–1 draw World Cup qualifier on 7 October 2000 against Wales, placing him ninth in the overall record of appearances for Norway as of 2007. ## Managerial career Bjørnebye returned to football in a non-playing capacity when he was selected by the Norwegian Football Association to replace Harald Aabrekk as Norway's assistant manager, subordinate to the newly appointed Åge Hareide. Prior to the announcement, the media in England had reported that Bjørnebye was considering maintaining a relationship with Blackburn by becoming a scout for the club. He vacated his position in 2006 to succeed Tom Nordlie as manager of IK Start. Success was forthcoming in his first season; the club competed in Europe and Bjørnebye was the highest earning coach of the season, ahead of his predecessor Nordlie, with an income of almost seven million krone. His appointment lasted two seasons, ending with dismissal in September 2007, after a series of poor results that placed the club in serious danger of being relegated from the Tippeligaen. He was replaced by Benny Lennartsson, who was unable to preserve the club's premier league status; Start were relegated to Norway's second tier. On 15 March 2015, Stig Inge Bjørnebye succeeded Erik Hoftun as the sports director of Eliteserien club, Rosenborg Ballklub. He since has won The Double with Rosenborg Ballklub two years in a row, in 2015 and 2016. Rosenborg Ballklub is the first club in the history of Norwegian football to do so two years in a row. As the sports director of Rosenborg Ballklub he has many responsibilities, among many others signing on new players and renewing contracts with existing players. The most notable signing came on 6 March 2017: Nicklas Bendtner signed on for a three-year contract with the Norwegian side. This was the most surprising and most notable signing in the history of Norwegian football. Teammate Pål André Helland commented: "It shouldn't come as a surprise if he becomes the top scorer and we win the league." ## Personal life Bjørnebye is married to the former Byåsen IL handball player Hege Frøseth, with whom he has three children. ## Career statistics ### Club ### International Scores and results list Norway's goal tally first, score column indicates score after Bjørnebye goal. ## Managerial statistics Source: ## Honours Rosenborg - Tippeligaen: 1992, 1994 - Norwegian Football Cup: 1992 Liverpool - Football League Cup: 1994–95 Blackburn Rovers - Football League Cup: 2001–02 Individual - PFA Team of the Year: 1996–97 Premier League
28,054,485	29th Massachusetts Infantry Regiment	1,161,410,904	null	[ "1861 establishments in Massachusetts", "Military units and formations disestablished in 1865", "Military units and formations established in 1861", "Units and formations of the Union Army from Massachusetts" ]	The 29th Regiment Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry was an infantry regiment in the Union army of the United States during the American Civil War. The regiment was organized in December 1861 when three new companies were attached to a battalion of seven Massachusetts companies that had been in active service since May 1861. These seven companies had been recruited to fill out the 3rd Massachusetts and 4th Massachusetts regiments and had signed on for three years of service. When the 3rd and 4th Massachusetts were mustered out in July 1861, the seven companies that had signed on for three years were grouped together to form a battalion known as the Massachusetts Battalion. Finally, in December 1861, three more companies were added to their roster to form a full regiment and the unit was designated the 29th Massachusetts. The regiment took part in 29 battles and four sieges in a variety of theaters of the war. After their early service at Fortress Monroe in Virginia, the 29th was attached, in the spring of 1862, to the Army of the Potomac during the Peninsular Campaign as part of the famed Irish Brigade. The 29th had the distinction of being the only regiment of non-Irish ethnicity to serve in that brigade. In January 1863, the IX Corps (including the 29th Massachusetts) was transferred to Kentucky and engaged in operations against Confederate guerillas. In the summer of 1863, the IX Corps was again transferred and took part in the siege of Vicksburg and the siege of Jackson, Mississippi. In the fall of 1863, IX Corps took part in the Knoxville Campaign which resulted in the defeat of Confederate forces in eastern Tennessee. The spring of 1864 saw the IX Corps and the 29th Massachusetts once again returned to duty with the Army of the Potomac, just in time to take part in the Overland campaign and the siege of Petersburg. During the siege of Petersburg, the unit suffered their worst casualties of the war in the Battle of Fort Stedman on March 25, 1865. The 29th was mustered out of service on August 11, 1865. Including the seven months served by most of the regiment before its designation as the 29th, the unit had one of the longest terms of service of any Massachusetts regiment—a total of four years and three months. ## Massachusetts Battalion On April 15, 1861, three days after the attack on Fort Sumter, the call went out from Massachusetts Governor John Andrew for the immediate mobilization of the four existing regiments of Massachusetts militia. The 3rd and 4th Massachusetts both left for Washington, D.C., on April 17 to serve a term of 90 days. But in their haste to reach the capital, these regiments had departed without a full complement of ten companies as required by army regulations. In the following weeks, seven additional companies were formed in Massachusetts and assigned to the 3rd and 4th to fill out their rosters. Unlike the majority of companies in the 3rd and 4th regiments, which had enlisted for 90 days, these new companies signed on for three years of service. These seven companies would eventually form the majority of the 29th Massachusetts. While serving with the 3rd and the 4th Massachusetts, these companies were primarily garrisoned at Fortress Monroe at the end of the Virginia Peninsula. This strategically important foothold in Virginia allowed Union forces to control the major waterway of Hampton Roads. In an unsuccessful effort to strengthen their hold on the Peninsula, Union troops marched from Fortress Monroe and attacked the Confederate position at Big Bethel Church, resulting in the Battle of Big Bethel on June 10, 1861. Two of the companies that would eventually become part of the 29th were involved in this action. The expedition was commanded by Colonel Ebenezer W. Peirce. When the 3rd and 4th Massachusetts regiments were mustered out in July 1861, the seven "three-year" companies were consolidated on July 16 to form the "Massachusetts Battalion" under the command of Captain Joseph H. Barnes. The battalion served relatively light garrison and guard duty at Fortress Monroe, Newport News and Hampton for the remainder of 1861. In December, three more companies were added to the battalion and, with a full complement of ten companies, the unit became known as the 29th Massachusetts Infantry. Peirce was appointed the first commander of the 29th. The regimental historian recorded that this appointment was "exceedingly distasteful" to the 29th as there had been an expectation that Barnes, who had led the Massachusetts Battalion, would command the new regiment. Barnes, however, was placed second in command to Peirce as lieutenant colonel. Further, Peirce was disliked for his failure at Big Bethel. During the winter of 1862, charges were brought against Peirce by officers of the 29th and he was court-martialed for incompetence and improper conduct. His superior officer, Brigadier General John E. Wool, overturned the ruling and Peirce remained in command of the 29th Massachusetts. ## Peninsular campaign During the winter and early spring of 1862, the 29th was deployed on various minor expeditions near Fortress Monroe, Newport News and Norfolk, Virginia. On March 8 and 9, the regiment was present during the Battle of Hampton Roads, a naval engagement fought primarily between the USS Monitor and the CSS Virginia. The regiment helped man a land battery during the engagement, and the men of the 29th were amazed by the new ironclad vessels and the changes they brought to naval warfare. In the middle of March, once again at Fortress Monroe, the 29th witnessed the arrival of the Army of the Potomac, commanded by Major General George B. McClellan. McClellan intended to use Fortress Monroe as his base of operations for an assault on the Confederate capital of Richmond. The effort would be known as the Peninsular Campaign. Over the course of March 1862, the men of the 29th watched as roughly 100,000 Union soldiers and 15,000 mules and horses debarked from Fortress Monroe. The 29th was to remain at Fortress Monroe as the Army of the Potomac made its way toward Richmond. As the campaign became bogged down outside the Confederate capital, additional troops were called for and the 29th Massachusetts departed Hampton Roads on June 7, 1862. ### Attachment to the Irish Brigade Traveling by steamboat up the York River, the 29th arrived at White House Landing and marched to the battle front on June 8, 1862. The regiment was attached to the Irish Brigade (2nd Brigade, 1st Division, II Corps). Contemporaries and historians alike have wondered at this unusual assignment. The 29th Massachusetts was made up of men descended, largely, from old-stock English families, some with heritage dating back to the Mayflower. There was, at the time, significant social friction in New England between established Protestant families and Irish immigrants. While the regimental historian observed that the 29th was "cordially welcomed" to the Irish Brigade, other historians, such as Marion Armstrong, point out the oddity of the "aristocratic 29th Massachusetts ... thrown in with three regiments of New York Irishmen." Historian Daniel Callaghan quotes period sources describing the "unlikely matching of ancient political foes," and the manner in which the men of the 29th tolerated the Irish-born commander of the Irish Brigade, Brig. Gen. Thomas Francis Meagher, "coldly, in a pinched and critical silence." Despite these social differences, the 29th Massachusetts fought alongside the Irish regiments through heavy combat (the first the regiment had seen) during the Seven Days Battles. During this series of battles, the Confederates drove McClellan's army away from Richmond, resulting in the failure of the Peninsular Campaign. After the Union retreat, Meagher praised the 29th's actions in battle saying that they "had proved themselves the equals of any others in the Brigade, and had no superiors in the army." Meagher would later call the 29th "Irishmen in disguise." During the Seven Days Battles, the 29th suffered moderate casualties of six killed and 18 wounded. These casualties included Peirce whose right arm was shot off by cannon fire. Command of the regiment then fell to Barnes. ## Maryland campaign Following the failure of the Peninsular campaign, elements of the Army of the Potomac were shipped to northern Virginia to provide assistance to Union Maj. Gen. John Pope. Pope had been attempting to open a second assault on Richmond from the north, but he was defeated during the Second Battle of Bull Run on August 30, 1862. The 29th Massachusetts, along with other elements of the II Corps, arrived too late to take part in the battle. After his victory at Bull Run, Confederate Gen. Robert E. Lee invaded Maryland in September 1862. The Army of the Potomac, including the 29th Massachusetts, moved to intercept the Confederate offensive. The two armies clashed at Sharpsburg, Maryland, during the Battle of Antietam on September 17, 1862. ### Battle of Antietam The battle commenced in the early morning with several assaults on the Confederate left flank by the I Corps and the XII Corps. After these failed, the II Corps, including the Irish Brigade, was called upon to assault a position near the Confederate center known as the "Sunken Road" or "Bloody Lane." The trench-like road afforded the Confederates a strong defensive position. Just after 9 a.m., Maj. Gen. Israel B. Richardson's division, with the Irish Brigade in the lead, moved toward the Sunken Road. Meagher envisioned the delivery of a few volleys from the brigade followed by an impetuous charge. As the Irish Brigade advanced up the crest toward the Sunken Road, it took heavy fire from the Confederates. The progress of the brigade was slowed by a sturdy split rail fence. When Meagher asked for volunteers to run forward and take it down, Corporal Samuel C. Wright of the 29th sprang forward with several others. Wright recalled that many were shot down before they reached the fence and, as "one would grasp a rail, it would be sent flying out of his hands by rifle shots." The dash back to the lines was just as dangerous. Cpl. Wright was later awarded the Medal of Honor for his bravery at Antietam. He would, over the course of successive battles, be wounded five times and reported dead twice. Despite his travails, he survived the war. The Irish Brigade, though advancing in good order under heavy fire and delivering effective fire in return, did not reach the Sunken Road. The brigade retired, the regimental historian observed, "as steadily as on drill." The 29th has been criticized by some historians, including Marion Armstrong, for not advancing as quickly as the rest of the Irish Brigade. An accident in the terrain, a small rise in front of the 29th's position, afforded them cover, and their casualties were lighter than those of the other regiments of the brigade. Armstrong argues that Barnes was reluctant to leave this advantageous ground, a factor which may have contributed to the failure of the Irish Brigade's charge. The casualties of the 29th were nine killed, 31 wounded and four missing. ## Fredericksburg Campaign The Battle of Antietam had been a tactical stalemate. McClellan claimed it as a strategic victory as Lee's army retreated back into Virginia. Despite this, President Lincoln was displeased with McClellan's failure to pursue Lee and replaced him with Maj. Gen. Ambrose Burnside. During November 1862, Burnside proceeded to gather the Army of the Potomac in Falmouth, Virginia, preparing to assault Lee's army across the Rappahannock River in Fredericksburg, Virginia. ### Removal from the Irish Brigade While in camp in Falmouth in late November, the officers of the 29th learned that Meagher had arranged for a green Irish Brigade flag to be presented to the regiment, recognizing their role as "honorary Irishmen" and their bravery during the Battle of Antietam. Barnes declined the gift, however. According to the regimental historian, "While the Colonel would have been proud to receive the flag for the regiment as a token of the respect of their Irish comrades, yet he objected to the flag being carried by the regiment, on the ground that it was not an Irish regiment." Irish Brigade historians, including Joseph Bilby, have observed that there may have been some controversy surrounding the issue. According to Bilby, Barnes refused to accept the flag because they believed it "would brand them as Fenians," or Irish revolutionaries. As a result of this incident, on November 30, 1862, the 29th was transferred out of the Irish Brigade and into Brig. Gen. Benjamin C. Christ's brigade in the IX Army Corps. It was replaced in the Irish Brigade by the 28th Massachusetts, an Irish regiment. The transfer spared the 29th from the Battle of Fredericksburg in which their new brigade played almost no role. Their former comrades in the Irish Brigade, however, made a harrowing charge during the battle and suffered severe casualties. ## Kentucky Following his failure during the Battle of Fredericksburg, Burnside was removed from command of the Army of the Potomac and returned to the command of the IX Corps, to which the 29th Massachusetts now belonged. On February 5, 1863, the IX Corps was detached from the Army of the Potomac and transferred from Virginia to Kentucky where Burnside was to take command of the Department of the Ohio and Union operations in Kentucky and east Tennessee. The 29th Massachusetts reached Cincinnati via railroad on March 26, then marched into Kentucky. They were stationed in Paris, Kentucky, during April 1863, conducting light duty in defending against occasional raids by Confederate guerrillas. In late April they marched to Somerset, Kentucky, where they were occupied with similar duty until early June 1863. ## Mississippi In early June, most of the IX Corps was transferred to the command of Maj. Gen. Ulysses Grant who required reinforcements in the siege of Vicksburg, the last major Confederate stronghold on the Mississippi River. The 29th Massachusetts traveled with other elements of the IX Corps via steamship down the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers. They arrived in the vicinity of Vicksburg in late June and began digging entrenchments. Less than two weeks after the regiment arrived in Mississippi, the city of Vicksburg surrendered on July 4, 1863. Following the surrender of Vicksburg, the remaining Confederate forces in Mississippi concentrated in the state capital of Jackson. Maj. Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman took several corps of Unions troops, including the IX Corps, and laid siege to Jackson in mid-July. While digging trenches, the 29th was exposed to heavy artillery and sharpshooter fire from the Confederates, but the regiment suffered only one casualty during the siege. During the night of July 16, the Confederate army in Jackson managed to slip away from the city and the siege was ended. Shortly afterward, the IX Corps was recalled to Kentucky, as Burnside was eager to begin his operations in Tennessee. On the way back to Vicksburg, the 29th acted as provost guard, marching at the rear of the IX Corps to gather stragglers. They missed the first group of steamships to depart for Cincinnati and had to wait three weeks, until August 12, with other regiments at a camp in Milldale, Mississippi, near Vicksburg. Camp conditions were unsanitary and the weather extremely hot. Many of the men suffered from disease during and after this encampment. As the regimental historian wrote, "Deaths were very frequent among the troops here during this time, burial parties were almost constantly engaged, and the funeral notes of the fife and drum could be heard nearly every hour in the day. None save the strongest came out of that campaign in sound health." ## Knoxville Campaign Burnside gathered his Army of the Ohio in the vicinity of Lexington, Kentucky, in late August 1863 in preparation for an invasion of eastern Tennessee. The region was strategically important as a rail link between Virginia and Chattanooga. The population of eastern Tennessee was also primarily Unionist, so it became a key strategic goal of Lincoln's to force Confederate troops out of the region in the hope that Unionists would gain support and bring the state back into the Union. Prior to the march, half of the men in the 29th were on the sick list as a result of their service in Mississippi, including Barnes, who took an extended leave and returned for a time to Massachusetts. In his absence, Peirce returned to the 29th to command the unit. The march across Kentucky, through the Cumberland Gap and on to Knoxville, Tennessee, was one of the longest marches the 29th ever executed—a distance of more than 200 miles (320 km) covered between September 1 and September 26, 1863. On October 21, the IX Corps made camp in and around Lenoir City, Tennessee, and remained there until November 14, 1863. During this time, Confederate Lt. Gen. James Longstreet launched an offensive aimed at the expulsion of Burnside's troops from Knoxville. The IX Corps, including the 29th Massachusetts, moved southwest to meet the Confederates near Loudon, Tennessee. Union forces were rapidly repulsed and retreated to Knoxville. The siege of that city by the Confederates began in mid-November 1863. The 29th's position during the siege was within Fort Sanders. When Longstreet launched his assault on Fort Sanders on November 29, 1863, the 29th saw heavy action in repulsing the Confederates. Two members of the 29th, Sgt. Jeremiah Mahoney and Pvt. Joseph S. Manning, later received the Medal of Honor for their bravery in capturing two Confederate battle flags during the battle. The 29th lost only two killed in the Battle of Fort Sanders owing to the strength of their position on the walls of the fort. Following this Union victory and the retreat of Longstreet's troops to Virginia, the 29th was stationed in mid-December 1863 at Blaine, Tennessee, about 20 miles (32 km) northeast of Knoxville. Camped on an open plain, exposed to wind and snow, and running very low on provisions, the regiment suffered severely during December 1863 and January 1864 and referred to the camp at Blaine as their Valley Forge. At the end of December, Barnes rejoined the 29th as its commander and Peirce was elevated to brigade command. In January 1864, with the end of their three-year term of service only four months away, the men of the 29th were given the option to reenlist for another three years. Those men who chose to accept the offer would receive a 30-day furlough, while those that did not would be consolidated with the 36th Massachusetts to serve out their remaining months. A total of 166 men chose to reenlist and approximately 90 did not. On March 21, 1864, the 29th and the IX Corps commenced their long march back to Ohio via the Cumberland Gap, reaching Cincinnati on April 1, 1864. From there, the men who had reenlisted were sent back to Boston for the furlough they had been promised and those who had not were sent on to Virginia to join the 36th Massachusetts. ## Overland Campaign While the remaining men of the 29th were on furlough in Massachusetts, Lt. Gen. Ulysses Grant, as general-in-chief of the Union Army, began the Overland Campaign. During the spring of 1864, he would direct the actions of the Army of the Potomac in northern Virginia, aggressively pushing Lee's Confederate army toward Richmond in a series of major battles. The men formerly of the 29th who had been transferred to the 36th Massachusetts took part in the opening battles of the campaign, the Battle of the Wilderness and the Battle of Spotsylvania Court House, incurring casualties of seven killed and 30 wounded out of a total of 90 men. This detachment fulfilled their three-year enlistment in mid-May 1864 and returned home. The furlough for the newly reenlisted ended on May 16 and the 29th Massachusetts, now a small fraction of its original size, departed for Virginia. They rejoined the Army of the Potomac on May 20, 1864, just in time to take part in the closing battles of the Overland Campaign, particularly the Battle of Cold Harbor. On June 1, 1864, the regiment suffered casualties of one killed, 12 wounded and three captured during Grant's first assault at Cold Harbor. Although the regiment had been temporarily assigned to the V Corps, on June 3 it rejoined the IX Corps. Over the next nine days, the regiment built breastworks and served on picket duty until June 12 when IX Corps rapidly marched to the outskirts of Petersburg, Virginia, in preparation for an assault on that city. ## Siege of Petersburg ### Assault on Petersburg In the pre-dawn hours of June 17, the divisions of the IX Corps formed up for an assault on the entrenched Confederate position outside Petersburg. Barnes of the 29th had been elevated to command of the 2nd Brigade, 1st Division of the IX Corps, to which the 29th belonged. Major Charles Chipman was placed in command of the 29th in his stead. While other divisions of the IX Corps attacked and were repulsed, the 1st Division moved to its assigned position in the late afternoon and lay down, studying the Confederate breastworks and awaiting orders to advance. At first, the division, to its relief, received orders that the attack had been called off. A short time later, however, came the order to attack. The division, including the 29th, charged from their protected position in a ravine out into an open plain in front of the Confederate entrenchments. According to the regimental historian, "They had scarcely emerged upon the open plain, when the whole crest of the Confederate works was fringed with fire and smoke; grape, canister, and musketballs filled the air." During this charge, the color-bearer of the 29th, Sgt. Silas Grosvenor, was shot through the head. The colors were picked up by Sgt. John A. Tighe who was also killed. Sergeant Major William F. Willis picked up the flag and became the third color-bearer killed in the charge. At this point, the 29th was forced to pause in its advance and retired a short distance. In the confusion, the colors were left on the field. Major Chipman asked for two volunteers to go with him onto the open ground to retrieve the colors. The three found the colors and, according to the regimental historian, the Confederates, admiring the bravery of the trio, did not fire and allowed them to return to their lines. The 1st Division of the IX Corps eventually captured the Confederate works in their front, however little had been accomplished by the assault on Petersburg overall. The Confederates remained strongly entrenched and the long siege of Petersburg began. The 29th, numbering just 100 men at this time, lost six killed and 23 wounded. ### Battle of the Crater The 29th occupied trenches outside Petersburg with the rest of the Army of the Potomac during the summer of 1864. In July, Union troops dug a mine beneath the Confederate position and, on July 30, 1864, a massive amount of gunpowder was detonated in the mine, blasting a hole in the Confederate position. During the resulting Battle of the Crater, the 1st Division of the IX Corps led a confused and failed attack. The 29th took part, charging into the crater with other regiments and eventually retreating, losing three killed, seven wounded and six captured. ### Battle of Fort Stedman The 29th played a minor role in the Battle of Globe Tavern, a movement intended to tighten the siege around Petersburg, on August 18, 1864. The regiment suffered only a few casualties during this engagement. In the fall of 1864, the 29th served uneventful duty along the Petersburg siege lines and was eventually, in November, assigned a garrison post in Battery 11, a small, unfinished ravelin (detached fortification) outside of Fort Stedman. Stedman was one of many earthen fortifications built along Union lines during the siege, and was only 150 yards from the Confederate trenches—the narrowest distance between the two armies. They would remain at this post for the next four months. On March 25, 1865, the regiment fought in the Battle of Fort Stedman, the Confederate Army's final offensive during the Siege of Petersburg. Before dawn on March 25, Confederate troops achieved complete surprise and easily occupied Fort Stedman entering the rear sally port almost unchallenged. Major Charles T. Richardson, then in command of the 29th, hearing some light gunfire, ordered the 29th to fall in. No general alarm had yet been raised, but Richardson felt certain that an attack was underway. Within minutes, approximately 500 Confederates, a small part of the overall offensive, swept over Battery 11. The 29th held their ground, however, engaging in heated hand-to-hand combat and eventually capturing 300 Confederates—more than twice their own number. The Confederates still occupied Fort Stedman, however, and soon sent another offensive to occupy Battery 11. This time, the 29th was forced to retreat back to Fort Haskell, the nearest defensible position. Among the 29th's casualties in this engagement was Sgt. Calvin F. Harlow who, finding himself surrounded by Confederates, refused to surrender. He and the Confederate officer demanding his surrender shot each other simultaneously. Poet Walt Whitman, learning of Harlow's story, wrote about him in his book Specimen Days. After four hours, the Confederate attack lost momentum, and their forces began to pull back into Fort Stedman. An overwhelming Union counterattack eventually recaptured the fort. The 29th took part in the counterattack, re-capturing Battery 11. Color-bearer Conrad Homan of the 29th was the first to re-enter Battery 11 and was later awarded the Medal of Honor. The regiment lost 10 killed and an unknown number of captured in this engagement. ## Mustering out The 29th did not take part in the pursuit of Lee's army during the Appomattox Campaign. The small regiment was instead withdrawn to Washington shortly after Lee's surrender and served as provost guards in the capital. On August 11, 1865, the 29th was mustered out of service. Approximately 173 of its members (roughly 15 percent) were killed in action or died of wounds or disease. Official numbers as to the number of wounded are not available. The unit served in 15 states and traveled more than 4,200 miles (6,800 km). Taking into account the seven months of duty served prior to the official formation of the regiment, plus a term of reenlistment served by many members, the 29th Massachusetts had one of the longest terms of service of any Massachusetts regiment, a total of four years and three months. ## See also - Massachusetts in the Civil War - List of Massachusetts Civil War units ## Notes/References Citations References
855,255	Kyo Kusanagi	1,172,016,842	Fictional character	[ "Action film characters", "Fictional Japanese people in video games", "Fictional kenpō practitioners", "Fictional male martial artists", "Fictional martial artists in video games", "Fictional mixed martial artists", "Male characters in video games", "SNK protagonists", "The King of Fighters characters", "Video game characters introduced in 1994", "Video game characters with fire or heat abilities", "Video game mascots" ]	Kyo Kusanagi (Japanese: 草薙京, Hepburn: Kusanagi Kyō) is a fictional character in SNK's The King of Fighters series of fighting games. The character was first introduced in the 1994 video game The King of Fighters '94 as the leader of the Japan team from the series' title tournament. Kyo, heir to the Kusanagi clan, is first introduced as a cocky, delinquent high-school student who has pyrokinetic powers. His clan is one of three who banished the legendary snake demon entity Yamata no Orochi. During the series' story, Kyo meets rivals and enemies who seek to take his flame abilities. Aside from the main series, Kyo appears in several crossovers and spinoffs with other games. He is also the central title character of the manga The King of Fighters: Kyo and video game adaptation with the same name which center around his daily life. Kyo was created by Shinichi Morioka as a hero who would fight the main characters from other SNK franchises, such as Fatal Fury and Art of Fighting. His debut in The King of Fighters received a large positive response by fans, making Kyo return in The King of Fighters '99 where he was originally non available in early versions. His outfit and gameplay techniques were redesigned throughout the series; since his original appearance, featuring a high-school uniform, became popular with fans, designers created clones of his original costume in later games. The same occurred with his moves, which have been re-balanced across the series. Video game journalists have praised Kyo's design and fighting style as among the best of the series, and in fighting games in general. His role in the story and his long rivalry with Iori Yagami were also celebrated. The character's redesign in The King of Fighters XIV earned mixed responses because of the differences from previous incarnations. Kyo's role in printed media and other adaptations of the series has often been criticized, most notably in the live-action film. A variety of Kyo collectibles, including key chains and figurines, has been created. ## Conception and creation ### Origin and influences Kyo Kusanagi was created by artist Shinichi Morioka. When designing characters for the first King of Fighters game, developers wanted a new, "snazzy" hero who would fight against characters from two other SNK series, Fatal Fury and Art of Fighting. Through most of his development, Kyo was named Syo Kirishima (霧島翔, Kirishima Shō) and was dressed in martial arts clothing common in fighting games of the time. His design was inspired by the main character of Katsuhiro Otomo's manga and film Akira, Shotaro Kaneda. Late in production, his name was changed to Kyo Kusanagi, as a means of relating the character to the Yamata no Orochi legend, which was the basis of the story arc of the game. The name Syo would later be used for Kyo's Another Striker in The King of Fighters 2000. Another planned name before Syo was Ryo Fang (霧島翔, Fang Ryo) but no design was elaborated from it. However, in the end SNK chose the name Kyo as they felt it more fitting. While in charge of designing the character, Yuichiro Hiraki sought to contrast Kyo with Street Fighter character Ryu, as he believed the latter was a popular character in international markets and that Kyo's characterization and design could benefit from appealing to as broad a demographic as possible. Despite Kyo originally being depicted as a lazy young adult, he shows a notable character arc across the games: he develops a new fighting style on his own which contrasts his original concept of being born with talent. In contrast to Terry and Ryo, Kyo was given a natural life in his debut. However, the death of his father Saisyu at the hands of Rugal Bernstein was executed to make him more tragic and serious when it came to his training, leaving Japan in his ending to become stronger in future battles. When making The King of Fighters '94, developers thought Kyo would appeal to audiences by contrasting starkly with characters from Fatal Fury, whose characters were much older and had more muscular bodies than Kyo's. Kyo's girlfriend Yuki was also created by Morioka. By the next game, SNK introduced Iori Yagami as Kyo's rival; in contrast to Kyo, SNK decided to keep Iori's life as private as possible in order to differentiate the two characters. The rivalry between these two men was noted to stand out across the franchise with Ogura claiming despite having the two characters having differences, they still have respect towards each other, making their team ups with Chizuru Kagura to defeat a common enemy feel natural. According to the scenario writer, while Kyo and Benimaru's relationship was initially that of rivals to, it eventually became a case of siblings with Benimaru acting like the older ones. Ureshino also finds that the romance between Kyo and Yuki ended up being nicely written to the point they feel like a married couple in The King of Fighters XV. The game's developers decided Kyo's main abilities would be fire-based, alongside the movesets of the other characters in the original Japan Team, who were all inspired by the manga and anime Getter Robo, created by Go Nagai and Ken Ishikawa. The three members of the Japan Team, Benimaru Nikaido, Goro Daimon and Kyo, had personalities similar to those of the main characters from Getter Robo. Kyo was based on the main character, Ryoma Nagare, who had a fiery persona. The elements and the personalities were also a homage to a Japanese phrase about giving birth to fire: "lightning strikes the earth which sparks the flame". According to Morioka, Ikki Kajiwara's Ashita no Joe and Nagai's Devilman manga series were influences too. Artist Nona said he found it difficult to design Kyo as a heroic character due to his dark traits, noting the character was also inspired by Akira Fudo, the protagonist of Devilman. Kyo's pixel art was created by Hiraki, who despite leaving SNK to work on another project a few years later, was asked by Capcom's Kaname Fujioka to once again work on Kyo's design for the crossover game Capcom vs. SNK: Millennium Fight 2000. Artist Falcoon states that Kyo has a strong attitude, making him one of the hardest characters to illustrate, while also noting that his rivalry with Iori Yagami is strong enough to make the duo likable. ### Designs and actors In his first appearances, Kyo wears a modified version of his school uniform with a Sun mark that represents his heritage of the Kusanagi. During the early stages of development for The King of Fighters '99, SNK planned to exclude Kyo and Iori from the game because its story was centered on new protagonist K', but they reversed this decision because "they couldn't leave these popular characters in limbo". Kyo's repeated appearances in every game in the series, at the insistence of SNK executives for marketing purposes, made story planning for each title challenging, with artist Hiroaki Hashimoto expressing a desire for his work to live up to Shinkiro's, which he said left a great impression on him. Several of the series' designers said Kyo is one of the most difficult characters to illustrate because of his popularity. Although Kyo was redesigned for KOF '99, some designers wanted to return to his iconic school uniform. Near the end of production, staff could not decide which uniform the Kyo clone should wear, so the project head decided to make two clones. To save time, the project head drew designs for Kyo-1 and Kyo-2 on the character roster. The same situation occurred during production of The King of Fighters 2002; the designers created another clone of Kyo called "Kusanagi" to include his school uniform design. The developers of the series for The King of Fighters 2001, Eolith, noted that Kyo and Iori were also popular in their country, which led to their immediate inclusion in their game. Falcoon redesigned Kyo's clothes for the spin-off game KOF: Maximum Impact 2; his jacket was redesigned while keeping the appeal of the original costume. His "Normal Color F" attire is similar to his father's martial arts clothing. The outfit called "Color G" is reminiscent of the costume design of Yuki, the popular protagonist of NeoGeo Battle Coliseum. While Kyo often wears different outfits for each game's story mode, he was given a more masculine appearance for The King of Fighters XIII. Artist Ogura expressed pressure when designing this incarnation of the character, saying it had to live up to an enduring reputation. With designers believing he had become a more traditional fighter, they gave him a simpler, more modern appearance for The King of Fighters XIV. Character designer Nobuyuki Kuroki said staff wanted to captivate new fans with Kyo's larger design regardless of negative backlash. Producer Yasuyuki Oda noted that while researching new characters for KOF XIV, Kyo's moves avoided stereotypes like Japanese sumo wrestlers to produce more variety within the cast, which included characters of multiple nationalities. Oda added that they "Kyo-ify" the new members to produce originality in the game. His appearance in KOF XV was altered to look like his previous looks while altering other parts of his design like his jacket and gloves. Yuichi Nakamura portrayed Kyo in a commercial promoting the cellphone game The King of Fighters All Stars, alongside Hiroshi Fujioka. In the live-action film, Kyo was portrayed by Sean Faris. Kyo's Japanese voice actor Masahiro Nonaka related with his character as being young and reckless until he "grew up" in his later appearances. He then expressed some difficulty accepting Kyo on the same level. Tomoaki Maeno replaced Nonaka for The King of Fighters XIV and said he was putting all his efforts and expected the fandom to enjoy his work as the new voice of Kyo. Maeno noted the impact of Kyo was challenging as he was the main character from a famous series of fighting games. He often played the demo of The King of Fighters XIV as Kyo in order to fully appreciate the character. For The King of Fighters for Girls, Maeno was careful with his performance as he understands due to how beloved is his character. He was careful in his songs and took a liking to the catchphrase "Moetaro?" (Got burned?). ### Fighting style In his debut, Kyo fights with the Kusanagi Style of Ancient Martial Arts (草薙流古武术, Kusanagi-ryū Kobujutsu), attacking opponents using flames and several hits from his limbs. This was developed by Mitsuo Kodama, an animator in charge of the first game in the series. In later series' tournaments, he combines fire with a personal style of kenpō. His fighting style was changed as part of the series' overhaul in The King of Fighters '96. To appease fans, producers also included an older version of Kyo from KOF '94 into The King of Fighters '97 and placed The King of Fighters '95 version of Kyo in The King of Fighters '98, which increased the character's popularity during location tests. In KOF '96 he was given a new move known as the 212 Shiki Koto Tsuki You (弐百拾弐式・琴月陽), which Yasuyuki Oda said is one of his favorites because it reminded him of mecha series from the 1990s. Oda also noted that Kyo was one of his favorite characters in the series as found his moves easy to learn. Kyo's gameplay was modified again for The King of Fighters '99 onwards, with most of his original moves being left for his clones. Although Kyo retains his third outfit in The King of Fighters XII, his moves were modified to those from the first two games of the series to make the character fight in close quarters rather than using projectiles, improving the balance of the roster, and making fights more entertaining. Kyo's signature technique is the Ura 108 Shiki: Orochinagi (裏百八式・大蛇薙, lit. "Back Crescent Eighth Formula - Serpent Wave"), a massive slash of fire he creates with one hand. The staff worked to incorporate this move into the game carefully, trying to make it as realistic as possible while using enhanced special effects. Based on Japanese myths, the Orochinagi was conceptualized as the move Kyo would use to defeat the demon known as Yamato no Orochi. This was given a mid-air variation for The King of Fighters XIII; designers kept in mind the concept of coolness and the small difficulty in performing it. Kyo's Neo Max technique, the "Ura 121 Shiki: Ama-no-Murakumo (裏百弐拾壱式・天叢雲)", in which he covers the enemies with walls of fire, was the first move of this category to be made for the game. As a result, the other characters' Neo Max techniques were reformatted so as to be comparable with Kyo's move. "NESTS Kyo" was added to the game as downloadable content; this version focused on his hand-to-hand combat, contrasting from his original moves in XIII. SNK worked to balance this version of the character to the original, ensuring neither version would be superior to the other. Like Kyo, his regular desperation move involves the original Orochinagi, but he retains the {{nihongo\\|"Saihsuu Kessen Ougi: Mushiki"\\|最終決戦奥義・無式\\|\\|lit. "Final Showdown Ultimate Technique: No style "One of three divine weapon" (also known as "182 Shiki"), a move where he consecutively punches the enemy while adding increasing flame damage to each strike. His Neo Max is a new technique named "Saishuu Kessen Hiougi Totsuka" (最終決戦秘奥義, lit. "Final Battle Secret Mystery, Token") which covers the entire screen in flames. For The King of Fighters XIV, Oda wanted to keep his gameplay intact in order to avoid fan backlash. Kyo's strongest move "Ura 1127 Shiki Yaegaki" (裏千百武捨七式八重垣) is both a reference to his father's technique as well as the Kusanagi myths from his origins. ## Appearances ### In video games #### In The King of Fighters main series Kyo is one of the last members of the Kusanagi clan who can create fire; 660 years before the games' events, the Kusanagi and Yasakani clans were allies but the latter's jealousy over the former's fame led the Yasakani to make a pact with the snake demon Orochi. Since then, the clans have had a generation-long grudge with casualties on both sides. Kyo's rivalry with Iori Yagami is one of mutual hatred rather than history. In the first The King of Fighters video game, Kyo stars in the famous fighting tournament as the leader of the Japan Team with Benimaru Nikaido and Goro Daimon. They become champions and defeat the host Rugal Bernstein who has killed Kyo's father, Sasiyu. Kyo goes on a training quest in the aftermath. In the next title, the Japan Team again faces Rugal who has revived and brainwashed Saisyu in revenge. Following their fight, Saisyu is saved from Rugal's control and Kyo's defeat their nemesis again with the team leader confused by the energy he obtained. Prior to the events of The King of Fighters '96, a man named Goenitz – a follower of Orochi – easily defeats Kyo, causing him to seek revenge. The tournament's host, Chizuru Kagura, wants Kyo and Iori Yagami on her team to help defeat Orochi and stop Goenitz, who is revealed to have granted Rugal new powers in the previous tournament. In The King of Fighters '97, Kyo faces Orochi's remaining followers, the New Faces Team, who aim to revive Orochi by sacrificing Kyo's girlfriend, Yuki. Following their failure, Orochi possess one of them, Chris, but Kyo and Iori manage to defeat him, leaving him to be sealed by Chizuru. In KOF '98, Kyo appears as a playable character on the Japan Team with Benimaru and Daimon. An alternative version of his character, with movesets used in previous games, is also playable. Kyo is a secret character in most versions of The King of Fighters '99, and has no team. Kyo is kidnapped by the NESTS syndicate, who use his DNA to make clones of him. Kyo enters his captors' base and tries to obtain answers from them, but is forced to retreat when the base begins to collapse. If the player has accrued enough points, Kyo can be faced in a bonus fight. He continues his fight against the NESTS alone in The King of Fighters 2000 but in the next game, Kyo reunites with his old teammates, and his student Shingo Yabuki, to make a comeback on the Japan Team. In KOF 2002, Kyo is a playable character on the original Japan Team. In The King of Fighters 2003, Chizuru appears to Kyo and Iori, asking them to form a team to investigate suspicious activities concerning the Orochi seal. During the investigation, the team is ambushed by the fighter Ash Crimson, who plans to get their clans' powers and steal them from Chizuru. In The King of Fighters XI, Kyo and Iori again form a team with Shingo, filling Chizuru's spot to stop Ash. The growing presence of Orochi, however, causes Iori to go berserk and harm his teammates. Ash then appears, defeats Iori, and steals his abilities. The PlayStation 2 port added an alternative version of Kyo that has his NESTS saga moves. In King of Fighters XII, Kyo is a playable character but he does not have a team. Kyo reunites with the original members of the Esaka Team in The King of Fighters XIII. Following Ash's disappearance causing Iori to recover his powers, Kyo fights his rival again. Additionally, an alternative version of himself, with different moves called "NESTS Style Kyo", is available as downloadable content. Kyo returns in The King of Fighters XIV with his old comrades, where his classic school costume appears as downloadable content through pre-order bonus released in the online store. Kyo enters the tournament at the request of his father to meet Tung Fu Rue's students. After an unknown being stops the competition, Kyo reunites with Iori and Chizuru to reseal a weak Orochi, who had been previously revived. He is set to return in The King of Fighters XV. #### The King of Fighters spin-offs Kyo appears in a role-playing video game titled The King of Fighters: Kyo, in which he travels around the world to prepare for The King of Fighters tournament until the events of KOF '97. In this game, Kyo's actor Masahiro Nonaka performs a song named "Pieces" during a karaoke fight between him and Iori. This song was included in the CD Drama NEO・GEO DJ Station. Kyo receives a letter for the KOF '97 tournament and has a month to travel across the world to form his team. Chizuru Kagura tests Kyo's will to fight by creating a scenario in which Kyo's girlfriend Yuki is kidnapped. Kyo appears in the spin-off video games The King of Fighters: Battle de Paradise as a member of a band. The King of Fighters R-1 again reprises the events of KOF '97; in this game Kyo also teams up with Shingo and Kim Kaphwan in an alternate scenario. In the sequel, The King of Fighters R-2, Kyo teams up with his father and Shingo. SNK also released a pachinko based on the series' Orochi storyline and focusing on Kyo's actions during the plot. He is present in the spin-offs Neowave and the Maximum Impact series. In Maximum Impact 2, Kyo is playable as his classic version from the first games as well as with a new outfit. In each North American edition following Maximum Impact, Kyo is voiced by Andrew Roth, an English voice actor. During The King of Fighters EX: Neo Blood, Moe Habana, the heir of one of the ten sacred treasures, finds Kyo seriously wounded after his fight against Orochi. After healing him, Moe joins Kyo and Benimaru to participate in a tournament developed by the criminal Geese Howard, who is searching for the power of Orochi. In the sequel game The King of Fighters EX2: Howling Blood, Reiji Okami, another member of the ten sacred treasures, asks Kyo to join him as his teammate in a new tournament so they can investigate interference with the Orochi seal. He is present in the Chinese mobile phone games named KOF: WORLD, and KOF X Arena Masters. In the role-playing game The King of Fighters All Star Kyo is present in his original look as well as his NESTS persona. For the otome game King of Fighters for Girls, Maeno performed a duet song with Benimaru's actor titled "Let's Fight". #### In other games Kyo has also appeared in video games outside The King of Fighters series. He is a playable character in the shooter games Sky Stage, Neo Geo Heroes: Ultimate Shooting, NeoGeo Tennis Coliseum, and the rhythm-action mobile game The Rhythm Of Fighters. He is featured in the 2018 augmented reality game The King of Fighters Orochi Go and the Korean fighting game The King of Cyphers. In the crossover video games Neo Geo Battle Coliseum and SNK vs. Capcom series, Kyo appears as a playable character; in the former game he appears with his NESTS costume while in the latter he is wearing his school uniform. He is also a character card in SNK vs. Capcom: Card Fighter DS. Kyo additionally appears both as one of the background characters and as a spirit in the Nintendo crossover fighting game Super Smash Bros. Ultimate. He is featured in the card-battle video games Lord of Vermillion Re:2's Tie-Ups and Core Masters, and fighting game Lost Saga. Despite not being playable in SNK Gals' Fighters and SNK Heroines: Tag Team Frenzy, he appears in the ending as a cross-dressed Iori and Shermie, respectively. He is present in the RPGs Kimi wa Hero in his regular outfit and in a vampire outfit in Brave Frontier, and in his school uniform in the Chinese mobile phone game Wangzhe Rongyao. He is available in the mobile games The King Fighters X Fatal Fury, Puzzle and Dragons, Boku & Dragon and Crusaders Quest. He is present in the dating sim part of the Days of Memories series, Metal Slug Defense, the beat-em up Fighting Days, A shooting game named Beast Busters has Kyo as a guest character, as does Lucent Heart. The character's NESTS arc look is also used in action role-playing Phantasy Star Online 2. ### In other media Aside from the main series, Kyo has appeared in other media from The King of Fighters series. In the anime The King of Fighters: Another Day, he is featured prominently in the fourth chapter as Ash Crimson stages a fight against Alba Miera, both of whom are stopped by Iori. A number of image songs and audio dramas featuring Kyo, including the contents of his own character-image album consisting of a number of his theme songs, have been released. Kyo also appears in the manhua adaptation of The King of Fighters: Zillion, created by Andy Seto, which tells Kyo and Iori's story between their fight against Orochi until the one against NESTS. He stars in further manwhua for the games, starting with The King of Fighters 2001, ending with The King of Fighters 2003, and including the Maximum Impact series. Seto also wrote a prequel that shows how Kyo turned into a fighter, met his girlfriend Yuki, and befriended Benimaru and Daemon. Kyo also appears in a spin-off manga story entitled The King of Fighters: Kyo, which is based on the events following The King of Fighters '95; the story was created by Masato Natsumoto and deals with Kyo's daily life. Ryo Takamisaki's manga The King of Fighters G shows an alternate retelling of KOF '96 where Kyo teams up with Athena Asamiya during the tournament. In the KOF XII manwua, Kyo briefly confronts Ash after recovering from Iori's berserker attack from XI and undergoing new training. Novelizations of the games also retell Kyo's in-game actions, although the KOF 2000 novelization has him returning to Yuki in a comic fashion in contrast to the original games in which he remains distant, apart from the NESTS syndicate. In the manga The King of Fighters: A New Beginning, Kyo once again battles his rival during his first round from the competition. The match ends as a tie but the Japan Team wins the battle due to Benimaru and Daimon defeating Iori's allies. The mercenaries from the Ikari Team later lead Kyo to fight an army of robots based on NESTS's Kyo clones. Enraged by the cartel, Kyo kills the recently reborn NESTS leader, Igniz, and destroys their base. Afterwards, Kyo reunites with his allies and the Yagami Team to face the wraith brought by a creature referred to as a Verse. In The King of Fighters movie, Kyo is played by Sean Faris and is portrayed as a biracial Japanese-American. During the story, Kyo joins forces with Iori and Mai Shiranui to defeat Rugal. In the CGI web series The King of Fighters: Destiny, Kyo goes to his first team tournament with Benimaru and Daimon. While he is first interested in fighting Terry Bogard, he becomes concerned when he senses the power of the Orochi within the fighters and seeks to stop the mastermind behind this. The web series has an extra episode that shows Kyo befriending Benimaru during a fight against multiple yakuza. After saving the tournament's fighters from Orochi's power, which causes them to go berserk, Kyo, Terry and Heidern meet Rugal, the person using them, and fight him. With help from his partners, Kyo defeats his enemy. He also appears in the trailer of the upcoming film The King of Fighters: Awaken challenging Goenitz. ## Cultural impact ### Critical response Kyo Kusanagi received major praise ever since his introduction. In a retrospective review of the series' debut, VideoGamer.com called Kyo one of the most popular video game characters from Japan during his 1994 debut. Similarly, although the first King of Fighters game promoted the possibility of fights between Fatal Fury and Art of Fighting characters, Nintendo Life and Hobby Consolas regarded Kyo as the most popular character from the game, calling him the "best star" in the franchise. The sites also named him and Iori as among the best characters in the series. Damien McFerran of Virtual Console Reviews considered Kyo one of the best creations from The King of Fighters series, as well as the most original one. On the other hand, Den of Geek noted that while Kyo was introduced as a weak main character, as a result of the pressure of the series also using Terry Bogard and Ryo Sakazaki—heroes from other SNK's series—by the climax of the Orochi arc he becomes more appealing due to his role in this part and his new movesets. Critics also liked the rivalry between Kyo and Iori. The Daily Star noted that although Kyo and Iori begin as enemies, they become allies in later games, leading to their popularity. When joining with Chizuru Kagura and most notably Iori, the formation of the new Sacred Treasure Team in KOF '96 and KOF '97 for serving as a proper conclusion to the Orochi story arc during these two games. Following the Orochi arc, in The King of Fighters '99, Kyo was originally a hidden character. He became instantly playable in the console ports, which led to praise within fans and writers. Kyo received mixed reactions when The King of Fighters XIV was first revealed as critics were divided on whether or not the design was faithful to the original. When the game was patched to improve the graphics, Siliconera said Kyo's appearance was highly improved. Anime News Network expressed disappointment that Kyo was not picked as a SNK representative character in Super Smash Bros. Ultimate, as he had few guest appearances in comparison to Terry Bogard. Some critics commented on the character's moves. IGN writer A.E. Sparrow wrote that Kyo is one of the most enjoyable characters to play in the King of Fighters series, praising the dynamism of his moveset and fighting style. In another review, Sparrow considered him to be one of the most useful characters in the games and one of the best for veteran players. Gaming Age writer Jeff Keely praised Kyo's redesign in The King of Fighters '99, saying he felt less overpowered than in previous games, which helped to balance the cast, but still felt him weaker in comparison to the new character Terry Bogard. Electronic Gaming Monthly shared similar comments, stating he became a fan of Kyo thanks to his NESTS moves, which made his downloadable version from KOF XIII exciting, and Shoryuken said this version was more interesting than the regular Kyo. Prima Games listed his "Orochinagi" as the 40th best technique in gaming due to the way it covers the screen. Complex ranked Kyo as the 11th Most Dominant Fighting Game Character, praising his special moves. A Gamasutra writer enjoyed Kyo's mechanics in the Capcom vs. SNK series due to his uniqueness while being confronted by other characters. Meristation was bothered by Kyo's simple moves in The King of Fighters XII and XIII, and was pleased with the return of hand-to-hand techniques in XIV. The character's moves in XIV were noted to appeal to both newcomers and veterans of the franchise. Outside the video games, Kyo has made appearances that met with disapproval by critics. Lucas M. Thomas from IGN lamented that Kyo has few appearances in the volume from the manhua The King of Fighters 2003 in comparison to Ash Crimson, who is the greater focus of the series. Den of Geek found the comic SVC Chaos ridiculous because Kyo's and other characters' death rea trivialized. John Funk from The Escapist found the trailer for the series' live-action film confusing because Kyo's race was changed from Japanese to white. Beyond Hollywood was also confused by Kyo's portrayal in the film because of flashbacks to his childhood depicting him as Japanese whereas his adult self is American. Stuff also had a harsh opinion of Kyo being played by Sean Faris despite the character's Asian origins. Kyo's portrayal in The King of Fighters: Destiny received more favorable responses because the plot does not solely focus on his history, but also other characters from the games. Anime UK News enjoyed Kyo's handling in the manga A New Beginning due to how his rivalry stands out in the first fight more than the new protagonist, Shun'ei. ### Popularity Kyo has been well-received by gamers; he has appeared in several popularity polls. In Gamest's 1997 Heroes Collection, Kyo was voted as the staff's second-favorite character behind Iori. In a 2005 poll by SNK-Playmore USA, he was voted the sixth fan-favorite character with 176 votes, which led to him having less inclusion on the cover of Maximum Impact in the North American release. Additionally, in the January 30, 1995, issue of Gamest magazine in Japan, Kyo was featured at No. 4 in the Top 50 Characters of 1994. In the character-popularity poll on the website of Neo Geo Freak magazine, he was voted the third-favorite character with 2,574 votes. In another poll from 1997, Kyo took first place with 2,160 votes. At a museum of videogames sponsored by the municipality of Rome, a special illustration listed Kyo as the mascot of the mid-1990s era of Neo Geo. For the special endings in The King of Fighters '97, the video game journals Gamest, Famitsu and Neo Geo Freak created a team composed of three characters from the game so they would be featured in an image after passing the arcade mode. Neo Geo Freak's team was Kyo, Mai Shiranui and Billy Kane. In an ASCII Media Works poll, in which fans voted on video game or manga characters they would like to name their children after, Kyo's name was tenth in the male category. In the book Gaming Cultures and Place in Asia-Pacific, Kyo was named as one of the most popular video game characters in Hong Kong from the mid 1990s onwards, alongside Iori and Mai. In 2018, Kyo was voted the fifth-most-popular Neo Geo character. In 2008, Insert Credit, a publisher related to game piracy, created an 8-bit fighting game titled Top Fighter, in which Kyo was one of the characters. Merchandising based on Kyo's appearance has also been released. Yutaka issued an articulated action figure and a puzzle of Kyo from KoF '97. With the release of new video games in the series, SNK developed new action figures and key-chains. To choose the covers for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 ports of KOF XII, Ignition Entertainment started a survey on May 4, 2009, in which users of its forum could vote for one of two covers, one of which features Kyo and the other Iori. SNK artist Falcoon said he believes Kyo appealed to gamers in the 1990s because of his appearance and fashion style. Two figurines based on Kyo's original form and his XIV look have been released, including a Nendoroid figure based on the former. The latter attracted Kuroki's attention. Kyo's image was used in late 2018 as part of collaborations between SNK and other companies.
22,358,951	Cyptotrama asprata	1,171,104,166	Species of fungus	[ "Fungi described in 1847", "Fungi native to Australia", "Fungi of Central America", "Fungi of New Zealand", "Fungi of North America", "Inedible fungi", "Physalacriaceae", "Taxa named by Miles Joseph Berkeley" ]	Cyptotrama asprata (alternatively spelled aspratum), commonly known as the golden-scruffy collybia or spiny woodknight is a saprobic species of mushroom in the family Physalacriaceae. Widely distributed in tropical regions of the world, it is characterized by the bright orange to yellow cap that in young specimens is covered with tufts of fibrils resembling small spikes. This fungus has had a varied taxonomical history, having been placed in fourteen genera before finally settling in Cyptotrama. This species is differentiated from several other similar members of genus Cyptotrama by variations in cap color, and spore size and shape. ## History This species was first described from Ceylon by English naturalist Miles Joseph Berkeley in 1847; soon after (1852), specimens were collected from South Carolina USA. Later, the fungus was described under a variety of names: Lentinus chrysopeplus from Cuba; Agaricus sabriusculus and Agaricus lacunosa from New York; Collybia lacunosa from Michigan; and Omphalia scabriuscula in Connecticut. As Canadian mycologists Redhead and Ginns explain in a 1980 article on the species, since its original 1847 description, C. asprata has been given 28 names, and placed in 14 different genera. ## Description The cap is 0.6 to 2.7 cm (0.24 to 1.06 in) in diameter, convex to cushion-shaped. The cap surface is dry, and younger specimens are covered with characteristic spikes; as the spikes break up with age, they tend to look more hairy or woolly. Older specimens typically have the surface features worn off. The cap margin tends to be rolled inwards when young, gradually becoming straight with maturity. The color of the cap is bright or pale yellow, increasing in intensity towards the center of the cap. C. asprata has a web-like ring that soon disappears. The gills, pale yellow to white in color, are distantly spaced and have an adnate (squarely attached) or short decurrent (running down the length) attachment to the stem; they feel greasy when dried and crushed. The stem is 1 to 6.7 centimetres (0.4 to 2.6 in) long by 0.2 to 0.4 centimetres (0.08 to 0.16 in) thick at the stem apex; the stem is slightly thicker towards the base, and may be covered with hyphae that appear woolly (flocculose) or hairy (fibrillose). The surface of the stem may also be scaly – especially towards the base – or it may be covered with very small particles (granular). The flesh of this mushroom is white or pale yellow, with no distinctive taste or odor. The spore print is white. It is considered inedible. ### Microscopic features Spores are thin-walled, smooth, and ellipsoidal or oval in shape. Viewed with a microscope, they appear translucent (hyaline), and stain red or blue with Melzer's reagent (inamyloid). Their dimensions are typically 7–10 by 5–7 μm; the spores contain a single large oil droplet. The spore-bearing cells, the basidia, are club-shaped, two- to four-spored, and 25–30 by 5–7 μm. The presence of sterile cells called pleurocystidia (large cells found on the gill face in some mushrooms) is uncommon; specimens may contain few or abundant cheilocystidia (large sterile cells found on the gill edge) that are club-shaped, thin-walled and 39–87.5 by 8.5–16 μm in size. ## Habitat and distribution Cyptotrama asprata is a saprobic fungus, and grows on the decaying wood of deciduous and coniferous trees. Host species include white fir (Abies concolor), sugar maple (Acer saccharum) and other maple (Acer) species, grey alder (Alnus oblongifolia), beech (Fagus) species, spruce (Picea) species, ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) and other pine (Pinus) species, poplar (Populus) and oak (Quercus) species. In temperate North America, specimens are typically collected between July through September. The species has a pantropical distribution, and is widely distributed in tropical regions of the world. It has been collected from Australia, southeastern Canada, China, Costa Rica, India, Hawaii, New Zealand, Japan, and the Russian Far East. It is absent from Europe and Northwestern North America. ## Similar species Many other members of genus Cyptotrama are similar in appearance and differ from C. asprata by only one or two readily observable features. For example, C. granulosa is bright yellowish-brown (rather than bright or pale yellow in C. asprata); C. lachnocephala is ochre-colored; C. deseynesiana is cream-colored with brown scales; C. verruculosa has a "copper-rust-brown" cap; C. costesii has olive-colored pigments. Species may also be distinguished by differences in spore size and shape, although a considerable size range has been noted for C. asprata spores.
69,448,702	Nå skruva Fiolen	1,094,014,330	1790 epistle by Carl Michael Bellman	[ "18th-century songs", "Fredmans epistlar" ]	Nå skruva fiolen (Now screw the violin) is Epistle No. 2 in the Swedish poet and performer Carl Michael Bellman's 1790 song collection, Fredman's Epistles. The epistle is subtitled "Till fader Berg, rörande fiolen" (To father Berg, about the violin). It is both about and mimicking the rhythm of playing the violin. The scholar Lars Lönnroth comments that Bellman used the resemblance of a cello to a woman's body, certainly pretending to play it as such for laughs, while the use of words like "screw" in the lyrics was similarly explicitly obscene. The Bellman interpreter Fred Åkerström recorded the song on his 1974 album Glimmande nymf. ## Background ## Epistle ### Music and verse form The song has three stanzas, each of 17 lines, with a cello interlude before the 15th line. It is in time, marked Andante. The rhyming pattern is ABBBC-ADDDC-ECEC-FFC. The source of the melody is unknown, but a variant is printed in Bellmans Poetiska Arbeten with the timbre Marche. The musicologist James Massengale comments that the melody printed there does not fit the rhythm of the text on the third and fourth lines, so it may be closer to the source than Bellman's adaptation of the tune. ### Lyrics The song was written between July and September 1770, making it one of the early epistles. The composition is subtitled "Till fader Berg, rörande fiolen" (To father Berg, about the violin). The lyrics portray and mimic the rhythm of playing the violin. Bellman's biographer Paul Britten Austin notes that where epistle No. 3 ("Fader Berg i hornet stöter") perfectly captures the sound of a horn with its minuet melody, No. 2's melody "is exactly a fiddler's", as "no hornist could conveniently play this tune". He remarks how different the two are "in style, tempo, rhythm, even instrumental tone-colour". Epistle No. 2 uses "swift flitting words" like "Kära Syster, hej!" to suggest the bowing of the violin, while the song begins with the "Vivaldi-like upbeat" of "Nå!", in his view placing the listener instantly on the dance-floor. ## Reception and legacy Lars Lönnroth writes that Bellman had the cello play the role of Ulla Winblad's body; contemporary instruments, and indeed his own cittern, were topped by a small carved head of a woman, above the tuning pegs. On the intervention of the cello in each stanza, marked "V:cllo" in the text, he states that Bellman certainly pretended to play the instrument, lewdly gliding his hands up and down its body and making everyone laugh. He puns on "skruva" ("screw", a tuning peg in the head of a stringed instrument, and the verb for "to screw") also in Epistle 7, Fram med basfiolen, knäpp och skruva, "Som synes vara en elegi, skriven vid Ulla Winblad's säng, sent om en afton" (Which seems to be an elegy, written by Ulla Winblad's bed, late one evening). Its opening lines are "Fram med basfiolen, knäpp och skruva, V:cllo --- skjut skruven in; pip och kuttra som en turturduva V:cllo --- för makan sin" (Out with the bass viol, pluck and screw, Cello --- push the screw in; twitter and coo like a turtle dove Cello --- for his wife). Lönnroth comments that the ambiguity about the instrument here turns to explicit obscenity. The Epistle was recorded live in Stockholm's concert hall by Cornelis Vreeswijk, Fred Åkerström and Ann-Louise Hanson as the first track of their 1964 folk music album Visor och oförskämdheter. Åkerström also recorded the song on his 1974 studio album Glimmande Nymf, where it formed the first track. His guitar and vocals were accompanied in his group's arrangement by Katarina Fritzén on flute and vocals, and Örjan Larsson on cello; the recording omits the last stanza. It was recorded, too, by Bosse Forssell on his 1999 album Porträtt av Bellman. The Epistle is sung in English by the tenor Torsten Mossberg, accompanied by Jonas Isaksson on guitar and Andreas Nyberg on violin, on the 2020 classical album Är jag född så vill jag leva/Am I Born, Then I'll Be Living.
625,571	Roger le Poer	1,144,514,166	12th-century Chancellor of England	[ "12th-century English people", "Lord chancellors of England" ]	Roger le Poer was a medieval Lord Chancellor from 1135 until 1139 for King Stephen of England. The son of a powerful bishop, Roger owed his position to his family connections. He lost his office when his father and other relatives lost power. Arrested along with his father, Roger was used to secure the surrender of a castle held by his mother and then disappeared from history. ## Background and early life Roger was the son of Roger of Salisbury, Lord Chancellor for King Henry I of England and Bishop of Salisbury, and Matilda of Ramsbury. It is possible that Roger of Salisbury was married to Matilda prior to his elevation to the episcopate, but this is unlikely. Because their son Roger le Poer was described as "young" in 1139, it is most likely that he was born after his father's consecration as bishop in 1107. A biographer of Roger of Salisbury, Edward Kealey, has argued that Roger le Poer is the same person as Roger, the archdeacon of Berkshire who died in the 1160s. Another possibility, that the younger Roger was the same as Roger of Ramsbury, archdeacon of Wiltshire, is less likely, as it is known that Roger of Ramsbury was not closely related to Adelelm, the nephew or son of Roger of Salisbury. The historian Diana Greenway in the Fasti Ecclesiae Anglicanae 1066–1300 takes this view. ## Chancellor The younger Roger's family was a powerful one in England - not only was his father the Bishop of Salisbury, but he also held the administration of the government in his hands. The older Roger had the powers of the office of justiciar, without having actually been appointed to that office, as a continuation of the power he had held during the second part of the reign of Henry I. The elder Roger's two nephews – Nigel, who was Bishop of Ely and had previously been Lord Treasurer, and Alexander, who was Bishop of Lincoln - both held important bishoprics, and another nephew or son held the Treasurership from 1136. This was Adelelm, who may have been a full brother to Roger le Poer. The family also controlled a number of castles throughout England. William of Malmesbury, a medieval chronicler, claimed that the younger Roger's appointment as chancellor was the price demanded by the elder Roger for the bishop's support of Stephen as king after the death of King Henry I. Roger served as chancellor from 1135 until 24 June 1139. Roger travelled with the king, often accompanying him in the royal progresses around England. In late 1136 or 1137, Roger was with the king at a court called at Westminster which heard a complaint by the Holy Trinity Priory in London that Hasculf de Tany, the castellan of the Tower of London, had taken land that belonged to the priory. In the end, the priory regained custody of their land. In March 1137 Roger was with the king right before the king sailed to Normandy, as the chancellor witnessed a charter of the king just prior to his departure. As chancellor, Roger was a witness on over 60 royal writs. ## Arrest and exile In the middle of 1139, rumours were current that the family was going to defect to Stephen's rival for the throne, the Empress Matilda. These rumours appear to have been started by a group of nobles led by twin brothers Waleran de Beaumont, the Count of Meulan, and Robert de Beaumont, the Earl of Leicester, with Alan of Brittany. Whether Roger and his family really intended to switch their support to Matilda is unclear, but unlikely. In late June, a fight broke out between some of the retainers of Alan and men in the service of Roger's family. This fight was the excuse for the king moving against Roger's family. Both the elder and younger Roger were arrested, along with Alexander, but Nigel escaped. Matilda of Ramsbury, who held out in Devizes Castle against the king, was persuaded to surrender the castle to Stephen when the king threatened to hang the younger Roger if she did not yield. The younger Roger was restrained with chains and put on a high platform in view of the castle with a noose around his neck. The name le poer, or pauperus, means "pauper" and was not given to Roger until after his and his father's fall from power in 1139. It is possible the new name was bestowed because he could have expected to receive a bishopric after his time as chancellor, which did not happen because of his family's disgrace. Another possible reason for the name was to contrast with his father's wealth. It is unlikely that he was actually poor, as his family was wealthy and powerful. The historian Francis West described the base of the family's power as "control of the important offices of royal government". Roger was sent into exile after his family's disgrace. If he is the same person as the archdeacon of Berkshire, he died in the middle of the 1160s, but no other sure information is known about him after his exile.
43,022,625	Tropical Storm Fern	1,132,944,520	Pacific severe tropical storm in 1996	[ "1996 Pacific typhoon season", "Western Pacific severe tropical storms" ]	Severe Tropical Storm Fern was a damaging storm that struck Yap in the 1996 Pacific typhoon season. A tropical depression formed on December 21, when a low-level circulation center began to produce deep convection. The depression strengthened into a tropical storm the next day, and was given the name Fern by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC). The storm slowly intensified into a Category 1 typhoon on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale, according to JTWC. Fern peaked north of Yap on December 26, with JTWC assessing winds of 150 km/h (90 mph), while the Regional Specialized Meteorological Center, Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) assessed peak winds of 110 km/h (70 mph), just below typhoon strength. The storm soon became sheared and weakened slowly. Fern continued to weaken to a tropical depression on December 30. Both agencies stopped advisories later on the same day. Fern made a direct hit at Yap on Christmas Day. A cargo ship was abandoned after it was damaged by high winds offshore. On the island, Fern caused \$3 million (1996 USD) of damage. Roads and bridges were significantly damaged, and other public facilities were destroyed. Crops and private properties also received damage. A state of emergency was declared in Yap State two weeks later, and became a disaster area two months later. ## Meteorological history In the middle of December, twin monsoon troughs were established in the extreme western Pacific Ocean, which will later spawn storms Greg, and Fern itself in the northern hemisphere. The trough in the southern hemisphere spawned cyclones Ophelia, Phil, and Fergus. Around that time, convection began to increase near the equator, and was associated with a westerly wind burst. A low level circulation center was noted by JTWC on December 19 at 0600 UTC. Two days later, convection consolidated near the circulation center, and JMA began tracking it at 0000 UTC as a tropical depression. JTWC issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert at 1500 UTC, as sea level pressure began to deepen, and signs of upper level divergence were found in the system. The first advisory for Tropical Depression 42W followed three hours later, on December 17 at 1200 UTC. JTWC upgraded the depression to a tropical storm on December 22 at 0000 UTC as it traveled westerly, and was given the name Fern. According to JTWC, the wind speeds meandered at minimal tropical storm strength. JMA proceeded to upgrade the depression into a tropical storm at 1800 UTC, with winds of 65 km/h (40 mph), and a pressure reading of 996 hectopascals (996 mbar). On Christmas Eve, Fern slowly traveled toward Yap. The storm passed over Yap the next day, strengthening to 105 km/h (65 mph) at 0000 UTC, according to JTWC. JMA assessed Fern had winds of 100 km/h (60 mph) at the same time. Fern also began its recurvature that day, beginning its turn north. Eighteen hours later on Christmas Day, JTWC upgraded Fern to a typhoon, with winds of 120 km/h (75 mph). JMA continued to keep it as a severe tropical storm at that time. On December 26 at 1200 UTC, Fern reached its peak at 150 km/h (90 mph) north of Yap after its recurvature, according to JTWC. JMA assessed that Fern reached its peak of 110 km/h (70 mph), with a pressure reading of 975 hPa (975 mb) twelve hours later. On December 28, Fern began to weaken when it encountered a shear line. On the next day, JTWC downgraded Fern back to tropical storm strength, with winds of 110 km/h (70 mph). At the same time according to JMA, the storm had weakened to 80 km/h (50 mph), with a pressure reading of 985 hPa (985 mbar). Both warning centers downgraded Fern into a tropical depression by December 30, as it continued to travel along a shear line. JTWC issued the final warning at 0600 UTC, while JMA stopped tracking the depression at 1200 UTC. JTWC continued to track the low until December 31, where it stalled north of Guam. ## Impact and aftermath At sea, a cargo ship en route from Guam to Yap was abandoned after it was damaged by high winds. The passengers entered a life raft, and were later found by a Navy search and rescue airplane. They were soon rescued by a Maltese tanker. No one was injured when the accident occurred. Yap was directly hit by Fern on Christmas Day, causing about \$3 million (1996 USD) of damage. The Weather Service Office received a peak wind gust of 116 km/h (72 mph), and a pressure reading of 983 hPa (983 mbar). The island received gusts around 93 km/h (58 mph) for several hours. One person was injured on the island, and no deaths were attributed to the storm. Roads and bridges were severely damaged, accounting for half of the damage. Homes and other private properties were also significantly damaged. Most crops on the island, such as coconuts, bananas, papayas, and breadfruit, were destroyed by the storm. Public facilities, like schools and hospitals, suffered widespread destruction. On January 3, 1997, a state of emergency was declared for Yap by Acting President Jacob Nena, stating that Fern caused "an imminent threat to health, safety and welfare of the people of the affected areas." Two months later, on March 20, United States President Bill Clinton declared Yap State a disaster area, allowing the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) to start the damage assessment of the area. The FEMA funding was only for public facilities, and did not include private properties. The request for individual assistance was not approved by FEMA, as damage to private properties were not much, and assistance from the national government and Yap State were sufficient.
58,032,053	Kalākaua's 1874–75 state visit to the United States	1,153,313,209	null	[ "Diplomatic visits by heads of state", "Diplomatic visits to the United States", "Hawaiian Kingdom–United States relations", "History of sugar", "House of Kalākaua" ]	King Kalākaua of the Hawaiian Kingdom made a state visit to the United States during the period November 28, 1874, through February 3, 1875. Authorized by the legislature of Hawaii, the purpose of the visit was for the ratification of the reciprocity treaty. The 91-day round-trip journey across the United States began in Honolulu on November 17, 1874, and was completed on February 15, 1875. His arrival at San Francisco on November 28, made him the first reigning monarch of any nation to set foot in the United States. Upon his arrival in Washington, D.C., the United States Congress held the first joint meeting in the body's history, less formal than a joint session, to receive him. US President Ulysses S. Grant hosted him as honoree of the first state dinner at the White House. A career politician who rose through the ranks of chiefs, Kalākaua had previously been to California and Canada with Prince Lot in 1860 as a 23-year-old government bureaucrat, more than a dozen years away from his accession to the throne. In 1874, the Hawaiian government sent him to Washington, DC this time to seek the elimination of tariffs on the kingdom's sugar exports, after previous attempts had failed. There had been concerns about Kalākaua's willingness to make the journey; however, after putting Elisha Hunt Allen in charge of the negotiations, he sailed for San Francisco, and journeyed across the United States by rail. He was well-received by government officials on federal, state and local levels, and accorded respect as a commander-in-chief by military representatives. Although ill with a viral infection throughout much of his trip, the king accommodated the relentless attention of being in the spotlight across America. He accorded journalist requests for interviews, and interacted with the general public, shaking hands and signing autographs, while crowds of curiosity seekers grew with each stop. Anticipation had grown so strong by the time he reached Washington, DC, that spectators gathered on rooftops to watch him pass by. Goodwill generated by Kalākaua is credited for doing much to help move legislation for the Reciprocity Treaty of 1875 through the necessary channels. The resulting close economic ties between the Hawaiian islands and the United States became a major factor leading to the overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom in 1893. ## Background Kalākaua was a career politician who rose through the ranks of chiefs, and was named by Kamehameha III in 1844 as eligible to be king. Kamehameha V, the last of the Kamehameha dynasty, died on December 12, 1872, without naming a successor to the throne. Under the 1864 Constitution of the Hawaiian Kingdom, if the king did not appoint a successor, a new king would be elected by the legislature to start a new royal line of succession. Lunalilo became the first elected monarch of Hawaii, with Kalākaua holding the rank of Colonel on the royal military staff. Upon Lunalilo's death on February 3, 1874, a legislative election was held, with Kalākaua being sworn in as monarch on February 13. Two weeks after taking office, he reorganized the Hawaiian military and restored the Household Guards recently abolished by Lunalilo. Like his predecessors, he belonged to fraternal organizations, as a member of the freemasonry Lodge Le Progres de l'Oceanie, and as the founding member of the Ancient Order of Foresters in Hawaii. When Kalākaua embarked on his state visit to the United States, nine months after being elected, he was the first reigning monarch to visit America, but not the first member of Hawaii's royal family to do so. He was the second reigning Hawaiian monarch to travel abroad, having been preceded in 1824 by King Kamehameha II and Queen Kamāmalu, who had traveled to the United Kingdom via the Strait of Magellan, both of them dying of measles while in London. Prior to either of their accessions, brothers Prince Liholiho (Kamehameha IV) and Prince Lot (Kamehameha V) had accompanied Dr. Gerrit P. Judd on a year-long diplomatic mission, from September 11, 1849, to September 9, 1850. Judd's mission took them to San Francisco, Panama, Jamaica, New York, London and Paris. Kamehameha IV's widow Queen Emma had visited New York and San Francisco in 1866 on her return from a personal visit to England and France. Kalākaua had previously visited the United States in late 1860, when he was chief clerk of the kingdom's Department of the Interior. On that trip, he had accompanied Minister of the Interior Prince Lot, high chief Levi Haʻalelea, and Hawaii's Consul for Peru Josiah C. Spalding on a two-month tour of British Columbia and California. ## The quest for tariff easement Since the days of visits by whaling ships, and the arrival of the first missionaries in 1820, Hawaii became increasingly populated by non-residents operating within the kingdom's business community. Many of them became friends and advisors to the monarchy. The Alien Land Ownership Act was written by American attorney William Little Lee who arrived in Hawaii only a year before being appointed Land Commissioner. The Act, passed by the legislature of the Hawaiian Kingdom on July 10, 1850, allowed non-residents to own Hawaiian land. During the reign of Kamehameha III, sugar production in Hawaii became a successful enterprise, with sugar refineries in Oregon and California as the primary customers, and the kingdom looking to expand its market, but being increasingly hampered by tariffs on their product. The kingdom also had strong economic ties to the United Kingdom. Queen Emma was descended from a British subject, and Queen Victoria had been the godmother of Emma's son Prince Albert Kamehameha. Anglo-American planters operated tariff-free within their own customer bases. In the latter half of the 19th century, the sugar trade had become a booming industry, but import taxes severely dampened Hawaii as a viable economic competitor. Hawaii's sugar planters had worked for decades with the legislature of the Hawaiian Kingdom to find a viable remedy to the global market impingement on their profits caused by the tariffs. Solutions debated were tariff reciprocity treaties, annexation of Hawaii by the United States, formal alliances with other countries, and the cession of Pearl Harbor. An 1854 treaty for Hawaii's annexation to the United States was submitted to Kamehameha III, but he never signed it. In 1867, a proposed reciprocity treaty got as far as the United States Congress, but was defeated in the Senate. An aborted 1873 effort to offer Pearl Harbor in return for tariff reciprocity was heavily favored by American owners of Hawaiian plantations. Strong opposition came from Kalākaua and other leaders among the Hawaiian people. > The reciprocity treaty, giving away land, is much discussed these days . . . There is a feeling of bitterness against these rude people who dwell on our land and have high handed ideas of giving away somebody else's property as if it was theirs. On August 1, 1874, Hawaii's legislature authorized Kalākaua to ratify a reciprocity treaty in Washington, DC There was speculation that he was lukewarm on the idea. Diplomat Henry A. Peirce, who was serving as the United States Minister to Hawaii, stated, "I don't think the King cares much about the Treaty, but he hopes, as we Americans say, 'to have a good time' generally." The king actually supported the idea of a reciprocity treaty, just not one that ceded Hawaiian land, and he did not want Hawaii to appear to be favoring a single nation. Concern arose that his absence might trigger a hostile takeover of the kingdom by a foreign power. After consulting with his privy council, he agreed to accompany the diplomatic team, but rather than being involved in the negotiations himself, Kalākaua appointed Hawaiian Kingdom Minister to the United States Elisha Hunt Allen to take charge. After exchanges between Peirce and Secretary of State Hamilton Fish, the US government extended a formal invitation to the king for a state visit and placed the man-of-war ship USS Benicia at his disposal. The king would leave the negotiating to his appointed commission, and focused his own efforts on building goodwill between the two nations, raising the island nation's visibility with visits to government leaders across the United States. On October 18, Minister Allen and Privy Councilor Henry A. P. Carter, of C. Brewer & Co., sailed for the United States. The members of the reciprocity commission who traveled with the king included Peirce, Oahu Governor John Owen Dominis, husband of Kalākaua's sister Liliʻuokalani, and Maui Governor John Mākini Kapena, a full-blood Hawaiian who supported a reciprocity treaty but who, during the reign of Lunalilo, had spoken out against cession of Hawaiian territory. ## Departing Hawaii (November 14–17, 1874) At ʻIolani Palace on November 14, the doors were opened to native Hawaiians for a traditional "hoʻokupu", a ceremonial giving of gifts to the king prior to his departure. Kalākaua appointed his brother Leleiohoku II to act as regent during his absence. Likewise, Dominis appointed William F. Allen as acting governor of Oahu, and Kapena appointed Luther Aholo acting governor of Maui. Minister of the Interior William Luther Moehonua closed all government offices on November 16, as a public day of thanksgiving on Kalākaua's 38th birthday. Celebration of the king's birthday began with morning services by various Christian denominations, extolling the historical significance of the upcoming visit. Salutes were fired from the three foreign warships in Honolulu Harbor. At the commencement of the morning service at Kawaiahaʻo, the king and members of the royal family entered the church around noon to address the assembled crowds. Rev. Moses Kuaea, of the Kaumakapili Church, offered a prayer, praised the king's efforts to save the nation's agricultural interest, and asked for the people to pray for his safety during his upcoming trip. The church choir performed "God Save the King", "He Mele Lāhui Hawaiʻi", the national anthem written by Liliʻuokalani, and "Hawaiʻi Ponoʻī", composed by the king and Henri Berger. In his farewell address, Kalākaua stated: "... I believe that if such a Treaty can be secured, the beneficial effects will be soon apparent to all classes, and our nation, under its reviving influences, will grow again." The royal party consisting of Kalākaua, his personal secretary E. M. Mayor, diplomat Peirce, governors Dominis and Kapena, and three or four servants departed Hawaii on the morning of November 17. The king was conveyed to the wharf on the personal carriage of Captain William E. Hopkins, of the Benicia. An estimated 3000 to 4000 well-wishers lined the wharf, and the crowds chanted Hawaiian mele, cheered, and wailed at the occasion of the king's leaving. The Hawaiian royal standard was unfurled and salutes fired from the ship as the king and his party boarded and sailed east. ## San Francisco (November 28 – December 5, 1874) Flying the Hawaiian royal standard, the ship docked in San Francisco the evening of November 28. A formal reception by local dignitaries, along with a 21-gun salute from the Alcatraz Citadel, took place the next morning. They were joined on board by Edward C. Macfarlane, General John Schofield and his chief-of-staff William M. Wherry, and Hawaiian Consul for California Henry W. Severance. San Francisco mayor James Otis, members of the First Regiment National Guard, and the Presidio Band playing "He Mele Lahui Hawaii", escorted all to their suite at the Grand Hotel. During the king's week-long stay in San Francisco, the city absorbed all costs. Consul Severance acted as the royal greeter for the in-suite November 30 public reception. The following morning, Severance and the king's entourage sat for a portrait at the Bradley and Rulofson photograph gallery. Celso Caesar Moreno, who would later serve in the king's cabinet, presented himself as owner of three telegraph cable charter companies, regaling Kalākaua with his tales of global adventures. The king made inspections of the military operations at Alcatraz Island and Mare Island Naval Shipyard on December 2, prior to relaxing at a private men's club. His appearances began to draw spectators, as he accompanied Japanese Minister Yoshida Kiyonari and Japanese Consul Charles Wolcott Brooks to the San Francisco Board of Brokers (predecessor to the San Francisco Stock and Bond Exchange) on December 3, followed by an afternoon at Woodward's Gardens. On December 4, the king visited the San Francisco Mint, and the Western Union Telegraph office, where he wired greetings to President Ulysses S. Grant and Chicago Mayor Harvey Doolittle Colvin, receiving an immediate reply from Grant. He sat for a portrait by photographer Thomas Houseworth, and granted a parting interview to the San Francisco Chronicle. San Francisco's enthusiastic reception for the dark-skinned monarch was less than a decade after the American Civil War had divided the nation over the issue of enslavement of persons of color. Giving non-white people equal access to public accommodations would be fought through legislatures and courts for years to come. The African-American newspaper Pacific Appeal noted the irony and speculated, "... there has either been a sudden abandonment of colorphobia prejudice, or an extraordinary amount of toadyism to a crown head by the San Francisco American people." The royal party boarded three private cars provided by the rail company on December 5, and began their trip across the continent. In addition to Dominis, Kapena, Mayor and Peirce, the king's official party now included Schofield, Wherry, and Lieutenant Commander William H. Whiting, a junior officer of the Benicia. From that point forward, writer Joseph Irwin accompanied the royal party as an embedded journalist for The Daily Alta California. ## Train trip across America (December 5–11, 1874) The train passed through Sacramento, then through Nevada, by way of Winnemucca, Battle Mountain and Elko. They continued through Ogden, Territory of Utah to Fort Bridger, Territory of Wyoming, where they were entertained by the 4th Infantry Division band. Their train stopped at the Laramie depot on December 8 for a reception at the Railroad Hotel in Cheyenne, hosted by Governor John Allen Campbell. Among the dignitaries at the hotel were associate justice of the Supreme Court of the Territory of Wyoming Joseph M. Carey, and Colonel Thaddeus H. Stanton. In Omaha, the train was met at the depot by an estimated 5,000 people, and accorded a 20-gun salute under the direction of General Edward Ord. They remained long enough for Mayor Champion S. Chase and the Omaha City Council to give them a personal tour of the city. At Aurora, Illinois a boisterous crowd cheered as the train passed through their town on its way to Chicago. During a late-night layover in Chicago on December 10, the king's cars were switched over to another line going east. On December 11, just after midnight, the train pulled through Fort Wayne, Indiana, and reporters from The Fort Wayne Sentinel boarded in hopes of being granted an audience. In spite of the king already being in bed, he tolerated being interrupted from his sleep to be interviewed. ## Washington, DC (December 12–22, 1874) When the train carrying Kalākaua arrived in Washington, DC on December 12, it was met at the station by treaty negotiator Minister Allen. The king's car was boarded by Secretary of State Hamilton Fish, Secretary of the Navy George M. Robeson, and Secretary of War William W. Belknap. Journalists on hand represented the New-York Tribune, the New York Times, the New York Telegram, the New York Star, the Baltimore Press Association, and The Republican. After a champagne reception, a United States Marines battalion and the Marine Corps Band escorted them past massive crowds lining B Street and Pennsylvania Avenue to the Arlington Hotel. Kalākaua had become ill with a head cold on the trip and was being attended by a US Navy physician, when a message arrived from President Ulysses S. Grant, inviting him to be the guest of honor at a White House state dinner. Visitors to his suite were received by the other members of his entourage, and the White House state dinner was postponed. ### Joint meeting of Congress (December 18) On December 18, Kalākaua was the first person in history received by the United States Congress in a joint meeting, in this case occurring in the President's Room of the United States Senate. This differs from a joint session of Congress, for which the United States Constitution requires a joint resolution, and is often used for formal addresses. Joint meetings of Congress are rare, and another one was not called until the 1900 Centennial of the Capital City. The king was escorted in by Senator Simon Cameron, Chairman of the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, and Representative Godlove Stein Orth, Chairman of the House Committee on Foreign Affairs. He was formally welcomed by a short speech from Speaker of the United States House of Representatives Michael C. Kerr. Kalākaua's illness had hindered his ability to deliver an oration. Minister Allen instead read prepared remarks expressing the king's thanks for their hospitality, and hopes for continued favorable relations between their nations. He met privately with Massachusetts senator William B. Washburn, who extended an invitation from the American Board of Commission of Foreign Missionaries to visit them in Boston. ### State dinner (December 22) President Grant initiated the White House state dinner tradition when he hosted the December 22 dinner to honor Kalākaua. Written invitations were sent out on December 19, for the 7–11 p.m. event. Dignitaries attending were: - Vice President Henry Wilson - Secretary of State and Mrs. Hamilton Fish - Secretary of War William W. Belknap - Secretary of the Navy George M. Robeson - Secretary of the Treasury Benjamin H. Bristow - Secretary of the Interior Columbus Delano - Postmaster General and Mrs. Marshall Jewell - Attorney General and Mrs. George Henry Williams - Chief Justice and Mrs. Morrison Waite - Senator Simon Cameron, Chairman of the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations - Speaker of the House of Representatives and Mrs. James G. Blaine - Representative Godlove Stein Orth, Chairman of the House Committee on Foreign Affairs - Admiral and Mrs. David Dixon Porter - Sir Edward Thornton, 2nd Count of Cacilhas (dean of the diplomatic corps) and Lady Thornton Unable to attend, but also invited, was General William Tecumseh Sherman. ## Visit to the Northeast (December 23, 1874 – January 9, 1875) ### New Jersey and New York (December 23–30, 1874) Spectators lined the December 23 route, amassing at depots in Washington, D.C, Baltimore, Maryland, Wilmington, Delaware, West Philadelphia and stations through New Jersey. Guards foiled an attempted security breach at Trenton, as several men caught up in the frenzy of the moment tried to gain access to Kalākaua. The New York City council held a reception at the train depot, followed by a carriage ride past throngs of curiosity seekers en route to the Windsor Hotel. During dinner with New York mayor Samuel B. H. Vance and city officials, they were entertained by a local musical band. On Christmas Eve, Kalākaua, Wherry and Dominis enjoyed a sleigh ride through Central Park. At an unannounced visit to the coed Normal School, they were given a tour of the facilities by its founder Thomas Hunter. The king's visit to the New York Stock Exchange created excitement among the brokers. Capping the day, they attended a performance of The Black Crook at the Grand Opera House. A Christmas Day observance at Saint Thomas Church was followed by a photo session at Jeremiah Gurney's studio. Acknowledging the king's previous service as foreman of Hawaii Engine 4 in Honolulu, the New York City Fire Department took him on an inspection tour of nearby facilities on December 26. Kalākaua and staff donned their dress uniforms for a private in-suite presentation of Army and Navy officers, during which members of the Board of Trade were also introduced. Kalākaua accepted an invitation to appear on December 29 at P. T. Barnum's Great Traveling World's Fair, Museum, Menagerie and Hippodrome. Barnum was the founder of Barnum & Bailey Circus, and had promoted the 1850–52 Jenny Lind tour of America. An advertisement for Kalākaua's appearance ran in the New-York Tribune, and Barnum would later remember the event's attendance record as 20,000. Barnum provided the royal party with bannered box seats to view the performances. For the finale, Barnum and Kalākaua rode the perimeter of the arena in an open carriage, as Kalākaua waved and tipped his hat to the cheering crowd. > The King immediately arose, and, amid tremendous cheering, he stepped into the carriage. I took a seat by his side, and he smilingly remarked, sotto voce: "We are all actors." That evening, Kalākaua invited author Mark Twain to join the royal group in attending a stage production of Twain's 1873 novel The Gilded Age: A Tale of Today at New York's Park Theatre. The two had become acquainted in Hawaii in 1866 during the reign of Kamehameha V, when Twain was there as a reporter for the Sacramento Union. Unable to attend the play with the king, Twain invited Kalākaua to dine at his Connecticut home. The king was unable to accept the invitation, due to a prior commitment in New Haven. On December 30, the New York masonic Lodge No. 330 held a reception at Doric Hall for their masonry brother Kalākaua. ### New England (December 31, 1874 – January 9, 1875) En route to Boston, they made a December 31 stopover in New Haven, Connecticut, home to Yale College. During a luncheon at New Haven City Hall, Kalākaua paid tribute to Yale's role in training many of the kingdom's leaders. Speeches from Connecticut governor Charles Roberts Ingersoll and New Haven mayor Henry Gould Lewis were followed by an official review of the New Haven Fire Department, a service at Center Church, and a visit to the home of Yale professor Chester Lyman, where the king signed autograph books and photos of himself. A banquet at the home of New Haven postmaster Nehemiah D. Sperry concluded the day's events. New Bedford, Massachusetts had been the point of origin for many whaling ships and missionaries sent to Hawaii. The day after stopping in New Haven, they accepted an invitation from New Bedford's Mayor George B. Richmond to visit the town. Kalākaua obliged autograph seekers during his visit to the Potomaka Mills plant. A collation (religious fasting meal) for the king was hosted by Mayor George B. Richmond, and attended by nearly 100 master mariners who had visited Hawaii, the New Bedford City Guards and the Schouler Guards. At city hall, a large audience joined them for the playing of the Hawaiian national anthem. Before departure, the king shook hands with every individual. Dinner with 60 guests at the Parker House included the king's cousin Mary Pitman, and another autograph session. On their January 2 arrival in Boston, the king indulged in a shopping trip, escorted by Massachusetts Lieutenant Governor Thomas Talbot and Governor-elect William Gaston. Kalākaua was a guest at the swearing-in ceremony for the second term of Mayor Samuel C. Cobb, who hosted a banquet for him at the Revere House. The royal party attended services at Park Street Church on Sunday. Kalākaua attended a legislative session of the Board of Aldermen and was the guest of honor at a joint reception by the United States Army and the United States Navy. Over the next few days, they participated in a guided tour of select schools in Boston and visits to the Merchants Exchange and the Massachusetts General Court. He was escorted through an inspection tour of the newly completed Boston and Providence Railroad depot at Park Square. He sat for a photo session at the studio of James Wallace Black. A tour of the manufacturing district of Lowell, Massachusetts was followed by a lunch with 150 guests, where he shook hands with many spectators. Arriving at the depot for his return trip to Boston, the king once again indulged anyone who approached him for an autograph. Kalākaua and party arrived at Waltham by sleigh on January 8, to visit the Waltham Watch Company. Escorted through the factory by company executives, the king expressed interest in the details of how watches were manufactured. Following a visit to an art gallery in Watertown, they proceeded to Newton, boarding a Boston-bound train. Their return trip to San Francisco began on January 9. ## Train trip homewards (January 10–20, 1875) ### Niagara Falls (January 10–11, 1875) The train carrying the king arrived in Niagara Falls, New York, on January 10, for an overnight stay in a large suite at the Spencer House. Advance notice of his visit drew a crowd of spectators who waited for hours in the frigid temperatures at the train station. Accompanied by Kapena, Whiting, and Lieutenant G. M. Totten, and never having recovered from the illness he picked up at the start of his trip, the king confined himself to his suite. The following morning, they departed for Chicago in a private car provided by the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railway. ### Chicago and Milwaukee (January 12–16, 1875) Upon arrival the morning of January 12, Kalākaua's party was met at the depot by Chicago mayor Harvey Doolittle Colvin and numerous city officials. A private reception was held at the Grand Pacific Hotel, where the king's 5-room suite accommodations were provided at no cost by hotel manager John Drake. The following two days, accompanied by Mayor Colvin, Commissioner John Jones, and several members of the city council, the royal party inspected city infrastructure projects. The agenda included a tour of the city water works, grain storage elevators at Armour's Warehouse, the Union Stock Yards and a visit to the Chicago Board of Trade. Hooley's Theatre hosted the king's party for a performance of the play Lost in London. On January 15, Kalākaua made a daytrip to Milwaukee as the guest of honor at the formal luncheon hosted by United States Congressman William Pitt Lynde. The congressman was a cousin to Amos Starr Cooke, who ran the Chiefs' Children's School that Kalākaua and his siblings had attended. Lynde's daughter Clara had once visited Hawaii as house guest of the Cookes, when a youthful David Kalākaua had been her unofficial guardian. Also in attendance at the luncheon was Wisconsin Governor Harrison Ludington. Upon his return to Chicago that same day, he attended a reception at Oriental Lodge No. 33, A.F. & A.M. On the morning of January 16, the royal party departed on the Chicago & Alton Railroad, bound for St. Louis, Missouri. ### Missouri (January 18–20, 1875) General William Tecumseh Sherman, unable to attend the White House state dinner, visited with the king at a stopover in St. Louis on January 18. The reception at the train station included Sherman, various city officials, newspaper reporters, and a police escort. Due to a large crowd gathered at the front entrance to the Southern Hotel, the police instead brought him through what was described as "the ladies' entrance". After a private reception by the gathered officials in the hotel, Kalākaua was received at the Merchants' Exchange and later given a tour of the city. In Jefferson City, Missouri, he was the guest of a joint session of the state legislature on January 20. Following the visit, the royal party boarded a Missouri Pacific Railroad train heading for California. ## Return to Hawaii (January 27 – February 15, 1875) Arriving in San Francisco on January 27, they quartered at the Grand Hotel. Consul H. W. Severance, who had been appointed by Kamehameha V in 1868, received the Royal Order of Kalākaua in gratitude for his service. Kalākaua made a visit to the Robin Hood Lodge of the Ancient Order of Foresters while he was in the city. On their last evening, the king received proposals from entrepreneurs interested in expanding their operations to Hawaii. Farewell speeches were made by the king, and by former speaker of the California State Assembly George Barstow, representing the Temperance Societies. On February 3, a volley of artillery salutes rang out from nearby forts as the USS Pensacola carrying the royal party was escorted out of the bay at 11 a.m. by General Schofield and crew on the USS McPherson. US Commissioner to Samoa Albert Barnes Steinberger was a fellow passenger on the voyage home. Ninety-one days after the king had left Hawaii, the Pensacola docked in Honolulu on February 15, 1875. ## Aftermath The Daily Alta California commented that the king's presence moved the process forward to where, "It is generally conceded that the reciprocity treaty will go through but with little opposition". Hawaiian historian Ralph S. Kuykendall believed Kalākaua's state visit not only gave the king a greater understanding of the American people and the workings of their government, but also educated Americans about the Pacific island nation. The spotlight on Hawaii, "enormously increased the general interest in the current discussion of the proposed reciprocity treaty." Hawaiian legislators Joseph Nāwahī and George Washington Pilipō led the native Hawaiian opposition who saw the treaty as a step towards annexation of the kingdom and only beneficial to the elite number of Euro-American businessmen. A seven-year reciprocity treaty was negotiated and ratified in 1875. Going into effect September 9, 1876, it admitted Hawaii's sugar products into the United States duty-free. No Hawaiian land was ceded in the agreement. At the treaty's expiration, an extension was negotiated that ceded exclusive use of Pearl Harbor to the United States. The treaty's most immediate result was an increase in new United States plantation owners. San Francisco sugar refiner Claus Spreckels became a prime investor in Hawaii's sugar industry. Over the term of Kalākaua's reign, the treaty had a major effect on the kingdom's income. In 1874, Hawaii exported \$1,839,620.27 in products. In 1881, Kalākaua embarked on a world tour to negotiate with friendly nations for contract labor for Hawaii's plantations. Exported products for 1890, the last full year of his reign, amounted to \$13,282,729.48 (all figures given are Hawaiian dollars) Exportation of sugar during that time period went from 24,566,611 pounds (11,143,227 kg) to 330,822,879 pounds (150,058,734 kg). As the kingdom's income rose, so did Kalākaua's expenditures (all figures given are Hawaiian dollars): this included \$343,595 to build and furnish ʻIolani Palace; a delayed coronation in excess of \$50,000; and a \$75,000 public celebration of his 50th birthday. He made an attempt, subsequently blocked by the legislature, to allocate a \$1,000,000 bonus for his San Francisco friend Celso Caesar Moreno to lay an undersea telegraph cable, and briefly appointed him Minister of Foreign Affairs. Moreno and Prime Minister Walter Murray Gibson proposed a Polynesian Confederation administered by Hawaii. The concept never came to fruition, but in an attempt to interfere in the politics of Samoa, an island group that consisted of what is now Samoa and American Samoa, Gibson persuaded the legislature to allocate \$100,000 for a confederation steamboat. Increase in land ownership by businessmen, either missionary descendants or more recent investors, led to a proliferation of non-Hawaiians being elected to the kingdom's legislature. In 1887, Kalākaua was forced to sign the Bayonet Constitution, codifying the legislature as the supreme authority over any actions by the monarchy. Sanford B. Dole, who helped draft it, asserted that key issues were the king's handling of finances, and the lack of a system of checks and balances over the monarchy's stewardship. The new law allowed non-residents to vote, while also placing economic and literacy restrictions on voting rights of residents. Asians, the primary work force on the plantations, had their voting rights stripped. Kalākaua's brother and heir apparent Leleiohoku II died April 9, 1877. The king then proclaimed his sister Liliʻuokalani to be his successor. Upon his 1891 death, she ascended to the throne. On January 17, 1893, the Kingdom of Hawaii fell to a coup d'état, planned and executed by the Committee of Safety, mostly foreign-born residents in Honolulu, whose goal was the annexation of Hawaii by the United States. ## See also - Bibliography of Kalākaua - Kalākaua's 1881 world tour - MOS Hawaii-related articles
71,850,856	1964–1965 Scripto strike	1,172,404,714	Labor strike in Georgia, United States	[ "1960s in Atlanta", "1960s strikes in the United States", "1964 in Georgia (U.S. state)", "1964 labor disputes and strikes", "1965 in Georgia (U.S. state)", "1965 labor disputes and strikes", "African-American history in Atlanta", "Civil rights movement", "Consumer boycotts", "December 1964 events in the United States", "History of African-American civil rights", "January 1965 events in the United States", "Labor disputes in Georgia (U.S. state)", "Labor disputes in the United States", "Labor disputes led by the United Food and Commercial Workers", "Martin Luther King Jr.", "November 1964 events in the United States" ]	Workers for the Scripto company in Atlanta, Georgia, United States, held a labor strike from November 27, 1964, to January 9, 1965. It ended when the company and union agreed to a three-year contract that included wage increases and improved employee benefits. The strike was an important event in the history of the civil rights movement, as both civil rights leaders and organized labor activists worked together to support the strike. Scripto produced writing implements and lighters in the 1960s. Its main production facility was based in Sweet Auburn, an African-American neighborhood of Atlanta, and the company's workforce was primarily made up of black women. Since 1940, there had been various attempts to unionize the factory, including an effort by the United Steelworkers in the 1940s. By and large, unionization efforts were supported by members of Atlanta's black elite and by black church leaders in the area, who believed that a union could help improve the working conditions and wages for the workers. In 1963, the International Chemical Workers Union (ICWU) was able to unionize the plant. This came during the civil rights movement, and union organizers succeeded in part by tying their union drive to the larger fight for civil rights that was occurring throughout the country and especially in the southern United States, where the plant was located. Following the unionization, the ICWU sought to secure a labor contract with Scripto, but the company instead challenged the union in court, arguing that the union election had been unfair. After the National Labor Relations Board ruled against the company, they remained reluctant to negotiate with the union, and negotiations continued into November 1964. The main point of contention regarded wage increases, as the union wanted an eight-percent raise across the board while the company pushed for a four-percent wage increase for "skilled" employees and a two-percent raise for "unskilled" employees. The union argued that this was racially discriminatory, as almost all of the factory's white employees were considered skilled and nearly all of the African American employees were considered unskilled. On November 25, the day before Thanksgiving, many workers gathered and announced plans for a labor strike. Working over the holiday to prepare picket signs and coordinate logistics, they began their strike on November 27, with about 700 workers performing a walkout. From the onset, the strike had the support of several civil rights organizations, including the A. Philip Randolph Institute, Operation Breadbasket, the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), the latter of which was led by Martin Luther King Jr. King was an avid supporter of the strike, as many of the strikers were congregants of his Ebenezer Baptist Church, and he helped coordinate a nationwide boycott of Scripto products. However, as the strike continued, both the union and company remained at an impasse in negotiations, and eventually, King began to negotiate in secret with company president Carl Singer over an agreement to end the strike. After several weeks of discussions, King agreed to call off the boycott if Singer agreed to give the striking employees their Christmas bonuses. This deal, which was made without the knowledge of the union, was announced on December 24 and saw an end to King or the SCLC's involvement in the strike. Union representatives were upset with King's actions, which some historians say may have constitute an unfair labor practice. However, by this time, the union's strike fund had been nearly depleted, and without the SCLC's support, they were willing to negotiate a compromise with the company. On January 9, 1965, the union and company signed a three-year labor contract that saw an across-the-board wage increase of \$0.04 per hour for every year of the contract. Additionally, workers improved employee benefits, such as additional vacation days and increased pay for working afternoon shifts. In the aftermath of the strike, King received criticism from many different groups for his involvement, including labor activists and business leaders, and as a result, King and the SCLC refrained from involvement in another major labor dispute until the Memphis sanitation strike in 1968. Meanwhile, the company and the union developed a better relationship and jointly worked on a replacement to the "skilled"/"unskilled" system that had been at the root of the labor dispute. However, in 1977, with the Sweet Auburn facility considered outdated and the company facing increased competition, Scripto closed the plant and relocated to another facility in the Atlanta metropolitan area. The plant was eventually demolished and today the site is a parking lot for the Martin Luther King Jr. National Historical Park. Discussing the strike in 2018, historian Joseph M. Thompson stated that, while it is primarily viewed by historians in the context of King's involvement and the larger civil rights movement, it also represents a longstanding history of labor organizing among African American women in Atlanta, comparing it to other events such as the 1881 Atlanta washerwomen strike and saying, "Within this broader context, the 1964 Scripto strike looks less like a product of the midcentury civil rights movements and more like a victory in the long fight for black women's economic rights in Atlanta". ## Background ### Scripto The company now known as Scripto can trace its history back to the establishment of the National Pencil Company in Atlanta in 1908. In 1913, a young girl named Mary Phagan was found dead in the company's factory, and in the ensuing firestorm that followed, Leo Frank, the factory's superintendent, was lynched. The company's reputation suffered immensely from this series of events, and by the late 1910s, it had declared bankruptcy. However, local businessman Monie Ferst, who was the son-in-law of National Pencil's owner Sigmund Montag, believed that the company's factory on Forsyth Street in downtown Atlanta was still valuable and purchased the company from Montag in 1919, renaming it Atlantic Pen. Ferst was already the owner of M. A. Ferst Ltd., the only manufacturer of pencil lead in the United States at that time, and Atlantic Pen became a manufacturer of mechanical pencils. The company changed its name to Scripto in the 1920s. In 1931, the company built a new production facility east of downtown. The new plant was located at 425 Houston Street (now known as John Wesley Dobbs Avenue) in Sweet Auburn, an African-American neighborhood of Atlanta. From the 1930s through the 1960s, Scripto significantly expanded its operations, becoming a manufacturer of not only mechanical pencils, but also of pens and lighters. Additionally, from 1951 to 1954, the company operated an ordnance plant that produced artillery shells for the United States Armed Forces during the Korean War. By the 1960s, Scripto was one of the largest pen manufacturers in the country and one of the largest employers in the city. The company was selling its products internationally and was the world's largest producer of writing implements. ### Unionization efforts in the 1940s and 1950s Following the company's relocation to Sweet Auburn, Scripto began to recruit employees from the local African American community for low-wage positions. Many black women viewed a job at Scripto as preferable to being a domestic worker for white Americans, and the company began to employ hundreds of black women at the factory. By 1940, roughly 80 percent of the plant's workforce was made up of African Americans. However, despite the perception of Scripto as a better employer than other options in the city, workplace discrimination against African American workers there was still persistent, and the company's management was still made up entirely of white people. In light of these issues, starting in the 1940s, there were several unionization efforts among the plant employees. In 1940, the United Steelworkers (USW) became the first labor union to attempt to organize the Scripto workers. Their efforts ultimately failed, with union organizers accusing the few white employees who worked in the factory of undermining support for the union. In 1946, the USW again tried to organize a union at the Scripto plant, and following a union vote, they began to officially represent the workers in February of that year. The USW's success was due in large part to support from local black church leaders in the area, such as Martin Luther King Sr. King's church, Ebenezer Baptist Church, was located only a few blocks from the Scripto plant, and many of the Scripto employees were congregants of the church. USW official W. H. Crawford later wrote to King to express his gratitude, saying that King's support of the unionization effort resulted in its success. However, Scripto disputed the results of the union election and refused to collectively bargain with the union. As a result, the USW called for a strike on October 7, and over 500 of the company's 600 African American workers took part in picketing. The union's demands included a union contract, increased wages, paid vacations, and eight-hour shifts. The strike lasted for about six months, during which time the strikers were subjected to harassment from members of the Atlanta Police Department, which at the time included known members of the Ku Klux Klan. However, on March 22, 1947, with little to no progress made on achieving their goals, the USW called off the strike. Of the 400 workers who had remained on strike until the end, only 19 were rehired by Scripto, prompting the USW to file charges against the company with the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB), though the board later found the company free of any legal wrongdoing. In 1947, following the end of the USW strike, local businessman and former politician James V. Carmichael became the president of Scripto. As a politician, Carmichael had served in the Georgia General Assembly in the 1930s and was a candidate in the 1946 Georgia gubernatorial election against Eugene Talmadge. Despite winning a plurality of votes, Carmichael lost the election to Talmadge due to Georgia's county unit system that was used in elections. As a businessman, Carmichael is known for his role in aircraft manufacturing, as he was an assistant general manager of the Bell Bomber Plant in Marietta, Georgia, during World War II and later convinced the Lockheed Corporation to locate a plant in the city. He viewed himself as a benevolent employer and took a paternalistic approach to management. In 1952, before a speech at his alma mater of Emory University, he stated that workers had been exploited by business owners in the past and that unionization was one way that workers attempted to fight back against those abuses but also criticized workers for "blindly" following union leaders and advocated instead for an "enlightened management" that would eliminate the need for unions altogether. On issues regarding race, Carmichael was viewed as either a moderate, and in the 1946 election, he openly criticized Talmadge, a white supremacist, calling his previous administration a "ranting dictatorship" and saying, "No one is going to invest money in industry when you have in the governor’s office a man who is continually stirring up race and class hatred and creating unrest in labor’s ranks". Additionally, Carmichael took pride in Scripto's hiring policies, as it was one of the first companies in the city to employ African Americans in production roles. During the 1950s, when Sweet Auburn was experiencing an economic downturn, Scripto was one of the few companies to continue to grow. During this same time, Carmichael turned down several offers to relocate the plant outside of the city, and company executives made it a point to continue to hire black women. However, during a unionization effort at the company's ordnance plant in 1953, Carmichael fired several of the workers who were involved before the plant shut down the following year. ### ICWU unionization In late 1962, the International Chemical Workers Union (ICWU), an AFL–CIO-affiliated union that had had recent success in organizing smaller production facilities in the Atlanta metropolitan area, began a union drive at Scripto. The ICWU believed that the organization effort would be difficult, as the plant's overwhelmingly majority workforce of black women constituted a demographic that the union felt was not typically responsive to organized labor efforts. In an attempt to win support, the ICWU ensured that the drive focused not only on traditional labor activism topics but also on civil rights. The union called on James Hampton, an African American labor activist and Baptist preacher, to go to Atlanta and help with their organizing efforts. In discussions with the workers, Hampton compared his own work in labor organizing to the work of civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr., drawing a connection between the ICWU's organizing efforts and the activities of the nationwide civil rights movement. 1963 had been a momentous year for the civil rights movement, as many landmark events had taken place around the time that the ICWU was organizing the Scripto workers, including the Birmingham campaign in nearby Alabama, the Stand in the Schoolhouse Door following the desegregation of the University of Alabama, and the assassination of NAACP field secretary Medgar Evers in Mississippi. Hampton also worked with black church leaders in Atlanta, such as King Sr., to get their support for the strike. Hampton was overall successful in getting African American clergy to support the ICWU's efforts, though one notable exception was William Holmes Borders, the pastor of Wheat Street Baptist Church, who declined to support the union drive because of his personal friendship with Carmichael. By August 1963, the ICWU had obtained enough authorization cards that they could petition for an NLRB election. The company agreed to an election in late September. In the meantime, hoping to prevent a successful union vote, the company instituted several changes, including the formation of an employee committee and the removal of racial segregation signs from the plant's bathrooms and water fountains. In the ensuing six weeks, the union focused on building solidarity among the employees and assuaging fears over company reprisals against those involved in the union efforts, while the company focused on appealing to the goodwill that they felt they had fostered with longtime employees. On September 11, about two weeks before the vote was scheduled to take place, Carmichael gathered about 1,000 employees and gave a speech wherein he highlighted his progressive stance on race and urged the employees to vote against unionization, saying in part that "a vote for the union [would be] a slap in the face of one of the truest friends the Negro ever had in Georgia or in the entire South". However, to many workers, support for the union drive was tied to the civil rights movement, and in the weeks leading up to the vote, other notable events, such as King Jr.'s "I Have a Dream" at the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom in Washington, D.C. and the 16th Street Baptist Church bombing in Birmingham, Alabama, contributed to an atmosphere of heightened racial partisanship among the workers. On September 27, the election was held, and of the 1,005 employees who were eligible to vote, 953, or approximately 95 percent, did. Of these 1,005, 855 were African American. In a 519–428 result, the union won and became the official representative of the workers. Scripto employees were grouped under the local union of ICWU Local 754, which was made up almost entirely of black women. A week after the election had taken place, Thomas C. Shelton of the Atlanta-based law firm Kilpatrick, Cody, Rogers, McClatchey & Regenstein, Scripto's legal counsel, filed objections with the NLRB, arguing that the union's use of racial rhetoric and drawing connections to the larger civil rights movement had caused the "sober, informed exercise of the employees' vote" to be impossible, rendering the election null. While the Regional Director of the NLRB rejected the objection, Shelton continued to argue that the results of the election was unfair, citing previous NLRB rulings regarding the use of race-related issues in influencing union votes. For instance, in 1962, the NLRB ruled in an election involving the Sewell Manufacturing Company that "appeals to racial prejudice in matters unrelated to the election issues ... have no place in Board electoral campaigns". Additionally, in a 1957 case involving the Westinghouse Electric Corporation, the NLRB stated that "the consequences of injecting the racial issue where racial prejudices are likely to exist is to pit race against race and thereby distort a clear expression of choice on the issue of unionism". Shelton also argued that the characterization of Carmichael and Scripto by the union was unfair and inaccurate and collected testimony from several prominent individuals that highlighted Carmichael's and the company's stance on race. Benjamin Mays, president of Morehouse College and a longtime friend of Carmichael, spoke positively of his positions on racial issues, while former mayor of Atlanta William B. Hartsfield said that Scripto was well known for their progressive stance on hiring African Americans. Finally, on June 9, 1964, after about ten months of petitioning, the NLRB denied Shelton's requests and awarded the ICWU a certificate of representation for Scripto. ### Contract negotiations Despite the NLRB's awarding of a certificate of representation, the ICWU expressed dismay over the negotiations they were having with the company over the terms of a new labor contract. Jerry Levine, a labor activist from New York City who had joined the ICWU in October 1963, served as the representative for the ICWU in their negotiations with Scripto. Levine said that the contract negotiations lasted for about six months, during which time he said the company was "going through the motions" of bargaining in good faith, often spending weeks at a time discussing the contents of a couple of paragraphs. Additionally, important issues such as wages and other economic policies were not being addressed. As the negotiations continued, Levine began to believe that strike action was the only way to convince the company to agree to a contract, and while negotiations were ongoing, the union sought to strengthen its ties and increase support in the local community. Also during this time, Carmichael had been removed from his position of president by Ferst and placed in the ceremonial role of chairman. The move came due to Carmichael's poor health and a steady decline in Scripto's sales. For two years leading up to 1964, Scripto had had declining profits, which were attributed to labor costs and increased competition. In his new role, Carmichael was not involved in the contract negotiations and functioned mostly as a spokesperson for the brand. Carl Singer, a businessman who had previously worked in Chicago for the Sealy Mattress Company, was brought in to replace Carmichael as Scripto's president and chief executive officer. At the time, Singer was aware that there were contract negotiations, but was not made aware of the issues the company was having with the union. This corporate shakeup was kept private from the general public. By November 1964, the company's proposal to the union would have seen a four-percent wage increase for workers categorized as "skilled" and two-percent wage increases for "unskilled" workers. At the time, unskilled workers at the factory were earning between \$1.25 and \$1.30 per hour, and the two-percent wage increase would have amounted to about \$0.03 more per hour. The union rebuffed with a proposal of an eight-percent wage increase across the board. The union also alleged that the company's proposed wage increase was not an actual pay increase, as the company was planning to offer the raises at the expense of its Christmas bonuses, which often amounted to about a week's pay. Additionally, the union called the company's proposal discriminatory, as only six African American workers at Scripto were considered skilled. The remainder of the company's skilled employees were white, while the rest of the African American employees were classified as unskilled. At the time, Scripto had about 700 African American employees, most of whom were women, and about 200 white workers. On average, these unskilled workers at Scripto earned \$400 below the national poverty threshold. ### Move toward strike action On November 25, 1964, the day before Thanksgiving, workers constituting almost the entirety of the first shift met at the ICWU union hall on Edgewood Avenue, near the factory, and demanded that a strike be commenced. The action caught Levine off guard, and he was unsure what had prompted the sudden movement, though he speculated that it stemmed from disappointment from the workers' bargaining unit that had spread to the rank-and-file employees. While Levine felt that the timing was not right for the strike, he nonetheless acquiesced to the workers' demands, and they began to prepare for a strike. The employees worked over the holiday in order to have picket signs made for when the plant reopened on November 27, the day after Thanksgiving. Company executives who were on holiday vacations were alerted to the strike preparations, and many returned to Atlanta early. ## Course of the strike ### Early strike activities The strike began on November 27, 1964, the day after Thanksgiving, with a walkout. Approximately 85 percent of the plant's workforce participated in the strike, made up primarily of about 700 black women. However, 117 skilled workers, which included six black men, did not participate in the strike. Under Georgia's right-to-work laws, the plant remained open during the strike, and according to the plant's general manager, the factory was continuing to operate under its three-shift schedule without interruption. Outside the plant, the striking employees carried picket signs with slogans such as "We're Human Beings — Not Machines" and "We Won't Be Slaves No More" and sang protest songs including "We Shall Not Be Moved" and "We Shall Overcome". In the first week of the strike, the Atlanta Daily World, the city's African-American newspaper, reported on the strike with front-page coverage. National news agencies also covered the strike, with their reporting focusing primarily on the racial issues at play. Through the course of the strike, Scripto hired replacement workers to keep the plant running, and they placed "Help Wanted" advertisements in many local newspapers, including the Daily World, which prompted controversy among the paper's primarily black readership. Meanwhile, strikers received a weekly strike pay of \$57 from the union, in addition to fringe benefits. The ICWU did not initially have the provisions in place to fund the strike, and for the first two weeks, Levine met with local labor leaders and activist groups to help fund the strike. While labor leaders were largely supportive of the strike and offered financial support, rank-and-file union members were less supportive. ### Initial attempts at mediation A week after the strike began, representatives from the union and the company met with William S. Bradford, a mediator for the Federal Mediation and Conciliation Service, to attempt to resolve their issues. The main point of discussion in the meetings regarded the differences in pay increases between unskilled and skilled employees. The union viewed the issue as a racial one, as the company's proposal would have resulted in a vast majority of the African American workforce receiving a substantially lower raise than their white counterparts. Additionally, the union alleged that a reason for this was that the company did not offer training to African Americans that would have allowed them to be classified as skilled workers. The company rejected the union's view that the matter was primarily racial and instead argued that the dispute was a purely economic one. Throughout the strike, the company continued to downplay the racial aspect of the labor dispute. During these mediation sessions, both sides held to the same pay raise proposals that they had made before the strike. Additionally, the company's proposal would not have seen workers' union dues withheld from their paychecks. As a result, during the first few weeks of the strike, the two sides remained at an impasse in negotiations. ### Involvement of Martin Luther King Jr. and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference From the early days of the union drive, both King Jr. and King Sr., who were co-pastors at Ebenezer Baptist, voiced their support for the ICWU's efforts and kept up to date on the ongoings at Scripto. The younger King had grown up in the same neighborhood that the plant was in, which was only a few blocks from his house, and many of the employees who were involved in the union drive were church congregants, such as Mary Gurley, who was a leader of the strike and an influential member of the church. King Jr., who by this time was an internationally recognized leader in the civil rights movement, had returned to Atlanta in 1960 to pastor at Ebenezer. At that time, many members of Atlanta's black elite, which included Jesse Hill, Samuel Woodrow Williams, and the younger King's father, among others, did not want to see him engage in the same type of high-profile activism that he had been involved in elsewhere. The city's African American power brokers had spent years crafting agreements with the city's white power structure for racial progress, and many were fearful that the younger King's actions could jeopardize the status quo. While the younger King had kept a primarily low-profile during most of his time in Atlanta, he nonetheless engaged in civil rights activism within the city, such as his involvement in the Atlanta sit-ins in 1960. Early in the strike, The Wall Street Journal reported that the younger King was among several prominent African American leaders who supported the strike. On November 29, the younger King, acting in his role as the president of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), an Atlanta-based civil rights organization whose headquarters were only a few blocks from the plant, sent a telegram to Carmichael wherein he expressed his support for the strikers, criticized the company for being anti-union and racially discriminatory, and said that he would call for a boycott of Scripto products if the strike persisted. On December 1, King was scheduled to speak to a large group of strikers at a rally held across the street from the factory, but he was unable to attend the meeting due to a meeting he had with Federal Bureau of Investigation Director J. Edgar Hoover that same day in Washington, D.C. The Reverend C. T. Vivian, who had moved to Atlanta in 1963 to become an executive in the SCLC, took his place, while other speakers included the Reverend Joseph E. Boone, Georgia State Senator Leroy Johnson, and union negotiator Phil Whitehead. SCLC executive Ralph Abernathy also became involved in the strike effort at this time and participated in picketing with protesting workers. Vivian had been the primary voice within the SCLC for supporting the strike, as he viewed unions as a way for African Americans to attain economic equality based on his previous work experience in civil rights organizing in Illinois. By contrast, King's view of organized labor was more mixed. While he was a vocal advocate for economic justice and often solicited unions for financial support, he was also often critical of unions as hindrances to economic mobility for African Americans, as many unions in the United States at the time discriminated against black people and barred them from membership. Additionally, while some unions had supported King's March on Washington the previous year, the AFL–CIO did not, and many of their associated unions were not active in organizing workers in the southern United States. Overall, most of the support for the strike from black clergy and civil rights leaders in the city stemmed less from their support for organized labor and more from the fact that many of the strikers were members of their congregations. However, in a December 4 television interview, King stated, "We have decided that now is the time to identify our movement very closely with labor". While Vivian viewed the strike as a way to strengthen the bond between organized labor and the civil rights movement, SCLC executive Hosea Williams saw the strike as a way for King to buck the local black leadership and lead a demonstration in Atlanta, which was viewed as a major center for African American culture in the United States. On December 4, King left Atlanta to travel to Oslo to accept the Nobel Peace Prize. He spent about two weeks traveling during this time, including to London, New York City, and Washington, D.C., before returning to Atlanta on December 18. The next day, within 24 hours of returning, King marched in a picket line with several other protestors, including a union representative from the ICWU's international headquarters in Amsterdam. Coming so soon after his Nobel Peace Prize acceptance, the action helped to bring international attention to the strike. The following day, on December 20, King spoke to about 250 striking employees at a rally at Ebenezer Baptist. During the speech, he reiterated the SCLC's support for the strike and stressed the interconnectedness of the labor movement and the civil rights movement, saying, "Along with the struggle to desegregate, we must engage in the struggle for better jobs". Throughout the strike, King's involvement was highly criticized by many conservative groups. Local businessman and politician Lester Maddox placed an advertisement in The Atlanta Journal that called King and the SCLC activists "Communist inspired racial agitators", while Calvin Craig, a grand dragon of the United Klans of America, said that King was "overstepping the bounds of Christianity" by getting involved in the strike. ### Boycott One of the biggest contributions that the SCLC had to the strike effort was in organizing a national boycott of Scripto products as a way to apply pressure to Scripto. Vivian contacted 2,500 SCLC affiliates to inform them of the boycott, and the organization made requests to merchants to remove Scripto displays from their stores. In addition, several other civil rights and labor organizations supported the boycott, including the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), the A. Philip Randolph Institute, Operation Breadbasket, and the Atlanta Labor Council. Over 500,000 leaflets were printed and distributed to local unions across the United States asking them to respect the boycott. These leaflets featured a crying Santa Claus with a printed message reading, "Don't buy Scripto products". John Lewis, the chairman of the SNCC, wrote a letter to the General Services Administration (an independent agency of the United States government) urging them to also honor the boycott. At the time, Scripto held two contracts with the federal government of the United States, and Lewis stated in his letter that Scripto had been able to underbid other manufacturers for these contracts by engaging in "economic slavery" with their African American workers. The GSA responded that they would investigate the matter, specifically concerning whether Scripto was in violation of Executive Order 10925, which mandated equal opportunity in the workforce. However, nothing came of this investigation by the time the boycott ended. ### Negotiations between Singer and King and the end of the strike At a meeting between union and company representatives on December 21, the company put forward a proposal that included a four-cent pay increase across the board. However, the union balked at the proposal, which would have still included the removal of the workers' Christmas bonuses. By this time, almost all parties involved in the strike were experiencing hardships caused by the labor dispute. Strikers were losing approximately \$50 a day in lost wages, while the ICWU had exhausted almost all of their strike funds. Additionally, leaders within the SCLC were worried about the potential negative consequences that a failed strike could have on their organization, which they had helped to elevate from a local issue to a nationally known issue. Meanwhile, the company, despite reporting that their production levels and sales were comparable to pre-strike levels, had seen their reputation damaged by the strike. Despite this, picketing continued, with Levine leading about 200 strikers on a march through downtown on December 23. Unbeknownst to Levine and others in the union, over the course of several weeks, Singer and King had been in contact with each other and had discussed ways to bring the strike to an end. Singer, who had been unwilling to negotiate with the union, had telephoned King directly to negotiate with him, despite King having no authorization from the ICWU to act as a negotiator. Over the course of several weeks, King and Singer had four meetings at Scripto's headquarters, with very few people on either side being made aware of these meetings. During the discussions, both sides came to an agreement wherein King would have the SCLC end its boycott if the company agreed to give the workers their Christmas bonuses. King may have been willing to accept this agreement in part because he and the SCLC were planning for a campaign in Selma, Alabama, that would later include the Selma to Montgomery marches, and their planning was behind schedule. This tentative agreement was reached on the evening of December 23, with Levine being alerted to it while at the march in downtown. A meeting was swiftly set up at Ebenezer Baptist between ICWU and SCLC officials, including both Kings and Levine, and SCLC member Andrew Young was responsible for informing the union officials of the agreement. Vivian was not present and may not have been invited due to his strong union support, as SCLC members may have felt that he would have strongly opposed the agreement. Upon first hearing of the agreement, which he believed was only a proposal, Levine objected to it, as he said that the Christmas bonuses would have been guaranteed in any settlement since the workers were legally entitled to them. Despite Levine's objections, the agreement was made public the next day, and both the boycott and any involvement between the SCLC and the strike ended on December 24. The union felt that King's actions had undermined the strike, and the secret meetings between King and Singer may have constituted an unfair labor practice, as the ICWU was the only legally recognized representative for bargaining with the ICWU workers they represented. However, the ICWU never took legal action on the matter. With the agreement in place between the SCLC and Scripto, the union spent the rest of the year working on a formal proposal that would see an end to the strike. Negotiations resumed on December 29, and though there were still some disagreements regarding pay, an agreement was reached shortly thereafter. On January 9, 1965, the union and company announced in a joint statement that they had come to an agreement on a new labor contract, and the strike was called off that day. ## Aftermath and legacy ### Terms of the contract The three-year contract signed between the ICWU and Scripto was the first in the company's history and affected about 900 workers. As part of the contract, Scripto's employees received across-the-board wage increases, with an annual raise of \$0.04 every year for the three-year duration of the contract. In 1967, the minimum wage in the United States was increased from \$1.25 to \$1.40 per hour, and some of the workers who were making below this amount had their pay increases adjusted. Additionally, Scripto agreed to rehire 155 strikers whose positions had been taken over by replacements while also agreeing to retain the employees they had hired during the strike. Employees were also guaranteed an additional \$0.21 per hour for afternoon shift work and five paid holidays, as well as two weeks of paid vacation after a year of working for the company and a paid day for attending funerals. The company also instituted a training program that would make it easier for unskilled employees to become skilled employees. The company also agreed to officially recognize the union and instituted a system where union dues were automatically collected from employees' paychecks. Following the strike, the company began to work with the union to address issues regarding racial discrimination, and eventually the company's system of skilled and unskilled workers was replaced with a system of 22 different job grades that had been established in a joint effort between the company and the union. Additionally, King and Singer began to develop a better relationship following the strike, and during King's funeral in 1968, Scripto paid for security for the King family and also closed their plant to allow workers to pay their respects. ### Martin Luther King Jr. King's involvement in the strike drew criticism from many people, including labor activists and business leaders. Among union organizers, King's secret negotiations with Singer were seen as an interference in the bargaining process. Meanwhile, both white business leaders and the black elite in Atlanta felt that King's actions had disturbed a system that they had in place that saw gradual civil rights progress in exchange for a deemphasis on overt protests. Additionally, some members of the city's African American community felt that Scripto had been an unfair target for civil rights activism, given the company's reputation in the community as a provider of stable jobs and their executives' commitment to hiring African American workers. On January 27, King was honored with a banquet in Atlanta to celebrate his winning the Nobel Peace Prize. However, many of the city's white business leaders voiced their displeasure with King's actions during the strike and initially threatened to not attend the event. In the immediate aftermath of the strike, King had vowed that there would be "more to come" with regards to working with labor activists, and in 1965, the SCLC considered training union organizers. However, given the poor reception of the Scripto strike, the SCLC and King generally refrained from involvement in labor issues. Additionally, Scripto and the ICWU excluded the SCLC from future negotiations after the initial three-year contract expired in the late 1960s. King would not become deeply involved in another labor strike until the Memphis sanitation strike of 1968. ### Later history Through the late 1960s and into the 1970s, Scripto faced increased competition from competitors such as Société Bic and Paper Mate. Additionally, the Sweet Auburn facility, which the company had operated for several decades, had become outdated. In December 1977, Scripto closed their Sweet Auburn facility and relocated their production to a plant in Doraville, Georgia. Through the later part of the 20th century, Scripto would be bought out by several larger conglomerates and their production facilities would be relocated out of Georgia, first to California and later to Mexico. The company continued to own the property in Sweet Auburn until the 1990s, by which point they had been abandoned for many years and were listed as a toxic waste site. This was part of a larger downward trend for the neighborhood, which experienced a severe economic decline through the 1980s and 1990s. Around this same time, The Trust for Public Land, a nonprofit organization, began to focus its efforts on combating urban decay in the area. The organization purchased the industrial area and paid for their demolition and asbestos removal. This was done in part as preparations for the 1996 Summer Olympics, which were held in Atlanta. That same year, The Trust for Public Land turned over the property to the National Park Service, and today the land is home to a parking lot for the Martin Luther King Jr. National Historical Park. Discussing the strike in 2018, historian Joseph M. Thompson of Mississippi State University said that, while the strike is primarily viewed by historians only in the context of King's involvement and the relationship between the civil rights movement and the labor movement, it also reflected a tradition of organized labor among black women in Atlanta. He points to the previous unionization attempts at the plant as evidence of this and ties the 1960s strike to other moments in the history of Atlanta, such as the 1881 Atlanta washerwomen strike. According to Thompson, "Within this broader context, the 1964 Scripto strike looks less like a product of the midcentury civil rights movements and more like a victory in the long fight for black women's economic rights in Atlanta."
11,920,088	Green Light (Beyoncé song)	1,170,929,887	2007 single by Beyoncé	[ "2006 songs", "2007 singles", "American funk songs", "Beyoncé songs", "Columbia Records singles", "Music videos directed by Melina Matsoukas", "Song recordings produced by Beyoncé", "Song recordings produced by the Neptunes", "Songs written by Beyoncé", "Songs written by Pharrell Williams", "Songs written by Sean Garrett" ]	"Green Light" is a song recorded by American singer Beyoncé. The song was written by Beyoncé, Sean Garrett, and Pharrell for Beyoncé's second solo studio album, B'Day (2006). Produced by the Neptunes, it was released as the fourth UK and sixth overall single on July 27, 2007 through Columbia Records. "Green Light" is an R&B-funk song with lyrics detailing a break-up song in which the female protagonist gives her love interest the permission to move out. The song also finds Beyoncé using fairly aggressive tone. A remix of the song features American rapper Young Buck, and was produced by Swizz Beatz. "Green Light" was well received by music critics who universally praised the beat, bass, groove, and angry tone used by Beyoncé in the song. The single performed moderately on charts, peaking at number twelve on the UK Singles Chart and at number 46 in Ireland. The Freemasons remix of the track peaked at number eighteen on the Dutch Top 40 chart. The single's accompanying music video was directed by Melina Matsoukas and co-directed by Beyoncé. It is inspired by Robert Palmer's 1985 music video "Addicted to Love". Beyoncé considered the video, which is her second to feature her all-female tour band called the Suga Mama, her toughest shoot. The song was a part of the set list on her world tour the Beyoncé Experience (2007). ## Background and release After filming Dreamgirls in which Beyoncé landed a major role, she went on a month-long vacation. On the break she went to the studio to start working on her second solo album, B'Day. She was inspired by her role and she "had so many things bottled up, so many emotions, so many ideas". Beyoncé contacted American singer-songwriter Sean Garrett, who had worked with her in Destiny's Child and on her 2006 single "Check on It". Together with Pharrell, who had also previously collaborated with Beyoncé, Garrett was booked to Sony Music Studios in New York City, each had studio to work in. The track was co-produced by Beyoncé and The Neptunes, along with "Kitty Kat", and was recorded by Jim Caruana and mixed by Jason Goldstein at the same studio. In June 2006, Beyoncé invited Tamara Coniff of Billboard magazine to a New York recording studio. There she premiered several songs from the album including "Ring the Alarm" (2006) and "Freakum Dress" (2006), which both were cited as possible second singles, to be released in the United States only. At the same time, she revealed that "Green Light" and "Get Me Bodied" (2007), were planned to be released as the next two international/third US singles from B'Day, following the release of the lead single "Déjà Vu" (2006). However, she ultimately opted for "Ring the Alarm" (2006) as the second single to be released in the United States only while "Irreplaceable" (2006) was officially serviced as the album's second international/third US single. "Green Light" was released later in the United Kingdom on July 30, 2007 as the seventh overall single, following the international release "Beautiful Liar" (2007). Along with the release of the single, a digital EP featuring remixes from the English production team Freemasons, was made available on July 27, 2007 as an online digital download. ## Music and lyrics "Green Light" is an R&B-funk song performed with "vivace" tempo. According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by EMI Music Publishing, the song is written in the key of A minor with a moderate groove of 132 beats per minute. The chord follows the Fm-G♭ key series with an occasional shift to additional B♭m<sub>7</sub>. Beyoncé's vocals range from the note of C<sub>4</sub> to F<sub>5</sub>. The song is built on a ripping bassline and features "a more organic" beat. Green Light" features "uh-huh huh huh" vocals and uses brassy stabs which a reviewer from Guardian Unlimited found to be a "direct echo to 'Crazy in Love'." According to The London Paper, the "uh-oh-oh-oh-oh" vocals in "Green Light" is an "imitation of Amerie's performance" in her 2005 single "1 Thing". "Green Light" also displays Latin percussion as well as sampled soul horns, and uses a fairly aggressive tone. Conforming to Jon Pareles of The New York Times, "Green Light" is a break-up song in which the female protagonist gives her love interest the permission to move out. This is shown in the lines of the hook: "Go! Go!" The lyrics are constructed in the traditional verse-chorus form. The song starts with an intro in which Beyoncé sings, "Give it to mama". Jaime Gill of Yahoo! Music commented that "Green Light" seems to be all "slink and minimalism before a surging come-on of a chorus." It follows the verse-chorus-verse-verse-chorus pattern giving way to the bridge. Beyoncé repeats the chorus, ending the song. ## Critical reception "Green Light" received highly positive reception from critics. Eb Haynes of AllHipHop referred to "Green Light" as a "classic Pharrell-Neptunes groove". Andy Kellman of Allmusic described the track as an "ambitious, fleet-footed number that continually switches tempos and sounds". Spence D. of IGN music stated, "'Green Light' brings things back down to pseudo earthiness; both with the slightly more organic sounding Neptunes beat." He felt that the "rippling bassline sounds really familiar, like it's been used in other Neptunes' produced tracks before".... Jaime Gill of Yahoo! Music said that "Green Light" is "the best thing Pharrell and co have done in a long, long while." Roger Friedman of Fox News Channel considered "Green Light" as his second choice as the song having the greatest potential to become a massive hit after "Irreplaceable" (2006). Thomas Inskeep of Stylus Magazine gave a mixed review for the song commenting that it's one of the "tired random-percussion tracks [...] that goes nowhere." ## Commercial performance With the album version of the song being available digitally as soon as the album was released, "Green Light" debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number 152 after the video aired in early July 2007, and then rose to number seventy-eight on July 28, 2007. Because of heavy radio airplay of the Freemasons remix, as soon as it was available, the song climbed sixty places from number seventy-seven to number seventeen on August 11, 2007, and then to number twelve, giving Beyoncé her eleventh top twenty hit in the United Kingdom. "Green Light" became Beyoncé's highest charting single on downloads alone on the UK Singles Chart without a prominent featured artist. The UK commercial CD single was cancelled at the last minute, which means it did not receive a physical release. This explains why the single failed to reach a higher position. "Green Light" stayed on the chart for nine weeks. In Ireland, the single debuted at number forty-six on August 23, 2007, and dropped off the chart a week later. The Freemasons remix of the track debuted at number thirty on the Dutch Top 40 chart on September 8, 2007. It propelled to number nineteen, and peaked at number eighteen on September 29, 2007. It remained on the chart for six weeks. On the other hand, the album version of "Green Light" peaked at number twenty on the Dutch Mega Single Top 100 on September 22, 2007. ## Music video The music video for "Green Light" was directed by Melina Matsoukas and co-directed by Beyoncé. Filmed in early 2007, it was one of the videos shot in two weeks for the B'Day Anthology Video Album (2007) and was one out of eight previously unseen clips. "Green Light" was the third video shot during the sessions. The clip was inspired mainly by Robert Palmer's 1985 music video "Addicted to Love" with its "stone-faced models pretending to play guitars". "Green Light" was considered by Beyoncé as a modern version of the video because they used the instruments as props, where she pretended as a rock star. Beyoncé also revealed that the scenes reminded her of Vanity 6. A short "Kitty Kat" clip opens the "Green Light" video. Beyoncé considered "Green Light" the "toughest video" to shoot. Besides from dressing in latex rubber clothing, she and her back-up dancers had to wear ballet-pointe heels. The shoes blistered her feet and gave muscle spasms due to the 18-hour session. Beyoncé invited her all-female tour band, Suga Mama, to make their second appearance in a video after their debut performance on the music video for "Irreplaceable" (2006). The video was posted on the MTV Overdrive on March 28, 2007. ## Live performances On September 6, 2006, Beyoncé promoted the album B'Day with a performance of "Green Light" on Good Morning America. On April 2, 2007 she also appeared on the Today Show, to promote the deluxe edition of B'Day, which was released the following day. Beyoncé sang the Spanglish version of "Irreplaceable" and "Green Light". The song was included as a part of her set list on The Beyoncé Experience. On August 5, 2007, Beyoncé performed the song at the Madison Square Garden in Manhattan, wearing a sparkly silver dress with a long train. For the performance, Beyoncé also brought out her squad of six female dancers. According to Shaheem Reid of MTV News, all the women moved with the precision "of a Navy Seal strike force", slaying the crowd with their synchronized dances. Jon Pareles of The New York Times praised the performance, stating: "Beyoncé needs no distractions from her singing, which can be airy or brassy, tearful or vicious, rapid-fire with staccato syllables or sustained in curlicued melismas. But she was in constant motion, strutting in costumes [...]". According to Tonya Turner of The Courier-Mail, the performance of "Green Light", "moved fans to screams of endearment." In Los Angeles, Beyoncé gave a full-length performance of the song, dressed in a sparkly silver dress with a long train. It was executed with several female backup dancers, and live instrumentation. "Green Light" was included as on her live album The Beyoncé Experience Live (2007). ## Track listings and formats - Digital download 1. "Green Light" – 3:29 2. "Green Light" (Freemasons Remix) – 3:19 3. "Green Light" (Remix featuring Young Buck) - 4:19 - UK Freemasons Digital EP 1. "Green Light" (Freemasons Remix) – 3:19 2. "Beautiful Liar" (Freemasons Club Remix) (featuring Shakira) – 7:31 3. "Déjà Vu" (Freemasons Radio Mix) (featuring Jay-Z) – 3:15 4. "Ring the Alarm" (Freemasons Club Mix Radio Edit) – 3:26 ## Credits and personnel Credits are taken from B'Day's liner notes. - Andrew Coleman – assistant recording - Jim Caruana – recording - Sean Garrett – writing - Jason Goldstein – mixing - Rob Kinelski – assistant recording - Beyoncé – writing, production - The Neptunes – production - Steve Tolle – assistant mixing - Pharrell Williams – writing ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Release history
1,404,732	Vocabulary development	1,160,871,509	Process of learning words	[ "Child development", "Developmental psychology", "Language acquisition", "Lexis (linguistics)" ]	Vocabulary development is a process by which people acquire words. Babbling shifts towards meaningful speech as infants grow and produce their first words around the age of one year. In early word learning, infants build their vocabulary slowly. By the age of 18 months, infants can typically produce about 50 words and begin to make word combinations. In order to build their vocabularies, infants must learn about the meanings that words carry. The mapping problem asks how infants correctly learn to attach words to referents. Constraints theories, domain-general views, social-pragmatic accounts, and an emergentist coalition model have been proposed to account for the mapping problem. From an early age, infants use language to communicate. Caregivers and other family members use language to teach children how to act in society. In their interactions with peers, children have the opportunity to learn about unique conversational roles. Through pragmatic directions, adults often offer children cues for understanding the meaning of words. Throughout their school years, children continue to build their vocabulary. In particular, children begin to learn abstract words. Beginning around age 3–5, word learning takes place both in conversation and through reading. Word learning often involves physical context, builds on prior knowledge, takes place in social context, and includes semantic support. The phonological loop and serial order short-term memory may both play an important role in vocabulary development. ## Early word learning Infants begin to understand words such as "Mommy", "Daddy", "hands" and "feet" when they are approximately 6 months old. Initially, these words refer to their own mother or father or hands or feet. Infants begin to produce their first words when they are approximately one year old. Infants' first words are normally used in reference to things that are of importance to them, such as objects, body parts, people, and relevant actions. Also, the first words that infants produce are mostly single-syllabic or repeated single syllables, such as "no" and "dada". By 12 to 18 months of age, children's vocabularies often contain words such as "kitty", "bottle", "doll", "car" and "eye". Children's understanding of names for objects and people usually precedes their understanding of words that describe actions and relationships. "One" and "two" are the first number words that children learn between the ages of one and two. Infants must be able to hear and play with sounds in their environment, and to break up various phonetic units to discover words and their related meanings. ### Development in oral languages Studies related to vocabulary development show that children's language competence depends upon their ability to hear sounds during infancy. Infants' perception of speech is distinct. Between six and ten months of age, infants can discriminate sounds used in the languages of the world. By 10 to 12 months, infants can no longer discriminate between speech sounds that are not used in the language(s) to which they are exposed. Among six-month-old infants, seen articulations (i.e. the mouth movements they observe others make while talking) actually enhance their ability to discriminate sounds, and may also contribute to infants' ability to learn phonemic boundaries. Infants' phonological register is completed between the ages of 18 months and 7 years. Children's phonological development normally proceeds as follows: 6–8 weeks: Cooing appears 16 weeks: Laughter and vocal play appear 6–9 months: Reduplicated (canonical) babbling appears 12 months: First words use a limited sound repertoire 18 months: Phonological processes (deformations of target sounds) become systematic 18 months–7 years: Phonological inventory completion At each stage mentioned above, children play with sounds and learn methods to help them learn words. There is a relationship between children's prelinguistic phonetic skills and their lexical progress at age two: failure to develop the required phonetic skills in their prelinguistic period results in children's delay in producing words. Environmental influences may affect children's phonological development, such as hearing loss as a result of ear infections. Deaf infants and children with hearing problems due to infections are usually delayed in the beginning of vocal babbling. #### Babbling Babbling is an important aspect of vocabulary development in infants, since it appears to help practice producing speech sounds. Babbling begins between five and seven months of age. At this stage, babies start to play with sounds that are not used to express their emotional or physical states, such as sounds of consonants and vowels. Babies begin to babble in real syllables such as "ba-ba-ba, neh-neh-neh, and dee-dee-dee," between the ages of seven and eight months; this is known as canonical babbling. Jargon babbling includes strings of such sounds; this type of babbling uses intonation but doesn't convey meaning. The phonemes and syllabic patterns produced by infants begin to be distinctive to particular languages during this period (e.g., increased nasal stops in French and Japanese babies) though most of their sounds are similar. There is a shift from babbling to the use of words as the infant grows. #### Vocabulary spurt As children get older their rate of vocabulary growth increases. Children probably understand their first 50 words before they produce them. By the age of eighteen months, children typically attain a vocabulary of 50 words in production, and between two and three times greater in comprehension. A switch from an early stage of slow vocabulary growth to a later stage of faster growth is referred to as the vocabulary spurt. Young toddlers acquire one to three words per month. A vocabulary spurt often occurs over time as the number of words learned accelerates. It is believed that most children add about 10 to 20 new words a week. Between the ages of 18 and 24 months, children learn how to combine two words such as no bye-bye and more please. Three-word and four-word combinations appear when most of the child's utterances are two-word productions. In addition, children are able to form conjoined sentences, using and. This suggests that there is a vocabulary spurt between the time that the child's first word appears, and when the child is able to form more than two words, and eventually, sentences. However, there have been arguments as to whether or not there is a spurt in acquisition of words. In one study of 38 children, only five of the children had an inflection point in their rate of word acquisition as opposed to a quadratic growth. ### Development in sign languages The learning mechanisms involved in language acquisition are not specific to oral languages. The developmental stages in learning a sign language and an oral language are generally the same. Deaf babies who are exposed to sign language from birth will start babbling with their hands from 10 to 14 months. Just as in oral languages, manual babbling consists of a syllabic structure and is often reduplicated. The first symbolic sign is produced around the age of 1 year. Young children will simplify complex adult signs, especially those with difficult handshapes. This is likely due to fine motor control not having fully developed yet. The sign's movement is also often proximalized: the child will articulate the sign with a body part that is closer to the torso. For example, a sign that requires bending the elbow might be produced by using the shoulder instead. This simplification is systematic in that these errors are not random, but predictable. Signers can represent the alphabet through the use of fingerspelling. Children start fingerspelling as early as the age of 2. However, they are not aware of the association between fingerspelling and alphabet. It is not until the age of 4 that they realize that fingerspelling consists of a fixed sequence of units. ## Mapping problem In word learning, the mapping problem refers to the question of how infants attach the forms of language to the things that they experience in the world. There are infinite objects, concepts, and actions in the world that words could be mapped onto. Many theories have been proposed to account for the way in which the language learner successfully maps words onto the correct objects, concepts, and actions. While domain-specific accounts of word learning argue for innate constraints that limit infants' hypotheses about word meanings, domain-general perspectives argue that word learning can be accounted for by general cognitive processes, such as learning and memory, which are not specific to language. Yet other theorists have proposed social pragmatic accounts, which stress the role of caregivers in guiding infants through the word learning process. According to some research, however, children are active participants in their own word learning, although caregivers may still play an important role in this process. Recently, an emergentist coalition model has also been proposed to suggest that word learning cannot be fully attributed to a single factor. Instead, a variety of cues, including salient and social cues, may be utilized by infants at different points in their vocabulary development. ### Theories of constraints Theories of word-learning constraints argue for biases or default assumptions that guide the infant through the word learning process. Constraints are outside of the infant's control and are believed to help the infant limit their hypotheses about the meaning of words that they encounter daily. Constraints can be considered domain-specific (unique to language). Critics argue that theories of constraints focus on how children learn nouns, but ignore other aspects of their word learning. Although constraints are useful in explaining how children limit possible meanings when learning novel words, the same constraints would eventually need to be overridden because they are not utilized in adult language. For instance, adult speakers often use several terms, each term meaning something slightly different, when referring to one entity, such as a family pet. This practice would violate the mutual exclusivity constraint. Below, the most prominent constraints in the literature are detailed: - Reference is the notion that a word symbolizes or stands in for an object, action, or event. Words consistently stand for their referents, even if referents are not physically present in context. - Mutual Exclusivity is the assumption that each object in the world can only be referred to by a single label. - Shape has been considered to be one of the most critical properties for identifying members of an object category. Infants assume that objects that have the same shape also share a name. Shape plays an important role in both appropriate and inappropriate extensions. - The Whole Object Assumption is the belief that labels refer to whole objects instead of parts or properties of those objects. Children are believed to hold this assumption because they typically label whole objects first, and parts of properties of objects later in development. - The Taxonomic Assumption reflects the belief that speakers use words to refer to categories that are internally consistent. Labels to pick out coherent categories of objects, rather than those objects and the things that are related to them. For example, children assume that the word "dog" refers to the category of "dogs", not to "dogs with bones", or "dogs chasing cats". ### Domain-general views Domain-general views of vocabulary development argue that children do not need principles or constraints in order to successfully develop word-world mappings. Instead, word learning can be accounted for through general learning mechanisms such as salience, association, and frequency. Children are thought to notice the objects, actions, or events that are most salient in context, and then to associate them with the words that are most frequently used in their presence. Additionally, research on word learning suggests that fast mapping, the rapid learning that children display after a single exposure to new information, is not specific to word learning. Children can also successfully fast map when exposed to a novel fact, remembering both words and facts after a time delay. Domain-general views have been criticized for not fully explaining how children manage to avoid mapping errors when there are numerous possible referents to which objects, actions, or events might point. For instance, if biases are not present from birth, why do infants assume that labels refer to whole objects, instead of salient parts of these objects? However, domain-general perspectives do not dismiss the notion of biases. Rather, they suggest biases develop through learning strategies instead of existing as built-in constraints. For instance, the whole object bias could be explained as a strategy that humans use to reason about the world; perhaps we are prone to thinking about our environment in terms of whole objects, and this strategy is not specific to the language domain. Additionally, children may be exposed to cues associated with categorization by shape early in the word learning process, which would draw their attention to shape when presented with novel objects and labels. Ordinary learning could, then, lead to a shape bias. ### Social pragmatic theories Social pragmatic theories, also in contrast to the constraints view, focus on the social context in which the infant is embedded. According to this approach, environmental input removes the ambiguity of the word learning situation. Cues such as the caregiver's gaze, body language, gesture, and smile help infants to understand the meanings of words. Social pragmatic theories stress the role of the caregiver in talking about objects, actions, or events that the infant is already focused-in upon. Joint attention is an important mechanism through which children learn to map words-to-world, and vice versa. Adults commonly make an attempt to establish joint attention with a child before they convey something to the child. Joint attention is often accompanied by physical co-presence, since children are often focused on what is in their immediate environment. As well, conversational co-presence is likely to occur; the caregiver and child typically talk together about whatever is taking place at their locus of joint attention. Social pragmatic perspectives often present children as covariation detectors, who simply associate the words that they hear with whatever they are attending to in the world at the same time. The co-variation detection model of joint attention seems problematic when we consider that many caregiver utterances do not refer to things that occupy the immediate attentional focus of infants. For instance, caregivers among the Kaluli, a group of indigenous peoples living in New Guinea, rarely provide labels in the context of their referents. While the covariation detection model emphasizes the caregiver's role in the meaning-making process, some theorists argue that infants also play an important role in their own word learning, actively avoiding mapping errors. When infants are in situations where their own attentional focus differs from that of a speaker, they seek out information about the speaker's focus, and then use that information to establish correct word-referent mappings. Joint attention can be created through infant agency, in an attempt to gather information about a speaker's intent. From early on, children also assume that language is designed for communication. Infants treat communication as a cooperative process. Specifically, infants observe the principles of conventionality and contrast. According to conventionality, infants believe that for a particular meaning that they wish to convey, there is a term that everyone in the community would expect to be used. According to contrast, infants act according to the notion that differences in form mark differences in meaning. Children's attention to conventionality and contrast is demonstrated in their language use, even before the age of 2 years; they direct their early words towards adult targets, repair mispronunciations quickly if possible, ask for words to relate to the world around them, and maintain contrast in their own word use. ### Emergentist coalition model The emergentist coalition model suggests that children make use of multiple cues to successfully attach a novel label to a novel object. The word learning situation may offer an infant combinations of social, perceptual, cognitive, and linguistic cues. While a range of cues are available from the start of word learning, it may be the case that not all cues are utilized by the infant when they begin the word learning process. While younger children may only be able to detect a limited number of cues, older, more experienced word learners may be able to make use of a range of cues. For instance, young children seem to focus primarily on perceptual salience, but older children attend to the gaze of caregivers and use the focus of caregivers to direct their word mapping. Therefore, this model argues that principles or cues may be present from the onset of word learning, but the use of a wide range of cues develops over time. Supporters of the emergentist coalition model argue that, as a hybrid, this model moves towards a more holistic explanation of word learning that is not captured by models with a singular focus. For instance, constraints theories typically argue that constraints/principles are available to children from the onset of word learning, but do not explain how children develop into expert speakers who are not limited by constraints. Additionally, some argue that domain-general perspectives do not fully address the question of how children sort through numerous potential referents in order to correctly sort out meaning. Lastly, social pragmatic theories claim that social encounters guide word learning. Although these theories describe how children become more advanced word learners, they seem to tell us little about children's capacities at the start of word learning. According to its proponents, the emergentist coalition model incorporates constraints/principles, but argues for the development and change in these principles over time, while simultaneously taking into consideration social aspects of word learning alongside other cues, such as salience. ## Pragmatic development Both linguistic and socio-cultural factors affect the rate at which vocabulary develops. Children must learn to use their words appropriately and strategically in social situations. They have flexible and powerful social-cognitive skills that allow them to understand the communicative intentions of others in a wide variety of interactive situations. Children learn new words in communicative situations. Children rely on pragmatic skills to build more extensive vocabularies. Some aspects of pragmatic behaviour can predict later literacy and mathematical achievement, as children who are pragmatically skilled often function better in school. These children are also generally better liked. Children use words differently for objects, spatial relations and actions. Children ages one to three often rely on general purpose deictic words such as "here", "that" or "look" accompanied by a gesture, which is most often pointing, to pick out specific objects. Children also stretch already known or partly known words to cover other objects that appear similar to the original. This can result in word overextension or misuses of words. Word overextension is governed by the perceptual similarities children notice among the different referents. Misuses of words indirectly provide ways of finding out which meanings children have attached to particular words. When children come into contact with spatial relations, they talk about the location of one object with respect to another. They name the object located and use a deictic term, such as here or "there" for location, or they name both the object located and its location. They can also use a general purpose locative marker, which is a preposition, postposition or suffix depending on the language that is linked in some way to the word for location. Children's earliest words for actions usually encode both the action and its result. Children use a small number of general purpose verbs, such as "do" and "make" for a large variety of actions because their resources are limited. Children acquiring a second language seem to use the same production strategies for talking about actions. Sometimes children use a highly specific verb instead of a general purpose verb. In both cases children stretch their resources to communicate what they want to say. Infants use words to communicate early in life and their communication skills develop as they grow older. Communication skills aid in word learning. Infants learn to take turns while communicating with adults. While preschoolers lack precise timing and rely on obvious speaker cues, older children are more precise in their timing and take fewer long pauses. Children get better at initiating and sustaining coherent conversations as they age. Toddlers and preschoolers use strategies such as repeating and recasting their partners' utterances to keep the conversation going. Older children add new relevant information to conversations. Connectives such as then, so, and because are more frequently used as children get older. When giving and responding to feedback, preschoolers are inconsistent, but around the age of six, children can mark corrections with phrases and head nods to indicate their continued attention. As children continue to age they provide more constructive interpretations back to listeners, which helps prompt conversations. ### Pragmatic influences Caregivers use language to help children become competent members of society and culture. From birth, infants receive pragmatic information. They learn structure of conversations from early interactions with caregivers. Actions and speech are organized in games, such as peekaboo to provide children with information about words and phrases. Caregivers find many ways to help infants interact and respond. As children advance and participate more actively in interactions, caregivers adapt their interactions accordingly. Caregivers also prompt children to produce correct pragmatic behaviours. They provide input about what children are expected to say, how to speak, when they should speak, and how they can stay on topic. Caregivers may model the appropriate behaviour, using verbal reinforcement, posing a hypothetical situation, addressing children's comments, or evaluating another person. Family members contribute to pragmatic development in different ways. Fathers often act as secondary caregivers, and may know the child less intimately. Older siblings may lack the capacity to acknowledge the child's needs. As a result, both fathers and siblings may pressure children to communicate more clearly. They often challenge children to improve their communication skills, therefore preparing them to communicate with strangers about unfamiliar topics. Fathers have more breakdowns when communicating with infants, and spend less time focused on the same objects or actions as infants. Siblings are more directive and less responsive to infants, which motivates infants to participate in conversations with their older siblings. There are limitations to studies that focus on the influences of fathers and siblings, as most research is descriptive and correlational. In reality, there are many variations of family configurations, and context influences parent behaviour more than parent gender does. The majority of research in this field is conducted with mother/child pairs. Peers help expose children to multi-party conversations. This allows children to hear a greater variety of speech, and to observe different conversational roles. Peers may be uncooperative conversation partners, which pressures the children to communicate more effectively. Speaking to peers is different from speaking to adults, but children may still correct their peers. Peer interaction provides children with a different experience filled with special humour, disagreements and conversational topics. Culture and context in infants' linguistic environment shape their vocabulary development. English learners have been found to map novel labels to objects more reliably than to actions compared to Mandarin learners. This early noun bias in English learners is caused by the culturally reinforced tendency for English speaking caregivers to engage in a significant amount of ostensive labelling as well as noun-friendly activities such as picture book reading. Adult speech provides children with grammatical input. Both Mandarin and Cantonese languages have a category of grammatical function word called a noun classifier, which is also common across many genetically unrelated East Asian languages. In Cantonese, classifiers are obligatory and specific in more situations than in Mandarin. This accounts for the research found on Mandarin-speaking children outperforming Cantonese-speaking children in relation to the size of their vocabulary. ### Pragmatic directions Pragmatic directions provide children with additional information about the speaker's intended meaning. Children's learning of new word meanings is guided by the pragmatic directions that adults offer, such as explicit links to word meanings. Adults present young children with information about how words are related to each other through connections, such as "is a part of", "is a kind of", "belongs to", or "is used for". These pragmatic directions provide children with essential information about language, allowing them to make inferences about possible meanings for unfamiliar words. This is also called inclusion. When children are provided with two words related by inclusion, they hold on to that information. When children hear an adult say an incorrect word, and then repair their mistake by stating the correct word, children take into account the repair when assigning meanings to the two words. ## In school-age children Vocabulary development during the school years builds upon what the child already knows, and the child uses this knowledge to broaden their vocabulary. Once children have gained a level of vocabulary knowledge, new words are learned through explanations using familiar, or "old" words. This is done either explicitly, when a new word is defined using old words, or implicitly, when the word is set in the context of old words so that the meaning of the new word is constrained. When children reach school-age, context and implicit learning are the most common ways in which their vocabularies continue to develop. By this time, children learn new vocabulary mostly through conversation and reading. Throughout schooling and adulthood, conversation and reading are the main methods in which vocabulary develops. This growth tends to slow once a person finishes schooling, as they have already acquired the vocabulary used in everyday conversation and reading material and generally are not engaging in activities that require additional vocabulary development. During the first few years of life, children are mastering concrete words such as "car", "bottle", "dog", "cat". By age 3, children are likely able to learn these concrete words without the need for a visual reference, so word learning tends to accelerate around this age. Once children reach school-age, they learn abstract words (e.g. "love", "freedom", "success"). This broadens the vocabulary available for children to learn, which helps to account for the increase in word learning evident at school age. By age 5, children tend to have an expressive vocabulary of 2,100–2,200 words. By age 6, they have approximately 2,600 words of expressive vocabulary and 20,000–24,000 words of receptive vocabulary. Some claim that children experience a sudden acceleration in word learning, upwards of 20 words per day, but it tends to be much more gradual than this. From age 6 to 8, the average child in school is learning 6–7 words per day, and from age 8 to 10, approximately 12 words per day. ### Means Exposure to conversations and engaging in conversation with others help school-age children develop vocabulary. Fast mapping is the process of learning a new concept upon a single exposure and is used in word learning not only by infants and toddlers, but by preschool children and adults as well. This principle is very useful for word learning in conversational settings, as words tend not to be explained explicitly in conversation, but may be referred to frequently throughout the span of a conversation. Reading is considered to be a key element of vocabulary development in school-age children. Before children are able to read on their own, children can learn from others reading to them. Learning vocabulary from these experiences includes using context, as well as explicit explanations of words and/or events in the story. This may be done using illustrations in the book to guide explanation and provide a visual reference or comparisons, usually to prior knowledge and past experiences. Interactions between the adult and the child often include the child's repetition of the new word back to the adult. When a child begins to learn to read, their print vocabulary and oral vocabulary tend to be the same, as children use their vocabulary knowledge to match verbal forms of words with written forms. These two forms of vocabulary are usually equal up until grade 3. Because written language is much more diverse than spoken language, print vocabulary begins to expand beyond oral vocabulary. By age 10, children's vocabulary development through reading moves away from learning concrete words to learning abstract words. Generally, both conversation and reading involve at least one of the four principles of context that are used in word learning and vocabulary development: physical context, prior knowledge, social context and semantic support. #### Physical context Physical context involves the presence of an object or action that is also the topic of conversation. With the use of physical context, the child is exposed to both the words and a visual reference of the word. This is frequently used with infants and toddlers, but can be very beneficial for school-age children, especially when learning rare or infrequently used words. Physical context may include props such as in toy play. When engaging in play with an adult, a child's vocabulary is developed through discussion of the toys, such as naming the object (e.g. "dinosaur") or labeling it with the use of a rare word (e.g., stegosaurus). These sorts of interactions expose the child to words they may not otherwise encounter in day-to-day conversation. #### Prior knowledge Past experiences or general knowledge is often called upon in conversation, so it is a useful context for children to learn words. Recalling past experiences allows the child to call upon their own visual, tactical, oral, and/or auditory references. For example, if a child once went to a zoo and saw an elephant, but did not know the word elephant, an adult could later help the child recall this event, describing the size and color of the animal, how big its ears were, its trunk, and the sound it made, then using the word elephant to refer to the animal. Calling upon prior knowledge is used not only in conversation, but often in book reading as well to help explain what is happening in a story by relating it back to the child's own experiences. #### Social context Social context involves pointing out social norms and violations of these norms. This form of context is most commonly found in conversation, as opposed to reading or other word learning environments. A child's understanding of social norms can help them to infer the meaning of words that occur in conversation. In an English-speaking tradition, "please" and "thank you" are taught to children at a very early age, so they are very familiar to the child by school-age. For example, if a group of people is eating a meal with the child present and one person says, "give me the bread" and another responds with, "that was rude. What do you say?", and the person responds with "please", the child may not know the meaning of "rude", but can infer its meaning through social context and understanding the necessity of saying "please". #### Semantic support Semantic support is the most obvious method of vocabulary development in school-age children. It involves giving direct verbal information of the meaning of a word. By the time children are in school, they are active participants in conversation, so they are very capable and willing to ask questions when they do not understand a word or concept. For example, a child might see a zebra for the first time and ask, what is that? and the parent might respond, that is a zebra. It is like a horse with stripes and it is wild so you cannot ride it. ### Memory Memory plays an important role in vocabulary development, however the exact role that it plays is disputed in the literature. Specifically, short-term memory and how its capacities work with vocabulary development is questioned by many researchers. The phonology of words has proven to be beneficial to vocabulary development when children begin school. Once children have developed a vocabulary, they utilize the sounds that they already know to learn new words. The phonological loop encodes, maintains and manipulates speech-based information that a person encounters. This information is then stored in the phonological memory, a part of short-term memory. Research shows that children's capacities in the area of phonological memory are linked to vocabulary knowledge when children first begin school at age 4–5 years old. As memory capabilities tend to increase with age (between age 4 and adolescence), so does an individual's ability to learn more complex vocabulary. Serial-order short-term memory may be critical to the development of vocabulary. As lexical knowledge increases, phonological representations have to become more precise to determine the differences between similar sound words (i.e. "calm", "come"). In this theory, the specific order or sequence of phonological events is used to learn new words, rather than phonology as a whole. ## See also - Semantic mapping (literacy) - Vocabulary learning
3,814,024	Tropical cyclone rainfall climatology	1,142,662,135	null	[ "Tropical cyclone meteorology" ]	A tropical cyclone rainfall climatology is developed to determine rainfall characteristics of past tropical cyclones. A tropical cyclone rainfall climatology can be used to help forecast current or upcoming tropical cyclone impacts. The degree of a tropical cyclone rainfall impact depends upon speed of movement, storm size, and degree of vertical wind shear. One of the most significant threats from tropical cyclones is heavy rainfall. Large, slow moving, and non-sheared tropical cyclones produce the heaviest rains. The intensity of a tropical cyclone appears to have little bearing on its potential for rainfall over land, but satellite measurements over the last several years show that more intense tropical cyclones produce noticeably more rainfall over water. Flooding from tropical cyclones remains a significant cause of fatalities, particularly in low-lying areas. ## Anticipating a flood event While inland flooding is common to tropical cyclones, there are factors which lead to excessive rainfall from tropical cyclones. Slow motion, as was seen during Hurricane Danny (1997) and Hurricane Wilma, can lead to high amounts of rainfall. The presence of mountains/hills near the coast, like across much of Mexico, Haiti, the Dominican Republic, Central America, Madagascar, Réunion, China, and Japan acts to magnify rainfall potential due to forced upslope flow into the mountains. Strong upper level forcing from a trough moving through the Westerlies and its associated cold front, as was the case during Hurricane Floyd, can lead to high amounts even from systems moving at an average forward motion. Larger tropical cyclones drop more rainfall as they precipitate upon one spot for a longer time frame than average or small tropical cyclones. A combination of two of these factors could be especially crippling, as was seen during Hurricane Mitch in Central America. During the 2005 season, flooding related to slow-moving Hurricane Stan's broad circulation led to 1,662–2,000 deaths. ## General distribution within a tropical cyclone Isaac Cline was the first to investigate rainfall distribution around tropical cyclones in the early 1900s. He found that a larger proportion of rainfall falls in advance of the center (or eye) than after the center's passage, with the highest percentage falling in the right front quadrant. Father Viñes of Cuba found that some tropical cyclones have their highest rainfall rates in the rear quadrant within a training (non-moving) inflow band. Normally, as a tropical cyclone intensifies, its heavier rainfall rates become more concentrated around its center. Rainfall is found to be heaviest in tropical cyclone's inner core, whether it be the eyewall or central dense overcast, within a degree latitude of the center, with lesser amounts farther away from the center. Most of the rainfall in tropical cyclones is concentrated within its radius of gale-force (34 knots/39 mph; 63 km/h) winds. Rainfall is more common near the center of tropical cyclones overnight. Over land, outer bands are more active during the heating of the day, which can act to restrict inflow into the center of the cyclone. Recent studies have shown that half of the rainfall within a tropical cyclone is stratiform in nature. The chart to the right was developed by Riehl in 1954 using meteorological equations that assume a gale radius of about 140 miles (230 km), a fairly symmetric cyclone, and does not consider topographic effects or vertical wind shear. Local amounts can exceed this chart by a factor of two due to topography. Wind shear tends to lessen the amounts below what is shown on the table. ## Relation to storm size Larger tropical cyclones have larger rain shields, which can lead to higher rainfall amounts farther from the cyclone's center. This is generally due to the longer time frame rainfall falls at any one spot in a larger system, when compared to a smaller system. Some of the difference seen concerning rainfall between larger and small storms could be the increased sampling of rainfall within a larger tropical cyclone when compared to that of a compact cyclone; in other words, the difference could be the result of a statistical problem. ## Slow/looping motion on rainfall magnitude Storms which have moved slowly, or loop, over a succession of days lead to the highest rainfall amounts for several countries. Riehl calculated that 33.97 inches (863 mm) of rainfall per day can be expected within one-half degree, or 35 miles (56 km), of the center of a mature tropical cyclone. Many tropical cyclones progress at a forward motion of 10 knots, which would limit the duration of this excessive rainfall to around one-quarter of a day, which would yield about 8.50 inches (216 mm) of rainfall. This would be true over water, within 100 miles (160 km) of the coastline, and outside topographic features. As a cyclone moves farther inland and is cut off from its supply of warmth and moisture (the ocean), rainfall amounts from tropical cyclones and their remains decrease quickly. ## Vertical wind shear impact on rainfall shield Vertical wind shear forces the rainfall pattern around a tropical cyclone to become highly asymmetric, with most of the precipitation falling to the left and downwind of the shear vector, or downshear left. In other words, southwesterly shear forces the bulk of the rainfall north-northeast of the center. If the wind shear is strong enough, the bulk of the rainfall will move away from the center leading to what is known as an exposed circulation center. When this occurs, the potential magnitude of rainfall with the tropical cyclone will be significantly reduced. ### Effect of interaction with frontal boundaries/upper level troughs As a tropical cyclone interacts with an upper-level trough and the related surface front, a distinct northern area of precipitation is seen along the front ahead of the axis of the upper-level trough. This type of interaction can lead to the appearance of the heaviest rainfall falling along and to the left of the tropical cyclone track, with the precipitation streaking hundreds of miles or kilometers downwind from the tropical cyclone. The stronger the upper trough picking up the tropical cyclone, the more significant the left of track shift in the rainfall distribution tends to be. ## Mountains Moist air forced up the slopes of coastal hills and mountain chains can lead to much heavier rainfall than in the coastal plain. This heavy rainfall can lead to landslides, which still cause significant loss of life such as seen during Hurricane Mitch in Central America. ## Global distribution Globally, tropical cyclone rainfall is more common across the northern hemisphere than across the southern hemisphere. This is mainly due to the normal annual tropical cyclone distribution, as between half and two-thirds of all tropical cyclones form north of the equator. Rainfall is concentrated near the 15th parallel in both hemispheres, with a less steep dropoff seen with latitude across the northern hemisphere, due to the stronger warm water currents seen in that hemisphere which allow tropical cyclones to remain tropical in nature at higher latitudes than south of the equator. In the southern hemisphere, rainfall impacts will be most common between January and March, while north of the equator, tropical cyclone rainfall impacts are more common between June and November. Japan receives over half of its rainfall from typhoons. ## United States tropical cyclone rainfall statistics Between 1970 and 2004, inland flooding caused a majority of the tropical cyclone-related fatalities in the United States. This statistic changed in 2005, when Hurricane Katrina's impact alone shifted the most deadly aspect of tropical cyclones back to storm surge, which has historically been the most deadly aspect of strong tropical cyclones. On average, five tropical cyclones of at least tropical depression strength lead to rainfall across the contiguous United States annually, contributing around a quarter of the annual rainfall to the southeast United States. While many of these storms form in the Atlantic basin, some systems or their remnants move through Mexico from the Eastern Pacific basin. The average storm total rainfall for a tropical cyclone impacting the lower 48 from the Atlantic basin is about 16 inches (410 mm), with 70–75 percent of the storm total falling within a 24-hour period. The highest point total was seen during Hurricane Harvey in 2017, when 60.58 inches (1,539 mm) fell in southeast Texas. ## See also - China tropical cyclone rainfall climatology - Extratropical cyclone - List of wettest tropical cyclones - List of wettest tropical cyclones by country - Tropical cyclone - Tropical cyclone rainfall forecasting - Tropical cyclogenesis ## Printed media 1. Ivan Ray Tannehill. Hurricanes. Princeton University Press: Princeton, 1942. 2. Herbert Riehl. Tropical Meteorology. McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.: New York, 1954. 3. Terry Tucker. Beware the Hurricane! Hamilton Press: Bermuda, 1966. ## Related external links - Individual Tropical Cyclone Rainfall Pages for the United States and Mexico - Individual Tropical Cyclone Rainfall Pages for Puerto Rico/U.S. Virgin Islands - Maximum amounts in the lower 48 United States by state - Typhoon Rainfall Statistics and Forecasting (China) - Deadliest, Costliest, and Most Intense United States Tropical Cyclones From 1851 to 2004 - Are You Ready? Hurricanes [Tropical cyclone meteorology](Category:Tropical_cyclone_meteorology "wikilink")
161,897	Cool Hand Luke	1,166,579,933	1967 film by Stuart Rosenberg	[ "1960s American films", "1960s English-language films", "1960s prison films", "1967 crime drama films", "1967 films", "American crime drama films", "American prison drama films", "Films about veterans", "Films based on American novels", "Films directed by Stuart Rosenberg", "Films featuring a Best Supporting Actor Academy Award-winning performance", "Films produced by Gordon Carroll", "Films scored by Lalo Schifrin", "Films set in Florida", "Films set in the 1950s", "Films shot in California", "Films shot in Jacksonville, Florida", "United States National Film Registry films", "Warner Bros. films" ]	Cool Hand Luke is a 1967 American prison drama film directed by Stuart Rosenberg, starring Paul Newman and featuring George Kennedy in an Oscar-winning performance. Newman stars in the title role as Luke, a prisoner in a Florida prison camp who refuses to submit to the system. Set in the early 1950s, it is based on Donn Pearce's 1965 novel Cool Hand Luke. Roger Ebert called Cool Hand Luke an anti-establishment film shot during emerging popular opposition to the Vietnam War. Filming took place within California's San Joaquin River Delta region; the set, imitating a prison farm in the Deep South, was based on photographs and measurements made by a crew the filmmakers sent to a Road Prison in Gainesville, Florida. Upon its release, Cool Hand Luke received favorable reviews and was a box-office success. It cemented Newman's status as one of the era's top actors, and was called the "touchstone of an era". Newman was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor, Kennedy won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor, Pearce and Pierson were nominated for the Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay, and Lalo Schifrin was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Score. In 2005, the United States Library of Congress selected the film for preservation in the National Film Registry, considering it "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". The film has a 100% rating on the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, and the prison warden's (Strother Martin) line in the film beginning with "What we've got here is failure to communicate" was listed at number 11 on the American Film Institute's 100 Years... 100 Movie Quotes list. ## Plot In early 1950s Florida, decorated World War II veteran Lucas "Luke" Jackson drunkenly beheads several parking meters. He is sentenced to two years on a chain gang in a prison camp run by the Captain, a stern warden, and Walking Boss Godfrey, a quiet rifleman nicknamed "the man with no eyes" because he always wears mirrored sunglasses. There, even minor violations are punished by "a night in the box", a small wooden booth in the prison yard with limited air and space. Luke refuses to observe the established order among the prisoners and quickly runs afoul of their leader, Dragline. When the two have a boxing match, Luke is severely outmatched but refuses to acquiesce. Eventually, Dragline stops the fight, but Luke's tenacity earns the prisoners' respect and draws the guards' attention. He later wins a poker game by bluffing with a hand worth nothing, and Dragline christens him "Cool Hand Luke". After a visit from his sick mother, Arletta, Luke becomes more optimistic about his situation. He continually confronts the Captain and the guards, and his sense of humor and independence prove inspiring to the other prisoners. Luke's struggle for supremacy peaks when he leads a work crew in a seemingly impossible but successful effort to complete a road-paving job in less than a day. The prisoners start to idolize him after he wins a bet that he can eat 50 hard-boiled eggs in an hour. One evening, Luke receives notice that his mother has died. Anticipating that Luke might attempt to escape to attend the funeral, the Captain has him locked in the box. After being released, Luke becomes determined to escape. Under cover of a Fourth of July celebration, he makes his initial escape attempt. He is recaptured by local police and returned to the chain gang. The Captain has Luke fitted with leg irons and delivers a warning speech to the inmates. Shortly afterward, Luke escapes a second time. While free, Luke mails the prison a magazine that includes a photograph of himself with two beautiful women. He is soon recaptured, beaten, returned to the prison camp, and fitted with two sets of leg irons. The Captain warns Luke that he will be killed if he ever attempts to escape again. Luke becomes annoyed by the other prisoners fawning over the magazine photo and says he faked it. At first, the other prisoners are angry, but when Luke returns after a long stay in the box and is punished by being forced to eat a massive serving of rice, the others help him finish it. For his escape, the guards brutalize Luke to the point of exhaustion, particularly when he is forced to repeatedly dig and refill a grave-sized hole in the prison yard. He eventually breaks down and begs for mercy, losing the respect of his fellow inmates. Luke seems to succumb to cowardice and become an errand boy for the guards, but when an opportunity presents itself, he flees again by stealing a truck, with Dragline joining him. After abandoning the truck, the pair agree to separate. Luke enters a church and talks to God, whom he blames for sabotaging him so he cannot win in life. Police cars appear moments later, and Dragline arrives to tell him that he will not be hurt if he surrenders peacefully. Instead, Luke mockingly repeats the Captain's warning speech at the police. Godfrey shoots him in the neck. Dragline carries Luke outside and surrenders, but charges at Godfrey and strangles him until he is subdued by the guards. While Luke is loaded into the Captain's car, Dragline tearfully implores him to live. Against the local police's protests, the Captain decides to take Luke to the distant prison infirmary instead of the local hospital, ensuring Luke will not survive the trip. As the car drives away, a semi-conscious Luke weakly smiles while the tires crush Godfrey's sunglasses. After Luke's implied death, Dragline and the other prisoners fondly reminisce about him. Some time later, the prison crew works near a rural intersection close to where Luke was shot, with Dragline now wearing leg irons and a new Walking Boss supervising. ## Cast ## Production ### Florida prison Pearce, a merchant seaman who later became a counterfeiter and safe cracker, wrote the novel Cool Hand Luke about his experiences working on a chain gang while serving in a Florida prison. He sold the story to Warner Bros. for \$80,000 and received another \$15,000 to write the screenplay. After working in television for over a decade, Rosenberg chose it to make it his directorial debut in cinema. He took the idea to Jalem Productions, owned by Jack Lemmon. Since Pearce had no experience writing screenplays, his draft was reworked by Frank Pierson. Conrad Hall was hired as the cinematographer, while Paul Newman's brother, Arthur, was hired as the unit production manager. Newman's biographer Marie Edelman Borden wrote that the "tough, honest" script drew together threads from earlier movies, especially Hombre, Newman's earlier film of 1967. Rosenberg altered the script's original ending, adding "an upbeat ending that would reprise Luke's (and Newman's) trademark smile." ### Casting Paul Newman's character, Luke, is a decorated war veteran who is sentenced to serve two years in a Florida rural prison. He constantly defies the prison authorities, becoming a leader among the prisoners, as well as escaping multiple times. While the script was being developed, the leading role was initially considered for Jack Lemmon or Telly Savalas. Newman asked to play the leading role after hearing about the project. To develop his character, he traveled to West Virginia, where he recorded local accents and surveyed people's behavior. George Kennedy turned in an Academy Award-winning performance as Dragline, who fights Luke and comes to respect him. During the nomination process, worried about the box-office success of Camelot and Bonnie and Clyde, Kennedy spent \$5,000 on trade advertising to promote himself. He later said that thanks to the award, his salary was "multiplied by ten the minute [he] won", adding, "the happiest part was that I didn't have to play only villains anymore". Strother Martin, known for his appearances in westerns, was cast as the Captain, a prison warden depicted as a cruel and insensitive leader, severely punishing Luke for his escapes. The role of Luke's dying mother, Arletta, who visits him in prison, was passed to Jo Van Fleet after it was rejected by Bette Davis. Morgan Woodward was cast as Boss Godfrey, a laconic, cruel and remorseless prison officer Woodward described as a "walking Mephistopheles." He was dubbed "the man with no eyes" by the inmates for his mirrored sunglasses. The blonde Joy Harmon was cast for the scene where she teases the prisoners by washing her car after her manager, Leon Lance, contacted the producers. She auditioned in front of Rosenberg and Newman wearing a bikini, without speaking. ### Filming Filming began on October 3, 1966, on the San Joaquin River Delta. The set, imitating a southern prison farm, was built in Stockton, California. The filmmakers sent a crew to Tavares Road Prison in Tavares, Florida, where Pearce had served his time, to take photographs and measurements. The structures built in Stockton included barracks, a mess hall, the warden's quarters, a guard shack and dog kennels. The trees on the set were decorated with spanish moss that the producers took to the area. The construction soon attracted the attention of a county building inspector who confused it with migrant worker housing and ordered it "condemned for code violations". The opening scene where Newman cuts the parking meters was filmed in Lodi, California. The scene in which Luke is chased by bloodhounds and other exteriors were shot in Jacksonville, Florida, at Callahan Road Prison. Luke was played by a stunt actor, using dogs from the Florida Department of Corrections. Rosenberg wanted the cast to internalize life on a chain gang and banned the presence of wives on set. After Harmon arrived on location, she remained for two days in her hotel room, and wasn't seen by the rest of the cast until shooting commenced. Despite Rosenberg's intentions, the scene was ultimately filmed separately. Rosenberg instructed an unaware Harmon of the different movements and expressions he wanted. Originally planned to be shot in half a day, Harmon's scene took three. For the part of the scene featuring the chain gang, Rosenberg substituted a teenage cheerleader, who wore an overcoat. ### Soundtrack The Academy Award-nominated original score was by Lalo Schifrin, who wrote tunes with a background in popular music and jazz. Some tracks include guitars, banjos and harmonicas; others include trumpets, violins, flutes and piano. An edited version of the musical cue from the Tar Sequence (where the inmates are energetically paving the road) has been used for years as the theme music for local television stations' news programs around the world, mostly those owned and operated by ABC in the United States. Although the music was written for the film, it became more familiar for its association with TV news, in part because its staccato melody resembles the sound of a telegraph. ## Themes ### Christian imagery Pierson included in his draft explicit religious symbolism. The film contains several elements based on Christian themes, including the concept of Luke as a saint who wins over the crowds and is ultimately sacrificed. Luke is portrayed as a "Jesus-like redeemer figure". After winning the egg-eating bet, he lies exhausted on the table in the position of Jesus as depicted in his crucifixion, hands outstretched, feet folded over each other. After learning of his mother's death, Luke sings "Plastic Jesus". Greg Garrett also compares Luke to Jesus, in that like Jesus, he was not physically threatening to society because of his actions, and like Jesus' crucifixion, his punishment was "out of all proportion". Luke challenges God during the rainstorm on the road, telling him to do anything to him. Later, while he is digging and filling trenches and confronted by the guards, Tramp (Harry Dean Stanton) performs the spiritual "No Grave Gonna Keep my Body Down". Toward the end of the film, Luke speaks to God, evoking the conversation between God and Jesus at the Garden of Gethsemane, depicted in the Gospel of Luke. After Luke's talk, Dragline functions as a Judas, who delivers Luke to the authorities, trying to convince him to surrender. In the final scene, Dragline eulogizes Luke. He explains that despite Luke's death, his actions succeeded in defeating the system. The closing shot shows inmates working on crossroads from far above, such that the intersection is in the shape of the cross. Superimposed on this is the repaired photo Luke sent during his second escape, the creases of which also form a cross. ### Use of traffic signs and signals Different traffic signs are used throughout the film, complementing the characters' actions. At the beginning, while Luke cuts the heads off the parking meters, the word "Violation" appears. Stop signs are also seen. Instances include the road-paving scene and the last scene, where the road meets at a cross section. Traffic lights turn from green to red in the background at the time Luke is arrested, while at the end, when he is fatally wounded, a green light in the background turns red. ### "Failure to communicate" What we've got here is failure to communicate. Some men you just can't reach. So you get what we had here last week, which is the way he wants it. Well, he gets it. And I don't like it any more than you men. After writing the line, Pierson worried that the phrase was too complex for the warden. To explain its origin, he created a backstory that was included in the stage directions. Pierson explained that in order to advance in the Florida prison system, officers had to take criminology and penology courses at the state university, showing how the warden might know such words. Strother Martin later clarified that he felt the line was the kind that his character would very likely have heard or read from some "pointy-headed intellectuals" who had begun to infiltrate his character's world under the general rubric of a new, enlightened approach to incarceration. Some authors believe that the quotation was a metaphor for the ongoing Vietnam War, which was taking place during the filming; others have applied it to corporations and even teenagers. The quotation was listed at number 11 on the American Film Institute's list of the 100 most memorable movie lines. A sample of the line is included in the Guns N' Roses songs "Civil War" and "Madagascar". Zero Mostel paraphrases the line in The Great Bank Robbery (1969). When Strother Martin hosted Saturday Night Live on April 19, 1980, he played the strict owner of a language camp for children, parodying his Cool Hand Luke role. He paraphrased his line from the movie as, "What we have here is failure to communicate BILINGUALLY!" ## Release and reception Cool Hand Luke opened on October 31, 1967, at Loew's State Theatre in New York City. The proceeds of the premiere went to charities. The film was a box-office success, grossing \$16,217,773 in domestic screenings. Variety called Newman's performance "excellent" and the supporting cast "versatile and competent." The New York Times praised the film, remarking Pearce and Pierson's "sharp script", Rosenberg's "ruthlessly realistic and plausible" staging and direction and Newman's "splendid" performance with an "unfaultable" cast that "elevates" it among other prison films. Kennedy's portrayal was considered "powerfully obsessive" and the actors' playing the prison staff, "blood-chilling". The New York Daily News gave Cool Hand Luke three-and-a-half stars. Reviewer Ann Guarino noted that the film was based on Pearce's experience working with a chain gang and added, "if the cruelties depicted are true, the film should encourage reforms". Guarino called Newman's acting "excellent" and "charming and likeable", and wrote that "humor is supplied" by Kennedy. She wrote that Arletta was "played outstandingly" by van Fleet, that Martin was "effective" as the warden and that the rest of the cast "do well in their roles". For The Boston Globe, Marjory Adams noted that Cool Hand Luke "hits hard, spares no punches, deals with rough, sadistic and unhappy men". The review deemed Newman "tremendously effective", and his portrayal "played with perceptiveness, honesty and compassion". Adams pointed out that "Kennedy stands out as unofficial leader of the convicts", she called van Fleet's role "short but poignant" and Harmon's appearance "a masterpiece of woman's inhumanity to men". According to Adams, the direction by Rosenberg was "sharp, discerning and realistic". For the Chicago Tribune, Clifford Terry wrote that the film "works beautifully", adding that it is "sharp, absorbing, extremely entertaining". Terry remarked on Newman's "usual competent performance" and the "strong support of the cast", and praised Kennedy, Martin, Askew and Woodward. Van Fleet's acting was deemed "masterfully played". Rosenberg's direction was called "diverse" in its "exploration of moods". Terry opined that the "believable, tuned-in dialog" by Pierson and Person and Conrad Hall's "sun-centered photography" created a "great feeling of the southern discomfort". He felt that "the final 10 minutes" that featured Luke's monologue "almost destroy the preceding 110", with the "unlikely" monologue and the "artsy camera shot" of the breaking of the "hating overseer's sunglasses" contributing to the scene's "awkward artificiality". But "everything else works", Terry wrote. For the Los Angeles Times, reviewer Charles Champlin called the film "remarkably interesting and impressive". He wrote that Cool Hand Luke "has its flaws" that "mar an otherwise special achievement", but that "it still remains an achievement". He felt that the film was a "triumph" for Newman. Champlin deemed the scene featuring van Fleet a "stunning piece of writing and acting". He called the roles of the prison staff "triumphantly hateable" and Kennedy "superb". He called the sequence with Harmon "a scene of cruel sexuality" and Schifrin's music "lonely and hunting". Champlin felt that Newman's end monologue was "stagey, sentimental and redundant". He added that Cool Hand Luke "played at the level of observable reality" and that "the intrusion of cinematic artifice seems wholly wrong". He wrote that the filmmakers "had not reckoned their own strength at making their symbolic points" but that the result was "a picture with riveting impact". Time magazine wrote that "the beauty comes from the careful building of the individuals' characters". Its review said that Rosenberg "tells the story simply and directly", while lamenting the "anti-climatic", "unfortunate montages" at the end of the film. The St. Louis Dispatch praised Kennedy's acting as "raw realism in a fine performance" and Rosenberg's work as "above the cut of the ordinary chain-gang motion picture". The review praised the "fluid camera, working in for telling expressions" that made the prisoners "merge as varied and interesting individuals". The Austin American-Statesman called the film "absorbing, well-thought-out". The script was deemed "taut and deftly honed, flavored by humor and perceptive accents" and Rosenberg's direction "smoothly flowing as it is brutally realistic and occasionally raw". Newman's performance was hailed as "sureness as style that is totally convincing"; the review concluded that the film "can be appreciated on any level". ### Later reviews The review aggregator site Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 100% based on reviews by 53 critics, and an average of 8.8/10. Its critical consensus states, "Though hampered by Stuart Rosenberg's direction, Cool Hand Luke is held aloft by a stellar script and one of Paul Newman's most indelible performances." Empire rated it five stars out of five, declaring the movie one of Newman's best performances. Slant rated the film three stars out of four. It described Newman's role as "iconic", also praising its cinematography and sound score. Allmovie praised Newman's performance as "one of the most indelible anti-authoritarian heroes in movie history". Roger Ebert included the film in his review collection The Great Movies, rating it four stars out of four. He called it a "great" film and also an anti-establishment one during the Vietnam War. He believed the film was a product of its time and that no major film company would be interested in producing a film of such "physical punishment, psychological cruelty, hopelessness and equal parts of sadism and masochism" today. He praised the cinematography, capturing the "punishing heat" of the location, and stated that "the physical presence of Paul Newman is the reason this movie works: The smile, the innocent blue eyes, the lack of strutting", which no other actor could have produced as effectively. Newman's biographer Lawrence J. Quirk considered it one of Newman's weaker performances, writing, "For once, even Newman's famed charisma fails him, for in Cool Hand Luke he completely lacks the charm that, say, Al Pacino in Scarecrow effortlessly exhibits when he plays a screw-up who also winds up (briefly) incarcerated." Quirk added that Newman's performance was stronger in the second half: "to be fair to Newman, he was trying his damnedest to play an impossible part, since Luke is a convict's rationalization fantasy and never a real character". Some authors have criticized the film's depiction of prison life at the time. In a review called "Sheer Beauty in the Wrong Place", Life, while praising the film's photography, criticized the influence of the visual styles in the depictions of the prison camp. The magazine declared that the landscapes turned it into "a rest camp [in which] the men are getting plenty of sleep, food and healthy outdoor exercise", and that despite the presence of the guards, it showed that there were "worse ways to pay one's debt with society". Ron Clooney also remarked that prisons "were not hotels and certainly not the stuff of Cool Hand Luke movies". ### Awards and nominations ### Legacy In 2003, AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes & Villains rated Luke the 30th-greatest hero in American cinema, and three years later, AFI's 100 Years...100 Cheers: America's Most Inspiring Movies rated Cool Hand Luke number 71. In 2006, Luke was ranked 53rd in Empire magazine's "The 100 Greatest Movie Characters." The movie solidified Newman's status as a box-office star, while the film is considered a touchstone of the era. The film was an inductee of the 2005 National Film Registry list. The book was adapted into a West End play by Emma Reeves. It opened at London's Aldwych Theatre starring Marc Warren, but closed after less than two months, after poor reviews. The show was chosen by The Times both as "Critic's Choice" and "What the Critics Would Pay To See". An episode of the television show The Dukes of Hazzard titled "Cool Hands Luke and Bo" was shown with Morgan Woodward playing "Colonel Cassius Claiborne" the boss of a neighboring county and warden of its prison farm. He wears the trademark shades of Boss Godfrey throughout the episode. Nashville-based Christian alternative rock band Cool Hand Luke is named after the film. ## See also - List of American films of 1967 - List of films with a 100% rating on Rotten Tomatoes - Prisoner abuse - Gospel of Luke
41,257,756	ArtRave: The Artpop Ball	1,172,697,840	2014 concert tour by Lady Gaga	[ "2014 concert tours", "Concert tours of Asia", "Concert tours of Australia", "Concert tours of Austria", "Concert tours of Belgium", "Concert tours of Canada", "Concert tours of Denmark", "Concert tours of Europe", "Concert tours of France", "Concert tours of Germany", "Concert tours of Ireland", "Concert tours of Italy", "Concert tours of Japan", "Concert tours of North America", "Concert tours of Norway", "Concert tours of Oceania", "Concert tours of Portugal", "Concert tours of South Korea", "Concert tours of Spain", "Concert tours of Sweden", "Concert tours of Switzerland", "Concert tours of the Netherlands", "Concert tours of the United Arab Emirates", "Concert tours of the United Kingdom", "Concert tours of the United States", "Lady Gaga concert tours" ]	ArtRave: The Artpop Ball (stylized as artRAVE: the ARTPOP ball) was the fourth headlining concert tour by American singer Lady Gaga. Supporting her third studio album Artpop (2013), the tour ran from May 4, 2014 to November 24, 2014. The tour dates included cities where Gaga had canceled shows of her previous Born This Way Ball tour after suffering a hip injury. The ArtRave tour was preceded by a performance at the South by Southwest music festival, which drew controversy due to a segment where an artist vomited on Gaga, and a seven-day residency at the Roseland Ballroom in Manhattan, New York. ArtRave's concept and name are derived from the similarly named release party for Artpop. The stage resembled a cave and consisted of two sections connected by catwalks made of translucent lucite, allowing the audience to move underneath the catwalks while still being able to watch the show. Gaga's costumes in the show included one with tentacles, one with bejeweled wings, a rave-inspired outfit and a necklace made of marijuana leaves. Costume designers and choreographers aspired to make a single, coherent show. The lighting fixtures used for the concert were from Clay Paky and the main idea was to create an immersive rave experience with the lights. They were also designed to accommodate minor changes in the show sequences. The tour was produced by Live Nation, and promoted by Absolut Vodka in the United States and O<sub>2</sub> in the United Kingdom. Tickets for several shows sold out immediately once available, prompting additional dates. Negative reports about the tour's commercial performance were dismissed by Live Nation chairman Arthur Fogel. Gaga repeatedly placed within the top-ten of the Billboard Boxscore lists for the 2014 tour grosses. At the end, ArtRave: The Artpop Ball grossed a total of \$83 million from 920,088 sold tickets at the 74 reported performances. Billboard also listed it as the ninth best concert tour of the year with 76 reported shows. The tour additionally received positive response from reviewers, but some criticized it for being disjointed. On November 24, 2014, the concert was streamed live from Bercy Arena in France. ## Background While releasing her third studio album Artpop, Gaga held a private event in New York known as ArtRave, where she performed songs from the album and showcased art pieces. Later, she took the concept of ArtRave and created ArtRave: The Artpop Ball tour. After abruptly cancelling the North American leg of her previous Born This Way Ball (2012–13) tour due to a major hip injury, the tour began with its first leg in the United States on May 4, 2014, in Sunrise, Florida. ArtRave: The Artpop Ball had the singer visiting cities where she canceled tour dates in order to undergo the surgery, as well as playing new cities. Gaga explained to The Independent: "When I'm onstage with the Artpop Ball, the point of the show is to take what was the mess of my life and make art of it – to raise the spirit of artistic dreams and creativity and take all the things I was feeling in pain about, and rage... I take a much more meditative approach to the performance. I've got wide-open ears. The ArtRave has routines, and there's a performance-art aspect that has been designed." Prior to the beginning of the tour, Gaga headlined six shows (March 28, 30, 31 and April 2, 4, and 6) at the Roseland Ballroom in Manhattan, New York, and these shows were the final performances at the venue. A seventh show was also added for April 7 and officially closed the venue. Gaga also held a one-off concert for ArtRave: The Artpop Ball inside a six-storey vending machine at Doritos' annual South by Southwest (SXSW) music festival at Austin, Texas. The city's Music and Entertainment division had initially denied permission to Gaga for playing inside the venue citing that it was for "public safety concerns". Don Pitts from the division said that the venue being in close proximity with a parking lot was the reason they had to cancel Gaga's application. On March 6, 2014, it was announced that Gaga would indeed play at the venue. Tickets were sold to the fans through different competitions and challenges. Randal Lane from Forbes reported that the concert would support Gaga's Born This Way Foundation and charity events, but nevertheless opined that "the way they're doling out the tickets is still crass". The concert was criticized when artist Millie Brown vomited a green liquid over Gaga during the performance of "Swine" from Artpop. The performance received complaints about "glamorizing" eating disorders. In response to the controversy, Brown told MTV News: "I can understand why people would make that association, but my performance is really not a statement about eating disorders themselves." Gaga herself told Today "Millie and I know that not everybody's going to love that performance, but we both really believe in artistic expression and strong identities, and I support her and what she does. Artpop, my new album, is about bringing art and music together in the spirit of creative rebellion, and for us, that performance was art in its purest form." ## Development ### Stage setup For the tour, Gaga told Capital FM that she wanted something other than the "Monster Pit" arrangement she previously had in the Born This Way Ball tour, since she was always limited to performing on one portion of the arena. Hence Gaga and her team thought of building two stages, one main stage and an accompanying one on the far end of the arena. It would be enhanced by the addition of a catwalk which would wind all around the arena floor, enabling the singer to interact with the audience. In March 2014, Gaga tweeted a picture of the stage which showed a runway extending from the main platform up to the general admission seats and then bifurcating into two additional runways, ending in small stages within the audience. At the end of the first runway, another platform was constructed which descended into the crowd directly. Gaga noted that the 110 feet (34 m) long runways would be made of lucite rendering them translucent, so that the crowd can dance underneath it while still being able to watch the show. The main stage was described as a white cave, reminiscent of Atlantica from the 1989 Disney film The Little Mermaid, and featured a digital backdrop showing stars and the moon. The band was placed inside the white dome like structures on the stage, described by John Jurgenson from The Wall Street Journal as like the planet Tatooine in the Star Wars series. At the end of one of the Lucite runways, a piano was hidden beneath enormous stalagmite-like structures reminiscent of Superman's Fortress of Solitude in the comics. There was also a bar overlooking the piano area, where the audience could order drinks while watching the show. Carl Williot from Idolator website compared the stage with that of ArtRave, and felt that it looked like an "insect" with the extended runway and smaller stages. Following the reveal of the image, the hashtag \#LadyGagaTourStage started trending globally in Twitter. According to Stacy Lambe from Out magazine, the stage took over 21,000 hours to construct, including the catwalks. There are 15 inflatable trees which are air hosed on the stage to re-create a garden during one of the segments. The whole set up took three hours to dismantle and 21 trucks to carry it from one venue to another. Production manager Jason "JD" Danter explained that the whole set up started from 8:00 am, with lighting and sound checks taking six hours to complete. For the production of the show, Gaga enlisted choreographer Richard Jackson and together with him and her creative team, the Haus of Gaga, they came up with ideas regarding how the show should be constructed and what music should be performed. They also had to find a way to co-mingle all the different ideas to make a single, coherent show. For the choreography, which encompassed all the stages present, Jackson had to employ a different approach, so that the audience could see the performance from every angle. ### Costume design Gaga did not preview the costumes for the tour until the opening night. There were seven outfits created for the show, all throughout the different segments. The first was a bejeweled leotard which had the Jeff Koons blue gazing ball attached in the middle; the ball was previously used in the album cover art for Artpop. Gaga accessorized the dress with a pair of feathered wings while wearing a blond bob wig reminiscent of her looks from The Fame era. A rave inspired outfit was worn for the last segment and consisted of colorful dreadlocks and legwarmers made of fur. She added a shirt consisting of straps and plastic sleeves with it. One of the complex outfits was made of latex and consisted of a polka dotted leotard and a number of tentacles attached to the dress as well as a headpiece with two tentacles from it. The singer also wore a short dress coupled with a platinum bob wig; another version of the dress had a gown attached to it, with Gaga wearing a long wig inspired by Donatella Versace. Before the final performance Gaga wore black latex pants and a top, with a green wig on her head and a necklace made of marijuana leaves. Finally, Gaga also wore a seashell bikini top and voluminous wig; the ensemble had been worn by Gaga in previous live performances for the Artpop era. Her dancers wore neon colored outfits with matching head gears and accessories. Gaga also had a number of unique props, including a Gibson Flying V guitar during "Venus", a plastic chair shaped like a claw and a keytar which was shaped like a sea horse. BBC News reported that some of the costumes for the tour were designed by Sunderland University fashion graduate Dayne Henderson. He had been chosen by one of Gaga's stylists after seeing his tweet to the singer with a photo of his design which included clothing inspired by fetish fashion. Henderson developed hoods, masks and head pieces for Gaga and her dancers. He had to produce the clothes in latex, and within 12 days had to deliver it to Gaga's management. ### Lighting fixtures Production and lighting designer Roy Bennett used Clay Paky's A.leda B-Eye K20 LED-based moving lights and Clay Paky Sharpys as lighting attachments. Also around 120 B-Eyes by PKG, were obtained for the tour as well with lighting control from three full-sized grandMA2s and 10 NPUs. According to lighting programmer Jason Baeri, "Bennett's approach to the show was to make it an immersive rave that reflected Gaga's non-stop party aesthetic... That means active, alive, vibrant and high energy—it requires us to be just as active on stage as in the crowd. The audience is every bit as much a set piece as they are a room of spectators, so we had to include them as part of Gaga's same party not just watching the spectacle from afar. Cue wise, that's almost like programming two shows at once: Both had to behave as one cohesive element." Bennett had started designing the lighting from November 2013 and three months later presented it to Gaga. She approved off the audience experience theme that Bennett developed. The B-Eyes, which were previously used in the Roseland shows, were mounted above the 3 by 40 feet (0.91 m × 12 m) video screens in the tour. Sharpy rigging were used throughout, in the front of the stage, rear, side, as well as on the pods over the audience. They were the main lighting accessory for the tour. Baeri explained that they had faced technical challenges, due to high pixel content. The B-Eyes added a total of 4,500 pixel and was varied through all possible configurations. The lighting effects varied along with the tone and the inflections of the song being performed. Clay Paky was distributed by A.C.T Lighting in North America. Solotech were signed as the video contractor, while 8th Day Sound group were the audio contractors throughout the tour. ## Concert synopsis The show starts off with a video introduction about the tour, followed by dancers appearing on stage with balloons and blue gazing balls. The video continues to play as Gaga emerges from beneath the stage, wearing a golden leotard with wings. She proceeds to sing "Artpop" and then "G.U.Y.", the latter having choreography from its music video. The song transitions to "Donatella" with the screen showing flashing stars and colorful cloud formations. Gaga then performs "Fashion!" on the piano and goes back for a costume change as the band plays the remaining part of the song. The next section starts with "Venus" as large inflatable flowers rise from below on stage. Gaga appears in the seashell bikini ensemble and playing a guitar. After a welcome speech, "MANiCURE" and "Cake Like Lady Gaga" are performed. Gaga disappears inside for another outfit change as the band plays an outro. She emerges back onto stage in the white outfit and wig as a video shows her twirling on screen. "Just Dance" is sung, with Gaga using a seahorse-shaped keytar and her dancers dressed as "sea people". It is followed by a medley of "Poker Face" and "Telephone". The act ends with Gaga exiting for a costume change and "Partynauseous" is played as an interlude. The fourth act begins with Gaga wearing the tentacle dress and singing "Paparazzi". She then removes the tentacles and sits on a hand-shaped chair, performing "Do What U Want", followed by Gaga singing "Dope" and "You and I" on piano. Later, Gaga invites a fan onstage and sings a piano version of "Born This Way". She and the fan exit through a trap down as "Jewels n' Drugs" is played as an interlude. As dancers move props and cannons around the stage, Gaga changes a black latex dress and green wig. She returns to stage and sings a medley of "The Edge of Glory", "Judas", and "Aura", beginning the fifth act. A red couch is brought out on which "Sexxx Dreams" is sung. Following this, white chairs are brought out onto the stage by the dancers for "Mary Jane Holland", during which a choreography is shown with the chairs. "Alejandro" takes place on the lucite runways. At the end of the song, Gaga descends for a quick change. The fifth act triggers when she arises in a Cher-like outfit, singing "Bang Bang (My Baby Shot Me Down)". Gaga then performs "Bad Romance" in a rave-inspired costume, followed by "Applause", during which a video backdrop shows the singer in various disguises. Gaga bids the audience goodbye and sings "Swine", during which her dancers fire stuffed animals into the crowd using cannon. During the performance, Gaga removes her wig and dances with shirtless men in pig masks. She leaves the stage for a final costume change, appearing to perform "Gypsy" for the encore. Near the end, she crosses to the main stage and exits with her dancers and band. ## Commercial performance ### Ticket sales The tickets were first available to members of Gaga's social network website, Littlemonsters.com. They were provided with a unique code for ordering tickets from online, but were limited to four tickets per member. According to Live Nation, the first batch of tickets for the tour went on sale from December 9, 2013, and sell-out shows were reported from Toronto, Winnipeg, Calgary, Los Angeles and Edmonton within hours. This led to two new dates being added to the itinerary: June 26 at Milwaukee's Marcus Amphitheater, and June 28 at Atlantic City's Boardwalk Hall. On January 29, 2014, Gaga released the dates for the European leg of the tour, which would begin September 23, 2014, from Belgium. The singer partnered with British mobile network O<sub>2</sub>, for a deal which would enable the company's customers to avail tickets for the tour three days prior to the general release. The deal included Gaga being featured in a new advertisement, for promoting the UK leg of the tour and showed her wearing a dress with large, glittering shoulder pads while running towards a concert stage. This was the second time Gaga partnered with O<sub>2</sub>, first in November 2013, for exclusive access to the tracks from Artpop, ahead of its UK release. Upon release, Ticketmaster reported that the UK venues sold out within five minutes, prompting the singer to add another two dates in London. In April and May 2014, she released more floor tickets for sale, after ensuring larger crowd capacity for all the UK venues and a total of eight new dates. For the US dates, Gaga partnered with Absolut Vodka, who transformed the bar adjacent to the stage into a lounge called "Absolut Artpop Lounge", where some of the lucky fans could watch the show, while ordering cocktails of their choice. Two fans would be chosen on the spot to have seats at the bar; tickets could also be won through a contest at the Absolut website. Gaga explained that with the help of Absolut she could "[create] a special experience where fans can actually sit inside the stage and have their own bar. It's going to be a huge rave in the spirit of art and creativity." Other promotions announced at the website included winning an all-expense-paid trip to see Gaga's show on September 30 at Stockholm, Sweden, and Gaga-inspired runway shows at LGBT bars across the nation, from where another set of tickets could be won. Four dates were added in Australia, starting from August 20, 2014, at Perth. She had one concert at Dubai's Meydan Racecourse on September 10, but newspaper Gulf News reported that the show would be censored for respecting cultural traditions in the UAE. According to Marco Riois, chairman of AMI Live which organized the show in Dubai, "there will be some edits... It cannot be the full show, because it wouldn't be allowed. So it's a special show for Dubai and for the culture". ### Boxscore Forbes spoke about the commendable ticket pricing ensued by Live Nation for the tour. Jesse Lawrence from the magazine noticed how the ticket prices were lowered to an average of \$68 in Gaga's primary markets and ensuing fast sell-outs, compared to those of her contemporaries, like Miley Cyrus' Bangerz Tour which had an average ticket price at \$86. Conversely, the average price was raised to as high as \$269 in Gaga's secondary markets, although with fewer tickets available than Cyrus' tour. This again ensued that the revenue was earned with profit. Lawrence concluded by saying that "Lady Gaga's pricing, seems to be taking a longer-term view and is focused on providing access to as many of her fans as possible as opposed to wringing out every last dollar on the current tour." In April 2014, Lawrence reported that following Gaga's performance at Roseland Ballroom, the tour ticket prices in the secondary markets went up by 5.3%, with major increases being visible at Philips Arena in Atlanta. Tickets at Madison Square Garden rose up to \$338.81, which was 42.6% higher than the average price. Other locations where ticket prices saw an increase were MGM Grand Garden Arena in Paradise, TD Garden in Boston and United Center in Chicago. A higher price was set for the first of two nights at Staples Center in Los Angeles, resulting in one of the costliest tickets in the show. The pricing was leveled off for the second night and they gradually decreased with the tour's progress. This was evident in the tour date switch up between May 12 and 15 at Washington and Philadelphia, respectively, where the ticket prices fell by 29.5%. Reports arose in the media that the ticket sales for the tour were falling, leading Arthur Fogel, Chairman of Live Nation's Global Touring division, to brand them as "ridiculous". He clarified to Billboard that the about 80% of the tickets were sold in North America and Europe, and they were still in the process of releasing future dates for numerous venues. The 29 shows in North America had grossed around US\$26 million, with an average of almost \$900,000 per show. Fogel also addressed concerns that Live Nation had lost \$30 million from Gaga's tour, saying that if a similar situation really happened, then the company would have cancelled the concerts. "I just don't know how this shit gets any traction without people doing their homework... Just a complete fool would say something like that and it could only come from somebody who has an agenda, because it makes absolutely no sense, on any level", Fogel concluded. A total of 800,000 tickets have been sold for the tour, as reported by Billboard. In June 2014, Billboard released the first boxscore figures for the tour, up to the June 2 date. Gaga placed at number four on the boxscore list with total gross of \$13.9 million, and more than 171,000 tickets sold. The boxscore figure for her Roseland Ballroom performance was also revealed to have grossed \$1.5 million with more than 24,000 tickets sold. In October 2014, the second set of boxscore were released, with sales of 509,741 tickets and a gross of \$46,933,594, ranking at number two on the boxscore list. Final boxscores were released in December 2014, with the last performance at Paris' Palais Omnisports Bercy grossing \$1.2 million and audience of 13,013. In total, ArtRave: The Artpop Ball grossed \$83 million from 920,088 sold tickets at the 74 reported performances to Billboard Boxscore. On Pollstar's Year-end Top 20 Worldwide Tours list, Gaga ranked at number seven with \$88.7 million in gross and 947,852 tickets sold for 84 shows, including the seven shows from Roseland Ballroom. Billboard listed it as the ninth best concert tour of the year with 76 reported shows. ## Critical response ### North America John Walker from MTV News reviewed the opening concert in Sunrise, and was impressed with the show. He particularly liked the segment, when after the performance of "Alejandro", Gaga decided to change her costume onstage and did so with the help of her stylists. Walker added that "to prove this, [Gaga] ripped the green, shoulder-length wig right off of her head. Yes, she literally snatched her own wig. Reverse Warholian expedition says what?" Walker further emphasized in another review for MTV that the tour expanded on Gaga's characteristic "fan-to-artist" connections and theatrics she had developed with the Born This Way Ball. Adam Carlson from Billboard praised the show saying that it turned the "spectacle" into a "surprise". He complimented the choreography and the constant costume changes, explaining that "talking about [Gaga's] performances is more fun than listening to them, but don't take that as an insult. There's just a lot to talk about." Chris Richards from The Washington Post said that "for a pop concert in an arena [Verizon Center], it felt good. As a public exercise in reciprocal, unconditional love, it felt unique [from Gaga]." Glenn Gamboa from Newsday was impressed with the performances, saying "Whether it was the goofiness of 'Venus', the playfulness of 'Donatella' or the throwback soul of 'Do What U Want', which she crowned with an a cappella bit of gospel, she filled the songs with an intensity that was infectious." Lauren Moraski from CBS News felt that Gaga was in "full-force" during the concert and "seemed right at home" with the New York crowd. Frank Scheck from The Hollywood Reporter commended the stage setup, the costumes and the overall entertainment aspect of the tour, saying that "Unlike Madonna, who engages in similar, but decidedly chillier, over-the-top theatrics, Gaga invests her spectacles with an undeniable sweetness and heart." Scheck was positive about the performances of "Gypsy" and "Born This Way". Negative commentary came from Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone who reviewed the show at Madison Square Garden and was disappointed, calling it "a run-of-the-mill arena-rock show, the kind where a band has a shoddy new album to flog". He was not impressed that Gaga chose to ignore songs from Born This Way and its successful singles. Dan DeLuca from Philadelphia Daily News wrote that "the show was seriously marred by too many electro powered would-be dance cuts from ARTPOP whose weaknesses were exposed whenever she reached back to her more enticing greatest hits" and that she performed "far too many songs" from Artpop. The Boston Globe writer James Reed felt that "something" was missing from Gaga's performance, and it felt "hollow". He also criticized Gaga's reliance on backing tracks to sing her songs. Joey Guerra from Houston Chronicle found the show to be "disjointed", saying that there was "little in the way of real transition between sequences, particularly in the later moments." ### Oceania, Asia, and Europe Candice Barnes from The Sydney Morning Herald gave the show positive review, saying that Gaga "delivered a show fit for a queen" at Perth Arena. "Plugged as an 'art rave', it was hard to distinguish where the art finished and the music began", she concluded. Conversely, Ross McCrae from The West Australian panned the show calling it "middle of the road arena rock show", and noticed the public's lack of interest in the performances. The lack of ticket sales was also noted by a reviewer for News.com.au, who went on to add that "one could never accuse Lady Gaga of lacking attention to detail in her live productions or failing to put in a wholehearted and energetic performance." Jenny Valentish from Time Out awarded the show in Melbourne five stars, calling Gaga "a phenomenal singer with an immense voice (...) who could try her hand at any genre", also praising her live band and the costume changes. The National critic Saeed Saeed described the show as "hugely entertaining" and something that "delivers pop music's ultimate mandate: to dance your worries away". Writing about the subdued concert in Dubai due to religious sentiments, Mohammed Kadry from Khaleej Times noted that Gaga could still put on a "spectacle" and she "was determined to connect with her local audience as she attempted to piece together flattering colloquial phrases". Debra Kamin from The Times of Israel praised Gaga's vocals, adding that "show was everything Gaga promised and everything fans have come to expect from her — loud, florescent, sexually explicit and mind-numbingly bright." Dave Simpson from The Guardian gave a positive review for the Birmingham concert, awarding the show with 4 out of 5 stars. He stated that "Gaga has often been accused of being all artifice and no heart, but tonight's show is a powerful statement from a star who refuses to be pinned down or written off." Daniel Dylan Wray from The Independent awarded the Birmingham concert with 4 out of 5 stars and described ArtRave as "loud, colourful and frequently emblematic of feel-good, throwaway party times". Katie Fitzpatrick from Manchester Evening News awarded the concert with 5 out of 5 stars. She praised Lady Gaga's voice, her live band, the outfits and the connection of the fans – especially in this show that Gaga helped a fan to propose to his partner on stage. Katie stated that "the ostentatiously named ArtRave may reaffirm that Gaga the show-woman is definitely about her art. But this little lady with the powerful set of lungs is also undoubtedly all heart." Ludovic Hunter-Tilney from the Financial Times rated the concert three out of five stars. He criticized the songs from Artpop except the title track, but complimented the acoustic and piano sequences. ## Broadcast and recording On November 17, 2014, Gaga announced through her social medias that the last concert show, which took place at Bercy Arena in France on November 24, would be streamed live around the world, online on Yahoo! Live. The concert started with a 30-minute video presentation of Gaga's portraits, as shot by Robert Wilson, and which were previously exhibited at the Louvre Museum in Paris. The live stream broke records for Yahoo! Live and Live Nation. ## Set list This set list is from the show in Newcastle, England, on November 22, 2014. It is not intended to represent all tour dates. 1. "Artpop" 2. "G.U.Y." 3. "Donatella" 4. "Venus" 5. "Manicure" 6. "Just Dance" 7. "Poker Face" / "Telephone" 8. "Paparazzi" 9. "Do What U Want" 10. "Dope" 11. "You and I" 12. "Born This Way" 13. "Jewels 'n Drugs" (interlude) 14. "The Edge of Glory" 15. "Judas" / "Aura" 16. "Sexxx Dreams" 17. "Mary Jane Holland" 18. "Alejandro" 19. "Bang Bang (My Baby Shot Me Down)" 20. "Bad Romance" 21. "Applause" 22. "Swine" Encore 1. \<li value="23”\>"Gypsy" Notes - "Fashion!" and "Cake Like Lady Gaga" were performed from May 4, 2014 to June 3, 2014. - During the performance in New York City, T.I. joined Gaga onstage to perform "Jewels n' Drugs". - During the performance in Calgary, Gaga performed "Hair". - During the performance in Ottawa, Gaga performed a cover of George Gershwin's "I've Got a Crush on You". - During the performance in Tel Aviv, Tony Bennett appeared on stage with Gaga to sing "I Can't Give You Anything but Love". - During the performances in Vienna, Manchester and Barcelona, Gaga performed a cover of 4 Non Blondes's "What's Up?". ## Shows ## Personnel Personnel taken from ArtRave: The Artpop Ball tour book. Management - Live Nation Global Touring (Worldwide) – promoter (Worldwide) - MAC Cosmetics – tour sponsor (Worldwide) - Absolut Vodka (US), O<sub>2</sub> (UK) – tour sponsor - Bobby Campbell at Haus of Gaga – management - Lane Bentley at Haus of Gaga – Day-to-day management - Vincent Herbert for Streamline – manager - Mary Jo Spillane – road manager - Ky Cabot – tour manager - Peter van der Veen – personal security - Kevin Bernal – personal security - Robert Marshall – personal security Main personnel - Lady Gaga – main performer - Richard "Richie" Jackson – visual director, choreographer - Brandon Maxwell – fashion director - Roy Bennett – production, lighting designer - Michael Bearden – musical director - Lacee Franks – creative co-ordinator - Alexander Delgado – art director - Vincent Herbert – manager for Streamline - Sonja Durham – managing director, Haus of Gaga - Ashley Gutierrez – personal assistant - Tara Savelo – make-up - Frederic Aspiras – hair stylist - Perry Meek – costume designer - Sandra Amador – stylist - Mary Jo Spillane – road manager - Peter van der Been – personal security - Robert Marshall – personal security - Sarah Nicole Tanno – dancers and band's make up artist - Travisean Haynes – dancers and band hair stylist - David Odom – physical therapist - Asiel Hardison at Haus of Gaga – dance captain - Graham Breitenstein – dancer - Karen Chuang – dancer - Montana Efaw – dancer - Kevin Frey – dancer - Nick Geurts – dancer - David Masterson – dancer - Ian McKenzie – dancer - Tamina Pollack-Paris – dancer - Sloan-Taylor Rabinor – dancer - Victor Rojas – dancer - Gianinni Semedo Moreira – dancer - Theresa Stone – dancer - China Taylor – dancer - Brockett Parsons – keyboards - George "Spanky" McCurdy – drums - Lanar "Kern" Brantley – bass - Ricky Tillo – guitar - Tim Stewart – guitar - Lady Gaga – guitar and keyboard/piano (on "Venus"), keytar (on "Just Dance"), piano/keyboard (on "Dope", "You and I" and "Born This Way") - LeRoy Bennett – production designer, lighting designer - Whitney Hoversten – lighting director - Jason Baeri – lighting programmer - Oli James – lighting tech (crew chief) - Alex Peters – lighting tech - Mark Pritchard – lighting tech - Mike Rothwell – lighting tech - Leif Le Page – lighting tech - James Jones III – lighting tech - Matt "Skinny" Le Roux – lighting tech - Chris Bartlett – lighting tech - Jason Danter – production manager - Alicia Geist - production coordinator - Ky Cabot – tour manager - Brian Wares – stage manager - Chris Organ – stage manager/show caller - Lisa Bruno - head of wardrobe - Bert Pare – video director - Tim Brennan – video engineer - Loren Barton – video programmer - Vincent Cadieux – video tech (crew chief) - Maxime Dube-Morais – video tech - Erin Lynch – video tech - Patrick Vaillancourt – video tech - Eric Simard – Hippo Media server tech - Hayden Hale – laser operator and programmer - Reid Schulte-Deme – special effects tech (crew chief) - David Harkness – special effects tech - Robin Henry – automation operator and programmer - Todd Green – head carpenter - Lonnie Adams – carpenter - Kirk "Rockit" La Rocco – carpenter - Erin O'Brian – carpenter - Corey Proulx – carpenter - Ernie Wagner – carpenter - Scotty Waller – carpenter - Carl Young – carpenter - Ryan Snyder – carpenter - Mike Farese – head rigger - Danny Machado – rigger - Kenny "Skippy" Ruhman – rigger - Rick Wilmot – rigger
56,956,076	March for Our Lives Portland	1,159,635,420	2018 protest in Portland, Oregon, U.S.	[ "2018 United States gun violence protests", "2018 in American politics", "2018 in Portland, Oregon", "2018 protests", "March 2018 events in the United States", "Protest marches in the United States", "Protests in Portland, Oregon" ]	March for Our Lives Portland (officially March for Our Lives Portland, OR) was a protest held in Portland, Oregon, as part of March for Our Lives, a series of rallies and marches in Washington, D.C., and more than 800 cities across the world on March 24, 2018. Students organized the event, which included a march from the North Park Blocks to Pioneer Courthouse Square where a rally featured speakers, a performance by rock band Portugal. The Man, and a surprise appearance by rapper Black Thought of hip-hop band The Roots. The protest was the city's largest since the January 2017 Women's March on Portland; the Portland Police Bureau estimated a crowd size of 12,000. ## Background March for Our Lives was a student-led demonstration in support of a tightening of U.S. gun control laws on March 24, 2018, in Washington, D.C., with more than 800 sibling events throughout the United States and around the world. Student organizers from Never Again MSD planned the march in collaboration with the nonprofit organization Everytown for Gun Safety. The event followed the Stoneman Douglas High School shooting, which many media outlets described as a possible tipping point for gun control legislation. Protesters urged the introduction of universal background checks on gun sales, the raising of the federal minimum age for gun ownership and possession to 21, the closure of the gun show loophole, the restoration of the 1994 Federal Assault Weapons Ban, and a ban on the sale of high-capacity magazines in the U.S. Turnout across the country was estimated at between 1.2 to 2 million people, making it one of the largest protests in American history. ## Local organizers and planning Local student organizers included: Eliana Andrews; Alyssa Diaz; Zoe Dumm; Alexandria Goddard; Finn Jacobson; Calum Nguyen; Sophie Rupp; Ryan Tran; Kien Truong; Tyler White; and Ellie Younger. According to the Portland Police Bureau, organizers obtained proper permits for the demonstration. The rally was scheduled to start at 10 am and end by 2 pm. The Portland-based rock band Portugal. The Man contacted organizers and offered to help, and practiced with a local choir prior to the concert. On the event's Facebook page in the lead-up to the event, around 9,000 people indicated plans to attend, and approximately 20,000 people had expressed interest in participating. The Portland Bureau of Transportation planned to close all lanes of West Burnside Street from Broadway to 9th Avenue, as well as Southwest Broadway from Burnside to Yamhill Street, from approximately 10:30 am to noon. The agency and event organizers also encouraged attendees and other downtown visitors to use public transit and to expect delays in the vicinity of the march route. The MAX Light Rail stations Pioneer Square South and Pioneer Square North were temporarily closed, and several bus lines had detours for a few hours. Online taxi firm Lyft offered march participants free rides in Portland and 49 other U.S. cities. The route of the march was decided upon by event organizers and police, and plans to have safety monitors present were made. ## Demonstration Participants gathered at the North Park Blocks and marched to Pioneer Courthouse Square via Burnside and Broadway. The rally began on time; protestors started marching at 10:30 am. The march route was less than one-half mile (0.80 km) long and lasted approximately 90 minutes. At Pioneer Courthouse Square, organizers held a moment of silence and rang a bell 17 times to commemorate victims of the Stoneman Douglas High School shooting. Starting around 11:30 am, eight local students ranging in age from grades 8 to 12 delivered speeches and performed songs and poems advocating gun control and school safety. They encouraged attendees to vote, remain politically active, and hold their politicians accountable. KOIN described the students' speeches as "articulate, informed, engaging and captivating". Portugal. The Man performed "So American", "Feel It Still", and Oasis' "Don't Look Back in Anger", and gave a "rousing" performance of Bob Dylan's "The Times They Are a-Changin'" with a choir of students from Vernon Elementary School. Lead singer and guitarist John Gourley said March for Our Lives' mission is nonpartisan. Rapper Black Thought of The Roots made an onstage surprise appearance with the band. The protest was Portland's largest since the Women's March on Portland in January 2017, with more than 10,000 participants. The Portland Police Bureau's Traffic Division estimated 12,000 people attended. Event organizers said there were between 20,000 and 25,000 demonstrators. The Oregonian reported a crowd estimate of 12,000, and noted the presence of all age groups. Willamette Week said "tens of thousands" of people were in attendance and described the crowd as "massive and diverse", consisting of "families, teachers, grandparents and groups of students of all ages". Counter-protestors, including members of Patriot Prayer, were present but the event was peaceful. Suzanne Bonamici and Earl Blumenauer, U.S. representatives for Oregon's 1st and 3rd congressional districts, respectively, participated in the march. Also in attendance were 15 Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School alumni living in Portland and teachers from Umpqua Community College, where nine people were killed in a mass shooting in 2015. ## See also - List of March for Our Lives locations - March for Science Portland (2017)
22,816,726	Rock Show (Parks and Recreation)	1,146,028,010	null	[ "2009 American television episodes", "Parks and Recreation (season 1) episodes" ]	"Rock Show" is the sixth episode and season finale of the first season of the American comedy television series Parks and Recreation. It originally aired on NBC in the United States on May 14, 2009. It was written by Norm Hiscock and directed by Michael Schur. In the episode, Andy gets the casts removed from his legs, and Ann starts reevaluating their relationship when she learns he kept them on longer than necessary so she would keep pampering him. An intoxicated Mark flirts with Leslie, who feels conflicted about whether she wants to move forward when he is drunk. The episode generated positive reviews. Several commentators claimed "Rock Show" represented a turning point in the series, in which the show found its own tone and broke away from similarities to The Office. According to Nielsen Media Research, it was watched by 4.25 million viewers in its original airing, the lowest viewership for the season. "Rock Show", along with an "Extended Producer's Cut" of the episode, was included on the Parks and Recreation Season One DVD, which was released in the United States on September 8, 2009. ## Plot The parks and recreation department have cake to celebrate Andy (Chris Pratt) having his leg casts removed, and Ann (Rashida Jones) invites everybody to a local bar to hear Andy's first rock concert since he broke his leg. Leslie (Amy Poehler) is disappointed she cannot go, because her mother (Pamela Reed) has set up a business meeting with a local town manager. Later at the hospital, Ann learns from Dr. Harris (Cooper Thornton) that Andy could have had his casts removed two weeks earlier and she realizes that he postponed it because he wanted Ann to keep pampering him. Angry, Ann begins reevaluating her relationship with Andy. Later that evening, Leslie realizes the dinner with 62-year-old George Gernway (Ron Perkins) is actually a blind date set up by her mother. George, who tells the documentary camera crew he is getting "very positive signals", invites himself to go with Leslie to the rock show. Mark (Paul Schneider) feels lonely because he is the only one at the concert without a date: Tom (Aziz Ansari) is with his attractive surgeon wife Wendy Haverford (Jama Williamson), Ron (Nick Offerman) is dating his ex-wife's sister Beth (Stephanie Erb) and April (Aubrey Plaza) is with, "like the gayest person I've ever met, but I make out with him when I'm drunk sometimes." Noticing Ann is angry with Andy, Mark makes a pass at her, but Ann angrily rejects him. Leslie and George show up and are mocked by Tom. After the concert ends, Andy tries to stay as long as possible to avoid a fight with Ann, but she insists they leave. George goes home because he was falling asleep and Leslie starts to leave, but an intoxicated Mark asks her to stay and have a beer with him. When Leslie notes to the camera crew that they seem to be getting along just like when they made love five years earlier, she realizes he was drunk then too. When the bar closes, the two decide to keep drinking alongside the pit outside Ann's house, which Leslie plans to turn into a park. When Leslie asks whether he thinks the park will ever be made, a pragmatic Mark says it will be a difficult process with a lot of red tape, but she remains optimistic. During a fight, Andy admits to Ann that he postponed having the casts removed, but explains it was because, "I really, really like it when you serve me food." Ann throws him out, and Andy sees Mark kiss Leslie. Leslie stops his advances because she does not want to move forward when he is drunk. As Mark starts to leave, he falls into the pit. An amused Andy tells Ann, who rushes out to help him while Andy goes back inside and watches television. ## Production "Rock Show", the first season finale of Parks and Recreation was written by Norm Hiscock and directed by series co-founder Michael Schur. Schur said he felt "Rock Show" marked a change in tone for the series and struck a better balance between personal and professional stories than any of the other episodes from the season. Schur said: "We treated that whole six-episode season like a pilot. If you go back and watch those episodes now, you can see us making changes. The sixth episode is different in tone than the first. And we made some character tweaks, like every show ever does". Amy Poehler said she believed "Rock Show" would end what she described as the inevitable comparisons between Parks and Recreation and The Office, which is also produced by Parks creators Schur and Greg Daniels. Poehler said, "I think it was something we had to work through in the beginning, and I’m kind of hoping we’re on the other side of that and people will start to judge the show on its own, for what it is and realize it’s just a completely different world in a similar style.” Schur made his directorial debut with "Rock Show", and had only one day of preparation before directing the episode. While preparing to direct the episode, Schur was asked to make an appearance on The Office as Mose Schrute, the cousin of Dwight Schrute and a popular minor character, in the fifth season finale episode, "Company Picnic". Schur regretfully declined because he needed the time to work on "Rock Show", leading Office episode writers Paul Lieberstein and Jennifer Celotta to create the character Rolf, Dwight's friend played by James Urbaniak, as an alternative. Andy's bandmates during the rock show scene were played by Mark Rivers (drums), Andrew Burlinson (guitar) and Alan Yang (bass). All four actors performed their own instruments live during the filming. Originally, they planned to pre-record the songs and pantomime them for the episode, but after practicing a few times around the extras, they decided to shoot it live. The band performed each song twice, and Schur said he tried to shoot and direct it as if it were a music video. Yang is a writer with Parks and Recreation, and wrote the previous first season episode, "Boys' Club". Rivers is a composer who has worked on the sketch comedy show Human Giant, which starred Parks star Aziz Ansari. Rivers wrote the songs performed in "Rock Show", which Pratt said took him only "about fifteen minutes". Hiscock wrote the lyrics for "The Pit" in the initial outline for the episode and they were handed to Rivers who then fleshed them out. The songs were designed to resemble the music of the American rock band Hootie & the Blowfish. The only song not written by Rivers was "Ann", a romantic ballad Andy played for Ann, which was written by Pratt himself. "Ann" first appeared in "Boys' Club". Like most episodes of Parks and Recreation, a great deal of the scenes in "Rock Show" were improvised by the actors. Paul Schneider made up his own dialogue during the scene in which he and Poehler sit next to the pit and he talks about it as if it is already a park. Poehler's laughter at his jokes in this scene is her genuine reaction. Pratt also improvised much of his own dialogue, including his rationale to Ann for why he lied about his leg casts: "I really, really like it when you serve me food." Pratt also changed the reaction his character had to Mark falling into the pit. The script originally called for Andy to be serious and concerned, but Pratt changed it so his character thought the fall was funny. Pratt also improvised the songs he sang during an early scene in the episode, in which Andy makes up songs about random items in Ann's living room out of boredom from wearing the casts for so long. One of the songs he sings is about a lamp, and included the lyrics, "I wish you were a lamp that would light up when you get touched." Pratt thought of the song because he had recently gotten such a lamp as a gift from a friend. During a scene when Andy describes his style of music, April responds that she completely understands him, although the other characters seemingly do not. That line was improvised by Aubrey Plaza, and later helped inspire the writing staff to place the April and Andy characters into a romantic relationship. Schur said of this, "At the time, it was this little nothing, throwaway thing, but when we watched it, we thought there might be something there." The scene with Mark making a pass at Ann at the rock show, and Ann's angry reaction to the attempt, were a last-minute addition to the episode. Although Mark and Ann would develop a romantic relationship in the second season, the Parks and Recreation writers had not decided what would happen between the developing romantic plotlines between Leslie and Mark, or Leslie and Ann, at the time "Rock Show" aired. In the original pilot script, Mark helped Leslie solely because he was attracted to Ann and felt that green-lighting Leslie's project would give him an excuse to spend more time with her; the shooting version was retooled to make Leslie less pathetic and Mark less unlikable, by having him won over by Leslie's determination to fight against the odds. Immediately after "Rock Show" was originally broadcast, NBC set up an official website for "Scarecrow Boat", Andy's band featured in the episode. The site, at scarecrowboat.com, included ringtones, band posters, songs for download and photos. George Gernway was played by Ron Perkins, the husband of Parks and Recreation casting director Nancy Perkins. Aubrey Plaza conceived the idea of her character dating a gay man who she occasionally makes out with. Her "gay boyfriend" would become a major part of April's character in the second season. The scenes about Mark's efforts to have a speed bump lowered were inspired by Scott Albright, a California city planner who works as a consultant on the show. Albright said it would only be realistic for a city planner to lower a speed bump if a large number of residents complained about it. The hospital scenes in "Rock Show" were filmed on-location in an actual California hospital. ## Cultural references Andy describes the style of his band's music as a mix between Matchbox Twenty and The Fray. George says his favorite rock band is The Everly Brothers, a country-influenced rock band from the 1950s and 60s. Andy finds Ann's lost iPod, a portable music player by Apple Inc., inside his leg cast after it is removed. When Andy starts watching television while Ann rushes off to help Mark at the end of the episode, he is watching the reality series The Real Housewives of Atlanta. The scene between Mark and Leslie at the pit was mirrored in the second season finale "Freddy Spaghetti", which aired in May 2010 and was Mark's final appearance as a regular cast member. During that scene, the two overlook what was once the pit, but was now a filled-in lot, and Mark gives her construction plans for a park before kissing her goodbye on the cheek and leaving. Schur said of the scene, "It's great because Leslie and Mark, it was such a disastrous moment last time (at the pit) and he didn't really respect her, and a lot's happened in a year." Goor said of using that setting, "I liked the symmetry of having it play a critical, and opposite role in this finale. Last year, they sat on the bench and kissed, and it seemed like they might be getting back together. This year, they sat on the bench and Mark kissed Leslie goodbye." During one scene, Andy goes through a list of previous names his band has had. Pratt said about half the band names featured in the episode came directly from the script, but after he made up one on the spot, the directors encouraged him to keep improvising. Pratt said he went through about 200 fake band names during the take. The various names of Andy's rock band include: - A.D. and the D Bags - The Andy Andy Andies - Andy Dwyer Experience - Angelsnack - Crackfinger - Death of a Scam Artist - Department of Homeland Obscurity - Everything Rhymes with Orange - Fiveskin - Flames For Flames - Fleetwood Mac Sexpants - Fourskin - God Hates Figs - Handrail Suicide - Jet Black Pope - Just The Tip - Malice In Chains - Mouse Rat - Muscle Confusion - Ninjadick - Nothing Rhymes with Blorange - Nothing Rhymes with Orange - Penis Pendulum - Possum Pendulum - Punch Face Champions - Puppy Pendulum - Rad Wagon - Razordick - Teddy Bear Suicide - Threeskin - Two Doors Down - Scarecrow Boat ## Reception In its original American broadcast on May 14, 2009, "Rock Show" was watched by 4.25 million viewers, according to Nielsen Media Research, marking the lowest viewership for the season. Although the rating was almost the same as the previous week's episode, "The Banquet", Bill Gorman of TV By the Numbers still called the rating "pitiful." The episode received a 1.9 rating/7 share among viewers aged between 18 and 34, and a 2.0 rating/6 share among viewers between 18 and 49. <div class="quotebox pullquote floatright " style=" width:200px; ; background-color: #FFFFF0; "> > I'm not saying "Rock Show" was a masterpiece, or the series' Rosetta Stone, but at the very least it's a signpost on the way to it becoming the kind of comedy I believe it can be with the talent in front of and behind the camera. <cite class="center-aligned" style="">'Alan Sepinwall, The Star-Ledger</cite> </div> "Rock Show" received generally positive reviews, with many critics claiming it to be the best episode of the series up to that point. The scene in which Leslie rejects Mark's kiss in the pit was considered by some reviewers to be a critical turning point both for the show and for the development of Leslie Knope's character. Kona Gallagher of TV Squad wrote in a 2010 article, "Leslie finally realized that she can move on from Mark and the show realized that it could actually make her a real character". Alan Sepinwall of The Star-Ledger said after six episodes, he felt "Rock Show" was the episode where the Parks and Recreation found the right tone for the series and Leslie Knope character. Sepinwall said all the characters were very likable, the jokes seemed natural and the awkwardness of the show was turned down enough to work properly. The Hollywood Reporter writer Tim Goodman said while the first five episodes of the season had been disappointing, "Rock Show" marked an improvement in which "the characters were more defined, their quirks and rhythms understood". Matt Fowler of IGN said he did not find the episode especially funny but that it did a good job of fleshing out the characters. He said Chris Pratt was especially funny, and that his band's song "The Pit" was stuck in his head after the episode. The A.V. Club writer Keith Phipps, who had mixed feelings about Parks and Recreation throughout the season, said "Rock Show" was very funny and restored his faith in the potential of the series. Phipps said he believed the show would become very popular in the second season, and that people would later claim to like the first season more than they did the first time they saw it. In October 2009, while reviewing the second season episode "Sister City", A.V. Club writer Leonard Pierce said he believed Parks and Recreation showed a streak of vast improvement that started with "Rock Show" and continued into the second season. Jeremy Medina of Entertainment Weekly said the episode was "solid all-around" and especially liked Leslie's blind date with the elderly man and Chris Pratt, especially his listing of all his previous band names. Medina said, "Parks and Recreation is only six episodes in, and it's already better than I anticipated. It has its own tone, a talented cast, and a plot that's advancing toward something, at least as fast as governmental red tape will allow it to." Richard Lawson of Gawker said the episode was the best of the season and that he liked the wistful pacing and Poehler's performance. Lawson said, "Anyone who dismissed this show after its first sorta underwhelming episode made a mistake. The show has only gotten tighter and sharper, culminating in last night's funny/sad finale." Time television reviewer James Poniewozik said the episode was the best yet for developing Poehler into a "more multi-facted, less risible character". He also said the supporting staff played "flawlessly" off each other in the rock show scene, and thinks there is "huge potential" in the dynamic between Leslie and her undermining mother. Not all reviews of the episode were positive. Maureen Ryan of the Chicago Tribune said the Leslie Knope character was unappealing in "Rock Show" and throughout the first season, which she said surpassed the Friends spin-off Joey as "the worst example of NBC's tendency to extend its franchises well beyond what is desirable or logical." ## Home media "Rock Show", along with the five other first season episodes of Parks and Recreation'', was released on a one-disc DVD set in the United States on September 8, 2009. The DVD included cast and crew commentary tracks for each episode, as well as about 30 minutes of deleted scenes. The disc also included an "Producer's Extended Cut" of "Rock Show", which incorporated scenes that were cut from the originally broadcast episode. Many of the deleted scenes were improvised dialogue from the actors in brief extensions of episodes already included in the originally broadcast episode. In one of the cut scenes, Marlene Knope tells the audience that Leslie's business meeting is actually a date. The producers decided to cut the moment, so the audience would find out at the same time Leslie learns it. In another cut scene, Andy tries to convince Ann that the doctor lied to her about Andy requesting more time with the leg casts because the doctor wanted more money. One of the longest cut scenes from the extended edition was a conversation between Leslie and Mark at the bar, in which Mark explains his ideals about city planning when he attended college are much different than the practical, technical aspects of his job. Although the scene was cut, Michael Schur said the monologue did a great deal to help develop Mark's character.
63,377,417	Chabela Romero	1,168,962,053	Mexican female professional wrestler	[ "1936 births", "1985 deaths", "20th-century Mexican actresses", "20th-century female professional wrestlers", "All Pacific Champions", "Mexican female professional wrestlers", "Mexican film actresses", "Professional wrestlers from Puebla" ]	Isabela "Chabela" Romero Rangel (September 11, 1936 – April 19, 1985) was a Mexican professional wrestler. She was one of the first Mexican women to become a professional wrestler when women became a regular fixture in the early 1950s. During her career she won the Mexican National Women's Championship three times, and both the UWA World Women's Championship and the Japanese All Pacific Championship once. ## Professional wrestling career Women's wrestling in Mexico prior to the 1950s was almost non-existent, with no known matches taking place from 1945 on and very few prior to that. In the early 1950s Jack O'Brien began training female wrestlers, including Isabela Romero, in his gym in León, Guanajuato. She would work under the ring name Chabela Romero alongside other O'Brien trainees such as Irma González, La Enfermera, La Dama Enmascarada, and Rosita Williams. She made her in-ring debut on March 27, 1955, participating in an all-female tournament in Mexico City. Romero won her first Mexican National Women's Championship at some point in the late 1950s, 1958 at the latest. Due to minimal written documentation from the time period it is uncertain as to who Romero won the championship from, nor who she lost it to. Records indicate that she started her second reign on December 6, 1965. In 1965 to 1966 Romero was involved in a storyline feud with Jarocita Rivero, that saw the two women trade the championship, first on May 12, 1966, and then back to Romero on August 11 of the same year. During the feud Jarocita Rivero defeated Romero in a Lucha de Apuestas ("Bet match"), which forced Romero to have all her hair shaved off as a result of the match stipulation. Records are uncertain as to when Romero's third and final reign as the Mexican National Women's Championship ended, as records are missing from late 1966 through 1980. Over the years Romero had a long running storyline feud with Irma González, which included several Lucha de Apuestas matches between the two. Romero lost to González on June 20, 1971, and again on January 17, 1974, both times leaving the ring without hair. Romero ended up winning the mask of Princesa Azul, as a result of her Lucha de Apuestas victory on November 1, 1975. At some point in the 1970s Romero gained a measure of revenge as she defeated González in a Lucha de Apuestas in Panama. The two ladies also took their feud to Japan, working for All Japan Women's Pro-Wrestling for several tours throughout the mid-to-late-1970s. On May 20, 1978, Chabela Romero defeated Maki Ueda in the finals of a tournament to win the vacant All Pacific Championship. She held the title for 81 days, before losing it to Ueda on a show in Tokyo, Japan. On February 25, 1979, Irma González defeated Romero in their fourth and last Lucha de Apuestas match, on a Universal Wrestling Association (UWA) show. After the feud with González concluded Chabela Romero and Vicki Williams became involved in a feud, in which Romero defeated Vicki Williams to win the UWA World Women's Championship. The championship change led to a Lucha de Apuestas between the two as well, with Vicki Williams pinning Romero, forcing her to be shaved bald afterward. Chabela Romero ended up vacating the UWA World Women's Championship on April 19, 1981, for undocumented reasons. ## Death Romero died on April 19, 1985. ## Championships and accomplishments - All Japan Women's Pro-Wrestling \All Pacific Championship (1 time) - Empresa Mexicana de Lucha Libre \Mexican National Women's Championship (3 times) - Universal Wrestling Association \*UWA World Women's Championship (1 time) ## Luchas de Apuestas record ## Filmography - Doctor Doom (1963) (original title: Las luchadoras contra el médico asesino) as Carmela Camacho "Vendetta" - Wrestling Women vs. the Aztec Mummy (1964) (original title: Las luchadoras contra la momia) as herself - She-Wolves of the Ring (1965) (original title: Las lobas del ring ) as herself
6,309,501	2nd Battalion (Australia)	1,020,548,668	null	[ "Australian World War I battalions", "Military units and formations disestablished in 1987", "Military units and formations established in 1914" ]	The 2nd Battalion was an infantry battalion of the Australian Army. It was initially raised for service during the First World War as part the Australian Imperial Force and saw action at Gallipoli before being sent to the Western Front in mid-1916, where it spent the next two-and-a-half years taking part in the fighting in the trenches of France and Belgium. Following the conclusion of hostilities, the battalion was disbanded in early 1919 as part of the demobilisation process. In 1921, the battalion was re-raised as a part-time unit of the Citizens Forces based in Newcastle, New South Wales, drawing lineage from a number of previously existing infantry units. They remained in existence until 1929 when, due to austerity measures during the Great Depression and manpower shortages, the battalion was amalgamated with two other infantry battalions over the course of a number of re-organisations. It was re-formed in 1939 and undertook garrison duty in Australia during the Second World War until 1943 when it was merged once again. Following the end of the war, the 2nd Battalion was re-raised as part of the Citizens Military Force in 1948. In 1960, it was reduced to a company-level formation but was re-formed as a battalion of the Royal New South Wales Regiment in 1965. It remained on the Australian order of battle until 1987 when it was amalgamated with the 17th Battalion, to form the 2nd/17th Battalion, Royal New South Wales Regiment, a unit which remains part of the Australian Army Reserve today. ## History ### First World War #### Formation and training The 2nd Battalion was raised at Randwick, New South Wales, in August 1914 as part of the Australian Imperial Force (AIF), which was formed from volunteers for overseas service shortly after the outbreak of the First World War. Drawing the majority of its personnel from the Maitland, Newcastle and Hunter Valley regions of the state of New South Wales, the battalion formed part of the 1st Brigade and, along with the 1st, 3rd and 4th Battalions, it was one of the first infantry units raised by Australia following its entry into the war. Upon formation, the battalion was established with a complement of over 1,000 men organised into a headquarters, a machine-gun section of two heavy Maxim medium machine-guns, and eight rifle companies, each consisting of three officers and 117 other ranks. The battalion's first commanding officer was Lieutenant Colonel George Braund, a citizen soldier and Member of Parliament in the New South Wales Legislative Assembly, who held the seat of Armidale. The physical standards under which the first contingent of the AIF was recruited were very strict, nevertheless by the end of August over 20,000 men had been recruited into one infantry division—the 1st Division—and one light horse brigade, the 1st Light Horse Brigade. Following a brief period of training in Australia, the force set sail for the Middle East, assembling off Albany, Western Australia, in early November 1914 before leaving Australian waters, with the 2nd Battalion embarked upon the HMAT Suffolk. Initially it had been planned that the Australians would be sent to the United Kingdom, where they would undertake further training prior to being sent to the Western Front in France and Belgium. However, the Ottoman Empire's entry into the war on Germany's side on 29 October meant that the strategically vital Suez Canal was threatened, and as a result of this and overcrowding in training grounds in the United Kingdom, upon the convoy reaching the Suez at the end of November, plans for the use of the Australian force were changed and they were disembarked in Egypt instead. The 2nd Battalion arrived in Egypt on 2 December. The following month, it undertook further training along with the rest of the 1st Division. The battalion was also re-organised into four companies, as the Australian Army converted to the new battalion structure that had been developed by the British Army. Although the battalion's authorised strength remained the same, the eight companies were merged into four, each consisting of six officers and 221 other ranks. In February 1915, Ottoman Empire forces attacked the Suez Canal, and although some units of the 1st Division were put into the line, the 2nd Battalion was not required, and in the end the attack was turned back mainly by Indian units. Later, in an effort to open shipping lanes to the Russians and also knock the Turks out of the war, the British high command decided to land a force on the Gallipoli peninsula near the Dardanelles using mainly British, French and Indian troops along with the Australians and New Zealanders. #### Gallipoli During the Landing at Anzac Cove on 25 April 1915, the 2nd Battalion, under Braund's command, came ashore in the second and third waves, landing a total of 31 officers and 937 other ranks. Upon landing, the 2nd Battalion dispatched two companies, 'A' and 'D' to assist the 3rd Brigade who were pushing inland towards a high feature known as "Baby 700", which overlooked the beachhead. One of the 2nd Battalion's platoons, under Lieutenant Leslie Morshead, advanced further than any other Australian unit, making it to the slopes of Baby 700, before a determined counter-attack by Ottoman forces drove them back in the afternoon. Meanwhile, the battalion's other two companies, 'B' and 'C', had been held back in reserve. In the early afternoon, Braund led them up the steep terrain under fire to the vital junction between two positions known as "Walker's Ridge" and "Russell's Top". The battalion proceeded to hold this position until reinforcements arrived from the Wellington Battalion two days later, at which time the 2nd Battalion undertook a bayonet charge which cleared the crest of Russell's Top. A determined enemy counter-attack forced them back to the junction where they remained until 28 April when they were ordered into reserve on the beach. In early May, part of the battalion was sent to reinforce the 3rd Battalion. At around midnight on the night of 3/4 May, the 2nd Battalion's commanding officer, Braund, who was partially deaf, was accidentally killed as he attempted to visit 1st Brigade headquarters after failing to hear a challenge from a sentry, who shot him believing that he was an enemy soldier. Following his burial, the battalion second-in-command, Robert Scobie, was promoted to lieutenant colonel and took over as commanding officer. Following the initial establishment of the beachhead, the campaign moved into a second phase as the Australians began work to consolidate and slowly expand their position around the lodgement. During this time, the fighting at Anzac evolved into largely static trench warfare. In mid-May, however, the Turks decided to launch an attack on Anzac. This began late on 18 May with the heaviest artillery bombardment of the campaign to that point, during which the 2nd Battalion's orderly room, located on "MacLaurin's Hill", was hit. The assault began the following day, during which the 2nd Battalion, established around a position known as the "Pimple", was attacked by elements of the Ottoman 48th Regiment who poured into their forward positions through "Owen's Gulley", which rose as a re-entrant between the 2nd Battalion's position and that of 3rd Battalion which was on their left at the "Jolly". At risk of having the line split in two and enduring heavy attack in their sap head, the 2nd called for reinforcements which came in the shape of artillerymen from the 8th Battery, who were pressed into the line as infantrymen. With only limited machine-guns and with bad light hindering the supporting artillery, the job of turning back the Turkish assault fell to the riflemen and by maintaining strict fire discipline, great effect was achieved. By 24 May, the attack had been decisively defeated and a brief truce was called for both sides to bury the dead. Following this, the Ottoman forces around Anzac adopted a defensive posture. It was during this time, that one of the 2nd Battalion's soldiers, Lance Corporal (later Sergeant) William Beech, invented the periscope rifle. In early August, in order to create a diversion to draw Ottoman reserves away from a major attack at Hill 971, which had been conceived as part of an attempt to break the stalemate that had developed around the beachhead, the 1st Brigade conducted an attack at Lone Pine. The 2nd Battalion was chosen to take part in the initial assault. After gaining possession of the main enemy line, the Australians were subjected to a series of determined counter-attacks which would last the next three days, which, although successfully repulsed, proved very costly for the Australians. The 2nd Battalion suffered considerably. Having started the action with 22 officers and 560 other ranks, they lost 21 officers and 409 other ranks killed or wounded. Among those killed was its commanding officer, Scobie, who was shot dead while attempting to repulse a counter-attack on 7 August. In Scobie's place, the battalion second-in-command, Major Arthur Stevens, who had been a second lieutenant less than 12 months before, took over as temporary commander. Elsewhere, the main offensive which had been launched at Hill 971 and Sari Bair, and the fresh landings that had taken place at Suvla Bay, also faltered. Ultimately, the August Offensive, of which the fighting at Lone Pine had been a part, failed to deliver the Sari Bair heights to the British Empire forces and their allies, nor did it break the deadlock. Following this, stalemate returned to the peninsula during September and October, and although small skirmishes continued, the Australians were mainly involved in defensive actions. As a result of the setback, many of the strategic goals that had been the basis of the campaign were abandoned and as a bitter winter set-in in November, there was much debate among the British high command about the utility of continuing the campaign. In the intervening months, some personnel had been shifted away from Gallipoli as other the situation in other theatres became more relevant, and in late November, Lord Kitchener toured the peninsula. Finally, on 8 December, the order to begin the evacuation was given. The evacuation, which has been described as "more brilliantly conducted ... than any other phase of the campaign", took place in stages, and with the maintenance of secrecy a key consideration, a series of "ruses" were used to conceal the withdrawal. Each unit left in drafts, maintaining a presence along the line until the very end. Finally, just before dawn on 20 December, the evacuation was complete. A small element from the 2nd Battalion was among the last Australian troops to leave, with a group of 64 men remaining in possession of the "Black Hand" position until 2:50 am on the final morning. #### Egypt Following the withdrawal from Gallipoli, the AIF returned to Egypt where they underwent a period of re-organisation. Part of this saw the influx of large numbers of reinforcements and the expansion of the AIF. The 2nd Division had been formed in July 1915, and part of this had been dispatched to Gallipoli in the later stages of the campaign, but the large increase in volunteers in Australia meant that further plans for expansion could take place. The 3rd Division was raised in Australia, while two new divisions, the 4th and 5th Divisions, were raised in Egypt from reinforcements in holding depots and experienced cadre personnel which were drawn from the infantry battalions of the 1st Division. In this regard, the 1st Brigade helped raise the 14th Brigade, with personnel from the 2nd Battalion being transferred to the 54th Battalion; the split occurring while the battalion was at Tel el Kebir on 14 February. They were quickly brought up to full strength and training began shortly afterwards. Earlier in the month, Stevens was promoted to lieutenant colonel and placed in substantive command of the battalion; he would subsequently lead them through to November 1916. Around this time, the units of the 1st Division, of which the 2nd Battalion was a part, became part of the larger I Anzac Corps, and in early March, this corps embarked for France – the 2nd Battalion leaving from Alexandria on the SS Ivernia – where they were to take part in the fighting on the European battlefield. #### Western Front After being landed in Marseilles, they proceeded north by railway to staging areas near Hazebrouck. Shortly afterwards, on 7 April, the units of I Anzac Corps were assigned to a "quiet" sector of the line near Armentières to gain experience of trench warfare. Due to concerns about a German attack, almost immediately the Australians set to work to improve the defences around their position. It had been hoped by the high command to initially keep the Australian presence a secret in order to gain some advantage from it, however, on 23 April it became apparent that the Germans had become aware of their arrival when a signal lamp flashed a message in Morse code from the trench opposite the 2nd Battalion's position stating, "Australians go home". To this, the Australians, despite orders against responding, replied matter-of-factly, "Why?" In June, during a brief period away from the line in billets, the battalion, along with the rest of the 1st Brigade, was reviewed by the Australian prime minister, Billy Hughes near Fleurbaix. Following this, although several units from I Anzac Corps took part in a number of raids against the German line during late June and early July, the 2nd Battalion was not involved and as such, apart from experiencing some enemy shelling, the 2nd Battalion's first significant action came at Pozières in July 1916. The battalion entered the line on the night of 19/20 July as the 1st was sent forward to relieve the British 68th Brigade along with the 3rd Brigade; just after midnight the 2nd Battalion, after an approach march over which they had endured gas attack, arrived at its position opposite the south-western side of the village. On 23 July, following an intense artillery barrage, the attack began. Leaving their form-up point near the "Chalk Pit", the 2nd Battalion, which had been allocated the position of the left forward battalion in the assault with the 1st Battalion on their right and the 4th Battalion following them up, moved out into no man's land just after midnight. A short time afterwards a flare was fired from the German lines followed by sporadic rifle and machine-gun fire, which was directed somewhere away from the battalion's axis-of-advance. As they advanced over the broken ground, suddenly a sentry called out a challenge and the entire battalion froze, but when firing broke out it became clear that it was directed away to their right towards the 3rd Brigade who were advancing over open ground. Advancing beneath the supporting barrage, under the direction of their officers whose job it was to ensure that they did not get ahead of the creeping artillery, the battalion probed forward trying to locate the enemy defences, finally finding an abandoned trench located amongst a group of tree stumps. After striking the railway, they began to dig-in just beyond it to secure the left flank, as the 3rd and 4th Battalions passed between them and advanced to secure the brigade's front along the line of the main Bapaume road. Following this, the 2nd Battalion maintained the left-most position on the brigade line, with its pits curling around the left flank and folding in behind the 4th Battalion's position. The Germans put in a determined counter-attack at dawn with a whole battalion, which was turned back after a stiff fight. That night, reinforcements were brought up from the 2nd Brigade, and early in the morning on 24 July the Germans opened up with a devastating artillery barrage. On 25 July, the men of the 2nd Battalion, having suffered terribly in the open trenches, were relieved by the 7th Battalion. During the operations around Pozières, the battalion lost 10 officers and 500 men killed or wounded. After this, they were sent to Pernois for rest and re-organisation, and after being brought back up to about two-thirds strength, the 2nd Battalion's next involvement in the fighting came around Mouquet Farm when they were briefly put into the line on 18/19 August to provide reinforcement, before being quickly relieved a few days later. In early September, I Anzac Corps was transferred from the Somme region to Ypres, in Belgium, swapping with the Canadians for a rest. Taking up a position north of the Ypres–Commines canal, the battalions of the 1st Division were placed in the centre of the line between those of the 4th, on the right to the south, and the 2nd on the left, to the north. The sector was a relatively quiet one, although not without its dangers due to constant mortar attacks, sniping, and the need to maintain patrols in no man's land. Nevertheless, duties in this time were focused mainly upon maintaining a defensive presence in the line and rebuilding the defences. In addition, a number of small-scale raids were also undertaken in an effort to draw some attention away from the fighting that was occurring on the Somme. On 6 October, in concert with three parties from the 1st Battalion, the 2nd carried out a minor raid on a German position to the north-east of a position known as "The Bluff" in order to gain intelligence. After encountering a German patrol, they were forced to abandon their attempt, however, a short time later, one of their own patrols captured a German soldier from the 414th Infantry Regiment in no man's land. The next week, on 12 October, just after 6:00 pm a small party moved out into no man's land to raid another German position near The Bluff. After being spotted, they were subjected to several grenade attacks, forcing them to retire. Their covering force was already in position, however, and so a number of the attacking force joined them and together, at 6:30 pm, after a box barrage by the artillery had cut the wire in front of the German position, they entered it. Killing seven Germans, they overcame the enemy resistance and brought back two defenders as prisoners. On the way back, several of their own wounded became lost, although all except one of these men were later recovered. The other man, one of the officers, was later found to have died of his wounds. In total the raid had cost the battalion two killed and seven wounded. After this, the units of I Anzac Corps returned to the Somme, to relieve units of the Fourth Army, which had managed to push their lines to a position just below the Bapaume heights throughout September. The 2nd Battalion was not involved in any major actions during this time, although elements from the 1st Brigade—specifically the 1st Battalion with support from the 3rd—put in an attack on a salient that had developed in the front line north of Gueudecourt, which failed amid exceptionally muddy conditions. Winter began to set in at this point, and even though combat operations all but ceased during this time, the battalion endured considerable hardships amid snow and rain, in a sector that has been described as "the worst ... of the sodden front". For a brief period during December, Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Blamey commanded the battalion before taking over as acting commander of the 1st Brigade. During this time, the battalion was reorganised as part of a wider-Army restructure that resulted in an attempt to increase the firepower of the each platoon. Earlier in the year, the battalion machine-gun section had been deleted and replaced by a single Lewis gun held within each company; by end of the year this had been increased to one Lewis per platoon. As 1917 began with the Allies making fresh plans, the Germans, finding themselves outnumbered and needing to shorten their lines, began a skilful staged withdrawal beginning in February and ending in April. Falling back up to 31 miles (50 km) in some places, they took up positions along a series of heavily fortified, purpose-built strong-points which the Allies subsequently named the "Hindenburg Line", which, due to the reduced frontage, enabled them to free up some 13 divisions of reserves. Following up the Germans, the Allies advanced towards this line, finding that the Germans had adopted a scorched earth policy as they had moved back; the result of this was that in order to establish their own lines, the Allies had to undertake significant construction work. Due to the shifting front line, the 2nd Battalion's first major engagement of 1917 did not come until 9 April when, on the periphery of the Arras offensive, they took part in an attack on Hermies, one of the outpost villages of the Hindenburg Line. Under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Stanley Milligan, who had taken over on 17 March, the battalion had departed Haplincourt at 7:30 pm the previous evening and marched to their form-up point. The plan was to attack with the battalion's four companies advancing side-by-side from the north-east to attack from behind the German defences, sweeping down on the village like a fan with the left-most company providing flank protection and establishing a series of posts to stop the garrison from escaping while the two centre and the right-most companies took the village. At the same time, two companies from the 3rd Battalion would attack the German main defensive position from the south-west. In the end, the Australians were detected while waiting to step off and, after being illuminated by flares and taking fire from a German picquet, hastily launched the attack. After overcoming this, the left-centre company, having lost all of their officers, lost their formation and had to be re-organised before the attack on the eastern side of the village could continue. Sergeant Thomas Brew, no 714, was responsible for the reorganisation of the left-centre company and was recommended and subsequently awarded a Distinguished Conduct Medal (DCM) for his actions. The recommendation reads: "At Hermes on 9 April for his courage and initiative during our attack on the German position. Early in the action all his company officers were either killed or wounded with the assault such that the company and Brigade became somewhat disorganised. Sgt Brew skilfully took charge and boldly led his company through the village into the position they were to locate. On reaching his place in the line he personally reported to the nearest Co. Commander, and assisted materially in the work of consolidation." The two companies passed through hedges and the ruined buildings, clearing the outskirts of the village with little resistance. The left-most company then began its task of establishing outposts to the east. At the same time, on the right, the right-most company had advanced to the Doignes–Hermies road when they had begun to take fire. Overcoming this and skirting a wire obstacle, they began moving towards the rear of the German main defence line. At this point, they came under fire from a low hill on the western outskirts of the village, which took them in the flank and pinned them on its slope. In the darkness, the location of the enemy machine-gun could not be ascertained initially. The Australians remained fixed there for almost an hour-and-a-half before members of the right centre company, who had avoided most of the German resistance, were able to locate it and destroy it from the rear just before dawn. The two centre companies were then able to enter the village proper, forcing large numbers of the garrison to try to escape to the north-east, where they were taken prisoner in large numbers. Here the left-most company had been establishing a number of posts in the open fields. Most of these were established with minimal resistance, however, one platoon became heavily engaged by a machine-gun positioned near a sandpit on the other side of a road. A small group of men crossed the road and attempted to provide covering fire for the platoon. Amongst this group was Private Bede Kenny who, under heavy fire, rushed the enemy position and destroyed it with grenades, taking the surviving Germans prisoner. For his actions, he was later awarded the Victoria Cross. Minor skirmishing continued after this, but by 6:00 am the village had been captured and 200 prisoners taken, for a loss to the 2nd Battalion of eight officers and 173 other ranks killed or wounded. The battalion played only a limited, supporting role during the 1st Division's repulse of the German counter-attack at Lagnicourt in mid-April, and following this the battalion's next major action came in early May when it was involved in the Second Battle of Bullecourt. The day before the attack, the battalions of the 1st Brigade, despite being due for rest, had been attached to the 2nd Division, and they were subsequently employed to provide work parties to release reserves among the 2nd Division units to take part directly in the fighting. Having not yet recovered its losses from the fighting around Hermies, and being subjected to artillery bombardment during their approach to the front, the 2nd Battalion entered the line on 4 May with just 16 officers and 446 other ranks, subsequently relieving the 24th Battalion. As the Germans attempted to force the Australians back, the 2nd Battalion was moved around a number of times to shore up the line, until units of the 5th Division came up to relieve those of the 1st Brigade on 8 May. The battalion's next major action came in mid-September when they were committed to the fighting around Menin Road, which formed part of the wider Third Battle of Ypres, in a supporting role. On 16 September, the battalions of the 1st Brigade relieved the 47th (London) Division around Glencourse Ridge, located about 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) east of Ypres, holding the line until relieved on 18 September by the 2nd and 3rd Brigades who were to undertake the assault within the 1st Division's sector of the line. Following the assault, the 1st Brigade, including the 2nd Battalion, went forward on 21 September and secured the ground that had been gained. They were subsequently relieved shortly afterwards on the night of 22/23 September by troops from the 14th Brigade, as fresh divisions were brought up to continue the attack at Polygon Wood. The battalion's casualties during this time amounted to 11 officers and 188 other ranks killed or wounded. After a brief period of rest, they returned to the line near Broodseinde on 1 October, taking up a position near Molenaarelsthoek, on the right of I Anzac's position for the upcoming battle. The attack went in on 4 October, and after overcoming an encounter with a German infantry regiment, the 212th, in no man's land, the Australians successfully managed to capture their objectives. During the battle, the 2nd Battalion lost 10 officers and 144 other ranks killed or wounded, some of which were suffered after an intense German mortar barrage had fallen upon the troops in their form-up point prior to the attack, killing or wounding up to one seventh of the assault force. On 19 December 1917, after the battalion had moved to the relatively quiet Messines sector in Flanders along with the other Australian divisions following their involvement in the Passchendaele operations, Stevens resumed command; Milligan having been elevated to the general staff. Stevens would subsequently lead them through until September 1918 when he was granted "Anzac leave" which allowed personnel who had enlisted in 1914 to return Australia for an extended period of leave. Throughout the winter, the Australian divisions remained around Messines, where they had been formed into the Australian Corps. During this time, the brigades rotated through the line, taking their turn to man the divisional sector. The 2nd Battalion had spent Christmas at Kemmel before moving on to Wytschaete Ridge on 26 December. They stayed there until late January when they moved on to Méteren. In early 1918, the collapse of the Russian resistance on the Eastern Front enabled the Germans to transfer a large number of troops to the west. As a result, on 21 March, they launched an offensive along the Western Front. On the opening day of the offensive, the 2nd Battalion's lines near Belgian Wood were raided by the 72nd Infantry Regiment and although the attack was beaten off, four men from the battalion were forcibly taken back to the German lines as prisoners. The initial attack, coming along a 44-mile (71 km) front between La Bassée and La Fère, was quite successful and with the Germans making rapid gains, the Australians were transferred to the Somme Valley where they were put into the line around Amiens to blunt the attack in early April. Shortly thereafter, during the Battle of the Lys, the 2nd Battalion, along with the rest of the 1st Division, were sent to Hazebrouck. Upon arriving there on 12 April, they took up defensive positions around Strazelle to await the German advance. On 17 April, while defending the village of Sec Bois, the battalion helped turn back a determined German attack. Following this, between late April and July, a period of lull followed. During this time, the Australians undertook a series of small-scale operations that became known as "peaceful penetrations". After relieving the 3rd Brigade around Méteren on 27 April, the battalions of the 1st Brigade began patrols on 30 April to capture German soldiers to gain intelligence and harass the enemy. These were generally met with considerable success, although they were not without mishap. Two separate patrols were undertaken by the 2nd Battalion on 2 May. The first resulted in one officer being shot while attempting to enter a German trench, while the second resulted in another being shot by an Australian sentry who had not been warned that a patrol had gone out. Later in May, they took up a position opposite Merris, remaining there until the end of the month. Throughout June and July they alternated between Meteren and Merris during which time they continued to raiding operations, which advanced the line about 1,000 yards (910 m) without significant loss. In August, having gained the initiative, the Allies launched their own offensive commencing at Amiens on 8 August 1918, where the battalions of the 1st Brigade were attached temporarily to the 4th Division, to act as its reserve, guarding the river crossing at Cerisy. Following this they were involved in the advance through Chipilly and Lihons, remaining in reserve until 11 August. Throughout the period of the first week of the offensive, the battalion suffered three officers and 45 other ranks killed or wounded. After this, the battalion continued operations throughout August and into September. On the night of 10/11 September, while around Hesbécourt, the 2nd Battalion carried out peaceful penetration raids against German reserve positions around Jeancourt. Finding the village empty, they encountered a German patrol from the 81st Infantry Regiment, which was attacked and quickly overwhelmed. At noon the following day, they launched a larger attack with artillery and mortar support, destroying two German outposts to the south of the village, killing eight Germans and capturing 22 others. In their last action, against the Hindenburg Outpost Line on 18/19 September, the battalion suffered a further 77 casualties. On 23 September the battalion was relieved by American forces. At this time they were withdrawn from the line along with the rest of the 1st Division. They would take no further part in the fighting. In early October, the rest of the Australian Corps, severely depleted due to heavy casualties and falling enlistments in Australia, was also withdrawn upon a request made by Prime Minister Billy Hughes, to re-organise in preparation for further operations. On 11 November, an armistice came into effect, and as hostilities came to an end, the battalion's personnel were slowly repatriated back to Australia for demobilisation and discharge. This was completed in May 1919. Throughout the war, the 2nd Battalion lost 1,199 men killed and 2,252 wounded. Members of the battalion received the following decorations: one Victoria Cross, four Companions of the Order of St Michael and St George, 20 Military Crosses, 21 Distinguished Conduct Medals, 58 Military Medals with two Bars, four Meritorious Service Medals, 55 Mentions in Despatches and five foreign awards. ### Inter war years and the Second World War The battalion was re-raised in Newcastle, New South Wales, in May 1921 as part the re-organisation of the Australian military that took place at that time, with the battalion becoming a part-time unit of the Citizens Forces, assigned to the 8th Brigade of the 2nd Military District. Upon formation, the battalion drew its personnel from three previously existing Citizens Forces units: the 2nd and 5th Battalions of the 2nd Infantry Regiment and the 2nd Battalion of the 13th Infantry Regiment, and perpetuated the battle honours and traditions of its associated AIF battalion. As a result of this re-organisation, the battalion adopted the complex lineage of the 2nd Infantry Regiment, which could trace its history through a series of re-organisations back to the 1st Regiment, New South Wales Rifle Volunteers (Newcastle Volunteer Rifle Corps), which had been raised in 1860. In 1927, territorial unit titles were introduced into the Australian Army, and the battalion adopted the title of the "City of Newcastle Regiment". At the same time, the battalion was afforded the motto Nulli Secundus. In 1929, following the election of the Scullin Labor government, the compulsory training scheme was suspended altogether as it was decided to maintain the part-time military force on a volunteer-only basis. In order to reflect the change, the Citizen Forces was renamed the "Militia" at this time. The end of compulsory training and the fiscal austerity that followed due to the economic downturn of the Great Depression meant that the manpower available to many Militia units at this time was limited and as a result their frontage dropped well below their authorised establishments. Because of this, the decision was eventually made to amalgamate a number of units. Subsequently, the 2nd Battalion was amalgamated with the 41st in 1929, forming the 2nd/41st Battalion, although they were later split in 1933 at which time the 2nd was merged with the 35th, becoming the 2nd/35th Battalion. Together these two units remained linked until 4 September 1939 when, under the command of Lieutenant Colonel William Jeater, the 2nd Battalion was once again raised as a separate unit as part of an effort by the Australian government to hastily expand the Militia following the outbreak of the Second World War. During the war, although mobilised and assigned to the 1st Brigade, the battalion did not see active service overseas and was instead used as a garrison force in Australia until 2 December 1943 when it was merged once again with the 41st Battalion, forming the 41st/2nd Battalion. They remained linked until 17 December 1945, when they were disbanded as part of the demobilisation process. ### Post Second World War In 1948, Australia's part-time military force, under the guise of the Citizens Military Force (CMF), was re-raised. At this time, only two divisions were formed along with other supporting units. The 2nd Battalion was one of those units that was re-established, returning to the order of battle in April 1948, as part of the 2nd Division. Between 1951 and 1960 a national service scheme had operated and during this time the CMF's numbers remained reasonably steady. However, in 1960 the scheme was suspended and the Australian Army was reorganised with the introduction of the Pentropic divisional structure. As a result of this the CMF was greatly reduced and 14 infantry battalions were disbanded altogether, while many others were amalgamated into the battalions of the six sequentially numbered multi-battalion State-based regiments. As a result of this, on 1 July 1960, the 2nd Battalion became part of the Royal New South Wales Regiment, and was reduced to a company-sized element of the Pentropic 2nd Battalion, Royal New South Wales Regiment (2 RNSWR), forming 'C' Company (City of Newcastle Company). Just prior to this, on 30 April 1960, the battalion had been afforded the Freedom of the City of Newcastle. In 1961, the Pentropic 2 RNSWR was entrusted with the battle honours that had been awarded to the 2/2nd Battalion, which had been raised as part of the Second Australian Imperial Force and which had served in North Africa, Greece, Crete and New Guinea. These honours would be retained by the 2nd Battalion throughout the rest of its existence. The Australian Army abandoned the Pentropic divisional structure in 1965, and in an attempt to restore some of the regional ties of the State-based regiments, a number of the regional companies of the State-based regiments were split and used to form new battalions with their traditional numerical designations. As a result, on 1 July 1965, 'C' Company, 2 RNSWR was used to re-raise the 2nd Battalion in its own right. This unit remained in existence until 1987, when further reforms to the Army Reserve led to a reduction in the number of infantry units across Australia and, at a ceremony held at Newcastle on 5 December 1987, the 2nd Battalion was amalgamated with the 17th to form the 2nd/17th Battalion, Royal New South Wales Regiment, within the 8th Brigade. Before amalgamation, the battalion's regimental march was Braganza, which was confirmed in 1953. ## Alliances The 2nd Battalion held the following alliances: - United Kingdom – The Queen's Royal Regiment (West Surrey): 1929–59; - United Kingdom – The Queen's Royal Surrey Regiment: 1959–60; - Canada – The Queen's Rangers (1st American Regiment): 1934–36; - Canada – The Queen's York Rangers (1st American Regiment): 1936–60. ## Battle honours The 2nd Battalion received the following battle honours: - First World War: Somme 1916–18, Pozières, Bullecourt, Ypres 1917, Menin Road, Polygon Wood, Broodseinde, Poelcappelle, Passchendaele, Lys, Hazebrouck, Amiens, Albert 1918 (Chuignes), Hindenburg Line, Epehy, France and Flanders 1916–18, ANZAC, Landing at ANZAC, Defence at ANZAC, Suvla, Sari Bair–Lone Pine, Egypt 1915–16, and Herbertshohe. - Second World War: But–Dagua, North Africa, Bardia 1941, Capture of Tobruk, Greece 1941, Mount Olympus, Tempe Gorge, South-West Pacific 1942–45, Kokoda Trail, Eora Creek–Templeton's Crossing II, Oivi–Gorari, Buna–Gona, Sanananda Road, Liberation of Australian New Guinea, and Nambut Ridge. ## Commanding officers The following officers served as commanding officer of the 2nd Battalion: - Lieutenant Colonel George Braund VD (1914–1915) - Lieutenant Colonel F.S. Brown (1915) - Lieutenant Colonel Robert Scobie VD (1915) - Lieutenant Colonel W.E. Cass CMG (1915–1916) - Lieutenant Colonel Arthur B Stevens CMG DSO (1916) - Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Blamey DSO (1916) - Lieutenant Colonel E.E. Herrod CMG DSO VD (1916–1917) - Lieutenant Colonel Stanley L. Milligan CMG DSO (1917) - Major G.S. Cook (1917) - Lieutenant Colonel H.A. Youden DSO VD (1918) - Lieutenant Colonel W.G. Cheeseman, DSO MC (1919–1921) - Lieutenant Colonel H.L. Wheeler, ED (1921–1924) - Lieutenant Colonel B.B. Rodd, VD (1924–1928) - Lieutenant Colonel J.J. Dunbar, VD (1928–1932) - Lieutenant Colonel Frederick Galleghan, ED (1932–1937) - Lieutenant Colonel W.D. Jeater (1937–1940) - Lieutenant Colonel J.D. McNeill (1940–1941) - Lieutenant Colonel W.D. Owens (1941–1942) - Lieutenant Colonel G.W. Phillips (1942–1944) - Lieutenant Colonel D.N. Fairbrother, MC (1948–1950) - Brigadier J.W. Main, CBE ED (1950–1951) - Lieutenant Colonel J.V. Mather, ED (1951–1954) - Lieutenant Colonel F. Cox, OBE ED (1954–1958) - Lieutenant Colonel F.P. Connor, ED (1958–1960) - Brigadier The Hon. S.L.M. Eskell, ED MLC (1960–1962) - Colonel P.H. Pike, OBE ED (1962–1964) - Colonel E.S. Marshall, OBE ED (1965) - Lieutenant Colonel J.A. Fox, ED (1965–1968) - Lieutenant Colonel C.G. McDonald, ED (1968–1971) - Lieutenant Colonel J.F. Hodgson, ED (1971–1973) - Lieutenant Colonel A.A. Partridge, ED (1973–1976) - Lieutenant Colonel W.R.A. Farr (1977–1978) - Lieutenant Colonel P.W. Groves, ED (1979–1982) - Lieutenant Colonel L.B. Kelly, RFD ED (1982–1985) - Lieutenant Colonel D.G. Bell, RFD (1986–1987) ## Lineage The following represents the 2nd Battalion's lineage: - 1860–1870: 1st Regiment, NSW Rifle Volunteers (Newcastle Volunteer Rifle Corps); - 1870–1876: The Northern Battalion Volunteer Rifles; - 1876–1878: The Northern Rifle Regiment; - 1878–1884: New South Wales Volunteer Infantry, Northern District; - 1884–1901: 4th Admin Regiment, NSW Volunteer Infantry Northern Districts; - 1901–1903: 4th Infantry Regiment; - 1903–1908: 4th Australian Infantry Regiment; - 1908–1912: 1st Battalion, 4th Australian Infantry Regiment; - 1912–1914: 16th Infantry (Newcastle Battalion); - 1914: 2nd Battalion (AIF) raised; - 1915–1918: 15th Infantry; - 1918–1919: 2nd Battalion, 2nd Infantry Regiment; - 1919: 2nd Battalion (AIF) disbanded; - 1921–1927: 2nd Battalion; - 1927–1929: 2nd Battalion (The City of Newcastle Regiment); - 1929–1933: 2nd/41st Battalion; - 1933–1939: 2nd/35th Battalion; - 1939–1943: 2nd (The City of Newcastle) Battalion; - 1939: 2/2nd Battalion (2nd AIF) raised; - 1943–1945: 41st/2nd Australian Infantry Battalion (AIF); - 1945–1946: 41st/2nd Australian Infantry Battalion (AIF) and 2/2nd Battalion (2nd AIF) disbanded; - 1948–1960: 2nd Infantry Battalion (The City of Newcastle Regiment); - 1960–1965: 'C' Company (City of Newcastle Company), 2nd Battalion, The Royal New South Wales Regiment; - 1965–1987: 2nd Battalion, The Royal New South Wales Regiment; - 1987–present: 2nd/17th Battalion, The Royal New South Wales Regiment.
20,737,015	Television in Croatia	1,166,262,961	Overview of television in Croatia	[ "Lists of television channels by country", "Television in Croatia" ]	Television in Croatia was first introduced in 1956. As of 2012, there are 10 nationwide and 21 regional DVB-T (Digital Video Broadcasting – Terrestrial) television channels, and there are more than 30 other channels either produced in the Republic of Croatia or produced for the Croatian market and broadcast via IPTV (Internet Protocol television), cable, or satellite television. The electronic communications market in Croatia is regulated by the Croatian Regulatory Authority for Network Industries (HAKOM), which issues broadcast licenses and monitors the market. The DVB-T and satellite transmission infrastructure is developed and maintained by the state-owned company Odašiljači i veze (OiV). The first television signal broadcast in Croatia occurred in 1939 during the Zagreb Fair, where Philips showcased its television system. The first regular broadcasts started in 1956, when Television Zagreb was established as the first TV station in the Yugoslav Radio Television system. Color broadcasts began in 1972. Coverage and the number of channels grew steadily, and by the 2000s there were four channels with nationwide coverage in Croatia. DVB-T signal broadcasts began in 2002, and in 2010 a full digital switchover was completed. During that period, the IPTV, cable, and satellite television markets grew considerably, and by 2011 only 60.7 percent of households received DVB-T television only; the remainder were subscribed to IPTV, cable, and satellite TV in addition or as the sole source of TV reception. As of January 2012, DVB-T is broadcast in three multiplexes, while the territory of Croatia is divided into nine main allotment regions and smaller local allotments corresponding to major cities. High-definition television (HDTV) is broadcast only through IPTV, although HDTV DVB-T test programming was broadcast from 2007 to 2011. A DVB-T2 test broadcast was conducted in 2011. As of November 2019, all national channels are transmitted via three DVB-T and one DVB-T2 (HEVC/H.265) MUXes. After June 2020, DVB-T MUXes will be switched off, and all channels will be distributed via two DVB-T2 (HEVC/H.265) MUXes. Television in Croatia, as well as other media in the country, are criticised for lack of balance of global issues and trends on one hand and national topics covered on the other. All major television networks in Croatia are generally thought to be under excessive influence of commercialism. State-owned Croatian Radiotelevision is required to produce and broadcast educational programmes, documentaries, and programmes aimed at the diaspora and national minorities in Croatia. Television in Croatia is considered to be important in avenue for NGOs communicating their concerns to the public and to criticising the Croatian authorities. Television is the primary source of information for 57% of the Croatian population. ## Analog television ### Introduction of television Zagreb was one of the first European cities where television pictures were broadcast. Beginning on 26 August 1939, the Zagreb Fair featured a Philips television system, operated for short periods each day of the exhibition (until 4 September). The Philips television, consisting of a transmitter and several receivers, was operated by Eric Klaas de Vries in the Dutch pavilion at the fair. The fair newspaper announced the event as the first, after television broadcasts in London and Berlin. The programming consisted of comedy, opera, music performances, and the first TV news broadcast in Croatia. The first TV broadcast after the 1939 Zagreb Fair was in 1956. A transmitter was set up on Sljeme in the Tomislavov Dom Hotel, and during the evening of 15 May 1956, Austrian and Italian channels were transmitted (including Rai 1). The first live broadcast produced locally was the transmission of the opening of the Zagreb Fair on 7 September 1956, and Television Zagreb began regular broadcasting on 29 November. ### Development The Zagreb TV centre became a member of the Yugoslav Radio Television (JRT) (an umbrella organization of television stations in Yugoslavia), acting as Eurovision Technical Centre for the JRT. In 1972, Television Zagreb began broadcasting of its second channel, and switched to airing its programming in color in 1975. The third Television Zagreb channel was introduced in 1988, and teletext service was launched in 1990. Following the breakup of Yugoslavia, Television Zagreb was renamed to Croatian Radiotelevision (HRT) and it became a member of the European Broadcasting Union; however, HRT suffered significant war damage to its infrastructure as 80 percent of its transmitters and 30 relay stations were damaged, destroyed or occupied. In October 1999, all three nationwide HRT channels started broadcasting around the clock, but in 2002, HRT 3 ceased operations. Nova TV, the first privately owned television station in Croatia, began operating in 2000. It was followed by another privately owned broadcaster, RTL Televizija, on 30 April 2004. Both Nova TV and RTL Televizija aired a single analog TV channel each. In 2002, Odašiljači i veze d.o.o. was set up as an independent company; it was previously a part of HRT and it was tasked with maintaining the television-transmission infrastructure in Croatia. In 2014, there were 26 television stations in Croatia, including the four nationwide channels. ### End of analog broadcasting The Government of Croatia decided that simulcast (simultaneous analog and digital DVB-T broadcasting of the main channels) was to cease in 2010. The territory of Croatia was split into nine digital-TV allotment regions. The analog broadcast network was switched off gradually (by the digital-TV allotment regions) beginning on 26 January 2010. The process was completed, achieving digital switchover on 5 October 2010, but geographically isolated areas were left with analog broadcasts. The last analog TV transmitter in Croatia was shut down on 30 September 2011, as DVB-T coverage was extended to 98.5 percent of households in Croatia and no less than 95 percent of households in each of the allotment regions. Approximately 6,000 households were left with no reception of DVB-T or analog TV broadcasts. ## DVB-T television The first trial broadcasts of DVB-T signals began in May 2002 in Zagreb, and in 2008, the government developed the Analogue to Digital Television Broadcasting Switchover Strategy for the Republic of Croatia. In July 2008, this Government of Croatia announced that 106 million kuna (c. 14.1 million euros) were earmarked for the purpose. The government-subsidized purchase of DVB-T receivers, distributing discount coupons worth 75 kuna (c. 10 euros) to subscribers of the HRT. The first two multiplexes (MUX A and MUX B) were introduced in April 2009, with the third (MUX D) introduced in July 2010. On 5 October 2010, the switch to DVB-T was virtually complete, as all major analog TV transmitters were phased out. The DVB-T transmissions in Croatia are all standard-definition, MPEG-2. MUX A is available to more than 98.5 percent of the population of Croatia, and both MUX A and MUX B are available to more than 95 percent of population in each multiplex-allotment region. MUX D is available to approximately 90 percent of the population of Croatia, and at least 70 percent of the population in each of the allotment regions. There are 897,496 households (60.7 percent) in Croatia receiving DVB-T television only. The terrestrial television infrastructure in Croatia is operated by Odašiljači i veze d.o.o. (OIV). The company was established as an independent entity in 2002, when a division developing and maintaining electronic communications infrastructure was removed from the HRT corporate system. As of January 2012, OIV operates and maintains 222 television transmitters and broadcast relay stations. There are nine main regions of digital TV allotments (encompassing larger portions of Croatia) and additional, geographically small allotment areas designed for local broadcasters (typically covering a single city). The main DVB-T television allotment regions are assigned markings D1–D9. The D1 region encompasses Osijek-Baranja and Vukovar-Syrmia counties, as well as parts of Brod-Posavina County east of Oprisavci. The D2 region covers the rest of Brod-Posavina County, Požega-Slavonia and Virovitica-Podravina counties and nearly all of Bjelovar-Bilogora County, except for an area north of the city of Bjelovar and part of Sisak-Moslavina County around the town of Novska. The D3 region includes a part of Bjelovar-Bilogora County not encompassed by the D2 region, as well as the territories of Koprivnica-Križevci, Varaždin and Međimurje counties. The D4 region includes Sisak-Moslavina County (except the area around Novska), Krapina-Zagorje and Zagreb counties, the city of Zagreb and the northern part of Karlovac County (including Karlovac and Duga Resa). The D5 region covers Istria County and Primorje-Gorski Kotar County (except parts of the county east of Ravna Gora and the area around Novalja on the island of Pag), but it includes the coastal areas of Lika-Senj County opposite the islands of Krk and Rab. The D6 region encompasses parts of Primorje-Gorski Kotar and Lika-Senj counties outside the D4 and D5 regions, except for parts of the latter (south of Lovinac) and coastal parts of the same county opposite the island of Pag. Those two areas are a part of the D7 region, along with Zadar and Šibenik-Knin counties. The D8 region includes the entire Split-Dalmatia County as well as parts of Dubrovnik-Neretva County around Ploče and Metković, a part of Pelješac peninsula west of Dubrava and the islands of Korčula and Lastovo. The D9 region encompasses the rest of Dubrovnik-Neretva County. There are also 12 local DVB-T television allotment regions, covering specific cities and their immediate surroundings. Those are d11 in Osijek, d21 in Slavonski Brod, d31 covering Varaždin and Čakovec, d44 encompassing Zagreb and Velika Gorica, d45 in Jastrebarsko, d46 covering Karlovac and Duga Resa, d53 encompassing Rijeka, Crikvenica, Novi Vinodolski and most of the island of Krk, d54 in Pula and Rovinj, d71 in Zadar, d72 in Šibenik, d82 covering Split, Trogir, Omiš, the island of Šolta and a large part of the island of Brač, and d91 in Dubrovnik. A local multiplex named "L-ZA" started in 2015 on UHF 41 in the town of Sveta Nedelja, transmitting local channel TV Zapad. When DVB-T broadcasting started in Italy in December 2010, interference was observed in northwest parts of Istria, and later in areas around Zadar and Šibenik. The interference was caused by the use of frequencies assigned to Croatia by Italian transmitters and excessive transmitter power. A complaint was filed by the Croatian regulator of the DVB-T market, the Croatian Regulatory Authority for Network Industries (HAKOM), with the Italian authorities. OIV installed additional transmitters in the affected areas to strengthen its signal coverage and reduce interference by February 2011 at a cost of 1 million kuna (c. 133,000 euros). Although Italian Minister of Economic Development Paolo Romani announced in August 2011 that the problems should be resolved shortly (a transmitter causing interference was shut down and the power of several others was reduced), the situation was not completely resolved throughout 2011 and the International Telecommunication Union's Radio Regulations Board became involved in the process. In the meantime, other technical solutions were devised and implemented (in addition to the emergency transmitters) in order to improve digital-television-signal reception. ### Nationwide channels As of May 2014, there are eleven nationwide free-to-air DVB-T television channels, with HRT's four channels, RTL Televizija operating three, Nova TV operating two and the remaining two operated by the Croatian Olympic Committee and Author d.o.o. companies and the government's Central State Administrative Office for e-Croatia. All ten DVB-T television channels are free-to-air and privately owned, except for HRT's channels and the Moja uprava channel (which are publicly owned broadcasters). Doma TV is part of the Nova TV group. Since 2007 television audience measurement is conducted by the Nielsen Company using 1,086 peoplemeters, and it is applied to terrestrial, cable and satellite TV. As of January 2012 HRT, RTL Televizija and Nova TV are using the service. HRT 1, Nova TV and RTL Televizija channels' programmes are not specialized and comprise news, a variety of scripted and unscripted entertainment, as well as documentaries. HRT2, Doma TV and RTL 2 channels, carry similar type of programmes, except for absence of news. In addition, Croatian Radiotelevision is legally required to produce and broadcast programmes covering education of youths, aimed at the Croatian diaspora, national minorities in Croatia, preservation of cultural and natural heritage, protection of the environment, promotion of democracy and civil society, and support national production of films, television programme and music. Other nationwide channels are specialized providing informational programmes, covering sports or music. ### Regional and local channels There are 21 regional (or local) DVB-T television channels operating in Croatia in MUX D. The number of channels broadcasting in individual regions varies from one to four, while some local DVB-T television local-allotment regions are vacant as of December 2011. Four regional (or local) television channels are broadcast in more than one allotment region. All regional and local channels are free-to-air. As of January 2012 Z1 televizija is measuring its audience with the Nielsen Company's peoplemeters for terrestrial, cable and satellite TV. ### HDTV and DVB-T2 Experimental high-definition television (HDTV) broadcasting began in Zagreb in March 2007; it was expanded to Split, Rijeka and Osijek in 2008. Experimental broadcasting in HD ended in February 2011. There were two experimental HDTV channels, operated by Croatian Radiotelevision and Nova TV. Pursuant to the digital television switchover developed by the Government of Croatia, broadcasting of DVB-T HDTV channels was conducted in MPEG-4. On 11 October 2011 experimental DVB-T2 broadcasting began in Zagreb, using H.264/MPEG-4 AVC coding and a conditional access system. ### Multiplexes There are three active multiplexes (MUX) in Croatia. MUX A and MUX B are reserved for nationwide channels, and MUX D is used for local and nationwide channels. MUX A broadcasts HRT 1, HRT 2, RTL and Nova TV channels. MUX B broadcasts HRT 3, HRT 4, RTL 2 and Doma TV. MUX D broadcasts three nationwide channels Sportska televizija (SPTV), RTL Kockica and Croatian Music Channel (CMC) in addition to local TV channels. Competition for two channels in MUX B was announced in July 2010, and HAKOM received offers for the following channels: RTL 2, Doma TV, OBN and KN. Finally, licenses were given to RTL 2 and Doma TV. RTL2 and Doma TV began broadcasting on 2 January 2011. Licences for broadcasting in the national segment of Mux D were given to Croatian Music Channel (CMC), Sportska Televizija (owned by the Croatian Olympic Committee) and KN in December 2010. They started broadcasting in late March and early April 2011. KN was originally broadcast in MUX B; as holder of a license for a testing period, they won an experimental 6-month period license (and later switched to MUX D, which carries both local and nationwide services simultaneously). MUX B also carries two new channels—HRT 3 and HRT 4. The two are expected to begin broadcasting by the end of 2012. ## IPTV, cable and satellite television IPTV is recording rapid market growth; between 2009 and 2010, the number of households subscribed to an IPTV service grew by 23 percent to nearly 300,000. In terms of IPTV density Croatia is the fifth-ranked market in the world, trailing only Singapore, Hong Kong, Cyprus and Estonia. The number rose further by the third quarter of 2011 to a total of 349,138 households, representing 23.6 percent of Croatian households. At the same time there were 144,439 households with cable television connections and 104,635 households with satellite television reception (representing 9.8 and 7.1 percent of households in Croatia, respectively). The leading IPTV provider in Croatia is T-Hrvatski Telekom (T-HT) with its MaxTV service, while A1 Hrvatska (until 1 October 2018 Vipnet)-owned B.net is the leading cable-television provider in the country (since 1 October 2018 B.net has become part of A1 IPTV). Since 2009, some providers offer HDTV reception of IPTV channels. Other IPTV providers include Optima, Iskon (owned by T-HT), Amis etc. The IPTV and satellite-TV (Maxtv SAT, A1 SAT, Total TV etc.) providers normally carry all channels otherwise available in DVB-T, with additional channels (produced in Croatia and abroad) available through various subscription plans. A significant proportion of the foreign channels are localized through dubbing (rarely) or subtitles. The two largest IPTV and cable TV providers offer 31 channels produced in Croatia (or specifically for Croatia), in addition to those broadcasting in DVB-T. Viewership of cable and satellite TV channels broadcast by HRT, RTL, Nova TV and Z1 Televizija is measured by Nielsen Company peoplemeters. ### Dedicated satellite channels HRT broadcasts dedicated satellite channels for Europe and the Middle East, North and South America, Australia and New Zealand; viewing the channels requires a subscription. Channels broadcast to Europe and the Middle East via the Eutelsat 16A satellite (using Viaccess conditional access) are HRT 1, HRT 2, HRT 3 and HRT 4. The satellite channels are also used to transmit three free-to-air radio channels produced by HRT. ## Market regulation The television industry in Croatia is regulated by the Croatian Regulatory Authority for Network Industries (HAKOM). HAKOM was established by the Electronic Communications Act of 26 June 2008; pursuant to Article 5 of the act, HAKOM is tasked with promoting and safeguarding market competition and the interests of service users in the field of electronic communication services and infrastructure, while contributing to the development of the internal market of the European Union. HAKOM's goals include ensuring sustainable development of the electronic communications market at affordable prices for consumers, providing fair conditions for return on investment in the market and contributing to the quality of life in Croatia. Further regulation of the television is performed by the Electronic Media Council, which enacts mandatory regulation applying to both state-run and privately owned broadcasters based in Croatia. One such regulation, aimed at protection of minors, restricts depictions of violence, sexual intercourse, profanity, use of intoxicating substances and tobacco and other scenes which may be harmful to development of minors between seven in the morning and nine, ten or eleven in the evening, depending on rating of specific programme—advising that the programme is not suitable for persons under 12, 15 or 18 years of age respectively. The restriction does not apply to educational, documentary, science or news programming. HAKOM grants, evaluates and revokes broadcast licenses for all forms of electronic communications in Croatia, approves mergers of communications-industry companies, imposes fines on those who are found to be in breach of applicable regulation and conducts constant supervision of the industry. ## Language localisation National legislation requires that all television programmes broadcasts in Croatia are made in Croatian or with appropriate translations either using dubbing or subtitling. In general, all foreign programming is subtitled, except for cartoons and narrated parts of documentaries and similar programmes. An attempt to change this was made by Nova TV in 2006, when a soap opera was dubbed, but the move provoked negative response from viewers and critics, causing the experiment to be abandoned. The legislation does not provide for mutually intelligible languages. That led to formal requests made by the Electronic Media Council demanding language localisation of television programmes made in Serbian. Ultimately, that issue was resolved through subtitling using teletext service normally used for closed captioning. ## Social impact Television in Croatia, as all other media in the country are criticized for lack of balance of global issues and trends on one hand and national topics covered on the other. All major television networks in Croatia are generally thought to be under excessive influence of commercialism. This is viewed through international ownership structures of the privately owned television broadcasters having little regard for promotion of national culture and social issues, as well as through efforts of the state-run HRT to attract advertisers through programming that is thought to appeal to the viewers the best in spite of regulation of programming content and restricted advertising at HRT. The HRT is limited by a special legislation regulating that broadcaster to four minutes of advertising in prime time period between 6 and 10 in the evening. On the other hand, HRT receives income from a fee charged to owners of television sets in Croatia in the amount of 1.5% of average monthly net wage in Croatia. In 2012, the fee charged is 80 kunas (c. 10.60 Euros). In 2010, annual income of HRT generated by the fee amounted to 1.2 billion kunas (c. 160 million Euros). Even though social impact of television in Croatia is considered to be imperfect and that of variable quality, television is important in the society because it offers a way for non-governmental organizations to communicate their concerns to the public and to criticize the government and other aspects of politics of Croatia. Television is the most widespread source of information in Croatia—on average 57% of the population of Croatia uses television as their primary source of information. That percentage varies significantly by geographic region—from 43% in Zagreb and areas surrounding the capital to 79% in Slavonia—but in every region it surpasses all other sources of information, the second most widely used source of information being the Internet averaging at 19%. In 2014 there were 1.755 million registered television sets in the country. ## Former Channels Velebit TV - Gospić along from Čakovec TVI - Pazin K5 - Split ## See also - List of Croatian language television channels - Media of Croatia
1,001,315	HMS Venerable (1899)	1,136,555,321	Pre-dreadnought battleship of the British Royal Navy	[ "1899 ships", "London-class battleships", "Ships built in Chatham", "World War I battleships of the United Kingdom" ]	HMS Venerable (1899) was a member of the London class of pre-dreadnought battleships built for the British Royal Navy. The Londons were near repeats of the preceding Formidable-class battleships, but with modified armour protection. Venerable's main battery consisted of four 12-inch (305-mm) guns, and she had top speed of 18 knots (33 km/h; 21 mph). The ship was laid down in January 1899, was launched in November that year, and was completed in November 1902. Commissioned that month, Venerable served in the Mediterranean Fleet until 1908, and was subsequently recommissioned into the Channel Fleet. Following a major refit in 1909, she served with the Atlantic and Home Fleets. After the outbreak of World War I, she took part in defensive and offensive operations with the Channel Fleet, shelling German positions in Belgium through May 1915. Thereafter transferred to the Mediterranean, she saw service in the Dardanelles campaign in mid-1915, and then in the Adriatic through 1916. That December, she returned to England and was refitted as a depot ship in 1918. She was sold for scrap in 1921 and was ultimately broken up in 1922. ## Design The five ships of the London class were ordered in 1898 in response to increased naval construction for the Russian Navy. The design for the London class was prepared in 1898; it was a virtual repeat of the preceding Formidable class, though with significant revision to the forward armour protection scheme. Rather than a traditional transverse bulkhead for the forward end of the main belt armour, the belt was carried further forward and gradually tapered in thickness. Deck armour was also strengthened. Venerable was 431 feet 9 inches (131.60 m) long overall, with a beam of 75 ft (22.9 m) and a draught of 26 ft (7.9 m). She displaced 14,500 long tons (14,700 t) normally and up to 15,700 long tons (16,000 t) fully loaded. Her crew numbered 714 officers and enlisted men. The Formidable-class ships were powered by a pair of 3-cylinder triple-expansion engines, with steam provided by twenty Belleville boilers. The boilers were trunked into two funnels located amidships. The Formidable-class ships had a top speed of 18 knots (33 km/h; 21 mph) from 15,000 indicated horsepower (11,000 kW). Venerable had a main battery of four 12-inch (305 mm) 40-calibre guns mounted in twin-gun turrets fore and aft; these guns were mounted in circular barbettes that allowed all-around loading or elevation. The ships also mounted a secondary battery of twelve 6-inch (152 mm) 45-calibre guns mounted in casemates, in addition to sixteen 12-pounder guns and six 3-pounder guns for defence against torpedo boats. As was customary for battleships of the period, she was also equipped with four 18-inch (457 mm) torpedo tubes submerged in the hull. The tubes were placed on the broadside, abreast of the main battery barbettes. Venerable had an armoured belt that was 9 inches (229 mm) thick; the transverse bulkheads on the aft end of the belt was 9 to 12 in (229 to 305 mm) thick. Her main battery turrets sides were 8 to 10 in (203 to 254 mm) thick, atop 12 in (305 mm) barbettes, and the casemate battery was protected with 6 in of Krupp steel. Her conning tower had 14 in (356 mm) thick sides as well. She was fitted with two armoured decks, 1 and 2.5 in (25 and 64 mm) thick, respectively. ## Service history ### Pre-World War I HMS Venerable was laid down at Chatham Dockyard on 2 January 1899, launched on 2 November 1899, and completed in November 1902. After many delays due to difficulties with her machinery contractors, HMS Venerable commissioned on 12 November 1902 by Captain George Edwin Patey for service as Second Flagship, Rear Admiral, Mediterranean Fleet. She left Chatham on 20 November, called at Sheerness to adjust compasses, and arrived at the Mediterranean the following month. In 1903, she had an experimental fire control system for evaluation. During her Mediterranean service, she ran aground outside Algiers harbor, suffering slight hull damage, and underwent a refit at Malta in 1906–1907. On 12 August 1907 she was relieved as flagship by battleship HMS Prince of Wales, and her Mediterranean service ended on 6 January 1908, when she paid off at Chatham Dockyard. Venerable recommissioned on 7 January 1908 for Channel Fleet service. She paid off at Chatham for an extensive refit in February 1909, during which her 3-pounder guns were removed and a rangefinder was installed on her foremast. The refit complete, Venerable recommissioned on 19 October 1909 for service in the Atlantic Fleet. On 13 May 1912 she transferred to the Second Home Fleet at the Nore, and went into the commissioned reserve with a nucleus crew as part of the 5th Battle Squadron. In 1913, her anti-torpedo nets were removed and a pair of searchlights were installed on her forward bridge. ### World War I When World War I broke out in August 1914, the 5th Battle Squadron was assigned to the Channel Fleet, based at Portland. Returning to full commission, Venerable patrolled the English Channel, and on 25 August 1914 covered the movement of the Portsmouth Marine Battalion to Ostend, Belgium, In October 1914, Venerable was attached to the Dover Patrol for bombardment duties in support of Allied troops fighting on the front. She bombarded German positions along the Belgian coast between Westende and Lombardsijde from 26 to 30 October 1914 during a German attack on Belgian defences in the Battle of the Yser; she also served as the flagship of the Commander-in-Chief, Dover Patrol, Rear Admiral Sir Horace Hood, from 27 to 29 October. On the 27th, German field guns were moved up close to shore, which forced most of the light vessels to retreat, though the heavily armoured Venerable remained on station until reports of a German U-boat in the area prompted Hood to withdraw to Dunkirk. Venerable was back on station on 28 October, along with the gunboat Bustard and three monitors, to blunt another German attack. Later that day, she ran lightly aground on an uncharted sandbank, but was at that time out of range of German guns and was able to free herself with help from Brilliant at high tide. By the end of the month, the flooding from the opened sluices around Nieuwpoort had blocked the German advance, diverting German attacks further inland, out of range of Venerable's guns. The German guns along the coast had by this time been hidden, which made it far more difficult to engage them with naval gunfire, so Venerable was recalled. On 3 November, she was detached to support East Coast Patrols during the German raid on Yarmouth, though she did not see action with German warships. The 5th Battle Squadron transferred from Portland to Sheerness on 14 November 1914 to guard against a possible German invasion of the United Kingdom. The squadron returned to Portland on 30 December 1914. Venerable, in company with the tender Excellent and escorting destroyers and minesweepers, again bombarded German positions near Westende on 11 March 1915. The bombardment was meant to divert German attention during the British attack at the Battle of Neuve Chapelle. She returned again on 10 May in an attempt to suppress German artillery that had been shelling Dunkirk, but German counter-battery fire prevented Venerable from dropping anchor or achieving any success. On 12 May 1915, Venerable was ordered to the Dardanelles to replace the battleship HMS Queen Elizabeth in the Dardanelles Campaign. She steamed to the Mediterranean with the battleship Exmouth; the British hoped to take advantage of the experience both ships' crews had gained in bombarding coastal positions in Belgium. From 14 August 1915 to 21 August 1915, she supported Allied attacks on Ottoman positions at Suvla Bay. By the 21st, weather conditions worsened significantly, preventing the ships from being able to observe targets. In October, Venerable arrived at Gibraltar for a refit. Emerging from the refit in December 1915, she transferred to the Adriatic Sea to reinforce the Italian Navy against the Austro-Hungarian Navy, serving there until December 1916. Venerable then returned to the United Kingdom, arriving at Portsmouth Dockyard on 19 December 1916, where she was laid up. In February and March 1918 she was refitted there as a depot ship, and she moved to Portland on 27 March 1918 to serve as a depot ship for minelaying trawlers. She was attached to the Northern Patrol through August 1918, then to the Southern Patrol from September to December 1918. Venerable paid off into care and maintenance at Portland at the end of December 1918. She was placed on the disposal list there in May 1919 and on the sale list on 4 February 1920. She was sold to Stanlee Shipbreaking Company for scrapping on 4 June 1920, resold to Slough Trading Company in 1922, then resold again to a German firm in the middle of 1922. She was towed to Germany to be broken up.
41,177,050	Daruvar Agreement	1,094,166,978	Document negotiated by Croatian and Republic of Serbian Krajina	[ "1993 in Croatia", "1993 in politics", "Croatian War of Independence", "Daruvar", "February 1993 events in Europe" ]	The Daruvar Agreement (Serbo-Croatian: Daruvarski sporazum) was a document negotiated by Croatian and Republic of Serbian Krajina (RSK) local authorities in the United Nations Protected Area (UNPA) for the SAO Western Slavonia, also known as Sector West on 18 February 1993, during the Croatian War of Independence. The agreement provided for the improvement of water and electrical power supply, the return of refugees to their homes and the opening of transport routes spanning Sector West and connecting Croatian Army-controlled areas near towns of Nova Gradiška and Novska. It also provided a framework for the further improvement of living conditions of the population both in the Croatian- and RSK-controlled portions of Sector West. The agreement was named after Daruvar, the site of its signing. The Daruvar Agreement, mediated by the head of the United Nations (UN) Civil Affairs in Sector West Gerard Fischer, was negotiated in secrecy. When the central RSK authorities in Knin learned of the arrangement, the signatories on behalf of the RSK were sacked from their official posts and arrested. The agreement itself was labeled as treasonous by the central RSK authorities. Fischer and other UN officials, who were involved in mediation of the agreement, were criticised by the UN for being excessively assertive in the matter. Fischer soon left the area. ## Background In November, Croatia, Serbia and the Yugoslav People's Army (Jugoslovenska Narodna Armija – JNA) agreed upon the Vance plan, designed to halt combat operations in the Croatian War of Independence and allow the negotiation of a political settlement. Besides the ceasefire, the plan entailed protection of civilians in specific areas, designated as United Nations Protected Areas (UNPAs), and UN peacekeepers in Croatia—United Nations Protection Force (UNPROFOR). The ceasefire came into effect on 3 January 1992. Shortly after the Vance plan was accepted, the European Community announced its decision to grant diplomatic recognition to Croatia on 15 January 1992, while the Serb- and JNA-held areas within Croatia were organised as the Republic of Serbian Krajina (RSK). Despite the Geneva Accord requiring an immediate withdrawal of JNA personnel and equipment from Croatia, the JNA stayed behind for seven to eight months. When its troops eventually pulled out, JNA left their equipment to the RSK. As a consequence of organisational problems and breaches of ceasefire, the UNPROFOR, did not start to deploy until 8 March. The UNPROFOR took two months to fully assemble in the UNPAs. The UNPROFOR was tasked with demilitarisation of the UNPAs, ceasefire maintenance, monitoring of local police and creating conditions for return of internally displaced persons and refugees. Those comprised more than 300,000 Croats who were exiled from the RSK-controlled territory, and 20,000 Serbs who fled the areas of western Slavonia captured by the Croatian Army (Hrvatska vojska – HV) in Operations Swath-10, Papuk-91 and Hurricane-91 in late 1991. A part of western Slavonia, encompassing an area extending approximately 90 by 45 kilometres (56 by 28 miles), was designated as the UNPA of Western Slavonia or Sector West by the peace plan. Unlike other UNPAs, the RSK controlled only a part of the area—approximately a third of the UNPA located in the south—centred on the town of Okučani. The RSK-held area included a section of the Zagreb–Belgrade motorway. The UNPROFOR deployed to Sector West thought the HV would attack the area to control the motorway. In response, the UNPROFOR developed Operation Backstop aimed at defending against the HV attack, assuming that its main axis would be aligned with the motorway. ## Cooperation schemes Division of Sector West into Croatian- and RSK-controlled areas fragmented the market for locally grown agricultural produce, and produce processing plants were rendered inaccessible to most farmers. Furthermore, the RSK-controlled area of Sector West suffered from severe shortage of fuel and electricity, while the Croatian-held Pakrac was cut off from water supply systems fed by springs in the RSK-held area to the south of the town. The situation led the head of the UN Civil Affairs in Sector West, Gerard Fischer, and Argentine General Carlos Maria Zabala, commanding officer of the UNPROFOR in Sector West, to propose a degree of cooperation between local authorities on both sides in the area. Their efforts resulted in a scheme where grain crops grown in the RSK-held part of Sector West were milled in the Croatian-controlled areas, and the supply of potable water to Pakrac was exchanged for electricity supplied from Croatia to the southern portion of Sector West. Fischer also obtained approval for the limited return of refugees from local authorities. The scheme involved up to 2,500 refugees who would be allowed to rebuild their homes, funded by the Austrian government. The funds, in the amount of 1.3 million dollars, were obtained through Michael Platzer, Special Assistant to the Director-General of the United Nations Office at Vienna. ### Formal agreement Fischer attempted to gain wider support for the cooperation schemes already in place and extend their scope in Sector West. Fischer also assured the local authorities of the RSK that such a move would prevent renewed fighting in the area. The result of Fischer's efforts was the Daruvar Agreement. The agreement, signed in Daruvar on 18 February, encompassed the reconstruction of water and electrical power supply networks, the reopening of the Zagreb–Belgrade motorway section in Sector West for non-commercial traffic, the facilitation of the Novska–Nova Gradiška railway, the repair of telecommunication lines, the establishment of a joint commission tasked with normalisation of living conditions in Sector West, the return of all refugees to their homes, the access to property owned by civilians across the ceasefire line, and further meetings with local authorities to discuss further cooperation. On behalf of the RSK local authorities, the agreement was signed by Veljko Džakula, Dušan Ećimović, Milan Vlaisavljević, Mladen Kulić, Đorđe Lovrić and Milan Radaković. At the time, Džakula held the position of deputy prime minister, while Ećimović was a government minister in the RSK. Signatories on behalf of the Croatian local authorities were Zlatko Kos, Zdravko Sokić, Ivan Volf, Vladimir Delač and Želimir Malnar. Fischer signed the agreement as a witness. According to the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia testimony given by Džakula at the trial of Milan Martić, Ivan Milas was present at the signing of the agreement as a representative of the Government of Croatia, accompanied by Joško Morić, Croatian Deputy Interior Minister. According to Džakula, no effort was made to conceal the signing of the agreement, even though the negotiations beforehand were kept secret. ## Aftermath The central RSK authorities in Knin learned of the agreement through a report filed by the 18th Corps of the Army of the Republic of Serb Krajina on 26 February, eight days after it was signed. The main opposition to the agreement came from Milan Martić, the RSK Interior Minister. Leadership of the ruling Serb Democratic Party accused Džakula of handing the RSK territory to Croatia. The RSK leadership considered the Daruvar Agreement tantamount to admission of economic unfeasibility of the RSK and an act of treason. District council of the RSK-controlled western Slavonia condemned the agreement because it was enacted only in Croatian, and failed to note the existence of the RSK or its administrative divisions. Džakula and Ećimović were sacked from their government positions, and from the positions of regional authority in the RSK-held western Slavonia. The other three RSK signatories were dismissed from their official posts as well. At local elections held in May 1993 to fill the vacated posts, Džakula was elected to serve as the Mayor of Pakrac municipality. On 21 September, Džakula and Ećimović were arrested, and taken to Knin prison and then to Glina while the investigation was in progress. On 3 December, they were released only to learn that the arrest of the two, and Kulić, was ordered days later. In order to evade the arrest, the three fled the RSK to Serbia. On 4 February 1994, Džakula was abducted in Belgrade by the RSK agents and taken back to the RSK. The RSK's response to the agreement ended Fischer's efforts. Moreover, Fischer, Zabala and Platzer were criticised by the UN, citing their excessive assertiveness in the matter. Fischer left Croatia, and Jordanian General Shabshough replaced Zabala in March. The Zagreb–Belgrade motorway was reopened in December 1994 through an agreement between the governments of the RSK and Croatia. However, a series of armed incidents in late April 1995 led to a Croatian military intervention and the capture of the portion of Sector West previously controlled by the RSK in Operation Flash in early May. ## See also - Erdut Agreement
10,740,793	Rakie Ayola	1,150,840,330	Welsh actress (born 1968)	[ "1968 births", "20th-century Welsh actresses", "21st-century Welsh actresses", "Actresses from Cardiff", "Alumni of the Royal Welsh College of Music & Drama", "Best Supporting Actress BAFTA Award (television) winners", "Black British actresses", "Living people", "Welsh people of Nigerian descent", "Welsh people of Sierra Leonean descent", "Welsh people of Yoruba descent", "Welsh television actresses", "Yoruba actresses" ]	Rakie Olufunmilayo Ayola (born May 1968) is a Welsh actress known for her work in theatre and television. Ayola has appeared in television shows including Black Mirror, Noughts + Crosses, Doctor Who, Silent Witness and EastEnders, a number of Shakespearean theatrical performances and feature films such as Great Moments in Aviation, The i Inside and Sahara. She appeared as Kyla Tyson in the BBC medical drama Holby City from its eighth to eleventh series. In 2017, Ayola took over the role of Hermione Granger in the West End production of Harry Potter and the Cursed Child. In 2020, she won the Best Female Actor in a Play award at the Black British Theatre Awards for her performance in On Bear Ridge for National Theatre Wales and the Royal Court. In 2021, she won a BAFTA for her role in the BBC One drama Anthony. Ayola is an advocate of increased ethnic representation in the entertainment industry, and in 2001 founded her own production company, producing the short film Persephone's Playground for the Cannes Film Festival in order to further her campaign. ## Early life Ayola was born in Cardiff in May 1968 to a Sierra Leonean mother and a Nigerian father. She was raised by her mother's cousin and his wife in Ely, Cardiff. Ayola's heritage means she is Yoruba by descent, although she does not speak the language. Ayola studied at Windsor Clive Primary and Glan Ely High School, and was a member of the Orbit Youth Theatre, South Glamorgan Youth Theatre, South Glamorgan Youth Choir and the National Youth Theatre of Wales. She left high school before sitting her A Levels in order to pursue her ambition of becoming an actress. She explains: "I've always wanted to act. I decided at 16 I wanted to make my living acting, but even if I couldn't, I’d be in an amateur theatre company." She then went on to attend the Royal Welsh College of Music and Drama, studying for a three-year acting diploma. Her first acting role was for the Welsh Eisteddfod when still at primary school, playing a lady-in-waiting at the court of King Arthur. Ayola has stated that it was Barbra Streisand's performance in Hello, Dolly! that inspired her to act as a child, though credits her adoptive mother with encouraging her to act professionally. Ayola's first job was selling jeans on Bessemer Road Market in Cardiff. She worked as a chambermaid whilst attending drama school, and, six weeks prior to graduation, was offered a job with the 'Made in Wales' theatre company which enabled her to obtain her union card. ## Career Ayola began her career in the theatre, performing in a number of Shakespearean plays including Twelfth Night, A Midsummer Night's Dream, The Tempest, The Merchant of Venice and Macbeth. She states of this: "Shakespeare keeps coming my way. I love the fact that I get to play people who are much more articulate than I'll ever be". In 1991 she played Hazel in John Godber's Up 'n' Under at the Sherman Theatre in Cardiff. Ayola has also performed in Twelfth Night in the lead roles of both Olivia and Viola. She explains: "The role of Viola didn't sit that well with me for some reason but Olivia makes more sense." She has also appeared in modern performances, assuming the title role of Dido, Queen of Carthage at the Globe Theatre in London in 2003, which she described as "a dream of a part". She has identified her dream role to be that of Isabella in Measure for Measure, as she once lost out on the part and would like to prove herself capable of playing it. Ayola's first film appearance was in the 1993 film Great Moments in Aviation, written by Jeanette Winterson, in which she starred alongside Jonathan Pryce and John Hurt. Variety's David Rooney said of her performance: "In the film's most naturalistic turn, Ayola is a constant pleasure to watch. Unforced and appealing, she often succeeds in pulling the fanciful fireworks momentarily back down to Earth." Ayola recalls having been daunted at the prospect of working alongside so many established names, but has said it was a "wonderful experience". Her subsequent film credits are romantic comedy The Secret Laughter of Women, set in Nigeria and starring Colin Firth, thriller The i Inside, filmed in Sully Hospital, Cardiff, and starring Ryan Phillippe, and Sahara, filmed in Morocco whilst Ayola was pregnant with her first child, starring Penélope Cruz. Ayola says of her film career: "I really like doing film [but] I've not done enough big films though to really know the difference between film and television." Ayola's first major television role was in the ITV drama Soldier Soldier, in which she starred throughout its third series in 1993 as soldier's wife Bernie Roberts. Ayola credits her chemistry with co-star Akim Mogaji, who played her on-screen husband Luke Roberts, for winning her her audition. She went on to appear in Gone With the Wind sequel Scarlett, and star in Welsh soap opera Tiger Bay. She has spoken critically of the way the BBC treated the soap, moving it around the schedules and declining to commission a second series. She acted alongside Pauline Quirke in both Maisie Raine and Being April, deeming Quirke to be a "fantastic" actress, and one she would work alongside again "like a shot". In 1996, Ayola appeared at the National Theatre in Helen Edmundson's adaptation of Leo Tolstoy's War and Peace. In 2001, she became a presenter of the BBC Wales arts programme Double Yellow, alongside poet Owen Sheers and performance artist Mark Rees. She posed nude but for a pair of yellow rubber gloves to promote the show's launch, and was highly critical of the BBC when the show was cancelled midway through its second series. She has since concluded that "the kind of audience they would like to bring in with shows like Double Yellow aren't really into watching TV", but at the time was outspoken against the show's cancellation, stating: > I'm still really angry about Double Yellow, about how the whole thing was handled. I was very proud of it. It was something innovative from BBC Wales for a change. So it didn't find its audience, and of course you can't force people to watch it, so if it wasn't going to get a third series then fine, that happens all the time. But the way the BBC axed it mid-series was unforgivable. [...] It left everyone very, very miserable, and very dispirited, and it made me angry. [...] Also, I have to say that Double Yellow was nominated for a Bafta Cymru award. As far as I'm aware, the BBC only allowed it to be nominated for that one award, for the graphics. We had fantastic editors, sound people, camera people, and the directors were all amazing. All those professionals whose work has just been thrown out - I hate that. Ayola's other notable television appearances include the BBC psychological thriller Green-Eyed Monster (2001), soap opera EastEnders (2001), Waking the Dead (2001), London's Burning (2001), Offenders (2002), Murder in Mind (2003), The Canterbury Tales (2003) and Sea of Souls (2004). In 2008, she starred in the Doctor Who episode "Midnight", playing an intergalactic Hostess alongside David Tennant's Tenth Doctor. In 2009, Ayola starred in the CBBC musical comedy My Almost Famous Family. She stated: "The script made me laugh out loud when I read it. [...] I also like the fact that there were a lot of politically-correct boxes being ticked, but the writers and producer haven't been restrained by that. "So, instead of bowing to this altar, they've said, 'Okay, we have this family that's half-black, half-white, half-American, half-British. We have a mix of boys and girls, one character who's mixed-raced and deaf – but we're not going to be restrained by any of that. We're not going to tiptoe around Martha's disability or anything.' I liked that. It wasn't some sort of reverential hands-off approach to what we're presenting." She has also been cast in the film Dredd. In 2016 she played Amber Haleford in "Tuesday's Child", S6:E2 of Vera. She joined the cast of Harry Potter and the Cursed Child at the Palace Theatre, London from 24 May 2017, playing the role of Hermione Granger. In 2020, she won the Best Female Actor in a Play award at the Black British Theatre Awards for her performance in On Bear Ridge for National Theatre Wales and the Royal Court. ### Holby City From 7 February 2006 to 9 December 2008, Ayola starred in BBC medical drama Holby City as nurse Kyla Tyson. She had previously appeared in Holby City's sister show Casualty, and had made an appearance in Holby City's fifth series as patient Marianne Lawson. She was approached about returning to the show in a more permanent role by BBC casting director Julie Harkin. After a series of three meetings, a year after the birth of her first child, she agreed to assume the role of Kyla, despite being "nervous about signing such a long contract", stating: "I've been someone who's loved the uncertainty of acting. I've loved that one month it's Sahara in Morocco and the next I'm doing a stage play, then it's a six-part telly thing. But last summer I started thinking it would be really nice not to have to look for a job every couple of weeks. It would be nice just to stay put for a while. If I'm going to be a working mum I'd rather just be one rather than be one intermittently. And then Holby came along, so I'm very grateful". Ayola signed a three-year contract to play Kyla, and described herself as "very similar" to her character, speaking positively about her working relationship with co-stars Jaye Jacobs and Sharon D. Clarke, as well as the "dream" storylines her character was given. She said of the show: "I really love Holby and I'm surprised how much. What thrills me about Holby is that you get back what you put in. The powers that be are only as interested in you as they think you are in the job. For me it's about more than turning up and saying the lines. It's about understanding it and trying to make it better. That's actually a lot of fun. What's great is nobody says, 'Just shut up.' They want you to work at it. [...] I surprise myself sometimes because after two and a half years sometimes I see friends on the side of a poster and I think, 'do I want to do something else?' but I really like this job, I never get that awful 'dread' feeling when you really don’t want to go into work." In October 2008, Ayola announced that she would be departing from Holby City in order to have a second child, stating: "I've had a great time and I'll miss it. I made the decision purely because I was pregnant, but I wasn't really ready to put down the character of Kyla. I'm very sorry to have to let her go." ### Race and charity work Throughout her career, Ayola has been outspoken on the subject of racial discrimination in the entertainment industry. Describing her motivation, she states: "I am not an overtly political person. I just want fairness". Ayola believes that black actors receive less recognition than their white counterparts, explaining; "If you get a show with six stars and one is black you are more likely to see interviews with the five white actors. [...] They are not being sold as a reason to watch." She believes that her career would have taken her in a different direction were she not Black, stating: "I could not have played any of the roles I have played on TV if I was white [...] I am very aware of where the glass ceiling is and it's still very low and expectations are still very low". She has noted having casting directors accept the notion of characters being both black and Welsh to be a particular problem, explaining that: "I get offered a lot of very different roles, but they're never Welsh. [...] The one time I was asked to play a Welsh character on screen was in Tiger Bay for BBC Wales, but I know if that series had been called Radyr Park or Cyncoed Close I wouldn't have been in it". In 2001, Ayola founded a production company and directed a short film entitled Persephone's Playground. She presented the film at the Cannes film festival, using it as part of her campaign for increased black representation in theatre, films and television. The project, however, was largely unsuccessful, with Ayola stating: "it just made me decide that if there's anything I don't want to do, it's produce films, because I'm rubbish at it. I was so bad with the budget that I just said yes to everything and then had to worry about how to pay for things at the end." In 2008, Ayola offered her support to the Action for Southern Africa campaign Dignity! Period, aiming to provide affordable sanitary protection to Zimbabwean women. ### Awards Ayola was nominated and shortlisted for the 'Female Performance in TV' award in the 2006 Screen Nation Awards, for her role as Kyla Tyson in Holby City. She received Honourable Mention for the same role the following year, and was shortlisted again in 2008. In 2005, WalesOnline voted Ayola the 29th sexiest woman in Wales, saying of her: "One of our favourite thesps, she's black, beautiful and the term "yummy mummy" should have been made for her." She placed 40th in 2008, with the Western Mail noting: "the last 15 years have only seen Rakie become more beautiful and more successful". Ayola placed 17th in the awards in 2009. Rakie is a Trustee of ACT, the Actors' Children's Trust, and an Ambassador of PIPA, Parents in Performing Arts. ## Personal life Ayola describes herself as "optimistic, cynical, lazy, naive [and] honest". She spends her free time "watching television, the theatre, cinema, concerts, indoor wall climbing [and] keeping fit [with] yoga [and] aerobics". She has a collection of Troll dolls which she keeps under her bath. Ayola has an interest in travel, and has visited Peru and Kenya among other destinations. She has expressed a desire to visit Brazil and Argentina, and has "a romantic notion of travelling around Europe in a camper van". Ayola often speaks of her pride in her Welsh upbringing, describing herself as "an Ely girl through and through". She was made a Fellow of the Royal Welsh College of Music and Drama in 2003. During a 1998 production of Hamlet, Ayola met her future husband, fellow actor Adam Smethurst – son of Love Thy Neighbour star Jack Smethurst. They met again two years later, during a production of Twelfth Night, and went on to become a couple. The pair married in May 2004, and Ayola gave birth to their first daughter, Tansy, in July that year. Their second daughter, Shani, was born in January 2009. ## Filmography Ayola has undertaken the following roles from her screen and televisual debut in 1993, to the present day. ### Film roles ### Television roles ### Video games
32,946,785	Chan Hiang Leng Colin v Public Prosecutor	1,162,650,770	1994 Singapore High Court judgment	[ "1994 in Singapore", "1994 in case law", "Christianity and law in the 20th century", "Freedom of religion in Singapore", "High Court of Singapore case law", "Jehovah's Witnesses litigation", "Law about religion in Singapore", "Singaporean administrative case law", "Singaporean civil rights case law" ]	Chan Hiang Leng Colin v. Public Prosecutor is a 1994 judgment of the High Court of Singapore delivered by Chief Justice Yong Pung How which held that orders issued by the Government deregistering the Singapore Congregation of Jehovah's Witnesses under the and banning works published by the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society ("WTBTS") under the Undesirable Publications Act (Cap. 338, 1985 Rev. Ed.) (now ) did not violate the right to freedom of religion guaranteed by Article 15(1) of the Constitution of Singapore. The Court said that the constitutionality of the orders had to be presumed, and the appellants bore the burden of establishing that the orders were unconstitutional or ultra vires. The orders had been issued because Jehovah's Witnesses refuse to perform national service, which the Government regarded as contrary to public peace, welfare, and good order. The Court could not question the Government's exercise of discretion in this regard. Thus, the orders were laws relating to public order, which are exceptions to freedom of religion set out in Article 15(4). The Court also emphasized that any religious belief and practice which offends the sovereignty, integrity and unity of Singapore must be restrained. In reaching its decision, the High Court applied a "four walls" approach to interpreting the Constitution and declined to examine foreign case law. There is academic criticism of the fact that the Court interpreted the concept of public order broadly, and did not balance the appellants' fundamental liberties against the public interest. The High Court also held that the orders were neither irrational nor disproportionate. The order banning all WTBTS publications was reasonable as it would be administratively impossible to monitor any order other than a blanket ban. As for the deregistration order, the Court accepted that the Jehovah's Witnesses' refusal to perform national service prejudiced national security, and was thus appropriately issued in the interest of public order. The Court noted that Singapore's administrative law does not recognize proportionality as a distinct ground of judicial review. Although the appellants argued that natural justice had been breached because they had not been consulted prior to the issuance of the orders, the High Court observed that where the public interest is at stake the English courts have held that principles of natural justice must apply in a modified manner. In a 1977 case, the Court of Appeal of England and Wales held that the audi alteram partem ("hear the other side") principle did not need to be complied with if the public interest so demanded. ## Facts Jehovah's Witnesses is a Christian denomination whose members refuse to engage in any political or national practices, such as saluting the flag or performing national service. This was deemed prejudicial to the public welfare and good order of Singapore, and on 14 January 1972 the Government issued two orders to deal with the perceived threat to public order. First, Gazette Notification No. 123 of 1972 ("Order 123") was issued by the Minister for Culture pursuant to section 3 of the Undesirable Publications Act ("UPA") to ban works published by the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society ("WTBTS"), the primary corporation used by Jehovah's Witnesses. Additionally, Gazette Notification No. 179 of 1972 ("Order 179") by the Minister for Home Affairs ordered the dissolution of the Singapore Congregation of Jehovah's Witnesses pursuant to his powers under section 24(1) of the Societies Act ("SA"). The appellants were Jehovah's Witnesses. On 2 July 1992, police seized publications from them, thirteen of which turned out to be publications prohibited under Order 123. The appellants were charged under Order 123 for possession of publications by the WTBTS, an offence punishable under section 4(2) of the UPA. ## Trial judge's decision The case was first heard in the District Court. The appellants contended by way of a preliminary objection that Order 123 was ultra vires, or beyond the powers, of the UPA and contravened Article 15(1) of the Constitution of Singapore, which enshrines the right to freedom of religion. The trial judge dismissed the preliminary objection, holding that Order 123 was valid and constitutional, as the order concerned the public interest and was permitted under s 3(1) of the UPA. Accordingly, the appellants were convicted for possession of the banned publications. They appealed to the High Court against the trial judge's decision. ## High Court decision ### Grounds of appeal The appellants raised three main grounds of appeal which involved administrative and constitutional law issues: 1. Whether Order 179 was unconstitutional and ultra vires section 24(1)(a) of the SA. 2. Whether Order 123 was ultra vires section 3(1) of the UPA or unconstitutional. 3. Whether Order 123 was unreasonable and disproportionate. The appeal was heard by Chief Justice Yong Pung How, sitting as a judge of the High Court. ### Preliminary procedural issue One preliminary issue that the High Court had to determine was whether it could, in its appellate capacity, hear the appeal which involved constitutional matters. The High Court could hear the constitutional issues only in the exercise of its original jurisdiction. However, in the present case the High Court was sitting as an appellate court in a criminal proceeding. The Court, referring to Public Prosecutor v. Lee Meow Sim Jenny (1993), held that its powers were "necessarily limited to that of the Subordinate Court from which the appeal emanated". Since the District Court did not have the power to address the constitutional issues raised, the High Court could not hear the constitutional matters in its appellate capacity. However, the High Court recognized that both parties had agreed on the Court's competence in determining constitutional issues. The appellants had also raised issues regarding the constitutionality of the government orders, and if the orders proved to be invalid, it would afford the appellants a substantive defence to the criminal charges and would affect the administration of justice. Therefore, the High Court made an exception and heard the case in its appellate jurisdiction. In doing so, the Court emphasized that the constitutional issues raised were of significant importance and the facts of the case were "exceptional". ### Right to freedom of religion #### Order 179 At the outset, Chief Justice Yong emphasized that the court would not question the merits of the Minister's exercise of discretion. He stated that "there can be no enquiry as to whether it was a correct or proper exercise or whether it should or ought to have been taken". There was a presumption of constitutionality for the orders, and the burden was on the appellants to prove that they were unconstitutional or ultra vires. The appellants contended that under Article 15(4) of the Constitution restrictions on the right of freedom of religion could be imposed only if public order, public health or morality is affected, and section 24(1)(a) of the SA provides for registered organizations to be dissolved only if they threaten public peace, welfare or good order. The appellants therefore submitted that there had to be a clear and immediate danger to public order before freedom of religion can be circumscribed. Since the activities of Jehovah's Witnesses posed no such threat, the deregistration order was unconstitutional and ultra vires the SA. However, Chief Justice Yong rejected the appellants' argument and held that Order 179 was constitutional. The mere "possibility of trouble over religious beliefs" was held to be sufficient cause for the Minister to take action. To this end, the danger did not have to be clear and immediate. Chief Justice Yong held that any religious belief and practice which offended the "sovereignty, integrity and unity of Singapore" must be restrained. While there was no dispute that Jehovah's Witnesses were law-abiding citizens and their religious activities held no political agendas, their refusal to perform national service was, in the Minister's view, contrary to public peace, welfare and good order. In this regard, Chief Justice Yong considered the concerns of the assistant director of Manpower of the Ministry of Defence – if the beliefs of Jehovah's Witnesses were recognized, a select group of people would enjoy the social and economic benefits of their country without having to share the responsibility of defending the community's social and political institutions. Since the court had no capacity to review the merits of the decision and conclude whether Jehovah's Witnesses were a threat to public order, it was sufficient that the Minister had made Order 179 with the view that the existence of Jehovah's Witnesses, which forbade national service, was contrary to public peace, welfare and good order. The judge also remarked that notion of public peace, welfare and good order in the SA was similar to the concept of public order envisaged by Article 15(4) of the Constitution. Thus the rationale of maintaining public order behind Order 179 fell within the permitted categories spelt out in both section 24(1)(a) of the SA and Article 15(4) respectively. #### Order 123 Section 3(1) of the UPA confers a discretion on the Minister to prohibit any publication if he opines that it is contrary to the public interest. Again, the High Court held that it would not review the merits of the ministerial discretion. Since the Minister had decided that the existence of Jehovah's Witnesses would be "prejudicial to public welfare and good order", which clearly related to the public interest, Order 123 was based upon relevant considerations and not ultra vires section 3(1) of the UPA. Moreover, Chief Justice Yong felt that Order 123 sought to reinforce the ban on the Jehovah's Witnesses' movement effected by Order 179. Hence, the appellants' constitutional and administrative challenges were dismissed on the basis that once the executive's considerations were in relation to public interest, "there could therefore be no objection that the prohibition order was made on an irrelevant ground". #### Evaluation of the High Court's ruling on the freedom of religion ##### Minister's subjective discretion In Thio Li-ann's view, it appears that the High Court allowed the matter to be decided according to the subjective discretion of the Minister. The only explanation given for deregistration was that the Jehovah's Witnesses' refusal to perform national service was contrary to the public interest. The Court did not require the executive to elaborate on exactly how a failure to perform national service would be contrary to public interest. It accepted the executive's discretion to derogate a fundamental right without a close scrutiny of the executive's rationale and explanations. ##### Interpretation of exceptions Article 15(1) of the Constitution lays down the general principle guaranteeing the freedom of religion, while Article 15(4) allows an exception to the general principle if any religious act is contrary to any general law relating to public order, health or morality. In Chan Hiang Leng Colin, Chief Justice Yong stated that acts flowing from religious beliefs must "conform" to general legislation. This implies that legislation derogating from rights is presumptively constitutional, and Article 15(4) restrictions take precedence over fundamental liberties. Thio has criticized this, stating that "exceptions swallowing up general principles can make a mockery of any constitutional liberty". Although the Court held that the activities of the Jehovah's Witnesses were against "public order", Chief Justice Yong did not explain in detail how such activities disrupted public order. The term public order was also not defined in the judgment. Counsel for the appellants cited the Malaysian case Tan Boon Liat v. Menteri Hal Ehwal Dalam Negeri, Malaysia (1976), in which the meaning of public order in section 4(1) of the Emergency (Public Order and Prevention of Crime) Ordinance 1969 was described as follows: > The expression 'public order' is not defined anywhere but danger to human life and safety and the disturbance of public tranquillity must necessarily fall within the purview of the expression ... [T]he test to be adopted in determining whether an act affects law and order or public order is this: Does it lead to disturbance of the current of life of the community so as to amount to disturbance of the public order or does it affect merely an individual leaving the tranquility of the society undisturbed? While Chief Justice Yong acknowledged counsel's submissions, he did not address the suggested test. Instead, he discredited the "clear and immediate danger test" by remarking that for any administration to allow the possibility of trouble over religious beliefs to exist and wait until trouble is about to break out before taking action would be "pathetically naive" and "grossly incompetent". Thio has argued that this "nip it in the bud" approach spells dire consequences for the preservation of civil liberties. She notes that this "exaltation of efficiency over all other interests" creates a mala fides ("bad faith") situation which allows for the relevant decision-makers to simply point to a lower standard of a "possibility" of trouble before curtailing a constitutional liberty. She advocates that at least a certain degree of possible danger must be established prior to such a curtailment of rights. Otherwise, rights would flow from the state instead of flowing from something intrinsic to one's humanity, and this judicial treatment results in a "flimsy basis for human rights". Thio has also commented that the case seems to enunciate a more extensive conception of "public order", since this required the curtailing of a "passive threat" to a governmental policy considered to be the "cornerstone of national security". The Court did not conduct any balancing exercise in weighing the appellants' fundamental liberties against the public interest. Instead, it adopted a categorization approach in which the presence of any factor indicated in Article 15(4) of the Constitution is accepted as conclusive regardless of its impact on public order. This reveals a judicial deference to the ministerial judgment in issuing orders curtailing constitutional liberties. In this case, the "right of religious freedom was not given due weight" as there was no judicial pronouncement on the value of one's religion. Thio has commented that in Singapore, utilitarian rather than dignitarian considerations pervade judicial reasoning. By subscribing to ministerial discretion, the court abdicates its "watchdog role over individual rights". ### Unreasonableness and disproportionality The blanket ban on all WTBTS publications by Order 23 was alleged by the appellants to be unreasonable and excessive. Their counsel contended that WTBTS produced publications that were not contrary to public interest, such as the King James Bible. However, all publications by WTBTS were banned under Order 123 regardless of their content. The High Court held that the Minister's order to prohibit all publications by WTBTS was not excessive. Any order other than a total blanket order would have been impossible to monitor administratively. Therefore, the fact that the contents of one publication were unobjectionable did not, by itself, make the ban unreasonable. Chief Justice Yong also held that the orders were not irrational or disproportionate. He accepted the Minister's view that the Jehovah's Witnesses' refusal to perform national service was prejudicial to national security. The activities of the Jehovah's Witnesses had been properly restricted on the basis that they were against "public order", and the prohibition on their publications was a natural consequence in view of the "public interest". Citing Chng Suan Tze v. Minister for Home Affairs (1988), the High Court in Chan Hiang Leng Colin affirmed that disproportionality was not an independent ground of judicial review, and any issue of proportionality was subsumed under the ground of irrationality. Therefore, the Court gave no consideration to whether the publication ban was unreasonable or over-inclusive. Thio Li-ann has criticized the Court's prioritization of administrative convenience and efficiency over individual fundamental rights. She has argued that this has allowed "state interests to trump rights rather than vice versa". This means that so long as the Minister's motives for the orders were "based on national security considerations and good order, the nature of the ban or its scope is apparently not reviewable". This "manifested a clear bias towards bureaucratic concerns", and gave the Minister excessive power. Thio has also questioned the impossibility of ascertaining whether each WTBTS publication constitutes a threat to public order. She was personally informed by Colin Chan, the lead appellant in the case, that the Jehovah's Witnesses' publishing arm publishes only three works a year. Hence, in the case "there appears to be an overriding concern for efficiency over fairness". ### Fettering of discretion The appellants contended that Minister had fettered his discretion when making Order 123. They alleged that publications had been banned because of the deregistration of the Jehovah's Witnesses and not because Minister had been satisfied of their undesirability. Chief Justice Yong, referring to the affidavit of the Minister for Culture, held that Order 123 was made after the Government had been satisfied that the teachings and beliefs contained in publications of the WTBTS were contrary to the public interest. The Minister had viewed the teachings of Jehovah's Witnesses as being prejudicial to the Government's nation-building efforts, and hence he had rightly exercised his discretion to prohibit such publications. ### Breach of natural justice One of the submissions raised by the appellants was that the prohibition and deregistration orders were made in breach of the natural justice principle of audi alteram partem, or "hear the other side". This is regarded as a cardinal principle of natural justice, requiring that no person shall be condemned unless he or she has been given prior notice of the allegations against him or her and a fair opportunity to be heard. In general, Article 12(1) of the Constitution protects rights such as this. Audi alteram partem has been referred to by the Court of Appeal as one of the two rules that make up the administrative law rules of natural justice, the other being nemo iudex in causa sua ("no man a judge in his own cause"). The appellants contended that the orders had been made without any notice or hearing, and they were not given an opportunity to explain or correct the allegations against them. This was contrary to natural justice, which requires a person to be given the right to be heard before his or her interest is violated. As natural justice is an essential aspect of both the rule of law and the equal treatment by the law of all persons, the appellants argued that the deprivation of their right to a fair hearing was a violation of Article 12(1) of the Constitution, which affords to all persons equality before the law and equal protection of the law. First, the High Court held, upon an examination of section 3 of the UPA and section 24(1) of the SA, that there was no express requirement for the Minister to have given the affected parties a right to be heard before the orders were made. Further, there was no room for the appellants' contention that the principles of natural justice had to be complied with fully. The orders had been made with respect to both the public interest and the public order, and their objective was clearly the preservation of national security. The Court affirmed the conclusion of Lord Denning, the Master of the Rolls, in R. v. Secretary of State for Home Affairs, ex parte Hosenball (1977) that in such situations the ordinary principles of natural justice have to be modified to accommodate the public interest. In ex parte Hosenball, Lord Denning referred to Lord Reid's comments in R. v. Lewes Justices, ex parte Secretary of State for Home Department (1972), that there was a public interest for certain documents in the police's possession not to be produced during court proceedings, otherwise members of the public might withhold information from the police if they realized the potential existed for the information to be disclosed to the Gaming Board. Such withholding of information would prevent the police from properly discharging their statutory duty of ensuring that unsuitable persons were not granted licences to run gaming establishments. Lord Reid stated that the requirement for natural justice in that case was clearly outweighed by the public interest. The Minister had decided that the Jehovah's Witnesses' doctrine prohibiting its adherents from taking part in military service was contrary to national security and, thus, to public order and the public interest. Notably, the Court held that because the basis for the Minister's conclusion clearly could not be disputed, there was no need for any hearing or inquiry as no purpose would have been achieved. The appellants had not shown that the Minister had based his conclusions on false or unfounded facts; thus, unless the conclusions were irrelevant, the Court could not interfere with the Minister's opinion since his discretionary power had been exercised within statutory limitations. It has been argued, however, that there exists a problem if a government minister simply needs to state that a national security interest is involved in a matter, upon which the rules of natural justice are immediately compromised. Thio Li-ann has commented that when important constitutional rights such as the freedom to religion are curtailed by legislation, it may be advisable for the court to impose a duty on a public authority to give reasons establishing that an order imposed by the authority is objectively valid. ### Treatment of foreign jurisprudence: the "four walls" doctrine The appellants also contended that the ban was a violation of the international declarations of human rights. The High Court held that the issues would be best resolved by a "consideration of the provisions of the Constitution, the Societies Act and the UPA alone". Consequently, there was no consideration of international declarations of human rights in the judgment. Instead, Chief Justice Yong endorsed the "four walls" approach applied in Government of the State of Kelantan v. Government of the Federation of Malaya (1963). and imported the principle into the common law of Singapore. In Kelantan, Chief Justice Thomson had commented that: > [T]he Constitution is primarily to be interpreted within its own four walls and not in the light of analogies drawn from other countries such as Great Britain, the United States of America or Australia. Chief Justice Yong noted that the "social conditions" in Singapore were "markedly different" from those in the US, concluding, "[o]n this basis alone, I am not influenced by the various views as enunciated in the American cases cited to me but instead must restrict my analysis of the issues here with reference to the local context." He went on to reject the American cases dealing with freedom of religion on the basis that the Singapore Constitution did not prohibit the "establishment' of any religion unlike the American Constitution which had an anti-establishment clause. Nonetheless, the Chief Justice went on to approve an Australian case, Adelaide Company of Jehovah's Witnesses Inc. v. Commonwealth of Australia (1943), with respect to limitations on the religious freedom of Jehovah's Witnesses. This may imply that Singapore courts embrace foreign cases "selectively". The four walls doctrine has been invoked in subsequent cases. In Nappalli Peter Williams v. Institute of Technical Education (1998), Justice Tan Lee Meng recognized that "there are differences between the American position and the Singapore constitution and that social conditions in Singapore are markedly different from those in the United States". However, no explanation was given as to how the social conditions are different. The judge went on to approve foreign cases to buttress his argument. Hence it appears that the four walls doctrine "is sometimes used as a device for rejecting certain lines of foreign authority while accepting others". In comparison, there was more active judicial engagement with international law in Nguyen Tuong Van v. Public Prosecutor (2005), as opposed to the decisive disapproval in Chan Hiang Leng Colin. In Nguyen Tuong Van, the Court of Appeal commented that a "clearly and firmly established" rule of customary international law can be adopted by the courts, but if there is a conflict between such a rule and a domestic statute, the latter takes precedence. The Court analysed whether there was an established international norm against execution by hanging before deciding if should be applied in Singapore, revealing a more open-minded approach to international law. ## Social implications of the case Amnesty International has noted that the Jehovah's Witnesses are deemed to be a "potential threat to public order and peace" in Singapore, and are subject to imprisonment and fines for refusing to serve national service and distributing prohibited publications. As a result, Jehovah's Witnesses live under a "constant fear of being arrested, of losing their jobs, not getting business licenses or government flats, and fearing their children will face trouble in school". However, it has been asserted that religions with pacifist tenets are not predisposed to the kind of violence that would normally be associated with a threat to public peace. During the Second Reading of the Maintenance of Religious Harmony Bill (later enacted as the Maintenance of Religious Harmony Act) in Parliament on 23 February 1990, Lee Hsien Loong, who was then the Minister for Trade and Industry and Second Minister for Defence (Services), said that Jehovah's Witnesses object to armed national service as a matter of conscience due to their faith, but Singapore cannot accept conscientious objection because this will lead to a slippery slope – more people will object to national service based on religious and "conscience" reasons, and this will result in a breakdown in the system of national service. It has been said that Jehovah's Witnesses do not entirely oppose the idea of national service, but rather the notion of armed military service. Thio Li-ann has commented that it may be administratively possible to devise a non-military national service for Jehovah's Witnesses, who are very few in number. ## See also - Article 15 of the Constitution of Singapore - Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses in Singapore
28,349,056	Dan Cocoziello	1,094,166,663	Lacrosse player	[ "1985 births", "American lacrosse players", "Boston Cannons players", "Delbarton School alumni", "Denver Outlaws players", "Hamilton Nationals players", "Lacrosse defenders", "Living people", "Major League Lacrosse players", "Orlando Titans players", "People from Tewksbury Township, New Jersey", "Philadelphia Wings players", "Princeton Tigers men's lacrosse players", "Sportspeople from Hunterdon County, New Jersey" ]	Daniel F. Cocoziello (born August 8, 1985) is a lacrosse defenseman who plays professional field lacrosse in the Major League Lacrosse (MLL). He starred as a member of the Princeton Tigers men's lacrosse team from 2005 through 2008 where he started every game. He is the only defenseman to have earned the Men's Ivy League Rookie of the Year. He was a three-time United States Intercollegiate Lacrosse Association (USILA) All-American (once first team and twice second team) and three-time All-Ivy League selection (twice first team and once second team). During his college career, Princeton earned an Ivy League championship and two NCAA Men's Lacrosse Championship invitations. In high school, he won three state lacrosse championships. ## Background Born in the Oldwick section of Tewksbury Township, New Jersey, Cocoziello was a baseball and soccer player in his youth. He attended elementary school at Gill St. Bernard's School in New Jersey. He met his middle school, high school and college teammate Alex Hewit taking an entrance exam for New Jersey's Delbarton School in sixth grade. Even in seventh grade at Delbarton, Cocoziello was still a baseball player who was introduced to lacrosse during lunch and free periods with his classmates. He eventually got a lacrosse stick and started practicing as much as he could. In eighth grade, he joined the school team and made a New Jersey state eighth-grade all-star team along with Hewit that competed against all-stars from other states. He eventually joined the varsity team and helped lead the team to a cumulative 63–4 record and three high school lacrosse state championships. He was regarded as the best high school lacrosse recruit in the nation in the 2003, according to Inside Lacrosse. He played linebacker in high school football and was offered a scholarship to play for Hofstra University, but opted to play lacrosse at Princeton. ## College career He started every game of his career at Princeton, where he earned the 2005 Men's Ivy League Rookie of the Year, the only defensemen to every to garner the award. That year he was an honorable mention All-Ivy League selection. He was also the first defenseman to win the Ivy League Rookie of the Year award. He was a first team All-Ivy League choice in 2006 & 2008 and second team choice in 2007 He was a first team USILA All-American Team selection in 2008 and second team selection in 2006 and 2007. He served as co-captain of the 2008 team along with longtime teammate Alex Hewit and Bob Schneider. The 2006 team was Ivy League co-champion with Cornell. Princeton qualified for the NCAA Men's Lacrosse Championship in 2006 & 2007. During Cocoziello's junior year, while playing in a scrimmage against Towson University, broke his vehicular bone in his left foot. Originally diagnosed as a sprain, Cocoziello played his entire junior and senior season on the broken foot. Upon graduation in 2008, he was correctly diagnosed and underwent reconstructive surgery following his 2008 MLL Season with the Denver Outlaws. The surgery was unsuccessful causing Cocoziello to discontinue playing lacrosse. ## Professional career Cocoziello began his MLL career with the Denver Outlaws during the 2008 MLL season. On February 20, 2009, he was reassigned to the Toronto Nationals. In 2010, he was a member of the Boston Cannons. He has appeared in no National Lacrosse League games. However, his National Lacrosse League rights were acquired by the Philadelphia Wings in the 2010 Orlando Titans dispersal draft. ### MLL statistics The following are his MLL career stats: ## Life after the MLL Cocoziello currently lives in New York City where he works in real estate for New York-based StructureTone, Inc. He is also pursuing a Master's in Real Estate from New York University.
1,709,037	Marita Covarrubias	1,163,889,846	Fictional character from the X-Files	[ "Fictional United Nations personnel", "Fictional diplomats", "Television characters introduced in 1996", "The X-Files characters" ]	Marita Covarrubias is a fictional character on the American science fiction television series The X-Files. She was initially introduced as an informant, leaking diplomatic information to FBI Special Agent Fox Mulder to aid his investigation of paranormal cases, dubbed X-Files. However, she was revealed to be an agent of the secretive Syndicate, although ultimately betraying that organization on several occasions. Introduced in the fourth season opener "Herrenvolk", the character remained a recurring presence until the series' finale, "The Truth". The character of Marita Covarrubias was portrayed by Laurie Holden in all her appearances. She was introduced as a replacement for Steven Williams' character X, after the latter was killed by a Syndicate assassin. The character has received mixed criticism, being compared unfavorably to similar characters from the series. ## Conceptual history The X-Files' creator Chris Carter felt it would be "more interesting for Mulder's next contact to be a woman", noting that he "wanted there to be some suspicion about whether Mulder would become involved with her romantically. X, the character who had previously filled Covarrubias' role as an informant in the series, had originally been cast as a female character. However Natalija Nogulich, the actress cast in that role, was replaced by Steven Williams after shooting her first scene. When auditioning for the role of Marita Covarrubias, Laurie Holden was not allowed access to an episode script, instead simply being told that her character worked for the United Nations and had an air of "intelligent seriousness". The actress had never seen the series before she auditioned for the part, and was required to audition using only three pages of scripted material from what would be her debut episode. Holden was required to learn Russian for the episode "Patient X", and commented that roughly fifteen seconds of screen-time took hours to rehearse. The voice coach responsible for instructing Holden and Nicholas Lea in their Russian dialogue tested their proficiency by asking them to speak to Russian-speaking friends of his over the telephone. Holden felt that the two-part episode "Two Fathers" and "One Son" offered her "cold, emotionless, private" character a chance to come across as "vulnerable, exposed and raw". ## Character arc Marita Covarrubias is introduced as an informant to Fox Mulder (David Duchovny) after the death of his former source, X (Steven Williams). X scrawls the letters "SRSG" in his own blood as he dies, leading Mulder to the Special Representative to the Secretary-General of the United Nations. Covarrubias uses her diplomatic connections to help Mulder infiltrate the Russian province of Krasnoyarsk, allowing him to reach the site of the Tunguska event. However, it is later seen that Covarrubias is working for The Smoking Man (William B. Davis) and the Syndicate. During the fifth season, the Syndicate discovered that Covarrubias had betrayed them and was providing information to Mulder. Covarrubias was infected with black oil during her betrayal of the Syndicate, and Syndicate scientists used her to test a vaccine they had been working to create. While the Syndicate-developed vaccine proves ineffective, Covarrubias' infection is ultimately cured by an effective vaccine stolen from a Russian shadow-government group by Alex Krycek. In the following season, Covarrubias is discovered by FBI agent Jeffrey Spender (Chris Owens) at a decontamination chamber. She begs him to help her escape the facility, addressing him by name as well as giving him information about the whereabouts of his mother, Cassandra. Alex Krycek (Nicholas Lea), a former Syndicate agent now acting alone, is also present at the facility. He declines to help the pair, and leaves Covarrubias for dead. Covarrubias returns in the seventh season finale "Requiem", restored to health. She makes contact with Krycek at the behest of The Smoking Man, who wishes to resume the work of the now-eradicated Syndicate. Having been given the location of a downed UFO, she and Krycek betray The Smoking Man, instead going to FBI assistant director Walter Skinner and Mulder to inform them about the craft. They later turn on The Smoking Man, pushing him down a flight of stairs and leaving him for dead. In the series finale "The Truth", Skinner seeks Covarrubias as a witness in Mulder's trial for murder. After Skinner fails to track her down, the ghost of X hands Mulder a scrap of paper with her new address on it. She is called upon to testify, and speaks about her involvement with the Syndicate to some extent. However, when pressed for further information about the continuation of the conspiracy she clams up, and at Mulder's request is dismissed from the stand for fear that if she divulges certain knowledge, she would be killed. ## Reception The character of Marita Covarrubias has been met with generally negative criticism. Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson, in their book Wanting to Believe: A Critical Guide to The X-Files, Millennium & The Lone Gunmen, felt that the character was "used so perfunctorily since her introduction" that her appearances added little to the episodes she featured in, describing her as a "bad parody" of the earlier characters Deep Throat and X. Debra Warlick, writing for Cinefantastique, felt that Holden's acting in "One Son" was "heart breaking [sic]", but found that she had "unfortunately" been used simply to convey a plot point to other characters. Also writing for Cinefantastique, Paula Vitaris noted that Covarrubias "is a problematic character", adding that "she never breaks out of her function as a plot device". Zack Handlen, writing for The A.V. Club, felt that Covarrubias' introduction in "Herrenvolk" was ill-timed, noting that it "deflates the importance" of X's death in the episode. Writer Frank Spotnitz has described Covarrubias, along with Alex Krycek, as "young, attractive, vital [and] dangerous" compared to the other, older, characters working for the Syndicate. Holden has compared the character to Mata Hari, adding that "you can't really read what she's saying or what her intentions are". During the series' initial broadcast run, fans referred to Covarrubias as "UNblonde", a reference to her United Nations posting and her dyed hair.
16,034,409	1998 Music City Bowl	1,171,290,503	null	[ "1998 in sports in Tennessee", "1998–99 NCAA football bowl games", "Alabama Crimson Tide football bowl games", "December 1998 sports events in the United States", "Music City Bowl", "Virginia Tech Hokies football bowl games" ]	The 1998 Music City Bowl was a postseason college football game between the Alabama Crimson Tide and Virginia Tech Hokies. It was the inaugural competition of the annual Music City Bowl. The University of Alabama represented the Southeastern Conference (SEC) and Virginia Tech represented the Big East. The game was the final competition for each team in the 1998 college football season. The game ended as a 38–7 victory for Virginia Tech. The Alabama Crimson Tide, had gone 7–4 during the regular season. Virginia Tech's 8–3 record during the 1998 college football regular season was good enough to earn it a bid to the inaugural Music City Bowl game. The 1998 Music City Bowl kicked off on December 29, 1998 in Nashville, Tennessee. The weather at kickoff was "horrid," as rain and sleet mixed in freezing temperatures. The game's early going was marked by defense as both teams struggled against the inclement weather. Virginia Tech scored first off a 43-yard touchdown scramble by quarterback Al Clark. Clark's touchdown provided the game's only points until the second quarter, when Alabama evened the score at 7–7 with a five-yard touchdown pass. The Hokies struck back with a field goal before halftime and took a tenuous 10–7 lead into the second half. In that half, the Tech offense finally got rolling. The Hokies scored 14 points in both the third and fourth quarters, ending the game on an uncontested 28–0 run. Alabama's offense was stifled throughout by effective pressure from Tech defensive end Corey Moore, and Tech was able to turn several fumbles and interceptions by the Crimson Tide into points on the scoreboard. The final 38–7 Virginia Tech victory was the biggest win in Virginia Tech bowl game history, and Moore was named the game's most valuable player. The two teams did not meet again until the 2009 Chick-fil-A Kickoff Game on September 5, 2009. ## Team selection The first Music City Bowl was scheduled for 1998, but the bowl's beginnings dated from 1996, when city officials and local companies came up with the idea for the game. Their plan developed through 1997, when financing was obtained and the NCAA approved the bowl game. Initial plans anticipated matching a Southeastern Conference team against one from the Mid-American Conference. Prior to the start of the 1998 college football season, Music City Bowl officials signed an agreement with the SEC to select the conference's sixth bowl-eligible team. The Music City Bowl's other spot was left for an at-large bid, though officials met several times with Big East commissioner Mike Tranghese in an effort to reach a contract. An agreement pledging the Big East's No. 4 bowl-eligible team to the game was not reached until 1999. ### Alabama The Alabama Crimson Tide entered the 1998 college football season after a 1997 season that included a 4–7 record and no bowl game appearance. Heading into the season, the Tide were unranked nationally and were picked to finish fifth in the SEC West in the annual poll of media members who cover SEC football. Most voters expected Alabama to show little improvement over its performance in the previous year. Alabama's first game of the season was against Brigham Young University and was played at a renovated Bryant–Denny Stadium that boasted more than 80,000 seats and a new Jumbotron. In that game, Alabama running back Shaun Alexander scored a school-record five rushing touchdowns and Alabama won, 38–34, breaking a four-game losing streak that ended the 1997 season. One week later, Alabama repeated its first-game success with a 42–7 win over Vanderbilt. After a bye week, Alabama traveled to Arkansas to play the Arkansas Razorbacks. Alabama had risen to No. 22 in the country by virtue of its two wins, but the Crimson Tide's first road game of the season resulted in its first defeat, as Alabama lost, 42–6. One week later, Alabama suffered its first home loss of the season, a 16–10 defeat at the hands of Florida. After the Florida loss, Alabama's senior starting quarterback, John David Phillips, was replaced by freshman Andrew Zow. With Zow as the new starter, Alabama proceeded to win its next two games: 20–17 against Ole Miss and 23–22 against East Carolina. On October 24, Zow endured his first loss as the team's starting quarterback when Alabama was defeated, 35–18, by eventual SEC (and national) champion Tennessee. Alabama rebounded from the loss by reeling off two more wins: 30–20 against Southern Miss and an upset 22–16 win over LSU, in which the Crimson Tide scored 15 points in 144 seconds. After those two wins, Alabama had a 6–3 record heading into the final two weeks of the regular season. In the second-to-last week, the Crimson Tide were defeated, 26–14, by Mississippi State. In the final week of the season, Alabama faced traditional in-state rival Auburn in the annual Iron Bowl game. Reversing the outcome of the previous year's game, Alabama eked out an upset 31–17 victory to end the regular season. Following the Iron Bowl, Alabama's bowl destination was unclear due to the SEC championship game, which determined the conference champion on December 5. Until then, speculation centered on Alabama potentially attending any of four games: the Peach Bowl, Independence Bowl, Sun Bowl, or Music City Bowl. By the time of the championship game, the Sun Bowl had been eliminated as an option. After Tennessee won the SEC championship game and a bid to the Fiesta Bowl, other teams were selected by the Peach Bowl and Independence Bowl, leaving Alabama to be selected for the inaugural Music City Bowl. The choice was made official on December 6, and Alabama began preparing for its matchup with Virginia Tech. ### Virginia Tech Virginia Tech began the 1998 season after going 7–5 the previous year, including a 42–3 blowout loss to North Carolina in the 1998 Gator Bowl. Prior to the 1998 season, the annual preseason poll of Big East football media picked Virginia Tech to finish fourth in the Big East, and West Virginia was favored to win the conference. Most pre-season attention was focused on whether Tech would perform well enough to attend a sixth consecutive bowl game at the season's end. The Hokies' first two games brought success for Virginia Tech: At home, they defeated East Carolina, 38–3, and away, they beat Clemson, 37–0. After the blowout win in Death Valley, Virginia Tech traveled to the Orange Bowl, home of the Miami Hurricanes. By virtue of their two season-opening wins, the Hokies were ranked No. 21 in the coaches' poll, and they improved that ranking with a win in the first overtime football game in Virginia Tech history, 27–20. During the overtime win, Virginia Tech starting quarterback Al Clark was injured. The injury left him unable to play in Tech's next game, a contest against the Pittsburgh Panthers. Clark's absence didn't distract the Hokies, who won, 27–7. After the win against Pittsburgh, Virginia Tech traveled to Boston to play Boston College. The Hokies shut out the Boston College Eagles, 17–0, boosting their national ranking to No. 10 in the coaches' poll on the basis of Tech's first 5–0 start since 1967. Following the Boston College victory, the Hokies faced lightly regarded and winless Temple University. The Temple Owls had lost eight consecutive games, were 0–26 in Big East road games, and had lost 10 players to injury since the season began. But although the Owls were 35-point underdogs to the Hokies, they managed one of the biggest upsets in college football history when they beat Virginia Tech in Lane Stadium, 28–24. Virginia Tech rebounded from the upset loss to Temple by shutting out the University of Alabama Birmingham, 41–0, then beating No. 21 West Virginia, 27–13. After the two wins, the Hokies had a 7–1 record, were ranked No. 16 in the AP Poll, and traveled to the Carrier Dome to play Syracuse University. In New York, Syracuse gave the Hokies their second loss of the season, 28–26. The loss came despite the presence of Al Clark, who had returned from injury prior to the West Virginia game. Tech again rebounded from a losing effort, this time by defeating Rutgers, 47–7. But in their final regular-season game, the Hokies lost to Virginia in the annual competition for the Commonwealth Cup, 36–32. Tech led by 22 points at halftime, but Virginia quarterback Aaron Brooks led a comeback that won the game for Virginia with two minutes remaining in the game. The loss to Virginia brought Virginia Tech to an 8–3 regular-season record, something Tech coach Frank Beamer said was better than he expected at the season's start. Despite that sentiment, most fans and supporters pointed to the fact that in all of Virginia Tech's losses, the deciding points came late in the fourth quarter and near the end of the game. Only three plays separated Tech from an undefeated 11–0 record. Tech's bowl destination was unclear immediately after the Virginia loss. The Music City Bowl seemed likely, but the Micron PC Bowl, Insight.com Bowl, and Sun Bowl also were possibilities. Virginia Tech officials preferred the Music City Bowl because of its proximity to Virginia, and bowl officials selected the Hokies on November 30. ## Pregame buildup The inaugural Music City bowl marked the first meeting of Alabama and Virginia Tech on the football field since 1979, when the No. 1 Crimson Tide defeated Virginia Tech, 31–7. Prior to the Music City Bowl, Alabama had defeated Virginia Tech in all 10 meetings of the two schools, and some Virginia Tech players cited that record as motivation in the game. For American General, sponsoring the game was part of an overall marketing strategy intended to boost the company's national profile. Spread bettors favored Virginia Tech to win the game by five points. In exchange for appearing in the game, each team received \$750,000, minus expenses. Media coverage in the weeks leading up to the game focused on Virginia Tech's tough defense and Alabama's recovery from NCAA-imposed sanctions. ### Ticket sales Both schools sold their allotments of Music City Bowl tickets rapidly. Virginia Tech, which was attending its sixth consecutive bowl game, sold more than 9,000 tickets in the first week of sales. Alabama's tickets were primarily distributed to season-ticket holders. Of Alabama's 12,000 bowl tickets, 10,000 were reserved for season-ticket holders and only 2,000 were available for open purchase. These were sold on the first day of sales. By December 9, both Alabama and the game itself had sold their entire allotment of tickets. Virginia Tech had just 200 tickets remaining, and they were sold by the 10th. In an interview with a local newspaper, an official at the Virginia Tech ticket office indicated that demand for tickets was so great that "We could have sold at least a couple thousand more. ... We were inundated for 3-4 days, and then, once Alabama was selected to play in the game, we got a lot more calls, and we were sold out." Some fans were able to obtain tickets at the game via purchases from ticket scalpers. Demand for tickets by Alabama fans was so great that the Alabama ticket office accidentally oversold its allotment of tickets. The office neglected to limit purchases on the forms sent to season-ticket holders, and the office received more than 25,000 orders for its 12,500-ticket allotment. An additional 2,000 tickets were given to Alabama, but the school still had to send out more than 10,000 refunds. Alabama's athletics director was heavily criticized for overselling the ticket allotment and for limiting ticket distribution to fans who had contributed large amounts of money to the athletics department. A group of fans disgruntled at the ticket distribution process eventually levied a class-action lawsuit against the athletic director, claiming contract violations. ### Offensive matchups #### Alabama offense Despite having an offense that featured star running back Shaun Alexander, Alabama's offensive strategy revolved around a passing offense more than a running one. During the regular season, Alabama passed for 2,435 yards but only ran for 1,272 yards. The Crimson Tide averaged 22.9 points per game, 116 rushing yards per game, and 221.4 passing yards per game. A large reason for Alabama's success passing the ball came from the emergence of freshman quarterback Andrew Zow, who assumed starting duties during the season. Zow completed 143 of 256 passes for 1,969 yards, 11 touchdowns, and seven interceptions. One of his favorite passing targets was Alexander, who caught 26 passes for 385 yards and four touchdowns in addition to his 1,178 rushing yards and 13 touchdowns. Alexander averaged 116 yards per game on the ground. Wide receiver Quincy Jackson was the team's leading passing target. He caught 48 passes for 621 yards four touchdowns. Fellow wide receiver Michael Vaughn also was a favorite passing target. He caught 34 passes for 403 yards and four touchdowns in addition to performing kick-return duties during the regular season. #### Virginia Tech offense Virginia Tech's offense during the regular season was worse than the average in the NCAA during 1998. The Hokies finished 88th among 112 Division I-A teams in total offense, recording 316.7 yards per game. Tech averaged 31.2 points per game. Part of the reason for their lackluster performance was repeated injuries to starting quarterback Al Clark, who missed three regular-season games due to injuries. Heading into the Music City Bowl, he was recovering from a rib injury suffered in Tech's final regular-season game. Despite the missed games, Clark completed 72 of 148 passes for 1,050 passing yards, nine touchdowns, and five interceptions for the 1998 season. On the ground, Virginia Tech running backs Lamont Pegues and Shyrone Stith combined for 1,444 rushing yards and 10 touchdowns. Together, they averaged 178 yards per game on the ground. Another bright spot on the Virginia Tech offense was kicker Shayne Graham, who was named a first-team All Big East selection. He kicked 37 extra points and was successful on 22 field goal attempts, earning the Hokies 103 points in total. ### Defensive matchups #### Alabama defense Defensively, Alabama allowed an average of 147.7 rushing yards and 369 total yards per game. In total, Alabama's defense intercepted 12 passes during the regular season and sacked opposing quarterbacks 25 times. Alabama's leading tackler was linebacker Trevis Smith, who had 80 tackles during the regular season. This figure included 2.5 sacks and 14.5 other tackles for loss. Smith also broke up three passes, recovered two fumbles, and forced one. Alabama's second-leading tackler, linebacker Travis Carroll, fractured his shoulder blade in the Crimson Tide's second-to-last regular-season game and was not available for the Music City Bowl. Carroll had 76 tackles during the regular season. Cornerback Fernando Bryant led the team's pass defense. He finished the season with 51 tackles and two interceptions. He was supported by strong safety Marcus Spencer, who led the Crimson Tide in interceptions with four. Alabama's sole All-Southeastern Conference selection was punter Daniel Pope, a senior who averaged a school-record 44 yards per kick during the regular season and was second nationally in net punting at 40.8 yards per kick. Of his 60 punts, 20 were inside the opponents' 20-yard line. None were blocked. #### Virginia Tech defense At the conclusion of the regular season, the Virginia Tech defense was one of the best in the country. It was No. 4 in scoring defense (allowing 12.9 points per game), No. 11 in rushing defense (allowing 102.2 yards per game), and No. 7 in total defense (284.9 yards per game). The Hokies had 23 interceptions during the regular season, second-most in the country and behind only USC's 24 interceptions. The Hokies also found success on special teams defense. In total, Tech blocked ten kicks during the regular season: six punts, two field-goal attempts and two point-after tries. Tech's defense also scored 52 points: eight touchdowns, a safety and a two-point runback of an intercepted conversion pass. The Hokie defense was led by defensive end Corey Moore, who was named the Big East defensive player of the year for 1998. He led the conference in sacks during the regular season, and finished with 14. Cornerback Loren Johnson was named to the first-team All Big East team with Pierson Prioleau, who had 61 tackles and returned a blocked field goal 52 yards in Tech's game against East Carolina. Free safety Keion Carpenter was noted in pre-game coverage for his ability to block kicks. He had five during the regular season, tying him with Ike Charlton for the most on the team. ### Off-field incidents Virginia Tech's coaching staff drew media attention when it was announced that Virginia Tech head football coach Frank Beamer was being actively recruited by Clemson to assume that school's vacant head coaching job. Beamer was first contacted about the job during the regular season, and he was mentioned in connection with Clemson's search throughout the final two weeks of the regular season. He also was mentioned as a possibility for South Carolina's vacant head-coaching job. Three days after Virginia Tech was selected for the Music City Bowl, Beamer ended speculation by publicly turning down Clemson and South Carolina. In exchange for publicly rebuffing the offers, Virginia Tech rewarded Beamer with financial additions to his contract and a contract extension through 2005. Virginia Tech defensive coordinator Bud Foster also was targeted by other teams prior to the Music City Bowl. Rumors circulated about the University of Florida's interest in hiring Foster to fill its defensive coordinator position, but Foster declined to comment until after Florida's Jan. 2 Orange Bowl game. Foster proceeded through the interview process and was offered the job, but he turned it down in favor of remaining at Tech, which offered him contract incentives. Alabama likewise underwent rumors of coaching changes. Shortly after the Music City Bowl matchup was announced, rumors spread that quarterbacks coach Charlie Stubbs or tight ends coach Ronnie Cottrell were being considered for other jobs. One departure rumor became reality when defensive line coach Jackie Shipp resigned to take the same position at the University of Oklahoma. Shipp's departure left the Crimson Tide without a defensive line coach, and Alabama head coach Mike DuBose filled the vacancy for the Music City Bowl. In the days prior to the game, both teams had to cope with harsh winter weather in the Nashville area. Virginia Tech was forced to move practices indoors when an ice storm arrived on the day before Christmas. The storm caused travel delays for fans and players alike. Alabama's first practices in Nashville were held without the full team available because many players had been delayed. The harsh weather continued through the day of the game, and Tech was forced to cancel its final outdoor practice before the game. Alabama, meanwhile, drove 45 minutes to Murfreesboro to a practice field that was not covered by ice. ## Game summary The 1998 Music City bowl kicked off at 5 p.m. EST on December 29, 1998 at Vanderbilt Stadium in Nashville, Tennessee. At kickoff, the weather was chilly, with 43-degree (6 C) temperatures, 10–15 mph (16–24 km/h) wind, 70 percent humidity, and a sleet/rain mix. As the game progressed, wind-chill temperatures dropped as low as 14 °F (−10 °C). Later accounts described the weather as "horrid". American General CEO Joe Kelley performed the ceremonial pre-game coin toss to determine first possession. Jazz musician Larry Carlton performed the traditional pre-game playing of the national anthem, but his rendition of the Star-Spangled Banner did not meet with the crowd's approval, and he was booed. Approximately 41,600 people attended the game in person, and the competition was broadcast on television via ESPN. Approximately 1.8 million U.S. households tuned into the broadcast, which featured Rod Gilmore, Rich Waltz, and Holly Rowe. ### First quarter Virginia Tech received the ball to begin the game, and Shyrone Stith returned the opening kickoff from the end zone to the Tech 44-yard line. On the first play of the game, Tech quarterback Al Clark completed a pass to Angelo Harrison, but Alabama committed a five-yard offsides penalty, setting up the Hokies at their 49-yard line. After the penalty, running back Lamont Pegues ran straight ahead for a gain of four yards then picked up a first down with a short gain on the next play. Clark completed a pass to Harrison at the 43-yard line, then Clark broke free of the Alabama defense on an improvised run, scrambling 43 yards for a touchdown and the game's first points. Kicker Shayne Graham kicked the extra point, and Virginia Tech took a 7–0 lead over Alabama with 12:25 remaining in the first quarter. Virginia Tech's post-touchdown kickoff was returned to the Alabama 27-yard line. On Alabama's first play of the game, Crimson Tide quarterback Andrew Zow was sacked by Virginia Tech defender Corey Moore for a loss of seven yards. Running back Shaun Alexander regained five of those lost yards on the next play, then Zow was again sacked by the Tech defense. Alabama thus went three and out to begin the game and prepared for the game's first punt. During the kick, Virginia Tech defender Keion Carpenter broke through the offensive line of Alabama and blocked the punt. Thanks to the blocked punt, the Virginia Tech offense started at the Alabama 14-yard line. On the first play of the drive, Stith ran the ball straight ahead for a gain of one yard. Clark then attempted a pass into the end zone, but the ball was intercepted by Alabama defender Fernando Bryant. Thanks to the interception in the end zone, Alabama's offense returned to the field at its 20-yard line, the regulation starting point after a ball is downed in the end zone. A deep pass by Zow fell incomplete, then Alexander ran for a one-yard gain. On third down, Zow completed a first-down pass to wide receiver Michael Vaughn at the Alabama 32-yard line. Zow then completed another first-down pass, this time to Freddy Milons at Alabama 45-yard line. Alexander rushed ahead for a one-yard gain, then Zow threw an interception to Tech defender Ryan Smith, who returned the ball to the Alabama 36-yard line. After the interception, Virginia Tech committed a 15-yard personal foul penalty, which pushed the Hokies back to their 49-yard line. On the first play after the interception, Pegues gained one yard on a rushing play to the right. Clark then completed a pass to Jarrett Ferguson at the Alabama 36-yard line for a first down. During the play, Alabama was called for a five-yard penalty for grabbing Ferguson's facemask during the tackle. After the penalty, Angelo Harrison gained nine yards on a reverse run. Ferguson then was tackled for a loss of two yards, and Clark threw an incomplete pass on third down. Tech head coach Frank Beamer sent in Graham to attempt a 42-yard field goal. The kick sailed right of the goal, however. With 4:10 remaining in the first quarter, Tech led Alabama 7–0. Thanks to the missed field goal, Alabama began its drive at its 25-yard line—the line of scrimmage for the field goal. In the drive's first play, Zow completed a seven-yard pass to wide receiver Calvin Hall. Alexander then ran to the left side for a two-yard gain. On third down, Alexander gained three yards and a first down. After that, Moore sacked Zow for a two-yard loss, to the 35-yard line. After the sack, Zow was hit again by the Virginia Tech defense and fumbled the ball. The fumble was scooped up by an Alabama player, however, and resulted in a gain of four yards. Zow then completed a pass to Alexander at the 50-yard line for a first down. Once there, Alabama was twice penalized five yards for false starts on consecutive plays. The penalties ran out the final seconds of the first quarter, which ended with Virginia Tech leading, 7–0. ### Second quarter The second quarter began with Alabama in possession of the ball and facing first down and 21 yards at their 40-yard line. Zow completed a seven-yard pass to Hall, then Alexander lost three yards on a running play, setting up third down and 17. Alabama gained the needed yardage and more on a 24-yard pass from Zow to Alexander at the Tech 32-yard line. On first down, Alexander was tackled for a four-yard loss. Zow regained the lost yards with a completion to Alexander at the Tech 25-yard line. After a one-yard rush, Alabama faced fourth down and one yard at the Tech 23-yard line. Alexander ran to the Tech 20-yard line and gained the first down. After a four-yard rush, Zow completed a pass to Quincy Jackson for no gain, setting up third down. Zow scrambled for a first down at the Tech nine-yard line. Alexander advanced to the five-yard line on a running play, and Zow completed a touchdown pass to Vaughn for the Tide's first points of the game. The extra point kick was successful, and with 9:13 remaining in the first half, the game was tied, 7–7. Alabama's post-touchdown kickoff sailed through the end zone for a touchback, and Tech's offense started at its 20-yard line. Stith ran ahead for a five-yard gain on first down, then broke free on second down for a 38-yard run to the Alabama 36-yard line. Once there, Clark threw an incomplete pass and Ferguson ran for a two-yard gain. On third down, Clark scrambled for a six-yard gain. Facing fourth down, Beamer sent in Graham to attempt a 44-yard field goal. The kick was good, and with 6:41 remaining in the first half, Virginia Tech regained the lead, 10–7. Tech's post-score kickoff was returned to the Alabama 15-yard line, and the Crimson Tide began a new drive. On the drive's first play, Tech committed a five-yard offsides penalty. Following the penalty, Alexander was stopped for a two-yard loss. Zow then completed a 40-yard pass for a first down at the Tech 43-yard line. After that long completion, he threw an 11-yard pass for another first down, this time at the Tech 32-yard line. A rushing play was stopped for no gain, Zow threw an incomplete pass into the end zone, then Zow committed an intentional grounding penalty in an attempt to avoid being sacked. The penalty pushed Alabama out of field goal range, and Alabama punted from the Tech 45-yard line. The ball rolled out of bounds at the one-yard line, and Tech was penalized half the distance to the goal line due to a holding penalty during the kick. Pegues ran for a two-yard gain, then was stopped for a loss of one yard on second down. On third down, Clark completed a pass to Harrison for a first down at the 11-yard line. After the first down, a Tech running play was stopped for a loss of three yards, then Clark scrambled to the 16-yard line, five yards short of the first down. Stith then gained the first down with a run to the 25-yard line. During this time, Tech concentrated on running out the clock by executing multiple running plays, which do not stop the game clock, unlike passing plays. After the first down, Clark was sacked by Alabama defender Cornelius Griffin for a loss of seven yards. Clark regained the lost yards with a nine-yard pass, then picked up a first down with a shovel pass. On first down, Clark completed a pass to Ricky Hall with a first down at the Alabama 45-yard line. At this point, Tech switched from running down the clock to attempting passes downfield in hopes of scoring before halftime. With 32 seconds remaining in the first half, Clark threw an incomplete pass. Clark then was sacked by the Alabama defense, setting up third down at the Tech 46-yard line. Stith ran for a short gain, then Tech set up for a long pass downfield on fourth down. The pass fell incomplete, and Tech turned the ball over on downs with four seconds remaining. Rather than attempt to score on the final play of the half, the Tide offense took a knee and ended the half with Virginia Tech leading, 10–7. ### Third quarter After a halftime performance featuring Lorrie Morgan, singer Steve Winwood and the marching bands of the competing schools, Alabama prepared to receive the ball. Because Virginia Tech received the ball to begin the game, Alabama was on offense to begin the second half. Virginia Tech's kickoff was returned to the Alabama 21-yard line. The first play of the half was a pass from Zow to Alexander, who gained eight yards. On second down, Alexander picked up the first down with a run to the 34-yard line. Zow completed a pass to Milons at the 38-yard line, then had a pass knocked down at the line of scrimmage by the Virginia Tech defense. Zow's third-down pass was knocked down, and the Tide punted. The kick was returned to the Tech 24-yard line, and the Hokies began their first drive of the second half. Tech's first play of the half was a four-yard run by Pegues. Clark then scrambled for a 25-yard gain and a first down at the Alabama 47-yard line. On first down, Pegues advanced to the 43-yard line on a running play, then Clark was sacked by Alabama's Travis Carroll. The sack resulted in an eight-yard loss, and Clark's third-down pass was incomplete. Tech punted, and the kick was downed at the Alabama 22-yard line. On the first Tide play of the drive, Alabama was penalized 15 yards for holding on to the facemask of a Virginia Tech player. A running play by Alexander was stopped after a loss of a yard, then Zow threw an interception directly to Virginia Tech's Phillip Summers, who returned the ball to the two-yard line. After the interception, it took Tech two plays for Pegues to push the football across the goal line for Tech's second touchdown of the game. The extra point was good, and Tech extended its lead to 17–7 with 8:15 remaining in the quarter. Tech's post-touchdown kickoff was returned to the Alabama 16-yard line, and the Tide attempted to respond to the Tech score. The first play of the drive was an incomplete pass by Zow, who then completed a 14-yard pass to Wes Long at the Alabama 30-yard line for a first down. Running back Chad Beasley lost one yard on a running play, then Zow completed a three-yard pass to Alexander. On third down, Alexander dropped a long pass from Zow, and the Tide prepared to punt. During the kick, Tech's special teams defense broke through Alabama's line and blocked a punt for the second time in the game. The ball was recovered by the Hokies at the Alabama 30-yard line, and Tech's offense started their drive inside Alabama territory. The first play of the Tech drive was a seven-yard run by Stith. This was followed by an incomplete pass from Clark, but Alabama was called for pass interference during the play. After the penalty, Virginia Tech had a first down at the Alabama four-yard line. On the first play after the penalty, Stith broke through the Alabama defense for Tech's second touchdown of the quarter. The extra point was good, and with 5:09 remaining in the quarter, Tech extended its lead to 24–7. Virginia Tech's kickoff was returned to the 21-yard line, and Alabama again attempted to answer the Hokie score. After an incomplete pass, Zow completed a 21-yard pass to Jackson for a first down at the 42-yard line. Alexander was stopped for a one-yard loss on a running play, then caught a pass for no gain. On third down, Zow threw an incomplete pass, forcing another punt. The kick rolled out of bounds at the Tech 17-yard line, and the Hokies' offense began another drive. On the first play of the drive, Clark was sacked by Kenny Smith for a six-yard loss. Pegues ran for one yard, then ran for 12 yards on third down. The Hokies punted after going three and out, but the ball bounced off Alabama kick returner Alvin Richard. The loose ball was recovered by Virginia Tech's Cory Bird, and the Hokies' offense returned to the field with 35 seconds remaining in the quarter. From the Alabama 19-yard line, Clark scrambled for a one-yard gain. The play was the last one of the third quarter, which ended with Virginia Tech leading, 24–7. ### Fourth quarter The fourth quarter began with Virginia Tech in possession of the ball at the Alabama 18-yard line and facing second down and nine. After a running play was stopped for no gain, Clark completed a pass to Pegues, who ran for a first down at the Alabama nine-yard line. After the first down, Alabama committed an offsides penalty. After the penalty, Tech had a first down inside the Alabama five-yard line. Three plays later, Pegues crossed the goal line for a touchdown. The extra point was good, and Tech took a 31–7 lead with 13:31 remaining in the game. Alabama received Tech's post-touchdown kickoff, which sailed through the end zone for a touchback. Because of the touchback, Alabama's first drive of the quarter started at its 20-yard line. The first play of that drive resulted in a five-yard penalty against Virginia Tech. Alexander then was tackled for a one-yard loss. On second down, Zow threw an incomplete pass, but on third down he completed a 34-yard throw to Alexander, who earned a first down at the Tech 42-yard line. On the first play in Alabama territory, Tech committed a five-yard offsides penalty. Zow then threw two incomplete passes, and on third down he was sacked by the Tech defense at the Hokie 41-yard line. Because the Tide was trailing Tech by four scores, Alabama head coach Mike DuBose ordered his offense to try to convert the fourth down rather than punt. Zow's pass flew incomplete, and Alabama turned the ball over on downs. Virginia Tech began its first full drive of the fourth quarter at its 41-yard line with 10:21 remaining in the game. Tech transitioned into a running strategy, maximizing the amount of time used off the game clock between each play. On the drive's first play, Stith was tackled for a one-yard loss. On its second play, Stith regained the lost yard. The third-down play was an incomplete pass by Clark, and the Hokies punted after going three and out. The kick rolled into the end zone for a touchback, and Alabama's offense began at its 20-yard line. Alexander was tackled for a two-yard loss, then Zow threw an interception to Anthony Midget, who returned the ball all the way into the end zone for a Virginia Tech defensive touchdown. The extra point was good, and Tech extended its lead to 38–7 with 7:33 remaining in the game. Tech's post-touchdown kickoff was returned to the Alabama 16-yard line by Milons. The first play of the drive was a 12-yard run by Alexander, who also gained a first down. On the next play, Alabama committed a five-yard false start penalty. Alexander was stopped for no gain on a running play after the penalty, then he picked up nine yards on a running play to the right. On third down, Alexander gained a first down with a run to the 40-yard line. He then was tackled for a two-yard loss. On the next play, Zow was tackled by Jason Buckland for a seven-yard loss. On third down, Alexander ran ahead to the 44-yard line but still was short of the first down marker. Alabama punted, and the kick was downed at the Tech 20-yard line. Tech continued to run down the clock by running the ball straight ahead for a four-yard gain. Tech backup quarterback Nick Sorensen then entered the game, and running back Andre Kendrick gained a first down with a run to the 33-yard line. Kendrick then gained a first down at the Alabama 39-yard line. Kendrick continued to advance the ball with short runs, draining the clock to secure the Tech lead. Tech's third backup quarterback, Dave Meyer, also entered the game as the final seconds ticked off the clock and Virginia Tech secured its 38–7 win. ## Statistical summary In recognition of his performance during the game, Virginia Tech defensive end Corey Moore was named the game's most valuable player. Moore had a sack, a tackle for a loss, a blocked punt and a forced fumble. His performance was representative by a successful defensive effort by the Virginia Tech Hokies, who blocked two punts, had three interceptions, and limited Alabama to only seven points and 50 rushing yards. Tech's 31-point margin of victory was the biggest bowl-game win in school history, and Alabama's loss was their biggest in a bowl game since a loss in the 1972 Orange Bowl. Alabama's sole success on offense came from the hands of quarterback Andrew Zow, who completed 19 of 35 passes for 224 yards and a touchdown but also threw three interceptions and fumbled the ball once. Zow's favorite receiver was running back Shaun Alexander, who caught eight passes for 87 yards. Alexander also was Alabama's leading rusher. He finished the game with 21 carries for 55 yards. Zow rushed the ball eight times, but finished with -8 rushing yards. Alexander's eight receptions tied him for third place in receptions during an Alabama bowl game. The record was nine. On the opposite side of the ball, Virginia Tech quarterback Al Clark completed seven of his 14 passes for 71 yards and an interception. Clark's greatest success came on the ground, however, as he rushed nine times for 55 yards and a touchdown. Most of Virginia Tech's offense came on the ground, as Clark was surpassed in the rushing game by Shyrone Stith, who carried the ball 10 times for 71 yards and a touchdown. Fellow Tech running back Lamont Pegues scored two touchdowns and carried the ball 15 times for 41 yards. ## Postgame effects Virginia Tech's win lifted it to a final record of 9–3, while Alabama's loss dropped it to 7–5. In the final college football polls of the season, Virginia Tech was ranked 19th in the coaches' poll and 23rd in the AP Poll, while Alabama remained unranked. The 38–7 win remains Virginia Tech's biggest bowl-game win. Citing a desire to pursue "sporting events with a higher profile," American General decided not to renew its sponsorship of the Music City Bowl. In 1999, it was replaced by Homepoint.com, a now-defunct website. The site of the game also changed. It moved from Vanderbilt Stadium to LP Field, then known as Adelphia Coliseum. ### 1999 NFL draft As the final game of the 1998–1999 regular season, the 1998 Music City Bowl gave Virginia Tech and Alabama players a chance to show their skills prior to the 1999 NFL draft. Alabama had one player selected in the draft. Cornerback Fernando Bryant was selected by the Jacksonville Jaguars in the first round with the 26th overall selection. Virginia Tech had two players taken in the draft: defensive back Pierson Prioleau (110th overall) and guard Derek G. Smith (165th overall). ## See also - 1998 Alabama Crimson Tide football team
67,130,025	Spinning (song)	1,161,792,933	2021 single by No Rome, Charli XCX and The 1975	[ "2021 singles", "2021 songs", "Animated music videos", "Charli XCX songs", "Dirty Hit singles", "Hyperpop songs", "Songs by Matty Healy", "Songs written by Andrew Wyatt", "Songs written by Charli XCX", "The 1975 songs" ]	"Spinning" is a song by Filipino recording artist No Rome, English musician Charli XCX and band the 1975. The song was written by Andrew Wyatt, Charli XCX, No Rome and the 1975 members Matty Healy and George Daniel, while the production was handled by the latter three. It was released as a standalone single by Dirty Hit on 4 March 2021. Creation of the song began in 2018 when the producers developed its chorus, beat and production. Charli XCX received the song the following year, writing and recording her portion in one night. The singer later recorded vocals with Healy and Daniel in Sydney, while the song was completed remotely in early 2021. A pop and house song, "Spinning" was inspired by the desire of No Rome, Charli XCX and the 1975 to develop a creative outlet for themselves, composing the song with an intentionally pop-oriented sound. It incorporates elements of hyperpop, dance-pop and glitch pop, among others, while the beat combines disco, EDM and gospel house. The song's piano house production contains a piano-driven melody and synth drums, accompanied by lyrics performed in an Auto-Tuned style that detail a romance formed at a party. Upon release, "Spinning" received widespread critical acclaim from contemporary music critics, who praised the song's production, lyrics and Charli XCX's performance. Commercially, it reached number 94 on the UK Singles Chart, number 81 in Ireland, number 38 on the New Zealand Hot Singles chart and number 40 on the US Billboard Hot Rock & Alternative Songs chart. An accompanying music video, directed by Karlos Velásquez, was released on 16 March 2021. The animated visual features No Rome, Charli XCX and Healy as cartoon characters travelling through various locations, including outer space and the deep sea. ## Background and development Following the release of the 1975's second studio album I Like It When You Sleep, for You Are So Beautiful yet So Unaware of It (2016), lead singer Matty Healy developed a working relationship with Filipino musician No Rome. After Healy flew No Rome, who he described as "a bit of a muse of [his]", to the UK and signed him to the label Dirty Hit, the pair began working together on the band's upcoming album with drummer and producer George Daniel. Daniel and Healy later produced "Do It Again" from No Rome's third EP RIP Indo Hisashi (2018), while the 1975 co-produced and feature on fellow EP track "Narcissist". In the same year, No Rome co-wrote and provided background vocals for the band's "TooTimeTooTimeTooTime" and later appeared in the song's music video. The 1975's third album A Brief Inquiry into Online Relationships was released in November 2018 and features background vocals and technical production work from No Rome on several songs. Charli XCX initially planned to collaborate with the 1975 for material on her third album Charli (2019). The singer fell "deeply in love" with the band and visited them in Los Angeles, where they were recording. The musicians spoke about "songs and pop music" and while their collaboration seemed likely, it did ultimately not come to fruition for the album. Following the 2019 Reading Festival, Charli XCX spoke with NME about a potential collaboration with the 1975, revealing she had exchanged several ideas with the band. Describing herself as "such a fan of [Healy] and [the 1975]", the musician noted that their passion for pop music, "energy and ... uniqueness" inspired her, while adding she "really admire[s] [the band's] song writing". However, Charli XCX was unsure about the likelihood of the collaboration. Following the completion of "Spinning", the singer praised the chemistry shared between the different artists, noting they "all speak the same musical language in someway". No Rome described the overall concept of "Spinning" to Franchesca Basbas of Bandwagon as "more so like a song that [t]he 1975 and I produced for [Charli XCX]". He said the artists wanted to make a "fun" song and an "intentional pop tune" that they could "make good videos around". ## Recording The initial recording of "Spinning" occurred in 2018 when No Rome created the song's beat with Daniel; the singer wrote his part and Healy developed its chorus. Once No Rome completed his portion of the track, he worked alongside Daniel to begin the production. After the initial session with the three artists physically present, most of the remaining recording sessions for "Spinning" occurred remotely. On 9 August 2019, Healy sent the song to Charli XCX at 5 PM and asked if she wished to contribute. Charli XCX immediately began work on the song, completing her recording and sending it back to him the same night. Upon waking up to find her melodies, lyrics and vocals already finished, Healy proclaimed the singer to be "a fucking force" on Twitter. When asked whether he or the 1975 would be featured on the collaboration, Healy said he was undecided but noted that it would be produced by himself alongside Daniel and No Rome. Following the completion of Charli XCX's part, Healy, Daniels and No Rome continued to work on "Spinning". Speaking with Callie Ahlgrim of Insider, Charli XCX said they "spen[t] time really finessing [the song]", telling the interviewer that the producers took more time to work on ideas in contrast to her fast-paced output. She also noted that following this portion of the song's development, the track was "just sort of sitting around for ages". No Rome opened up that the musicians did not experience any problems creating "Spinning", but it was difficult to have all the artists together since "everyone was on tour and making albums". Healy, Daniel and Charli XCX were able to work on the song while touring Australia and New Zealand as part of the 2020 St Jerome's Laneway Festival, recording vocals for it in Sydney. The artists finished "Spinning" remotely: Charli XCX completed her part in Australia, Healy and Daniel in the UK and No Rome in the Philippines. In February 2021, the latter of the four stated that the mastering of the song was complete. ## Music and lyrics Musically, "Spinning" is an upbeat pop and house song, with elements of disco, Italo house, hyperpop, dance-pop, glitch pop, UK garage, rave and electronic pop. The track has a length of two minutes and fifty-three seconds (2:53). It was written by Andrew Wyatt, Charli XCX, Daniel, No Rome and Healy, while the latter three were responsible for the production. Built on an "energetic" house beat that combines disco, EDM and 1990s-style gospel house, "Spinning" has a piano house production composed of a piano-driven melody, "bouncy" bassline, "swirling" beats, synth drums and chopped Auto-Tuned vocals. The song details a romance formed with a fellow party-goer, as Charli XCX sings: "Found you at four in the morning / Confidence soaring / Thought you moved onto a new thing / But you keep it revolving." In the chorus, she sings: "You just keep, spinning over there". Jon Blistein of Rolling Stone called "Spinning" a "euphoric dance pop track", while Alternative Press' Rachael Dowd described it as a "synth-filled pop track" that blends "each artist's unique sounds and styles together". Writing for Paper, Matt Moen said the song is evocative of Silk City's "disco-tinged" dance-pop and the "hyperactive" vocal moments of Passion Pit. Stereogum writer Chris DeVille wrote that "Spinning" would not sound "out of place" on one of the 1975's albums. Contrasting this opinion, Caitlin White of Uproxx felt it is more similar to Charli XCX's discography, although she recognised that the song's "more pure pop elements" invoke the band's earlier work. Jolley wrote the track is the "music[al] equivalent of a dizzy headrush", opining that its release during the midst of the COVID-19 pandemic delivers "a nostalgic sense of longing for those times when you'd lose yourself – and your friends – on a wild night out". Basbas said "Spinning" is "reminiscent of a glowing dancefloor and late-night parties". ## Release In January 2021, Healy revealed in an Instagram post that he was collaborating with Charli XCX. On 8 February, No Rome announced on Twitter that a collaboration between Charli XCX, the 1975 and himself would debut sooner than expected, with the former replying via a tweet saying "Sounding good boys". However, the release date and title were not revealed at the time. Charli XCX tweeted on 28 February 2021 that she was excited to work with the two acts, announcing they would be forming a supergroup. On 1 March, the musician made another post revealing the song's name, "Spinning", artwork from the track and its release date. The artwork features live animated characters of No Rome, Charli XCX and Healy against a kaleidoscopic and psychedelic background, which Ben Jolley of Dummy Mag compared to "choose-your-fighter" action figures. On 3 March 2021, Charli XCX posted a 17-second black and white video of herself dancing to the song. "Spinning" was released by the label on 4 March as a standalone single, while a 7-inch vinyl was released on 28 March. The musicians collaborated with Japanese artist Hideyuki Tanaka and designer Samuel Burgess-Johnson to create animated characters for each of the singers. They partnered with NFT platform Foundation to auction their artwork off to a charity of their choice: No Rome's portion of the profits will go to Right Start, Charli XCX's to Girls Make Beats and the 1975's to One Tree Planted. ## Reception Upon release, "Spinning" was met with widespread critical acclaim from contemporary music critics. Laura English of Music Feeds commended the song's "fun" house beat and Charli XCX's lyrics and vocals. Writing for The Fader, Jordan Darville also praised Charli XCX's contribution and hailed her as the song's "conductor", while highlighting the composition of "Spinning" for maintaining "the energy of an amazing party's peak for its entire runtime". Jon Pareles of The New York Times opined that the track is "thoroughly danceable and flirtatious" and specifically commended Charli XCX's presence, saying "Spinning" "ends up on [her] turf: teasing, danceable and unstable". In his review of the song, DeVille described it as a "gorgeous blur" and praised the performances of Healy and Charli XCX but had trouble identifying No Rome's vocals. The editorial staff of the Manila Standard deemed the track "pure, joyful, escapist pop" and wrote that it serves as a testament to No Rome's "inimitable talent and endless musical ability". Stereogum declared "Spinning" as the second-best song of the week for 5 March 2021; DeVille said that "[f]or all intents and purposes, 'Spinning' is a 1975 song" that "expertly strikes their signature balances". Dowd praised the track's "distinct, and downright infectious, pop beats" and compared it to the songs on I Like It When You Sleep, for You Are So Beautiful yet So Unaware of It. Jolley lauded the production, the chorus' "infectious melody" and the "extremely fitting" lyrics of "Spinning", calling the song an "explosion of pent-up energy". DIY's Elly Watson commended the track's "joyful" sound and production and called it "a cute pop song to dance around your living room to". However, Watson felt "Spinning" is not as "mind-blowing" as she expected, given the artists involved. Moen called the song a "total bop"; he highlighted the "fun" melody and "catchy" hook, calling it a "flat out good time from start to finish". Deeming "Spinning" one of the week's best releases for The Guardian, Jenessa Williams lauded the song's "[19]90s school disco fun" and wrote: "It's nobody’s creative peak, but is a welcome mid-era bop from all three [artists]." Basbas said the track is a "much-needed boost of serotonin for these pandemic-ridden days". Jochan Embley, David Smyth and Nancy Durrant of the Evening Standard included "Spinning" on their music recommendations list, calling it a "delightfully breezy slice of pop" while also expressing their hope that the supergroup would continue releasing new music. Writing for Billboard, Gil Kaufman deemed the song a "dancefloor-ready banger". BrooklynVegan's Amanda Hatfield called "Spinning" an "exuberantly auto-tuned, poppy romp", while Stephen Ackroyd of Dork labelled the song "a pure slice of infectious mega-pop" and noted the mixture of influences from each of the collaborators. Writing for The Line of Best Fit, Cerys Kenneally opined that the track is a "bright anthem". Commercially, "Spinning" reached number 94 on the UK Singles Chart, number 81 in Ireland, number 40 on the US Billboard Hot Rock & Alternative Songs chart and number 38 on the New Zealand Hot Singles chart. ## Music video and promotion No Rome uploaded clips from the music video on Instagram on the same day, including a photo of all three artists against a "mesmerizing" background, while Healy posted a solo shot of himself wearing headphones and a hornlike hat. Daniel later uploaded a photo of him driving an ice cream truck with the license plate "BPM". The visual, directed by Karlos Velásquez, was released on 16 March 2021. The animation was handled by Venturia Animation Studios, Tanaka and Daniel Villa. Speaking on the visual, No Rome said it is "a video inspired by the art that inspires me". The video begins with an animated No Rome slipping into a puddle which transports him to a different universe. Joining the cartoon characters of Charli XCX and Healy, the trio adventure through the deep sea in submarines, float around in outer space, smoke joints and eat ice cream. Blistein called the visual a "bonkers animated adventure" and wrote that it is a "fittingly dazzling" companion to the song. Margaret Farrell of Flood Magazine deemed the video "too adorable to capture completely in words". Coup de Main's Shahlin Graves called the music video "adorable", while Will Richards of NME described the visual as an "animated wonderland". To further promote "Spinning", the artists released new merchandise, including a colouring book illustrated by Tanaka with scenes from and inspired by the music video, as well as a 7-inch vinyl, a tie-dye t-shirt and a long sleeve shirt. ## Track listing Digital download 1. "Spinning" – 2:52 Digital Remix EP 1. "Spinning" (A. G. Cook Remix) – 2:55 2. "Spinning" (A. G. Cook Club Remix) – 4:36 3. "Spinning" – 2:52 7-inch vinyl 1. "Spinning" – 2:52 2. "Spinning" (A. G. Cook Remix) – 2:52 ## Charts ## Release history ## See also - List of songs by Matty Healy
12,423,815	Markham's storm petrel	1,164,551,972	Species of seabird in Pacific South America	[ "Birds described in 1883", "Birds of the Pacific Ocean", "Hydrobatidae", "Taxa named by Osbert Salvin", "Taxonomy articles created by Polbot", "Western South American coastal birds" ]	Markham's storm petrel (Hydrobates markhami) is a species of storm petrel in the family Hydrobatidae. An all-black to sooty brown seabird, Markham's storm petrel is difficult to differentiate from the black petrel Procellaria parkinsoni in life, and was once described as conspecific with, or biologically identical to, Tristram's storm petrel Hydrobates tristrami. Markham's storm petrel inhabits open seas in the Pacific Ocean around Peru, Chile, and Ecuador, but only nests in northern Chile and Peru, with ninety-five percent of all known breeding populations in 2019 found in the Atacama Desert. First described by British ornithologist Osbert Salvin in 1883, the bird was named in honor of Albert Hastings Markham, a naval officer who collected a specimen off Peru. Markham's storm petrel nests in natural cavities in saltpeter, and pairs produce one egg per season. After hatching, fledglings make their way to sea, and can be either attracted to or disoriented by artificial lights. The diet of Markham's storm petrel consists of fish, cephalopods, and crustaceans, with about ten percent of stomach contents traceable to scavenging according to a 2002 study. Since at least 2012, Markham's storm petrel has been listed as an endangered species in Chile, and, in 2019, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) classified the conservation status of Markham's storm petrel as Near Threatened due to habitat loss on its nesting grounds. The Servicio Agrícola y Ganadero [es] (SAG), a department of the Ministry of Agriculture of Chile, has undertaken conservation efforts in the country. ## Taxonomy The northern storm petrel family, Hydrobatidae, is a group of seabirds characterized by long legs and a high adaption to marine environments, with its eighteen species predominately endemic to the northern hemisphere. In Hydrobatidae, Markham's storm petrel is a member of the genus Hydrobates, the only genus in the family, and is large compared to other members in the genus. Hydrobatidae probably diverged from other petrels at an early stage; according to John Warham, the petrel group had "substantial radiation" by the Miocene. Storm petrel fossils are rare; those which are found date from the Upper Miocene in California. British ornithologist Osbert Salvin first described Markham's storm petrel as Cymochorea markhami in 1883. Markham's storm petrel is named after Sir Albert Hastings Markham, a British explorer and naval officer who picked up the type specimen off Peru. The bird was thought by ornithologist James L. Peters in 1931 as conspecific, or biologically identical, with Tristram's storm petrel Oceanodroma tristrami, though the two species were later distinguished by size. Similarly, ornithologist Reginald Wagstaffe considered Tristram's storm petrel a subspecies of Markham's storm petrel in 1972, though subsequent research recognized them as different species. In 2016, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) reclassified Oceanodroma markhami as Hydrobates markhami based on HBW and BirdLife International Illustrated Checklist of the Birds of the World, volume 1, by Josep del Hoyo and British ornithologist Nigel J. Collar. In some studies, the genus Oceanodroma was found to be paraphyletic with respect to Hydrobates, and all former Oceanodroma species were transferred to Hydrobates under some authorities. In 2021, all species in Oceanodroma were transferred to Hydrobates by the International Ornithologists' Union. Its name in Spanish is Golondrina de mar negra or paíño ahumado. ## Description Markham's storm petrel is an all-black to sooty brown storm petrel with a dull lead-gray gloss on its head, neck and mantle in fresh plumage. Its underside, from the neck down, and wing lining are blackish brown, and become almost fuscous, or brownish-gray, with wear of the plumage. External edges of wing coverts in the bird become whitish with wear, but are normally brown; the whitening produces a broad grayish bar that generally extends closer to the wing's bend than what American ornithologist Robert Cushman Murphy observed as a somewhat similar mark in the black petrel Loomelania melania (Procellaria parkinsoni). Markham's storm petrel's iris is brown, its bill and feet are black, and its tail is deeply forked. Two female specimens taken from in August 1967, both with small gonads and unused oviducts, had heavy contour molt and light fat. Murphy described the species as difficult to distinguish in life from the black petrel, with the chief difference being a much shorter tarsus. According to an average of six males and five females, adult males have a wingspan of 172.7 millimetres (6.80 in) compared to a wingspan of 169.8 millimetres (6.69 in) in adult females, and the tarsus is 23.9 millimetres (0.94 in) in adult males and 24.2 millimetres (0.95 in) in females. Tails are 92.7 millimetres (3.65 in) in adult males and 89.4 millimetres (3.52 in) in adult females. Sexes are alike in terms of physical description, and according to Drucker and Jaramillo of Birds of the World, there are "no known morphological differences between adults and juveniles", even in hand. Markham's storm petrel's eggs are described as pure white without gloss. Molting adults are seen in the southern spring and early summer, molting juveniles several months earlier. Ornithologists Larry B. Spear and David G. Ainley report that Markham's storm petrel has a more leisurely flight pattern than that of the black petrel, and state that Markham's storm petrel has a similar flight pattern to Leach's storm petrel. In 1980, Canadian author RGB Brown stated the birds tended to glide over two observations, with shallow and rapid wingbeats, though an observation by American ornithologist Rollo Beck described its wingbeats as slow, and slower than the wingbeats of Wilson's storm petrel Oceanites oceanicus and Elliot's storm petrel Oceanites gracilis. Unlike the black petrel, Markham's storm petrel typically flies greater than one meter over the ocean surface. ## Distribution and habitat Markham's storm petrel inhabits waters in the Pacific Ocean around Ecuador, Peru, and Chile, though sightings have occurred on the equator west of the Galápagos Islands, within the Panama Bight, and off of Baja California. Sightings off of Baja California might mistake Markham's storm petrel for the black storm petrel due to difficulties of distinguishability in the field. Spear and Ainley observed Markham's storm petrel from to , which expanded its westward range from a compilation of sightings recorded by ornithologist Richard S. Crossin in 1974. Its presence is highly unlikely in the Atlantic Ocean outside of freak vagrancies, and in 2007, Spear and Ainley classified the species as endemic to the Humboldt Current. Despite its range, Markham's storm petrel only nests in Peru and Chile. A survey conducted by Spear and Ainley from 18°N to 30°S, west to 115°, found greatest densities of the bird during austral autumn (the non-breeding season) offshore between Guayaquil and Lima. During spring, the breeding population splits into two around southern Peru and northern Chile, stretching out 1,700 km (1,100 mi) offshore. Nesting colonies were first reported in the late 1980s to early 1990s. In 1992, 1,144 nests, equal to a population of approximately 2,300 nesting pairs, were found five kilometres (3.1 mi) inland on Paracas Peninsula in Peru. Two separate discoveries occurred in Chile in 2013: one of nesting sites south of the Acha valley [es] in Arica Province by a group of ornithologists and one of a recording of a bird singing by a biologist working for a consulting company. After further exploration in November 2013 based on the recording, in 2019, populations of 34,684 nests in Arica, 20,000 nests in Salar Grande, and 624 nests in Pampa de la Perdiz were found in the Atacama Desert of northern Chile. This translated to about ninety-five percent of the known breeding population at the time. ## Behavior and ecology Markham's storm petrel nests in burrows, natural cavities, and holes in saltpeter crusts. Nests in saltpeter cavities have been reported in Pampa de Camarones in northern Chile, and inland on Paracas Peninsula. In Peru, egg laying occurs from late June to August; in Chile, an analysis of three colonies in the Atacama Desert found a five-month reproductive cycle, from arrival at colonies to departure of fledglings, across all three colonies, though pairs could reproduce asynchronously. This could lead to an overall ten-month reproductive season. Pairs produce one egg per season, and adults in nests were found to vocalize when a conspecific recording of vocalizations was played at the entrance to the nest. The average incubation period in Paracas is 47 days (n = 28). Both the female and male engage in duties related to incubation. The shifts in incubation lasted three days or less in Paracas. According to Birds of the World, there are "[n]o details on the breeding colonies in Chile". Mean width of the widest part of openings to nest burrows in Chile was measured at 10.3 centimetres (4.1 in) with a standard deviation of ± 3.1 centimetres (1.2 in), with the narrowest part measured at 6.8 centimetres (2.7 in) with a deviation of ± 1.9 centimetres (0.75 in). The average depth of the burrows was greater than 40 centimetres (16 in). After hatching, in Chile, the fledglings move towards the sea after a chick phase. Fledglings are either attracted to or disoriented by artificial lights, an occurrence common to burrow-nesting petrels. In a study by Spear, Ainley and William A. Walker of the National Marine Mammal Laboratory, a sample of fifteen Markham's storm petrel had consumed namely the fish Diogenichthys laternatus and Vinciguerria lucetia, among other foods. Markham's storm petrel was found to have a lower dietary diversity than other small petrels, though dietary diversity was high generally among small petrels compared to other birds analyzed. A 2002 study in Marine Ornithology found its main diet by mass consisted of fish (namely the Peruvian anchovy Engraulis ringens), cephalopods (namely the octopus Japetella sp.), and crustaceans (namely the pelagic squat lobster Pleuroncodes monodon), with about ten percent of analyzed stomach contents suggestive of scavenging. Based on large variations in the types of food it consumes, and its tendency to scavenge, biologist Ignacio García-Godos concluded Markham's storm petrel was a forager which opportunistically found food near the surface of the ocean. The proportion of birds that feed or rest, compared to flying in transit, was significantly higher in austral autumn than spring in Spear and Ainley's 2007 study. In 2018, researchers Patrich Cerpa, Fernando Medrano and Ronny Peredo found the ectoparasite stick-tight flea Hectopsylla psittaci on two birds out of ten captured in Pampa de Chaca within the Arica y Parinacota Region. Both specimens were found in the lorum on each bird. The turkey vulture Cathartes aura served as a possible source for the transition between hosts, as Cerpa, Medrano and Peredo observed the two nesting in the same colony. Researchers Rodrigo Barros et al. described the bird as "one of the least known seabirds in the world". ## Threats and conservation The IUCN estimated the population of Markham's storm petrel in 2019 as between 150,000 and 180,000 individuals, with between 100,000 and 120,000 mature individuals, based on an estimate by researcher Fernando Medrano in 2019. Medrano combined a new colony description with previous findings by Barros in 2019, and estimated the global breeding population at 58,038 pairs. The IUCN estimated the population of Markham's storm petrel was in decline generally based on an estimate by Barros et al., who estimated approximately 21,000 fledglings die each year, though the IUCN noted juvenile seabirds have a higher mortality rate in general based on environmental parameters, age, and sex. The IUCN could not give a specific population trend for mature individuals because tendencies for mature populations were unknown. Prior to 2019, no concrete population estimates for Markham's storm petrel existed, with a 2004 estimate by Brooke placing the population at likely in excess of 30,000 individuals, a 2007 estimate by Spear and Ainley placing the population between 806,500 in austral spring and 1,100,000 in austral autumn, and a 2012 IUCN estimate placing the population at 50,000 overall individuals. Despite its very large population size, in 2019, the IUCN classified the conservation status of Markham's storm petrel as Near Threatened due to habitat loss on its nesting grounds. Since at least 2012, the bird has been classified as endangered in Chile, and, in 2018, the Chilean Ministry of the Environment [es] (MMA) classified the bird as En Peligro de Extinción [in danger of extinction] by its Reglamento de Clasificación de Especies. Conservation efforts have been undertaken in Chile by the Servicio Agrícola y Ganadero [es] (SAG), a department of the Ministry of Agriculture (Minagri). In April 2014, the SAG stated it already rescued a large number of juveniles who lost their way likely due to lighting in cities, a phenomenon that had been evident in the Tarapacá Region for at least ten years prior. In 2018, the SAG reported it returned approximately 2,000 juvenile birds to their natural habitat after the birds fell on streets, the birds apparently believing they had already reached the coast. In a program headed by Fernando Chiffelle, a Ministerial Regional Secretary [es] (seremi) from the Minagri, and Sue Vera, a seremi from the SAG Tarapacá, officials from the civil organization Red de Voluntarios de Rescatistas de la Golondrina de Mar Negra and from the seremi MMA handed out informational brochures to citizens in March 2019 which informed citizens about the start of the juvenile flight season. The brochures instructed citizens what to do if they found a grounded Markham's storm petrel. Similarly, in 2015, the Peruvian Servicio Nacional Forestal y de Fauna Silvestre instructed citizens how to transport a fallen Markham's storm petrel if they should find one. In Ecuador, as of 2018, the species is classified as Near Endangered. Chief threats to Markham's storm petrel in Chile include garbage, roadways across nesting colonies, mining, new construction and development, and artificial lights. In 2013, Juan C. Torres-Mura and Marina L. Lemus of the Unión de Ornitólogos de Chile reported seeing bulldozer trails, dogs and an encampment of road construction workers near nesting areas close to Arica. Other than habitat loss, salt mines in northern Chile may also provide a source of habitat disturbance through artificial lights; a salt mining company in Chile, for instance, reported over a three-month span that 3,300 fledglings had been grounded due to their lights. Fallen birds were reported in Tacna, Peru, in November 2015, the birds having possibly fallen due to artificial lights. In September 2019, the Chilean MMA produced a Recuperación, Conservación y Gestión de Especies [Recovery, Conservation and Management of Species] plan which included Markham's storm petrel, and which sought to evaluate proposals such as updating a light pollution standard to mitigate the effects of artificial lights on the birds and designating a nesting site at Pampa de Chaca as a protected area.
1,244,836	Jingle All the Way	1,170,701,909	1996 film by Brian Levant	[ "1492 Pictures films", "1990s American films", "1990s Christmas comedy films", "1990s English-language films", "1990s buddy comedy films", "1990s children's comedy films", "1990s satirical films", "1996 children's films", "1996 comedy films", "1996 films", "20th Century Fox films", "20th Century Studios franchises", "American Christmas comedy films", "American buddy comedy films", "American children's comedy films", "American satirical films", "Films about father–son relationships", "Films about salespeople", "Films about toys", "Films directed by Brian Levant", "Films involved in plagiarism controversies", "Films produced by Chris Columbus", "Films produced by Michael Barnathan", "Films scored by David Newman", "Films set in Minnesota", "Films shot in Los Angeles", "Films shot in Minnesota" ]	Jingle All the Way is a 1996 American Christmas family comedy film directed by Brian Levant. It stars Arnold Schwarzenegger and Sinbad as two rival fathers, mattress salesman Howard Langston (Schwarzenegger) and postal worker Myron Larabee (Sinbad), both desperately trying to purchase a Turbo-Man action figure for their respective sons on a last-minute shopping spree on Christmas Eve. The film's title is borrowed from the lyrics of the popular Christmas song "Jingle Bells". Inspired by real-life Christmas toy sell-outs for such items as Cabbage Patch Kids, the film was written by Randy Kornfield. Producer Chris Columbus rewrote the script, adding in elements of satire about the commercialization of Christmas, and the project was picked up by 20th Century Fox. Delays to Fox's reboot of Planet of the Apes allowed Schwarzenegger to come on board the film, while Columbus opted to cast Sinbad instead of Joe Pesci as Myron. Jingle All the Way was set and filmed in the Twin Cities of Minneapolis and Saint Paul at a variety of locations, including the Mall of America. After five weeks filming, production moved to California where scenes such as the end parade were shot. The film's swift production meant merchandising was limited to a replica of the Turbo-Man action figure used in the film. Upon release, Jingle All the Way grossed \$129.8 million worldwide but received generally negative reviews from critics, though the humor and Sinbad and Schwarzenegger's performances received some praise. In 2001, Fox was ordered to pay \$19 million to Murray Hill Publishing for stealing the idea for the film; the verdict was overturned three years later. Jingle All the Way is the third and final collaboration between Sinbad and Phil Hartman after Coneheads (1993) and Houseguest (1995), and the last film featuring Hartman to be released during his lifetime before his death in 1998. In 2014, the film was followed by a sequel in name only, Jingle All the Way 2, starring Larry the Cable Guy. ## Plot Workaholic Minneapolis mattress salesman Howard Langston loves his wife, Liz, and nine-year-old son, Jamie, but rarely finds time for them. He is often put in a bad light by his neighbor, divorcé Ted Maltin, who harbors unrequited feelings for Liz. After missing Jamie's karate class graduation, Howard resolves to redeem himself by fulfilling his Christmas wish for a Turbo-Man action figure, a popular television superhero; despite Liz actually having asked him to buy one two weeks earlier, which Howard forgot about. On Christmas Eve, Howard sets out to buy the toy, but finds that every store has sold out, and in the process develops a rivalry with Myron Larabee, a postal worker father with the same goal. In desperation, Howard attempts to buy a figure from a counterfeit ring run by con men dressed in Santa suits, which results in a massive fight in the warehouse that is broken up by the police. Howard narrowly escapes arrest by posing as an undercover officer. Exhausted at his failure and out of fuel, Howard goes to a diner and calls home, intending to tell Liz the truth. Jamie answers the phone but keeps reminding him of his promise to be home in time for the annual Holiday Wintertainment Parade. Losing his patience, Howard yells at Jamie, after which he feels guilty and depressed after Jamie scolds him for not keeping his promises. Howard finds Myron at the diner and they share their experiences over coffee, where Myron tells him of his resentment towards his own father for failing to get him a Johnny Seven OMA for Christmas. During their conversation, Howard and Myron overhear a radio station advertising a competition for a Turbo-Man doll. The ensuing fight between them results in the diner's phone getting disconnected, forcing them to race to the radio station on foot, where the DJ reveals to them that the competition was actually for a Turbo-Man gift certificate. The police are alerted, but Howard and Myron escape after Myron threatens the officers with a seemingly phony letter bomb. Officer Alexander Hummell, whom Howard has run into several times already, investigates the package, only to have it detonate in his face. Upon returning to his Suburban, Howard finds it stripped by car thieves. He takes a tow truck home, where he finds Ted putting the star on his family's Christmas tree. In retaliation, Howard starts to steal the Turbo-Man doll Ted bought for his son, Johnny, but can't bring himself to do it. Unfortunately, Liz catches him in the act and Howard is left alone while his family goes to the Christmas parade with Ted and Johnny. After dropping off Jamie and Johnny, Ted attempts to seduce Liz, but she violently rejects him by dousing him with egg nog. Meanwhile, remembering his promise to Jamie to go to the parade, Howard decides to attend as well, but runs into Hummell again. The resulting chase leads to Howard hiding inside a storage room, where he is mistaken for the actor portraying Turbo-Man and dresses in the highly technological costume. As Turbo-Man, Howard uses his chance to present a limited-edition action figure to Jamie, but they are confronted by Myron dressed as Turbo-Man's archenemy, Dementor. Despite Howard's pleas for Myron to stop, a long chase ensues, involving a jetpack flight. Myron acquires the toy from Jamie but is cornered by police officers, while Howard rescues Jamie. Howard reveals himself to his family and apologizes for his shortcomings. The police return the toy to Jamie while Myron is arrested, but Jamie decides to give the toy to Myron for his son, proclaiming his father as his true hero. The crowd carries Howard away in a hero's fashion, while Myron, Liz, and Jamie watch happily. In a post-credits scene, Howard finishes decorating their Christmas tree later that night by putting the star on top. However, when Liz asks him what he got for her, he shockingly realizes that he forgot to get her a gift. ## Cast ## Production ### Development The film draws inspiration from the high demand for Christmas toys such as the Cabbage Patch Kids and Mighty Morphin Power Rangers in the late 1980s and early 1990s, which often led to intense searching and occasional violence among shoppers, such as the Cabbage Patch riots, over finding the toys. Randy Kornfield wrote the film's original screenplay after witnessing his in-laws go to a Santa Monica toy store at dawn in order to get his son a Power Ranger. While admitting to missing the clamor for the Cabbage Patch Kids and Power Rangers, producer Chris Columbus experienced a similar situation in 1995 when he attempted to obtain a Buzz Lightyear action figure from the film Toy Story, released that year. As a result, he rewrote Kornfield's script, which was accepted by 20th Century Fox. Columbus was always "attracted to the dark side of the happiest holiday of the year", so wrote elements of the film as a satire of the commercialization of Christmas. Brian Levant was hired to direct the film. Columbus said Levant "underst[ood] the humor in the material" and "was very animated and excited, and he had a vision of what he wanted to do". Levant said "The story that was important to me was between the father and son ... it's a story about love, and a father's journey to deliver it in the form of a Turbo Man doll. The fact that I got to design a toy line and do the commercials and make pajamas and comic books was fun for me as a filmmaker. But at its root, the movie's about something really sweet. It's about love and building a better family. I think that's consistent with everything I've done." Arnold Schwarzenegger was quickly cast. He became available in February 1996 after Fox's remake of Planet of the Apes was held up again; Columbus also exited that project to work on Jingle All the Way. The film marks Schwarzenegger's fourth appearance as the lead in a comedy film, following Twins (1988), Kindergarten Cop (1990) and Junior (1994). Schwarzenegger was paid a reported \$20 million for the role. He enjoyed the film, having experienced last-minute Christmas shopping himself, and was attracted to playing an "ordinary" character in a family film. Columbus initially wanted Joe Pesci to play Myron. Comedian Sinbad was chosen instead, partly due to his similar height and size to Schwarzenegger. Sinbad was suggested for the part by Schwarzenegger's agent, but the producers felt he was unsuited to the role of a villain as it could harm his clean, family-oriented comedy act and reputation, although Sinbad felt the character would generate the audience's sympathy rather than hate. Furthermore, he missed the audition due to his appearance with First Lady Hillary Clinton and musician Sheryl Crow on the USO tour of Bosnia and Herzegovina, but Columbus waited for him to return to allow him to audition and, although Sinbad felt he had "messed" it up, he was given the part. He improvised the majority of his lines in the film; Schwarzenegger also improvised many of his responses in his conversations with Sinbad's character. ### Filming Filming took place in Minnesota for five weeks from April 15, 1996; at the time, it was the largest film production to ever take place in the state. Jingle All the Way was set and filmed in the Twin Cities metropolitan area of Minnesota at locations such as Bloomington's Mall of America, Mickey's Diner, downtown Minneapolis, Linden Hills, residential areas of Edina and primarily downtown Saint Paul. Unused shops in the Seventh place Mall area were redecorated to resemble Christmas decorated stores, while the Energy Park Studios were used for much of the filming and the Christmas lights stayed up at Rice Park for use in the film. The Mall of America and the state's "semi-wintry weather" proved attractive for the studio. Although Schwarzenegger stated that the locals were "well-behaved" and "cooperative", Levant often found filming "impossible" due to the scale and noise of the crowds who came to watch production, especially in the Mall of America, but overall found the locals to be "respectful" and "lovely people." Levant spent several months in the area before filming in order to prepare. The film uses artistic license by treating Minneapolis and Saint Paul as one city, as this was logistically easier; the police are labeled "Twin Cities Police" in the film. Additionally, the city's Holidazzle Parade is renamed the Wintertainment Parade and takes place on 2nd Avenue during the day, rather than Nicollet Mall at night. Levant wanted to film the parade at night but was overruled for practical reasons. The parade was filmed at Universal Studios Hollywood in California on the New York Street set, due to safety concerns. The set was designed to resemble 2nd Avenue; the parade was shot from above by helicopters and stitched into matte shots of the real-life street. It took three weeks to film, with 1,500 extras being used in the scene, along with three custom designed floats. Other parts of the film to be shot in Los Angeles, California included store interiors, and the warehouse fight scene between Howard and the criminal Santas, for which a Pasadena furniture warehouse was used. Turbo-Man was created and designed for the film. This meant the commercials and scenes from the Turbo-Man TV series were all shot by Levant, while all of the Turbo-Man merchandise, packaging and props shown in the film were custom made one-offs and designed to look "authentic, as if they all sprang from the same well." Along with Columbus and Levant, production designer Leslie McDonald and character designer Tim Flattery crafted Turbo-Man, Booster and Dementor and helped make the full-size Turbo-Man suit for the film's climax. Principal production finished in August; Columbus "fine-tun[ed] the picture until the last possible minute," using multiple test audiences "to see where the big laughs actually lie." ## Music TVT Records released the film's soundtrack album on Audio CD on November 26, 1996. It features only two of composer David Newman's pieces from Jingle All the Way, but features many of the songs by other artists included in the film, as well as other Christmas songs and new tracks by the Brian Setzer Orchestra. Intrada Music Group released a Special Collection limited edition of Newman's full 23-track score on November 3, 2008. ## Release ### Marketing As Schwarzenegger only signed on for the film in February and the film was shot so quickly, only six and a half months were available for merchandising, instead of the ideal year. As such, merchandising was limited to a 13.5-inch replica \$25 Talking Turbo-Man action figure and the West Coast exclusive Turbo-Man Time Racer vehicle, while no tie-in promotions could be secured. Despite this, several critics wrote that the film was only being made in order to sell the toy. Columbus dismissed this notion, stating that with only roughly 200,000 Turbo-Man toys being made, the merchandising was far less than the year's other releases, such as Space Jam and 101 Dalmatians. The film's release coincided with the Tickle Me Elmo craze, in which high demand for the doll during the 1996 Christmas season led to store mobbing similar to that depicted for Turbo-Man. The world premiere was held on November 16, 1996, at the Mall of America in Bloomington where parts of the film were shot. A day of events was held to celebrate the film's release and Schwarzenegger donated memorabilia from the film to the Mall's Planet Hollywood. ### Home media The film was released on VHS on October 28, 1997, and in November 1998 it was released on DVD. It was rereleased on DVD in December 2004, followed by an extended director's cut in October 2007, known as the "Family Fun Edition". It contained several minutes of extra footage, as well as other DVD extras such as a behind the scenes featurette. In December of the following year, the Family Fun Edition was released on Blu-ray Disc. ### Lawsuit In 1998, Murray Hill Publishing sued 20th Century Fox for \$150,000, claiming that the idea for the film was stolen from a screenplay they had purchased from high school teacher Brian Webster entitled Could This Be Christmas? They said the script had 36 similarities with Jingle All the Way, including the plot, dialogue and character names. Murray Hill President Bob Laurel bought the script from Webster in 1993, and sent it to Fox and other studios in 1994 but received no response and claimed the idea was copied by Kornfield, who was Fox's script reader. In 2001, Fox were found guilty of stealing the idea and ordered to pay \$19 million (\$15 million in damages and \$4 million in legal costs) to Murray Hill, with Webster to receive a portion. Laurel died a few months after the verdict, before receiving any of the money. On appeal, the damages figure was lowered to \$1.5 million, before the verdict itself was quashed in 2004 after a judge decided the idea was not stolen, as Fox had bought Kornfield's screenplay before he or anybody else at Fox had read Could This Be Christmas? ## Reception ### Box office Opening on November 22, Jingle All the Way made \$12.1 million in its first weekend, opening at \#4 behind Star Trek: First Contact, Space Jam and Ransom; it went on to gross \$129 million worldwide, recouping its \$75 million budget in the first ten days of release. The film was released in the United Kingdom on December 6, 1996, and topped the country's box office that weekend. ### Critical response On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 19% based on 47 reviews and an average rating of . The site's critical consensus reads, "Arnold Schwarzenegger tries his best, but Jingle All the Way suffers from an uneven tone, shifting wildly from a would-be satire on materialism to an antic, slapstick yuk-fest." On Metacritic the film has a score of 34% based on reviews from 23 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale. Emanuel Levy felt the film "highly formulaic" and criticized Levant's direction as little more advanced than a television sitcom. Although he felt that the script did not provide sufficient opportunity for Hartman, Wilson and Conrad to give exceptional performances, he opined that "Schwarzenegger has developed a light comic delivery, punctuated occasionally by an ironic one-liner," while "Sinbad has good moments". Neil Jeffries of Empire disagreed, feeling Schwarzenegger to be "wooden" and Sinbad to be "trying desperately to be funnier than his hat" but praised Lloyd as the "saving grace" of the film. The New York Times critic Janet Maslin felt the film lacked any real plot, failed in its attempt at satire, should have included Myron's only mentioned son and "mostly wasted" Hartman, while Levant's direction was "listless". Similarly, the BBC's Neil Smith criticized the film's script, its focus on the commercialization of Christmas, as well as Schwarzenegger's performance which shows "the comic timing of a dead moose," but singled out Hartman for praise. Chicago Tribune critic Michael Wilmington panned the film, wondering why the characters (primarily Howard) acted so illogically: "Howard Langston is supposed to be a successful mattress manufacturer, but the movie paints him as a hot-tempered buffoon without a sensible idea in his head." Jack Garner of USA Today condemned the film, finding it more "cynical" than satirical, stating "this painfully bad movie has been inspired strictly by the potential jingle of cash registers." He wrote of Levant's directorial failure as he "offers no ... sense of comic timing," while "pauses in the midst of much of the dialogue are downright painful." Trevor Johnston suggested that the film "seems to mark a point of decline in the Schwarzenegger career arc" and the anti-consumerism message largely failed, with "Jim Belushi's corrupt mall Santa with his stolen-goods warehouse ... provid[ing] the film's sole flash of dark humour." IGN's Mike Drucker praised its subject matter as "one of the few holiday movies to directly deal with the commercialization of Christmas" although felt the last twenty minutes of the film let it down, as the first hour or so had "some family entertainment" value if taken with a "grain of salt". He concluded the film was "a member of the so-corny-its-good genre," while "Arnold delivers plenty of one-liners ripe for sound board crank callers." Jamie Malanowski of The New York Times praised the film's satirical premise but felt it was "full of unrealized potential" because "the filmmakers [wrongly] equate mayhem with humor." Roger Ebert gave the film two-and-a-half stars, writing that he "liked a lot of the movie", which he thought had "energy" and humor which would have mass audience appeal. He was, though, disappointed by "its relentlessly materialistic view of Christmas, and by the choice to go with action and (mild) violence over dialogue and plot." Kevin Carr of 7M Pictures concluded that while the film is not very good, as a form of family entertainment it is "surprisingly fun." ### Accolades ## Sequel Over 18 years after the release of the original film, a stand-alone sequel, Jingle All the Way 2, was released straight-to-DVD in December 2014. Directed by Alex Zamm and produced by WWE Studios and 20th Century Fox, the film has a similar plot to the original, but is otherwise not connected and has none of the original cast or characters. The lead roles were instead played by Larry the Cable Guy and Santino Marella. ## See also - List of Christmas films - "Jingle Bells", popular traditional winter holiday song
23,891,846	Buy, Buy Baby	1,117,540,764	null	[ "2006 American television episodes", "Television episodes directed by James Burrows", "Will & Grace episodes" ]	"Buy, Buy Baby" is the eighteenth episode of the American television series Will & Grace's eighth season. It was written by Kirk J. Rudell and directed by series producer James Burrows. The episode originally aired on NBC in the United States on March 30, 2006. Guest stars in "Buy, Buy Baby" include Britney Spears, Wanda Sykes, and George Takei. In the episode, Jack's (Sean Hayes) talk show Jack Talk is completely revamped, after right-wing conservatives take over the gay network, OutTV. The new owners hire the ultra-conservative Amber-Louise (Spears) as Jack Talk's new co-host, infuriating Jack. While Jack is deciding whether or not he will stand up to his new bosses, Karen (Megan Mullally) desires a baby of her own. After seeing Grace (Debra Messing) so happy about her pregnancy, Karen decides she wants a baby and offers to pay a surrogate (Sykes) to carry one for her. Before the airing of "Buy, Buy Baby", a press release from NBC revealed that the episode would include a scene in which Spears hosted a Christian cooking segment called "Cruci-fixins". The name of the segment was met with protest from Christian groups, who accused it of mocking Jesus' crucifixion. The network canceled the segment after criticism from the American Family Association. "Buy, Buy Baby" received generally mixed reviews and, according to Nielsen ratings, was watched by 3.7 million households during its original broadcast. ## Plot Jack (Sean Hayes) learns that OutTV, the gay television network where he is employed, has been bought by a "large corporation" and that his talk show Jack Talk will have a co-host "to widen the audience." Not in favor of the idea, Jack agrees and meets his co-host, Amber-Louise (Britney Spears). During an episode of Jack Talk, Jack is stunned to realize that OutTV, which has been bought by right-wing conservatives, have made changes to the show, including it being renamed Talk Time USA. Not thrilled at the idea, Jack is told to compromise; Amber-Louise admits to Jack that she is a lesbian, and is merely pretending to be an ultra-conservative Christian to get by in the TV world. She asks him to go along with it, so that he can keep his job. Jack gets on board and informs his guest, actor George Takei, that the network asked that he not reveal he is gay on the show. Will tells Jack not to be let himself be pushed around, and to stand up for who he is. Jack takes Will's advice and does not compromise, which ultimately costs him his job. Grace's (Debra Messing) pregnancy prompts Karen (Megan Mullally) to have a baby of her own. She pays a surrogate, Cricket (Wanda Sykes), to carry her child. Grace, who is bewildered at the idea of Karen having a baby, suspects that the only reason is that she is having one. Karen, however, dismisses the idea. Meanwhile, Cricket begins to have second thoughts on becoming Karen's surrogate, following Karen's strange behavior towards her and Karen's admission on how she and her husband, Stanley, will raise the child. This prompts Cricket to quit and Karen revealing to Grace that the only reason she wanted a baby was to help her marriage. She also admits that she has thought about leaving her husband. ## Production "Buy, Buy Baby" was written by Kirk J. Rudell and directed by series producer James Burrows. In February 2006, it was confirmed that singer Britney Spears would guest star on the show. She rehearsed with the cast on February 11, 2006, and recorded her lines in front of a live audience on February 13 and February 15, 2006. Spears' appearance on Will & Grace was her first acting performance on prime-time television, and her first television appearance since giving birth to a child in September 2005. The show's creators, David Kohan and Max Mutchnick, thought she did a "surprisingly good job". On March 28, 2006, the Human Rights Campaign announced that actor George Takei would also appear in the episode, in support of Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, and Transgender (GLBT) issues since coming out as gay. In addition, actress Wanda Sykes appears as Cricket. The episode first aired on NBC in the United States on March 30, 2006. According to a press release for "Buy, Buy Baby" released by NBC in February 2006, the episode was to air on April 13, 2006 (Maundy Thursday), the day before Good Friday and the crucifixion of Jesus. In the press release, NBC said the episode would include a scene in which Spears hosted a Christian cooking segment called "Cruci-fixins". The name of the segment was met with controversy from Christian groups, who called it a "mockery" of Jesus' crucifixion. According to the American Family Association (AFA), pressure from themselves and NBC's affiliates, caused NBC to cancel the segment and move the episode's air date. NBC, however, stated that the "Cruci-fixins" segment was "erroneous information" mistakenly included in the press release and that it was an idea for another episode that had yet to be written. An NBC spokesperson stated: "The reference to 'Cruci-fixins' will not be in the show and the storyline will not contain a Christian characterization at all. We value our viewers and sincerely regret if this misinformation has offended them." AFA responded by claiming that the network was "lying" in its claim that the segment had never been a part of the episode. A statement on AFA's website read: > In an attempt to confuse the public, the network issued an intentionally misleading statement that left the impression that AFA had lied to our supporters. When NBC said that the script 'has yet to be written,' what they didn't tell you is that the 'story board' had been completed and the offensive material was scheduled to be a part of the episode. The story board contains the outline of the program. That is the reason for the detailed description of the episode issued by NBC in their initial press release. The bottom line is that the actions taken by AFA online supporters like you caused them to rewrite the episode and remove the offensive segment. ## Reception In its original American broadcast, "Buy, Buy Baby" was watched by approximately 3.7 million households, according to Nielsen ratings. The episode achieved an 11% in the key 18–49 demographics among adults. It was the eighth highest-rated show on the NBC network that week. Since airing, the episode has received mixed reviews from television critics. R. D. Heldenfels of the Akron Beacon Journal said Spears' appearance on the show was "uninspired". Lenny Ann Low of The Sydney Morning Herald commented that Spears as a right-wing co-host was a miss. "It proves she can talk and avoid the furniture but her flitting, one-dimensional character feels like a stunt." In Low's opinion, the only thing that saved the episode from a "thumbs down", was "its message about finding the courage to be yourself in a sea of conservatism, saccharine though that sounds." Maureen Ryan of the Chicago Tribune thought Spears "bombed" in the episode, and Jeff Hidek of Star-News disliked the Southern accent she used in her performance. The Plain Dealer's Mark Dawidziak commented: "Granted, the episode wasn't very well written, but Spears seemed more out of place on the show than Megan Mullally's Karen at a sensitivity seminar." A Herald Sun reviewer, however, thought she gave the final season of Will & Grace the "send-off it deserved." Rachel Browne of The Sun-Herald said the problem with Spears' performance is that "it's impossible to accept her in any role other than her own headline-hugging self." Browne, however, thought her appearance was "fun to watch". The Sunday Mail was also positive about Spears' performance, commenting that she "does well, especially when you remember the dismal Crossroads." Trent Vanegas of Pink is the New Blog said that doing the show was a "great move" for Spears. Television researcher Tim Brooks, the co-author of the 1979 book The Complete Directory to Prime Time Network and Cable TV Shows, commented that Spears' role was a "very good way to get her chops into comedy", in part because it is "very out of type. She's not just playing herself as a celebrity."
50,842,806	Observer (video game)	1,171,430,478	2017 video game	[ "2017 video games", "Aspyr games", "Bloober Team games", "Cyberpunk video games", "Dystopian video games", "Experimental medical treatments in fiction", "Fiction about memory erasure and alteration", "Fiction set in 2084", "Hacking video games", "Human experimentation in fiction", "Nintendo Switch games", "PlayStation 4 games", "PlayStation 5 games", "Psychological horror games", "Science fiction video games", "Single-player video games", "Techland games", "Transhumanism in video games", "Unreal Engine games", "Video games about dreams", "Video games about mass surveillance", "Video games about police officers", "Video games about the illegal drug trade", "Video games developed in Poland", "Video games set in Poland", "Video games set in the 2080s", "Windows games", "Works about fear", "Xbox One X enhanced games", "Xbox One games", "Xbox Series X and Series S games" ]	Observer (stylised as \>observer\_) is a psychological horror video game developed by Bloober Team and published by Aspyr. It was released for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4 and Xbox One in August 2017, followed by versions for Linux, macOS and Nintendo Switch. An upgraded and expanded version called Observer: System Redux was released in November 2020 for Windows, PlayStation 5, and Xbox Series X/S, for Amazon Luna in March 2021, and for PlayStation 4 and Xbox One in July 2021. Observer follows Daniel Lazarski, a detective known as an Observer, who can hack people's minds as a method of interrogation. A team of around thirty developed the game using the Unreal Engine 4. It stars Rutger Hauer, who was also in Blade Runner, one of the primary influences. Arkadiusz Reikowski composed the score, infusing it with choral, diegetic and ambient music. Observer received generally favourable reviews. Critics praised the world design, visual effects and hacking sequences but criticised the stealth and its focus on style over substance. ## Gameplay Observer is a psychological horror video game played from a first-person perspective. The player controls Daniel Lazarski, a Krakowian detective of the Observers police unit. He can hack people's brain implants with a device known as the Dream Eater, for interrogation purposes. Equipped with augmented vision split into Electromagnetic Vision—which scans for electronic devices—and Bio Vision—which scans for biological evidence—he is able to analyse and highlight certain objects in his environment. Objects can be interacted with and examined, while dialogue trees are used for speaking with non-player characters. Nanophage cards, patient records, radio-controlled cars and roses serve as collectibles. A mini-game called With Fire and Sword: Spiders is accessed through computer terminals, which can also read documents. ## Synopsis Observer is set in 2084 Kraków, Poland after the nanophage, a "digital plague" that cost the lives of thousands, resulting in war and rampant drug use. After Chiron, a megacorporation, took control of Poland and manifested the Fifth Polish Republic, a police unit known as Observers was put in control of the denizens with license to hack their minds. Drug and hologram addicts were made Class C and cast off to live in tenement buildings. One morning, Observer detective Daniel Lazarski receives a call from his estranged son Adam, whose caller ID is traced to a tenement building. Locating Adam's apartment, Daniel discovers a body missing its head. He scans a ComPass implant and sees a missed call from "H.N." Checking the tenant log, he learns the initials belong to Helena Nowak who lives in apartment 104. At this point, a lockdown has been triggered. In apartment 104, Daniel finds a moribund man and hacks his brain for clues. Given a glimpse of the tattoo parlour outside, he heads to the courtyard. Helena is found dead inside the parlour; hacking her brain reveals she was working for Adam, smuggling data out of Chiron. Daniel goes looking for Jack Karnas, the owner of the tattoo parlour, in apartment 210. He finds Jack murdered and follows a trail of the killer's blood to the attic, where he is ambushed and knocked unconscious. When he regains consciousness, he finds the killer dead and hacks the remains. Daniel continues from there into the sewers, arriving at the killer's hideout. Adam's severed head lies underneath a cover on a table. Distraught, Daniel is met with his son's voice mentioning a place called Sanctuary. He finds his way deeper underground, ending up at Sanctuary's gates. Inside Sanctuary, Daniel meets Adam in a virtual world and learns that Adam's consciousness was transferred into a digital realm hoping it was out of Chiron's reach. However, Adam claims Chiron deployed a virus to break down his defences. Daniel is urged to manually override the signal that caused the lockdown, releasing Adam from the building's private network. In the adjoining building, Adam reveals he killed the original Adam for sending the virus after him and triggered the lockdown to lead Daniel to Sanctuary. Adam asks that he be hosted in Daniel's Observer mind to save what is left of his son; if Daniel accepts, Adam takes full control over him. If he refuses, Adam transfers Daniel's consciousness into a maintenance drone and steals his body. Daniel manages to steal the body of the drone's owner and uses it to attack Adam but is shot dead by police as the lockdown is finally lifted. ## Development and release At Kraków-based Bloober Team, a staff, at times exceeding thirty members, developed Observer with Unreal Engine 4. By December 2015, the game was in pre-production with one of two scripts bearing its concept. Development began with the idea of changing the setting from that of the studio's previous title, Layers of Fear, to a dystopian society embellished with 1980s and '90s references to Eastern European culture and architecture, and adding in-game propaganda reminiscent of the Soviet Union. Influences included Blade Runner, Cyberpunk 2020, and comic books; all used so that the game could distinguish itself from American and Japanese cyberpunk. The ever-changing level design in hacking sequences features compression artefact effects. HRZ3D Studio worked on the opening intro; frameshunter contributed additional animations. The involvement of Rutger Hauer, who plays the lead, was revealed in July 2017: Hauer had previously starred in Blade Runner. Arkadiusz Reikowski composed the soundtrack, which was influenced by the music of Akira, Ghost in the Shell and Blade Runner. Reikowski used an analogue synthesizer to keep faithful to the atmosphere, worked with the Polish band Księżyc for the choral music (using words intended as ominous, alien and ritual) and employed diegetic music by psytrance artist Mirror Me. Przemek Laszczyk, with whom Reikowski worked on the 2015 video game Kholat, provided additional ambient music like the tattoo parlour theme. The game was released for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4 and Xbox One on 15 August 2017, and launched for macOS and Linux on 24 October. Techland published a limited edition in Poland; Limited Run Games released a physical version for PlayStation 4 in July 2018. Observer was released for Nintendo Switch on 7 February 2019. Observer: System Redux, a version featuring more story content and enhanced visuals and gameplay, was released for Microsoft Windows and Xbox Series X on 10 November 2020, and for PlayStation 5 on 12 November. This version was released for Amazon Luna on 25 March 2021 and for PlayStation 4 and Xbox One on 16 July 2021. ## Reception According to Metacritic, Observer received generally favourable reviews. It was a runner-up for the Best World award at Giant Bomb's 2017 Game of the Year Awards, and won for Best Setting in Game Informer's 2017 Adventure Game of the Year Awards. Eurogamer and Polygon ranked it among the best games of 2017. The game was also nominated for Use of Sound, New IP at the National Academy of Video Game Trade Reviewers Awards, and won the award for Best Emotional Indie Game at the Emotional Games Awards 2018. Game Informer's Javy Gwaltney wrote "Observer makes the most of its fusion of cyberpunk sci-fi and terror", citing the minimalistic setting as something that distinguished it from other futuristic stories. He commended the hacking sequences for being "intense, terrifying" and interesting. The game was praised for its puzzles, consistent scares and plot revelations, which Gwaltney thought kept it from being boring, despite the lack of combat. Brittany Vincent of Game Revolution said the game was, "by far", among the best of the year. She felt the exploration was thrilling and declared the atmosphere and visual effects during hacking sequences "masterful". David Rayfield at GameSpot praised the detailed environments and found the story to be "one of the most intriguing" in the genre in years. He felt the ability to open doors inches at a time added to the horror. He liked the blend of the sound design with Reikowski’s music, and how the writing made "even the most fleeting of characters" genuine. Writing for PC Gamer, Jody Macgregor said certain moments of "surrealness" were effective, finding the visual effects "genuinely shocking" at times. The cat-and-mouse levels were lauded for "livening up the dreams". Shacknews' Chris Jarrard agreed with Rayfield that the "hyper-detailed world" made an impression. He observed a "superb" use of binaural recording and thought the pacing was "excellent". Conversely, Gwaltney criticised Rutger Hauer's line delivery and the stealth sequences. Vincent and Rayfield both disparaged the stealth areas, calling them "frustrating". Macgregor complained that, although the visual effects looked "kind of cool", they eventually lost their appeal; similarly, he called the cat-and-mouse sequences "overused". Other complaints included the use of jump scares and a disappointing plot. Jarrard saw the exploration as "cumbersome and mildly off putting [sic]". ## Film adaptation In December 2017, a film adaptation with American production company Zero Gravity was announced, increasing the value of Bloober Team's shares by over 8%.
25,865,783	Glen P. Robinson	1,165,991,331	American Founder of Scientific Atlanta	[ "1923 births", "2013 deaths", "Amateur radio people", "American business executives", "Fellow Members of the IEEE", "Georgia Tech Research Institute people", "Georgia Tech alumni", "Marion Military Institute alumni", "People from Crescent City, Florida", "Scientific Atlanta", "United States Navy personnel of World War II" ]	Glen Parmelee Robinson, Jr. (September 10, 1923 – January 16, 2013), called the "father of high-tech industry in Georgia", was an American businessman and founder of Scientific Atlanta, now a subsidiary of Cisco Systems. Robinson was the first employee of Scientific Atlanta, where he remained CEO then Chairman of the company until he retired. Initially a ham radio enthusiast and subsequently a graduate of the Georgia Institute of Technology (Georgia Tech) with both bachelor's and master's degrees in physics, Robinson worked at the Georgia Tech Research Institute and the Oak Ridge National Laboratory before founding Scientific Atlanta. Later in life, he founded and invested in numerous Atlanta-based science-related companies. Robinson was named an IEEE Fellow and held at least 39 patents in fields including solar energy devices and antenna systems. For his contributions, he was named Georgia's Small Businessman of the Year in 1965, the Georgia Business and Industry Association's Entrepreneur of the Year in 1981, and was elected to the Georgia Technology Hall of Fame in 1993. In 2003, Georgia Tech awarded him an honorary Ph.D. in Physics, and in 2007, half of Georgia Tech's Molecular Science and Engineering Building was named the Glen P. Robinson, Jr. Tower in his honor. ## Early life and education Robinson was born on September 10, 1923, in Crescent City, Florida, an outskirt of Jacksonville, to Glen Parmelee and Laura Mae (Lewis) Robinson. His family moved to Valdosta, Georgia, in 1937. After attending high school at Marion Military Institute in Alabama, Robinson opened a small machine shop in Valdosta. He sold industrial products and metal tools to local industry. In 1942, with the encouragement of his father, Robinson enrolled as a student at the Georgia Institute of Technology to study chemical engineering. However, his education was interrupted by his enlistment into the Naval Signal Corps and service in the Pacific Theatre of World War II where he installed telephones on recaptured American possessions during the war. Robinson returned from the conflict as a junior and in 1948 he changed his major to physics, as the School of Physics started its degree program that year. He received a Bachelor of Science in Physics in 1948, and a Master of Science in Physics (also from Georgia Tech) in 1950. Robinson was also a member of Georgia Tech's prestigious secret society, ANAK. Robinson had been a ham radio operator enthusiast since the age of 14, and started a radio repair service to provide additional income while he was a student at Georgia Tech. One of Robinson's professors, James E. Boyd, convinced him to give up the radio repair business and work as a research assistant at the Georgia Tech Research Institute (then known as the Engineering Experiment Station, or EES). One of his ham radio friends was actually his boss's boss and EES director, Gerald Rosselot. Working after hours at EES, Robinson built a television set in the lab, which he and others claim was the first to be built in the state of Georgia. In 1950, Robinson went to Tennessee to work in nuclear engineering for Oak Ridge National Laboratory, servicing radiology-related equipment at local hospitals. ## Scientific Atlanta Robinson and six other Georgia Tech researchers (including Robinson's former professor James E. Boyd and EES director Gerald Rosselot) each contributed \$100 (for a total of \$700) and founded Scientific Associates on October 31, 1951, with the initial goal of marketing antenna structures being developed by the radar branch of the EES to the U.S. military. Robinson worked as the unpaid general manager for the first year. The relations between Scientific Associates and the EES were initially strained due to an unrelated dispute over station finances between EES director Gerald Rosselot and Georgia Tech vice president Cherry Emerson. Specifically, Emerson believed that surplus funds realized through research contracts should be returned to Georgia Tech, while the Georgia Tech Research Corporation and Rosselot felt they should be retained to foster additional research. A strict conflict of interest policy was enacted, and researchers were forced to choose between the two entities; the initial investors had all kept their faculty jobs, and most returned to them. After the fledgling company's first contract resulted in a \$4,000 loss, Robinson bought out all but one of the original investors and paid them each back their original \$100. Robinson left EES and became president and CEO of the new company, which was renamed Scientific Atlanta. Boyd stayed on as a member of the board of directors; Robinson's friend Larry Clayton, previously involved in Robinson's radio business and now having graduated from Georgia Tech with a degree in physics, became the head of the new company's research and development. Years later, the school would promote Scientific Atlanta's origins at Georgia Tech, and Scientific Atlanta has been a longtime financial contributor to Georgia Tech. Scientific Atlanta's first business focus was antennas for military and industrial use. Finances were tight at the fledgling firm. Signal Corps order in 1954 to develop a new plastic lens antenna prompted a need for a recorder to test the patterns of the more sophisticated antenna, but the cheapest recorder cost \$10,000. When they could not afford an automatic antenna pattern recorder, of which there was only one such machine on the market, Robinson decided to build his own. When word in the industry spread companies began contacting Scientific Atlanta. Within six months of the development of the device, Robinson sold units to Western Electric, Westinghouse Electric Corporation, General Electric, Convair, American Machine and Foundry, and many other large corporations of the era. The success attracted venture capital from Rockefeller Bros., Inc., put up at Laurance Rockefeller's recommendation. Within eight years of operating, the firm had captured 60% of the global market share of electronic instruments for testing and designing antennas, had broken ground on a 25-acre facility in Northeast Atlanta, and had 240 employees on the payroll including 40 engineers. Scientific Atlanta helped NASA establish ground stations for communication with astronauts during the Mercury, Gemini and Apollo projects. When John Glenn became the first American to orbit the Earth in 1962 on Mercury-Atlas 6, his voice was transmitted and received by radio antennas designed and equipment built by Scientific Atlanta. In the 1970s, Robinson recognized the potential combination of communications satellites and cable television. Ted Turner purchased one of Scientific Atlanta's first satellite systems, which formed the basis of Turner's "Super Station" that was broadcast around the country to other cable providers. In 1975, HBO and TelePrompTer used Scientific Atlanta equipment to transmit the first live satellite-delivered cable event, the "Thrilla in Manila" heavyweight boxing championship bout between Muhammad Ali and Joe Frazier. Scientific Atlanta is perhaps best known for pioneering television cable set-top boxes and equipment worldwide and the development of satellite Earth stations. Robinson remained CEO of Scientific Atlanta for 20 years, and chairman of the board for an additional eight years, until he retired from the company in 1979. Scientific Atlanta grew dramatically; it earned \$3.1 million in revenue in 1962, approximately \$200 million in 1979, and \$1.9 billion in yearly revenue by 2005. Scientific Atlanta served as a regional business incubator, with hundreds of companies tracing their roots back to it. ## Later career Robinson founded E-Tech in 1978, which developed heat pump technology and high-technology related to energy conservation, energy conversion, and solar energy. When interviewed about E-Tech's founding, Robinson said "I like to pioneer new fields, to start small businesses." E-Tech acquired Scientific Atlanta's Special Products Division, which included staff, research contracts, patented products in solar energy, and specialized equipment. Its first product was an electric heat pump water heater, the Efficiency II, that reduced water heating bills by 50% and provided an equipment payback of three years. E-Tech worked on a range of United States Department of Energy contracts in the field of solar energy. In 1986, E-Tech merged with Crispaire Corporation, which specialized in cooling equipment for telecommunications systems, school classrooms, and commercial/industrial structures. The merger resulted in Robinson taking over the new entity, which also operated under the trade name Marvair. Crispaire Corporation/Marvair later joined with RV Products to form a new company, Airxcel, Inc. Robinson retired from this venture in 1997. In 1994, Robinson funded and co-founded LaserCraft, which focused on applications of LIDAR such as radar guns and traffic enforcement cameras, and in 2006 was the world's largest manufacturer of laser products for law enforcement. LaserCraft was acquired by Public Safety Equipment in June 2006, which was in turn acquired by Stirling Square Capital Partners and Diamond Castle Holdings in February 2007. Robinson was an angel investor, particularly in the fields of digital communications and biotechnology. In 1999, he funded OmniMetrix and Mission Communications, two companies focused on AMPS cellular digital control channel and wireless SCADA communications. Omnimetrix was acquired by Acorn Energy in 2012. Mission is currently the leading provider of cellular SCADA for water and wastewater in North America. In 2000, he invested \$1.5 million in Genomic Solutions Inc, which was acquired by Digilab, Inc. in 2007. Most recently, Robinson was an investor in and co-founder of the 2007 VentureLab startup, C2 Biofuels, which attracted additional funding from Chevron and aims to build several \$100 million cellulosic ethanol plants throughout the United States. ## Legacy Robinson held positions on numerous boards, including: Chairman of the Georgia Science and Technology Commission; Chairman of the Georgia Tech Research Corporation; Trustee of The Georgia Tech Foundation; Member of the Board of Visitors of Emory University; Director of the Atlanta Chamber of Commerce; Director of the Georgia Tech Alumni Association, advisory board of the Georgia Institute of Technology College of Engineering, board member of Georgia State's School of Business, and director of the Georgia Business and Industry Association. Robinson was a member of the Defense Science Board, an advisory committee of the United States Department of Defense on scientific and technical matters. He was a presenting member of the White House Conference on the Industrial World Ahead, a meeting of the nation's top business leaders to discuss technological advancement, social change, manpower utilization, Cold War competition and the state of American enterprise. Arranged by Richard Nixon and Secretary of Commerce Maurice Stans, it was the first such meeting ever held that focused solely on American business and the future. Robinson was elected an IEEE Fellow in 1977 and given the award of Outstanding Engineer of Region III by IEEE in 1978. Robinson was selected as Georgia's Small Businessman of the Year in 1965, the Georgia Business and Industry Association's (now the Georgia Chamber of Commerce) Entrepreneur of the Year in 1981, and was elected to the Georgia Technology Hall of Fame in 1993. Since 1995, Scientific Atlanta has sponsored scholarships in Robinson's name for children of its employees. In March 1998, Robinson donated to create two endowed chairs at Georgia Tech: the \$1.5 million Glen P. Robinson Chair in Non-Linear Science (in the School of Physics), currently held by Predrag Cvitanović, and the \$1.5 million Glen P. Robinson Chair in Electro-Optics (in GTRI). In 2003, Georgia Tech awarded him an honorary Ph.D. in physics, and in 2006 he was awarded the Joseph Mayo Pettit Alumni Distinguished Service Award. In 2007, half of Georgia Tech's Molecular Science and Engineering Building was named the Glen P. Robinson, Jr. Tower in his honor, due in part to his \$5 million donation towards its construction. Robinson continued working with startups and technology businesses throughout his later career. Near the end of his life, he and his wife, Jan Musgrove Robinson, had 5 children, 12 grandchildren, and 3 great-grandchildren and lived in Atlanta. On Wednesday, January 16, 2013, Robinson died of apparent heart failure. The funeral was held at St. Anne's Episcopal Church in Atlanta, and he was cremated by H.M. Patterson & Son, Arlington Chapel.
40,326,875	Ohio State Route 360	1,152,756,654	State highway in Ohio, US	[ "State highways in Ohio", "Transportation in Fairfield County, Ohio", "Transportation in Licking County, Ohio" ]	State Route 360 (SR 360) is a short east–west route in Buckeye Lake, Ohio. SR 360 starts and ends at SR 79, paralleled to the shore of Buckeye Lake. The route was designated in 1938, and has not changed significantly since. ## Route description SR 360 is mostly in Fairfield County, with a small part in Licking County. It is aligned to a part of the northern shore of Buckeye Lake. SR 360 is also known as North Bank Road, an undivided highway. Some parts of the centerline are covered by pothole repairs. Around 730 cars travel the road on average each day at the beginning of the route, and 1,270 near the end of the route. The road starts at an at-grade intersection of SR 79 and Canal Road. Then, it moves southeast and parallels Buckeye Lake. After a bit more than a mile later, SR 360 heads north and ends at SR 79. The majority of the route is inside residential areas. Despite being near Buckeye Lake, the lake is not visible from the road. The route's path is that of an irregularly shaped "U", with westernmost and easternmost of the route following north–south roads. ## History SR 360 was created in 1938, and no routing changes were made since. SR 360's road surface changed from gravel to asphalt between 1961 and 1962, and was repaved in 1986 and 1999. ## Major intersections ## See also
7,342	Clement of Alexandria	1,173,480,200	Christian theologian (c.150 – c.215)	[ "150 births", "215 deaths", "2nd-century Christian theologians", "2nd-century Greek philosophers", "2nd-century Romans", "3rd-century Christian saints", "3rd-century Greek philosophers", "3rd-century Romans", "Amillennialism", "Ancient Greek philosophers", "Catholic philosophers", "Christian anti-Gnosticism", "Christian universalist theologians", "Christianity and Hellenistic philosophy", "Church Fathers", "Converts to Christianity from pagan religions", "Deans of the Catechetical School of Alexandria", "Egyptian people of Greek descent", "Egyptian philosophers", "Egyptian theologians", "Flavii", "Philosophers in ancient Alexandria", "Saints from Roman Egypt" ]	Titus Flavius Clemens, also known as Clement of Alexandria (Ancient Greek: Κλήμης ὁ Ἀλεξανδρεύς; c. 150 – c. 215 AD), was a Christian theologian and philosopher who taught at the Catechetical School of Alexandria. Among his pupils were Origen and Alexander of Jerusalem. A convert to Christianity, he was an educated man who was familiar with classical Greek philosophy and literature. As his three major works demonstrate, Clement was influenced by Hellenistic philosophy to a greater extent than any other Christian thinker of his time, and in particular, by Plato and the Stoics. His secret works, which exist only in fragments, suggest that he was familiar with pre-Christian Jewish esotericism and Gnosticism as well. In one of his works he argued that Greek philosophy had its origin among non-Greeks, claiming that both Plato and Pythagoras were taught by Egyptian scholars. Clement is usually regarded as a Church Father. He is venerated as a saint in Coptic Christianity, Eastern Catholicism, Ethiopian Christianity, and Anglicanism. He was revered in Western Catholicism until 1586, when his name was removed from the Roman Martyrology by Pope Sixtus V on the advice of Baronius. The Eastern Orthodox Church officially stopped any veneration of Clement of Alexandria in the 10th century. Nonetheless, he is still often referred to as "Saint Clement of Alexandria" by both Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic authors. ## Biography Neither Clement's birthdate or birthplace is known with any degree of certainty. It is speculated that he was born sometime around 150 AD. According to Epiphanius of Salamis, he was born in Athens, but there is also a tradition of an Alexandrian birth. His parents were pagans and Clement was a convert to Christianity. In the Protrepticus he displays an extensive knowledge of Greek religion and mystery religions, which could only have arisen from the practice of his family's religion. Having rejected paganism as a young man due to its perceived moral corruption, he travelled in Greece, Asia Minor, Palestine, and Egypt. Clement's journeys were primarily a religious undertaking. In Greece, he encountered an Ionian theologian, who has been identified as Athenagoras of Athens; while in the east, he was taught by an Assyrian, sometimes identified with Tatian, and a Jew, possibly Theophilus of Caesarea. In around 180 AD, Clement reached Alexandria, where he met Pantaenus, who taught at the Catechetical School of Alexandria. Eusebius suggests that Pantaenus was the head of the school, but controversy exists about whether the institutions of the school were formalized in this way before the time of Origen. Clement studied under Pantaenus, and was ordained to the priesthood by Pope Julian before 189. Otherwise, virtually nothing is known of Clement's personal life in Alexandria. He may have been married, a conjecture supported by his writings. During the Severian persecution of 202–203, Clement left Alexandria. In 211, Alexander of Jerusalem wrote a letter commending him to the Church of Antioch, which may imply that Clement was living in Cappadocia or Jerusalem at that time. He died c. 215 AD at an unknown location. ## Theological works ### Trilogy Three of Clement's major works have survived in full and they are collectively referred to as a trilogy: - The Protrepticus (Exhortation) – written c. 195 AD - The Paedagogus (Tutor) – written c. 198 AD - The Stromata (Miscellanies) – written c. 198 AD–c. 203 AD #### Protrepticus The Protrepticus (Greek: Προτρεπτικὸς πρὸς Ἕλληνας: "Exhortation to the Greeks") is, as its title suggests, an exhortation to the pagans of Greece to adopt Christianity. Within it, Clement demonstrates his extensive knowledge of pagan mythology and theology. It is chiefly important due to Clement's exposition of religion as an anthropological phenomenon. After a short philosophical discussion, it opens with a history of Greek religion in seven stages. Clement suggests that at first, humans mistakenly believed the Sun, the Moon, and other heavenly bodies to be deities. The next developmental stage was the worship of the products of agriculture, from which he contends the cults of Demeter and Dionysus arose. Humans then paid reverence to revenge and deified human feelings of love and fear, among others. In the following stage, the poets Hesiod and Homer attempt to enumerate the deities; Hesiod's Theogony giving the number of twelve. Finally, humans reached a stage when they proclaimed others, such as Asclepius and Heracles, as deities. Discussing idolatry, Clement contends that the objects of primitive religion were unshaped wood and stone, and idols thus arose when such natural items were carved. Following Plato, Clement is critical of all forms of visual art, suggesting that artworks are but illusions and "deadly toys". Clement criticizes Greek paganism in the Protrepticus on the basis that its deities are both false and poor moral examples. He attacks the mystery religions for their ritualism and mysticism. In particular, the worshippers of Dionysus are ridiculed by him for their family-based rituals (such as the use of children's toys in ceremony). He suggests at some points that the pagan deities are based on humans, but at other times he suggests that they are misanthropic demons, and he cites several classical sources in support of this second hypothesis. Clement, like many pre-Nicene church fathers, writes favourably about Euhemerus and other rationalist philosophers, on the grounds that they at least saw the flaws in paganism. However, his greatest praise is reserved for Plato, whose apophatic views of God prefigure Christianity. The figure of Orpheus is prominent throughout the Protrepticus narrative, and Clement contrasts the song of Orpheus, representing pagan superstition, with the divine Logos of Christ. According to Clement, through conversion to Christianity alone can one fully participate in the Logos, which is universal truth. #### Paedagogus The title of Paedagogus, translatable as "tutor", refers to Christ as the teacher of all humans, and it features an extended metaphor of Christians as children. It is not simply instructional: Clement intends to show how the Christian should respond to the Love of God authentically. Following Plato (Republic 4:441), he divides life into three elements: character, actions, and passions. The first having been dealt with in the Protrepticus, he devotes the Paedagogus to reflections on Christ's role in teaching humans to act morally and to control their passions. Despite its explicitly Christian nature, Clement's work draws on Stoic philosophy and pagan literature; Homer, alone, is cited more than sixty times in the work. Although Christ, like a human, is made in the image of God, he alone shares the likeness of God the Father. Christ is both sinless and apathetic, and thus by striving to imitate Christ, one can achieve salvation. To Clement, sin is involuntary, and thus irrational (άλογον), removed only through the wisdom of the Logos. God's guidance away from sin is thus a manifestation of God's universal love for mankind. The word play on λόγος and άλογον is characteristic of Clement's writing, and may be rooted in the Epicurean belief that relationships between words are deeply reflective of relationships between the objects they signify. Clement argues for the equality of sexes, on the grounds that salvation is extended to all humans equally. Unusually, he suggests that Christ is neither female nor male, and that God the Father has both female and male aspects: the eucharist is described as milk from the breast (Christ) of the Father. Clement is supportive of women playing an active role in the leadership of the church and he provides a list of women he considers inspirational, which includes both Biblical and Classical Greek figures. It has been suggested that Clement's progressive views on gender as set out in the Paedagogus were influenced by Gnosticism, however, later in the work, he argues against the Gnostics that faith, not esoteric knowledge (γνῶσις), is required for salvation. According to Clement, it is through faith in Christ that one is enlightened and comes to know God. In the second book, Clement provides practical rules on living a Christian life. He argues against overindulgence in food and in favour of good table manners. While prohibiting drunkenness, he promotes the drinking of alcohol in moderation following 1 Timothy 5:23. Clement argues for a simple way of life in accordance with the innate simplicity of Christian monotheism. He condemns elaborate and expensive furnishings and clothing, and argues against overly passionate music and perfumes, but Clement does not believe in the abandonment of worldly pleasures and argues that the Christian should be able to express joy in God's creation through gaiety and partying. He opposes the wearing of garlands, because the picking of the flowers ultimately kills a beautiful creation of God, and the garland resembles the crown of thorns. Clement treats sex at some length. He argues that both promiscuity and sexual abstinence are unnatural, and that the main goal of human sexuality is procreation. He argues that adultery, coitus with pregnant women, concubinage, homosexuality, and prostitution all should be avoided as they will not contribute toward the generation of legitimate offspring. In his third book, Clement continues along a similar vein, condemning cosmetics on the grounds that it is one's soul, not the body, one should seek to beautify. Clement also opposes the dyeing of men's hair and male depilation as being effeminate. He advises choosing one's company carefully, to avoid being corrupted by immoral people, and while arguing that material wealth is no sin in itself, it is too likely to distract one from the infinitely more important spiritual wealth that is found in Christ. The work finishes with selections of scripture supporting Clement's argument, and following a prayer, the lyrics of a hymn. #### Stromata The contents of the Stromata, as its title suggests, are miscellaneous. Its place in the trilogy is disputed – Clement initially intended to write the Didasculus, a work that would complement the practical guidance of the Paedagogus with a more intellectual schooling in theology. The Stromata is less systematic and ordered than Clement's other works, and it has been theorized by André Méhat that it was intended for a limited, esoteric readership. Although Eusebius wrote of the eight books of the work, only seven undoubtedly survive. Photius, writing in the 9th century, found various text appended to manuscripts of the seven canonical books, which led Daniel Heinsius to suggest that the original eighth book is lost, and he identified the text purported to be from the eighth book as fragments of the Hypotyposes. The first book starts on the topic of Greek philosophy. Consistent with his other writing, Clement affirms that philosophy had a propaedeutic role for the Greeks, similar to the function of the law for the Jews. He then embarks on a discussion of the origins of Greek culture and technology, arguing that most of the important figures in the Greek world were foreigners, and (erroneously) that Jewish culture was the most significant influence on Greece. In an attempt to demonstrate the primacy of Moses, Clement gives an extended chronology of the world, wherein he dates the birth of Christ to 25 April or May, 4–2 BC, and the creation of the world to 5592 BC. The books ends with a discussion on the origin of languages and the possibility of a Jewish influence on Plato. The second book is largely devoted to the respective roles of faith and philosophical argument. Clement contends that while both are important, the fear of God is foremost, because through faith one receives divine wisdom. To Clement, scripture is an innately true primitive philosophy that is complemented by human reason through the Logos. Faith is voluntary, and the decision to believe is a crucial fundamental step in becoming closer to God. It is never irrational, as it is founded on the knowledge of the truth of the Logos, but all knowledge proceeds from faith, as first principles are unprovable outside a systematic structure. The third book covers asceticism. He discusses marriage, which is treated similarly in the Paedagogus. Clement rejects the Gnostic opposition to marriage, arguing that only men who are uninterested in women should remain celibate, and that sex is a positive good if performed within marriage for the purposes of procreation. He argues that this has not always been so: the Fall occurred because Adam and Eve succumbed to their desire for each other, and copulated before the allotted time. He argues against the idea that Christians should reject their family for an ascetic life, which stems from Luke, contending that Jesus would not have contradicted the precept to "Honour thy Father and thy Mother", one of the Ten Commandments. Clement concludes that asceticism will only be rewarded if the motivation is Christian in nature, and thus the asceticism of non-Christians such as the gymnosophists is pointless. Clement begins the fourth book with a belated explanation of the disorganized nature of the work, and gives a brief description of his aims for the remaining three or four books. The fourth book focuses on martyrdom. While all good Christians should be unafraid of death, Clement condemns those who actively seek out a martyr's death, arguing that they do not have sufficient respect for God's gift of life. He is ambivalent about whether any believing Christians can become martyrs by virtue of the manner of their death, or whether martyrdom is reserved for those who have lived exceptional lives. Marcionites cannot become martyrs, because they do not believe in the divinity of God the Father, so their sufferings are in vain. There is then a digression to the subject of theological epistemology. According to Clement, there is no way of empirically testing the existence of God the Father, because the Logos has revelatory, not analysable meaning, although Christ was an object of the senses. God had no beginning, and is the universal first principle. The fifth book returns to the subject of faith. Clement argues that truth, justice, and goodness can be seen only by the mind, not the eye; faith is a way of accessing the unseeable. He stresses that knowledge of God can only be achieved through faith once one's moral faults have been corrected. This parallels Clement's earlier insistence that martyrdom can only be achieved by those who practice their faith in Christ through good deeds, not those who simply profess their faith. God transcends matter entirely, and thus the materialist cannot truly come to know God. Although Christ was God incarnate, it is spiritual, not physical comprehension of him that is important. In the beginning of the sixth book, Clement intends to demonstrate that the works of Greek poets were derived from the prophetic books of the Bible. In order to reinforce his position that the Greeks were inclined toward plagiarism, he cites numerous instances of such inappropriate appropriation by classical Greek writers, reported second-hand from On Plagiarism, an anonymous 3rd-century BC work sometimes ascribed to Aretades. Clement then digresses to the subject of sin and hell, arguing that Adam was not perfect when created, but given the potential to achieve perfection. He espouses broadly universalist doctrine, holding that Christ's promise of salvation is available to all, even those condemned to hell. The final extant book begins with a description of the nature of Christ, and that of the true Christian, who aims to be as similar as possible to both the Father and the Son. Clement then criticizes the simplistic anthropomorphism of most ancient religions, quoting Xenophanes' famous description of African, Thracian, and Egyptian deities. He indicates that the Greek deities may also have had their origins in the personification of material objects: Ares representing iron, and Dionysus wine. Prayer, and the relationship between love and knowledge are then discussed. Corinthians 13:8 seems to contradict the characterization of the true Christian as one who knows; but to Clement knowledge vanishes only in that it is subsumed by the universal love expressed by the Christian in reverence for the Creator. Following Socrates, he argues that vice arises from a state of ignorance, not from intention. The Christian is a "laborer in God's vineyard", responsible both for one's own path to salvation and that of one's neighbor. The work ends with an extended passage against the contemporary divisions and heresies within the church. ### Other works Besides the great trilogy, Clement's only other extant work is the treatise Salvation for the Rich, also known as Who is the Rich Man who is Saved? written c. 203 AD Having begun with a scathing criticism of the corrupting effects of money and misguided servile attitudes toward the wealthy, Clement discusses the implications of Mark 10:25. The rich are either unconvinced by the promise of eternal life, or unaware of the conflict between the possession of material and spiritual wealth, and the good Christian has a duty to guide them toward a better life through the Gospel. Jesus' words are not to be taken literally — the supercelestial (ὑπερουράνιος) meanings should be sought in which the true route to salvation is revealed. The holding of material wealth in itself is not a wrong, so long as it is used charitably, but Christians should be careful not to let their wealth dominate their spirit. It is more important to give up sinful passions than external wealth. If the rich are to be saved, all they must do is to follow the two commandments, and while material wealth is of no value to God, it can be used to alleviate the suffering of neighbors. Other known works exist in fragments alone, including the four eschatological works in the secret tradition: Hypotyposes, Excerpta ex Theodoto, Eclogae Propheticae, and the Adumbraetiones. These cover Clement's celestial hierarchy, a complex schema in which the universe is headed by the Face of God, below which lie seven protoctists, followed by archangels, angels, and humans. According to Jean Daniélou, this schema is inherited from a Judaeo-Christian esotericism, followed by the Apostles, which was only imparted orally to those Christians who could be trusted with such mysteries. The proctocists are the first beings created by God, and act as priests to the archangels. Clement identifies them both as the "Eyes of the Lord" and with the Thrones. Clement characterizes the celestial forms as entirely different from anything earthly, although he argues that members of each order only seem incorporeal to those of lower orders. According to the Eclogae Propheticae, every thousand years every member of each order moves up a degree, and thus humans can become angels. Even the protoctists can be elevated, although their new position in the hierarchy is not clearly defined. The apparent contradiction between the fact that there can be only seven protoctists but also a vast number of archangels to be promoted to their order is problematical. One modern solution regards the story as an example of "interiorized apocalypticism": imagistic details are not to be taken literally, but as symbolizing interior transformation. The titles of several lost works are known because of a list in Eusebius' Ecclesiastical History, 6.13.1–3. They include the Outlines, in eight books, and Against Judaizers. Others are known only from mentions in Clement's own writings, including On Marriage and On Prophecy, although few are attested by other writers and it is difficult to separate works that he intended to write from those that were completed. The Mar Saba letter was attributed to Clement by Morton Smith, but there remains much debate today over whether it is an authentic letter from Clement, an ancient pseudepigraph, or a modern forgery. If authentic, its main significance would be in its relating that the Apostle Mark came to Alexandria from Rome and there, wrote a more spiritual Gospel, which he entrusted to the Church in Alexandria on his death; if genuine, the letter pushes back the tradition related by Eusebius connecting Mark with Alexandria by a century. ## Legacy Eusebius, the fourth-century early church historian, is the first writer to provide an account of Clement's life and works, in his Ecclesiastical History, 5.11.1–5, 6.6.1 He provides a list of Clement's works, biographical information, and an extended quotation from the Stromata. From this and other accounts, it is evident that Clement was highly revered by his contemporaries and later patristic figures. As J.B. Mayor observes, “The piety and learning of Clement, his power as a teacher and philosopher, are spoken of in the highest terms by succeeding fathers.” In the same work, Eusebius cites Alexander of Jerusalem (180-251) lauding “the holy Clement, who was both my master and benefactor,” describing him as one of the “blessed fathers who have trod the path before us,” while Eusebius himself is quoted as calling him “an incomparable master of Christian philosophy.” Jerome (342-420) calls Clement “the most learned of men,” recording that his writings are “full of eloquence and learning, both in sacred Scripture and in secular literature.” The aforementioned Alexander of Jerusalem is quoted by Jerome praising “the blessed presbyter Clement, a man illustrious and approved.” According to Theodoret (393-450), “he surpassed all others, and was a holy man.” Likewise, Cyril of Alexandria (376-444) says Clement was “a man admirably learned and skillful, and one that searched to the depths all the learning of the Greeks, with an exactness rarely attained before.” Maximus the Confessor (580-662) refers to him reverentially as “the great Clement.” More recently, scholars have acknowledged Clement's primacy and importance in various respects. He has been called “the first Christian scholar” (Shelley), “the first systematic teacher of Christian doctrine” (Patrick), “the first great teacher of philosophical Christianity” (Hatch), “the first self-conscious theologian and ethicist” (Backhouse), “the first great Christian teacher in Alexandria” (Needham), “the founder of Christian philosophical theology” (Bray), “the true creator of ecclesiastical theology” (DeFaye), “the first major commentator on the Bible” (Bray), “the founder of Christian literature” (ANF), “the great founder of the Alexandrian School” (Coxe), a “pioneer of Christian scholarship” (ACCS), “an intellectual giant in the early church” (Kruger), “that man of genius who introduced Christianity to itself, as reflected in the burnished mirror of his intellect” (Coxe), and “the most inquisitive and independent spirit that has perhaps ever appeared in the Church” (DeFaye). Stylistically, it has been noted that “his writings shine with a happy, peaceful, optimistic spirit; reading them can be a remarkably uplifting experience” (Needham). “He loves God’s creation and sees it as good; he gives us a warm, joyous picture of life; he is richly human, sane, and moderate” (Ferguson). Additionally, Clement's works “are a storehouse of curious ancient lore—a museum of the fossil remains of the beauties and monstrosities of the world of pagan antiquity, during all the epochs and phases of its history” (Wilson). “His prodigious erudition was unsurpassed even by that of Origen” (Cayre). “I do not know where we shall look for a purer or a truer man than this Clemens of Alexandria; he seems to me one of the old fathers whom we should all have reverenced most as a teacher, and loved best as a friend” (Maurice). Nonetheless, there have been a few dissenting voices. Photios I of Constantinople writes polemically against Clement's theology in the Bibliotheca, although he also is appreciative of Clement's learning and the literary merits of his work. In particular, he is highly critical of the Hypotyposes, a work of biblical exegesis of which only a few fragments have survived. Photios compared Clement's treatise, which, like his other works, was highly syncretic, featuring ideas of Hellenistic, Jewish, and Gnostic origin, unfavorably against the prevailing orthodoxy of the 9th century. Amongst the particular ideas Photios deemed heretical were: - The belief that matter and thought are eternal, and thus did not originate from God, contradicting the doctrine of Creatio ex nihilo. - The belief in cosmic cycles predating the creation of the world, following Heraclitus, which is extra-Biblical in origin. - The belief that Christ, as Logos, was in some sense created, contrary to John 1, but following Philo. - Ambivalence toward docetism, the heretical doctrine that Christ's earthly body was an illusion. - The belief that Eve was created from Adam's sperm after he ejaculated during the night - The belief that Genesis 6:2 implies that angels indulged in coitus with human women (in Chalcedonian theology, angels are considered sexless). - The belief in reincarnation, i.e., the transmigration of souls. However, it is not clear that these are accurate representations of Clement's actual beliefs, since his extant writings appear to be mostly in line with what would come to be considered orthodox Christian theology. It has been suggested that Photios may have misunderstood Clement to be speaking for himself when he was often quoting from Gnostics and other sects without agreeing with their teachings. As one of the earliest of the Church fathers whose works have survived, he is the subject of a significant amount of recent academic work, focusing on, among other things, his exegesis of scripture, his Logos-theology and pneumatology, his apparent belief in apokatastasis, the relationship between his thought and non-Christian philosophy, and his influence on Origen. ### Veneration Up until the 17th century Clement was venerated as a saint in the Roman Catholic Church. His name was to be found in the martyrologies, and his feast fell on the fourth of December, but when the Roman Martyrology was revised by Pope Clement VIII his name was dropped from the calendar on the advice of Cardinal Baronius. Benedict XIV maintained this decision of his predecessor on the grounds that Clement's life was little known, that he had never obtained public cultus in the Church, and that some of his doctrines were, if not erroneous, at least suspect. Although Clement is not widely venerated in Eastern Christianity, the Prologue of Ohrid repeatedly refers to him as a saint, as do various Orthodox authorities including the Greek Metropolitan Kallinikos of Edessa. The Coptic tradition considers Clement a saint. Saint Clement Coptic Orthodox Christian Academy in Nashville, Tennessee, is specifically named after him. Clement is commemorated in Anglicanism. The independent Universal Catholic Church's cathedral in Dallas is also dedicated to him. ## Theology ### Gnosis Clement taught that faith was the basis of salvation, however he also believed that faith was also the basis of "gnosis" which for him mean spiritual and mystical knowledge. Clement of Alexandria appropriated the word "gnosis" from what the Gnostics used, whom he opposed, but re-interpreted the word in a more Christian manner. Clement of Alexandria distinguished between two kinds of Christians, a pistic Christian who lives according to God's law, and the Christian gnostic who lives on the level of the gospel and responds by discipline and love. Clement's views of gnosis can be considered a forerunner of monasticism that began in Egypt after his death. ### Philosophy Clement suggested that philosophy was a preparatory discipline to the Greek world that would lead them to accept Christianity, and often sought to harmonize insights of Greek philosophy with biblical teaching. He defined philosophy as "the desire for true being and the studies which lead to it." Clement has been described as "the founder of what was to become the great tradition of Christian philosophical theology." He also was a forerunner to some views of Augustine, including arguably the just war theory and the theory of the two cities. ### Universalism Clement is often regarded as one of the first Christian universalists, espousing belief in the eventual salvation of every person (though not with the level of systematic clarity of his disciple Origen). Clement understood divine punishment as corrective and remedial rather than merely retributive or destructive. He writes, "[God] destroys no one but gives salvation to all." "He bestows salvation on all mankind." "He indeed saves all universally—some as converted by punishments, others by voluntary submission with dignity of honor—that to Him every knee shall bow, both of beings in heaven, and on earth, and under the earth; that is, angels, and men, and souls departed this life." "God's punishments are saving and disciplinary, leading to conversion; choosing rather the repentance than the death of a sinner." "I will grant that He punishes the disobedient, for punishment is for the good and advantage of him who is punished, for it is the correction of a refractory subject." "For all things are arranged with a view to the salvation of the universe by the Lord of the universe, both generally and particularly." ### Education For Clement, disciplining the body will help the Christian discipline his soul, which is why he gives detailed instructions on proper Christian conduct, decorum, and relationships in the second and third books of The Instructor. Only once the passions are subject to the authority of the Word (or reason) can the Christian embark on an advanced course of philosophical study and contemplation. Clement adopts a position that will give rise to a whole stream of later Christian thought: true philosophy and authentic human knowledge have their origin in the Logos, which is the unique source of all truth. He accepts the conception of παιδεία as he conducts the wisdom taught by the Logos through education in the sacred letters: on the one hand, the Greek παιδεία prepares the mind of the Christian to distinguish and defend the truth, and, on the other, the liberal arts help the new Christian to direct all his efforts towards the truly useful of each particular discipline, geometry, music, grammar and philosophy. Notably (considering the time period), Clement seemed to advocate for the equality of women and men in the area of education, at least within the context of Christian spirituality and ethics. He wrote, "Let us recognize, too, that both men and women practice the same sort of virtue; surely, if there is but one God for both, then there is but one Educator for both." ### Economics Clement opposed a literal interpretation of the command "sell what you have and give to the poor," and argued that the Bible does not command every person to renounce all property, and that wealth can be used either for good or evil. Yet he seems to have done so tentatively (and perhaps reluctantly), to address the concerns of upper-class converts, while simultaneously warning of the dangers of wealth. ### Creation Clement believed that the days mentioned in Genesis are allegorical. Clement assumed a double creation, one of an invisible world and the second being material creation. He believed that formless matter existed before the creation of the world, being influenced by Plato. Clement tried to interpret Genesis 6 in harmony with the Book of Enoch. ### Others The first person in church history to introduce a view of an invisible and a visible church is Clement of Alexandria. Because Clement saw the Protoevangelium of James as canonical, it could imply he believed in the perpetual virginity of Mary, though some have argued that he does not seem to believe in the sinlessness of Mary. Clement of Alexandria interprets "Fire of Wisdom" which prevades the soul as by a baptism. Clement of Alexandria used the word "symbol" to define the Eucharist, and interpreted John 6 to be an allegory about faith, however his views on real presence are disputed. Clement of Alexandria was apparently an amillennialist. ## Works ### Editions ### Translations ## See also - Buddhism and the Roman world - Alexandrian school
552,786	Selection algorithm	1,173,186,220	Method for finding kth smallest value	[ "Selection algorithms" ]	In computer science, a selection algorithm is an algorithm for finding the $k$th smallest value in a collection of ordered values, such as numbers. The value that it finds is called the $k$th order statistic. Selection includes as special cases the problems of finding the minimum, median, and maximum element in the collection. Selection algorithms include quickselect, and the median of medians algorithm. When applied to a collection of $n$ values, these algorithms take linear time, $O(n)$ as expressed using big O notation. For data that is already structured, faster algorithms may be possible; as an extreme case, selection in an already-sorted array takes time $O(1)$. ## Problem statement An algorithm for the selection problem takes as input a collection of values, and a number $k$. It outputs the $k$th smallest of these values, or, in some versions of the problem, a collection of the $k$ smallest values. For this to be well-defined, it should be possible to sort the values into an order from smallest to largest; for instance, they may be integers, floating-point numbers, or some other kind of object with a numeric key. However, they are not assumed to have been already sorted. Often, selection algorithms are restricted to a comparison-based model of computation, as in comparison sort algorithms, where the algorithm has access to a comparison operation that can determine the relative ordering of any two values, but may not perform any other kind of arithmetic operations on these values. To simplify the problem, some works on this problem assume that the values are all distinct from each other, or that some consistent tie-breaking method has been used to assign an ordering to pairs of items with the same value as each other. Another variation in the problem definition concerns the numbering of the ordered values: is the smallest value obtained by setting $k=0$, as in zero-based numbering of arrays, or is it obtained by setting $k=1$, following the usual English-language conventions for the smallest, second-smallest, etc.? This article follows the conventions used by Cormen et al., according to which all values are distinct and the minimum value is obtained from $k=1$. With these conventions, the maximum value, among a collection of $n$ values, is obtained by setting $k=n$. When $n$ is an odd number, the median of the collection is obtained by setting $k=(n+1)/2$. When $n$ is even, there are two choices for the median, obtained by rounding this choice of $k$ down or up, respectively: the lower median with $k=n/2$ and the upper median with $k=n/2+1$. ## Algorithms ### Sorting and heapselect As a baseline algorithm, selection of the $k$th smallest value in a collection of values can be performed by the following two steps: - Sort the collection - If the output of the sorting algorithm is an array, retrieve its $k$th element; otherwise, scan the sorted sequence to find the $k$th element. The time for this method is dominated by the sorting step, which requires $\Theta(n\log n)$ time using a comparison sort. Even when integer sorting algorithms may be used, these are generally slower than the linear time that may be achieved using specialized selection algorithms. Nevertheless, the simplicity of this approach makes it attractive, especially when a highly-optimized sorting routine is provided as part of a runtime library, but a selection algorithm is not. For inputs of moderate size, sorting can be faster than non-random selection algorithms, because of the smaller constant factors in its running time. This method also produces a sorted version of the collection, which may be useful for other later computations, and in particular for selection with other choices of $k$. For a sorting algorithm that generates one item at a time, such as selection sort, the scan can be done in tandem with the sort, and the sort can be terminated once the $k$th element has been found. One possible design of a consolation bracket in a single-elimination tournament, in which the teams who lost to the eventual winner play another mini-tournament to determine second place, can be seen as an instance of this method. Applying this optimization to heapsort produces the heapselect algorithm, which can select the $k$th smallest value in time $O(n+k\log n)$. This is fast when $k$ is small relative to $n$, but degenerates to $O(n\log n)$ for larger values of $k$, such as the choice $k=n/2$ used for median finding. ### Pivoting Many methods for selection are based on choosing a special "pivot" element from the input, and using comparisons with this element to divide the remaining $n-1$ input values into two subsets: the set $L$ of elements less than the pivot, and the set $R$ of elements greater than the pivot. The algorithm can then determine where the $k$th smallest value is to be found, based on a comparison of $k$ with the sizes of these sets. In particular, if $k\le\|L\|$, the $k$th smallest value is in $L$, and can be found recursively by applying the same selection algorithm to $L$. If $k=\|L\|+1$, then the $k$th smallest value is the pivot, and it can be returned immediately. In the remaining case, the $k$th smallest value is in $R$, and more specifically it is the element in position $k-\|L\|-1$ of $R$. It can be found by applying a selection algorithm recursively, seeking the value in this position in $R$. As with the related pivoting-based quicksort algorithm, the partition of the input into $L$ and $R$ may be done by making new collections for these sets, or by a method that partitions a given list or array data type in-place. Details vary depending on how the input collection is represented. The time to compare the pivot against all the other values is $O(n)$. However, pivoting methods differ in how they choose the pivot, which affects how big the subproblems in each recursive call will be. The efficiency of these methods depends greatly on the choice of the pivot. If the pivot is chosen badly, the running time of this method can be as slow as $O(n^2)$. - If the pivot were exactly at the median of the input, then each recursive call would have at most half as many values as the previous call, and the total times would add in a geometric series to $O(n)$. However, finding the median is itself a selection problem, on the entire original input. Trying to find it by a recursive call to a selection algorithm would lead to an infinite recursion, because the problem size would not decrease in each call. - Quickselect chooses the pivot uniformly at random from the input values. It can be described as a prune and search algorithm, a variant of quicksort, with the same pivoting strategy, but where quicksort makes two recursive calls to sort the two subcollections $L$ and $R$, quickselect only makes one of these two calls. Its expected time is $O(n)$. For any constant $C$, the probability that its number of comparisons exceeds $Cn$ is superexponentially small in $C$. - The Floyd–Rivest algorithm, a variation of quickselect, chooses a pivot by randomly sampling a subset of $r$ data values, for some sample size $r$, and then recursively selecting two elements somewhat above and below position $rk/n$ of the sample to use as pivots. With this choice, it is likely that $k$ is sandwiched between the two pivots, so that after pivoting only a small number of data values between the pivots are left for a recursive call. This method can achieve an expected number of comparisons that is $n+\min(k,n-k)+o(n)$. In their original work, Floyd and Rivest claimed that the $o(n)$ term could be made as small as $O(\sqrt n)$ by a recursive sampling scheme, but the correctness of their analysis has been questioned. Instead, more rigorous analysis has shown that a version of their algorithm achieves $O(\sqrt{n\log n})$ for this term. Although the usual analysis of both quickselect and the Floyd–Rivest algorithm assumes the use of a true random number generator, a version of the Floyd–Rivest algorithm using a pseudorandom number generator seeded with only logarithmically many true random bits has been proven to run in linear time with high probability. - The median of medians method partitions the input into sets of five elements, and uses some other non-recursive method to find the median of each of these sets in constant time per set. It then recursively calls itself to find the median of these $n/5$ medians. Using the resulting median of medians as the pivot produces a partition with $\max(\|L\|,\|R\|)\le 7n/10$. Thus, a problem on $n$ elements is reduced to two recursive problems on $n/5$ elements (to find the pivot) and at most $7n/10$ elements (after the pivot is used). The total size of these two recursive subproblems is at most $9n/10$, allowing the total time to be analyzed as a geometric series adding to $O(n)$. Unlike quickselect, this algorithm is deterministic, not randomized. It was the first linear-time deterministic selection algorithm known, and is commonly taught in undergraduate algorithms classes as an example of a divide and conquer that does not divide into two equal subproblems. However, the high constant factors in its $O(n)$ time bound make it slower than quickselect in practice, and slower even than sorting for inputs of moderate size. - Hybrid algorithms such as introselect can be used to achieve the practical performance of quickselect with a fallback to medians of medians guaranteeing worst-case $O(n)$ time. ### Factories The deterministic selection algorithms with the smallest known numbers of comparisons, for values of $k$ that are far from $1$ or $n$, are based on the concept of factories, introduced in 1976 by Arnold Schönhage, Mike Paterson, and Nick Pippenger. These are methods that build partial orders of certain specified types, on small subsets of input values, by using comparisons to combine smaller partial orders. As a very simple example, one type of factory can take as input a sequence of single-element partial orders, compare pairs of elements from these orders, and produce as output a sequence of two-element totally ordered sets. The elements used as the inputs to this factory could either be input values that have not been compared with anything yet, or "waste" values produced by other factories. The goal of a factory-based algorithm is to combine together different factories, with the outputs of some factories going to the inputs of others, in order to eventually obtain a partial order in which one element (the $k$th smallest) is larger than some $k-1$ other elements and smaller than another $n-k$ others. A careful design of these factories leads to an algorithm that, when applied to median-finding, uses at most $2.942n$ comparisons. For other values of $k$, the number of comparisons is smaller. ### Parallel algorithms Parallel algorithms for selection have been studied since 1975, when Leslie Valiant introduced the parallel comparison tree model for analyzing these algorithms, and proved that in this model selection using a linear number of comparisons requires $\Omega(\log\log n)$ parallel steps, even for selecting the minimum or maximum. Researchers later found parallel algorithms for selection in $O(\log\log n)$ steps, matching this bound. In a randomized parallel comparison tree model it is possible to perform selection in a bounded number of steps and a linear number of comparisons. On the more realistic parallel RAM model of computing, with exclusive read exclusive write memory access, selection can be performed in time $O(\log n)$ with $O(n/\log n)$ processors, which is optimal both in time and in the number of processors. With concurrent memory access, slightly faster parallel time is possible in general, and the $\log n$ term in the time bound can be replaced by $\log k$. ### Sublinear data structures When data is already organized into a data structure, it may be possible to perform selection in an amount of time that is sublinear in the number of values. As a simple case of this, for data already sorted into an array, selecting the $k$th element may be performed by a single array lookup, in constant time. For values organized into a two-dimensional array of size $m\times n$, with sorted rows and columns, selection may be performed in time $O\bigl(m\log(2n/m)\bigr)$, or faster when $k$ is small relative to the array dimensions. For a collection of $m$ one-dimensional sorted arrays, with $k_i$ items less than the selected item in the $i$th array, the time is $O\bigl(m+\sum_{i=1}^m\log(k_i+1)\bigr)$. Selection from data in a binary heap takes time $O(k)$. This is independent of the size $n$ of the heap, and faster than the $O(k\log n)$ time bound that would be obtained from best-first search. This same method can be applied more generally to data organized as any kind of heap-ordered tree (a tree in which each node stores one value in which the parent of each non-root node has a smaller value than its child). This method of performing selection in a heap has been applied to problems of listing multiple solutions to combinatorial optimization problems, such as finding the k shortest paths in a weighted graph, by defining a state space of solutions in the form of an implicitly defined heap-ordered tree, and then applying this selection algorithm to this tree. In the other direction, linear time selection algorithms have been used as a subroutine in a priority queue data structure related to the heap, improving the time for extracting its $k$th item from $O(\log n)$ to $O(\log^* n+\log k)$; here $\log^* n$ is the iterated logarithm. For a collection of data values undergoing dynamic insertions and deletions, the order statistic tree augments a self-balancing binary search tree structure with a constant amount of additional information per tree node, allowing insertions, deletions, and selection queries that ask for the $k$th element in the current set to all be performed in $O(\log n)$ time per operation. Going beyond the comparison model of computation, faster times per operation are possible for values that are small integers, on which binary arithmetic operations are allowed. It is not possible for a streaming algorithm with memory sublinear in both $n$ and $k$ to solve selection queries exactly for dynamic data, but the count–min sketch can be used to solve selection queries approximately, by finding a value whose position in the ordering of the elements (if it were added to them) would be within $\varepsilon n$ steps of $k$, for a sketch whose size is within logarithmic factors of $1/\varepsilon$. ## Lower bounds The $O(n)$ running time of the selection algorithms described above is necessary, because a selection algorithm that can handle inputs in an arbitrary order must take that much time to look at all of its inputs. If any one of its input values is not compared, that one value could be the one that should have been selected, and the algorithm can be made to produce an incorrect answer. Beyond this simple argument, there has been a significant amount of research on the exact number of comparisons needed for selection, both in the randomized and deterministic cases. Selecting the minimum of $n$ values requires $n-1$ comparisons, because the $n-1$ values that are not selected must each have been determined to be non-minimal, by being the largest in some comparison, and no two of these values can be largest in the same comparison. The same argument applies symmetrically to selecting the maximum. The next simplest case is selecting the second-smallest. After several incorrect attempts, the first tight lower bound on this case was published in 1964 by Soviet mathematician Sergey Kislitsyn. It can be shown by observing that selecting the second-smallest also requires distinguishing the smallest value from the rest, and by considering the number $p$ of comparisons involving the smallest value that an algorithm for this problem makes. Each of the $p$ items that were compared to the smallest value is a candidate for second-smallest, and $p-1$ of these values must be found larger than another value in a second comparison in order to rule them out as second-smallest. With $n-1$ values being the larger in at least one comparison, and $p-1$ values being the larger in at least two comparisons, there are a total of at least $n+p-2$ comparisons. An adversary argument, in which the outcome of each comparison is chosen in order to maximize $p$ (subject to consistency with at least one possible ordering) rather than by the numerical values of the given items, shows that it is possible to force $p$ to be at least $\log_2 n$. Therefore, the worst-case number of comparisons needed to select the second smallest is $n+\lceil\log_2 n\rceil-2$, the same number that would be obtained by holding a single-elimination tournament with a run-off tournament among the values that lost to the smallest value. However, the expected number of comparisons of a randomized selection algorithm can be better than this bound; for instance, selecting the second-smallest of six elements requires seven comparisons in the worst case, but may be done by a randomized algorithm with an expected number of 6.5 comparisons. More generally, selecting the $k$th element out of $n$ requires at least $n+\min(k,n-k)-O(1)$ comparisons, in the average case, matching the number of comparisons of the Floyd–Rivest algorithm up to its $o(n)$ term. The argument is made directly for deterministic algorithms, with a number of comparisons that is averaged over all possible permutations of the input values. By Yao's principle, it also applies to the expected number of comparisons for a randomized algorithm on its worst-case input. For deterministic algorithms, it has been shown that selecting the $k$th element requires $\bigl(1+H(k/n)\bigr)n+\Omega(\sqrt n)$ comparisons, where $H(x)=x\log_2\frac1x + (1-x)\log_2\frac1{1-x}$ is the binary entropy function. The special case of median-finding has a slightly larger lower bound on the number of comparisons, at least $(2+\varepsilon)n$, for $\varepsilon\approx 2^{-80}$. ## Exact numbers of comparisons Knuth supplies the following triangle of numbers summarizing pairs of $n$ and $k$ for which the exact number of comparisons needed by an optimal selection algorithm is known. The $n$th row of the triangle (starting with $n=1$ in the top row) gives the numbers of comparisons for inputs of $n$ values, and the $k$th number within each row gives the number of comparisons needed to select the $k$th smallest value from an input of that size. The rows are symmetric because selecting the $k$th smallest requires exactly the same number of comparisons, in the worst case, as selecting the $k$th largest. Most, but not all, of the entries on the left half of each row can be found using the formula $n-k+(k-1)\bigl\lceil\log_2(n+2-k)\bigr\rceil.$ This describes the number of comparisons made by a method of Abdollah Hadian and Milton Sobel, related to heapselect, that finds the smallest value using a single-elimination tournament and then repeatedly uses a smaller tournament among the values eliminated by the eventual tournament winners to find the next successive values until reaching the $k$th smallest. Some of the larger entries were proven to be optimal using a computer search. ## Language support Very few languages have built-in support for general selection, although many provide facilities for finding the smallest or largest element of a list. A notable exception is the Standard Template Library for C++, which provides a templated `nth_element` method with a guarantee of expected linear time. Python's standard library (since 2.4) includes `heapq.nsmallest` and `heapq.nlargest` subroutines for returning the smallest or largest elements from a collection, in sorted order. Different versions of Python have used different algorithms for these subroutines. As of Python version 3.13, the implementation maintains a binary heap, limited to holding $k$ elements, and initialized to the first $k$ elements in the collection. Then, each subsequent items of the collection may replace the largest or smallest element in the heap (respectively for `heapq.nsmallest` and `heapq.nlargest`) if it is smaller or larger than this element. The worst-case time for this implementation is $O(n\log k)$, worse than the $O(n+k\log n)$ that would be achieved by heapselect. However, for random input sequences, there are likely to be few heap updates and most input elements are processed with only a single comparison. Since 2017, Matlab has included `maxk()` and `mink()` functions, which return the maximal (minimal) $k$ values in a vector as well as their indices. The Matlab documentation does not specify which algorithm these functions use or what their running time is. ## History Quickselect was presented without analysis by Tony Hoare in 1965, and first analyzed in a 1971 technical report by Donald Knuth. The first known linear time deterministic selection algorithm is the median of medians method, published in 1973 by Manuel Blum, Robert W. Floyd, Vaughan Pratt, Ron Rivest, and Robert Tarjan. They trace the formulation of the selection problem to work of Charles L. Dodgson (better known as Lewis Carroll) who in 1883 pointed out that the usual design of single-elimination sports tournaments does not guarantee that the second-best player wins second place, and to work of Hugo Steinhaus circa 1930, who followed up this same line of thought by asking for a tournament design that can make this guarantee, with a minimum number of games played (that is, comparisons). ## See also - , algorithms for higher-dimensional generalizations of medians - Median filter, application of median-finding algorithms in image processing
22,213,179	David Freese	1,165,658,243	American baseball player (born 1983)	[ "1983 births", "American expatriate baseball players in Venezuela", "Baseball players from Corpus Christi, Texas", "Baseball players from St. Louis County, Missouri", "Caribes de Anzoátegui players", "Eugene Emeralds players", "Fort Wayne Wizards players", "Gulf Coast Cardinals players", "Lake Elsinore Storm players", "Living people", "Los Angeles Angels players", "Los Angeles Dodgers players", "Major League Baseball third basemen", "Memphis Redbirds players", "National League All-Stars", "National League Championship Series MVPs", "Pittsburgh Pirates players", "STLCC Archers baseball players", "Salt Lake Bees players", "Sigma Alpha Epsilon members", "South Alabama Jaguars baseball players", "Springfield Cardinals players", "St. Louis Cardinals players", "University of Missouri alumni", "World Series Most Valuable Player Award winners" ]	David Richard Freese (born April 28, 1983) is an American former professional baseball third baseman. He began his Major League Baseball (MLB) career with the St. Louis Cardinals in 2009, where, two seasons later, he was a key player during the 2011 postseason, batting .545 with 12 hits in the 2011 National League Championship Series (NLCS). He also set an MLB postseason record of 21 runs batted in (RBIs), earning the NLCS MVP Award and World Series MVP Award. In addition, Freese won the Babe Ruth Award, naming him the MVP of the 2011 MLB postseason. He also played for the Los Angeles Angels, Pittsburgh Pirates, and Los Angeles Dodgers. A star high school player, Freese declined a college baseball scholarship from the University of Missouri. Needing a break from baseball, he sat out his freshman year of college before feeling a renewed urge to play the game. He transferred to St. Louis Community College–Meramec, a junior college, where he played for one season before transferring to the University of South Alabama. The San Diego Padres selected Freese in the ninth round of the 2006 MLB draft. The Cardinals acquired Freese before the 2008 season. He made his MLB debut on Opening Day 2009 due to an injury to starting third baseman Troy Glaus. Despite suffering his own injuries in the minor leagues and in his first two MLB seasons, Freese batted .297 with 10 home runs and 55 RBIs during 2011, a season capped off by the Cardinals' 2011 World Series championship over the Texas Rangers. The next season, he batted .293 with 20 home runs and was selected to his first MLB All-Star Game. Freese authored a 20-game hitting streak in 2013, but back injuries limited his effectiveness, and the Cardinals traded him to the Angels following the season. He played for the Angels for two seasons before signing with the Pirates in March 2016. The Pirates traded Freese to the Dodgers in 2018, and he retired after the 2019 season. ## Early life Born on April 28, 1983, in Corpus Christi, Texas, Freese was raised in the Greater St. Louis area, in Wildwood, Missouri. He grew up a fan of the St. Louis Cardinals. He attended Lafayette High School in Wildwood, and played for the school's baseball team as a shortstop. Freese recorded a Lafayette-record .533 batting average and 23 home runs during his senior season. He was considered to be the best shortstop in the state. Freese graduated from Lafayette in 2001. As a senior in high school, Freese was offered a scholarship to play college baseball for the University of Missouri's baseball team. Feeling burned out, Freese decided to quit the sport. He enrolled at Missouri and studied computer science, while joining the Sigma Alpha Epsilon fraternity. During the summer after his freshman year, Freese worked for the Rockwood School District maintenance department. When he visited Lafayette High School towards the end of the summer, he realized how much he missed baseball. Freese asked Tony Dattoli, the coach at St. Louis Community College–Meramec, for a roster spot. In one season at St. Louis Community College, Freese hit .396 with 41 runs batted in (RBIs) and 10 home runs and was named to the National Junior College Athletic Association All-America second team. Dattoli recommended Freese to Steve Kittrell, the head coach of the Jaguars baseball team at the University of South Alabama. At South Alabama, opposing teams respected his hitting ability; scouts told their pitchers: "Don't let Freese beat us." As a junior in 2005, Freese hit .373, with a .443 on-base percentage (OBP), .525 slugging percentage (SLG), and 52 runs scored in 56 games. He was seventh in the Sun Belt Conference (SBC) in average and led the school one year after Adam Lind had done so. Freese was even better in 2006, hitting .414 with a .503 OBP and .661 SLG with 73 runs and 73 RBIs in 60 games. He won the SBC batting title and led the conference in RBIs. He tied for ninth in Division I in RBIs, was 12th in average and just missed the top 10 in runs scored. He made the All-Conference team at third base and was named SBC Player of the Year. He was named an American Baseball Coaches Association All-American as the top third baseman in NCAA Division I, ahead of Evan Longoria and Pedro Alvarez, among others. Kittrell considers Freese to be the best player he coached at South Alabama, where he also coached Lind, Luis Gonzalez, and Juan Pierre. ## Professional career ### Draft and minor leagues Prior to the 2006 Major League Baseball draft, the Boston Red Sox attempted to sign Freese as a free agent for a \$90,000 signing bonus. However, South Alabama made the College World Series regional playoffs, which extended their season past the pre-draft signing deadline. The San Diego Padres selected Freese in the ninth round (273rd overall) of the draft. Freese signed with the Padres and played for the Eugene Emeralds of the Class-A Short Season Northwest League, Fort Wayne Wizards of the Class-A Midwest League, and Lake Elsinore Storm of the Class-A Advanced California League in the San Diego farm system in 2006 and 2007. He batted .379 with a .465 OBP, .776 SLG, 19 runs and 26 RBIs in 18 games for the Emeralds and .299 with a .374 OBP, .510 SLG and 44 RBIs in 53 games for the Wizards in 2006. Freese batted .302 with a .400 OBP and .489 SLG for Lake Elsinore in 128 games during the 2007 season. He scored 104 runs and drove in 96. He ranked seventh in the California League in OBP, seventh in RBIs and tied with Tony Granadillo for third in runs. He made the California League All-Star team. However, the Padres had third basemen Chase Headley and Kevin Kouzmanoff as well, potentially blocking Freese's path to the majors. As a result, Freese began to practice as a catcher. Before the 2008 season, Freese was traded by the Padres to the Cardinals for Jim Edmonds. He spent the season with the Memphis Redbirds of the Triple-A Pacific Coast League (PCL), where he batted .306 with a .361 OBP and .550 SLG, hit 26 home runs and recorded 91 RBIs. He led PCL third basemen in fielding percentage (.967) and double plays (26). ### St. Louis Cardinals (2009–2013) #### Early MLB career: 2009–2010 Freese emerged as a potential starter when an injury seemed likely to put Cardinals starting third baseman Troy Glaus on the disabled list at the beginning of the 2009 season. Freese made his MLB debut on Opening Day of the 2009 season, coming off the bench and hitting a go-ahead sacrifice fly in the Cardinals' home opener against the Pittsburgh Pirates. Freese was expected to be the team's starting third baseman, but was quickly passed over by Brian Barden and Joe Thurston. He was optioned to Triple-A Memphis on April 20, 2009, to make room for newly acquired reliever Blaine Boyer. He later had surgery to repair a left ankle injury that hampered him during spring training. He missed two months of the season. He was activated and assigned to the Springfield Cardinals of the Double-A Texas League in late July, before he was assigned to Memphis. He led the Memphis Redbirds to a PCL division championship. He was recalled in the September call-up on September 23, 2009. Freese played only 17 games for the Cardinals in 2009, in addition to 56 games for Triple-A Memphis. Freese began the 2010 season as the Cardinals' starting third baseman. For the week of April 26 – May 2, Freese batted .462 with three home runs and 11 RBIs and was named the National League's Player of the Week. However, he suffered a right ankle injury in June. This injury required him to have two ankle surgeries and ended his season after 70 games. #### 2011: Breakout season Freese was projected to start the 2011 season, and he was named the starter on Opening Day, despite suffering minor ailments during spring training. He started off the year batting over .320, but he missed 51 games after being hit by a pitch that fractured his left hand. After returning to the starting lineup, he finished the season with a .297 batting average, 10 home runs, and 55 RBIs. He recorded hits in eight of the final nine regular-season games. Freese credited his improvement in power hitting to hitting coach Mark McGwire, who helped him refine his stroke. ##### 2011 postseason In the 2011 National League Division Series, Freese drove in four runs against Philadelphia in Game 4 to force a fifth game. In the National League Championship Series (NLCS) against Milwaukee, Freese had a .545 batting average, hit 3 home runs, drove in 9 runs, and scored 7 runs. He was named the NLCS Most Valuable Player. Through Game 3 of the World Series against Texas, Freese had a 13-game postseason hitting streak, a Cardinals record and just two short of matching the all-time National League record. The hitting streak was snapped in Game 4. In Game 6 of the 2011 World Series, with the Texas Rangers leading the game 7–5, and leading the series by 3 games to 2, Freese came to bat in the bottom of the ninth with two out and two men on base. With a count of one ball and two strikes, Freese hit a two-run triple off Neftalí Feliz just out of the reach of Nelson Cruz to tie the game and send it to extra innings. In the 11th inning, again with two strikes, Freese hit a game-winning, walk-off solo home run to deep center field (420 feet), to send the World Series to its first Game 7 since 2002. Freese joined Jim Edmonds, the man for whom he was traded, as the only players in Cardinals history to hit an extra-inning walk-off home run in the postseason. He joined Aaron Boone (2003), and Hall of Famers David Ortiz (2004), Carlton Fisk (1975) and Kirby Puckett (1991) as the only players to hit an extra-inning walk-off home run when their team was facing postseason elimination. Freese gave the fan an autographed bat and a baseball signed by the Cardinals, for returning the walk-off home run ball. In Game 7 of the World Series, Freese hit a two-run double in the bottom of the first inning, bringing his 2011 postseason RBI total to 21, an MLB record. The Cardinals went on to win the game and the series, making Freese a World Series champion for the first time. For his efforts, Freese was named the World Series MVP. He became the sixth player to win the LCS and World Series MVP awards in the same year. Freese also won the Babe Ruth Award as the postseason MVP. #### 2012 season Freese won the All-Star Final Vote in 2012, joining the All-Star roster with teammates Lance Lynn, Carlos Beltrán, Rafael Furcal, and Yadier Molina for the National League in the 2012 MLB All-Star Game. Freese had a .294 batting average, along with 13 home runs and 50 RBIs in the first half of the season. After being injury-plagued in previous years, Freese played in a career-high 144 games in 2012, finishing the season with 79 RBIs, 20 home runs and a .293 batting average. In the 2012 NLCS against the San Francisco Giants, Freese hit a two-run home run off Madison Bumgarner in Game 1. Through this point in his postseason career, Freese had played 25 games, batting .386 with 11 doubles, six home runs, 25 RBIs and a .739 slugging percentage in 100 plate appearances. Only Carlos Beltrán (.824) and Babe Ruth (.744) had higher slugging percentages among players with 100 or more plate appearances in the postseason. However, he slumped after that game, batting just .192 for the series as the Giants won in seven games and advanced to the 2012 World Series. Freese made history on June 1, 2012, by striking out to end Johan Santana’s no-hitter, the first in the history of the New York Mets. #### 2013 season On February 8, 2013, Freese and the Cardinals reached agreement on a one-year contract, avoiding arbitration. This was the first season he was arbitration-eligible and when filing he had requested a 2013 salary of \$3.75 million. The Cardinals counter-offered \$2.4 million. After suffering a back injury in spring training and starting the 2013 season on the disabled list, Freese struggled at the plate for much of the first six weeks of the season, having only four RBIs by mid-May. However, on 17 May, Freese began a twenty-game hitting streak, the longest of any MLB player to that point in the 2013 season. The streak ended on June 12. On August 16, the Cardinals promoted Kolten Wong to play second base, intending for Matt Carpenter to play third base, reducing Freese's playing time. In the postseason, he collected just 10 hits in 56 at-bats as the Cardinals fell to the Boston Red Sox in the 2013 World Series. ### Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim (2014–2015) After the 2013 season, the Cardinals traded Freese and Fernando Salas to the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim for Peter Bourjos and Randal Grichuk. Again eligible for salary arbitration for the 2014 season, Freese filed for a \$6 million salary while the Angels countered with \$4.1 million; they settled on a \$5.05 million salary. Freese had a slow start, ending May with a .203 batting average, and improved from June through August, batting .292 in those months. He hit a home run against the Kansas City Royals in the first game of the 2014 American League Division Series for his 24th postseason extra-base hit and 30th RBI. In his last year of arbitration before becoming eligible for free agency, Freese requested a \$7.6 million salary for the 2015 season, while the Angels proposed \$5.25 million. The two sides avoided arbitration by agreeing on a \$6.425 million salary. Freese entered the 2015 season as the Angels everyday third baseman, and hit .240 with 11 home runs and 43 RBIs in 90 games. He broke his right index finger when it was hit by a pitch on July 22, and went on the disabled list. ### Pittsburgh Pirates (2016–2018) Freese entered free agency after the 2015 season. Rather than re-sign Freese, the Angels chose to trade for Yunel Escobar. Unsigned at the beginning of spring training in 2016, Freese signed a one-year contract with the Pittsburgh Pirates worth \$3 million on March 11. Neal Huntington, the Pirates' general manager, indicated that Freese would play third base while Jung-ho Kang rehabilitated from an injury, and would join John Jaso in a platoon at first base after Kang's return. Due to his leadership skills, the Pirates signed Freese to a two-year contract extension worth \$11 million, with a club option for the 2019 season, on August 22, 2016. He finished the 2016 season with a .270 batting average. On April 29, 2017, Freese was placed on the 10-day disabled list due to a right hamstring strain. ### Los Angeles Dodgers (2018–2019) On August 31, 2018, the Pirates traded Freese to the Los Angeles Dodgers for minor league infielder Jesus Manuel Valdez. In the final month of the season and into the postseason, Freese saw most of his action in a righty-lefty platoon at first base with Max Muncy. He thrived in that role, hitting .385 with two home runs and nine RBIs. Freese hit a leadoff home run in Game Six of the 2018 National League Championship Series. He started at first base in Game One of the 2018 World Series. Freese hit another leadoff home run in Game Five, which turned out to be the only run of the game as the Dodgers lost the game and the series. Freese batted .417 in the 2018 World Series and had a .773 slugging percentage in the 2018 postseason. On November 1, 2018, the Dodgers declined to exercise their \$6 million option for 2019, paying him a \$500,000 buyout on the option, and signed him to a new one-year contract worth \$4.5 million. He played in 79 games for the Dodgers in 2019, hitting .315 with 11 home runs and 29 RBIs while playing primarily against left handed pitching. On October 12, Freese announced his retirement from MLB at the age of 36. ## Personal life Freese's father, Guy, is a retired civil engineer. His mother, Lynn, is a retired teacher. Freese also has a sister, Pam. According to his mother, Freese—a professed lifelong Cardinals fan—had an original Ozzie Smith glove, and while pitching in his younger years always used number 45 in honor of another Cardinals legend, pitcher Bob Gibson. Freese is a Christian. He is of German descent, the Freese family originally hailing from Westerkappeln, Westphalia. Freese has suffered from depression for his entire life. It was a factor in his giving up baseball after high school and in his development of alcoholism. In November 2002, Freese was arrested for driving under the influence (DUI) of alcohol near Wildwood, and received probation under a plea bargain. He was charged with public intoxication and obstructing a police officer in Lake Elsinore, California, in 2007. In December 2009, Freese was arrested for DUI in Maryland Heights, Missouri, a suburb of St. Louis. Breath tests indicated a 0.232% blood alcohol content; the state's legal limit is 0.08%. The 2009 arrest was a violation of Freese's probation, due to a September 2007 arrest for resisting arrest (among other charges) in Lake Elsinore, California. Freese crashed his Range Rover SUV into a tree in Wildwood, Missouri, a suburb of St. Louis, on November 22, 2012. Local investigators stated that the crash was a result of Freese's swerving to avoid hitting a wild deer. Alcohol was not a factor in the crash. In June 2013, Freese signed a three-year deal to endorse and serve as spokesman for Imo's Pizza, a Midwestern pizza chain headquartered in the St. Louis area. No financial terms of the deal were announced other than as part of the contract Imo's would also donate \$10,000 to a St. Louis area charity in Freese's name. Freese resides in Austin, Texas, and has begun learning to play guitar. He married Mairin (née O’Leary) in September 2016. Together, they have two sons. Freese credits the relationship with Mairin and seeing a social worker with helping him get through his depression and alcoholism. In 2023, Freese was the top vote-getter for induction into the St. Louis Cardinals Hall of Fame Museum, but on June 17, he declined the invite because he did not feel "deserving". Cardinals president Bill DeWitt III said in a statement, "Although we are disappointed that David has declined to be inducted into our Hall of Fame, we respect his decision and look forward to celebrating his great Cardinals career in other ways going forward. He is always welcome at Busch Stadium." ## See also - St. Louis Cardinals award winners and league leaders
54,900,847	Hawaii Five-0 (2010 TV series, season 8)	1,173,273,454	Season of television series	[ "2017 American television seasons", "2018 American television seasons", "Hawaii Five-0 (2010 TV series) seasons" ]	The eighth season of the CBS police procedural drama series Hawaii Five-0 premiered on September 29, 2017 for the 2017–18 television season. CBS renewed the series for a 23 episode eighth season on March 23, 2017. On November 6, 2017 CBS ordered an additional episode for the season and did the same again on February 8, 2018 bringing the count to 25 episodes. The season concluded on May 18, 2018. The eighth season ranked No. 18 for the 2017–18 television season and had an average of 11 million viewers. The series was also renewed for a ninth season. Due to pay disputes, this was the first season not to feature Daniel Dae Kim and Grace Park. This was also the first full season not to feature Masi Oka following his departure in the thirteenth episode of the seventh season. Meaghan Rath and Beulah Koale joined as new main cast members. In addition, longtime recurring cast members Dennis Chun, Kimee Balmilero, and Taylor Wily were promoted to series regulars, while another longtime recurring cast member Ian Anthony Dale joined as a series regular and appeared in episodes seven through twenty. ## Cast and characters ### Main cast - Alex O'Loughlin as Lieutenant Commander Steven "Steve" McGarrett, United States Navy Reserve - Scott Caan as Detective Sergeant Daniel "Danny" "Danno" Williams - Meaghan Rath as Officer Tani Rey - Jorge Garcia as Special Consultant Jerry Ortega - Taylor Wily as Kamekona Tupuola - Dennis Chun as Sergeant Duke Lukela, Honolulu Police Department - Kimee Balmilero as Dr. Noelani Cunha, Medical Examiner - Chi McBride as Captain Lou Grover - Beulah Koale as Police Candidate, later Officer assigned to Five-0 Task Force, Junior Reigns - Ian Anthony Dale as Adam Noshimuri, head of Five-0 Special Division of Organized Crime ### Recurring cast - Zach Sulzbach as Charlie Williams - Shawn Mokuahi Garnett as Flippa Tupuola - Claire Forlani as Alicia Brown - Andrew Lawrence as Eric Russo - Kunal Sharma as Koa Rey - Kekoa Kekumano as Nahele Huikala - Christine Ko as Jessie Nomura ### Guest stars - Joey Lawrence as Aaron Wright, brother of world-class hacker Ian Wright - Chris Vance as Harry Langford, former MI6 agent - Paige Hurd as Samantha Grover - Randy Couture as Jason Duclair - Bob McCracken as DEA Agent Chris Reid - Casper Van Dien as Roger Niles - Steven Brand as John Walcott - Derek Mio as Derek Okada - Leonardo Nam as Harley Taylor - Reggie Lee as Joey Kang - Erika Brown as adult Grace Williams - Joey Defore as 20 year-old Charlie Williams - Chosen Jacobs as Will Grover - Devon Sawa as Brad Woodward - Shawn Anthony Thomsen as Pua Kai - Michael Imperioli as Odell Martin - Claire van der Boom as Rachel Hollander - Frankie Faison as Leroy Davis - Ryan Bittle as John McGarrett - Susan Park as Noriko Noshimuri - Michelle Borth as Catherine Rollins - Terry O'Quinn as Joe White - Willie Garson as Gerard Hirsch - Robyn Lively as Helen Meech ## Episodes ## Production On March 23, 2017, CBS renewed the series for an eighth season, which premiered on September 29, 2017. Filming for the season began on July 8, 2017 with a traditional Hawaiian blessing. Series star Alex O'Loughlin made both his writer and directorial debut during the season. O'Loughlin directed the eighteenth episode of the season and wrote the story for the twenty-fourth episode of the season. The final script for the season was written around early March 2018. Filming on the final episode of the season concluded in the third week of April. The final episode of the season aired on May 18, 2018. ### Daniel Dae Kim's and Grace Park's departure controversies On June 30, 2017, ahead of the series's eighth season, it was announced that series regulars Daniel Dae Kim and Grace Park would be departing the series due to a salary dispute with CBS. Kim and Park had been seeking pay equality with co-stars Alex O'Loughlin and Scott Caan, but did not reach satisfactory deals with CBS Television Studios. CBS's final offer to Kim and Park was 10–15% lower than what O'Loughlin and Caan make in salary. An update of their characters was given in the first episode of the season and in various other episodes throughout the season. ### Casting Following Kim's and Park's departures it was announced that longtime recurring cast member Ian Anthony Dale who portrays Kono Kalakaua's husband Adam Noshimuri had been upped to series regular for the eighth season. It was also announced that Meaghan Rath and Beulah Koale would join the series as new characters and new members of Five-0. On July 21, 2017, it was announced that recurring cast members Taylor Wily, Kimee Balmilero, and Dennis Chun would also be upped to series regulars for the eighth season. On September 28, 2017 in an interview with executive producer Peter Lenkov he was asked if Christine Lahti had a chance in returning during the season. Lenkov stated "Yes, well, we haven’t written the episode. There is an episode that we’re talking about, but it all depends on scheduling." However, the story wasn't written and no updates were given. Joey Lawrence starred in two episodes of the season as Aaron Wright's brother of Ian Wright, played by Nick Jonas who appeared in two episodes during season 4. Chris Vance also returned as a guest star and appeared in two episodes as former MI6 agent Harry Langford. It was later announced on March 19, 2018 that previous main cast member Michelle Borth would return as a guest star in the season's twentieth episode. Terry O'Quinn also returned as a guest star in the season's twenty-fourth episode. Teilor Grubbs did not appear at all in the season for the first time since the beginning of the series. Ian Anthony Dale returned to the series in episode seven and made his final appearance of the season in episode twenty due to conflicting filming of other CBS television show Salvation in which he is also a series regular. ## Reception ### Ratings ## Home video release
7,385,351	Metzengerstein	1,167,221,554	1832 short story by Edgar Allan Poe	[ "1832 short stories", "Short stories adapted into films", "Short stories by Edgar Allan Poe", "Short stories set in castles", "Works originally published in American magazines" ]	"Metzengerstein: A Tale in Imitation of the German" is a short story by American writer and poet Edgar Allan Poe, his first to see print. It was first published in the pages of Philadelphia's Saturday Courier magazine, in 1832. The story follows the young Frederick, the last of the Metzengerstein family, who carries on a long-standing feud with the Berlifitzing family. Suspected of causing a fire that kills the Berlifitzing family patriarch, Frederick becomes intrigued with a previously unnoticed and untamed horse. Metzengerstein is punished for his cruelty when his own home catches fire and the horse carries him into the flame. Part of a Latin hexameter by Martin Luther serves as the story's epigraph: Pestis eram vivus—moriens tua mors ero ("Living I have been your plague, dying I shall be your death"). "Metzengerstein" follows many conventions of Gothic fiction and, to some, exaggerates those conventions. Consequently, critics and scholars debate if Poe intended the story to be taken seriously or considered a satire of Gothic stories. Regardless, many elements introduced in "Metzengerstein" would become common in Poe's future writing. Because the story follows an orphan raised in an aristocratic household, some critics suggest an autobiographical connection with its author. The story was submitted as Poe's entry to a writing contest at the Saturday Courier. Though it did not win, the newspaper published it in January 1832. It was re-published with Poe's permission only twice during his lifetime; its subtitle was dropped for its final publication. Poe intended to include it in his collection Tales of the Folio Club or another called Phantasy Pieces, but neither collection was ever produced. ## Plot summary The story, told by an unnamed third-person narrator, takes place in Hungary at an unspecified date. There is a rivalry between two wealthy families—the Metzengersteins and the Berlifitzings—which is so old that no one knows how far back it dates. The narrator states that its origin appears to rely on an "ancient" prophecy: "A lofty name shall have a fearful fall when, as the rider over his horse, the mortality of Metzengerstein shall triumph over the immortality of Berlifitzing." Frederick, Baron of Metzengerstein, is orphaned at a young age, inheriting the family fortune at age 18 (though the age changes throughout its many re-publications). Equipped with enormous wealth and power, he begins to exhibit particularly cruel behavior. Four days after he receives his inheritance, the stables of the rival family Berlifitzing catch fire. The neighborhood attributes the act of arson to Frederick. That day, Metzengerstein sits staring intently at an old tapestry depicting "an enormous, and unnaturally colored horse" that belonged to the Berlifitzing clan. Behind the horse its rider has just been killed by "the dagger of a Metzengerstein". Frederick opens the door to leave, and the action causes his shadow to fall exactly on the spot of the murderer in the tapestry. Outside, his men are handling a horse. They tell Frederick that this new horse has been found in his stables with the letters "W.V.B." branded on its forehead. The equerry supposes they stand for William Von Berlifitzing. However, the grooms of the Berlifitzing stable do not recognize the horse. Frederick takes ownership of the horse. He later hears that Wilhelm Berlifitzing died in the fire as he tried to save one of his horses in the burning stable. Frederick and the horse become seemingly inseparable. He rides the animal as if addicted, and he becomes less and less interested in the affairs of his house and of society. He eventually begins to live in seclusion to the extent that others in the neighborhood suspect that he is either mad, sick, or overwhelmingly conceited. One night, Frederick awakes and maniacally mounts the horse to ride into the forest. Some hours later, his castle catches fire. A crowd gathers to watch the flames and see the horse carrying "an unbonneted and disordered rider" who clearly has no control over the animal. The horse leaps into the flames with its rider, thereby killing the last of the Metzengerstein clan. Immediately, the fire dies away. In the calm, the onlookers observe a cloud of smoke settle above the castle in the shape of a horse. ## Publication history Poe originally sent "Metzengerstein" to the Saturday Courier as his entry to a writing competition along with five other prose works, including "The Duke de l'Omelette" and "A Decided Loss". None of his entries won, though the judges apparently liked "Metzengerstein" enough to print it a few months later in their January 14, 1832 edition. It was published without Poe's name attached to it but it is acknowledged as the first tale published by Poe. Poe likely was not paid for its initial publication. The subtitle of "A Tale in Imitation of the German" was added when it was republished in the Southern Literary Messenger in January 1836, likely to capitalize on the popular interest in German horror. It was removed for its publication as part of the collection Tales of the Grotesque and Arabesque in 1840. "Metzengerstein" was one of 11 tales Poe would have collected as Tales of the Folio Club, a tale collection Poe announced but never actually printed. The "Folio Club" would have been a fictitious literary society based on the Delphian Club that the author called a group of "dunderheads" out to "abolish literature". At each monthly meeting, a member would present a story. In the case of "Metzengerstein", the speaker was "Mr. Horrible Dictû, with white eyelashes, who had graduated at Gottingen" according to an early draft. The Baltimore Saturday Visiter ran an advertisement calling for subscribers for the collection at \$1 apiece. A week later, however, the newspaper announced that the author had withdrawn the pieces with the expectation they would be printed in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Poe also considered publishing "Metzengerstein" in a collection of stories to be called Phantasy Pieces as "The Horse-Shade", though the edition was never printed. In its first several publications, "Metzengerstein" included a line about the mother's death by consumption. The narrator says: "It is a path I have prayed to follow. I would wish all I love to perish of that gentle disease." When Poe was still a child, his own mother, Eliza Poe, died, presumably of consumption. His wife Virginia also had tuberculosis and died in 1847. After her death, Poe altered his personal view of fictional heroines who were sick and idealized sick women while wishing for their death. This more romantic view of death was not uncommon in writing, as in John Keats's "Ode to a Nightingale", which may have inspired Poe. ## Analysis Though not explicitly stated, it is implied that the horse is really Berlifitzing. The first paragraph of the story references metempsychosis, the belief that the soul of a person is transferred to another living being upon death. Other evidence is the tapestry, the lack of a history or recognition in the horse and, certainly, the prophecy referencing the immortality of the Berlifitzings. The story can be read as an allegory, a warning that a human soul can be overtaken by the evil it has created. Such evil may be interpreted as having been created by a person's hatred and pride. Poe imitates many traditional "Germanic" elements in this tale. The most obvious example is the gloomy old castle, typical of Gothic fiction. The story also includes typical Gothic themes, which scholar Dawn Sova refers to as "hints at secret obsessions and sins, foreboding prophecies, family rivalry". These Gothic conventions had been a staple of popular fiction in Europe and the United States for several decades by the time Poe utilized them. Considering the subtitle, "A Tale in Imitation of the German", critics and scholars disagree if Poe may have, in fact, intended the story as a satire or burlesque of the genre, purposely exaggerating the elements of the Gothic to be humorous. Other evidence is that all of the other three stories Poe published in 1832 ("The Duc de l'Omelette", "A Tale of Jerusalem", and "Bon-Bon") are comic tales written, as Poe said, "intended for half banter, half satire". The story also uses irony as a form of humor: Despite the family's prophecy that "the mortality of Metzengerstein shall triumph over the immortality of Berlifitzing", the opposite occurs. The suggestion that "Metzengerstein" is purposefully written as a satire has been disputed, especially because of Poe's revisions throughout its many republications where he removed some of the more exaggerated material. The German or, more generally, European overtones give the story a medieval setting, though the time and place of the plot is left indistinct. The atmosphere of the story combines both realistic and supernatural worlds while depicting pathological emotional states, likely influenced by the works of Ludwig Tieck and E. T. A. Hoffmann. It has been called a precursor to "The Fall of the House of Usher" and other later works. Among the elements Poe first uses in "Metzengerstein" which will become typical in his later works are the decaying and gloomy building with oddly shaped rooms, the remote, secluded property, vivid colors, and underground vaults as well as themes of vengeance and the overwhelming power of evil. Future works will also depict characters of extreme wealth; besides Metzengerstein, other examples are Roderick Usher, the narrator in "Ligeia" and Legrand's restored fortune in "The Gold-Bug". Poe also uses teeth as a symbol for the first time in "Metzengerstein". The horse's teeth are described as "sepulchral and disgusting". Poe would later use teeth as a sign of mortality, as in lips writhing about the teeth of the mesmerized man in "The Facts in the Case of M. Valdemar", the sound of grating teeth in "Hop-Frog", and the obsession over teeth in "Berenice". Death by fire would later be reused in Poe's story "Hop-Frog" as another punishment. Though Poe was emulating popular horror fiction of the time, "Metzengerstein" shows what made Poe's horror tales stand out: rather than focusing on blood and gore, he explored the minds of the characters to better understand them. The story has some autobiographical overtones as well, with the castle representing Moldavia, the Richmond home of Poe's foster-father John Allan. The Count, in this reading, would represent John Allan, and Poe the young Metzengerstein. Both Poe and Metzengerstein are orphaned at a young age. Poe may have found writing the story therapeutic; in it, he destroys "John Allan", though he is also destroyed in return. In focusing on the final fire scene, Poe may have been recalling the fatal Richmond Theatre fire of December 1811 which occurred three weeks after his mother, the actress Eliza Poe, had died. ## Critical response The German nature of "Metzengerstein" and other stories in the collection Tales of the Grotesque and Arabesque was mentioned in a review by Joseph C. Neal in the Pennsylvanian on December 6, 1839: "These grotesque and arabesque delineations are full of variety, now irresistibly quaint and droll, and again marked with all the deep and painful interest of the German school". Rudyard Kipling was an admirer of Poe and once wrote, "My own personal debt to Poe is a heavy one". "Metzengerstein" was an inspiration to his story "The Phantom 'Rickshaw", where the main character is punished by the horse of someone he has murdered. ## Adaptations "Metzengerstein" was adapted into one component of Histoires extraordinaires in 1968, by Roger Vadim. The segment stars Jane Fonda and Peter Fonda. Romanian composer Joan Balan wrote a musical score for piano in 1934 based on the story called Das Feuerpferd. Italian singer Lord Vampyr, famous for his work with Theatres des Vampires, has a song named "Metzengerstein" in his 2010 album Horror Masterpiece. The song's lyrics heavily allude to the tale.
50,306,133	1980 (album)	1,103,189,560	null	[ "1980 albums", "Albums produced by Malcolm Cecil", "Arista Records albums", "Collaborative albums", "Gil Scott-Heron albums" ]	1980 is a studio album by American singer-songwriter Gil Scott-Heron and keyboardist Brian Jackson. Their ninth album together, it was recorded from August to October 1979 during a period of creative tension between the two musicians and released in February 1980 by Arista Records. Scott-Heron and Jackson produced 1980 with Malcolm Cecil and performed with a host of studio musicians, including drummer Harvey Mason, guitarist Marlo Henderson, and trombonist Bill Watrous. They incorporated sounds from contemporary pop music, such as disco, dance, and new wave, into their established jazz-funk style. Jackson arranged the songs and played a number of instruments, including Cecil's TONTO synthesizer, which was featured in the album's cover photo. Scott-Heron's lyrics explore contemporary concerns in US society, such as nuclear power and racism, as well as pressures in life and fear of the future. Several songs address the idealism held among African Americans amid the declining Black Power movement. The album charted at number 82 on the Billboard Top LPs & Tape chart while also impacting the R&B and jazz charts. A critical success, it received praise for its musical qualities and Scott-Heron's subject matter. 1980 proved to be Scott-Heron and Jackson's last album together. ## Background In the 1970s, Gil Scott-Heron established himself as a prominent vocalist, spoken-word poet, and songwriter in African-American music. Debuting with the spoken-word recording Small Talk at 125th and Lenox (1970), he wrote poignant commentaries on contemporary social issues affecting black people at the turn of the decade, such as racial inequality. He began setting his lyrics to music composed and recorded with keyboardist Brian Jackson on studio albums such as Pieces of a Man (1971) and Winter in America (1974), among the nine albums the two would record together, eventually with a backing ensemble called the Midnight Band. Scott-Heron's performance of spoken-word vocals over funk rhythms helped pioneer hip hop music, which was emerging in the mainstream by the latter half of the decade. By the late 1970s, however, the duo's creative relationship was deteriorating as Scott-Heron increasingly encroached on Jackson's musical direction of the Midnight Band and dominated their songwriting contributions, eventually relegating Jackson to arrangement and performance roles. While critically successful, their albums had sold modestly amidst a growingly apathetic political climate in the US, leading Clive Davis (the head of their Arista record label) to enlist Malcolm Cecil for 1978's Secrets, which further strained the duo's partnership. A renowned and eccentric producer with credits on 1970s albums by Stevie Wonder, Billy Preston, and Weather Report, Cecil had developed the TONTO studio system featuring a wall-to-wall set-up of both vintage and custom modular synthesizers. His new electronic direction for the Midnight Band excited Jackson, who saw it as an opportunity to experiment with different elements and jazz improvisation, to the discontent of the more blues- and acoustic-minded Scott-Heron. While Jackson found his creative partner too insecure as a musician to leave his comfort zone, Scott-Heron accused him of exploiting the situation to advance his own career, portending further arguments on a tense concert tour promoting Secrets. Amidst the duo's creative differences and Arista's growing impatience for a hit song, Scott-Heron found emotional support and escape in his relationship with the actress Brenda Sykes, whom he married in December 1978 and shared homes with on both the East and West Coasts. While largely focused and energetic for shows when close to her, Scott-Heron spent most of their marriage away on tour and often resorted to alcohol and drug abuse. As his drug use escalated toward the end of the Secrets tour, the Midnight Band began to break up with concerns over pay and the duo's growing tension. ## Recording and production Scott-Heron and Jackson recorded 1980 from August to October 1979. Scott-Heron composed most of the songs, while Jackson arranged them all. Both musicians produced the album, alongside co-producer Malcolm Cecil. They were accompanied by a team of musicians that included drummer Harvey Mason, guitarist Marlo Henderson, and trombonist Bill Watrous. With 1980, Scott-Heron embraced electronic sounds popularized in contemporary music styles like R&B and hip hop. According to The Quietus journalist Tristan Bath, as with Secrets, 1980 departed from the jazz chords, faint keyboards, and Afrocentric themes of Scott-Heron and Jackson's previous recordings together in favor of "disco and futurist dance music tropes". Both records, Pitchfork's Nate Patrin says, found the musicians adopting contemporary music's "synthesized, dancefloor-driven" trends and "funky, disco-beat" settings for their "pop-friendly protest songs". In the opinion of Exclaim!'s David Dacks, this resulted in "a more overtly synthetic sound" for Scott-Heron, who tried to "incorporate changing musical trends into his earthy jazz-funk". Scott-Heron sang forcefully and emotionally over a relaxed beat on the title track, over jazz-influenced rhythms and smooth guitar playing on "Push Comes to Shove", and over a production on "Shah MOT (The Shah Is Dead/Checkmate)" that melds African- and funk-rooted rhythms with synthesizer sounds. On "Corners", the wah-wah guitar and heavy bass riffs from 1970s funk are fused with the "spacey" synthesizers that would characterize 1980s new wave music. "Shah MOT (The Shah Is Dead/Checkmate)" and "Late Last Night" were recorded with Jackson playing the TONTO synthesizer, which produced warm timbres and sub-bass tones. "Corners" was the last song Scott-Heron composed with Jackson. ## Lyrics and themes 1980 continues in the socially-conscious thematic vein of Scott-Heron's previous albums, addressing prominent concerns of its era such as nuclear power and big business ("Shut 'Um Down"), racism ("Willing"), and governmental oppression ("Shah MOT"). "Shut 'Um Down" features an anti-nuclear message, while "Alien (Hold On to Your Dreams)" promotes the plight of illegal Mexican immigrants in California. The title track voices feelings of alienation and disillusionment with the future alongside reflections on the past. According to AllMusic's Jeff Schwachter, "Scott-Heron's focus at the close of the decade is strikingly similar to his focus on his 1970 debut, Small Talk at 125th and Lennox; namely that social and political change has yet to come to many Americans, despite the advancements in technology and other seemingly less significant realms." Scott-Heron's lyrics also explore the ideals held among African Americans in the wake of the Black Power movement's decline. "1980" presents "the sound of a Black man who's striving in a creative way to keep the Black movement alive", according to Umoja Sasa of US Black Engineer & IT magazine, who cites the song's refrain: "It's 1980, and there ain't no way back to '75 much less 1969 / It's 1980 and ain't nobody asked me no time lately how we gonna open the door for 1984." The song also references the exploitation and eventual discarding of African-American cultural innovations ("Boogie-Woogie's somewhere in the lost and found"). In "Shah MOT (The Shah Is Dead/Checkmate)", the African-American social movement is related to the concerns of the 1979 Iranian Revolution, which overthrew the Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. "My name is what's your name / Our's is a single aim and we can double recognize the need form; Take it to the streets! Tell everybody you meet! Do whatever you do whenever you hear the war drums beat! Put it in the air! Spread it everywhere! Do whatever you do whenever you know you've got to be there", Scott-Heron sings, before asking in the song, "Shah Mot! Look closely, who does it resemble?" Further concerns of black social-consciousness are explored in "Push Comes to Shove", which touches on how African Americans by 1980 had been affected by the deaths or imprisonments of prominent black leaders from the 1960s. Thematizing the need for compromise in life, Scott-Heron relates this to the successful transition by some blacks into mainstream American life. > > Nobody should ride you about the commitment you had. 'Cause they done learned you and they done burned you; showed you idealistic is all you wuz; everybody gotta realize that we all had to compromise; had to put on suits and ties when push came to shove. Push comes to shove once in your lifetime. Push comes to shove to find out just what's on your mind. Push comes to shove to find exactly what you're made of. Both "Push Comes to Shove" and "Willing" express Scott-Heron's philosophy to pressures in life. The album's final track "Late Last Night" was inspired by his touring life and the process of writing music, featuring an account of waking up in a hotel room with an idea for a song but being unable to find a paper or instrument to compose. The narrative finds him fighting with staff to use the hotel's lounge piano and, in the distraction, losing memory of the song's melody and lyrics. Scott-Heron's lyrics throughout the album are described by Alex Suskind in Wax Poetics as "fearful of what the future holds, but conscious of the effort we as individuals need to make in order to keep society functioning for all." On "Corners", Scott-Heron "signals an impending sense of doom for the upcoming decade", according to Suskind, who cites the lyrics: "The turning of the decade like a marker hung in space / is a man-made definition like the bending of a page". Robert Christgau summarizes 1980's subjects as "compromise (necessary), 'surviving' (cop-out), aliens (surviving), the shah (dead), the road (long), and the future (here)." ## Cover photo For the album's front cover, Scott-Heron and Jackson were photographed sitting alongside each other and in front of the TONTO synthesizer. Commenting on the photo in retrospect, Mark Sinker from The Wire said the two musicians appeared "foolish" wearing "Star Trek boots and Gary Numan overalls, posing in front of banks of computer technology". But he extended his interpretation of the photo to the creative "rut" Scott-Heron and Jackson might have been in during this period: "Their worship at the shrine of the small, warm and private, and a unified acoustic space in real time, has worked for them; but it must have begun to seem retro – they want to move on." ## Reception and legacy 1980 was released on LP by Arista Records in February 1980. "Shut 'Um Down" and "Willing" were released as singles in March and May, respectively. The former single reached the number 68 position on the R&B singles chart. Reviewing the album in March 1980 for The Village Voice, Christgau named it his "pick hit" for the month and the best record yet from Scott-Heron and Jackson. He applauded the lyrics and said, while "the melodies are only functional", "the rhythms are seductive and the singing is warm." Geoff Brown from Black Music & Jazz Review said Scott-Heron's songs were one of the few remedies for alleviating the "creeping suspicion which must afflict us all from time to time", as well as the idea "that black artists can only write convincingly these days about the topics of love and dancing." At the end of 1980, Christgau ranked it as the 32nd best record of the year in a list accompanying the annual Pazz & Jop critics poll. The album proved to be Scott-Heron and Jackson's last together, as Jackson left the partnership that year to pursue other musical projects in New Jersey. Scott-Heron's subsequent recordings expanded on 1980's political commentary, which would progress to harsh attacks on Ronald Reagan's presidency during the 1980s. As the US "advanced into a new and uncertain decade", the album's abundance of observations proved "perceptive and poignant", according to Schwachter. In his opinion, the production retained past musical styles amidst exceptional arrangements of synthesizers, horns, and background vocals, all of which gave the record "a quality that matched the aura of the period", especially on "Alien (Hold On to Your Dreams)". 1980 was reissued in CD format by Soul Brother Records on November 17, 2009. On April 26, 2011, in commemoration of the Chernobyl disaster's 25th anniversary, The Nation published a list of the ten best anti-nuclear songs, ranking "Shut 'Um Down" at number one. ## Track listing All songs were written and composed by Gil Scott-Heron, except where noted. Side one 1. "Shut 'Um Down" – 5:28 2. "Alien (Hold On to Your Dreams)" – 4:09 3. "Willing" – 4:16 4. "Corners" (lyrics by Scott-Heron; music by Brian Jackson) – 4:47 Side two 1. "1980" – 6:20 2. "Push Comes to Shove" – 3:37 3. "Shah MOT (The Shah Is Dead/Checkmate)" – 4:04 4. "Late Last Night" – 4:25 - Sides one and two were combined as tracks 1–8 on the CD reissue. ## Personnel Credits are adapted from the album's liner notes. - Ed Brady – guitar (side two: tracks 1 and 2) - Malcolm Cecil – engineering, mixing, production, production assistance - Carl Cornwell – flute, saxophone (side two: tracks 1 and 2) - Donn Davenport – art direction - John Ford – cover photo - Gordon Goodwin – horns - Marlo Henderson – guitar (side one: tracks 1, 2, 4; side two: track 4) - Brian Jackson – acoustic piano, arrangements, backing vocals (side one: track 1), drums (side one: track 1), electric piano, kettle drums (side two: track 3), keyboard bass, production, synthesizer, TONTO synthesizer (side two: track 3) - Ron Kellum – art direction - Harvey Mason – drums (side one: tracks 2 to 4; side two: tracks 1 to 4) - Marti McCall – backing vocals - Gil Scott-Heron – production, vocals - Denis Sirias – horns - Julia Waters – backing vocals - Maxine Waters Waddell – backing vocals - Bill Watrous – horns ## Charts ## See also - Post–civil rights era in African-American history - Progressive soul
27,370,607	Breathe (Taylor Swift song)	1,169,001,733	2008 song by Taylor Swift	[ "2000s ballads", "2008 songs", "Colbie Caillat songs", "Song recordings produced by Chris Rowe", "Song recordings produced by Nathan Chapman (record producer)", "Song recordings produced by Taylor Swift", "Songs written by Colbie Caillat", "Songs written by Taylor Swift", "Taylor Swift songs" ]	"Breathe" is a song recorded and written by American singer-songwriter Taylor Swift featuring American singer-songwriter Colbie Caillat, taken from Swift's second studio album, Fearless (2008). Produced by Swift and Nathan Chapman, the song is driven by an acoustic guitar and mandolin and features pianos and violins in the production. Lyrically, "Breathe" addresses heartbreak and the loss of a close friendship, though some critics interpreted it as a breakup song. Released on October 21, 2008, as a Rhapsody-exclusive, the song received favorable responses from contemporary music critics. "Breathe" was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals in 2010. It peaked at number 87 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). Swift performed the song live for the first time ever in Miami Gardens, Florida for the Reputation Stadium Tour. Swift and Caillat released a re-recorded version, "Breathe (Taylor's Version)", as part of her 2021 re-recorded album Fearless (Taylor's Version). The re-recorded version charted on the Canadian Hot 100 and the Billboard Global 200. ## Background and release Swift was very fond of Caillat's 2007 debut album, Coco. Swift explained, "When it came out, I fell in love with the way that she makes music." Swift later contacted her management and asked if she could write a song with Caillat. They confirmed Caillat would be available due to a then upcoming concert in Nashville, Tennessee and had a day off where she could meet with Swift. According to Swift, "Breathe" is about having to depart from a someone, however, not blaming anyone. Swift believed the scenario was one of the most difficult goodbyes, "when it's nobody's fault. It just has to end." Swift explained, "It was total therapy because I came in and I was like look, 'One of my best friends, I'm gonna have to not see anymore and it's not gonna be part of what I do. It's the hardest thing to go through. It's crazy listening to the song because you would think it's about a relationship and it's really about losing a friend and having a fallout." Caillat and Swift said one of the beauties of the song was that many people would be able to relate to it because it is never specific as why the departure is occurring or whose fault it was. Caillat said in an interview that Swift "was writing about something she was going through with a band member at the time, and she was pouring her heart out about it." Swift desired for Caillat to sing background vocals but in a loud manner, enough for audiences to recognize who sang backup. Originally Swift and Caillat were only to harmonize in the chorus, but as Caillat recorded, Swift decided to include her voice more throughout the track because of how impressed she was. Swift first recorded the entire song, and Caillat then recorded background vocals separately. Swift was very pleased with the finished product: "I think she sounds beautiful on it. I'm so excited to have her voice on my album." The song was released for digital download exclusively through Rhapsody as a promotional single on October 21, 2008, through Big Machine Records. On the Miami Gardens, Florida, concert as part of her Reputation Stadium Tour on August 18, 2018, Swift performed "Breathe" as part of a "surprise song" for the mid-show acoustic session; she told the crowd that she was "99 percent sure" she had never performed the song live before. On February 11, 2021, Swift announced on Good Morning America that a re-recorded version of "Breathe", titled "Breathe (Taylor's Version)", would be released on April 9, 2021 as the seventh track from Fearless (Taylor's Version), the re-recorded version of Fearless. Caillat returned as the song's feature. ## Composition "Breathe" was recorded by Chad Carlson at Blackbird and Starstruck Studios in Nashville, Tennessee. It is a ballad with a length of four minutes and twenty-one seconds. It was written in common time and has a ballad tempo of 72 beats per minute. It is written in the key of D major, and Swift and Caillat's vocals span one octave, from G<sub>3</sub> to B<sub>4</sub>. "Breathe" follows the chord progression D5–A–G. The song's instrumentation relies mainly on acoustic guitar and mandolin, which are often plucked, while, on occasion, piano and violins provide the accompaniment. The lyrics for "Breathe" are about heartbreak and the loss of a close friendship. In the song's verses, the narrator acknowledges that people change and grow apart, though she is upset because she knows the person "like the back of her hand." In the song's refrains, she realizes the need to remain strong and breathe in order to live without the person. Ken Tucker of Billboard believed "Breathe" was a "love-gone-wrong song." ## Critical reception The song received positive responses from contemporary music critics. Ken Tucker of Billboard said the song was suited for women of different age groups. Gary Trust, also from Billboard wrote, "this ballad, perhaps along with fellow potential singles such as 'You're Not Sorry' and 'Forever & Always,' could keep Swift's string of smashes stretching into 2011." Jonathan Keefe of Slant Magazine thought Swift should have chosen another collaborator as he believed Caillat was inert. Billboard's Taylor Weatherby considered the song Swift's seventh best feature. Weatherby complemented Swift's vocals, saying "she has a lovely voice that could practically sing you to sleep". He continued, describing Caillat's voice as "smooth". He concluded, "It may be the most soothing breakup song of all time." "Breathe" was one of two songs featuring Caillat that was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals in 2010, the other being Jason Mraz's "Lucky", the winner of the award. About "Breathe" not winning the award, Caillat said, "I love 'Breathe' with Taylor, but I've been performing 'Lucky' with Jason all around the world the last year, so I'm happy it won." ## Chart performance On the week ending November 29, 2008, "Breathe" debuted and peaked at number eighty-seven on the Billboard Hot 100, spending one week on the chart. Its appearance, along with six other songs, on the chart tied Swift with Hannah Montana (Miley Cyrus) for the female act to have the most songs charting on the Billboard Hot 100 in the same week, a record later surpassed by Swift herself when she charted eleven songs at once in 2010. It was also one of six songs to debut that tied her with Cyrus, again, for the most debuts on the chart in the same week. In 2014, the song was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). ## Credits and personnel "Breathe" - Taylor Swift – lead vocals, producer, songwriter - Colbie Caillat – lead vocals, background vocals, harmony vocals, songwriter - Nathan Chapman – producer, acoustic guitar - Jonathan Yudkin – string arrangement, composition, performance - Chad Carlson – recording - Justin Niebank – mixing - Drew Bollman – mixing assistant - Hank Williams – mastering "Breathe (Taylor's Version)" - Christopher Rowe – vocals engineering, producer - Taylor Swift – producer, lead vocals - Lowell Reynolds – assistant engineer, additional engineer - David Payne – recording engineer - Derek Garten – additional engineer - John Hanes – engineer - Serban Ghenea – mixing - Mike Meadows – acoustic guitar, mandolin, piano - Paul Sidoti – acoustic guitar - Amos Heller – bass guitar - Matt Billingslea – electric guitar - Jonathan Yudkin – strings - Colbie Caillat – guest vocals ## Charts ### "Breathe" ### "Breathe (Taylor's Version)" ## Certifications
2,407,839	Broad Street station (BMT Nassau Street Line)	1,157,735,223	New York City Subway station in Manhattan	[ "BMT Nassau Street Line stations", "Broad Street (Manhattan)", "Financial District, Manhattan", "New York City Subway stations in Manhattan", "New York City Subway terminals", "Railway stations in the United States opened in 1931", "Wall Street" ]	The Broad Street station is a station on the BMT Nassau Street Line of the New York City Subway at the intersection of Broad and Wall Streets in the Financial District of Manhattan. It serves as the southern terminal for J trains at all times and for Z trains during rush hours in the peak direction. The station was built as part of the Dual Contracts, signed between the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Company (later reorganized as the Brooklyn–Manhattan Transit Corporation, or BMT) and the city in 1913. The Nassau Street Line was one of the last lines to be completed under the Dual Contracts, and construction did not proceed until James Walker was elected as mayor of New York City in 1926. This station opened on May 29, 1931, as part of the final portion of the Nassau Street Line. Despite being under Broad and Nassau Streets, with Wall Street as the cross-street, this station was named after Broad Street to prevent confusion with other stations. Between 1990 and 2015, Broad Street was only open on weekdays and weekday nights. ## History ### Planning and construction On March 19, 1913, the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Company (BRT; after 1923, the Brooklyn–Manhattan Transit Corporation or BMT) and the city signed Contract 4 of the Dual Contracts, which provided for the construction of certain lines, including the Nassau Street Line. In July 1915, the New York Public Service Commission received the rights to build subway entrances within five buildings near the intersection of Broad and Wall Streets, which would have served the proposed BRT station there. Among the buildings were the New York Stock Exchange Building, the Mills Building, and 23 Wall Street. Most of the BMT's Dual Contracts lines were completed by 1924, except for the Nassau Street Line. BMT chairman Gerhard Dahl was persistent at requesting that the city build the line, saying in 1923 that the BMT was willing to operate the line as soon as the city completed it. At the time, the BMT was planning to construct two stations on the Nassau Street Line, including one at the intersection of Wall and Broad Streets. However, mayor John Hylan refused to act during his final two years in office. BOT chairman John H. Delaney believed that the line was unnecessary because both of its planned stations would be extremely close to existing subway stations. Meanwhile, the BMT claimed that the city's failure to complete the line was overburdening other BMT lines. By January 1925, the BMT was asking its passengers to pressure Hylan into approving the remainder of the Nassau Street Line. Work did not commence until after James Walker succeeded Hylan as mayor at the end of 1925. The city government agreed to build the Nassau Street Line in May 1927, after the BMT sued the city for \$30 million. At the time, the city wanted to take over the BMT's lines but could not do so until all Dual Contracts lines were completed. The BOT received bids for the construction of the line that July, but it rejected every bid the next month because of concerns over the lowest bidder's ability to complete the work. That September, contractors again submitted bids to the BOT; some bidders offered to build the entire line, while others only offered to construct the segments of the line to the north or south of Liberty Street. The BOT awarded construction contracts for the line's construction two months later. The Marcus Contracting Company was hired to build the portion north of Liberty Street, including the Fulton Street station, for \$4.7 million, while Moranti and Raymond were hired to build the portion to the south for \$5.7 million. The New York City Board of Estimate approved the contracts in January 1928, allowing the builders to construct the line using the cut-and-cover method, despite merchants' requests that the line be constructed using tunneling shields. The line was constructed 20 feet (6.1 m) below the active IRT Lexington Avenue Line, next to buildings along the narrow Nassau Street, and the project encountered difficulties such as quicksand. When the construction contracts were awarded, work had been projected to be completed in 39 months. Nassau Street is only 34 feet (10 m) wide, and the subway floor was only 20 feet (6.1 m) below building foundations. As a result, 89 buildings had to be underpinned to ensure that they would stay on their foundations. Construction had to be done 20 feet below the active IRT Lexington Avenue Line. An area filled with quicksand with water, which used to belong to a spring, was found between John Street and Broad Street. Additionally, the station underpinned the former Sub-Treasury building (now Federal Hall) at the northeast corner of Wall Street and Nassau Street; the city had to receive permission from the United States Congress to dig under the building, and it constructed a new foundation for that edifice. Construction was done at night so as to not disturb workers in the Financial District. By early 1929, sixty percent of the work had been finished. The project was 80 percent complete by April 1930. Later that year, a federal judge ruled that the city government did not have to pay the BMT \$30 million in damages for failing to construct the Nassau Street Line. The total construction cost was \$10.072 million for 0.9 miles (1.4 km) of new tunnels, or \$2,068 per foot (\$6,780/m), which was three times the normal cost of construction at the time. ### Operation The station opened on May 29, 1931, completing what was known as the "Nassau Street Loop". The loop ran from the line's previous terminus at Chambers Street, running through the Fulton Street and Broad Street stations before merging with the Montague Street Tunnel to Brooklyn. The completion of the line relieved congestion on several BMT lines to southern Brooklyn, which previously had to operate to Midtown Manhattan using the Broadway Line. In particular, the loop's opening enabled subway trains to use the Culver Line; previously, that line had used elevated trains that only ran as far as Ninth Avenue, where transfers were made to West End subway trains. The new line provided an additional ten percent capacity compared with existing service through DeKalb Avenue. Service on the Jamaica Line was extended to operate to this station. The station is under Broad and Nassau Streets, with Wall Street as the cross-street, but was named after Broad Street to distinguish it from the two other Wall Street stations nearby, at Broadway and at William Street. When the station opened, it had 14 exits to nearby buildings. Banking firm J.P. Morgan & Co., which occupied a structure at 23 Wall Street (on the southwest corner with Broad and Nassau Streets), paid for the installation of bronze rails and stanchions on the subway entrance just outside its building. Other entrances were built to the basements of the Equitable Building and the Bankers Trust Company Building. In addition, there were street entrances outside the New York Stock Exchange Building; to the intersection of Broad Street and Exchange Place; and to the northwest corners of Nassau and Cedar Streets. In April 1993, the New York State Legislature agreed to give the MTA \$9.6 billion for capital improvements. Some of the funds would be used to renovate nearly one hundred New York City Subway stations, including Broad Street. From September 30, 1990, to June 14, 2015, the Broad and Fulton Street stations were closed during weekends, making them two of the four New York City Subway stations that lacked full-time service (the remaining two being the platforms for the 42nd Street Shuttle). #### Proposed elevators A proposed skyscraper at 45 Broad Street will provisionally include an entrance to the station that contains elevators, making the station compliant with the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990. The plans call for two elevators, one for each platform, at the northeastern and southwestern corners of Broad Street and Exchange Place. The New York City Council approved the construction of the elevators in July 2018, and granted the developers an additional 71,391 square feet (6,632.4 m<sup>2</sup>) in zoning rights in exchange for building the elevators. Residents and tenants of 15 and 30 Broad Street opposed construction of glass-and-metal elevators, saying they posed a risk for terrorist attacks; the buildings' occupants hired a security consultant who determined they were a terrorist risk. However, the Metropolitan Transportation Authority hired its own security consultant who found they would not make the area more prone to terrorist attacks. Regular riders at the Broad Street station also advocated for the elevators because only six of the 30 stations served by the J and Z trains were wheelchair-accessible as of 2020. ## Station layout This station has two tracks and two side platforms and is approximately 535 feet (163 m) long. The J train stops here at all times, while the Z train stops here during rush hours in the peak direction. The Broad Street station is the southern terminus of both routes; the next station to the north is Fulton Street. In contrast to the Fulton Street station, which is built on two levels because of the narrowness of Nassau Street, the Broad Street station is wide enough to accommodate both tracks on the same level. South of this station, there are two center stub tracks ending at bumper blocks used for laying-up and relaying trains. Trains terminate on the southbound track and continue to the center stub tracks, where they reverse direction. There is also a single switch north of the station to enable trains on the southbound track to return to the northbound track. Further south, the two tracks of the BMT Nassau Street Line merge with the BMT Broadway Line via a flying junction as it enters the Montague Street Tunnel into Downtown Brooklyn. After the line merges with the Montague Street Tunnel, the next station to the south is Court Street. No regular service has used this connection since the train was rerouted in June 2010. The station originally had red tile bands, similar to those used on the Independent Subway System. This station was renovated in the late 1990s and a mosaic design was added to the platform walls. Beneath a small green and gold trim-line is a larger gold trim-line with a maroon border and white "B" and "BROAD ST" tablets on a blue-green background at regular intervals. ### Exits This station has three entrance and exit areas, with eight total stairways. The full-time entrance/exit is at the north end above the platforms. Two staircases from each side go up to a mezzanine containing a turnstile bank and station agent's booth. Outside of fare control, two street stairs go up to the southeastern corner of Wall and Broad Streets (outside 23 Wall Street). Two more street stairs go up to the southwestern corner of the same intersection and lie outside of the New York Stock Exchange Building (NYSE). After the September 11 attacks in 2001, the stair facing away from Wall Street was closed off by the New York City Police Department, which had instituted a security zone around the NYSE. In 2012, the stair facing towards Wall Street was closed when the security zone was reorganized. In 2017, the two exits were proposed to be sealed as part of general improvements in that area, but no action was taken. In 2019, the MTA again proposed permanently closing and removing the stairways to allow the NYSE to improve the streetscape just outside the building. The other two fare entrances/exits are unstaffed and at platform level. The northbound platform has a part-time bank of both regular and HEET turnstiles and three street stairs, one to the northeastern corner of Exchange Place and Broad Street (outside 15 Broad Street) and two along Broad Street between Exchange Place and Beaver Street (outside the Broad Exchange Building). The southbound platform has turnstiles that were originally HEET access, but were converted to exit-only following the elimination of through service at this station. Two staircases go to Broad Street between Exchange Place and Beaver Street, outside 30 Broad Street. A third on the southwestern corner of Exchange Place and Broad Street was closed and sealed. There is another exit-only staircase at the station leading to the northwestern corner of Broad Street and Exchange Place. It was previously closed by the New York City Police Department as well, but was reopened when security zone was reorganized. Outside of fare control, the station's main entrance/exit has a long passage that is only open weekdays from 7:00 a.m. to 6:00 p.m. It runs north three blocks to the basement of 28 Liberty Street, where two sets of doors and a wide staircase lead to an unmarked entrance/exit at the east side of Nassau Street at Cedar Street. This entrance also provides access to the Wall Street/William Street station () and the Wall Street/Broadway station (). The passage also has two closed exits; one led to the northwestern corner of Wall Street and Nassau Street and was closed by 1992. The other led to the northwestern corner of Cedar Street and Nassau Street, near 140 Broadway, but was closed by 1999 and has since been repurposed into an emergency exit. Halfway through the passage, a short staircase from the west side leads up to a narrower passageway that runs through the basement of the Equitable Building before two offset High Entrance/Exit Turnstiles provide entrance to the Wall Street/Broadway station. Inside fare control, the passage splits in half with each branch leading to either side platform of Wall Street. Free connections between the BMT Nassau Street Line and IRT Lexington Avenue Line are available at the next three stations north (Fulton Street, Chambers Street, and Canal Street).
64,406,735	MS Europic Ferry	1,145,986,320	Car ferry built in 1967	[ "1967 ships", "Falklands War naval ships of the United Kingdom", "Merchant ships of the United Kingdom", "Ships built by Swan Hunter", "Ships built on the River Tyne", "Ships of P&O Ferries" ]	MS Europic Ferry was a roll-on/roll-off car ferry built in 1967 by Swan Hunter for the Atlantic Steam Navigation Company (ASN). She was acquired by European Ferries in 1971 when they took over the ASN and served with them under the Townsend Thoresen branding. The Europic Ferry was requisitioned by the British government in April 1982 and transported stores, equipment and troops to the South Atlantic during the Falklands War. After the war she returned to service with European Ferries until that company was sold to P&O in 1987. She was sold again to Namora Shipping in 1993 and served on routes in the Mediterranean until sold for scrapping in 2004. ## Ferry service The Europic Ferry was built as hull number 2025 at the Neptune Yard of Swan Hunter at Walker on the River Tyne and was launched on 3 October 1967. A roll-on/roll-off car ferry, as-built she had a gross tonnage of 4,190 and a deadweight tonnage of 2,740. She measured 450 feet (140 m) in length, 66 feet 6 inches (20.27 m) in beam and had a draught of 15 feet (4.6 m). She was fitted with two SEMT Pielstick 4-stroke single-acting diesel engines that were installed by Lindholmens and had a maximum speed of 19.25 knots. She also had stabilisers and a bow thruster. Europic Ferry had two main decks that spanned the entire vessel (a vehicle deck and an upper deck), a lower vehicle deck was located behind the engine room and was accessed via a hydraulic ramp from the vehicle deck. The main vehicle deck was accessed by a hydraulic stern ramp and could carry almost 100 road vehicles. Europic Ferry also had cargo space to carry unit loads. Load-carrying space was maximised by placing the machinery and accommodation towards the bow. Europic Ferry was built with a mixture of two- and four-berth cabins for passengers and vehicle drivers, giving a total capacity of 44. Europic Ferry was delivered to the Atlantic Steam Navigation Company (ASN) on 29 December. She commenced operations with ASN's Transport Ferry Service on 17 January 1968, after a brief voyage to Tilbury. She made her maiden voyage from Felixstowe on 17 January 1968 and by the middle of that year was running a regular service between that port and Europoort in Rotterdam, Netherlands. She cut the journey time on this route to six hours which made it the fastest North Sea ferry crossing of the time. The Europic Ferry carried road vehicles, freight (containerised and flat) and passengers and was equipped to serve meals and provide sleeping accommodation. ASN operated her with 52 crew. In 1971 the ASN was purchased by European Ferries and Europic Ferry afterwards sailed under the Townsend Thoresen branding. ## Falklands War ### Requisition and preparation After the 2 April 1982 Argentine invasion of the Falkland Islands the British government assembled a taskforce to retake the territory. This included many merchant ships taken up from trade (STUFT) as well as Royal Navy, Royal Fleet Auxiliary (RFA) and Royal Maritime Auxiliary Service vessels. Europic Ferry was one of the first vessels to be identified by the Ministry of Defence as required for the campaign; it was earmarked for use as a stores transport ship in early April. She was officially requisitioned on 19 April and spent the next three days at Vosper & Company, Southampton, being modified for military service. She was fitted with replenishment-at-sea equipment, freshwater generators, satellite navigation and satellite communications systems. Additional crew and troop accommodation was also installed. The vessel was also fitted with pintle-mounted Bren light machine guns as a rudimentary defence against low-level air attack. The Europic Ferry loaded at Portsmouth and departed for the South Atlantic on 25 April, calling briefly at Portland Harbour. She was loaded with ammunition, stores, fuel and vehicles including much of the support equipment for the 2nd Battalion, Parachute Regiment. She also carried equipment for No. 656 Squadron AAC, including four Westland Scout helicopters lashed to her deck, and for 29th Commando Regiment Royal Artillery, including six L118 light guns which were secured on deck next to her superstructure. A number of personnel were also carried including the ground crews for the Westland Wessex and Boeing CH-47 Chinook helicopters carried aboard the Atlantic Conveyor. Europic Ferry called at Freetown, Sierra Leone, for fuel before arriving at Ascension Island in company with the troop ship Norland (another requisitioned ferry) on 8 May. The two vessels spent the day there crossloading stores before sailing to meet up with Atlantic Conveyor, Canberra, Elk and a number of navy and RFA vessels that would form part of the first amphibious landing force, some 1,000 miles (1,600 km) north-west of Tristan de Cunha. The force sailed southwards together and, after being overflown by Russian aircraft and reportedly spotting a submarine periscope, enacted wartime measures including keeping watertight doors closed and sailing in zig-zag courses. ### In the South Atlantic After assembling to the east of the Falkland Islands, the force sailed on 20 May as part of the first large-scale British landings, Operation Sutton. Europic Ferry formed part of the third wave of the landings which took place in San Carlos Water. Entering the bay in the early morning of 22 May, she spent much of the day anchored offshore, offloading stores by helicopter and into landing craft from her stern door. The six 105mm guns and ammunition were the first items offloaded. The Argentinian air force carried air attacks that afternoon, as part of the Battle of San Carlos. Clear skies left the ships anchored in the bay vulnerable and Europic Ferry suffered a near miss. Commodore Michael Clapp, the Commodore, Amphibious Warfare, ordered all merchant ships to leave the bay by midnight as he judged it too dangerous to continue offloading. Europic Ferry left the bay around 11pm and rejoined the main taskforce. Europic Ferry returned to San Carlos on 26 May to discharge her remaining stores and personnel. At around this time a hand-applied mottled grey camouflage scheme was painted over the vessel's peacetime orange livery. The Europic Ferry was the only merchant ship to be camouflaged during the war, though some had their funnel markings painted out. In mid-June the ship was back outside the Total Exclusion Zone, acting as a floating platform for works to Chinook helicopters which had been transported to the South Atlantic on the Contender Bezant. Personnel of No. 18 Squadron RAF worked on the deck of Europic Ferry to make the helicopters airworthy before they were flown to the aircraft carrier HMS Hermes. On 15 June the ship was at risk of capsize in a heavy swell, due to the presence of a Chinook lashed to her deck. The Europic Ferry'''s officers considered jettisoning the helicopter but the swell passed and the Chinook, undamaged by the ordeal, was successfully flown off on 16 June. Europic Ferry afterwards sailed to Port Stanley, which had surrendered to British forces on 14 June to load stores and equipment. She sailed for the United Kingdom on 23 June carrying returning troops of 2nd and 3rd Battalions, Parachute Regiment. ## Later career Europic Ferry was returned to European Ferries later in 1982. She continued to serve on the Felixstowe – Rotterdam route before switching to Townsend Thoresen's Western English Channel service. The vessel came into the ownership of P&O in 1987 after they completed a takeover of European Ferries and was soon sailing under their P&O European Ferries branding. Europic Ferry spent some time on the Preston, Lancashire – Larne, Northern Ireland, route. In 1991 she was sold by P&O to Howill Shipping and leased back on a hire purchase arrangement. Around the same time she was renamed European Freighter. European Freighter was sold to the Cyprus-based Namora Shipping in 1993 and renamed Afrodite II. She sailed under their Med Link Lines branding and was to have been employed on the Chios – Mytilene freight route in Greece from 2003. She was sold for scrap in 2004 and, afterwards being renamed Ajman Glory'', was broken-up at Alang, India, in 2005.
1,552,707	Battle of Jackson, Mississippi	1,154,771,009	1863 battle of the American Civil War	[ "1863 in Mississippi", "Battles commanded by Ulysses S. Grant", "Battles of the American Civil War in Mississippi", "Battles of the Western Theater of the American Civil War", "Conflicts in 1863", "Hinds County, Mississippi", "Joseph E. Johnston", "May 1863 events", "Union victories of the American Civil War", "Vicksburg campaign" ]	The Battle of Jackson was fought on May 14, 1863, in Jackson, Mississippi, as part of the Vicksburg campaign during the American Civil War. After entering the state of Mississippi in late April 1863, Major General Ulysses S. Grant of the Union Army moved his force inland to strike at the strategic Mississippi River town of Vicksburg, Mississippi. The Battle of Raymond, which was fought on May 12, convinced Grant that General Joseph E. Johnston's Confederate army was too strong to be safely bypassed, so he sent two corps, under Major Generals James B. McPherson and William T. Sherman, to capture Johnston's position at Jackson. Johnston did not believe the city was defensible and began withdrawing. Brigadier General John Gregg was tasked with commanding the Confederate rear guard, which fought Sherman's and McPherson's men at Jackson on May 14 before withdrawing. After taking the city, Union troops destroyed economic and military infrastructure and also plundered civilians' homes. Grant then moved against Vicksburg, which he placed under siege on May 18 and captured on July 4. Despite being reinforced, Johnston made only a weak effort to save the Vicksburg garrison, and was driven out of Jackson a second time in mid-July. ## Prelude In early 1863, during the American Civil War, Major General Ulysses S. Grant of the Union Army was planning operations against the strategic Confederate-held Mississippi River city of Vicksburg, Mississippi. After early efforts failed, Grant decided to move south of the city on the opposite side of the river, and then cross the Mississippi to move against the town and its garrison. In late April, 24,000 Union soldiers were landed at Bruinsburg, Mississippi as part of that plan. Grant's men fought their way inland and then moved east with the intention of later turning to the west and attacking Vicksburg from that direction. The movement was conducted in three columns. Meanwhile, Confederate troops from across the country were dispatched to reinforce the defenders of Vicksburg. The reinforcements gathered at Jackson, Mississippi, and on May 10, General Joseph E. Johnston was sent to command the growing force. Lieutenant General John C. Pemberton, the commander of the Vicksburg garrison, ordered one of the units at Jackson, Brigadier General John Gregg's brigade, to move to the town of Raymond. On May 12, one of the Union columns, under the command of Major General James B. McPherson, encountered Gregg's Confederates near Raymond. The ensuing Battle of Raymond was a Union victory, although McPherson's poor handling of the battle allowed the badly-outnumbered Confederates to prolong the battle. The fighting at Raymond changed Grant's approach to the campaign. Realizing that the Confederate force in Jackson was stronger than he had believed, Grant was unwilling to leave the enemy force in his rear and decided to send his men against the Jackson position. Unsure if McPherson's XVII Corps was strong enough to take the city, Grant ordered McPherson to attack Jackson from the northwest, while Major General William T. Sherman's XV Corps struck from the southwest. Johnston, who had a reputation for defeatism, arrived in Jackson on May 13. About 6,000 Confederate troops held the city, including Gregg's recently defeated men, although additional reinforcements were expected. During his journey to Jackson, Johnston had learned that Grant's army had moved into Mississippi, while Pemberton's force was holding a defensive position along the Big Black River. The Union force was between the Confederate positions. Johnston decided that Jackson could not be held in what the historians William L. Shea and Terrence J. Winschel described as "unseemly haste", sent a telegram to his commanding officers in Richmond, Virginia stating "I am too late", and ordered the evacuation of the city. While Johnston and his staff made the 25-mile (40 km) retreat to Canton by rail, the rest of his army made the retreat on foot. Gregg's men were tasked with serving as a rear guard at Jackson. While retreating, Johnston sent Pemberton a misleading message suggesting that Johnston's men would support Pemberton in an offensive movement when he had no intention of doing so. The historian Donald L. Miller believes that this was designed to present the appearance in the official records that he was not abandoning Vicksburg. ## Battle On May 14, the Union soldiers made contact with the Confederate rear guard 5 miles (8.0 km) from Jackson during a thunderstorm. Two Confederate officers, Brigadier General W. H. T. Walker and Colonel Peyton Colquitt had formed a roadblock outside of town with their brigades, but the rainfall forced the action to halt. During the respite provided by the rain, the Confederates learned of Sherman's approach, and sent a unit of mounted infantry to confront his column. After the rain stopped, the Union advance resumed. The delay during the rain had been necessary to prevent the paper cartridges used at the time from becoming waterlogged and unusable. McPherson, unsure of the strength of the force he was facing, initially acted cautiously, using artillery fire to probe the Confederate lines. After determining that he was not facing a large force, McPherson ordered Brigadier General Marcellus M. Crocker's division to attack the Confederate lines. Initial Confederate resistance cost McPherson about 300 casualties, but Crocker's attack forced the Confederate pickets back into the fortifications around Jackson, and the Union soldiers soon carried the main defenses as well. By the time McPherson's men had reached the fortifications, all of the Confederate defenders except for the crews of seven cannons had withdrawn. Sherman's advance met less opposition. Only small amount of artillery fire resisted his advance, and Sherman detached the 95th Ohio Infantry Regiment to test the Confederate fortifications. The Ohio regiment found that the position had been abandoned, and were informed by an African American civilian that only a token Confederate artillery force remained. When Sherman's overall advance occurred not long afterwards, these artillerymen were captured and found to be militiamen and armed civilians. In addition to the seven cannons captured by McPherson's men, Sherman's advance took a further ten. ## Aftermath After taking the town, the Union soldiers, primarily Sherman's men, demolished infrastructure in the city. Factories, warehouses, and other military and economic sites were destroyed. Grant and Sherman personally visited a textiles plant before Sherman ordered its destruction. Iron rails of the Southern Railroad of Mississippi were damaged by bending them into circular shapes known as Sherman's neckties. Despite official orders from Sherman prohibiting such behavior, civilian homes were also plundered and burned. Between fires that had been set by retreating Confederates destroying supplies and those set by Union troops during the occupation, Jackson suffered significant fire damage. For a time, Grant had his headquarters in the same building that Johnston had stayed in while he was in the town. Estimates of casualties suffered in the battle vary. The historian Shelby Foote stated that the Confederates lost a little over 200 men, while Grant lost 332: 48 killed, 273 wounded, and 11 missing. Historians William L. Shea and Terrence J. Winschel place Union losses at 300 (42 killed, 251 wounded, and 7 missing), while putting Confederate losses at about 845 men; the National Park Service agrees with both figures. The Civil War Battlefield Guide, edited by Frances Kennedy, gives Union losses as 286 men and Confederate losses as 850. Almost all of the Union losses were suffered by McPherson's corps. After Jackson was captured, the forces of Johnston and Pemberton were cut off from each other. On May 16, Grant's men defeated Pemberton decisively at the Battle of Champion Hill. By May 18, the Union soldiers had reached Vicksburg and placed the city under siege. The siege of Vicksburg continued until July 4, when Pemberton surrendered. During the siege, reinforcements from across the Confederacy continued to be diverted to Johnston, who eventually amassed 32,000 men. Named the Army of Relief, Johnston's force did not move against Grant until July 1, and then upon reaching the Union lines at the Big Black River two days later, decided that the defenses could not be taken and did not bring on a battle. Johnston ordered a retreat on the 5th, and on July 7, Johnston's retreating troops reoccupied Jackson. Grant responded by sending Sherman with 46,000 men to follow Johnston. This movement, known as the Jackson Expedition, reached the city of July 10. The city was soon placed under siege; a limited Union attack that mistakenly occurred was repulsed on July 12. Johnston again abandoned Jackson on the night of July 16/17. The City of Jackson preserves 2 acres (0.81 ha) of the battlefield: one in a public park and another on the campus of the University of Mississippi Medical Center.
23,063,285	Edgar Williams	1,163,898,394	British Army military intelligence officer	[ "1912 births", "1995 deaths", "1st King's Dragoon Guards officers", "20th-century British educators", "Alumni of Merton College, Oxford", "British Army brigadiers of World War II", "Commanders of the Order of the British Empire", "Companions of the Distinguished Service Order", "Companions of the Order of the Bath", "Deputy Lieutenants of Oxfordshire", "Fellows of Balliol College, Oxford", "Fellows of Merton College, Oxford", "Knights Bachelor", "Military personnel from Kent", "People educated at King Edward VII School, Sheffield", "People educated at Tettenhall College", "People from Chatham, Kent", "Wardens of Rhodes House" ]	Brigadier Sir Edgar Trevor Williams CB CBE DSO DL (20 November 1912 – 26 June 1995) was a British historian and Army military intelligence officer who played a significant role in the Second Battle of El Alamein in the Second World War. He was one of the few officers who was privy to the Ultra secret, and served on the staff of Field Marshal Sir Bernard Montgomery as his intelligence officer for the rest of the war. A graduate of Merton College, Oxford, where he obtained a First in modern history in 1934, Williams was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the 1st King's Dragoon Guards in June 1939. In February 1941, the troop he was commanding was the first British unit to encounter the German Afrika Korps. He was recruited to work in military intelligence by Brigadier Francis de Guingand, who later became Montgomery's chief of staff. As an historian, Williams was accustomed to integrating different sources of information to build up a larger picture. He integrated information from Ultra with that from other sources such as the Y service, prisoner of war interrogations, aerial reconnaissance and ground reconnaissance behind enemy lines by the Long Range Desert Group. After the war Williams became a Fellow of Balliol College, Oxford, and the Warden of Rhodes House, Oxford, and editor of the Dictionary of National Biography. As secretary to the Rhodes Trustees, he was concerned with the selection and subsequent well-being of nearly two hundred Rhodes scholars each year. ## Early life Edgar Trevor Williams was born in Chatham, Kent, on 20 November 1912, the second of the three children and oldest son of (Joseph) Edgar Williams, a clergyman, and his wife, Anne Ethel Evans. His father served as a chaplain in the Royal Navy during the Great War, and served on the Western Front. After the war the family moved to Wolverhampton. Trevor (known to his friends as "Bill") was educated at Tettenhall College, Staffordshire, and then at King Edward VII School in Sheffield after his father was posted there in 1928. He secured a postmastership at Merton College, Oxford, where he played soccer and cricket, and obtained a First in modern history in 1934. Williams remained at Merton as a Harmsworth senior scholar, then became an assistant lecturer at the Liverpool University in 1936. He returned to Merton in 1937 as a junior research fellow, studying the Cabinet of the United Kingdom in the 18th century. He earned a Master of Arts degree in 1938, and commenced work on his PhD, in which he argued that it was the Treaty of Waitangi that granted Britain sovereignty over New Zealand, and the land was not terra nullius. Today his argument is universally accepted. In 1938 Williams married Monica Robertson, the daughter of Philip Robertson, a professor from New Zealand. They had one child, a daughter, and divorced in 1945. ## Second World War ### North Africa Williams was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the 1st King's Dragoon Guards on 21 June 1939. After the Second World War broke out in September 1939, his unit became an armoured car regiment in the 2nd Armoured Division. The division was sent to Cyrenaica, where, on 24 February 1941, Williams was in command of a troop of C Squadron, 1st King's Dragoon Guards when it was ambushed near El Agheila. It became the first British unit to encounter the German Afrika Korps (DAK). The desert sun affected his already weak eyes, so he was sent to recuperate in Cairo, where he was posted to General Headquarters (GHQ) Middle East Command in which Brigadier Francis de Guingand became Director of Military Intelligence (DMI) in February 1942. The appointment of de Guingand, an officer with no experience in intelligence, said much about the state of intelligence in the British Army at the time, where it was assumed that staff college training and a good brain were all that was required. Aware of his lack of expertise, de Guingand selected Williams and James Oliver Ewart to serve on his staff. According to de Guingand: "Ewart and Williams were an ideal combination. They understood each other perfectly. Both had first-class brains, both were university dons, and hated soldiering as a profession!" When de Guingand was appointed Brigadier General Staff of the Eighth Army in August 1942, he arranged for Williams to be transferred to Eighth Army headquarters as a GSO2. While working at GHQ, Williams had been indoctrinated into the Ultra secret. Knowledge of this was highly restricted; the Eighth Army commander was shown the original text, but not the corps commanders, who were only given summaries with no indication of the source of the information. The quality of the information coming from Ultra was very high, but over-reliance on it could be very dangerous, both militarily, when Erwin Rommel and the DAK did not act as expected, and professionally, when the DMI was fired for failing to forecast this. Williams's academic training came to the fore; as an historian, he was accustomed to integrating different sources of information to build up a larger picture. Information coming from Ultra was integrated with that from other sources such as the Y service, prisoner of war interrogations, aerial reconnaissance and ground reconnaissance behind enemy lines by the Long Range Desert Group. Williams and his staff would attempt to provide an assessment and then use Ultra to verify it. He would prepare his intelligence summaries in the early hours of the morning by the light of a pressure lamp, wearing a crochet jacket that had once belonged to a German general. When Lieutenant-General Bernard Montgomery assumed command of the Eighth Army in August 1942, he was impressed with Williams and identified him as the man he wanted to head his intelligence section. For the Battle of Alam Halfa, Ultra provided information on German intentions that was accurate in every detail except for a two-day delay caused by a shortage of petrol. In his memoirs Montgomery recalled how Williams pointed out a crucial weakness in Generalfeldmarschall Erwin Rommel's deployment of his troops, in that they were arranged in a manner that Williams described as "corsetted", with German troops between and behind the Italians. Williams suggested that if the two could be separated, then it might be possible to break through the Italian forces. Montgomery exploited this in the Second Battle of El Alamein. Williams later explained the difficulty of dealing with intelligence during the German and Italian withdrawal after the battle: > Rommel of course had to suggest that he was going to hang on to the last moment because of Hitler; one therefore had to inform Monty that Rommel's intention—expressed intention—was to stay put here. > > The trouble was that while we were helped enormously by Ultra—because Ultra expressed Rommel's intentions to the all-highest—we were sometimes hindered by Ultra, because Rommel was too good a soldier to carry the intentions out... I think we probably asked Monty to lay on too many preparations—which was in any case his natural inclination—because we could see Rommel was told to stay put: "Here it is in Ultra". > > The source material was too good. If one had just done one's thinking and intelligence without the signals intelligence, one would have said: "Well, Rommel will get us as far as this—and then he'll be off. And we'll be left sort of dangling once again..." I think that all that time during that campaign you have two elements about the withdrawal: the "hold to the last ditch" Hitler stuff, and Rommel's very astute generalship, so that you could bet your bottom dollar—although you couldn't bet your bottom dollar because that's exactly what you couldn't do with Rommel—you could take a sly bet that if Rommel was telling Hitler that he was doing a holding to the last drop of blood, that he was in the process of doing a very calculated false front to us. ### North West Europe Williams remained with Montgomery as his intelligence officer for the rest of the war. When Montgomery departed the Eighth Army in December 1944 to assume command of the 21st Army Group in Operation Overlord, the Allied invasion of Normandy, he took his key officers with him. These included de Guingand, his chief of staff; Brigadier Miles Graham, his Chief Administrative Officer; Brigadier George Richards, his armoured officer; and Williams, who was promoted to brigadier. It was not the normal practice in the British Army for generals to take staff with them from one assignment to the next, but Montgomery judged correctly that his fame as the victor of the Battle of El Alamein would overcome any objections. For Operation Overlord, Williams confronted the formidable task of providing estimates months in advance of a volatile situation. The G-2 (chief intelligence officer) at Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF) was Major-General John Whiteley, de Guingand's predecessor as Brigadier General Staff of the Eighth Army. Although Whiteley was senior to Williams, he had no experience as a chief intelligence officer, and Montgomery placed his faith in Williams. The two agreed to cooperate. Williams told Whiteley: > I do not want to be preaching a doctrine contrary to yours, for I feel there is real value in an agreed text. If we are to be wrong, let's all be wrong together. At least then our commanders would not have had muddled counsel. You will remember the loss of confidence in the Middle East caused by the internecine but public disputes between the "I" people which helped nobody, least of all the disputants. In the end, Williams performed very well. His estimates were better than those of any other analyst. He slightly underestimated German capabilities, but correctly predicted the strength of German infantry and armoured divisions. This was no small feat in February, four months before the actual attack. As it was, the delay in the date of the attack from May to June allowed the Germans to increase the forces in the area during that time. By 5 June, Williams had assembled a remarkably accurate picture of the German forces. This was too late to be of use on 6 June, but it would be very useful to Montgomery on subsequent days. Williams was mentioned in despatches three times, and was awarded the Distinguished Service Order on 1 June 1943, appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire on 29 June 1944, and made a Companion of the Order of the Bath on 24 January 1946. ## Later life Williams was elected a Fellow of Balliol College, Oxford in 1945, but he never completed his work on the 18th century British cabinet. In 1946, he married Gillian, younger daughter of Major-General Michael Gambier-Parry; they had a son and a daughter. From 1949 to 1980 he was joint editor (with Helen Palmer and later with Christine Nicholls) of the decennial supplements to the Dictionary of National Biography. He only wrote three of its articles, on Winston Churchill, Lord Montgomery and Carton de Wiart. He went on to become warden of Rhodes House in 1952, a position which he held until 1980. As secretary to the Rhodes Trustees from 1959, he was also concerned with the selection and subsequent well-being of nearly two hundred Rhodes scholars per annum (one of whom was Bill Clinton). He relinquished his reserve commission on 20 November 1962, having reached the mandatory retirement age, but retained his rank of brigadier. At Oxford, Williams was a member of the Hebdomadal Council, a Curator of the Chest (or finance committee), and latterly a Pro-Vice-Chancellor. He also served as a Radcliffe Trustee, as a member of the Nuffield Provincial Hospitals Trust, and as chairman of the Academic Advisory Board which planned Warwick University. He loved cricket, and served for many years as senior treasurer (and in 1966 to 1968 as president) of the Oxford University Cricket Club. He was appointed a Deputy Lieutenant for Oxfordshire in 1964, and was knighted in the 1973 New Year Honours. Williams worked for the United Nations Security Council Secretariat in New York from 1946 to 1947. In 1959 he was a member of the Devlin Commission on Nyasaland, and he was an observer at the 1980 Southern Rhodesian general election. Williams died at Oxford on 26 June 1995. His papers relating to his service with the United Nations are in the Bodleian Library at Oxford University; those relating to his correspondence with Montgomery are in the Imperial War Museum.
71,136,368	Jo Ann Evansgardner	1,169,027,305	American psychologist (1925–2010)	[ "1925 births", "2010 deaths", "20th-century American psychologists", "20th-century American women", "Activists from Pittsburgh", "American feminists", "American women psychologists", "Carnegie Mellon University faculty", "Equal Rights Amendment activists", "National Organization for Women people", "People from Latrobe, Pennsylvania", "University of Pittsburgh alumni" ]	Jo Ann Evansgardner (April 19, 1925 – February 16, 2010) was an American psychologist and social activist. Born in Latrobe, Pennsylvania, she studied psychology at the University of Pittsburgh and met her husband, Gerald Gardner, whom she married the same year she received her bachelor's degree. The couple moved to Dublin, Ireland, but returned to Pittsburgh after five years, where Evansgardner received a doctorate in experimental psychology. She co-founded the Association for Women in Psychology in 1969 and was active alongside her husband in the NAACP and numerous feminist organizations. In 1968, the couple joined the National Organization for Women (NOW) and served as joint presidents of the First Pittsburgh NOW chapter. In this role, Evansgardner worked to found KNOW, Inc. and was involved in the 1973 Supreme Court case of Pittsburgh Press Co. v. Pittsburgh Commission on Human Relations, which ended the practice of newspapers segregating help-wanted advertisements by gender. She was appointed as eastern regional co‐director for NOW and coordinated the national protests against AT&T. Evansgardner sued the Westinghouse Broadcasting Company for sex discrimination in 1977, a case that went to the Supreme Court in Gardner v. Westinghouse Broadcasting Co. She was also a co-founder of the National Women's Political Caucus and a failed Republican candidate for the Pittsburgh City Council in 1971. She and her husband moved to Houston, Texas, in 1980, where she founded a local chapter of NOW at the University of Houston. They returned to Pittsburgh, where she died on February 16, 2010. ## Early life Evansgardner was born Jo Ann Evans on April 19, 1925, in Latrobe, Pennsylvania. Her parents were Eugene and Elizabeth Evans, and her niece was Barbara Evans Fleischauer, a future state representative in West Virginia. She grew up in the neighborhood of Hazelwood in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. As a child, she wanted to become a physician but was dissuaded from the male-dominated profession. She left Pittsburgh during World War II to move to North Carolina, where she drove trucks for the Second Army. In 1945, she moved back to her hometown and worked on research for Union Carbide & Co. at the Mellon Institute of Industrial Research, a job that allowed her to study at the University of Pittsburgh. She graduated in 1950 with a bachelor's degree in psychology. The same year, she married Gerald Gardner, who worked as a mathematician and geophysicist. She initially hyphenated her surname with her husband's but, due to issues with computers not allowing hyphenated names, instead chose to combine their names. Shortly after they married, the couple spent five years in Dublin, Ireland, where Evansgardner resisted her role as a housewife. ## Academic career Evansgardner received a doctorate in experimental psychology from the University of Pittsburgh in 1965, where she was supervised in her dissertation on physiological psychology, titled The induction of mating behavior in very young white rock cockerels, by Alan E. Fisher. She taught at Carnegie Mellon University from 1964 to 1966, as well as lecturing at several other universities. She faced gender discrimination while in academia, writing an unpublished 1971 essay on her experiences. She was often critical of the psychology profession. She was frustrated that women were diagnosed with mental disorders if they expressed anger or depression about receiving unfair treatment as the result of their gender. She also criticized the practice of using only male mice in experiments, a concern which was later validated by studies that showed medical research on male subjects was often less applicable to female patients. During her time in the profession, few women were involved in academic conferences. There were only twelve women who served as symposium chairs or gave addresses at the 1965 annual meeting of the American Psychological Association (APA), out of a total of 1700 speakers. Four years later, Evansgardner was one of nineteen featured women at the annual meeting, when she challenged the status quo by presentating a paper titled "What can the behavioral sciences do to modify the world so that women who want to participate meaningfully are not regarded as and are not in fact deviant?". In 1969, Evansgardner founded the Association for Women in Psychology (AWPA) with thirty-five other psychologists and served as the first interim president. The nascent organization petitioned the APA to establish a Task Force on the Status of Women in Psychology and as a result, the following annual conference featured eleven seminars on the topic of women's psychology. Evansgardner received a distinguished publication award for contributions in editing and publishing from the AWPA in 1977. She was also a co-founder, alongside Ina Braden, of the Pittsburgh University Committee for Women's Rights. ## Social activism Evansgardner was active in the civil rights movement, joining the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) with her husband in 1963. The couple were also active throughout the seventies and eighties with the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), the International Women's Year in 1975, the National Women's Conference in 1977, and reproductive rights groups. They joined the National Organization for Women (NOW) in 1968. She was recruited to the group by Wilma Scott Heide, her colleague at the psychology department of Pennsylvania State University, and became well-known for recruiting other women to the movement. She was credited with convincing Eleanor Smeal, who would later become president of NOW and the Feminist Majority Foundation, to join the women's movement. ### KNOW, Inc. In 1968, Evansgardner founded KNOW, Inc. with her husband, Heide, Jean Witter, and Phyllis Wetherby. The press was the first feminist publishing house, which operated out of Evansgardner's house in Shadyside. It operated under the slogan, "Freedom of the press belongs to those who own the press". They printed speeches and articles from feminists and other NOW members, including "The Tyranny of Structurelessness" by Jo Freeman and I'm Running Away from Home, But I'm Not Allowed to Cross the Street by Gabrielle Burton. Sheila Tobias, who had organized one of the first women's rights conferences in the country, became involved with KNOW and agreed to allow the publishing house to print the materials that she had gathered from professors at a variety of universities who taught about women's issues. Through this partnership, KNOW printed the first women's studies course materials. The following year, Evansgardner proposed that the term Ms. should be used instead of Mrs. or Miss. ### First Pittsburgh NOW Evansgardner served, alongside her husband, as the co-president of their local chapter of NOW, First Pittsburgh NOW. Through her role in the organization, she was involved in picketing alongside the Young Women's Christian Association (YWCA), Women in the Urban Crisis, and the NAACP outside the Sears in the neighborhood of East Liberty to protest the managers not hiring enough African Americans or using Black mannequins. When the police only arrested Black protesters, Evansgardner and Gardner called out to be arrested as well. The protest worked and Sears agreed to a thirty percent increase in African American employees. She was also heavily involved with the campaign to pass the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) in Pennsylvania. Evansgardner and Gardner hosted weekly letter-writing parties in their home to write legislators on their and their friends' behalf between 1969 and 1978. In 1969, she was elected to the national board of NOW. In the same year, she and her husband worked with First Pittsburgh NOW to file a complaint with the Pittsburgh Commission on Human Rights against The Pittsburgh Press, alleging that the newspaper's sex-segregated classified advertisements were unlawful sex discrimination. The newspaper would separate help wanted ads into separate columns depending on whether the employer was looking for a male or female employee. Her husband assisted the case by calculating the statistical chance that a woman would be hired for a job targeted at men. The Commission upheld the complaint filed by First Pittsburgh NOW and the newspaper lodged a court case, arguing that this decision infringed on its right to freedom of the press under the First Amendment. The Supreme Court heard the case in its 1973 decision in the case Pittsburgh Press Co. v. Pittsburgh Commission on Human Relations and ruled by a 5–4 margin that segregating job advertising was discriminatory. The newspaper was forced to take out any references to sex from its classifieds, a ruling which also applied to the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. Evansgardner served as eastern regional co‐director for NOW and contested the role of legal vice‐president, although she was not appointed to the latter position. In this role, she helped to coordinate the national protests against AT&T. She coordinated demonstrations across fifteen cities in New York, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Florida, Washington, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Alabama, Ohio, Missouri, New Mexico, Texas, and California. The NOW chapters protested the company's discrimination against women in the areas of hiring, appointments, promotions, and benefits. She was also involved in the landmark lawsuit against the company which began in November 1970 led by the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission alleging racial and sexual discrimination. She helped organize the 1974 Wonder Woman Conference in Atlantic City, New Jersey, which she described as a "counter pageant" to contrast the Miss America pageant which was being held at the same venue concurrently. She worked with Heide, Patricia Hill Burnett, and Rona Fields on an international conference that was held on June 1, 1973, bringing together more than 300 women from 27 countries. Evansgardner was known for being confrontational. She shoved a security guard at West Pennsylvania Hospital while attending a protest against the hospital banning abortions after the twelfth week of pregnancy. In 1970, she interrupted two United States Senate hearings to demand a focus on women's issues. On February 17, 1970, she was among a group of Pittsburgh NOW chapter members who disrupted a hearing on lowering the voting age to eighteen, holding up signs and demanding that the Senate act on the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA). She also interrupted a hearing on the nomination of G. Harrold Carswell to the United States Supreme Court and was instructed by Senator Edward Kennedy to sit down. In 1972, she was arrested alongside her husband for assisting in the effort to place a paper-mâché of Susan B. Anthony on the head of a statue of Father Duffy in Times Square. A couple of years later, in 1974, she tried to hit a county official who told her to "get back to the kitchen where you belong." Evansgardner and Jeanne Clark went to Washington, D.C. in 1975 to protest in favor of reproductive rights at the Vatican embassy, where a man was arrested for spitting at her after she kicked him. ### Gardner v. Westinghouse Broadcasting Co. In 1977, Evansgardner sued the Westinghouse Broadcasting Company in a civil rights class action lawsuit, alleging sex discrimination in the radio station's hiring practices after KDKA in Pittsburgh failed to hire her as a talk show host. She was acting on behalf of herself and all other women under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. She applied for class action status under Rule 23(b)(2) of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure, but the District Court for the Western District of Pennsylvania and the Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit both rejected her application. Evansgardner appealed and her case went to the Supreme Court in Gardner v. Westinghouse Broadcasting Co. 46 U.S.L.W. 4761 (1978), which ruled in a 9–0 decision that an order denying certification of a class by a federal judge cannot be appealed. Justice John Paul Stevens wrote in the decision that allowing appeals would harm the final judgment rule. The court compared the situation to a motion for summary judgment, which cannot be appealed under section 1292(a)(1). ### Other activism Evansgardner was a founder of the Professional Women's Caucus in 1968, and she was credited by Eleanor Smeal with instituting the creation of women's caucuses in professional organizations. She helped to found the National Women's Political Caucus (NWPC), which was created on July 12, 1971, to increase the percentage of women in political office to fifty percent. She was also involved with the debate to include girls in Little League Baseball, which ended in 1974 with the league agreeing to allow girls to participate. She also organized funding and access to birth control, rape crisis centers, and women's shelters. In 1971, she ran for a position on the Pittsburgh City Council as a candidate for the Republican Party, although she was unsuccessful. She ran under the slogans "Don't Call Me Lady", "JoAnn Evans, NOW" and "put this woman in her place". She ran on a platform of amending building codes to allow for prefabricated houses and sharing the city tax burden with people who commuted into Pittsburgh from the suburbs. Evansgardner was invited to participate in several talk shows and candidate forums, where she used the opportunity to discuss feminist issues and distribute brochures on the ERA. During her campaign, the chancellor at the University of Pittsburgh refused to set up childcare facilities despite NOW requests and Evansgardner organized an unofficial daycare in the lobby of the Cathedral of Learning to protest the inadequacy of these facilities. She was a co-chair of Shirley Chisholm's presidential campaign in Pittsburgh, alongside Alma Speed Fox. She was the only woman on the Allegheny County Study Commission and in 1973 and 1974, she drafted a home rule charter for the county, although it did not pass in the referendum. She did manage to convince the commission to back the position that there could not be a majority of members of any sex on an appointed board. She also contested the 1979 election to the Pittsburgh school board, running as a Republican in the 4th district. She received 421 votes and lost to Democrat Solomon Abrams. She and Gardner moved to Houston, Texas, from Pittsburgh in 1980. She founded a new chapter of NOW at the University of Houston while her husband, who taught engineering at the university, served as the faculty adviser. While at the university, Evansgardner studied journalism and worked as a reporter for the student newspaper, The Daily Cougar. She presented a paper at the National Women's Studies Association annual meeting in June 1985, where she argued that the word 'feminism' should be replaced with 'isocracism', implying equality of power. Her suggestion was not adopted. ## Later life Later in her life, Evansgardner became involved in environmental activism. After retiring, she and Gardner moved back to Hazelwood, where they built a geothermal house. The couple blocked the mayor of Pittsburgh from building a coke plant in their neighborhood, which would have been heavily polluting. She was honored in an exhibit titled "In Sisterhood: The Women's Movement in Pittsburgh" at the Pittsburgh Center for the Arts in January 2009. At the end of her life, Evansgardner had diabetes, heart disease, and Alzheimer's disease. Her husband died on July 25, 2009, and she died seven months later on February 16, 2010, at Forbes Hospice in Pittsburgh.
35,219,377	Sundrum Castle	1,172,645,795	Scottish castle in South Ayrshire	[ "1370s establishments in Scotland", "Castles in South Ayrshire", "Category B listed buildings in South Ayrshire", "Listed castles in Scotland" ]	Sundrum Castle is a Scottish medieval castle located 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) north of Coylton, South Ayrshire, by the Water of Coyle river. It was built in the 14th century for Sir Duncan Wallace, Sheriff of Ayr. The castle was inherited by Sir Alan de Cathcart, who was the son of Duncan's sister. The Cathcarts sold Sundrum in the 18th century, where it eventually fell into the possession of the Hamilton family. The Hamiltons expanded the castle in the 1790s, incorporating the original keep into a mansion. The castle was further expanded in the early 20th century by Ernest Coats. For a time it was a hotel, but fell into disrepair. It became a category B listed building in 1971. After extensive renovations in the 1990s, it was split into several privately owned properties. ## History ### 14th to 19th century The name Sundrum is thought to come from the word "sonndruim", meaning "ridge of trees". The tower was at a time thought to have Pictish origins, and Robert Burns had referred to Sundrum as "an ancient Pict-built mansion" in his poem "The Vision" in 1785. However, according to historian A. H. Millar, "this legend rests upon no reasonable foundation". The original castle was commissioned in the late 14th century by Sir Duncan Wallace, the Sheriff of Ayr, son of Sir Robert Wallace and a relative of William Wallace. The castle was built on land gifted to Sir Duncan by King David II in 1370 and was a rectangular tower. Sir Duncan was married to Eleanor de Brus (now translated as Bruce), Countess of Carrick, but died without a male heir. The great hall of the castle was used for official business, whilst the floor above it was used as a private living space. The Wallaces of Sundrum were in possession of Caprington Castle from the late 14th century to 1400, when a daughter of Sir Duncan married and it passed to the Cunninghams. By the end of the 14th century, Sir Alan de Cathcart took possession of the castle, with the consent of King Robert II of Scotland. Sir Alan was the son of Sir Duncan's sister. Sir Alan had earlier (around 1330) went with James Douglas, Lord of Douglas in an attempt to carry the heart of Robert the Bruce on a crusade, before it was eventually believed to be buried at Melrose Abbey. Sundrum was owned by the Cathcart family, who had it in their possession for a number of generations. The name Sundrum is linked to the father of Alan Cathcart, 4th Lord Cathcart in the 16th century, who was sometimes known as "Lord Sudram". The fall of Sundrum from Cathcart ownership was alluded to in a poem by Robert Chambers in the 19th century, and by the end of the 20th century was referred to as a curse. The castle was sold by Charles Cathcart, 9th Lord Cathcart to John Murray of Broughton for £18,000. There is some inconsistency over the date it was sold, with sources giving it as 1753 whilst others claim it went straight to the Hamiltons in 1750. John Hamilton (1739–1821), son of John and Margaret Hamilton, bought the Sundrum estate and the Hamilton family were in possession of the castle from the mid-18th century until 1917. John Hamilton married Lillias Montgomerie (sister of Hugh Montgomerie, 12th Earl of Eglinton) and their combined crests were carved into the fireplace of the great hall. In the 1790s the Hamiltons were responsible for carrying out extensive alterations to the site, including building what is now known the Hamilton Wing. The castle was incorporated into the present mansion in 1792. Designs for interiors in the neo-Gothic style were provided by the architect John Paterson. Whilst at Sundrum, the family were also involved in reducing the rent of William Burnes, father of the poet Robert Burns. The Hamiltons of Sundrum were heavily involved in both the sugar and slavery industries, including part-owning the Pemberton Valley sugar plantation situated in Jamaica. Profits from slavery are what funded purchase of the castle. After the abolition of slavery in the British West Indies in 1833, Colonel Alexander West Hamilton, son of John Hamilton, arranged for a child from the plantation to be brought to Scotland to obtain schooling and learn a trade. This child, Alexander Waters, learned to be a stone mason, and eventually started his own family settled on the Sundrum estate. The clock tower was built in 1877 to commemorate the marriage of John Claud Campbell Hamilton (1854–1908) and Marion Hamilton. ### 20th and 21st century In 1909 the Claud Hamilton Memorial Hall was built in nearby Coylton in memory of one of the Hamilton sons, and designed by A. C. Thompson. In 1917 Sundrum Castle was sold to Ernest Coats, father of John Coats, who ran a thread manufacturing firm. Coats further expanded the castle with the construction of "Coats House", positioned between the mews and the main castle. Sundrum was eventually sold again, this time to a hotel syndicate in 1936. It was turned into a 30-bed hotel, to open around the time of the Empire Exhibition in 1938. On 14 April 1971 it became a category B listed building. By 1984, Sundrum became neglected, until it was sold to Salopian Estates in 1991. Salopian Estates intended to renovate it as part of an "enabling development" with the building of new houses nearby. The 1990s were a period of great interest in castle restorations, as Sundrum was only one of 26 restorations started in the decade. It has since undergone redevelopment by creating a series of homes. The work was split into three phases – renovation of the Castle Mews, the construction of a nine-house courtyard, and the renovation and division of the main castle itself into three properties. In 2017 an additional courtyard development was opened for sale consisting of 11 houses and was known as The Steadings. Sundrum was also presented an award from the Association for the Protection of Rural Scotland. The developments were objected to by some of the local residents, as it included the destruction of the original drive and an area of woodland. The developers received £500k from Historic Scotland in 1995, though were thought to have privately profited from the sales of the individual properties. Selected items removed from Sundrum Castle, including archive documents, letters, and some furniture, were made available for sale in 2005, along with items from Pallinsburn House. Some items were provided by Hope Hamilton, a descendant of the Hamiltons of Sundrum. Wallace Tower, the castle's keep, was owned by landlords Graham and Patricia Cathcart Waddington in 2018. The castle retains its status as a category B listed building. A selection of photographs and documents relating to Sundrum Castle in the 20th century are held at the Ayrshire Archives Headquarters. ## Description Sundrum Castle is located 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) north of Coylton, South Ayrshire, Scotland, and sits within an approximately 85 acre estate. It is approximately 9.7 kilometers (6 miles) from Ayr, with Glasgow Prestwick Airport being the closest airport. The castle is split into three separate properties, consisting of the original tower keep, and separate Georgian and Victorian wings, each with their own style, having been renovated in the 1990s. There are also additional mews and other smaller properties on the estate. There is a nearby holiday park. ### Wallace Tower Wallace Tower is the castle's keep (it is distinct from the similarly named Wallace Tower on the High Street in Ayr, and Wallace's Tower in Roxburgh.) The castle's main walls from the original rectangular tower are 10 to 12 feet thick, and originally only had narrow slits for windows. The entrance was on the north side. There was a small prison pit, which is now sealed off. The tower is said to be haunted by a Green Lady, though it is unknown who it was thought to represent. The ghost however was thought to be "visitor boosting" in the 20th century when the castle was a hotel. The interior includes a Jacobean style dining room (The Laigh Hall) and library on the ground floor, a double-vaulted hall on the first floor, and additional accommodation on the second and third floors. It currently has four bedrooms and three bathrooms, in additional to a rear terrace which overlooks the river valley. It also includes the original guardroom. ### Hamilton Wing The Hamilton Wing is a Georgian-era addition, built in the late 18th century and named after the Hamilton family. It currently includes four bedrooms, hall, drawing room, dining room, plus main bathroom and kitchen, along with oil-fired central heating. ### Coats House The Coats House is a Victorian-era addition, built in the early 20th century and named after Ernest Coats. It has an internal area of almost 5000 square feet, with four floors, five reception rooms, including a large drawing room, five bedrooms, and four bathrooms. It also features a sweeping traditional staircase.
2,292,109	United States v England (1950 FIFA World Cup)	1,163,262,227	Association football match at the 1950 FIFA World Cup	[ "1950 FIFA World Cup", "England at the 1950 FIFA World Cup", "England national football team matches", "FIFA World Cup matches", "Football in Belo Horizonte", "June 1950 sports events in South America", "United Kingdom–United States relations", "United States at the 1950 FIFA World Cup", "United States men's national soccer team matches" ]	On 29 June 1950, the United States defeated England 1–0 in a World Cup group match at Estádio Independência in Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil. Before the game, England were heavy favorites against a hastily assembled U.S. team, which was composed of part-time players. The game's only goal was scored by Haitian-born U.S. center forward Joe Gaetjens. This game and the U.S. team were profiled by author Geoffrey Douglas in his book The Game of Their Lives, which was made into a film of the same name (later renamed The Miracle Match). ## Background The 1950 FIFA World Cup was England's World Cup debut, the Football Association having boycotted the previous three tournaments owing to a dispute with FIFA over payments made to amateur players, which had been resolved four years earlier. England and the United States were both drawn in Group 2, along with Spain and Chile: under the rules of the competition only the group winner from this four-nation round-robin would progress to the final stage. Each team had played one previous match in the group, England having beaten Chile 2–0 and the United States losing 3–1 to Spain. At the time, the English had a reputation as the "Kings of Football", with a post-war record of 23 wins, 4 losses, and 3 draws. They had beaten the Italians 4–0 and the Portuguese 10–0 in Lisbon two weeks before that. In comparison, the Americans, despite having reached the semi-finals of the inaugural 1930 World Cup, had lost their last seven international matches (including the 1934 World Cup and 1948 Summer Olympics) by the combined score of 45–2, including heavy losses to Italy (7–1), Norway (11–0) and Northern Ireland (5–0). The odds were 3–1 the English would win the Cup, and 500–1 for the U.S. The people from Belo Horizonte were eager to watch the English team, with 10,000 tickets sold along with 3,000 distributed to associates of Sete de Setembro Futebol Clube [pt], then-owners of the newly inaugurated Estádio Independência. England had Stanley Matthews available, who was widely considered one of the best players in the world at the time, but he had not played with the English team in the three international matches before the World Cup (in fact, he had joined the team late, having been touring Canada as part of another group of English internationals). As such, the selection committee (consisting entirely of Arthur Drewry, then president of The Football League in England and later the president of FIFA) opted to stay with the team that had just defeated Chile. Matthews would be saved for later, supposedly more difficult, opponents. As there were no substitutes allowed in those days, Matthews watched the game with the other reserves. Incidentally, the England team which toured Canada beat the United States team preparing for the World Cup 1–0 at the Triborough Stadium in New York City on 19 June, 10 days before the World Cup match, courtesy of a Johnny Hancocks goal. The American team consisted of semi-professional players, most of whom had other jobs to support their families. Walter Bahr was a high school teacher, Frank Borghi drove a hearse for his uncle's funeral home and others worked as letter carriers or dishwashers. One player, Ben McLaughlin, had to withdraw from the tournament because he could not get time off work. The hastily assembled team had trained together only once, which happened to be on the day before they left for Brazil, against the touring English team featuring Matthews. (Matthews did not play in that game, as he was injured.) Three players—Joe Maca, Ed McIlvenny, and Joe Gaetjens, none of whom was a U.S. citizen—had been added to the roster just before that game. "We have no chance," recently appointed coach Bill Jeffrey told the press; he also declared his players "sheep ready to be slaughtered". The English Daily Express newspaper wrote: "It would be fair to give the U.S. three goals of a start." ## Match ### First half Although Walter Bahr regularly served as captain for the United States, Ed McIlvenny was selected for the role for this particular match "because he was British". England won the toss and elected to kick off. Within ninety seconds, Stanley Mortensen sent a cross from the left wing to Roy Bentley, who let off a shot that was barely pushed aside by U.S. goalkeeper Frank Borghi. By the 12th minute, England had six clear shots on goal but could not convert, with two shots hitting the post, one just going over the top, and another brilliantly saved by Borghi. The U.S. struggled to move to the offense, and finally managed a shot on goal in the 25th minute, which was blocked by English goalkeeper Bert Williams. The English counterattacked with three successive clear shots at the goal in minutes 30, 31, and 32, but failed to score. Mortensen twice went over the crossbar, and Tom Finney's header to the top corner was tipped away by Borghi. In the 37th minute, Bahr took a long shot from 25 yards out, but as Williams moved to his right to intercept, Gaetjens dived headlong near the penalty spot, and grazed the ball enough to put it to the left of the English goalkeeper, whose momentum prevented him from changing direction, and into the back of the net. The crowd exploded as the U.S. improbably led 1–0. As the half drew to a close, Finney had a chance to equalize, but the whistle blew before he could shoot. The crowd, initially 10,000, increased as Brazilian locals heard radio coverage of the match. The spectators were mostly supporting the underdog Americans, cheering with Borghi's saves and the unsuccessful English attacks. According to Bahr, "The overwhelming majority was Brazilians, but they rooted for us the entire time. We didn't realize why until after. They [were] hoping we would beat England and that Brazil would not have to play England in the final game." Some locals even jumped a short wall to enter the stadium through the playing field. ### Second half The U.S. played with renewed confidence as the second half opened, creating another scoring opportunity in the 54th minute. In the 59th minute England was awarded a direct free kick but Mortensen's shot was well saved by Borghi. But England began threatening again, and it was fifteen minutes before the Americans were able to get another shot. With eight minutes left, Charlie Colombo brought down Mortensen with an illegal tackle at the edge of the penalty area. England pleaded for a penalty kick, but the referee ruled it was outside the box. From Alf Ramsey's resulting free kick, Jimmy Mullen headed the ball for what he thought was a goal, but Borghi tipped it away at the last instant, and despite the protests of the English players, the referee ruled that the ball had not crossed the line and thus there was no goal. England did not threaten again, but the U.S. had one final chance in the 85th minute: Frank "Peewee" Wallace drew Williams out of position and fired a shot at the empty net, only to be denied by a sliding goal line clearance by Ramsey. ### Details ## Post-match ### Remaining matches Even after this loss, England could have kept their chances alive by winning their final pool match against Spain, a result which would have forced a play-off for the right to progress to the final stage of the competition. However, they were unable to do this, losing 1–0, and finishing the first round with a record of 1–0–2. The U.S. also lost their next match 5–2, versus Chile, ending their 1950 World Cup run with a First Round record of 1–0–2. They would not qualify for the World Cup again until 1990, after which they began a streak of seven consecutive World Cup appearances (this streak ended when they failed to qualify for the 2018 tournament). Spain advanced to the four-team Final Round, finishing fourth. In another tremendous upset, Uruguay defeated the hosts Brazil to win the 1950 World Cup. ### Aftermath John Souza, the U.S. inside right forward, was selected to the World Cup All-Star team by the Brazilian sports newspaper Mundo Esportivo, and remained the only U.S. player selected to a World Cup All-Star team until Claudio Reyna in 2002. Newspaper headlines in most World Cup nations trumpeted the shocking upset, except ironically in the United States and England. There was only one U.S. journalist at the World Cup: Dent McSkimming of the St. Louis Post-Dispatch; he could not persuade the newspaper to pay for the trip, and had taken time off work to cover the event. McSkimming's report of the match was one of the few to appear in a major U.S. newspaper; some other journals carried agency reports of the match. In England, newspapers at the time were generally small, and had only a few pages devoted to sports. Because the English cricket team happened to suffer their first-ever home defeat to the West Indies the very same day, that was the major story in many publications. The team's performance was nonetheless excoriated, with headlines such as "England Caned At Soccer Too", and "The Last Straw – U.S. Beat England In World Cup". Many newspapers repeated Arthur Drewry's statement that the defeat was "unbelievable". Legend has it that in publications that did report the World Cup match, so unexpected was the result that it was presumed that the 1–0 scoreline was a typing error and so it was reported that England had won on a scoreline of 10–0 or 10–1. However, historical newspapers online at The British Newspaper Archive show that the story is a myth. Afterwards, a number of books and newspapers in England suggested that the U.S. team had arrived "through Ellis Island", meaning that the team was made up of imported players. In actuality, eight of the starting eleven were U.S.-born, while the other three, Gaetjens, McIlvenny, and Maca, were not U.S. citizens, but had declared their intentions to gain citizenship (only Maca ultimately became a U.S. citizen in 1957), and according to the rules of the United States Soccer Federation at the time, were allowed to play. The U.S. was cleared of any wrongdoing by FIFA in a hearing on 2 December 1950. Of the eight U.S.-born starters, five were from St. Louis, Missouri. England's blue kit, which had made its debut in this match, was never worn again. Although Walter Bahr once stated that England has never had a blue kit since then, the England team did wear blue in 1959 during a 1–4 away loss to Peru, and wore a blue strip on several occasions in the 21st century. The 1950 loss was the first of several shock losses for the English team. In 1953, they were defeated 6–3 by the "Magical Magyars" of Hungary and in 1954, they lost again to Hungary 7–1. The result of these losses was a reorganization of English football that culminated in England winning the 1966 World Cup on home soil. There was little attention given to the match in the U.S. at the time, and that continued to be the case until the 1994 World Cup, which was hosted in the U.S. Geoffrey Douglas, a professor of English at the University of Massachusetts Amherst, was inspired by news articles in the build-up to the 1994 tournament, and wrote a book about the 1950 match, having interviewed the five surviving members of the U.S. team. Entitled The Game of Their Lives, in 2005 it was made into a film of the same name directed by David Anspaugh. Since then, the game has become known as "The Miracle Match", in reference to the Miracle on Ice from the 1980 Winter Olympics, in which the U.S. ice hockey team defeated the heavily favored Soviet Union. The United States and England have played two World Cup matches against each other since 1950: a match in the group stage of the 2010 FIFA World Cup, which ended in a 1–1 draw, and another group stage match in the 2022 FIFA World Cup, which ended drawn 0–0. ## See also - England at the FIFA World Cup - United States at the FIFA World Cup
186,837	Ron "Pigpen" McKernan	1,172,849,603	American musician (1945–1973)	[ "1945 births", "1973 deaths", "20th-century American keyboardists", "20th-century American male singers", "20th-century American singers", "Alcohol-related deaths in California", "American blues harmonica players", "American blues musicians", "American blues singers", "American harmonica players", "American male organists", "American organists", "American people of Irish descent", "American percussionists", "American rock keyboardists", "American rock singers", "Blues rock musicians", "Burials in California", "Conga players", "Deaths from gastrointestinal hemorrhage", "Grateful Dead members", "Palo Alto High School alumni", "People from Corte Madera, California", "People from San Bruno, California", "Singers from San Francisco", "Tambourine players" ]	Ronald Charles McKernan (September 8, 1945 – March 8, 1973), known as Pigpen, was an American musician. He was a founding member of the San Francisco band the Grateful Dead and played in the group from 1965 to 1972. McKernan grew up heavily influenced by African-American music, particularly the blues, and enjoyed listening to his father's collection of records and taught himself how to play harmonica and piano. He began socializing around the San Francisco Bay Area, becoming friends with Jerry Garcia. After the pair had played in various folk and jug bands, McKernan suggested they form an electric group, which became the Grateful Dead. He was the band's original frontman as well as playing harmonica and electric organ, but Garcia and bassist Phil Lesh's influences on the band became increasingly stronger as they embraced psychedelic rock. McKernan struggled to keep up with the changing music, causing the group to hire keyboardist Tom Constanten, with McKernan's contributions essentially limited to vocals, harmonica, and percussion from November 1968 to January 1970. He continued to be a frontman in concert for some numbers, including his interpretations of Bobby Bland's "Turn On Your Love Light" and the Rascals' "Good Lovin'. Unlike the other members of the Grateful Dead, McKernan avoided psychedelic drugs, preferring to drink alcohol (namely whiskey and flavored fortified wine). By 1971, his health had been affected by alcoholism and liver damage and doctors advised him to stop touring. Following a hiatus, he resumed touring with the group in December 1971 but was forced to retire from touring altogether in June 1972. McKernan was found dead of a gastrointestinal hemorrhage on March 8, 1973, aged 27, and is buried at Alta Mesa Memorial Park in Palo Alto. ## Biography ### Early life Ronald Charles McKernan was born on September 8, 1945, in San Bruno, California. He came from Irish ancestry, and his father, Phil McKernan, was an R&B and blues disc jockey, who has been reported to have been one of the first white DJs on KDIA (later renamed KMKY), then a black radio station, by several sources. Other sources place him at Berkeley station, KRE (later renamed KBLX-FM). Ronald grew up with African American friends and enjoyed black music and culture. As a youth, he taught himself blues piano, guitar and harmonica and developed a biker culture image. McKernan moved to Palo Alto, California, with his family, where he became friends with musician Jerry Garcia at the age of 14. He built up a substantial collection of old blues 78s from labels such as Kent and Chess. McKernan began spending time around coffeehouses and music stores, and worked at Dana Morgan's Music Store in Palo Alto with Garcia. One night Garcia invited McKernan on stage to play harmonica and sing the blues. Garcia was impressed and McKernan became the blues singer in local jam sessions. He was initially nicknamed "Blue Ron" before settling on "Pigpen". Onomastician Adrian Room has suggested McKernan was given the name due to his untidy and unclean habits and band biographies say he got the nickname owing to his similarity to Pig-Pen, the permanently-dirty character in the comic-strip Peanuts. ### Grateful Dead Along with Garcia and second guitarist Bob Weir, McKernan was a participant in the predecessor groups leading to the formation of the Grateful Dead, beginning with the Zodiacs and Mother McCree's Uptown Jug Champions. Drummer Bill Kreutzmann was added and the band evolved into the Warlocks. Around 1965, McKernan urged the rest of the Warlocks to switch to electric instruments. Bassist Phil Lesh joined soon after, and they became the Grateful Dead. The group were keen to involve McKernan in the band, as he was the group's original leader and was considered the best singer and frontman. The Dead's early sets centered around blues and R&B songs chosen by McKernan. By the end of 1966, Garcia had improved his musical skills, changing the band's direction and reducing McKernan's contributions. In 1967, drummer Mickey Hart joined the Grateful Dead, followed by classically trained keyboardist Tom Constanten in 1968, further changing the group's style. Constanten often replaced McKernan on keyboards in the studio, as McKernan found it difficult to adapt to the new material that Garcia and Lesh composed for the band. In October 1968, McKernan and Weir were nearly fired from the band after Garcia and Lesh believed their playing was holding the band back from lengthy and experimental jamming. Garcia delegated the task of firing them to Rock Scully, who said that McKernan "took it hard." Weir promised to improve, but McKernan was more stubborn. According to Garcia biographer Blair Jackson, McKernan missed three Dead shows before vowing not to "be lazy" any more and rejoining, while Kreutzmann objected to replacing McKernan and said the event never happened. Following his discharge from the United States Air Force in November 1968, Constanten officially joined the band, having only worked in the studio while on leave up to that point. Road manager Jon McIntire commented that "Pigpen was relegated to the congas at that point and it was really humiliating and he was really hurt, but he couldn't show it, couldn't talk about it." He began to take Hammond organ lessons and learned how to use the various drawbars and controls. After Constanten's departure in January 1970 over musical and lifestyle differences, McKernan nominally resumed keyboard duties. He played an instrument on two tracks only (Hammond organ on "Black Peter" and harmonica on "Easy Wind", on which he also sang lead) on Workingman's Dead (1970), the band's breakthrough studio release. On the follow-up album American Beauty, keyboard parts were handled by Garcia and Lesh, along with session musicians Howard Wales and Ned Lagin. The 1971 live album Grateful Dead featured three overdubbed organ parts from Merl Saunders in addition to McKernan's contributions on "Big Railroad Blues", "The Other One", and "Me & Bobby McGee". While Garcia expressed frustration at McKernan's missed rehearsals and his inability to keep up with new material, Lesh was more forgiving, maintaining that "it was okay for Pigpen to lay out ... we kept wanting Pigpen to be there because he was 'one of us.' " ## Musical style and influences While in the Grateful Dead, McKernan sang and played blues-influenced organ and harmonica. He initially played a Lowrey T1 (often confused for a Farfisa combo organ) before switching to the more elaborate Vox Continental in 1966. He began to alternate between the Vox Continental and the Hammond B-3 in June 1967, usually reserving the former instrument for outdoor and impromptu concerts, including the band's performance at the Columbia University protests of 1968. During Tom Constanten's tenure with the group, McKernan occasionally played his bandmate's double-manual Vox Super Continental on some songs (most notably "Death Don't Have No Mercy") through May 1969. With the exception of select acoustic sets in 1970 in which he played upright piano, he used the Hammond exclusively thereafter. McKernan sang lead on several standards he wanted the Dead to record, such as Otis Redding's "Pain in My Heart" and Wilson Pickett's "In the Midnight Hour", with the latter serving as one of the band's main improvisatory vehicles from 1966 to 1968. Unlike fellow vocalists Garcia and Weir, he sang lead without playing any instrument except harmonica and actively interacted with the audience, occasionally walking out into the crowd. During the band's first year when they played straightforward blues, McKernan performed the majority of lead vocals, attracting an early audience that came specifically to see him sing and play harmonica. He took on early management duties in the band, ensuring they would be paid and promoted properly for gigs. Though McKernan's garage rock style was appropriate for their early recordings, it was less suited to the group's later psychedelic and jamming styles. He went from contributing to every song and singing lead on all of side two of 1968's Anthem of the Sun to little more than sporadic appearances on the following year's Aoxomoxoa. He continued to front the band for long stretches during their live performances and suggested new material for the Dead's concert repertoire, including Redding's "Hard to Handle" and James Brown's "It's a Man's Man's Man's World." McKernan achieved a new prominence in 1969 singing "Turn On Your Love Light"; initially introduced in 1967, the song gradually evolved into the band's show-stopping finale, often taking fifteen to thirty minutes to complete. He improvised lyrics over the band's accompaniment, using phrases he had heard from African American friends, such as "rider" (slang for "lover"), "she's got box-back nitties" (referring to female underwear) and "boar hog's eye". When the Grateful Dead appeared at Woodstock, the band's set (which was marred by technical problems and general chaos and described as one of their worst shows) ended with "Turn On Your Love Light". Even as his instrumental contributions waned, McKernan's vocal performances remained an integral part of the band's live set; by early 1971, their cover of the Rascals' "Good Lovin'" (initially performed by the group as early as 1966 and featured at shows at the Fillmore East later released as Ladies and Gentlemen... the Grateful Dead) began to emerge as a secondary showcase of his improvisatory talents alongside "Love Light." McKernan was not a prolific songwriter, preferring to concentrate on blues covers and improvised lyrics. He composed the infrequently performed "Operator" for 1970's American Beauty. Several new songs emerged from a creatively fecund period coinciding with his health problems in 1971, most notably "Mr. Charlie", a collaboration with Dead lyricist Robert Hunter. The song appeared on the live album Europe '72, his last with the group. Tony Sclafani has compared McKernan's role in the band, initially strong and pivotal but gradually declining, to that of Brian Jones in the Rolling Stones, particularly since both men were primarily influenced by the blues over rock 'n' roll and died aged 27. In contrast, though, McKernan was always encouraged to sing material live and left the group due to ill health, while Jones was fired. After McKernan's death, a number of recordings were found in his apartment, which have appeared as the bootleg recording The Apartment Tapes. This included two songs recorded in 1964 with future Jefferson Airplane guitarist Jorma Kaukonen. On the bootleg, McKernan played acoustic guitar and piano, instruments he seldom used with the Dead. ## Personal life McKernan was close friends with American singer-songwriter Janis Joplin due to common musical influences and lifestyles, particularly a shared love of alcohol over other drugs; a poster from the early 1970s showed them together at 710 Ashbury Street, the Grateful Dead's communal home from 1966 to 1968. Joplin joined McKernan on stage at the Fillmore West on June 7, 1969, with the Grateful Dead to sing his signature "Turn On Your Love Light", reprising this duet on July 16, 1970, at the Euphoria Ballroom in San Rafael, California. He developed a close friendship with fellow keyboardist Tom Constanten based on their mutual aversion to psychedelics and eventually served as best man at Constanten's first wedding. While his bandmates and friends were using cannabis, LSD, and other hallucinogenic drugs, McKernan preferred alcoholic beverages such as Thunderbird and Southern Comfort. Ironically, McKernan was arrested and fined after the cannabis bust on November 9, 1967, at 710 Ashbury Street, even though he did not use the drug. The event was covered in the first issue of Rolling Stone, where the reporter noted McKernan had a substantial rifle collection and McKernan's picture appeared on a contemporary report in the San Francisco Chronicle. Because neither took illegal drugs, McKernan and Constanten were the only members of the band not arrested in the January 31, 1970, police raid that inspired the lyrics of the band's song "Truckin'".[^1] In the early years of the Grateful Dead, McKernan was easily recognisable by his biker image, making him a minor celebrity. In 1969, the band's record company, Warner Bros., ran a "Pigpen Look-Alike Contest". ## Health and death McKernan's alcohol abuse had begun to affect his health by his mid twenties. By the early 1970s, he also began to experience symptoms of primary biliary cholangitis, an autoimmune disease that was unrelated to his use of alcohol. After he was hospitalized in August 1971, doctors requested that he stop touring indefinitely. Pianist Keith Godchaux was subsequently hired and remained a regular member of the Grateful Dead until 1979. McKernan rejoined the band in December 1971 to supplement Godchaux on harmonica, percussion, and organ. Although manager Rock Scully alleged that McKernan passed out in front of his Hammond organ at one show during this period, Garcia biographer Blair Jackson has lauded the quality and frequency of his instrumental contributions on the Europe '72 tour. However, his health soon deteriorated again to the point where he could no longer continue to perform. He made his final concert appearance on June 17, 1972, at the Hollywood Bowl in Los Angeles. He subsequently broke off all personal relationships with the band, explaining "I don't want you around when I die." While Jackson has asserted that McKernan "didn't drink for the last 17 months of his life" in conjunction with an effort to ameliorate his heath, Grateful Dead tour manager Sam Cutler later maintained that he "[made] sure [McKernan] had booze" on the Europe '72 tour. According to David Browne, McKernan "[lived] on sunflower seeds and alcohol" in the final months of his life. On March 8, 1973, aged 27, he was found dead of a gastrointestinal hemorrhage at his home in Corte Madera, California, by his landlady. Though his contributions to the band had slowly diminished over the years, the other members were devastated at his death. McKernan was buried at the Alta Mesa Memorial Park in Palo Alto, California. Garcia spoke at his funeral, saying "After Pigpen's death we all knew this was the end of the original Grateful Dead". ## Legacy Despite his outward image, friends and band biographers have described McKernan as a quiet, kind, and introspective person. Hart later said "Pigpen was the musician in the Grateful Dead." Kreutzmann said McKernan was "the sweetest guy anybody had ever met." Weir later became influenced by McKernan's ability to work a crowd and improvise lyrics. He took over de facto frontman duties in concert and began to reintroduce material originally chosen by McKernan into the Dead's live set after his death. Weir began singing "Good Lovin'" with the Dead in 1974, and the group recorded the song on 1978's Shakedown Street. "Turn On Your Love Light" was revived in 1981, with Weir singing lead. He also revived the 1960s standard "Big Boy Pete", originally sung by McKernan, as a one-off in 1985. Jimmy Reed's "Big Boss Man", recorded by the group on Grateful Dead (Skull and Roses) with McKernan singing lead, was revived by Garcia and performed occasionally through the 1980s and 90s. "He's Gone", originally appearing on the live album Europe '72, subsequently became a eulogy to McKernan by his former bandmates. Hunter said "it became an anthem for Pigpen". McKernan was posthumously inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1994. ## Discography - The Grateful Dead (1967) - Anthem of the Sun (1968) - Aoxomoxoa (1969) - Live/Dead (1969) - Workingman's Dead (1970) - American Beauty (1970) - Grateful Dead (1971) - Europe '72 (1972) - History of the Grateful Dead, Volume One (Bear's Choice) (1973) - Two from the Vault (1992) - Grayfolded (1994) - Hundred Year Hall (1995) - Dick's Picks Volume 4 (1996) - Dick's Picks Volume 8 (1997) - Live at the Fillmore East 2-11-69 (1997) - Fallout from the Phil Zone (1997) - So Many Roads (1965–1995) (1999) - So Many Roads (1965–1995) Sampler (1999) - Dick's Picks Volume 16 (2000) - Ladies and Gentlemen... the Grateful Dead (2000) - Dick's Picks Volume 22 (2001) - Steppin' Out with the Grateful Dead: England '72 (2002) - Dick's Picks Volume 26 (2002) - Dick's Picks Volume 30 (2003) - Birth of the Dead (2003) - Rockin' the Rhein with the Grateful Dead (2004) - Rare Cuts and Oddities 1966 (2005) - Dick's Picks Volume 35 (2005) - Grateful Dead Download Series Volume 6 (2005) - Fillmore West 1969: The Complete Recordings (2005) - Fillmore West 1969 (2005) - Three from the Vault (2007) - Road Trips Volume 1 Number 3 (2008) - Road Trips Volume 2 Number 2 (2009) - Road Trips Volume 3 Number 3 (2010) - Road Trips Volume 4 Number 1 (2010) - Europe '72: The Complete Recordings (2011) - Europe '72 Volume 2 (2011) - Winterland: May 30th 1971 (2012) - Dave's Picks Volume 6 (2013) - Family Dog at the Great Highway, San Francisco, CA 4/18/70 (2013) - Dave's Picks Volume 10 (2014) - 30 Trips Around the Sun: The Definitive Live Story 1965–1995 (2015) - 30 Trips Around the Sun (2015) - Shrine Exposition Hall, Los Angeles, CA 11/10/1967 (2016) - Dave's Picks Volume 19 (2016) - Dave's Picks Volume 22 (2017) - Fillmore West 1969: February 27th (2018) - Dave's Picks Volume 26 (2018) - Dave's Picks Volume 30 (2019) - Grateful Dead Origins (2021) - Fox Theatre, St. Louis, MO 12-10-71 (2021) - Listen to the River: St. Louis '71 '72 '73 (2021) - Lyceum '72: The Complete Recordings (2022) - Lyceum Theatre, London, England 5/26/72 (2022) - Dave's Picks Volume 43 (2022) ## See also ## General sources [^1]:
725,531	6th Division (Australia)	1,084,725,715	1917-1946 Australian Army infantry division	[ "1946 disestablishments in Australia", "Australian World War II divisions", "Infantry divisions of Australia", "Military units and formations disestablished in 1946", "Military units and formations established in 1939", "Papua New Guinea in World War II" ]	The 6th Division was an infantry division of the Australian Army. It was raised briefly in 1917 during World War I, but was broken up to provide reinforcements before seeing action. It was not re-raised until the outbreak of World War II, when it was formed as a unit of the Second Australian Imperial Force (2nd AIF). Throughout 1940–41 it served in the North African Campaign, the Greek campaign, on Crete and in Syria, fighting against the Germans, Italians and Vichy French. In 1942, the division left the Middle East and returned to Australia to meet the threat of Japan's entry into the war. Part of the division garrisoned Ceylon for a short period of time, before the division was committed to the New Guinea campaign. In New Guinea, its component brigades had a major role in the successful counter-offensive along the Kokoda Track, at Buna–Gona and around Salamaua–Lae in 1942–43. Throughout late 1943–44, the division was re-organised in Australia before being committed as a complete formation to one of the last Australian operations of the war around Aitape–Wewak in 1944–45. ## History ### Formation The 6th Division was first formed in 1917 in Britain during World War I as part of an effort to expand the First Australian Imperial Force. Its existence was short-lived, though, and as a result of manpower shortages that occurred because of a failure to make good the heavy losses that the AIF had suffered on the Western Front in 1917, it was decided to disband the division and its subordinate units in September 1917 and use their personnel to reinforce other units. As a result, the division was broken-up as replacements several months later, before it saw action. The division was not re-raised during the interwar years and subsequently remained off the Australian Army's order of battle until World War II broke out. Due to the provisions of the Defence Act, which precluded the five existing Militia divisions from serving overseas, the government decided to raise an all-volunteer force known as the 2nd AIF. The 6th Division was the first division formed within the 2nd AIF, being raised on 28 September 1939. Initially under the command of Lieutenant General Thomas Blamey, upon formation the division consisted of the 16th, 17th and 18th Brigades, each established with four infantry battalions. Later, though, it was reorganised as a result of the 18th Brigade being sent to the United Kingdom in June 1940 and the decision to adopt the British establishment of three infantry battalions to a brigade. The 19th Brigade was subsequently raised as the division's third infantry brigade, being formed by taking one battalion from each of the other three brigades when they were reduced from four to three. Of the division's infantry battalions, all except one – the 2/11th – were raised in either New South Wales or Victoria. In early 1940, the majority of the 6th Division was sent to Palestine, to complete their training before joining the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) in France. Together with the 7th Division they formed the Australian I Corps. However, France fell to German forces in July 1940, before I Corps arrived. While the rest of the division was training in the Middle East, the division's third artillery regiment, the 2/3rd Field Regiment and the 2/1st Anti-tank Regiment were sent to the United Kingdom to help bolster the garrison there in light of an expected invasion following the Fall of France. After being partially broken up to provide personnel to serve as infantry in the 25th Brigade, once the threat of invasion was over these two regiments were sent to the Middle East to rejoin the division, arriving there in December 1940. ### North Africa The 6th Division first saw action in early 1941, against Italian forces in North Africa, in the advance to Benghazi as part of Operation Compass. By this time, Major General Iven Mackay had taken over command of the division. In June 1940, Italy had declared war on the Allies and began to build up forces in Libya. In September 1940, the Italian Tenth Army invaded Egypt, a British colony, threatening Allied control of the Middle East and most particularly, the Suez Canal and international supply routes. British forces under General Sir Archibald Wavell expelled the Italians from Sidi Barrani and pursued them back towards the Libyan border. In December 1940, the 6th Division was moved forward from training camps around Alexandria to relieve British troops around Bardia and at the end of December they were ordered to prepare to attack. On 3 January 1941, at Bardia, a small coastal town just inside the Libyan border, the first major Australian action of World War II took place. Amidst a heavy artillery barrage and supported by British Matilda tanks and Bren carriers of the divisional cavalry, the 6th Division penetrated the defences of the Italian stronghold. Despite some heavy resistance the town fell to the Australians just two days later. The Australians captured a large amount of Italian war material as well as thousands of Italian prisoners of war (POWs), many of whom were shipped to prison camps in Australia. The fighting continued until 5 January when the Italian position had been cut almost into two. The Allies took nearly 40,000 Italian prisoners and considerable amounts of enemy weapons, supplies and equipment. The battle for Bardia cost 130 Australian lives with 326 men wounded. On 22 January 1941, the Italian held port of Tobruk fell to the AIF and 25,000 Italians became prisoners. During January and February 1941, the 6th Division, together with British units, pushed the Italian army back across Libya, including actions at Derna, Barce and Benghazi. The Italian Tenth Army was destroyed. Although Wavell initially planned to leave the 6th Division in Cyrenaica for defence, the 7th Division was still insufficiently trained and equipped. As such in early April 1941, the 6th Division was withdrawn from North Africa to defend Greece and replaced by the 9th Division, which took part in the epic Siege of Tobruk between April and November 1941 against Italian and German forces. Throughout the campaign, the division lost 241 killed, 790 wounded and 21 captured. ### Greece, Crete and Syria Hitler was concerned that if Greece—which since 28 October 1940 was fighting against the Italians in Albania—became a British ally then the Ploesti oilfields in Romania, on which Germany relied for her fuel, might be open to air attack from Greece. As the Germans were planning an invasion of Russia for June 1941, they could not allow such a threat to their essential oil supplies, and so they began planning an invasion of Greece. In March 1941, Prime Minister Robert Menzies, of Australia, with the concurrence of his Cabinet, agreed to the sending of Australian troops to Greece to defend against a German attack. Both Menzies and the I Corps commander, Blamey, felt that the operation was risky and might end in disaster, but Menzies stated that Greece should be supported against German aggression and that the defence of Greece was a "great risk in a good cause". The 6th Division arrived in Greece in late March and early April 1941, where they joined with a New Zealand and British force. On 6 April the Germans began their invasion of Greece, sending a total of 27 divisions. After arriving in Greece, the Australians were transported north towards the Yugoslav border, where they took up defensive positions around the Florina Valley. During the fighting around Vevi that followed, troops from the 2/4th and 2/8th Infantry Battalions and the 2/3rd Field Regiment, from Brigadier George Vasey's 19th Brigade, fought against the Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler brigade. Despite their efforts, the Allied force, together with Greek units, was unable to halt the rapid German advance down central Greece towards Athens. The Allies were outflanked by the Germans, and by 27 April they were driven off the Greek mainland, with a final act of defiance being made around Porto Rafti. The division's casualties in Greece amounted to 320 killed, 494 wounded and 2,030 captured. After the withdrawal from Greece, while some elements of the division were evacuated back to Alexandria, the majority of the 6th Division was sent to Crete where they were cobbled together to form a hasty garrison. The 19th Brigade had been landed intact with all of its infantry battalions, while only elements of the 16th and 17th Brigades had been landed and these two were combined together to form composite battalions. In addition to the infantry, two of the division's field artillery units, the 2/2nd and 2/3rd Field Regiments had also been landed. They had both lost all of their equipment in Greece and as a result the 2/2nd were thrown into the line as infantry, while the 2/3rd were hastily re-equipped with 14 captured French and Italian artillery pieces. On 20 May, the Germans launched an airborne assault on the island and over the course of a week-and-a-half heavy fighting ensued around Maleme airfield, Heraklion, Canea, and Retimo during which heavy casualties were inflicted upon the Germans before, having exhausted their ammunition and lacking air support, the garrison was evacuated back to Egypt close to the end of the month. As in Greece, a large number of men were unable to be evacuated and as a result many 6th Division personnel, including the majority of the 2/1st, 2/7th and 2/11th Battalions, were taken prisoner. A great deal of equipment was also lost. During the fighting, the 2/7th Infantry Battalion, fighting alongside the New Zealand 28th (Maori) Battalion, undertook a bayonet charge at a position known as 42nd Street that was later described as "one of the epics of the war", which resulted in about 300 Germans being killed. The fighting on Crete added a further 274 killed, 507 wounded and 3,102 captured to the division's casualty list. While the majority of the division was in Crete, the 6th Division Cavalry Regiment, which had not been sent to Greece, was detached to the British 7th Armoured Brigade and subsequently took part in Operation Brevity in the Western Desert in May. Following the evacuation of Crete, while the 6th Division began rebuilding in Palestine, the cavalry was allocated to take part in the bloody but successful attack on Vichy French forces in the Syria-Lebanon campaign. Two depleted infantry battalions from the 17th Brigade – the 2/3rd and 2/5th – were also committed and subsequently took part in the drive on Damascus in mid-June. They were later joined by the 2/2nd Pioneer Battalion and together they fought through the campaign until the French capitulated in mid-July. In the process they suffered 168 casualties; total 6th Division casualties for the Syrian campaign amounted to 39 killed and 129 wounded. After the conclusion of the fighting in Syria, the rest of the 6th Division joined the 17th Brigade and undertook garrison duties there. In December 1941, the division received news that the Japanese had attacked on Pearl Harbor and invaded Malaya. Nevertheless, the division remained in Syria over Christmas, during which time they endured a bitterly cold winter that saw heavy snow falls. Finally, in January 1942, the decision was made to withdraw them back to Australia to meet threat posed by Japanese advances in the Pacific. The 19th Brigade departed first and subsequently arrived at Fremantle on 10 March. Meanwhile, the 16th and 17th Brigades were diverted to defend Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) from the Japanese. They remained there from mid-March through to early July 1942. ### The Pacific War #### Return to Australia While the 16th and 17th Brigades were in Ceylon, the 19th Brigade had proceeded from Fremantle to Adelaide in mid-March, where they remained until April due to a short period of leave being granted. Once the men reported back, the brigade was split up, with the 2/11th Infantry Battalion sent to Western Australia to undertake garrison duty while the brigade's other infantry battalions and the divisional cavalry regiment were sent to the Northern Territory to bolster its defences in the wake of Japanese successes; the 19th Brigade would subsequently not see any combat for another three-and-a-half years. While there, the 2/11th's place within the 19th Brigade was taken by a Militia unit, the 23rd/21st Battalion. At the same time, many of the division's experienced officers and non commissioned officers were transferred out to Militia units in order to prepare them for operations against the Japanese. The 6th Division headquarters was subsequently used to form Headquarters, Northern Territory Force in April, and does not appear to have officially been reformed in its own right until August or September. In June, one the division's artillery regiments, the 2/3rd was transferred to the 5th Division. Having spent nearly six months in Ceylon, the 16th and 17th Brigades arrived back in Australia in August and they subsequently returned to their states of origin. After a brief period of leave, welcome home parades were held in Sydney for the 16th and in Melbourne for the 17th. Less than a week later, the 6th Division received orders to deploy overseas again, this time to meet the Japanese southward thrust through New Guinea. After this, the division would spend the remainder of the war fighting elements of the Japanese XVII Army in New Guinea and until the final year of the war, it would do so in individual brigade-level components, rather than as a unified command. #### Kokoda to Buna–Gona In mid-September 1942, the 16th Brigade, under the command of Brigadier John Lloyd, and other elements of the division were sent to New Guinea to reinforce and relieve the Militia 30th Brigade and the 7th Division units that had been fighting a desperate holding action on the Kokoda Track since July. The campaign to that point had consisted of a series of battles fought along the track after the Japanese had landed around Buna and pushed south towards Port Moresby, but were checked at Ioribaiwa. The divisional headquarters opened at Port Moresby on 19 September and the 16th Brigade arrived three days later; the 17th Brigade was sent to Milne Bay, to relieve the 18th Brigade following the successful defensive action they had fought earlier in the month. As the Japanese, having reached the extent of their supply lines, began to withdraw from Ioribaiwa, the Australians went on the offensive, pursuing them back north towards Buna. On 17 October, the 16th Brigade was detached to the 7th Division's command and moved up the track. It subsequently took over the advance from the exhausted troops of the 25th Brigade three days later. The Japanese had established themselves in strong positions on the high ground north of Eora Creek. For the next week-and-a-half, the brigade fought desperately against the terrain, driving rain, and cold, inhospitable conditions to outflank these positions. Making heavy work of it against strong resistance, the Australians slowly made headway, but the Japanese remained in possession of the citadel. Finally, on 28 October when the 2/3rd Infantry Battalion took the Japanese right flank, killing 50 and forcing the remaining defenders into a headlong retreat. In securing the crossing, the brigade had suffered almost 300 casualties. Suffering from disease and with rations running low, the brigade continued along the eastern fork of the track. Amidst almost no opposition, they took Missima and passed through Kobara before setting out for Wairopi by 4 November. Heavy resistance was encountered that day as the 2/2nd Infantry Battalion advanced towards the high ground around Oivi. They were held up for a number of days until outflanking moves by the 2/1st Infantry Battalion, temporarily detached to the 25th Brigade, pushed the Japanese back and enabled the brigade to continue its advance. Gorari was taken and by mid-November the brigade, having suffered 471 battle casualties since the being committed to the fighting around Kokoda, finally reached Wairopi, where the swollen Kumusi River was forded. After crossing the Kumusi, the 16th Brigade was ordered to move towards Sanananda Point to support the joint Australian–US effort to attack the Japanese beachheads around the Buna–Gona area. The ration situation had grown worse by this time, and progress was slow as the march proved too difficult for many of the soldiers in their weakened physical states. Nevertheless, by 18 November, the 2/2nd Infantry Battalion had led the brigade into Popondetta, after which the 2/3rd moved into the vanguard. For the next two days they experienced almost no opposition until 21 November when Japanese artillery began to target the 2/1st. Launching a quick attack with three companies, the 2/1st outflanked the Japanese gun pit with two companies while the third provided support-by-fire. In the rout that followed over 80 Japanese were killed. By nightfall, the 2/1st, which had dug-in and subsequently fought off a number of Japanese counterattacks, was relieved from the forward position just a few kilometres from the coast. The brigade had been severely depleted in reaching the position and at that point had only 1,040 fit men, so they were ordered to hold their position along the front to provide cover to troops of the US 126th Infantry Regiment, which was slowly moving towards the Soputa–Sanananda–Cape Killerton track junction. On 23 November, the 16th Brigade finally received artillery support, after a battery from the 2/1st Field Regiment was flown into the hastily established airfield at Popondetta and began firing upon Sananada. The inexperienced American regiment made very slow progress and as a result, the 16th Brigade held their position until 6 December, when they were progressively relieved by troops from the 30th Brigade, having suffered over 85 per cent casualties. The 2/3rd Infantry Battalion was the last out, being withdrawn on the night of 19/20 December. Meanwhile, a small element of the division remained in action until Sanananda fell in late January 1943. The 2/1st Field Regiment's detachment at Popondetta was expanded to a full troop of four guns, while another troop was sent to support the US forces around Buna and a third force was sent to Oro Bay. In addition to these artillery assets, in October a small group of five Bren carriers from the 17th Brigade's carrier platoon had been sent from Milne Bay to support the General Robert Eichelberger's 32nd Division. With crews drawn mainly from the 2/7th Infantry Battalion and one from the 2/5th, they were thrown into action around Buna on 5 December to support a major assault and, despite making some headway against the heavily entrenched Japanese, were wiped out with heavy casualties. During the 6th Division's involvement in the campaign, it lost 207 killed and 397 wounded. #### Wau–Salamaua As the 16th Brigade's involvement in its first New Guinea campaign was being fought to a successful conclusion around the beachheads between Buna and Gona, the 17th Brigade was preparing for its first encounter with the Japanese. Shortly after the Japanese landings around Salamaua and Lae in March 1942 a small band of commandos known as "Kanga Force" had established themselves around Wau and in May commenced a seven-month guerilla campaign in the area. In early January 1943, the Japanese heavily reinforced the Salamaua–Lae area, moving 4,000 troops from both Guadalcanal and Papua where they had suffered setbacks, in the hope of destroying Kanga Force, capturing the Wau, which lay in the strategically important Bulolo Valley, which offered the Allies an airstrip that could serve as a "potential springboard" that could be used to move large concentrations of troops over the Owen Stanley Range to attack the Japanese bases at Salamaua and Lae. Throughout the fighting around Kokoda and Buna–Gona, the 17th Brigade, under the command of Brigadier Murray Moten, had been kept back at Milne Bay by Australian commanders with the intention of keeping them fresh to reinforce the garrison at Wau. While at Milne Bay, the brigade had been significantly reduced by sickness, specifically malaria; however, in response to the arrival of Japanese reinforcements at Lae, the 17th Brigade was relieved at Milne Bay by the 29th Brigade and, after being shipped to Port Moresby, on 14 January, one company of the 2/6th Infantry Battalion, representing the brigade's advanced elements, was flown into Wau on six US C-47 Dakotas. Upon arrival, the company – 'B' Company – began moving towards Mubo, where they were to link up with the commandos there and establish themselves to defend the Bulolo Valley. Amidst difficult flying conditions and limited resources, the arrival of the rest of the battalion took place over the following four days, while the rest of the brigade was also delayed. On 20 January the Japanese began moving small groups towards Mubo with the intention of taking Wau, and in response the 2/5th Infantry Battalion was dispatched on 24 January, arriving over the course of the next three days. On the morning of 28 January, at Wandumi, the main Japanese thrust fell upon the 70-man strong 'A' Company, 2/6th Infantry Battalion. Throughout the day the company fought desperately to hold the Japanese while reinforcements from the 2/5th were brought up from Wau; in the mid-afternoon, as it looked like they would be overrun, a desperate bayonet charge temporarily bought the Australians some relief and they eventually withdrew about a mile to the south-west, back towards the Bulolo River where they formed a night defensive position, having successfully delayed the Japanese advance and inflicted over 75 killed upon them. Throughout the following day, as poor weather hampered efforts to fly in the 2/7th Infantry Battalion, a large group of about 500 Japanese bypassed 'A' Company's position and continued on towards Wau. In response two companies of the 2/5th were moved to the airstrip, reaching there early on 29 January just before Japanese mortars began firing on it. By mid-morning, however, the weather cleared and Allied aircraft soon began arriving at the airfield, disgorging men from the 2/7th who were quickly thrown into the line. That night several counterattacks were fought off and the following day, as a section of guns from the 2/1st Field Regiment arrived, the 17th Brigade went on the offensive. A company of machine guns from the 7th Machine Gun Battalion was also flown in. By 5 February the Japanese began withdrawing from the area. Significant fighting occurred on 9 February, and over the course of the next three weeks further clashes took place as the Australians followed up the retreating Japanese. The last actions came around Buibaining and Waipali and by 26 February the withdrawal was complete with the Japanese establishing themselves around Guadagasal and Mubo. Following this, the 17th Brigade advanced towards Guadagasal, but after supply problems ground this to a halt, throughout March and April a series of patrols were sent out towards Mubo. By late April the brigade was detached to the 3rd Division, a primarily Militia formation, which took up the task of defending Wau. Throughout this time, engineers from the 6th Division, including the 2/1st Field Company, would to improve supply lines throughout the area, cutting a road to Wau. The 2/2nd Field Ambulance also provided support to the brigade's operations, establishing medical services close to the Australian forward areas. Between 22 April and 29 May 1943, the 2/7th Infantry Battalion, at the end of a long and tenuous supply line, unsuccessfully attacked the southern extremity of Japanese lines, the Mubo area, at features known to the Allies as "The Pimple" and "Green Hill", north of Lababia Ridge. In early May, over the course of two days, the 2/7th repelled eight strong Japanese counterattacks, before being relieved. At the same time, the Allies began planning wider operations to capture Lae. As a part of this, Salamaua was also to be taken. Initially, the 3rd Division was to secure Nassau Bay and the 17th Brigade was to capture Mubo and push north towards Mount Tambu to secure Komiatum. Moving over steep, muddy ridges amidst dense, fetid jungle terrain the 2/7th found the going tough and by late May the 2/6th took over the drive towards Nassau Bay. Feeling their way from Lababia Ridge they located a traversable path through the jungle towards the coast but on 20 June, 'D' Company came under heavy attack from two Japanese battalions from the 66th Regiment, amounting to 1,500 men, and for three days intense fighting followed before the Japanese were successfully beaten back. The Australians relied on well-established and linked defensive positions, featuring extensive, cleared free-fire zones. The battle was later described as one of the Australian Army's "classic engagements" of World War II. By the end of the month the 2/6th had reached Nassau Bay where it secured landing beaches for an amphibious landing by US troops from the 162nd Regimental Combat Team. Once established, the 2/6th then led the way back west towards Bitoi Ridge, ranging ahead of the Americans as the Allies began to encircle Mubo. In early July, the 2/7th attacked Observation Hill and as the Japanese began to withdraw from Mubo, the 2/5th was sent north to act in support of the newly arrived Militia 15th Brigade, which was moving on Bobdubi Ridge. In mid-July, amidst heavy close-quarters fighting, the 2/5th Infantry Battalion captured the southern parts of Mount Tambu. Throughout late July a situation of stalemate developed on Mount Tambu, which held up the Australian advance. As a result, Moten decided to bypass it in early August, sending the 2/6th Battalion north-west towards Komiatum. A path was eventually found and after securing Laver's Knoll, the Australians began working around behind Mount Tambu, towards the northern end of Bobdubi Ridge. The 2/7th was heavily involved with the 15th Brigade at this time, fighting to take a position known as "The Coconuts". Finally, as the noose around Mount Tambu tightened, the Japanese abandoned it on 19 August. The 17th Brigade's advance continued for the next two days until, when the brigade had reached the final ridge before Salamaua, the 29th Brigade arrived to take over. The 2/7th Infantry Battalion, however, still detached to the 15th Brigade, continued on with them and as a result remained in the thick of it until the end when Salamaua fell on 20 September. Meanwhile, the rest of the 17th Brigade was on its way back to Australia and by mid-September, it arrived on the Atherton Tablelands in Queensland where it was once again was placed under the 6th Division's command. The Wau–Salamaua campaign cost the 6th Division 240 killed and 520 wounded. A long period of waiting and training followed. Throughout 1943–44, the division was re-organised under the jungle divisional establishment. This saw a reduction in the division's artillery, vehicles, equipment and manning, with divisional strength falling from around 18,000 men to about 16,000. The division also lost many of its experienced personnel during this time as they were promoted and moved on to other formations; although it also received reinforcements from the disbanded 30th Brigade. The division's next deployment would not come until November 1944 when they were committed to the Aitape–Wewak campaign. Once again they would be unified as a full division, with several units that had previously been detached, including the 2/3rd Field Regiment and the 19th Brigade, rejoining the division. #### Aitape–Wewak campaign The Japanese had occupied the Aitape–Wewak area in northern New Guinea in 1942 and had held it until April 1944 when the Americans had undertaken an amphibious landing around Aitape. Later in the year, responsibility for clearing the remaining Japanese troops from the area was passed to the Australians as the US sought to reallocate its troops towards retaking the Philippines. From early October, the 6th Division began to take over from US troops, with the first unit to arrive being the 2/6th Cavalry Commando Regiment, which had been formed in early 1943 when the division's cavalry regiment had been converted into a headquarters formation for three commando squadrons: the 2/7th, 2/9th and 2/10th. The 2/3rd Machine Gun Battalion was also assigned as a corps unit for the campaign. As a result of shortages in available shipping, the rest of the division arrived slowly over the course of a couple of months. Starting in December, the division commenced a limited offensive, advancing towards the main Japanese base at Wewak along the coast and through the Torricelli Mountains to Maprik, which the Japanese had been using for sustainment, having established a number of gardens there. With the 19th Brigade and the 2/7th Commando Squadron leading off along the coast route in December and the 17th Brigade with the 2/10th moving into the Torricellis, a series of small-scale actions followed. In mid-January, the 19th Brigade was relieved by the 16th and the 2/9th Commando Squadron, which continued the drive along the coast, while in the Torricellis, the 17th Brigade's infantry battalions took turns leading the way with the commandos. The closed terrain hindered the movement of supplies from the rear areas and consequently the Australians made slow progress. The dense jungle also limited the size of the forces that could be deployed, with the largest formations being sent out by the division being limited to company size at this time. Isolated pockets of Japanese offered significant resistance in places, which had to be overcome with artillery, air and tank support, while daily patrols risked ambush and attacks from snipers. The elements also posed a significant threat to the Australians, with many men drowning when they attempted to cross the flood-swollen rivers. Nevertheless, Maprik was taken on 23 April, as was Wewak, which fell on 11 May. Operations in the area continued through to the end of the war as the Australians exploited south from Maprik towards Nungagua, and east towards Kiarivu; after taking Wewak, the coastal route was expanded east towards the Brandi Plantation, while patrols ranged inland towards Sauri and Mount Shiburangu. During the campaign, two members of the division performed actions for which they were later awarded the Victoria Cross, the Commonwealth's highest gallantry decoration. The first of these was awarded posthumously to Lieutenant Albert Chowne of the 2/2nd Infantry Battalion for his courage and leadership while commanding a platoon on 25 March around Dagua. The second went to Private Edward Kenna, of the 2/4th Infantry Battalion, for destroying several Japanese bunkers that were holding up his company's advance around the Wirui Mission. The campaign was also significant for the distance that the division travelled. After landing, they traversed over 70 kilometres (43 mi) inland and 110 kilometres (68 mi) along the coast. In doing so the 6th Division captured 7,700 square kilometres (3,000 sq mi). Over 9,000 Japanese were killed and 264 captured. Against this the division suffered its highest casualties of the war, losing 442 killed, 1,141 wounded and over 16,000 men being hospitalised with sickness. ### Disbandment On 13 September, the division took the formal surrender of the XVII Army's commander, Lieutenant General Hatazō Adachi, at Cape Wom airstrip. After this, the division remained in New Guinea as its constituent units were slowly demobilised. As transport shortages delayed the process, the division was employed on garrison duties and aiding war crimes investigations. Finally, by November 1945, most of the 6th Division's units had returned to Australia and the division was formally disbanded; the majority of the division's infantry battalions were disbanded shortly afterwards in the early months of 1946. During its six-year existence, a total of about 40,000 men served in the division's ranks. Of these, 1,763 were killed in action or died, a further 3,978 were wounded and a total of 5,153 men became prisoners of war. ## Structure The 6th Division's structure changed considerably during its existence with units being detached or attached to meet operational needs. This was particularly so during early 1942 and late 1943. Below is a divisional order of battle that is indicative of its generic make up. In addition to those listed, during 1942–43, the 14th, 21st, 25th and 30th Brigades were also attached, albeit temporarily for varying periods. - Infantry units (and state of origin) - 16th Australian Infantry Brigade, New South Wales - 2/1st Australian Infantry Battalion - 2/2nd Australian Infantry Battalion - 2/3rd Australian Infantry Battalion - 2/4th Australian Infantry Battalion (to 19th Brigade in 1940) - 17th Australian Infantry Brigade, Victoria - 2/5th Australian Infantry Battalion - 2/6th Australian Infantry Battalion - 2/7th Australian Infantry Battalion - 2/8th Australian Infantry Battalion (to 19th Brigade in 1940) - 18th Australian Infantry Brigade (to 7th Division in 1940) - 19th Australian Infantry Brigade (formed from other 6th Division brigades, 1940) - 2/4th Australian Infantry Battalion, New South Wales - 2/8th Australian Infantry Battalion, Victoria - 2/11th Australian Infantry Battalion, Western Australia - Armoured regiments - 6th Australian Divisional Cavalry (later became 2/6th Cavalry Commando Regiment) - Artillery regiments - 2/1st Field Regiment, Royal Australian Artillery (RAA), New South Wales - 2/2nd Field Regiment, (RAA), Victoria - 2/3rd Field Regiment, (RAA), New South Wales, Northern Territory, South Australia and Western Australia - 2/5th Field Regiment, (RAA), Queensland and Tasmania. (Became 2/1st Anti-Tank Regiment, 1940). - Engineer companies - 2/1st Field Company, Royal Australian Engineers (RAE), New South Wales. - 2/2nd Field Company, (RAE), Victoria - 2/3rd Field Company, (RAE), South Australia, Tasmania and Western Australia. - 2/8th Field Company (RAE), Victoria - 2/1st Field Park Company, (RAE), Queensland. - Other units - 2/1st Australian Machine-Gun Regiment - 2/1st Australian Pioneer Battalion - 2/1st Field Ambulance - 2/2nd Field Ambulance - 2/7th Field Ambulance - 6th Division Signals - 6th Division Australian Army Service Corps - Light Aid Detachments - 2/1st Army Field Workshops - 6th Division Provost Company - 6th Division Postal Unit - 6th Division Salvage Unit - 6th Division Field Cash Office ## Commanders The following officers served as divisional commander: - Lieutenant General Thomas Blamey (13 October 1939 – 3 April 1940); - Major General Iven Mackay (4 April 1940 – 13 August 1941); - Major General Edmund Herring (14 August 1941 – 30 April 1942); - Major General Allan Boase (1 May 1942 – 13 September 1942); - Major General George Vasey (14 September 1942 – 14 March 1943); - Major General Jack Stevens (15 March 1943 – 26 July 1945); and - Major General Horace Robertson (26 July 1945 – 30 November 1945).
43,500,255	Typhoon Sally (1964)	1,172,020,437	Pacific typhoon in 1964	[ "1964 Pacific typhoon season", "Typhoons", "Typhoons in China", "Typhoons in Hong Kong", "Typhoons in South Korea", "Typhoons in the Philippines" ]	Typhoon Sally, known in the Philippines as Typhoon Aring, was a powerful tropical cyclone that brought widespread impacts during its week-long trek across the western Pacific in September 1964. The strongest tropical cyclone of the 1964 Pacific typhoon season and one of the most intense tropical cyclones on record, and among the strongest typhoons ever recorded, with one-minute maximum sustained winds of 315 km/h (196 mph) as estimated by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center. Sally first became a tropical cyclone near the Marshall Islands on September 3, organizing into a tropical depression and then a tropical storm later that day. On September 4, Sally intensified into a typhoon and struck southern Guam the next day. Widespread agricultural damage occurred in the island's southern regions, with the banana crop suffering the costliest losses; the damage toll from crops and property exceeded \$115,000. Sally continued to intensify on its west-northwestward trek, and reached its peak strength on September 7 over the Philippine Sea. Sally's winds lessened thereafter as it brushed the northern Philippines, buffeting areas north of Manila with strong winds and heavy rain and causing serious damage. A person drowned from the typhoon's onslaught, while the naval station at San Vicente and the adjoining village sustained an estimated \$500,000 in damage. After crossing the South China Sea, Sally made landfall on the South China coast east of Hong Kong on September 10. Due to fears of a repeat of Typhoon Ruby, which struck the region less than a week prior, 10,000 people were evacuated ahead of the storm. Sally produced wind gusts as strong as 154 km/h (96 mph) and dropped torrential rain that damaged homes and crops and induced one landslide that killed nine people. However, the overall impacts in Hong Kong were less than forecast. Sally weakened as it moved into inland China and dissipated on September 11. The remnants of Sally moved northeast and contributed to severe flooding around Seoul, South Korea, leaving 211 people dead or missing and 317 people injured, though 206 people remain unaccounted for. Over 36,000 people were left homeless as over 9,000 homes were either destroyed or flooded, resulting in \$750,000 in property damage. The floods were the region's most significant in two decades. ## Meteorological history The origins of Sally can be traced to the interaction of a trough of low pressure with a westward-propagating tropical wave. This led to the development of a vortex over the Marshall Islands on September 2. The next day, observations from ships in the region indicated that the system organized into a tropical depression approximately 240 km (150 mi) southwest of Eniwetok Atoll. Aircraft reconnaissance investigating the nascent cyclone later that day determined that Sally reached tropical storm strength while located roughly 320 km (200 mi) northeast of Chuuk State. During this time, Sally took a west-northwest course that would continue for the remainder of its duration. The storm intensified into a typhoon early on September 4. The next day, the center of Sally moved across southern Guam with a forward speed of 37 km/h (23 mph); one-minute maximum sustained winds near the center were estimated by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) to have reached 155 km/h (96 mph) during its passage of Guam. Sally strengthened further as it traversed the Philippine Sea, and at 06:00 UTC on September 7, the JTWC analyzed Sally's one-minute sustained winds to have reached 315 km/h (196 mph); surface winds as fast as 370 km/h (230 mph) were estimated by aircraft reconnaissance probing the typhoon. The Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) estimated that Sally's central barometric pressure decreased to 895 hPa (mbar; 26.43 inHg). This made Sally the strongest typhoon of the 1964 Pacific typhoon season as measured by both wind speed (tied with Opal) and central pressure. These winds were also among the fastest ever analyzed for a tropical cyclone globally. The center of Sally then moved near the northern Philippines, passing 40 km (25 mi) north of Aparri on September 9. The JTWC estimated that Sally's one-minute sustained winds decreased during this period, and continued to diminish further as the typhoon tracked across the South China Sea. At 15:00 UTC on September 10, Sally made landfall on the People's Republic of China east of Hong Kong with one-minute sustained winds of 155 km/h (96 mph). After moving inland, the system rapidly weakened, degenerating into a tropical storm later on September 10 and losing its identity as a tropical cyclone the following day over South China. The remnants of Sally continued towards South Korea and Japan before they were last noted on September 16 over southern Kamchatka. ## Preparations and impact ### Guam and the Philippines On September 4, Sally was forecast by the JTWC to bring heavy surf and sustained winds of 75–85 km/h (47–53 mph) to Guam, accompanied by higher gusts. Sally was ultimately stronger and closer to Guam than forecast, crossing over southern Guam as a developing typhoon on September 5 and producing damaging winds. While the highest observed wind gust reached 100 km/h (62 mph) at Andersen Air Force Base, higher gusts up to 130 km/h (81 mph) were estimated to have buffeted Guam. Gale-force winds lasted for eight hours. A maximum 24-hour rainfall total of 53 mm (2.1 in) accompanied the storm. Over 1,000 people sought refuge at the College of Guam, and others took shelter in other sturdy buildings. Numerous trees were downed and homes were unroofed by the typhoon. Downed trees and other debris blocked roads, rendering them impassable. The island's southern districts sustained the heaviest impacts from Sally; 18 structures in those areas were damaged, with the impacts most evident to their roofs. The majority of the monetary losses caused by Sally on the island was sustained by crops: agricultural damage was estimated at \$105,440, with \$92,398 sustained by the banana crop. Damage to residential and commercial buildings was estimated at \$9,680, resulting in a total damage toll of about \$115,000, mostly were to farm crops. Storm surge along Talofofo Bay led to coastal inundation; eight homes suffered roof damage there. Damage was also documented in Agat, Inarajan, Merizo, and Umatac. Power outages occurred in those villages in addition to Talofofo and Santa Rita. Sally's impacts in Guam were negligible outside of the southern regions of the island, and in total there were no casualties. Sally was one of the strongest to approach the Philippines on record. The west-northwestward trajectory of Sally threatened the northern Philippines, leading to the issuance of warnings for the region by the Philippine Weather Bureau on September 7. Typhoon signal no. 2, signifying winds up to 114 km/h (71 mph) within 24 hours, was issued for the Batanes Islands. The storm brought strong winds and heavy rains to areas north of Manila, resulting in substantial crop and property damage. The United States Agency for International Development described Sally as having done "considerable damage" in northern Luzon, but could not assess the total number of casualties. The naval station at San Vicente and the adjoining village sustained an estimated \$500,000 in damage; one person drowned and two thousand others were left in need of food and clothing. ### Hong Kong and Taiwan The outer reaches of Sally brought high winds to southern Taiwan but were inconsequential. Following Typhoon Ruby's impacts in Hong Kong earlier in September, 3,400 workers were enlisted to clear the colony's drainage systems in preparation for Sally. While the center of the storm was forecast to miss Hong Kong, Sally's peripheral winds were expected to be comparable to Ruby's. A spokesperson for the Royal Observatory in Hong Kong called Sally "the biggest [typhoon] in living memory" while the storm was centered 275 km (171 mi) to the southeast. The Hong Kong government noted that cranes, fences, scaffolding, and signboards loosened in Ruby's passage became hazardous with Sally's potential impacts. Ships were brought to protected moorings at the harbor in Hong Kong after the issuance of the first tropical cyclone signals for Sally's approach, leaving the harbor devoid of any vessels; two ships evacuated to open sea to ride out the storm there. Businesses closed and bus and ferry service saw suspensions. Some airlines also canceled their fights. Over 10,000 people were evacuated out of vulnerable areas. Radio broadcasts called upon residents to head home and remain home while Sally passed. Riot police were deployed for crowd control as people began to flee Hong Kong's islands for the mainland en masse. The Hong Kong Red Cross started a blood donation drive in downtown Hong Kong, offering free beer and cigarettes to donors. Sixteen first aid centers were also established throughout Hong Kong. Sally was the fourth typhoon to impact the Hong Kong area in 1964, though its effects were less severe than initially feared. Thirty people were injured in Hong Kong. The outer extents of Sally began affecting the territory before the storm's closest approach, with the outer winds triggering landslides and depositing trees, glass, and other debris on streets. One person sustained a fractured skull after being struck by a falling iron rod. During its closest approach, the center of Sally was 55 km (34 mi) northeast of Hong Kong. The Royal Observatory escalated their warnings up to tropical cyclone signal no. 7 and recorded a peak gust of 104 km/h (65 mph) at their headquarters. The strongest gust measured in Hong Kong reached 154 km/h (96 mph) as registered at Tate's Cairn. Gusts reached 107 km/h (66 mph) at Kai Tak Airport. Sally produced up to 354.4 mm (13.95 in) of rain in Hong Kong with over 175 mm (6.9 in) falling in 12 hours; landslides triggered by these rains killed 9 people and injured 24, in addition to causing the collapse of houses. Other landslides marooned people in their homes and blocked streets. Severe flooding occurred throughout Hong Kong. Cattle and crop industries were impacted by the storm, though the overall damage was minimized by Typhoon Ruby's agricultural impacts less than week prior. A few hundred chickens were killed by Sally. At Tai Po, the storm caused tides to rise 1.1 m (3.6 ft) above astronomical tide. Eight boats were damaged at Ko Lau Wan and Sha Tau Kok; additional locales in Hong Kong also reported damage to fishing craft, leading to the colonial government granting HK\$10,031 in repairs. ### South Korea The remnants of Sally produced the heaviest rainfall in the Seoul area in 22 years, with 125–200 mm (4.9–7.9 in) of rain falling in the area in two hours on the morning of September 13. At least 211 people were killed and 317 people were injured according to local police; another 206 people were unaccounted for. The high death toll was compounded by the storm's passage at night when most people were asleep. The combination of flash floods and landslides in central South Korea destroyed and flooded 9,152 homes, displacing 36,665 people. Bridges, highways, railroads, and rice paddies were seriously damaged. Total property damage amounted to \$750,000. Hardest-hit was Gyeonggi Province, where 72 people died and 115 people went missing. There were 26 confirmed fatalities in Gangwon Province. In Seoul, there were at least 70 fatalities. Almost 2,800 houses were destroyed or inundated around the city. Seoul's power and telephone services were also hampered by the storm. Railways between Seoul and eastern South Korea were cut off by landslides and washouts. A village north of Seoul was completely flooded after a river overflowed its banks; all 96 inhabitants of the village were declared missing, though 10 bodies were later recovered. Fifty homes were buried by a landslide 55 km (34 mi) northeast of Seoul, killing 21 people. The State Council of South Korea convened in an emergency session on September 14 in response to the floods. Park Chung-hee, the President of South Korea, initiated "emergency relief measures" for those affected by the storms. Food and bedding were provisioned by the Korean government through an assistance program for affected areas. Chung-hee also ordered soldiers deployed in Seoul to handle rescue operations; they were also joined by soldiers from the United States Army. Helicopters from the U.S. Army evacuated at least 50 flood-stricken people from the suburbs of Seoul. ## See also - Typhoon Mangkhut (2018) - Typhoon Viola (1969) - Typhoon Rita (1953) - Typhoon Kent (1995)
5,553,131	Chicago bid for the 2016 Summer Olympics	1,169,209,364	Bid for the 2016 Summer Olympics	[ "2016 Summer Olympics bids", "Richard M. Daley", "Sports in Chicago", "Summer Olympics bids of the United States" ]	The Chicago bid for the 2016 Summer Olympics and Paralympics was an unsuccessful bid, first recognized by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) on September 14, 2007. The IOC shortlisted four of the seven applicant cities—Madrid, Spain; Tokyo, Japan; Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; and Chicago, United States; over Baku, Azerbaijan; Doha, Qatar; and Prague, Czech Republic—on June 4, 2008, during a meeting in Athens, Greece. This was followed by an intensive bidding process which finished with the election of Rio de Janeiro at the 121st IOC Session in Copenhagen, Denmark, on October 2, 2009. In Chicago's bid, the games would have been held from July 22 to August 7, with the Paralympics held between August 12 and 28. The bid plan emphasized use of Chicago Park District parks to host the games, but other existing facilities such as Soldier Field and McCormick Place would have hosted events. The bid included a plan for North Side, Downtown Loop and South Side celebration locations that would have had high-definition LED screens for unticketed visitors. The bid noted that there was a very high concentration of event locations and training facilities close to each other and that the majority of event sites were clustered together. Thus, the vast majority of athletes would have been close to their competitions. Chicago earned a general score of 7.0 during the Applicant phase, after a detailed study of the Applicant Files received by the IOC Working Group on January 14, 2008. Between April 4 and 7, 2009, the IOC Evaluation Commission, led by Nawal El Moutawakel, arrived in Chicago to assess the conditions of the city. The Commission attended technical presentations, participated in question-and-answer sessions about the Candidature File, and made inspections in all the existing venues across the city. Though considered a favorite entering the voting process, and despite personal appeals from such high-profile Chicagoans as U.S. President Barack Obama, Michelle Obama, and Oprah Winfrey, the bid faced considerable organized grassroots opposition, including from the coalitions No Games Chicago and the Unlympics Organizing Committee. Opponents cited the history of cost overruns pervasive to Olympic bids in a time of considerable public debt and the sentiment that funds for the Olympics should instead fund public schools and public clinics. Surveys of Chicagoans in the run-up to the bid saw support for the bid fall below 50%, and Chicago was eliminated on the first ballot in IOC voting on October 2, 2009, with 18 votes in a three-round exhaustive ballot of the IOC. On October 2, 2009, Chicago was knocked out in the first round of voting, and the Olympics went to Rio de Janeiro, despite some high-profile backers, such as US President Barack Obama and Chicago-based television hostess Oprah Winfrey, going to Copenhagen to support the bid. Seven years later, the 2016 state-funded Olympics in Rio proved to be a financial disaster, and many argued that privately-funded games in Chicago, where most of the venues were existing or temporary ones, would have fared far better. The United States Olympic Committee (USOC) selected Chicago over Houston, Los Angeles, Philadelphia and San Francisco as its candidate city to host the 2016 Summer Olympics and 2016 Summer Paralympics on April 14, 2007. This is the city's third failure, after two failed attempts for the 1952 and the 1956 Summer Olympics (and fourth overall attempt, as Chicago won the 1904 Olympics, but they were moved to St Louis as the World's Fair was there and threatened to host a competing competition if the Olympics were not moved). Olympic Games in North America, including the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, hurt Chicago's bid. It would have been the ninth Olympics hosted in the United States, after the 1904, 1932, 1984 and 1996 Summer Olympics; and the 1932, 1960, 1980 and 2002 Winter Olympics. After Chicago's failure, the United States will not host the Olympics until the 2028 Summer Games when Los Angeles hosts the Summer Olympics for the third time. ## USOC city selection Initially, five American cities vied for the 2016 Olympics: Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, Philadelphia, and San Francisco. The USOC's chairman at the time, Peter Ueberroth, visited all potential host cities during April and May 2006. He visited Chicago on May 10. On July 26, 2006, the United States Olympic Committee (USOC) narrowed its list of American applicant cities to three: Chicago, Los Angeles and San Francisco. San Francisco withdrew its application on November 13, 2006 after the San Francisco 49ers pulled out of a deal for the construction of a new stadium that would be the centerpiece of the games. The final stage of the USOC internal selection occurred on April 14, 2007, at Washington, D.C.'s Embassy Row Hotel, where the two remaining bid cities, Chicago and Los Angeles, made a last 40-minute presentation to the USOC board members. At about 21:00 UTC, Chicago was announced as the winner of the United States bid for the 2016 Summer Olympics by Ueberroth. ## Bid details Chicago has had prior experience with Olympic bids. In 1901, the city was unanimously chosen by the IOC to stage the 1904 Summer Olympics, but the Games were moved to St. Louis to coincide with the 1904 World's Fair. Chicago also bid for the 1952 and 1956 Summer Olympics, without success. Mayor of Chicago Richard M. Daley visited Beijing – host city of the 2008 Summer Olympics – on May 15, 2006, where he collected information on hosting. The bidding process for the 2016 Summer Olympics was officially launched on May 16, 2007. In June 2007, Olympic bid committee Chairman and CEO, Patrick G. Ryan announced that David P. Bolger was appointed chief operating officer and Rick Ludwig as chief financial officer. The Chicago 2016 Olympic bid committee announced the details of the Olympic bid application on January 15, 2008. 22 of the 27 Olympic venues will be in four clusters within 15 km of the Olympic Village. Five new venues and eleven temporary venues would have been built for the games at a cost of \$49.3 million; these construction costs, and the costs of the games were to be borne by the private sector, with the government financing the infrastructure. The bid committee filed a 600-page candidacy file with the IOC in Lausanne, Switzerland on February 12, 2009. The file responded to 227 questions given to each candidate city. On February 13, the candidacy file with the final version of Chicago's 2016 Olympic plan was publicly released. Chicago's bid was supported by major preliminary corporate commitments, philanthropic efforts by wealthy Chicagoans, promised planning participation by a wide range of community and government leaders, and the enthusiasm of the citizenry. Local support for the bid on the South Side, particularly in the Washington Park and Woodlawn community areas, was divided. Ben Joravsky, a Chicago Reader columnist, was one of the strongest critics of the Chicago 2016 bid. However, 2007 opinion polls indicated 76 percent public support. In 2009, as the final selection approached, opponents of the bid became vocal even though organizers seemed to be pleased with the bid's progress and presentation. Peter Ueberroth stated, "Chicago is going in the right direction, and we are impressed by that." Long-time Chicago resident and then current President of the United States Barack Obama was a supporter of Chicago's bid since its inception and noted his support during his Presidential election victory speech in Grant Park. President Barack Obama and First Lady Michelle Obama traveled to Denmark to support Chicago's bid for the 2016 Summer Olympics. Michael Jordan was an unofficial spokesman for Chicago's bid. Chicago media mogul Oprah Winfrey and Olympic champion Michael Phelps had been widely promoting the bid since the 2008 Summer Olympics. The bid plan emphasized use of Chicago Park District parks (Washington Park, Burnham Park, Lincoln Park, Douglass Park and Grant Park). In addition, existing facilities such as Soldier Field and McCormick Place would have hosted events. In addition to the event sites, the bid included North side, downtown Loop and South Side celebration locations in Lincoln and Grant Parks as well as the Midway Plaisance respectively that would have had JumboTrons for unticketed visitors. The bid noted the high concentration of event locations; the majority of event sites would have been clustered together. ### Financing Ueberroth and members of the national committee met with Daley on May 10, 2006, for the initial assessment. Daley appointed business executive Patrick G. Ryan of Aon Corporation, part-owner of the Chicago Bears, to lead the city's bid process, especially in areas of corporate participation in fundraising. Mayor Daley said on May 10, 2006 that the Olympics "cannot become a financial burden to the taxpayers of Chicago and Illinois." "The goal is to have the Olympics be totally privately funded and we have unparalleled support from the business community," a mayoral spokeswoman said in July 2006. Daley insisted that no tax money would be used to pay for the city to host the 2016 Summer Olympics and said funding from the private sector and federal dollars for security and infrastructure would cover the costs. "Tax money isn't paying for it," Daley said on February 7, 2009. "The federal government pays for security, which is the highest cost of the Olympics ... The other thing they pay for is infrastructure ... There's no city tax money whatsoever ... We are very strong in that position ... in the regard to having that be sponsored by the private sector and others." In previous years, Daley opposed possible bids for the 2008 and 2012 Summer Olympics owing to former international committee financial-guarantee requirements. The 2016 financial guarantee requirements were not initially formalized. Early cost estimates hovered at \$5 billion, with \$1.1 billion for the lakeside Olympic Village and an additional estimated \$366 million for a temporary 80,000 seat Olympic Stadium to be built in Washington Park. Nonetheless, the proposed budget was small in comparison to the Beijing Olympics, which are estimated to have cost \$40 billion. Further, the 2004 Athens Summer Olympics, initially budgeted to cost \$2.4 billion, in fact cost \$9 billion. On April 11, 2007, former Governor of Illinois Rod Blagojevich proposed \$150 million in state funding to help secure the bid to the USOC for Chicago. Then current Governor Pat Quinn stated that he would be willing to support any funding necessary to secure the Olympics for Chicago. By April 14, over \$35 million in cash and \$13 million in goods had been pledged, including donations in excess of \$100,000 from at least 225 individuals and corporations. Chicago had strong allies to pursue federal funds for security and transportation: U.S. Senator Dick Durbin was the second in command among Democratic Senators as the Whip, and former Senator Barack Obama had become the President of the United States. The city announced a \$500 million insurance policy against cost overruns and revenue shortfalls. ### Venues Despite the lack of an Olympic stadium, Chicago has dozens of existing sport venues: Soldier Field, United Center, U.S. Cellular Field, Wrigley Field, Allstate Arena in Rosemont, Sears Centre in Hoffman Estates, and SeatGeek Stadium in Bridgeview. Venues at Loyola University Chicago, Northwestern University, the University of Chicago, the University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago State University, Northern Illinois University, and the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, among others, were also available and had been mentioned in early news reports as possibilities. Northerly Island and the lakefront along Lake Michigan would have hosted all beach and water events. The McCormick Place convention center, the second largest in the world, was the planned venue for indoor events like judo and weightlifting, as well as hosting all press offices, while Archery and the medals podium were slated for Grant Park. Preliminary soccer matches would have been played in several venues, of which a few were slated to have been temporarily renamed in line with the IOC prohibition against corporate naming rights sponsorships to be used for venue names. These venues included MetLife Stadium in East Rutherford, New Jersey (which would have been temporarily renamed "New York Field" for the Olympics); the Rose Bowl in Pasadena, California; Lincoln Financial Field ("Philadelphia Field") in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; the Edward Jones Dome in St. Louis, Missouri ("St. Louis Dome"); FedExField in Landover, Maryland ("Landover Field"); and TCF Bank Stadium ("Minneapolis Stadium"), a new stadium which opened in September 2009 on the campus of the University of Minnesota in Minneapolis, Minnesota. Swimming events were originally planned to be held in the West Side's Douglass Park, but in a December 2008 plan revision the swimming events would have moved to Washington Park and a velodrome for track and BMX cycling events would have moved from Northerly Island to Douglass Park. The Cycling hub would have been in Madison, Wisconsin. While some venues might have changed at short notice, the Chicago 2016 Bid Book indicated that the following venues would have been permanently constructed: an Aquatic Center, the Olympic Stadium (to a limited long-term degree), a Canoe/Flatwater/Rowing area at Monroe Harbor, a Canoe/Kayak-Slalom Course, a velodrome in Douglass Park, and Field Hockey Fields in Jackson Park. #### Rowing The Monroe Harbor would have been enlarged with a \$60-million breakwater to accommodate an approximately 2-mile (3.2 km) course for rowing events. This would have enabled rowing competitions to take place on a course running from Northerly Island to about Randolph Street. This course would have featured a picturesque Chicago Loop skyline backdrop for television viewing, which by 2016 might have included the Chicago Spire, if it was completed. In order to accommodate the Olympics, all non-Olympic watercraft would have been required to vacate Monroe Harbor for a year. Canoeing events would have been held in the former location of Meigs Field on Northerly Island near the Adler Planetarium. Historically, this site staged some venues for the 1933 World's Fair. #### Stadium The Olympic Stadium would have been built in Washington Park, a site listed on the National Register of Historic Places in the Washington Park community area of the same name on the city's south side. Chicago initially proposed building a temporary 80,000-seat track stadium adjacent to Soldier Field and having the two stadiums host dual Opening and Closing Ceremonies. However, the final proposal called for a \$366 million temporary stadium to be built in Washington Park. The stadium would have been replaced by a 10,000 seat multi-use venue after the games. The smaller post-Olympic stadium would have been more in line with public interest in restoring the historic park after the games. The new stadium would have featured a high-tech reflective sheathing material to accommodate huge TV picture projections on its outside walls. The temporary stadium would not have had concessions inside the stadium, unlike permanent local venues, although concessions were planned outside the stadium. The stadium would have featured a basic oval shape, but it would also have adhered to Olympic design rules which dictate that there must be an overhanging lip at one end to cover dignitaries and the media. IOC president Jacques Rogge praised Chicago's design in November 2007 as a possible "blueprint for the future", reflecting the desire of the IOC to make the games both more affordable and to have a smaller ecological footprint on the host city. #### Olympic Village The Olympic Village for housing athletes during the games would have been a \$1.1-billion series of newly constructed lakefront buildings that would have been converted to rental and condominium units after the games. The village was to be located immediately south of McCormick Place, which was expected to host 11 event venues, on a current truck parking lot between South Lake Shore Drive and the Illinois Central Railroad tracks in the Near South Side and Douglas community areas. At the time, the parking lot was being used to stage events at McCormick Place. The village was slated to have pedways over Lake Shore Drive. This location was meant to enable 88% of the Olympic athletes to be within 15 minutes of their competition venue. Initially, the Olympic Village was to be located entirely on the McCormick Place truck yards, but in November 2006, The Michael Reese Hospital site became listed for sale. Planners determined that the Hospital site would likely have been superior in terms of lower cost and more successful urban planning implementation. In November 2007, Mayor Daley announced a plan to acquire the 37-acre (150,000 m<sup>2</sup>) site, and the following June the hospital decided that it would cease operations. In July 2008 the city announced its official bid for the property: The city planned to borrow \$85 million to buy the Michael Reese Hospital campus, near 31st and King Drive, from its current owner, Medline Industries. Medline would only get \$65 million, because the company agreed to make a \$20 million "charitable contribution" back to the city. The city would use that \$20 million to pay up to five years of interest on its \$85 million debt, demolish the hospital, and clean up the site. Then sometime in the next couple years it planned to sell the site for at least \$85 million to a developer or developers, who in turn were expected to build a complex big enough to house about 15,000 Olympians. After the games the developer would sell or rent out the units. In September 2008, the city realized it had underestimated demolition and environmental cleanup costs, which put the transaction at risk. Additionally in September the Associated Press reported a recalcitrant property owner may force the hospital site to be abandoned. These problems needed resolution by the bid committee by February 2009, the date which bid books were due. That month, the city requested a renegotiation of terms and within a week Michael Reese hospital filed for chapter 11 bankruptcy. In December 2008, new terms for the deal became public. Although original financing plans included no taxpayer funding, the late deal was only possible with \$500 million of taxpayer participation via a guarantee by the city to cover possible revenue shortfall and \$45 million for Chicago Police Department costs. In addition, in early 2008, records were uncovered that show the campus of Michael Reese Hospital to have been designed, in large part, by one of the twentieth century's most well-respected modernist architects, Walter Gropius. Thus, the plan for the Olympic Village battled the growing belief that preserving the old hospital campus would be better from an urban planning and historic preservation standpoint, and also rose questions about financing the village. In addition, the planned demolition of 28 buildings put the sustainability record the city was attempting to create in question. ### Sports culture Chicago benefited from a strong sports culture. On August 1, 2006, it was named Best Sports City in the US by Sporting News. Chicagoans are famous for their rabid support of their home teams: the Chicago Bears, Chicago Bulls, Chicago Cubs, Chicago White Sox, Chicago Blackhawks, Chicago Wolves, and more recently, Chicago Sky (WNBA), Chicago Fire, the Chicago Red Stars (the new women's soccer team), and the Chicago Machine. Other events such as the Chicago Marathon, one of the five World Marathon Majors, would also play a part in Chicago's Olympic-planning process. ### Experience Chicago has hosted major and historic world gatherings in the past, including the famous 1893 World's Columbian Exposition, the 1933 Century of Progress Exposition and the 1959 Pan American Games, as well as matches for the 1994 FIFA World Cup soccer tournament. Chicago has also hosted the most United States presidential nominating conventions. Chicago was scheduled to host the 1904 Summer Olympics, but the games were instead relocated to St. Louis to coincide with its Louisiana Purchase Exposition, more commonly known as the Saint Louis World's Fair. Chicago was also the first host of the Special Olympics in 1968. More recently, Chicago hosted the Gay Games VII in July 2006, and the 2007 AIBA Boxing Championships in October 2007. The championships were a qualifying event for the 2008 Summer Olympics and a chance for Chicago to showcase its staging skills to IOC members. AIBA head Dr. Ching-kuo Wu enthused the tournament was the "best ever", especially considering the short six-month lead time Chicago had to organize the games. ### Logo On May 16, 2007, Chicago was informed that its logo, a representation of a torch with the flames reminiscent of Chicago's skyline, violated IOC rules against using Olympic torch imagery. Bidding rules prohibit logos containing the Olympic symbol, motto, flag or other imagery including a flame, torch or medal. Chicago agreed to revise the logo. The current redesigned logo was released on September 19, 2007. Using the same color palette, a unique six-pointed Chicago star represents a compass pointing in all directions reaching out to the world. Each point represents an Olympic value: Hope, Respect, Harmony, Friendship, Excellence and Celebration. The warm colors initially represented in the flame (or top) of the image refer to the sun, the cool colors represent the green parklands and blue waters of Lake Michigan. Initially beneath the logo were the words "Applicant City". Both logos were designed by Chicago-based design firm VSA Partners. Chicago not only changed its logo, but relaunched its campaign. It changed its motto from "Stir the soul" to "Let friendship shine". Chicago used social media more than any other city bidding, and was keen to make 2016 a 'New Media Olympics'. It established a number of groups on Facebook, and on September 29, 2009 the bid's official page surpassed 100,000 members; it also used Flickr and Twitter. Chicago City Council alderman Edward M. Burke proposed that a fifth star be added to the Flag of Chicago if the city won its bid for the 2016 Summer Olympics. ### Bid factors The bid relied on Chicago's strength in medical services and doping control, security, accommodations, transportation, technology and media operations. The city's transportation infrastructure includes the Chicago Transit Authority, which operates a vast network of buses and elevated/subway 'L' trains, and the Metra and South Shore Line commuter rail services that connects more than 230 suburban destinations to Chicago. These transportation options would have allowed public transit access to the Games for city residents and people throughout northeastern Illinois into northern Indiana and southern Wisconsin. Chicago's main airport, O'Hare International Airport is the second-busiest airport in the world. The Chicago region is served by two other major commercial airports, Midway and Milwaukee's General Mitchell International Airport, along with several smaller airports. The city is served by all major worldwide airlines, and O'Hare is an international hub for both American and United Airlines, while Midway is a hub for domestic carrier Southwest Airlines. There is also a considerable network of rail lines and interstate highways in the region. Chicago has over 30,000 hotel rooms in the immediate downtown area alone, and it has the largest skilled-labor workforce in the US catering to conventions and other large-scale media events. Chicago is in the Central Time Zone (UTC −5 during the summer months), which is very is well-suited to North American television coverage. The NBC television network with its sister cable broadcasters is by far the largest media vendor and contract purchaser of the Olympic Games. ## Domain name dispute Trademark controversies arose for "Chicago2016.com" and "Tokyo2016.com", when both were registered in 2004 by entrepreneur Stephen Frayne Jr., an MBA student at the Kellogg School of Management; he also claimed around 40 other domain names whose city/year format mimicked the way Olympic Games are marketed. Frayne's stated intent for the site was a "comprehensive, balanced discussion" of the benefits and pitfalls of holding the Olympics in Chicago; the Chicago 2016 committee contended that his real intent was to profit from cybersquatting. The Chicago Olympic bid organization, which had been using Chicago2016.org as its official web site, sought control of Chicago2016.com through a complaint filed with an international arbitration organization. Attempts by the USOC to have the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) release the names failed. Frayne sued in the U.S. District Court in Chicago, seeking an injunction against the arbitration proceedings. On September 25, 2008, the WIPO arbitration panel granted Frayne's motion to suspend and terminate proceedings setting up a battle in the federal court in the Northern District of Illinois. The Olympic bid candidature documentation published by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) states that each bid must "...provide documentation indicating that appropriate measures have been taken to register domain names that are of value to your candidature such as '[City] 2016' followed by extensions .com .net .org as well as the country code concerned." ## Opposition to the Bid A number of Chicago grassroots citizens groups organized to oppose the Chicago 2016 Olympic bid. The Unlympics Organizing Committee organized a series of Chicago events over four Saturdays in the winter of 2009. Arguably the leading organizing group against the bid was No Games Chicago. To coincide with an IOC visit to Chicago in April 2009, No Games Chicago organized a rally in Federal Plaza where hundreds voiced their opposition to the bid. No Games Chicago participants dogged bid officials during a series of town halls held in each of Chicago's fifty wards two months before the IOC vote. No Games Chicago also assembled a book of evidence which was delivered to IOC headquarters in Lausanne, Switzerland, and reinforced in Copenhagen for the IOC decision. ## Outcome ### Outlook Chicago made the Candidate city shortlist in June 2008 as one of four finalists to host the 2016 Summer Olympics. Its technical ranking by the IOC was 7.0; generally beyond the 6.0 minimum threshold, but trailing behind Tokyo and Madrid's bids. (Technical qualities are only part of the final selection process.) The final selection from Madrid, Spain; Rio de Janeiro, Brazil was made on October 2, 2009, in Copenhagen, Denmark. In 2007, USOC head Peter Ueberroth contended that Chicago was in "third or fourth place", with a need to focus more on the international relations rather than just having a stronger technical bid. In September 2009, the IOC gave a written evaluation of the venues, budgets, transportation plans and public support. Chicago's bid was not federally underwritten, unlike other bid cities, which concerned the IOC, given declining tax revenue during a major recession in the US economy. Nevertheless, with Chicago's strong hosting of the AIBA Boxing Championships which exposed the city to many IOC members, the city was cited as a current favorite, and one member claimed the Games were "theirs to lose." Chicago also successfully hosted the 2006 Gay Games, another multinational sporting event. Both events were planned with short lead times. In April 2009, the Chicago 2016 bid committee was the first of the four finalists to host the 13-member IOC Evaluation Commission. They presented twenty films to the committee. Among the video spokespersons were Hillary Clinton (raised in suburban Chicago) and Michael Jordan. In addition to meeting with bid organizers, the IOC commission met with bid opposition groups when they visited. After the IOC commission left Chicago, the Chicago City Council approved an Olympic Community Agreement ordinance that was drafted by Alderman Toni Preckwinkle. The agreement committed 30 percent of Olympic Village units to affordable housing conversion and guarantees women and minorities a portion of Olympic-related contracts. Former Illinois Senate President Emil Jones derided the agreement as an inadequate deal. Some Chicago residents opposed to the Chicago bid, particularly because of the financial implications of the undertaking to Chicago residents, launched a website called "chicagoansforrio.com" to persuade the IOC to give the Olympics to Rio instead. In a public poll, Chicago residents were almost evenly divided on the bid, with 47% supporting and 45% not supporting. ### IOC vote On October 2, 2009, Chicago was knocked out in the first round of voting, and the Olympics went to Rio de Janeiro, despite some high-profile backers, such as US President Barack Obama and Chicago-based television hostess Oprah Winfrey, going to Copenhagen to support the bid. Seven years later, the 2016 state-funded Olympics in Rio proved to be a financial disaster, and many argued that privately-funded games in Chicago, where most of the venues were existing or temporary ones, would have fared far better. Since balloting is secret and IOC members rarely share their voting tendencies, there has been much speculation as to why Chicago lost the Olympic bid so early in the process. Michelle Higgins on The New York Times blog argued that an overly restrictive passport and visa policy was one such reason. CBS 2 Chicago's website suggested that anti-Americanism may have contributed. Bid CEO Patrick Ryan was quoted in the Chicago Sun-Times as saying "bloc voting" and assumptions by others in the IOC that Chicago had enough votes to make it to the second round of voting led to its early demise. The same article hinted at fractious relations, noted by The Seattle Times, between the IOC and USOC. ### Aftermath Following Chicago's loss, the USOC declined to bid for the 2020 Summer Olympics, which was ultimately awarded to Tokyo. The USOC later entered the race for the 2024 Summer Olympics with Boston but withdrew their bid. The USOC quickly selected Los Angeles to be the American candidate for the 2024 Olympics. After the IOC decided to award the hosts of both the 2024 and 2028 Olympics in 2017, Los Angeles declared their candidature for 2028, securing the 2024 Olympics for Paris with Los Angeles securing the 2028 edition.
1,351,339	Battle of McDowell	1,114,357,718	Battle of the American Civil War	[ "1862 in Virginia", "1862 in the American Civil War", "Battles of the American Civil War in Virginia", "Battles of the Eastern Theater of the American Civil War", "Confederate victories of the American Civil War", "Highland County, Virginia", "Jackson's Valley campaign", "May 1862 events" ]	The Battle of McDowell, also known as the Battle of Sitlington's Hill, was fought on May 8, 1862, near McDowell, Virginia, as part of Confederate Major General Stonewall Jackson's 1862 Shenandoah Valley campaign during the American Civil War. After suffering a tactical defeat at the First Battle of Kernstown, Jackson withdrew to the southern Shenandoah Valley. Union forces commanded by Brigadier Generals Robert Milroy and Robert C. Schenck were advancing from what is now West Virginia towards the Shenandoah Valley. After being reinforced by troops commanded by Brigadier General Edward Johnson, Jackson advanced towards Milroy and Schenck's encampment at McDowell. Jackson quickly took the prominent heights of Sitlington's Hill, and Union attempts to recapture the hill failed. The Union forces retreated that night, and Jackson pursued, only to return to McDowell on 13 May. After McDowell, Jackson defeated Union forces at several other battles during his Valley campaign. ## Background In March 1862, Union forces commanded by Major General Nathaniel P. Banks moved into the Shenandoah Valley with the goal of supporting Major General George B. McClellan's advance up the Virginia Peninsula. Confederate resistance to Banks' advance consisted of a small army commanded by Major General Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson. On March 21, the Union high command ordered the majority of Banks' command out of the Shenandoah Valley, leaving only a division commanded by Brigadier General James Shields to deal with Jackson. Shields left his camp at Strasburg and began moving north towards Winchester. On March 23, Jackson caught up with Shields' division near Kernstown. Faulty intelligence led Jackson to believe that only a small portion of Shields' force was at Kernstown, so he ordered an assault. Instead, Shields was in the area with his entire force, and a sharp battle was opened. The Confederates took a position behind a stone wall, but after Confederate Brigadier General Richard B. Garnett's brigade retreated after running low on ammunition, the flank of the Confederate position was exposed, forcing Jackson to withdraw from the field. Despite having defeated Jackson at Kernstown, Union high command was concerned by the aggressive behavior the Confederate army had shown, and began to send more troops to the Shenandoah Valley area, including the two divisions of Banks' army that had been moved out earlier. After the retreat from Kernstown, Jackson's force remained in the southern Shenandoah Valley awaiting orders and preparing for battle. In April, Jackson received orders to keep the Union forces in the Valley occupied with the goal of preventing them from joining McClellan's army near Richmond. Also coming to Jackson's camp were reinforcements commanded by Major General Richard Ewell. Meanwhile, another Union force was moving against Jackson's army. Major General John C. Frémont's Mountain Department was moving towards Jackson from the west, across the Allegheny Mountains. Frémont's advance force consisted of 3,500 men commanded by Brigadier General Robert Milroy. Milroy reached the town of McDowell in early May, and was reinforced by another 2,500 men under Brigadier General Robert C. Schenck on 8 May. Jackson's columns departed their camps in the area of West View and Staunton, on the morning of 7 May. Jackson had been further reinforced by elements of Brigadier General Edward "Allegheny" Johnson's brigade. The area around McDowell contained several points of high ground; a peak known as Jackson's Mountain was located west of the town, and Bull Pasture Mountain was east of McDowell. A road known as the Parkersburg and Staunton Turnpike ran roughly east to west through the area. A hill known as Sitlington's Hill was located south of the road, and Hull's Hill was north of the road. The Bull Pasture River ran between the town of McDowell and Sitlington's Hill and Hull's Hill. Expecting an attack, the Union commanders sent out small forces to serve as skirmishers. A portion of an artillery battery was also sent to the southern portion of Hull's Hill, where it kept up a regular fire despite not having a clear view of any Confederates. Union skirmishers from the 32nd Ohio Infantry, 73rd Ohio Infantry, and 3rd West Virginia Infantry made contact with the Confederate forces. ## Opposing forces ### Union As the ranking officer on the field, Schneck had overall command of the Union force, although he still retained nominal command of his brigade. Milroy's brigade contained six regiments of infantry, two artillery batteries, and a regiment of cavalry. All of the units in Milroy's brigade were from the states of Ohio and West Virginia. Schenck's brigade consisted of three regiments of infantry, one battery of artillery, and a battalion of cavalry. Units from Ohio, West Virginia, and Connecticut were represented in Schenck's brigade. ### Confederate The Confederate army consisted of the three brigades of Jackson's original force and the two brigades of Johnson's attached force. Jackson's original force contained a brigade of five regiments of infantry and two artillery batteries commanded by Brigadier General Charles S. Winder, a brigade of three infantry regiments, an infantry battalion, and two artillery batteries commanded by Colonel John A. Campbell, and a brigade of three infantry regiments and one artillery battery commanded by Brigadier General William B. Taliaferro. Johnson's force was composed of a brigade of three infantry regiments commanded by Colonel Zephaniah T. Conner and a second brigade of three infantry regiments commanded by Colonel William C. Scott. All of the units in the Confederate army were from Virginia, except for one Georgia regiment in Conner's brigade. Neither the Stonewall Brigade or Jackson's artillery were present at the battle. ## Battle Jackson then sent troops to take the lightly-defended crest of Sitlington's Hill. Scott's brigade led the way. The 52nd Virginia Infantry aligned in skirmishing formation on the Confederate left, and the 44th Virginia Infantry and 58th Virginia Infantry aligned between the 52nd Virginia and the road at the other end of Sitlington's Hill. The 12th Georgia Infantry of Conner's brigade supported the Virginians. Jackson and Johnson moved to the top of the hill to have a point from which they could observe the Union position with the hopes of finding a path suitable for a flanking attack. However, Milroy ordered his Union troops to attack the Confederate position on Sitlington's Hill, disrupting the Confederate plans. Jackson did not bring his artillery as he thought the steep slopes of Sitlington's Hill would be too difficult to move it there. Milroy and Schenck decided to send five regiments against the Confederate line. The 25th Ohio Infantry and 75th Ohio Infantry (both from Milroy's brigade) aimed for where the Union commanders thought the center of the Confederate line was located. The 82nd Ohio Infantry of Schenck's brigade and 32nd Ohio Infantry of Milroy's brigade aligned to the left of the 25th and 75th Ohio, and the 3rd West Virginia Infantry advanced along the road on the Union left. The fact that the Confederates held the high ground would prove to be a disadvantage for them: the sun was setting behind the Confederate line, silhouetting the soldiers against the sky. The hill also cast shadows that helped conceal the Union troops. The 12th Georgia had been posted in an exposed position in front of the main Confederate line, and made first contact with the Union assault. The Georgians were in an exposed position and at a disadvantage carrying outdated smoothbore muskets while Milroy's troops had Enfield rifles. Further down the line, the 32nd and 82nd Ohio hit the main Confederate line, which had been reinforced by the 25th Virginia Infantry and the 31st Virginia Infantry of Conner's brigade. The fighting became very heavy, with reports describing the battle as "fierce and sanguinary" and "very terrific". At one point, Confederates fighting against the 82nd Ohio attempted to use the bodies of dead soldiers as breastworks. The fifth Union regiment in the charge, the 3rd West Virginia, encountered skirmishers from the 52nd and 31st Virginia who were guarding the Confederate right flank. The Confederates then received further reinforcements from Campbell's and Taliaferro's brigades. The 10th Virginia Infantry of Taliaferro's brigade moved to the Confederate left, and Taliaferro's 23rd Virginia Infantry and 37th Virginia Infantry relieved the 25th Virginia in the main Confederate line. Towards the center of the Confederate line, the 12th Georgia, bloodied and out of ammunition, was forced to withdraw and was replaced by Campbell's 48th Virginia Infantry. Milroy shifted some of his regiments around, moving the 32nd Ohio to support the 75th Ohio near where the Georgians had been driven off, and bringing the 3rd West Virginia from the flank to the position formerly occupied by the 32nd Ohio. While the added weight of the 32nd Ohio forced the 48th Virginia to vacate its advanced position quickly, the outnumbered Union assailants broke off the assault. The fighting ended around 9:00 pm. ## Aftermath Milroy and Schenck ordered a general retreat the night after the battle, after burning supplies they were unable to take on the retreat and disposing of extra ammunition by dumping it into the Bull Pasture River. Jackson began a pursuit of the Union column on 9 May, and the Union troops reached Franklin, West Virginia on 11 May. Jackson's pursuit reached as far as the vicinity of Franklin, but the Confederates gave up the chase and fell back to McDowell on 13 May. Estimates of casualties vary between sources. One source places Confederate losses as 146 killed, 382 wounded, and four captured, for a total of 532; the same source gives Union losses as 26 killed, 230 wounded, and 3 missing, for a total of 259. Others place losses as 256 for the Union and about 500 for the Confederates. Of the Confederate losses, approximately 180 were suffered by the 12th Georgia alone. Edward Johnson was shot in the ankle and disabled from action for the next year; he returned in May 1863 to command Jackson's former division. Col. Simeon Gibbons of the 10th Virginia was killed and Cols. George Smith and Michael Harman of the 25th and 52nd Virginia were wounded. No Union officers above the company level were casualties in this battle. Despite retreating from the field, some sources have argued that the Union forces achieved a draw by fighting Jackson to essentially a standstill. However, the defeat of the Union force and Milroy and Schenck's withdrawal from the Shenandoah Valley provided the Confederates with a strategic victory. Jackson would later summarize the battle in the single sentence "God blessed our arms with victory at McDowell yesterday." Jackson continued his Valley campaign after McDowell. His next battle was against an outpost of Banks' army on 23 May, and the Confederates then defeated Banks' main force on 25 May. Further victories at the battles of Cross Keys on June 8 and Port Republic on June 9 restored Confederate control of the Shenandoah Valley. ## Battlefield preservation The Civil War Trust (a division of the American Battlefield Trust) and its partners have acquired and preserved 583 acres (2.36 km<sup>2</sup>) of the battlefield as of 2019. The battlefield is in a good state of preservation, with some of the wartime buildings still standing. A trail leads to the site of some of the fighting on Sitlington's Hill, and the site of the battle is commemorated with markers. Some of the soldiers killed during the battle are buried in a cemetery in McDowell. ## See also - Mansion House (McDowell, Virginia)
3,640,276	Bart Carny	1,154,817,574	null	[ "1998 American television episodes", "Television shows written by John Swartzwelder", "The Simpsons (season 9) episodes" ]	"Bart Carny" is the twelfth episode of the ninth season of the American animated television series, The Simpsons. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on January 11, 1998. Homer and Bart start working at a carnival and befriend a father and son duo named Cooder and Spud. It was written by John Swartzwelder, directed by Mark Kirkland and guest stars Jim Varney as Cooder the carny. The episode contains several cultural references and received a generally mixed critical reception. ## Plot When Marge unsuccessfully tries to get the kids to clean up the backyard, Homer runs into the house to exclaim to the family that the carnival is in town. After trying some rides, Bart gets himself into trouble by crashing a display of Hitler's limousine into a tree. To repay the loss, Bart and Homer become carnies. They meet up with carnies Cooder and his son, Spud. Cooder asks Homer to run his fixed ring toss game, but Homer fails to bribe Chief Wiggum (despite numerous hints), and Cooder's game is shut down. Feeling guilty, Homer invites Cooder and Spud to stay at the Simpson residence, much to Marge's dismay. To express their gratitude, the Cooders give the Simpsons tickets on a glass-bottom boat ride. When the Simpsons return, they find that the locks have been changed, the windows are all boarded up, and the Simpsons' name is crossed off the mailbox and replaced by "The Cooders". The family is forced to take up residence in Bart's treehouse. After the Simpsons go to the police in order to evict the Cooders from their house, Chief Wiggum refuses to act, still aggrieved over not receiving a bribe. Homer proposes to Cooder, that if he can throw a hula-hoop onto the chimney, they get their house back. If he misses, he will sign the deed over to Cooder. Cooder agrees and steps onto the lawn to watch Homer's attempt. Homer stretches and warms up, as if about to throw, but instead, he and his family suddenly rush into the house, leaving Cooder and Spud dumbfounded, but also impressed that they were "beaten by the best". After Homer initially gloats at them from inside, he begins to feel sorry for them again, and considers bringing them back in. At the urging of a nervous Bart, Marge then distracts Homer by pointing out a special "ass groove" that he sits on the couch in, and the episode ends with his attempt to try and fix it after they had ruined it by sitting on it themselves. ## Production The carnival in this episode is based on The Eastern States Exposition (currently known as The Big E) fair. As a child, Mike Scully went to the fair, and had hoped one day to be a carny. This is the only episode that Mark Kirkland told his parents not to watch. This is due to Bart's line "Out of my way, I'm Hitler". Kirkland's stepfather was a lieutenant in World War II and was injured while in combat. Cooder was modeled after David Mirkin, the showrunner of seasons five and six and co-writer and the executive producer of two episodes in the ninth season. Spud's head shape is modeled after Bart's head. The "fisheye effect", when Cooder is looking through the peep hole, was drawn by hand, not optically, by assistant director Matthew Nastuk. Matt Groening said they had several endings worked out, including one where Homer made the hula hoop over the chimney. ## Cultural references When Homer and Bart talk through their teeth while holding the chickens, it is a reference to Bob Hope and Bing Crosby films. Some of the prizes for the ring toss game are a Def Leppard mirror, a Rubik's Cube, and a Magic 8-Ball. The song being played at the end when Homer fixes his "ass groove" is "Groove Me" by King Floyd. The episode makes references to two past Simpsons episodes. Marge advises Homer not ride the Tooth Chipper roller coaster because of his quadruple bypass. During the family's glass-bottom boat ride, a barrel of Li'l Lisa's Patented Animal Slurry is visible on the sea floor. ## Reception In its original broadcast, "Bart Carny" finished 13th in ratings for the week of January 5–11, 1998, with a Nielsen rating of 11.9, equivalent to approximately 11.7 million viewing households, making it the highest rated episode of Season 9. It was tied with King of the Hill as the second highest-rated show on the Fox network that week, following The X-Files. The authors of the book I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide, Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, called it "one of the most dismally unfunny episodes ever, lifted only by the brief appearance of a talking camel and Homer's clever way of getting Cooder and Spud out of his home. Whereas most of the series' politically incorrect moments are funny and well-observed, this episode seems to be saying that fairground folk and travelers really are deeply unpleasant criminals who are both irredeemable and unworthy of help. Nasty-taste-in-the-mouth time." Isaac Mitchell-Frey of the Herald Sun described the episode as "brilliant", and highlighted it along with episodes "The Trouble with Trillions" and "The Joy of Sect" and it has been described by the other Simpsons writers in the DVD audio commentary as "criminally underrated".
52,389	Independence Day (1996 film)	1,173,054,126	1996 film directed by Roland Emmerich	[ "1990s American films", "1990s English-language films", "1990s disaster films", "1990s monster movies", "1990s science fiction action films", "1990s science fiction war films", "1996 films", "20th Century Fox films", "Alien invasions in films", "Alien visitations in films", "American aviation films", "American disaster films", "American science fiction action films", "American science fiction adventure films", "American science fiction war films", "Apocalyptic films", "Censored films", "Centropolis Entertainment films", "Czech Lion Awards winners (films)", "Films about Air Force One", "Films about cyberwarfare", "Films about extraterrestrial life", "Films about fictional presidents of the United States", "Films about nuclear war and weapons", "Films about scientists", "Films about telepathy", "Films about the United States Air Force", "Films about the United States Army", "Films about the United States Marine Corps", "Films adapted into comics", "Films directed by Roland Emmerich", "Films produced by Dean Devlin", "Films scored by David Arnold", "Films set in 1996", "Films set in California", "Films set in Egypt", "Films set in Houston", "Films set in Iraq", "Films set in Japan", "Films set in Los Angeles", "Films set in New York City", "Films set in Orange County, California", "Films set in Russia", "Films set in Washington, D.C.", "Films set in the Las Vegas Valley", "Films set in the White House", "Films shot in Los Angeles", "Films shot in Nevada", "Films shot in New Jersey", "Films shot in New Mexico", "Films shot in New York City", "Films shot in Utah", "Films shot in Washington, D.C.", "Films that won the Best Visual Effects Academy Award", "Films with screenplays by Dean Devlin", "Films with screenplays by Roland Emmerich", "Independence Day (United States) films", "Independence Day (franchise)", "Malware in fiction", "Roswell incident in fiction" ]	Independence Day (also promoted as ID4) is a 1996 American science fiction action film directed by Roland Emmerich and written by Emmerich and Dean Devlin. It stars an ensemble cast that consists of Will Smith, Bill Pullman, Jeff Goldblum, Mary McDonnell, Judd Hirsch, Margaret Colin, Randy Quaid, Robert Loggia, James Rebhorn, and Harvey Fierstein. The film focuses on disparate groups of people who converge in the Nevada desert in the aftermath of a worldwide attack by a powerful extraterrestrial race. With the other people of the world, they launch a counterattack on July 4—Independence Day in the United States. While promoting Stargate in Europe, Emmerich conceived the film while answering a question about his belief in the existence of alien life. Devlin and Emmerich decided to incorporate a large-scale attack having noticed that aliens in most invasion films travel long distances in outer space only to remain hidden when reaching Earth. Shooting began on July 28, 1995, in New York City, and the film was completed on October 8, 1995. Considered a significant turning point in the history of the Hollywood blockbuster, Independence Day was at the forefront of the large-scale disaster film and sci-fi resurgence of the mid-late 1990s. It was released worldwide on July 3, 1996, but began showing on July 2 (the same day the film's story begins) in original release as a result of a high level of anticipation among moviegoers. The film received mixed reviews, with praise for the performances, musical score and visual effects, but criticism for its characters. It grossed over \$817.4 million worldwide, becoming the highest-grossing film of 1996 and the second-highest-grossing film ever at the time, behind Jurassic Park (1993). The film won the Academy Award for Best Visual Effects and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Sound, losing the latter to The English Patient. The sequel, Independence Day: Resurgence, was released 20 years later on June 24, 2016, as part of a planned series of films. ## Plot On July 2, 1996, an extraterrestrial mothership enters Earth's orbit and deploys saucers (each 15 mi (24 km) in diameter) over major cities worldwide, including New York City, Los Angeles and Washington, D.C. U.S. Marine Captain Steven Hiller and his unit, the Black Knights fighter squadron out of MCAS El Toro, are called back from fourth of July leave to defend Los Angeles; his girlfriend, Jasmine Dubrow, decides to flee the city with her son, Dylan. Retired combat pilot Russell Casse, now an alcoholic single father and crop duster, sees this as vindication of the alien abduction he has been claiming for years. In New York City, technician David Levinson decodes a signal embedded within global satellite transmissions, realizing it is the aliens' countdown for a coordinated attack. With help from his ex-wife, White House Communications Director Constance Spano, David and his father Julius reach the Oval Office and alert President Thomas Whitmore. Whitmore orders evacuations of the targeted cities in the U.S., but it is too late. Each saucer fires a beam, incinerating every targeted city, killing millions. Whitmore, the Levinsons, and a few others escape aboard Air Force One while Jasmine, Dylan, and their dog Boomer take shelter in a tunnel's inspection alcove, emerging once the destruction is over. On July 3, counterattacks against the invaders are thwarted by the alien warships' force fields. Each saucer launches a swarm of shielded fighters which decimate the human fighter squadrons and military bases, including Captain Hiller's. Hiller lures an enemy fighter into the Grand Canyon before ejecting from his plane, blinding the fighter using his parachute and causing the alien to crash in the Mojave Desert. He subdues the downed alien and flags down a convoy of refugees, transporting the alien to Area 51, where Whitmore's group in Air Force One has landed. Defense Secretary Albert Nimzicki reveals that a government faction has been involved in a UFO conspiracy since 1947 when one of the invaders' fighters crashed in Roswell. Area 51 houses the now-refurbished ship and three alien corpses recovered from the crash. As chief scientist Dr. Brackish Okun examines the alien captured by Steven, it awakens, telepathically invades Okun's mind and launches a psychic attack against Whitmore before being killed by Secret Service agents and military personnel. Whitmore reveals what he learned when they linked: the invaders' plan to annihilate Earth's inhabitants and harvest its natural resources, as they have already done to other planetary civilizations. Whitmore reluctantly authorizes a trial nuclear attack against a saucer above Houston, but the ship is unharmed (with the city destroyed from the blast), and all subsequent nuclear attacks are aborted. Jasmine and Dylan commandeer a highway maintenance truck and rescue a handful of survivors, including the critically injured First Lady Marilyn Whitmore. Though Hiller rescues them and takes them to Area 51, Marilyn's injuries are too severe, and she dies after reuniting with her family. On July 4, taking inspiration from his father, David writes a computer virus from his laptop to disrupt the aliens' shields' operating system, and devises a plan to upload it into the mothership from the refurbished alien fighter, which Hiller volunteers to pilot. The U.S. military contacts surviving airborne squadrons around the world through Morse code to organize a united counter-offensive. Lacking pilots, Whitmore and General William Grey enlist volunteers with flight experience, including Russell Casse, from the refugee camp at the base to fly the remaining jets at Area 51; Whitmore leads an attack on a saucer bearing down on the base, overseen by Grey. Hiller marries Jasmine with David and Constance in attendance before leaving on the mission. Entering the mothership, they upload the virus and deploy a nuclear missile, destroying it and the aliens' invasion forces. With the shields deactivated, Whitmore's squadron engages the fighters, but exhausts the ammunition before managing to destroy the saucer. As the saucer prepares to fire on the base, Russell sacrifices himself by crashing into the saucer's primary weapon before it fires, destroying the warship. Grey then orders notifications to the resistance groups worldwide of the spaceships' critical weakness and they destroy the others. As humanity rejoices, Hiller and Levinson reunite with their families. ## Cast - Will Smith as Captain Steven Hiller, a Marine F/A-18 pilot with the Black Knight squadron at MCAS El Toro and aspiring astronaut. The role was originally offered to Ethan Hawke but he turned it down as he thought the script was terrible. Devlin and Emmerich had always envisioned an African-American for the role, and specifically wanted Smith after seeing his performance in Six Degrees of Separation. - Bill Pullman as President Thomas J. Whitmore, a former fighter pilot and Gulf War veteran. To prepare for the role, Pullman read Bob Woodward's The Commanders and watched the documentary film The War Room. - Jeff Goldblum as David Levinson, an MIT-educated satellite engineer and technological expert. - Mary McDonnell as First Lady Marilyn Whitmore, the wife of Thomas Whitmore, who was severely injured in a helicopter crash. - Judd Hirsch as Julius Levinson, David Levinson's father. The character was based on one of Dean Devlin's uncles. - Robert Loggia as General William Grey, USMC, the Commandant of the United States Marine Corps. Loggia modeled the character after World War II generals, particularly George S. Patton. - Randy Quaid as Russell Casse, an eccentric, alcoholic former fighter pilot and Vietnam War veteran. He insists that he was abducted by the aliens during work on aerial application ten years prior to the film's events, shortly after completing his military service. - Margaret Colin as Constance Spano, Whitmore's White House Communications Director and David Levinson's ex-wife. - Vivica A. Fox as Jasmine Dubrow, Steven Hiller's girlfriend and mother of Dylan Dubrow. - James Rebhorn as Albert Nimzicki, the Secretary of Defense and, as former CIA Director, is a member of a governmental faction who are aware of the aliens' existence due to the ship recovered at Roswell. Not well-liked, lying, arrogant, selfish, crooked, and often at odds with idealists such as Whitmore and Grey, Nimzicki embodies the stereotypical corrupt politician and his ambition is to be elected as president himself. Rebhorn described the character as being much like Oliver North. The character's eventual firing lampoons Joe Nimziki, MGM's head of advertising, who made life unpleasant for Devlin and Emmerich when studio executives forced recuts of Stargate. - Harvey Fierstein as Marty Gilbert, David Levinson's coworker at Compact Cable Television Company, killed in the NYC attack. - Adam Baldwin as Major Mitchell, USAF, Area 51's commanding officer and thus a member of a governmental faction who are aware of the aliens' existence. During the interstellar war, he becomes a trusted ally to Thomas Whitmore's party. - Brent Spiner as Dr. Brackish Okun, the unkempt and highly excitable scientist in charge of research at Area 51. The character's appearance and verbal style are based upon those of visual effects supervisor Jeffrey A. Okun, with whom Emmerich had worked on Stargate. - James Duval as Miguel Casse, the oldest son of Russell Casse. - Bill Smitrovich as Lt. Colonel Watson, the commanding officer of the Black Knights. - Kiersten Warren as Tiffani, friend and co-worker of Jasmine, killed in the LA attack. - Harry Connick Jr. as Marine Captain Jimmy Wilder, fellow fighter pilot and friend of Steven, killed in the Black Knight counterattack. Connick took over the role from Matthew Perry who was originally cast in the role. - Mae Whitman as Patricia Whitmore, the daughter of President Thomas J. Whitmore and First Lady Marilyn Whitmore. - Ross Bagley as Dylan Dubrow, Jasmine Dubrow's son and Steven Hiller's stepson. - Lisa Jakub as Alicia Casse, the daughter of Russell Casse. - Giuseppe Andrews as Troy Casse, the son of Russell Casse. - Frank Welker as special vocal effects. - Gary Hecker as alien vocal effects. ## Production ### Development The idea for the film came when Emmerich and Devlin were in Europe promoting their film Stargate. A reporter asked Emmerich why he made a film with content like Stargate if he did not believe in aliens. Emmerich stated he was still fascinated by the idea of an alien arrival, and further explained his response by asking the reporter to imagine what it would be like to wake up one morning and to discover 15-mile-wide spaceships were hovering over the world's largest cities. Emmerich then turned to Devlin and said, "I think I have an idea for our next film." Emmerich and Devlin decided to expand on the idea by incorporating a large-scale attack, with Devlin saying he was bothered by the fact that "for the most part, in alien invasion movies, they come down to Earth and they're hidden in some back field ...[o]r they arrive in little spores and inject themselves into the back of someone's head." Emmerich agreed by asking Devlin if arriving from across the galaxy, "would you hide on a farm or would you make a big entrance?" The two wrote the script during a month-long vacation in Mexico, and just one day after they sent it out for consideration, 20th Century Fox chairman Peter Chernin greenlit the screenplay. Pre-production began just three days later in February 1995. The U.S. military originally intended to provide personnel, vehicles, and costumes for the film; however, they backed out when the producers refused to remove the script's Area 51 references. A then-record 3,000-plus special effects shots would ultimately be required for the film. The shoot utilized on-set, in-camera special effects more often than computer-generated effects in an effort to save money and get more authentic pyrotechnic results. Many of these shots were accomplished at Hughes Aircraft in Culver City, California, where the film's art department, motion control photography teams, pyrotechnics team, and model shop were headquartered. The production's model-making department built more than twice as many miniatures for the production than had ever been built for any film before by creating miniatures for buildings, city streets, aircraft, landmarks, and monuments. The crew also built miniatures for several of the spaceships featured in the film, including a 30-foot (9.1 m) destroyer model and a version of the mother ship spanning 12 feet (3.7 m). City streets were recreated, then tilted upright beneath a high-speed camera mounted on a scaffolding filming downwards. An explosion would be ignited below the model, and flames would rise towards the camera, engulfing the tilted model and creating the rolling "wall of destruction" look seen in the film. A model of the White House was also created, covering 10 feet (3.0 m) by 5 feet (1.5 m), and was used in forced-perspective shots before being destroyed in a similar fashion for its destruction scene. The detonation took a week to plan and required 40 explosive charges. The film's aliens were designed by production designer Patrick Tatopoulos. The actual aliens in the film are diminutive and based on a design Tatopoulos drew when tasked by Emmerich to create an alien that was "both familiar and completely original". These creatures wear "bio-mechanical" suits that are based on another design Tatopoulos pitched to Emmerich. These suits were 8 feet (2.4 m) tall, equipped with 25 tentacles, and purposely designed to show it could not sustain a person inside so it would not appear to be a "man in a suit". Christopher Weaver, founder of video game publisher Bethesda Softworks consulted with the movie's production team, Centropolis Films, and provided scientific collaboration. Dean Devlin used Weaver as the basis for the film character David Levinson. ### Filming Principal photography began on July 28, 1995, in New York City. A second unit gathered plate shots and establishing shots of Manhattan, Washington, D.C., an RV community in Flagstaff, Arizona, and the Very Large Array on the Plains of San Agustin, New Mexico. The main crew also filmed in nearby Cliffside Park, New Jersey before moving to the former Kaiser Steel mill in Fontana, California to film the post-attack Los Angeles sequences. The production then moved to Wendover, Utah, and West Wendover, Nevada, where the deserts doubled for Imperial Valley, and the Wendover Airport doubled for the El Toro and Area 51 exteriors. It was here where Pullman filmed his pre-battle speech. Immediately before filming the scene, Devlin and Pullman decided to add "Today, we celebrate our Independence Day!" to the end of the speech. At the time, the production was nicknamed "ID4" because Warner Bros. owned the rights to the title because of a film from 1983 which is also called Independence Day. Devlin had hoped that if Fox executives noticed the addition in dailies, the impact of the new dialogue would help them to win the rights to the title. Pullman had stated in a 2020 interview that Fox had otherwise been aiming to use Doomsday for the film's release to match with other disaster films of the time, and Devlin and Emmerich had hoped the impact of this speech scene would help win Fox over to the Independence Day name. The right to use the title was eventually won two weeks later. The production team moved to the Bonneville Salt Flats to film three scenes, then returned to California to film in various places around Los Angeles, including Hughes Aircraft where sets for the cable company and Area 51 interiors were constructed at a former aircraft plant. Sets for the latter included corridors containing windows that were covered with blue material. The filmmakers originally intended to use the chroma key technique to make it appear as if an activity was happening on the other side of the glass, but the composited images were not added to the final print because production designers decided the blue panels gave the sets a "clinical look". The attacker hangar set contained an attacker mockup 65 feet (20 m) wide that took four months to build. The White House interior sets used had already been built for The American President and had previously been used for Nixon. Principal photography completed on October 8, 1995, after 72 days of filming. The film initially depicted Russell Casse being rejected as a volunteer for the July 4 aerial counteroffensive because of his alcoholism. He then uses a stolen missile tied to his red biplane to carry out his suicide mission. According to Dean Devlin, test audiences responded well to the scene's irony and comedic value. However, the scene was re-shot to include Russell's acceptance as a volunteer, his crash course on flying modern fighter aircraft, and him flying an F/A-18 instead of the biplane. Devlin preferred the alteration because the viewer now witnesses Russell ultimately making the decision to sacrifice his life, and seeing the biplane keeping pace and flying amongst F/A-18s was "just not believable". ### Music The Grammy Award-winning score for the film was composed by David Arnold and recorded with an orchestra of 90, a choir of 46, "and every last ounce of stereotypical Americana he could muster for the occasion". The film's producer Dean Devlin commented that "you can leave it up to a Brit to write some of the most rousing and patriotic music in the history of American cinema." The soundtrack has received two official CD releases. RCA released a 50-minute album at the time of the film's release, then in 2010, La-La Land Records released a limited-edition, two-disc CD set that comprised the complete score plus 12 alternate cues. The premiere of Independence Day live took place at the Royal Albert Hall in September 2016, with the film's score performed live for a screening of the film. This celebrated the twentieth anniversary of the film's release, and the event also featured a pre-film talk by David Arnold. ## Release ### Theatrical While the film was still in post-production, Fox began an expensive marketing campaign to help promote the film, beginning with the airing of a dramatic commercial during Super Bowl XXX, for which it paid \$1.3 million. The film's subsequent success at the box office resulted in a trend of using Super Bowl air time to begin the advertising campaigns for potential blockbusters. Fox's Licensing and Merchandising division also entered into co-promotional deals with Apple Inc. The co-marketing project was dubbed "The Power to Save the World" campaign, in which the company used footage of David using his PowerBook 5300 laptop in their print and television advertisements. Trendmasters entered a merchandising deal with the film's producers to create a line of tie-in toys. In exchange for product placement, Fox also entered into co-promotional deals with Molson Coors Brewing Company and Coca-Cola. The film was marketed with several taglines, including: "We've always believed we weren't alone. On July 4, we'll wish we were", "Earth. Take a good look. It could be your last", and "Don't make plans for August". The weekend before the film's release, the Fox Network aired a half-hour special on the film, the first third of which was a spoof news report on the events that happen in the film. Roger Ebert attributed most of the film's early success to its teaser trailers and marketing campaigns, acknowledging them as "truly brilliant". The film had its official premiere held at Los Angeles' now-defunct Mann Plaza Theater on June 25, 1996. It was then screened privately at the White House for President Bill Clinton and his family before receiving a nationwide release in the United States on July 2, 1996, a day earlier than its previously scheduled opening. ### Censorship In Lebanon, certain Jewish- and Israel-related content in the film was censored. One cut scene involved Judd Hirsch's character donning a kippah, and leading soldiers and White House officials in a Jewish prayer. Other removed footage showed Israeli and Arab troops working together in preparation for countering the alien invasion. The Lebanese Shi'a Islamist militant group Hezbollah called for Muslims to boycott the film, describing it as "propaganda for the so-called genius of the Jews and their concern for humanity." In response, Jewish actor Jeff Goldblum said: "I think Hezbollah has missed the point. The film is not about American Jews saving the world; it's about teamwork among people of different religions and nationalities to defeat a common enemy." ### Home media After a six-week, \$30 million marketing campaign, Independence Day was released on a THX certified VHS on November 22, 1996. A LaserDisc release came out at roughly the same time, which included audio commentary, theatrical trailers, deleted scenes, and a bundled soundtrack CD. The film sold 22 million copies in North America, becoming the best selling live-action video. The film became available on DVD on June 27, 2000, and has since been re-released in several different versions of this format with varying supplemental material, including one instance where it was packaged with a lenticular cover. A special edition of the film was included on the DVD as well, which features nine minutes of additional footage not seen in the original theatrical release. A single-disc DVD version of the film was released alongside Cast Away on May 21, 2002. Independence Day became available on Blu-ray in the United Kingdom on December 24, 2007, and in North America on March 11, 2008 and in Australia on March 5, 2008. The initial single-disc releases only feature the theatrical cut and a few extras, as per the single-disc DVDs. For its 2016 twentieth anniversary, the film was re-released on two-disc Blu-ray and DVD, 4K Ultra HD Blu-ray, and Digital HD. The 20th-anniversary editions feature both the theatrical and extended versions, all the extras of the previous 2-disc DVDs and more. ### Television broadcast Independence Day was originally scheduled to air on Fox on September 16, 2001, but was cancelled following the September 11 attacks. The network replaced Independence Day with a repeat airing of There's Something About Mary. ### Re-release The film had both its twentieth anniversary and premiere at a special live-orchestral screening performance at the Royal Albert Hall on September 22, 2016. The Royal Philharmonic Orchestra, conducted by the original orchestrator Nicholas Dodd, performed the score live during the film, and the film's composer, David Arnold, was a presenter at the event. ## Reception ### Box office Independence Day was the highest-grossing film of 1996, surpassing both Twister and Mission: Impossible. The film had its preview screenings on July 2, 1996, grossing \$11.1 million from 2,433 theaters. At that point, it had the biggest pre-opening of any film, breaking the six-year record held by Die Hard 2. The next day on July 3, the film officially opened to the public with \$17.4 million. During its second day of release, it earned \$17.3 million, which made it the highest Thursday gross, holding this record for six years until it was taken by Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones in 2002. It earned \$104.3 million in its opening week, including \$96.1 million during its five-day holiday opening, and \$50.2 million during its opening weekend. Independence Day stayed in the number-one spot for three consecutive weeks before being displaced by A Time to Kill. Moreover, it beat Terminator 2: Judgment Day's record for largest five-day Wednesday gross of any film, as well as the biggest July opening weekend. The combined total for the five-day Wednesday opening increased to \$190 million, dethroning the \$158.6 million record held by Toy Story. In addition, the film had the second-highest opening weekend of any movie, behind Batman Forever. All three figures broke records set by Jurassic Park three years earlier, whose successor, The Lost World: Jurassic Park, claimed all three records when it was released in 1997. That same year, Men in Black surpassed Independence Day for highest July opening weekend and largest three-day Fourth of July opening weekend. Despite this, the film would continue to hold the record for having the highest five-day Fourth of July Wednesday opening until Men in Black II in 2002. Independence Day earned over \$150 million in 12 days, becoming the quickest film to do so. In 21 days, it became the fastest film to approach the \$200 million mark. The film would hold this record for three years until it was surpassed by Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace in 1999. By the end of July 1996, Independence Day had lost 38% of its audience, but it was able to top Ghostbusters, Aladdin, Mrs. Doubtfire and Ghost, becoming the fourteen-highest domestic grossing film of all time. It reached \$230 million within the first month of release, and on August 9, crossed the \$250 million mark. Halfway through the month, it became the eighth-highest domestic grosser, beating Jaws. Independence Day grossed \$306,169,268 in the United States and Canada and \$511,231,623 in other territories during its theatrical run. The combined worldwide total of \$817,400,891 surpassed The Lion King, second only to the worldwide earnings of Jurassic Park as the highest of all time. For over 20 years, the film would hold the record for being the highest-grossing film starring Will Smith until 2019 when it was surpassed by the live-action version of Aladdin. In the UK, the film grossed £7,005,905 in its opening weekend (including £939,022 from previews), surpassing Jurassic Park's record of £4.9 million. The film also grossed a record \$10.5 million in its opening weekend in Germany. Box Office Mojo estimates that the film sold over 69.26 million tickets in the US and Canada. Hoping to capitalize on the film's success, several studios released large-scale disaster films, and the already rising interest in science fiction-related media was further increased by the film's popularity. A month after the film's release, jewelry designers and marketing consultants reported an increased interest in dolphin-themed jewelry, as the character Jasmine (Vivica A. Fox) wears dolphin earrings, and is presented with a wedding ring featuring a gold dolphin. ### Critical response Rotten Tomatoes, a review aggregator, reports that 67% of 79 surveyed critics gave the film a positive review; the average rating is 6.6/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "The plot is thin and so is character development, but as a thrilling, spectacle-filled summer movie, Independence Day delivers." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 59 out of 100 based on 19 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale. Critics wrote that the film has "cardboard" and "stereotypical" characters, and weak dialogue. However, the shot of the White House's destruction has been declared a milestone in visual effects and one of the most memorable scenes of the 1990s. In a 2010 poll, readers of Entertainment Weekly rated it the second-greatest summer film of the previous 20 years, ranking only behind Jurassic Park. Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle gave the film his highest rating, declaring it the "apotheosis" of comic book space adventure movies. Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly gave it a B+ for living up to its massive hype, adding "charm is the foremost of this epic's contemporary characteristics. The script is witty, knowing, cool." Eight years later, Entertainment Weekly would rate the film as one of the best disaster films of all time. Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times felt that the film did an "excellent job conveying the boggling immensity of [the] extraterrestrial vehicles [...] and panic in the streets" and the scenes of the alien attack were "disturbing, unsettling and completely convincing". However, the film's nationalistic overtones were widely criticized by reviewers outside the U.S. Movie Review UK described the film as "a mish-mash of elements from a wide variety of alien invasion movies and gung-ho American jingoism." The speech during which Whitmore states that victory in the coming war would see the entire world henceforth describe July 4 as its Independence Day, was described in a BBC review as "the most jaw-droppingly pompous soliloquy ever delivered in a mainstream Hollywood movie." In 2003, readers of Empire voted the scene that contained this speech as the "Cheesiest Movie Moment of All-Time". Conversely, Empire critic Kim Newman gave the film a five-star rating in the magazine's original review of the film. Several critics expressed disappointment with the quality of the film's special effects. Newsweek's David Ansen claimed the special effects were of no better caliber than those seen nineteen years earlier in Star Wars. Todd McCarthy of Variety felt the production's budget-conscious approach resulted in "cheesy" shots that lacked in quality relative to the effects present in films directed by James Cameron and Steven Spielberg. In his review, Roger Ebert took note of a lack of imagination in the spaceship and creature designs. Gene Siskel expressed the same sentiments in his At the Movies review of the film. American Film Institute lists - AFI's 100 Years...100 Thrills – Nominated - AFI's 10 Top 10 – Nominated Science Fiction Film ### Accolades ### Legacy Disaster elements portrayed in Twister and Independence Day (both in 1996) represented a significant turning point for Hollywood blockbuster films. With advancements in CGI special effects, events depicting mass destruction became commonplace in films that soon followed, such as Dante's Peak and Volcano (both in 1997), as well as Deep Impact and Armageddon (both in 1998). The trend resumed from the mid-2000s to 2010s, evident in three of Emmerich's films titled The Day After Tomorrow (2004), 2012 (2009), and White House Down (2013), as well as other blockbusters like Transformers (2007) and The Avengers (2012). ## In other media ### Books Author Stephen Molstad wrote a tie-in novel to help promote the film shortly before its release. The novel goes into further detail on the characters, situations, and overall concepts not explored in the film. The novel presents the film's finale as originally scripted, with the character played by Randy Quaid stealing a missile and roping it to his cropduster biplane. Following the film's success, a prequel novel entitled Independence Day: Silent Zone was written by Molstad in February 1998. The novel is set in the late 1960s and early 1970s, and details the early career of Dr. Brackish Okun. Molstad wrote a third novel, Independence Day: War in the Desert in July 1999. Set in Saudi Arabia on July 3, it centers around Captain Cummins and Colonel Thompson, the two Royal Air Force officers seen receiving the Morse code message in the film (Americanised ranks corrected to Squadron Leader and Group Captain respectively in the Omnibus reissue). A Marvel comic book was also written based on the first two novelizations. ### Radio On August 4, 1996, BBC Radio 1 broadcast the one-hour play Independence Day UK, written, produced, and directed by Dirk Maggs, a spin-off depicting the alien invasion from a British perspective. None of the original cast was present. Dean Devlin gave Maggs permission to produce an original version, on the condition that he did not reveal certain details of the movie's plot, and that the British were not depicted as saving the day. Independence Day UK was set up to be similar to the 1938 radio broadcast of The War of the Worlds—the first 20 minutes were live. ### Multimedia In 1996 a "behind-the-scenes" multimedia CD-ROM titled Inside Independence Day was released for Microsoft Windows and Macintosh; it includes storyboards for the film, sketches, movie clips, and a preview of the Independence Day video game. ### Video games An Independence Day video game was released in February 1997 for the PlayStation, Sega Saturn, and PC, each version receiving mostly tepid reviews. The multi-view shooter game contains various missions to perform, with the ultimate goal of destroying the aliens' primary weapon. A pinball machine themed to the film was released by Sega in June 1996. Plus, a wireless mobile version was released in 2005. A video game entitled ID4 Online was released in 2000. ### Toys Trendmasters released a toy line for the film in 1996. Each action figure, vehicle or playset came with a 3+1⁄2 inch floppy disk that contained an interactive computer game. ## Future In June 2011, Devlin confirmed that he and Emmerich had written a treatment for two sequels to form a trilogy; both expressed the desire for Will Smith to return. In October 2011, however, discussions over Smith returning were halted, due to Fox's refusal to provide the \$50 million salary demanded by Smith for the two sequels. Emmerich, however, made assurances that the films would be shot back-to-back, regardless of Smith's involvement. In March 2013, Emmerich stated that the titles of the new films would be ID: Forever – Part I and ID: Forever – Part II. In November 2014, the sequel was given the green light by 20th Century Fox, with a release date of June 24, 2016. This would be a stand-alone sequel, that would not split into two parts as originally planned, with filming beginning in May 2015 and casting being done after the studio locked down Emmerich as the director of the film. In December 2014, Devlin confirmed that Emmerich would indeed be directing the sequel. On June 22, 2015, Emmerich announced the official title, Independence Day: Resurgence. With respect to Smith's decision not to return to film a sequel, Emmerich told Screen Crush that: "In the very beginning, I wanted to work with him and he was excited to be in it but then after a while he was tired of sequels, and he did another science fiction film, which was his father-son story After Earth, so he opted out." Independence Day: Resurgence was released on June 24, 2016. The sequel, unlike the original, was both a critical and commercial failure, making further sequels unlikely. Furthermore, in March 2018, LRM Online reported that, after having met producer Dean Devlin at WonderCon and asking about the status of Independence Day 3, Devlin told them "I don't know. I don't know. Currently, I personally have no plans of doing another one." One year later, Emmerich stated that once The Walt Disney Company purchased Fox he thought the chances of a third movie were over, but still had hopes that the project could happen given Disney's preference for franchise films. ## See also - Independence Day (book series) - List of films featuring extraterrestrials - Apollo 11 in popular culture
1,755,379	Pal (dog)	1,173,200,460	Rough Collie dog	[ "1940 animal births", "1958 animal deaths", "Dog actors", "Individual dogs in the United States", "Lassie", "Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer contract players" ]	Pal (June 4, 1940 – June 18, 1958) was a male Rough Collie performer and the first in a line of such dogs to portray the fictional female collie Lassie in film, on radio, and on television. Pal was born in California in 1940 and eventually brought to the notice of Rudd Weatherwax, a Hollywood animal trainer. In 1943, the dog was chosen to play Lassie in the Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer feature film Lassie Come Home. Following his film debut, Pal starred in six more Lassie films for MGM from the mid-1940s to early 1950s, then appeared briefly in shows, fairs, and rodeos around the United States before starring in the two pilots filmed in 1954 for the television series, Lassie. Pal retired after filming the television pilots, and died in June 1958. He sired a line of descendants who continued to play the fictional character he originated. In 1992, The Saturday Evening Post said Pal had "the most spectacular canine career in film history". ## Birth and early years Pal was born at Cherry Osborne's Glamis Kennels in North Hollywood on June 4, 1940. The son of Red Brucie of Glamis and Bright Bauble of Glamis, Pal's ancestry is traced to the nineteenth century and England's first great collie, "Old Cockie". Because of his large eyes and the white blaze on his forehead, Pal was judged not of the highest standards and sold as a pet-quality dog. Howard Peck, an animal trainer, brought the eight-month-old collie to Hollywood animal trainer Rudd Weatherwax in order to break the animal of uncontrolled barking and a habit of chasing motorcycles. After working with the dog, Weatherwax gained control of the barking but was unable to break Pal of his motorcycle-chasing habit. Peck was disappointed with the results and gave the dog to Weatherwax in exchange for the money Peck owed him. Weatherwax, in turn, gave the dog to a friend, but when he learned that Eric Knight's 1940 novel, Lassie Come-Home, was being considered as a feature film by MGM, Weatherwax sensed Pal was the dog to fill the role, and bought Pal back from his friend for \$10 USD. Peck later tried to reclaim him after he became famous as Lassie, but Weatherwax's legal ownership was upheld. Rudd's brother Frank Weatherwax, who trained dogs for such films as The 5,000 Fingers of Dr. T and The Wizard of Oz, assisted Rudd in training Pal. ## MGM films The first MGM "Lassie" film was planned as a low budget, black and white children's film. Pal was among 1,500 dogs who auditioned for the title role, but was rejected because he was male, his eyes were too big, his head too flat, and a white blaze ran down his forehead. A female prize-winning show collie was hired to play the title character. Weatherwax was hired to train the star, and Pal was hired as a stunt dog. During the course of filming, a decision was made to take advantage of a massive flooding of the San Joaquin River in central California in order to obtain some spectacular footage for the film. The female collie was still in training and refused to enter the raging waters created by the flood. Weatherwax was on the site with Pal and offered to have his dog perform in a five-stage shot in which Pal would swim the river, haul himself out, lie down without shaking the water off his coat, attempt to crawl while lying on his side and finally lie motionless, completely exhausted. Pal performed exceptionally well and the scene was completed in one take. Weatherwax said director Fred M. Wilcox was so impressed with Pal during the sequence that he had "tears in his eyes." In response, producers released the female collie and hired Pal in her stead, reshooting the first six weeks of the filming with Pal now portraying Lassie. Other sources say that the female collie was replaced because she began to shed excessively during shooting of the film in the summer. In any case, MGM executives were so impressed, they upgraded the production to an A film with full advertising support, top publicity and filming in Technicolor. Pal went through his paces with enthusiasm, rarely required multiple retakes, and did his own stunt work. Pal's success in Lassie Come Home in 1943 led to six more MGM films: Son of Lassie (a sequel to Lassie Come Home), Courage of Lassie, Hills of Home, The Sun Comes Up, Challenge to Lassie, and The Painted Hills. In his earlier years with MGM, Rudd Weatherwax was assisted by Frank Inn, who, for fourteen years, trained Lassies and later supplied animals for the 1954 Lassie television series. Following The Painted Hills in 1951, MGM executives felt Lassie had run her course and planned no future films featuring the character. MGM executives then sought a way to break Weatherwax's contract. Weatherwax was concerned about protecting Pal and the Lassie image he had created from future diminishment at the hands of others. In lieu of US\$40,000 in back pay owed him by the studio, Weatherwax bargained for and received the Lassie name and trademark. ## Television series Following their departure from MGM, Pal and Weatherwax went on the road performing an 18-minute program at dog shows and department stores. Television producer Robert Maxwell convinced Weatherwax that Pal's future lay in television. Together, the men created a boy-and-his-dog scenario about a struggling family on a weatherbeaten farm in Middle America. The field for the role of the boy in Lassie was narrowed to three young actors, but the final decision was left to Pal. After spending a week with the boys at Weatherwax's North Hollywood home, Pal seemed to like eleven-year-old Tommy Rettig more than the other two. Rettig won the role based on Pal's response, and filming for the two pilots began in the summer of 1954, with Pal portraying Lassie in both. After viewing the pilots, CBS executives immediately signed the 30-minute show to its fall 1954 schedule. Pal retired after filming the two pilots, and his son, Lassie Junior (who was three years old and had been in training for a couple of years), stepped into the television role. Pal would come to the show's studio home at Stage One of KTTV in Los Angeles every day with his son during filming. He had a bed behind the set, and was respectfully termed The Old Man. Series star Tommy Rettig later recalled, "When Rudd would ask Lassie, Jr. to do something, if you were behind the set, you could see The Old Man get up from his bed and go through the routine back there." ## Death By 1957, Pal was growing blind, deaf, and stiff, and rarely visited the Lassie set. The star of the show Jon Provost later recalled, "As young as I was, I recognized how much that dog meant to Rudd. Rudd loved that old dog as much as anyone could love an animal or person." Pal died of natural causes in June 1958 at age 18, which is about 85 in "dog years" for his Rough Collie breed; and for months Weatherwax slipped in and out of deep depression. Robert Weatherwax, Rudd's son, later recalled, "It hit him very hard when Pal died. He buried him in a special place on the ranch and would often visit the grave. Dad would never again watch an MGM Lassie movie. He just couldn't bear to see Pal. He didn't want to have to be reminded of just how much he loved that dog." ## Legacy In 1950, Rudd Weatherwax and co-author John H. Rothwell co-wrote a book about Pal's life called The Story of Lassie: His Discovery and Training from Puppyhood to Stardom. Several descendants of Pal played the fictional Lassie character following their progenitor's death. On the original television series (1954–73), Pal's son, Lassie Junior, and his grandsons, Spook and Baby, worked the first several seasons. Mire appeared in a few of the Ranger seasons, and Hey Hey worked the final two syndicated seasons. The casting of non-Pal bloodline collies in the role of Lassie has met with protest. In 1997, a Lassie television series debuted on the Animal Planet network but without a Weatherwax-trained dog as Lassie. A protest campaign was waged, and producers brought a ninth generation Weatherwax dog to the show. The 2005–2006 remake of the original Lassie movie provoked comment when a non-Pal bloodline collie was cast in the title role. Robert Weatherwax has disputed the casting of non-Pal bloodline dogs in the role of Lassie. In 2000, the Lassie trademark was sold by the eight remaining members of the Weatherwax family to Classic Media (which in 2012, Classic Media was acquired by DreamWorks Animation and renamed into DreamWorks Classics and ultimately became the property of trademarks' current owners, Universal Studios as of 2016). In 2004, Robert Weatherwax's personal contract to supply a dog to play the role of Lassie ended and neither side pursued a renewal. After several years of stand-in collies that were not related to the line, Classic Media contracted with Carol Riggins, who had been co-trainer with Robert Weatherwax, and her 9th generation dog HeyHey, who had played the role of Lassie during the last 13 episodes of the Canada Lassie series under the Weatherwax Trained Dogs banner. Carol Riggins continues today as the official owner and trainer of Lassie with another "Pal", a 10th generation direct descendant of the original Pal. ## Filmography ### Film ### Television ## See also - List of individual dogs
31,935,881	Peter Dawson (politician)	1,134,711,597	Canadian politician	[ "1892 births", "1963 deaths", "Alberta Social Credit Party MLAs", "People educated at Carrick Academy", "People from Maybole", "Politicians from Edmonton", "Scottish emigrants to Canada", "Speakers of the Legislative Assembly of Alberta" ]	Peter Dawson (April 11, 1892 – March 24, 1963) was a Canadian minister and politician who served in the Legislative Assembly of Alberta. Dawson was born in 1892 in Scotland. After attending schools and briefly working as a labourer and an apprentice to a butcher in Maybole, Dawson immigrated to Canada at the age of 18 with his brother, James Dawson. Shortly after arriving, he took up residence in Ontario where he worked in the automobile profession for seven years until moving west to Alberta in 1918. Following his decision to settle in Calgary, he found employment as a butcher and interest in missionary work. His residence in Calgary, however, didn't last long, as five years later, he moved to the nearby capital city of Edmonton, where he attended Prebysterian schooling. Ordained as a minister of the United Church in 1927, he soon was called in 1928 to Sedgewick, where he remained for two years, before getting called to Champion. Although not intending to have a career in politics, a group of citizens persuaded him to run in the 1935 election, in which he defeated United Farmers Member of the Legislative Assembly (MLA) Oran McPherson by 66% of the vote. In 1937, Dawson was appointed Speaker of the Legislative Assembly of Alberta. During his 26-year tenure, from 1937 until his death in 1963, he witnessed and presided over many events, such as the first instance of crossing the floor in Alberta and naming a fellow MLA for remarks made at a provincial official. He also witnessed two royal visits to Alberta from two different monarchs, King George IV in 1939, and Queen Elizabeth II 20 years later, in which he presided over the installation of a fountain in the Legislature's rotunda. After dying in office in 1963, Dawson was honoured with a state funeral, attended by many prominent citizens of Alberta. ## Early life and career Dawson was born in Slateford, Ayrshire, Scotland, on April 11, 1892 to John and Jane Dawson (née McMurray). He was one of ten children, one of whom was his twin sister who died at the age of five months. John Dawson died in 1900, when Peter was only eight years old; he had worked as a police constable and blacksmith. Dawson attended public schools and attended the Carrick Academy in Maybole. After finishing school, he worked as a farm labourer and a butcher's apprentice. In 1911, Dawson and his brother James sailed on the SS Ionian from Glasgow and arrived in Halifax nine days later. Dawson settled in Ontario and worked at an automobile manufacturer, Tudhope-Anderson, in Simcoe County. Seven years later, in 1918, he moved to Calgary, Alberta, where he worked as a butcher for several years. After five years in Calgary, he moved to Edmonton, where he enrolled in Robertson College, a Prebysterian seminary. He then studied arts and theology at United Theological College, which later become St. Stephen's College, on the University of Alberta campus, where he was the first president of the student council and one of its first graduates in 1927. He was ordained a minister later in the year at Knox United Church in Calgary. ## Politics Although he had no interest in politics at first, Dawson ran in the 1935 election as a Social Credit candidate in the riding of Little Bow, at the urging of a citizens' group. He defeated United Farmers of Alberta candidate and former speaker Oran McPherson by 66% of the vote. Dawson was re-elected seven consecutive times and held his seat for twenty-eight years. ### Speaker of the Legislative Assembly Dawson was elected Speaker of the Legislative Assembly in 1937. In February of the same year, as Speaker-Designate, he arranged the Opening Session of the Legislature to be broadcast on CJCA radio. Dawson and his family frequently took up residence at the Speaker's suite while the Legislature was in session, thus making him readily accessible as Speaker. He was also responsible for many other things, including, though not a part of his official duties, writing the Speech from the Throne, which he compiled from various information from government departments. Dawson's time as speaker saw many firsts in Alberta legislative history; one was the defection in 1937 of cabinet ministers William N. Chant and John Hugill from the Social Credit caucus to sit as independents. This was the first instance of crossing the floor in the province's legislative history. In June 1939, Dawson played a major role in ceremonies at the Legislature during the royal visits of King George VI and Princess (later Queen) Elizabeth. He and his wife acted as their hosts during their visits. He was re-nominated as speaker in 1941 by Premier William Aberhart and in 1945, 1949, 1953, 1955 and 1960 by Premier Ernest Manning. The 1945 nomination was seconded by Leader of the Opposition J. Percy Page, the first time that a nomination had been supported by the Official Opposition. During a debate on child welfare in 1949, Dawson ruled comments by Alberta Liberal Leader James Harper Prowse unparliamentary. Prowse had said: "Members of the Government, not content with hiding behind the skirts of unfortunate women, now cloak themselves behind the diapers of more unfortunate babies." Dawson had also ruled other terms, such as "trickery" and "deaf", unparliamentary during his time as speaker. He was chosen to chair a committee set up in 1951 to revise the rules of the Assembly. During a session on March 21, 1952, Dawson was pushed to name Arthur Wray, MLA for Banff-Cochrane, after Wray made remarks towards a provincial official at a committee meeting. When asked by Dawson to withdraw the remarks, Wray refused, prompting Dawson to name him and order his removal from the chamber. A unanimous motion was later passed to suspend Wray for two sitting days, or until he withdrew his remarks and delivered an apology to the chamber. Wray returned four days later, issuing an apology and retracting his remarks. On February 9, 1956, at the opening of the second session of the 13th Legislature, Dawson accepted a new mace from the Civil Service Association of Alberta on the occasion of the province's 50th anniversary of entry into Confederation. On the occasion of another royal visit in 1959, this time by Prince Philip and Queen Elizabeth, Dawson had a permanent fountain installed in the rotunda of the Legislature. Upon Dawson's 25th anniversary as Speaker, John Wingblade, MLA from Wetaskiwin, presented him with a silver-banded gavel on behalf of all members. He continued to serve as Speaker until his sudden death in 1963, right before the 1963 election. He served for 26 years in total as Speaker, the longest in the history of the Legislative Assembly of Alberta. ## Church career During his time in Calgary, Dawson became interested in missionary work. After being ordained as a minister in 1927, his first call, in 1928, was to Sedgewick, Alberta, where he served two years. He was then called to the United Church in Champion on October 10, 1930; there he conducted services mostly in schoolhouses. In 1954, he went to Carmangay, Alberta in 1954 to serve as a resident minister. He conducted services in various places in Alberta during his 30 years as a minister, ranging from schoolhouses to churches. In some services, he participated in duets and sometimes performed solo, with a strong baritone voice. Dawson continued his service as a minister of the cloth during his political career. He retired from the ministry in 1960 after 33 years of service. ## Personal life On December 26, 1923, in Calgary, Dawson married Hildegarde Christina Hallonquist, whom he had met while serving as a missionary that summer. Hilde was the daughter of Swedish immigrants Johannes and Hanna Hallonquist. Her father, commonly known as John, helped Swedish immigrants settle in Manitoba, and later became a foreman for the Canadian Pacific Railway. Peter and Hilde had two sons, Earland "Earl" McMurray Dawson (1928–2008) and David Gilmour Dawson (born 1933). Both became successful professional engineers in Ontario. Dawson enjoyed a wide range of recreational activities, including golf, curling, badminton and gardening at his home in Vulcan. He took part in the planning and establishment of Little Bow Provincial Park near Champion. He was an active member of the Grand Lodge of Alberta, a fraternal association; he served in the office of Worshipful Master of Champion Lodge in 1947, Grand Chaplain of the Grand Lodge in 1949 and 1950, and Grand Master in 1954 and 1955. He was also active in Shrine and Scottish Rite Lodges. Dawson and his wife moved to Vulcan, Alberta in 1960, where they purchased their first house. Dawson received many honours during his time as Speaker, including a life membership in the Alberta Legislative Press Gallery Association, in which he had served as an honorary president. One year after his death, in 1964, the Vulcan Senior Citizens Centre was named Peter Dawson Lodge in his memory, in a contest to name the facility. ## Death and funeral On March 24, 1963, after a speaking engagement in Red Deer, to the Masons at Lodge Perfection, Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite, to whom he delivered a sermon entitled "We know not the hour!", Dawson suffered a heart attack in the Speaker's Suite in the Legislature Building. Attended by Health Minister Joseph Donovan Ross, he died on the way to University of Alberta Hospital, the only Speaker in the history of the Alberta Legislative Assembly to die in office. His death was announced the next day by Clerk Raymond A. A. Crevolin. After members of the House paid tribute to Dawson, the session was quickly adjourned. On the morning of March 28, his body lay in state in the chamber, the first time a Speaker was so honoured. Several hundred people gathered in the chamber to pay their last respects. His body was then taken to Robertson United Church for the state funeral, with several church, judiciary, and government officials from across the province among the three hundred or so attending, and with Premier Manning officiating and delivering the eulogy. Others in attendance were Lieutenant Governor J. Percy Page and Edmonton mayor Elmer Roper. His body was later transported by train to Vulcan, where, after a second service, he was interred in the Vulcan Cemetery. Soon after his death, Hilde Dawson moved to Lethbridge. Upon her death on June 15, 1987, she was interred beside her husband. ## Legacy Upon Dawson's death, Premier Manning said, "In his passing not only Alberta, but all of Canada has lost one of its outstanding figures. The reputation he built with his fair judgments and honest ability won him the confidence and respect of all members of the Assembly and extended beyond the borders of Alberta." Former Mayor of Edmonton and MLA Elmer E. Roper said, "I doubt if there has ever been anyone who occupied the Speaker's chair in Canada who was more fair and efficient in chairmanship over an assembly then the late Speaker." Dawson's son David recalled his father's personableness in that he "talked easily with complete strangers" and could start up a conversation with anyone he met. Former MLA and future Lieutenant Governor Grant MacEwan likened sitting in the Assembly under Dawson to "attending the school of a strict but well-qualified and kindly teacher."
36,515,114	It's a SpongeBob Christmas!	1,171,155,758	null	[ "2010s American television specials", "2010s animated television specials", "2012 American television episodes", "2012 in American television", "2012 television specials", "American Christmas television episodes", "Christmas television specials", "Clay animation", "Santa Claus in television", "SpongeBob SquarePants episodes", "Stop-motion animated television episodes" ]	"It's a SpongeBob Christmas!" is the 23rd episode of the eighth season, and the 175th episode overall, of the American animated television series SpongeBob SquarePants. It originally aired on CBS in the United States on November 23, 2012, and on Nickelodeon on December 6. In the special, Plankton tries to convince SpongeBob to transform everybody in Bikini Bottom into jerks by feeding them his special jerktonium-laced fruitcakes in order to get his Christmas wish—the Krabby Patty secret formula. The episode was produced in stop motion animation at Screen Novelties, and was directed by Mark Caballero and Seamus Walsh, two of the founders of the company. The animation style was inspired by those of the classic Rankin/Bass television specials. Written by Luke Brookshier, Marc Ceccarelli, Derek Iversen, and Mr. Lawrence, "It's a SpongeBob Christmas!" was based on Tom Kenny and Andy Paley's 2009 song "Don't Be a Jerk (It's Christmas)", which was also featured in the episode. John Goodman guest starred as the voice of Santa Claus. On November 6, 2012, the soundtrack album and the DVD for the episode were released simultaneously. Upon premiere, "It's a SpongeBob Christmas!" attracted nearly five million viewers and met positive critical reception. It received four nominations at the 40th Annie Awards including Best Animated Television Production for Children (with Dan Driscoll winning the Character Animation in an Animated Television or other Broadcast Venue Production category). It was also nominated for Best Sound Editing in Television at the 60th Golden Reel Awards. ## Plot summary In the opening wraparound of the special, Patchy the Pirate and Potty the Parrot are driving in a mail truck which the former had stolen. While arguing about the directions to the North Pole, Potty sees a fork in the road and crashes. During Christmas season in Bikini Bottom, Plankton becomes angry that his evil acts have landed him on Santa Claus' naughty list, and he won't receive his Christmas wish—the Krabby Patty secret formula. However, he discovers jerktonium, an element that can turn anyone nice into a jerk, and plots a scheme. He bakes the jerktonium into fruitcakes he intends to spread around the town. To test it, Plankton lets SpongeBob taste a fruitcake, but learns he is immune to jerktonium. Upset that his plan seemingly failed, Plankton gives his fruitcake dispenser to SpongeBob, who promptly distributes the fruitcakes to all of Bikini Bottom and turns all the residents into jerks. Plankton then sends out an evil wind-up robot SpongeBob to commit troublesome deeds and frame the real SpongeBob. The next day, SpongeBob begins to notice that everyone is acting like jerks. SpongeBob and Sandy Cheeks discover the antidote for jerktonium, and it happens to be a song. SpongeBob begins singing, bringing back the residents' Christmas spirit. Unfortunately, it is too late as Santa Claus arrives and states that everyone including SpongeBob is on his naughty list, except Plankton, who is the only nice person in town. Santa grants Plankton the formula, and tells SpongeBob that he is the worst of them all for wreaking havoc in Bikini Bottom. The SpongeBob robot then arrives to eliminate Santa and destroy more of Christmas. SpongeBob fights and destroys the robot with the fruitcake dispenser, and saves Santa. Santa thanks SpongeBob, and is enraged when he realizes that Plankton was behind the chaos. Plankton loses the formula and is given coal by Santa's Elves. As Patchy is about to give up searching for Santa, he suddenly finds what he believes to be Santa's workshop. He then sees Santa with gifts in a cave and tells him his Christmas wish is to meet SpongeBob. Patchy realizes that he was hallucinating and in reality encountered a polar bear, which starts chasing him. Santa puts Patchy on the naughty list for stealing the mail truck, with he and Potty wishing the audience a Merry Christmas. ## Voice cast ## Production ### Development, writing, and voice casting Luke Brookshier, Marc Ceccarelli, Derek Iversen, and Mr. Lawrence served as the episode's writers, with Brookshier and Ceccarelli serving as storyboard directors. "It's a SpongeBob Christmas!" was based on the 2009 Christmas song "Don't Be a Jerk (It's Christmas)" written by SpongeBob's voice actor Tom Kenny and his writing partner Andy Paley. They wrote it as "...just sort of a little sample calling card of what we were thinking about." The story of the song was conceived with the help of one of the episode's writers Mr. Lawrence. Kenny explained, "...Eventually somebody at Nickelodeon found it [the song] on their desk and decided to make it into a holiday special." The network let Kenny and Paley write three more songs for the upcoming special episode (Nickelodeon eventually decided to release a soundtrack album, which became It's a SpongeBob Christmas! Album, containing the songs to coincide with the episode). "It's a SpongeBob Christmas!" was the first full-length episode of the series to be produced in stop motion animation. Mark Caballero, Seamus Walsh, and Christopher Finnegan animated it at Screen Novelties, while Caballero and Walsh served as the directors. Screen Novelties was chosen by the show's executives to execute the animation because they had already worked with them before in other several smaller projects. These include the revamping of the opening title sequence of the show for 2009's SpongeBob's Truth or Square and the stop motion sequence of The Spongebob Squarepants Movie. Walsh explained, "They dug one of our shorts that we'd done a while back, which was called Graveyard Jamboree with Mysterious Mose, and wanted to have us apply our sensibilities to SpongeBob ... We come from the same planet as far as our sense of humor and comic sensibilities are concerned. But we also wanted to make sure that it felt like a SpongeBob episode." All the main SpongeBob SquarePants cast members lent their voices to the episode. Series executive producer Paul Tibbitt also had a minor speaking role as the voice of Potty the Parrot. In addition to the regular cast, American actor John Goodman guest starred in the episode as the voice of Santa Claus. ### Animation and filming The animators cited the classic television specials Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer and Santa Claus Is Comin' to Town by Rankin/Bass Productions as inspirations for the episode's animation styles. Caballero said, "Well, we are heavily immersed in that particular Arthur Rankin and Jules Bass style. They are big heroes of ours ... So we tapped into that knowledge for sure. We definitely use modern tricks, though. We shot everything with digital cameras directly to the hard drives of our iMacs." Production on the episode officially began in October 2011 at Los Angeles, California, after several months of research and development. The animators worked closely with executive producer Paul Tibbitt, creator Stephen Hillenburg, and creative director Vincent Waller to ensure the cartoon characters were properly translated into three-dimensional puppets. Hillenburg and Tibbitt provided hands-on feedback on the production on a weekly basis. "They'd check out the weeklies and go back and forth with us on the various gags [...] It was really a pleasurable experience when they came to visit, because we come from the same planet. It all felt very easy and natural," Walsh said. About 30 people—whom Walsh described "...seemed to be thrilled to work on the show"—worked on the making of the episode over at Screen Novelties. Walsh described the initial stage of production as "a very busy period for all of us ... We came in at about 8:30 in the morning and didn't leave until midnight some days. But it all zipped by pretty quickly." He said that they "felt pretty lucky because usually executives involved with productions look at the stop-motion process as annoying, but on this special, they were very jazzed and gung-go about it." To keep the production crew in the Christmas spirit, six months worth of Christmas music was played, which included 83 versions of The Nutcracker suite. According to Finnegan, it took about five months to shoot. #### Set construction Caballero and Walsh had conflicts on making sure the stop motion version of Bikini Bottom will resemble the 2D world of the series. Caballero said that "We didn't want to make exact sculptural copies of the cartoon drawings and layouts, just because it might've ended up feeling too 'perfect' or something. So we chose to re-appropriate real world objects as much as possible." Art director Kelly Mazurowski focused on "digging through salvage yards", picking the right materials to be used in the set. Caballero described this process as "'puppetizing' the world of Bikini Bottom." Six sets were constructed on which 60 pounds of baking soda were used as snow (the crew tried to use real snow but it melted), 42 pounds of glitter were used to cover the background, and 20 boxes of breakfast cereal were used to cover the coral rocks. Over 38 different types of foam were used to make the set pieces and the characters' bodies and heads. To render SpongeBob's pineapple house, palm fronds from a tree in a school yard were used. Other props and materials used were an actual starfish, three Christmas trees (for the Patchy the Pirate's Winter Wonderland scenes), six boxes of puff cereal (to create the fruitcake inside SpongeBob's mouth), 21 pounds of googly eyes (for rivets, texture pieces, knobs, etc.), 22 pounds of woodchips (to create Sandy's treedome floor), and 24 bunches of craft flowers (to create the parade float). #### Character design According to Caballero, SpongeBob was the most challenging character to translate to stop motion. It was so "...just because of the sheer number of parts that needed to be made. We wanted to retain as much of that squashy-stretchy goofiness as possible, so he had dozens of replacement parts, like arms, noses, even various sizes of cheeks and freckles. Of course, as the main character, you really want to make sure he will charm the audience, which brings a special kind of pressure." Walsh said, "The most important thing is to capture the spirit of the character, not necessarily a literal copy of the 2D. Puppets have their own kind of energy and you have to be careful about what to include and what to leave out." On the other hand, Patchy the Pirate became the easiest character to make "because he has the most humanoid proportions." ## Release ### Broadcast A sneak-peek trailer for the episode was released in June 2012. On September 9, 2012, "It's a SpongeBob Christmas!" premiered in Israel. On November 23, 2012, "It's a SpongeBob Christmas!" aired on CBS in the United States and on YTV in Canada. It also premiered in the United Kingdom and Ireland on December 2, 2012. On December 6, 2012, "It's a SpongeBob Christmas!" aired on Nickelodeon in the United States, twelve years after the original airing of the first SpongeBob SquarePants Christmas special "Christmas Who?". According to Caballero, the decision to make the episode a CBS prime time special "came along later" and the crew "were stoked when [they] heard the news." He said it may be because "most of the classic Christmas specials like Rudolph [the Red-Nosed Reindeer] , Frosty [the Snowman] . air on that channel. To be included in that line up was far out!" ### Home media and other releases "It's a SpongeBob Christmas!" was released on a DVD compilation of the same name on October 30, 2012, in Canada and on November 6, 2012, in the United States. The DVD features exclusive content including behind-the-scenes making of the special and interviews with the cast and crew, a pre-color animatic, and yule log. The initial announcement of the DVD release stated that it would contain three Christmas specials from T.U.F.F. Puppy, Fanboy & Chum Chum, and The Fairly OddParents as bonus features; however, these were dropped from the actual release. However, the Target exclusive of It's A SpongeBob Christmas! included the Christmas episodes of those shows on a bonus disc. A Blu-ray release was also announced, but was cancelled a week afterwards for unknown reasons; however, on July 22, 2013, Paramount Home Media Distribution announced that the Blu-ray would be released on October 15, 2013. "It's a SpongeBob Christmas!" was released for digital download on October 31, 2012, featuring over 30 minutes of exclusive behind the scenes footage, a sing along version of "Don't Be a Jerk (It's Christmas)," and more. On March 12, 2013, "It's a SpongeBob Christmas!" was released on the SpongeBob SquarePants: The Complete Eighth Season DVD, alongside all episodes of the eighth season. On June 4, 2019, "It's a SpongeBob Christmas!" was released on the SpongeBob SquarePants: The Next 100 Episodes DVD, alongside all the episodes of seasons six through nine. ## Reception ### Ratings In its original airing on CBS on November 23, the episode was viewed by an estimated 3.626 million households and received a 0.9 Nielsen rating and a 3% share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49. On December 8, Saturday, the airing of the episode on Nickelodeon drew 4.8 million viewers making the special win its time period across all television and posted strong, double-digit gains over last year with Kids 2–11 (7.8/2.6 million, +30%), Kids 6–11 (7.7/1.5 million, +45%), Teens 9–14 (5.7/1.2 million, +84%) and Adults 18–49 (1.2/1.3 million, +33%). Nickelodeon closed the week as the most-watched net in total day with kids 2–11 (2.8/936,000) and total viewers (1.8 million). In the United Kingdom, 273,000 viewers watched the episode and 78,000 viewers watched the timeshift broadcast. The broadcast in Canada received 835,000 viewers, the 23rd highest of the week on all Canadian television. In Spain, the premiere on December 20, 2012, received 618,000 viewers making it the 44th highest broadcast for that day. ### Critical reception The special episode received positive reviews from media critics. In his review for the Los Angeles Times, Robert Lloyd wrote, "I felt I'd been somewhere, watching this. When it ended, I was not ready to leave." David Hinckley of the New York Daily News wrote, "It's enough to make you want to dream of a yellow Christmas." Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club called the episode "cute, and goofy and doesn't have a mean bone in its body." Mark Frauenfelder of Boing Boing said that "...they [the animators] perfectly captured the look and feel of those delightful old stop motion specials." Judge Dawn Hunt of DVD Verdict called the episode "a sweet holiday treat, punctuated by musical numbers that'll leave you smiling." He added "If you're looking for a new holiday viewing, 'It's a SpongeBob Christmas!' is definitely worthy of consideration." Paul Mavis of DVD Talk applauded the episode and felt it would become a classic that would be watched every season. Director Walsh said that "Hopefully this will become a new tradition." In her review for the About.com, Nancy Basile's review was mixed to positive and gave the episode a score of four out of five. She wrote, "...though I disagree with a few of the animator's choices, this Christmas special is a treat." Basile criticized its characters especially the use of foam to create the characters and the way Santa Claus was depicted saying "...he looks like a pig with liver spots." The animators responded to this comment about their interpretation of Santa Claus, saying "We definitely wanted to keep an element of strangeness, almost scary aspects in the story." Caballero explained that the idea of making Santa Claus look tired and strange came when they saw a drawing of him by Marc Ceccarelli or Luke Brookshier. Caballero said, "We thought that was a great idea. So we came up with our own little back story where Bikini Bottom is the last stop for Santa. He's tired, he wants to get home, take his shoes off ... We honed in on the old descriptions of Santa being a jolly old elf. We pictured him as humanoid, but not necessarily directly human." ### Accolades ## Merchandise Nickelodeon and Random House released a book based on the episode called It's a SpongeBob Christmas!. The book is illustrated by Heather Martinez and was released on September 10, 2013.
49,601,101	Music of the Parasite Eve series	1,095,044,016	Music of the Parasite Eve video game series	[ "Parasite Eve", "Video game music discographies", "Video game soundtracks" ]	The music of the 1998 role-playing video game Parasite Eve, based on the novel of the same name by Hideaki Sena, was composed by Yoko Shimomura, and was one of her early popular successes. The music for its 1999 sequel Parasite Eve II was composed by Naoshi Mizuta and arranged by Hiroshi Nakajima. The 2010 spin-off title The 3rd Birthday was composed for by Shimomura, Mitsuto Suzuki and Tsuyoshi Sekito. Shimomura's work was described by herself as experimental, and incorporated multiple musical genres including opera music. The score for Parasite Eve was recorded at the Andora Studios in Los Angeles. For Parasite Eve II, Mizuta spent a year and a half on the project, using the game's scenario and visuals as references and taking inspiration from multiple film genres. It was Mizuta's first project after transferring from Capcom to Square Enix (then Square). For The 3rd Birthday, Shimomura worked with Suzuki and Sekito to create a score reminiscent of Parasite Eve, while Japanese rock band Superfly provided the theme song "Eyes on Me". The original Parasite Eve Original Soundtrack album was released in May 1998 through DigiCube. Shimomura also produced an arrange album, Parasite Eve Remixes, which was released through DigiCube in July 1998. The soundtrack album for the second game, Parasite Eve II Original Soundtrack, was released through DigiCube in December 1999. It also released in North America through Tokyopop Soundtrax in September 2000. The third game's soundtrack album, The 3rd Birthday Original Soundtrack, released in December 2010 through Square Enix's music label. The first two game's original soundtracks were reissued through Square Enix in January 2010 due to popular demand, and a limited edition combined album titled Parasite Eve I & II Original Soundtrack Box was released alongside them. While some albums have received mixed responses from critics, the music of the Parasite Eve series has generally received positive reviews, with the score for the first game bringing Shimomura international acclaim. ## Series overview The Parasite Eve video game series is based on the 1995 science fiction novel of the same name by Japanese author Hideaki Sena. The role-playing video game Parasite Eve, was released in 1998 for the PlayStation. Billed as a "cinematic RPG", it was developed by a team of Japanese and North American staff with a western release in mind. Its 1999 sequel, the action role-playing game Parasite Eve II, was designed to be similar to games from the Resident Evil survival horror series. While Parasite Eve II did not leave potential for a sequel, the series was brought back in the form of The 3rd Birthday, a 2010 spin-off for the PlayStation Portable. Initially designed for mobile devices, it was shifted onto the PSP and designed as a disconnected game focusing on the series' main protagonist Aya Brea. All three games were primarily developed by Square Enix. ## Parasite Eve ### Parasite Eve Original Soundtrack The music for Parasite Eve was composed by Yoko Shimomura, who would later become a well-established video game composer through her work on the Kingdom Hearts series. Additional arrangements were done by Shigeo Tamaru. Despite her previous work as lead composer on Super Mario RPG, Parasite Eve became Shimomura's breakout project and garnered her international fame. During her work on Parasite Eve, Shimomura spent time in the United States, which was where much of the game's staff came from. Because of this, Shimomura remembered the game as her most challenging project. She wanted the music to be experimental, not falling into ambient or techno classifications. One of her main goals was to create something "inorganic" and recognizable as a product of Square Enix (then Square). Until Parasite Eve, Shimomura had written music in a straightforward manner that reflected her then-current state of mind, but this time she restrained herself and took a more "emotionless" approach. She felt that this would best represent the game's atmosphere and Aya's stoic attitude. Ultimately, she felt that Parasite Eve was an experimental work in many ways. Due to its prevalence in the story, Shimomura used opera music, but as typical opera music did not translate well into battle themes, Shimomura added different rhythms: these rhythms were inspired when some of the game's American staff took her to a nightclub and she heard the background music there. The music recording took place at the Andora Studios in Los Angeles. Parasite Eve was the first of her projects to include a vocal theme, the ending theme "Somnia Memorias". This was because the PlayStation system was the first to have sufficient processing power for this to be possible. For the vocalist, Shimomura avoided using someone well known. "Somnia Memorias" was sung by Shani Rigsbee, while the vocals for the orchestrated versions of "Influence of Deep" and "Se il Mio Amore Sta Vincino" were provided by Judith Siirila. "Somnia Memorias" was translated and adapted from Japanese into Latin by Raul Ferrando, while "Se il Mio Amore Sta Vincino" was translated by Daniella Spagnolo. The lyrics for all vocal pieces were written by Shimomura. The track "I Hear a Voice Asking Me to Awaken" was an arrangement of Wachet auf, ruft uns die Stimme, BWV 140 by Johann Sebastian Bach. The two-disc album Parasite Eve Original Soundtrack was released through DigiCube on May 21, 1998 under the catalog number SSCX-10020. Due to popular demand from fans, a reprint was issued through the Square Enix label on January 26, 2011 under the catalog number SQEX-10222/3. The music received generally positive reviews from music critics, and helped establish Shimomura as a popular composer with western video game fans. ### Parasite Eve Remixes Parasite Eve Remixes is a ten-track album, featuring remixed versions of themes from Parasite Eve. The remixes were done by Shimomura, Tamaru, Hidenori Iwasaki and Keichi Takahashi. Multiple DJs also contributed, including Tomo, QUADRA, Dan K, Tribal Masters, Kay Nakayama, and Dummy Run. According to Shimomura, the album came about when someone suggested to her creating full remixes of themes rather than making simple rearrangements. Shimomura was in charge of extending and remixing "Aya's Theme", which was the main theme for Parasite Eve. The album was released through DigiCube on July 30, 1998 under the catalog number SSCX-10023. Reviews of the album were mixed, with critics saying that it would not appeal to many and finding some of the remixes odd, repetitive or overly chaotic. ## Other albums ### Parasite Eve II Original Soundtrack The music of Parasite Eve II was written, arranged and produced by Naoshi Mizuta. Parasite Eve II was Mizuta's first project as lead composer at Square after transferring from Capcom. He spent a year and a half working on the soundtrack, frequently referencing the game's scenario and visuals. He was also influenced by multiple unspecified films from multiple genres including action films. He matched his music to the scenario, characters and environments, since he desired to stir the players emotions without distracting from the game. Many of his tracks were created on request, but he otherwise had a high amount of creative freedom. Multiple tracks were remixes and rearrangements of Shimomura's original music for Parasite Eve: according to Mizuta, the arrangements were easy due to the original tracks' strength. In a later interview, Mizuta called his work on Parasite Eve II very different from his later work on Final Fantasy XI and The 4 Heroes of Light. Guitar elements for the tracks "Forbidden Power" and "Douglas' Blues" were performed by Tsuyoshi Sekito and Yuji Isogawa respectively. Arrangements for multiple tracks were done by Hiroshi Nakajima, who later felt that he intentionally "betrayed" Mizuta's work while creating the arrangements. Additional mixing was done by Hiroshi Nakajima and Kenji Nagashima. Sound samples used in some tracks were taken from the Q Ups Art Sonic Images Library CD release. Parasite Eve II Original Soundtrack was released through DigiCube on December 18, 1999 under the catalog number SSCX-10038. The soundtrack was released in North America through Tokyopop Soundtrax. This edition was released on September 12, 2000 under the catalog number TPCD-0200-2. Due to popular demand from fans, a reprint was issued through the Square Enix label on January 26, 2011 under the catalog number SQEX-10224/5. Reception of the music was far less positive than for Parasite Eve, with reviewers generally citing Mizuta's work as weaker than Shimomura's. ### The 3rd Birthday Original Soundtrack The music for The 3rd Birthday was composed by Mitsuto Suzuki and Tsuyoshi Sekito, with additional work by Yoko Shimomura. Shimomura was involved from an early stage, when The 3rd Birthday was still a mobile game. When she was originally asked to compose for the title, she was involved with a number of other projects which made handling the entire score difficult. When asked whether she wanted to work with anyone on the composition, she suggested Suzuki and Sekito. The general instruction was to follow the pattern used by the music for Parasite Eve, with Suzuki and Sekito handling the majority of tracks, going so far as referring to the songs from the original Parasite Eve when handling remixes of old themes. In keeping with the game's other development goals, Shimomura wanted to alter some of the established music, although she asked the team to include familiar themes from earlier games for fans. When she started out, she knew nothing about the game's story, but became familiar with it later in development and also found the project less challenging than she initially anticipated. Suzuki was responsible for a large amount of track mixing. Sekito was mostly involved with choosing and helping with instrumentation, in particular whether to include symphonic music. The composers had a relatively high degree of freedom, but they also had problems when composing some tracks that did not fit into selected scenes. Re-orchestrations of two pieces of classical music, "Sleepers Wake" by Johann Sebastian Bach and popular Christmas song "Joy to the World", were used by Suzuki and Shimomura respectively to represent key moments and motifs within the game. The order of songs in the game was created to reflect the situation in a level. These variations were emphasized during mixing, while they also needed to adjust the mixing and track length based on the game as a whole. For the game's theme song, Square Enix collaborated with Japanese rock band Superfly. The resultant theme song "Eyes on Me", described as a "standard love song", was specially composed by the band for the game. It was the band's first video game theme song. The 3rd Birthday Original Soundtrack was released on December 22, 2010 through Square Enix's music label, under the catalog number SQEX-10217\~19. "Eyes on Me" was released as a separate single alongside another of Superfly's songs. Upon release, it peaked at \#5 in the Oricon music charts, and remained in the charts for eleven weeks. The album received positive reviews from music journalists, with critics generally calling it a high quality album with strong music overall. Reviews of "Eyes on Me" were negative, with reviewers faulting both the quality of the song and its appropriateness within the game's context. ### Parasite Eve I & II Original Soundtrack Box Parasite Eve I & II Original Soundtrack Box is a combined album featuring the re-releases of the first two Parasite Eve soundtracks. It was released on January 26, 2011. Reviews of the boxset were mixed: while some considered both soundtracks to be good and contrast each other, others considered Parasite Eve II to be weaker and a detriment to the experience.
59,196,044	On Fire (Loïc Nottet song)	1,107,687,795	null	[ "2018 singles", "2018 songs", "Electropop songs", "Loïc Nottet songs", "Songs written by Loïc Nottet", "Songs written by Sacha Skarbek" ]	"On Fire" is a song recorded by Belgian singer Loïc Nottet, and released for digital download on 30 November 2018 by Sony Music Entertainment as the second single from his second studio album Sillygomania. It was written by Nottet along with Sacha Skarbek, while production was handled by Skydancers. Musically, "On Fire" is a midtempo, urban-inspired electropop song similar to Nottet's past work. Its lyrics are directed at the criticism the singer had received during his career, and discuss topics such as worthlessness, perseverance and rebirth. Four personalities are reflected on the track, as Nottet wanted to personify the moods he was in while composing the song. Upon its release, "On Fire" received praise from one music critic for Nottet's vocal delivery and the lyrical content, while others likened the single to the singer's debut studio album Selfocracy (2017) and to the music of Sia. An accompanying music video for "On Fire" was uploaded onto Nottet's YouTube channel on 7 December 2018 and was directed by Skarbek. Featuring a message of courage and strength, it depicts Nottet encountering a faux dragon and eventually managing to tame it. For further promotion, the singer delivered multiple live performances of "On Fire" on several radio stations. It commercially experienced moderate success in Belgium's Wallonia and Flanders regions. ## Background and composition After conducting his Selfocracy Tour (2017–2018) in support of his debut studio album Selfocracy (2017), Loïc Nottet took a nearly one-year hiatus in order to work on material for his second record. "On Fire", the first single from the project, was made available for digital download on 30 November 2018 by Sony Music Entertainment. It was written by Nottet along with Sacha Skarbek, while Skydancers handled the production. Laurent Wilthien, Matthieu Tosi and Jean Noël Wilthien played electric guitar and keyboards; the latter also provided percussion. Nottet and Skarbek had scheduled a songwriting session in London, where the singer arrived with already written sentences and text. Together, the two "rebuilt everything stone by stone". Lyrically, "On Fire" reflects four personalities, "the charmer, the child, the clown and the lonely melancholy", as Nottet wanted to personify the moods he was in while composing the song. During its first verse, Nottet discusses the emotions of a little boy "too different to belong, too lonely to be strong", while in the second one he switches to a little girl "from a broken family with a silent fantasy". The singer explores themes of worthlessness as he sings, "he said that falling down, it wouldn’t make a sound". Lyrics from the track's refrain include: "I'm burnin' I'm on fire/Here I am, inside the flames/I don't care anymore, don't need your oxygen/I'm burning in a new way/Here I am, taming the flames/Not afraid anymore/Strong like a warrior". Alongside rebirth, Nottet also discusses perseverance, eventually asserting that he will "get back up" and "light up like a flare". "On Fire" is directed at the criticism the singer had received throughout his career. Nouma Foé, an editor of Chérie FM, interpreted the lyrics of "On Fire" differently: "[They] tell the story of a man abandoned by a woman, who decides to dive straight ahead in hell, and ends up losing himself because he lost the love of his life." Musically, the song follows the path of Nottet's past work, incorporating "electronic flourishes and adventurous instrumentation". Starting with a "peaceful" instrumental sequence, "On Fire" has been described as a midtempo, urban-inspired electropop song. In an interview, Nottet revealed that he wanted to create a pop recording that still differed from the material on Selfocracy. ## Reception Jonathan Currinn of CelebMix praised Nottet's "near-perfect" and emotional vocal delivery in "On Fire", while also commending the lyrical content. PureMédias's Yohann Ruelle likened the urban influences in the song to those presented in "Doctor" (2017), while Julien Goncalves of the same publication noticed similarities between "On Fire" and the music of Australian singer Sia. Antranig Shokayan, writing for Wiwibloggs, likened the lyrical message of "On Fire" to the themes explored on Nottet's Selfocracy, particularly to "Million Eyes" (2016). Commercially, "On Fire" reached number ten in Wallonia and number eight on the Flemish Ultratip, an extension to the main Ultratop ranking. It was nominated in the Hit of the Year category at the 2020 D6bels Music Awards. ## Promotion Nottet performed "On Fire" several times. He first appeared on Radio Contact on 6 December 2018 to sing the track, and the following day on MNM, Madmoizelle Music, and NRJ Belgium. Later that month, Nottet also performed "On Fire" on Virgin Radio. An accompanying music video directed by Skarbek was uploaded onto Nottet's YouTube channel on 7 December 2018, and was teased through a series of 87 images on his Instagram, forming a comic based on the clip's plot. It takes place in what was described by a reviewer as an "imaginary and rather strange world"; Nottet pointed out the use of several colors and handmade decoration to achieve this aesthetic. For the music video, the singer changed his hair color to blonde, saying: "I just wanted to change, [...] to have a new look for a new project in my personal career." The visual starts with Nottet and fellow background dancers walking through a hallway filled with balloons, which leads to a room decorated with silver material. They perform choreography as four people wearing black suits enter the room, carrying a faux dragon which blows fire at them. Nottet and his dancers collapse to the ground, but after performing another set of choreography around the faux dragon, the singer reaches for it and puts his right hand over its jaws. Lola Maroni of Purebreak called the video "hyper artistic" and wrote that it moved away from the reality presented in Nottet's past work to focus more on the fictitious. In an interview, the singer labelled it a risky release due to the difference to his other videos, recalling that "it either works or it breaks." He elaborated on the clip's message: > "The clip [...] features a dragon that [each character has] to face. At the end of the video, I finally manage to tame it. For me, this dragon symbolizes the problems that I had to face in my life. The dragon causes fear, which makes it difficult to approach. This is often the case in real life with our problems. But we see at the end of the clip that I become friends with the dragon. It simply means that you have to face your problems. Go beyond the fear they cause. [It] represents a message of courage and strength." ## Track listing - Digital download 1. "On Fire" – 3:47 ## Credits and personnel Credits adapted from Hung Medien and YouTube. - Loïc Nottet – lead vocals, songwriter - Max von Ameln – recording engineer - Jukka Jahnukainen – recording engineer - Ken Lewis – mixing engineer - Randy Merrill – mastering engineer - Sacha Skarbek – songwriter - Skydancers – producer, recording engineer - Matthieu Tosi – electric guitar, keyboards, programmer - Jean Noël Wilthien – electric guitar, keyboards, programmer, percussion - Laurent Wilthien – electric guitar, keyboards, programmer ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Release history
34,604,174	Behind That Locked Door	1,146,853,966	null	[ "1970 songs", "British country music songs", "George Harrison songs", "Music published by Harrisongs", "Song recordings produced by George Harrison", "Song recordings produced by Phil Spector", "Songs written by George Harrison" ]	"Behind That Locked Door" is a song by English rock musician George Harrison from his 1970 triple album All Things Must Pass. Harrison wrote the song in August 1969 as a message of encouragement to Bob Dylan, who was making a highly publicised comeback to the concert stage, accompanied by the Band, with a headlining performance at the Isle of Wight Festival. "Behind That Locked Door" is a rare Harrison composition in the country music genre and the second song dealing with the friendship between himself and Dylan, after their 1968 collaboration "I'd Have You Anytime". Its lyrics address Dylan's elusive nature, and reflect the high regard in which Harrison held the American singer's work. The same reluctance on Dylan's part to re-engage with a concert audience led to him retreating again from live performance until August 1971, when he responded to Harrison's request to play at the Concert for Bangladesh. Harrison recorded "Behind That Locked Door" in London early in the summer of 1970, shortly after taking part in a session for Dylan's New Morning album in New York. Co-produced by Phil Spector, the recording features a prominent contribution from Nashville pedal steel virtuoso Pete Drake, and twin keyboard parts from Gary Wright and Billy Preston in the tradition of the Band, whose sound influenced Harrison's arrangement. With its understated performance, the track is a comparatively rare departure from the big production commonly associated with All Things Must Pass. On release, Alan Smith of the NME described the song as "a tremendous piece of country-meets-Hawaii" and recommended that it be sent to country singer Slim Whitman "without further delay". An alternate take of "Behind That Locked Door" appears on the 2012 Harrison compilation Early Takes: Volume 1. Olivia Newton-John, Jim James, the Felice Brothers and Norah Jones are among the artists who have covered the song. ## Background In mid August 1969, Bob Dylan had confounded the media's expectations by shunning the Woodstock Festival, an event he had helped to inspire. Instead, after three years in virtual seclusion with his family, Dylan decided to make his comeback a fortnight after Woodstock, by headlining the Isle of Wight Festival at Wootton, just off the south coast of England. Now a popular act in their own right, the Band agreed to back Dylan for the performance, just as they had (as the Hawks) on his controversial 1966 world tour. In a repeat of his UK concerts from 1966, leading figures in the English music scene began to gather on the island to show their support for Dylan, the singer widely considered "the minstrel to a generation". Alone among the many celebrity guests, George Harrison had spent time with Dylan during his period away from the limelight, in Bearsville, near Woodstock. In between promoting Radha Krishna Temple (London)'s debut single on Apple Records, his own production of "Hare Krishna Mantra", Harrison and wife Pattie Boyd stayed with Dylan's family at Forelands Farm, near Bembridge, during the week preceding the festival. The two musicians strengthened the bond they had established in upstate New York and were heard performing near-perfect impersonations of the Everly Brothers in the farmhouse. In addition to a crowd estimated at 200,000, a group of 300 American journalists descended on the Isle of Wight, adding unwelcome pressure on Dylan. In the days leading up to his performance on Sunday, 31 August, the British press dubbed the event "D Day", in reference to the Allies' invasion of German-occupied France in June 1944; in the words of music journalist John Harris, "Dylan's show had by now been inflated into the gig of the decade." As a further impediment to Dylan's planned comeback, audiences in 1969 expected to hear the rock music associated with his and the Hawks' 1965–66 tours, a style that he had abandoned with his recent country album, Nashville Skyline. This contrast was encouraged by the organisers' promotional campaign for the event, particularly in the design for the official festival posters. Referring to Dylan's more conservative 1969 image, author Clinton Heylin writes: "There was little doubt that this was a different Dylan, even if the graphic on the fluttering posters advertising the festival was a stark black-and-white shot of a beshaded Dylan in classic '66 pose." The arrival of Harrison's fellow Beatles John Lennon and Ringo Starr, on Saturday, 30 August, added to the heightened speculation that one or more members of the band might make a guest appearance with Dylan the following evening. Harrison gifted Dylan his vintage Gibson J-200 acoustic guitar before the show and was then taken aback that Dylan arranged for "Hare Krishna Mantra" to be played over the PA before he and the Band went on stage. Mukunda Goswami, one of the six pioneer devotees who founded the Hare Krishna movement's London temple and who played on the recording, has identified this exposure as reflective of how the ancient Maha Mantra "penetrated British society" as a result of the Harrison-produced single. Harrison watched Dylan's performance from the VIP enclosure, an experience that informed the lyrics to a new composition, "Behind That Locked Door". ## Composition Harris describes "Behind That Locked Door" as a "sweet acknowledgement of Dylan's shyness". According to Harrison's recollection in a December 2000 interview for Billboard magazine, he began writing the song the night before Dylan played. Further to the statement of friendship in their 1968 collaboration "I'd Have You Anytime" – which Harrison began as a way of getting Dylan to let down his guard and "Let me in here" – in "Behind That Locked Door", he urges Dylan to confide in a friend and "let out your heart". Author Ian Inglis notes the Isle of Wight performance as having been a "hugely important and anxious occasion" for Dylan and views Harrison's opening verse as a "personal plea" for him to "pull out of his depression, to face the world again, and to look to the future". After asking "Why are you still crying?", Harrison assures Dylan that "The love you are blessed with / This world's waiting for ..." In the second verse, Harrison sings of how he values Dylan's friendship, together with "the tales you have told me / From the things that you saw". For much of his career, Harrison repeatedly identified Dylan as one of his biggest musical influences, along with Ravi Shankar. To Inglis, these verse-two lines reflect the level of Harrison's respect for his work, since "while millions of others may look to the Beatles for guidance, he looks to Dylan". Harrison musical biographer Simon Leng observes that, in the "counseling" Harrison gives Dylan in "Behind That Locked Door", he anticipates his own "slough of despond" during 1973–75. This self-styled "naughty period" of Harrison's coincided with the failure of his marriage to Boyd and a fall from grace with music critics following his 1974 "Dark Horse Tour" – a tour on which, similar to Dylan in 1969, Harrison defied public expectation and attempted to break from his Beatle past. In the final verse to "Behind That Locked Door", he asks for Dylan's support in such a scenario: > And if ever my love goes > If I'm rich or I'm poor > Come and let out my heart, please, please > From behind that locked door. Musically, the song is set in a slow, country-waltz time signature with, as Leng observes, melody and lyrics working "in tandem". Within each couplet, a rising musical figure presents the "problem" ("Why are you still crying?"), while the second line consists of a "falling melodic consolation" ("Your pain is now through"). In his 1980 autobiography, Harrison offers little comment about "Behind That Locked Door", aside from identifying the inspiration behind the song and admitting: "It was a good excuse to do a country tune with pedal steel guitar." ## Aftermath to the Isle of Wight Festival Dylan's set at the festival was roundly viewed as anticlimactic, if not a "Midnight Flop!", in the opinion of one British tabloid. Having recently told Rolling Stone editor Jann Wenner that he would return to touring that autumn, Dylan abandoned the idea and also cancelled the proposed live album from his Isle of Wight performance. Showing support for Dylan in the fallout from his comeback, in a late 1969 interview, Harrison included the American singer in his personal list of essential contemporary rock artists, saying: "The Beatles, [the] Stones, Bob Dylan, Eric Clapton and Delaney & Bonnie, and that's it. Who needs anything else?" Inglis highlights "Behind That Locked Door" as an example of how Harrison's songwriting reflects his "fondness" for family and close friends. Dylan's reluctance to perform live again was only broken by his friendship with Harrison, when the latter persuaded him to play at the Concert for Bangladesh shows in New York in August 1971. Although Dylan had been noncommittal about playing at that event until the last minute, a mutual friend of his and Harrison's, journalist Al Aronowitz, had assured Boyd, "Bob wouldn't let George down"; another performer at the shows, drummer Jim Keltner, has said that Dylan felt a special closeness towards Harrison as a result of the Concert for Bangladesh. Four years later, while Harrison was dejected following what author Elliot Huntley terms the "tsunami of bile that the Dark Horse album had unleashed", he spent considerable time with Dylan in Los Angeles. According to Mukunda Goswami, speaking in a 1982 interview with Harrison, Dylan became a regular visitor to the Los Angeles Radha Krishna temple and embraced the practice of chanting. ## Recording Following the Beatles' break-up in April 1970, and shortly before beginning work on All Things Must Pass, Harrison participated in a recording session in New York for Dylan's New Morning album. Among the many tracks they played were "Working on the Guru", Dylan's "gentle prod" at Harrison's association with the Hare Krishna movement, Harris writes, and "If Not for You", a new Dylan song that Harrison decided to cover on his own album. Dylan also supplied him with a phone number for Pete Drake, the Nashville-based pedal-steel guitarist and record producer whose work had graced "Lay Lady Lay" and other songs on Nashville Skyline. Harrison later praised Drake's pedal steel playing as "the bagpipes of country & western music". Working at Abbey Road Studios in London with co-producer Phil Spector, Harrison recorded "Behind That Locked Door" during the first batch of sessions for All Things Must Pass, between late May and early June 1970. It was one of the relatively few songs on the album to use a country/folk sound, as opposed to the Wall of Sound production aesthetic typical of Spector. Drake's pedal steel features strongly on the recording, providing a commentary to Harrison's vocal in the verses, as well as a mid-song solo, supported by Hammond organ from Billy Preston, and Gary Wright on piano. The arrangement for "Behind That Locked Door" reflected the enduring influence of the Band's sound on Harrison – through the use of two keyboard players, acoustic guitars, and a restrained backing from the rhythm section, comprising Klaus Voormann on bass and, in Huntley's description, Alan White's "shuffle beat" drums. For some years after the song's release, rumours claimed that it was the Band themselves backing Harrison on the track. Peter Frampton played acoustic guitar on the song, as he did on all the tracks recorded with Drake, although his name did not appear on the album credits. Harrison overdubbed all the backing vocals (which he credited on the album to "the George O'Hara-Smith Singers"). Spector later expressed his admiration for Harrison's willingness to "experiment upon experiment" with his harmony singing on All Things Must Pass. ## Release and reception "Behind That Locked Door" was released as the third track on side two of Harrison's All Things Must Pass triple album, in November 1970. Ian Inglis writes of its position in the track order: "In the middle of an album whose songs sweep across the grand themes of history, religion, love, sex, and death, ['Behind That Locked Door'] is a surprising and touching gesture of simple friendship from one man to another." The release followed speculation in the music press regarding the Dylan–Harrison joint session in May, and conversely, the critics' lambasting of Dylan's Self Portrait double album, released in June 1970. In his review of All Things Must Pass, the NME's Alan Smith declared "Behind That Locked Door" a "standout" and "a tremendous piece of country-meets-Hawaii, which should be sent to Slim Whitman without further delay". Less impressed, Ben Gerson of Rolling Stone dismissed the song as "an inexplicable bit of C&W schlock", although he said that it had a "lovely, lilting background vocal". Later in the 1970s, Beatles Forever author Nicholas Schaffner highlighted "Behind That Locked Door" and the other Dylan-influenced songs on All Things Must Pass as being "far more intimate, both musically and lyrically, than the rest of the album". Reviewers and biographers in the 21st century invariably recognise its place among Bob Dylan's work on his John Wesley Harding (1967) and Nashville Skyline albums. Writing in Goldmine magazine in 2002, Dave Thompson remarked: "indeed, this tribute to Dylan's famous reticence sounds so close to a lost Zim original that His Bobness' own 'Baby, Stop Crying' (from 1978's Street Legal) is all but reduced to tributary status itself in comparison." Author Alan Clayson approves of the more "understated production aesthetic" next to what he views as an at-times "bloated" sound found elsewhere on All Things Must Pass. Simon Leng also acknowledges Harrison's success in "temper[ing] Phil Spector's taste for the extreme" and describes "Behind That Locked Door" as one of its composer's "more attractive" songs, with a fine lead vocal. "[It] is refreshing to hear Harrison singing about another's pain," Leng adds, "suggesting that, unlike some of his contemporaries, he was able to displace himself as the center of his universe for a moment or two at least." In his book Phil Spector: Out of His Head, Richard Williams identifies "Behind That Locked Door" as an example of "how sympathetic to the performer" Spector could be as a producer, in this case, by giving the recording a "mellow, autumnal mix" that "beautifully display[s]" Drake's pedal steel. Elliot Huntley writes that the track provides a showcase for Harrison's "melodic flair", as well as a reason to wonder why the ex-Beatle did not record more songs in the country-music genre, since "certainly he seems perfectly at home in these comfortable surroundings". Huntley speculates on the "interesting" possibility of a whole LP side of similar "ersatz country and western" tracks, as the Rolling Stones would do on their Exile on Main St. double album in 1972. Harrison biographer Joshua Greene describes the song as a celebration of "love's victory over pain". Music historian Andrew Grant Jackson includes the song, along with ten other All Things Must Pass tracks, in his 2012 book Still the Greatest: The Essential Solo Beatles Songs. He admires the interplay between pedal steel and organ, and comments that with his 1970 triple album, Harrison was effectively escaping "that locked door" himself, since: "He was the Dave Grohl of his day, rising from the ashes of a group in which he was a secondary member to dominate the charts with statements he could never have made from within his former band." In 2015, "Behind That Locked Door" was included on the album Dylan, Cash, and the Nashville Cats: A New Music City, released to accompany the similarly titled exhibition at the Country Music Hall of Fame. Commenting on the track's sequencing before Starr's "Beaucoups of Blues", Jamie Parmenter of Renowned for Sound writes that "George's sweet harmonies and insightful lyrics sit pleasantly against Ringo's upbeat tempo song of love and retribution, and actually create a sense of togetherness when heard next to each other." ## Alternative version In November 2011, an early take of "Behind That Locked Door", featuring Harrison's vocal backed by just two acoustic guitars and Drake's pedal steel, was included in the British deluxe-edition CD/DVD release of Martin Scorsese's Living in the Material World documentary. This version appeared worldwide on the Early Takes: Volume 1 compilation in May 2012. Giles Martin, who went through Harrison's musical archive at Friar Park while compiling the album, notes the "folk-tinged spoken word quality" of Harrison's singing on this take, an example of "a kind of conversational intimacy" that he brought to his recordings. Rolling Stone critic David Fricke describes this version of the song as a "sweet Nashville reading". Andy Gill of The Independent found it a "particularly engaging" inclusion on a compilation that allows "the sweeter side of George Harrison's character to shine unencumbered by studio blandishments". ## Cover versions Among the country artists who covered the song, Olivia Newton-John released a version on her 1972 album Olivia, which also includes her recording of the All Things Must Pass track "What Is Life". Drake himself recorded "Behind That Locked Door", as well as Harrison's "Isn't It a Pity" and "Something", although the recordings remained unissued until the release of the Pete Drake album, nine years after his death in July 1988. Christian alt rock band the Choir covered the song on their 1989 album Wide-Eyed Wonder. Following Harrison's death in November 2001, Jim James recorded "Behind That Locked Door" for what became a six-song Harrison covers EP, released as Tribute To in August 2009. Summer Hymns included the song on their 2004 album Value Series, Vol. 1: Fool's Gold, a recording that Uncut's reviewer deemed "the finest George Harrison cover ever ... all marshmallow limbs in zero-gravity limbo". Sam Ubl of Pitchfork commented on Summer Hymns' progression towards country rock and described "Behind That Locked Door" as an "ideal song" for the band, adding that their interpretation is "warmly rife with gilt pedal steel and [Zachary] Gresham's understated yet moving vocals". Tying in with the release of Scorsese's George Harrison: Living in the Material World, a version by the Felice Brothers appeared on the multi-artist tribute Harrison Covered, a CD accompanying the November 2011 issue of Mojo magazine. Singer Norah Jones performed "Behind That Locked Door" on the TBS television show Conan on 25 September 2014. Her appearance was part of the show's "George Harrison Week", celebrating the release of the Harrison box set The Apple Years 1968–75. ## Personnel The musicians who performed on "Behind That Locked Door" are believed to be as follows: - George Harrison – vocals, acoustic guitars, backing vocals - Pete Drake – pedal steel - Peter Frampton – acoustic guitar - Gary Wright – piano - Billy Preston – organ - Klaus Voormann – bass - Alan White – drums
917,166	Bergen Line	1,172,501,689	Railway line in Norway	[ "1909 establishments in Norway", "Articles containing video clips", "Bergen Line", "Electric railways in Norway", "Railway lines in Vestland", "Railway lines in Viken", "Railway lines opened in 1909", "Standard gauge railways in Norway" ]	The Bergen Line or the Bergen Railway (Norwegian: Bergensbanen or Nynorsk: Bergensbana), is a 371-kilometre (231 mi) long scenic standard gauge railway line between Bergen and Hønefoss, Norway. The name is often applied for the entire route from Bergen via Drammen to Oslo, where the passenger trains go, a distance of 496 kilometres (308 mi). It is the highest mainline railway line in Northern Europe, crossing the Hardangervidda plateau at 1,237 metres (4,058 ft) above sea level. The railway opened from Bergen to Voss in 1883 as the narrow gauge Voss Line. In 1909 the route was continued over the mountain to Oslo and the whole route converted to standard gauge, and the Voss Line became part of the Bergen Line. The line is single track, and was electrified in 1954–64. The Bergen Line is owned and maintained by Bane NOR, and served with passenger trains by Vy Tog and freight trains by CargoNet. The Flåm Line remains as the only branch line, after the closure of the Hardanger Line. The western section from Bergen to Voss is also served by the Bergen Commuter Rail, and was shortened following the 1966 opening of the Ulriken Tunnel. ## History ### The Voss Line The first documented idea of building a railway between Norway's two largest cities was launched by Hans Gløersen on 24 August 1871 in Bergensposten. The forest supervisor in Voss suggested building the railway via Voss and Hallingdal to connect with the Krøderen Line. Back in 1866 the same person had launched the idea of the Jæren Line. Within days of the launch of the Bergen Line the city council had assimilated support for the suggestion. In 1872 the railway director Carl Abraham Pihl and two engineers went on a survey tour to look at the suggested line. At the time it was common that proposals for railways came from local initiative, and that local municipalities and private investors would then pay about 20% of the investments, the state covering the rest, mostly through foreign debt. #### Political processes On 20 October 1871 two engineers traversed the two possible routes from Bergen to Voss; the one via Fana, Os and Hardangerfjord, the other via Dale and Sørfjord. Though covering a less populated area, the latter would be cheaper to build, and have less elevation. A railway committee was created on 25 January 1872 with a limited mandate, which was increased again 20 December. At the same time there was a dispute between the Ministry of Labour and Pihl about whether to prioritize the Bergen Line, but in July 1872 surveys were performed in person by Pihl and two engineers, and their report was positive. At the same time he launched the idea of a branch line up Valdres to Lærdal. By 1873 agreement had been reached as to the right-of-way to Voss, but not onwards towards Oslo. On 13 January 1874 Bergen city council started issuing stock for the Voss Line, to begin with 400,000 Norwegian speciedaler (NOK 1.6 million) was issued. In the 1873 parliamentary election the railway supporter Peter Jebsen was elected, spending the next few years furiously defending the railway. Parliament chose to not issue new railway projects in the 1874 session, and instead make a complete plan for all railway construction in the country—to be proposed by a committee. When the report was launched on 20 March 1875, the Voss Line was not included since it could not show a higher profitability than 1%. During the 1875 session there was not a majority for the Voss Line, partially due to the lack of capital available for local investors. This was based on a claim from Johan Jørgen Schwartz, the chairman of the committee, that the investment costs were underestimated. This was countered by Nils Henrik Bruun, a constructor from Bergen, who was willing to construct all tunnels on the railway for less than the budgeted sum. When Jebsen in addition was willing to act as personal guarantee for Bruun in case of his death, the majority in the parliament shifted. On 9 June 1875 parliament voted with 61 against 42 to build Vossebanen. #### Construction Vossebanen was built with narrow gauge, . The first parts of the construction started in December 1875, while the largest part started in March 1876. During the winter the engineers had done the last finesses on the plans. At any given time at least 800 men worked on construction, and at the peak 1,800 men were employed. They worked 12 hours per day, for which they had a daily wage of NOK 2.55, the highest wage for navvies in the country. To a large extent the labor came from Sweden, who had just finished the Norway/Vänern Line and had an excess of skilled labor for construction. This import of labor had the effect of pumping money into the local economy, and several taverns were built along the line. There were some accidents, and several deaths among the workers. The construction work was finished in 1882 and some test services began, though not scheduled until the spring of 1883. Official opening commenced on 11 July 1883. Many of the navvies settled on Vossebanen after construction, and started working for the Norwegian State Railways (NSB) as part of the operation. ### Construction of the Bergen Line By the time the Voss Line was completed Norway had entered a recession. Parliament was not willing to give more money to railways, and the country had to make do with a transport plan launched in 1886 that did not follow up with any funding. On 1 March 1894 parliament after five days of debate chose, with 60 against 53 votes, to build the Bergen Line. Several different routes had been proposed, including over Krøderen, or down Numedal (which later would get the Numedal Line). In the end Hallingdal was chosen, connecting to Hønefoss and via Sandvika. To save costs a preliminary line would connect Hønefoss to Roa with the branch Roa–Hønefoss Line. The final stage would be along the Gjøvik Line to Oslo. The line would also connect to the system via the Randsfjorden Line at Hønefoss. Local financing was ready within a year, yet it took six years to survey the line properly, and construction start had to wait until 1901. Construction started with the building of roads to get in supplies to the construction sites, completed in 1902. The construction was exceptionally challenging, at high altitudes in a region without roads and with a climate that saw many meters of snow in the winter and temperatures far below freezing. 113 tunnels, totaling 28 kilometres (17 mi) had to be built; the longest being the 5,311 metres (17,425 ft) Gravehalsen Tunnel, alone costing NOK 3 million and the longest tunnel north of the Alps. It took six years to build, and had to be excavated manually through solid gneiss. Laying of track was started in 1906, and in 1907 the two groups, both having started at their own end, met at Ustaoset. A small celebration was made at the spot (see image). It had been decided that the Bergen Line, unlike the Voss Line, was to be built with standard gauge. So, the newly laid line from Bergen to Voss had to be converted in time for the opening of the Bergen Line. This was especially challenging because of the continuous traffic on the line, with 36 departures per day to Nesttun, six to Garnes and four to Voss. In preparation a few curves had to be straightened, the tunnels widened and the bridges strengthened. On the night of 10/11 August 1904 all the track was changed and in the morning the trains could operate on standard gauge to Voss. The first services started on 1 July 1907 from Voss to Myrdal. An official opening train attempted to cross part of the line to Gulsvik on 9 December 1907, but got stuck in heavy snow and had to return. It turned out that the railway had to close and it took one and a half months to clear it for snow. Even a rotary snowplow at 750 kW was not powerful enough to get rid of the snow. A new attempt to open the line in 1908 succeeded, and a train went from Gulsvik to Bergen. The line from Roa to Gulsvik was still under construction, so passage was along the Drammen Line via the Krøder Line with ship over Krøderen to Gulsvik. The first scheduled train from Oslo West Station en route to Bergen departed 10 June 1908. On 25 November 1909 a train en route from Bergen rolled into Oslo Østbanestasjon, and two days later the railway was officially opened at Voss. King Haakon VII stated upon the opening that the line was the Norwegian engineering masterpiece of his generation. ### World War Two In World War II, during the German occupation of Norway, it was a demanding time for the Norwegian State Railways as a whole. This railway line was also very busy. The track was in heavy use for both German military and civilian transportation, and much of the equipment and maintenance was lacking. On 28 February 1944, a descending eastbound freight train loaded with oil and petrol lost its braking power and became a runaway train, finally ploughing into a westbound passenger train at Breifoss, just east of Geilo. The crash and subsequent fire killed 25 civilians and an unknown number of German soldiers. Poor lubrication oil combined with the cold weather is believed to have caused the accident. ### Post-war electrification With Norway's abundance of hydroelectricity and the high cost of importing coal to run the steam locomotives, there was considerable economic benefit to be realised by electrifying the line. Plans for the electrification of the line had existed since the line was opened. In 1912 the line from Nesttun to Bergen was proposed electrified and rebuilt to double track, following the opening of the electrified Thamshavn Line in 1908. During the planning of the Hardanger Line and the Flåm Line during the 1930s it was again proposed to electrify the line. However, although both the branch lines were built with electric traction, the main line was not. Counter-suggestions were raised proposing a conversion to the locomotives running on oil or coal dust. In 1939 a plan for national electrification was launched, and the Voss Line was top priority. But the breakout of World War II set the plans back, and not until the 1950s was it again possible to afford such investments. Vossebanen took electric traction into use on 2 July 1954. The electricity is supplied via an overhead line. In 1952 a new plan was launched by parliament to electrify 1,153 kilometres (716 mi) of railway, with the line from Voss to Hønefoss prioritized fourth. This section of the line was considered "difficult" because of tight curves, difficult track alignment; and also that the Overhead line might be vulnerable to bad weather, particularly snow and ice. A test 16.5KV transformer was set up at Finse to see if the catenary could be kept ice-free, and it could. The following year NSB launched the "away with the steam" campaign that would replace all steam locomotives with electric or diesel traction. Since electrification was not imminent, the NSB introduced diesel traction on the Bergen Line in 1958, predominantly using Di 3 stock. Travel time between the two termini was reduced by about one hour. During summer the Class 66 diesel multiple units were put into service, but they were not heavy enough to cope with winter and thus only served during the summer months. The line was electrified in four stages, from Roa to Hønefoss on 1 February 1961, from Hønefoss to Ål on 1 December 1962, from Ål to Ustaoset on 15 December 1963 and finally from Ustaoset to Voss on 7 December 1964. As the point of electrification moved across the mountain, so did the point NSB changed locomotive on the train. The new locomotive El 13 was put into service on the electric parts. The electrification cost NOK 143 million. The express trains have as one of the main lines always been allocated the newest locomotives by NSB. When the El 14 was delivered in 1968, it was put into service on Bergensbanen, as was the El 16 in 1977, the El 17 in 1981, and finally the El 18 in 1996. The older locomotives have been relegated to freight service. In 2000 electric multiple units were put into service with the Class 73 tilting trains, branded as Signatur and capable of 210 kilometres per hour (130 mph). However, they cannot be used at those speeds on any part of the Bergen Line, and only some parts of the Asker Line and around Finse can they operate quicker than the other rollingstock used. There has also been reason to doubt their winter capability on the very demanding Bergen Line. Occasionally they have been stuck in the snow, and on 21 February 2007, a multiple unit derailed after running into a pack of snow. As refurbished carriages become available, the multiple units will be removed from the line, and replaced by traditional locomotive-hauled trains. ### Operator(s) #### 1883 to 1996 The Norwegian State Railways (Norwegian: Norges Statsbaner or NSB), a government agency / directorate, was the state-owned railway organisation which operated the majority of the railway network in Norway between 1883 and the end of 1996. #### 1997 to 2017 On 1 December 1996, Norwegian State Railways (NSB) was demerged to create three organisations: - the infrastructure operator Norwegian National Rail Administration; - the Norwegian Railway Inspectorate; - and the train operator (Norwegian: Norges Statsbaner BA) (Norwegian State Railways BA or NSB): the BA indicating a limited liability company without shares. The name and logo "NSB" continued to be used by the train operator Norges Statsbaner BA. #### 2017 onwards On 1 January 2017, as part of the railway reforms: - the Norwegian National Rail Administration was split into Bane NOR, the government agency responsible for railway infrastructure; and the Norwegian Railway Directorate, a government agency having strategic responsibility of the railway network; - the (Norwegian: Norges Statsbaner BA), (Norwegian State Railways BA), or NSB BA, changed from a limited liability company without shares to one that had shares, so the BA became an AS. The new names were: (Norwegian: Norges Statsbaner AS) or NSB AS: the AS indicating that it was now a limited company with a share holding. - On 24 April 2019 NSB was renamed Vygruppen and rebranded as Vy. ## Infrastructure upgrades ### Ulriken Tunnel #### The "old" 1960s tunnel In September 1954, Rieber suggested a package for the politicians, where he would create a company that would borrow money to build both the Ulriken Tunnel, a shortening of the line from Hønefoss to Sandvika (the "proposed" Ringerike Line) and electrify the railway. This would save 64 kilometres (40 mi). Since NSB based their fares on the route length travelled, financing would be covered by a surcharge equal to the distance saved; ticket price would remain the same and within twenty years the debt would be covered. The government opposed the suggestion — the newspaper editor and Norwegian Labour Party politician Trygve Bratteli commenting that even though the financing was private, it would still have to use the same funding as government debt, and would jeopardize other projects, like the Nordland Line. Shortly afterwards a revised plan, the "Little Rieberplan" was accepted. The first 32 kilometres (20 mi) of the line from Bergen to Takvam represented a very roundabout way, and it was clear that it would be possible to reduce the line by 21 kilometres (13 mi) with the construction of three single-track tunnels, Ulriken Tunnel (7,660 metres or 25,130 feet), Arnanipa Tunnel (2,177 metres or 7,142 feet) and Tunestveit Tunnel (40 metres or 130 feet). This plan was approved by parliament in 1956, based on private financing from the businessman Fritz Rieber. Construction started in 1959 with the tunnels being finished in 1963, while track laying was finished on 29 May 1964, when the first train entered the tunnel. As the new tunnel line deviated from the original line near Arna, a new Arna station had to be constructed adjacent to the tunnel mouth. This also opened in May 1964. The opening of this tunnel meant that it replaced part of the original and that part was no longer needed as a main line. It became a heritage line: the Old Voss Line (Norwegian: Gamle Vossebanen). The Ulriken Tunnel currently represents the largest bottleneck on the Bergen Line, due to the commuter trains between Bergen and Arna. Building a double track on the westernmost part of Bergensbanen would free up capacity not only of that part of the line, but the whole line across the mountains. #### The second (new) tunnel In January 2016, Norwegian National Rail Administration had plans for doubling the Ultriken tunnel, but it was abolished at the end of that year. Bane NOR who took over the responsibilities for the network, authorised its contractors to start building a second single-track tunnel through the mountain adjacent to the 1960s tunnel. It was to be constructed in a number of main contracts: the first was boring the single-bore 7.7 kilometres (4.8 mi)) tunnel, which began in January 2016, and was completed on 29 August 2017. The second was the installation of the infrastructure: installing the rails in the form of a cast fixed track; the overhead catenary; a tunnel drainage system; installing a remotely-controlled signalling system both in the tunnel and at Arna station, to replace the manually controlled system at Arna station that has been in use since 1964; and upgrading half of Arna station. The new tunnel opened on 13 December 2020 and the signalling system was linked into the train control centre in Bergen. Because of space constraints at Arna station, due to the need to move trains between platforms within the station, the new tunnel has a double portal at Arna station and is double-tracked for a short distance, before combining into a single running track. #### The resultant double tunnel Bane NOR awarded a contract to Grupo Azvi to refurbish the old 1960s tunnel, with work due to start in February 2021 and due to finish in June 2023. The requirement is do this refurbishment without lifting the existing rail track. As part of this work it will be fire-proofed; two diagonal tunnels at the Arna end are to be blasted between the old and the new tunnels to allow trains to switch from one to the other; as well as blasting 16 other common interconnections for escape and for installing infrastructure. Double running will only be achieved when the refurbishment of the old 1960s tunnel is complete; and the second half of Arna station, linked to the old tunnel has been rebuilt. To obtain the full benefit of this work, it is intended to double the track all the way from the tunnel to Bergen. ### Oslo Tunnel In 1980, the Oslo Tunnel was opened, allowing trains along the Drammen Line to go to the new Oslo Central Station, an upgrade of the former Oslo Ø. As a consequence of this, passenger trains were since the late 1980s rerouted via Drammen instead of via Roa, following the Drammen Line and the Randsfjord Line to Hønefoss. This allows the trains to pass through more densely populated areas and on trackage with more capacity. However, the change of route actually increased the length between the two termini by 23 kilometres (14 mi). But the better track standard via Drammen results in about the same travel time. Freight trains still goes via Roa. ### Finse Tunnel During winter NSB had large costs keeping the line snow-free. Large diesel-electric snowploughs were stationed at Finse, and tens of kilometers of snow sheds were built on the most vulnerable parts. Especially the 22 kilometres (14 mi) part between Finse Station and Hallingskeid was a drain on resources, and heavy snowfall and drifts regularly closed the entire line. A solution was proposed by NSB's director Robert Nordén in 1984, involving construction of a 10.5 kilometres (6.5 mi) tunnel between the two stations. In the tunnel there had to be a 900 metres (3,000 ft) long passing loop, to ensure even distances between passing loops along the line. In 1989 the Parliament of Norway approved the plans, including the upgrade of part of the line east of Finse. In total NOK 750 million was invested in rebuilding 32 kilometres (20 mi) of line, shortening it by 4.5 kilometres (2.8 mi). At the same time the permitted speed could be increased from 70 kilometres per hour (43 mph) to 160 kilometres per hour (99 mph). The tunnel opened on 16 June 1992 while the rest of the upgrades opened in five steps between 1995 and 1998. The highest point on the line, previously at 1,301 metres (4,268 ft), became 1,237 metres (4,058 ft)—located inside the tunnel. After the tunnel opened, the Finse snow removal facility was closed. ### Hallingskeid Station and snow tunnels Snow drifts and harsh weather (see "Construction of the Bergen Line" section above) had been a problem in the higher-altitude regions of the Bergen line: in one case causing the abandonment of an official opening in December 1909. Hallingskied station is a station built on the Hardangervidda plateau, within an area without population or road access, at an elevation of 1,110 meters (3,640 ft) above mean sea level. The station therefore serves trekkers and mountaineers. The first station, built in the early 1900s, did not have a snow tunnel when it opened, but snow tunnels and snow fences were progressively added after the autumn of 1909 to cover the running line, the Passing loop and the station itself. Part of the snow tunnel caught fire in 1948 and spread to the station; and, there was another fire in the snow tunnel in 1953. Yet another fire in 1960, this time external to the tunnel, caused the loss of the snow tunnel; the railway station, which was rebuilt in 1970; and the station hotel, which was not replaced. On 16 June 2011, a possible welding accident may have been the "cause behind a fire" in the snow tunnel at Hallingskeid Station. The fire lead to the complete destruction of all infrastructure in the snow tunnel, the twin Class 73 electric multiple unit trapped in the tunnel as the electrical supply to the catenary failed; and Telenor telephone cables and communications systems in the area. There were no injuries to the passengers, but they lost all their belongings left behind in the train. This closed the line for seven-days between Myrdal and Finse; and through traffic on the Bergen line did not reopen until the evening of 23 June 2011. The official accident report, published in May 2012 by the Norwegian Safety Investigation Authority was unable to establish a clear and demonstrable direct cause for the fire: but they stated that the highest risks were Hot work, electrical installations, or hot particles from trains. ## Operation The Bergen Line as a through line is used for up to five express trains operated by Norwegian State Railways, as well as freight trains by CargoNet. From Myrdal to Bergen there are commuter rail services operated by NSB. ### Line The total distance from Oslo to Bergen via Drammen is 493 kilometres (306 mi), while the Bergen Line proper is 372 kilometres (231 mi). The line has 182 tunnels, totaling ca. 73 kilometres (45 mi), of which ten are over 2.0 kilometres (1.2 mi). Finse Station remains the highest elevated station at 1,222.2 metres (4,010 ft), while the highest point is now in the Finse Tunnel at 1,237 metres (4,058 ft). #### Oslo – Hønefoss Section Oslo – Drammen see → Main article: Drammenbanen Section Drammen – Hønefoss see → Main article: Randsfjordbanen #### Hønefoss – Geilo Hønefoss in Storelva (Ringerike) valley is left by the line northwest into the Sogna valley, where the route uses its northern valley flanks to Sokna. To get to the Krøderen (lake) valley, Bergen Line follows Rudselva, passes by Langevannet and Breidvannet lakes and also through the 2.3 kilometer Haversting tunnel, which runs parallel to the Norwegian National Road 7, (Riksvei 7), Ørgenvik tunnel. Hallingdal valley is used as a natural corridor further north-west, mostly on the left river bank, serving the larger settlements of Flå and Nesbyen. At Svenkerud to the north of Nesbyen the valley flank is changed. Soutwestbound to Gol, the ascent becomes gradually steeper in the following section to Geilo. #### Geilo-Voss (Hardangervidda) The Hardangervidda is actually crossed behind Geilo. Located in the valley of one of the two upper tributaries of Hallingdalselva, the Usteåne, the railway line runs alongside a number of smaller lakes to the culmination point near Finse. Before Finse, the 2.7 kilometer long Gråskallen tunnel at Haugastøl station is the first important improvement of the section. Immediately after the highest station Finse, the more than 10 kilometer long Finsetunnel was built, which replaced the original open route at over 1200 meters above sea level. At Høgheller junction, the new line merges back into the original road, which runs along the northern flank of the Moldåtal with numerous enclosures. After bridging the river and thus changing the traveled on side of the valley, the route passes by Seltuftvatnet and Reinungavatnet lakes. Behind that, Myrdal and Flåmsbana is reached. With the following Gravhals tunnel, more than five kilometers long, the mountain massif to the catchment area of the Vosso is pierced: Now the railway line, built partly high on the northern flanks of the valleys, uses the merging upper valleys of the Uppsetf, the Kleielva and the Raundalselva westwards until lake Vangsvatnet in Voss is reached. #### Voss mountains From here, the Vosso valley corridor is used on its northern flank as far as Bulken station. At Bolstadøyri, where the Atlantic Ocean is reached by its branch Bolstadfjord, the route crosses over to the southern valley flank. With the more than eight kilometer long Trollkona Tunnel, opened in 1987, the route reaches lower Bergsdal and Dale (Vaksdal). Trollkona had become necessary due to the expansion of the European route E16 (main road connection between Oslo and Bergen) alongside the Bolstadfjord using partly the old railway line substructure. South of Dale, at Stanghelle, the Veafjord, which merges into the Sørfjord (Osterøy), is reached. On its south-east bank, the route to Herland passes by the Osterøy Bridge. Worth mentioning is the six kilometer long Hananipa tunnel between Vaksdal and Trengereid, which was put into operation in 1970 as line improvement. The 2.2 kilometer long Arnanipa tunnel is located behind Herland, immediately followed by the 7.6 kilometer long Ulriken Tunnel, by which the original, much longer, route via Nesttun could be shortened in 1964. Having reached the urban area of Bergen, the route follows a short part of the old line to the Bergen terminus. ### Commuter rail Vy Tog operates a commuter rail service from Bergen with two hourly departures to Arna, plus fourteen daily departures to Voss, of which up to six continue to Myrdal. The entire rolling stock is from 2019 consisting of Stadler FLIRT Electric multiple units after a process of which led to phasing out the old NSB Class 69. The first part to Arna represents an important part of the public transport in Bergen, since the rail direct line through the mountain Ulriken is considerably faster than driving over and around. ### Express service Express trains operated by NSB have always been the primary passenger service on Bergensbanen. Passenger trains follow the Drammen Line and the Asker Line to Drammen, before heading north to Hønefoss on the Randsfjord Line. The express trains offer both transport from villages along the line to either Bergen or Oslo, as well travel between Norway's two largest cities. Expresses are locomotive-hauled trains with modernized coaches. Six nights a week there is a night train service. Several parts of the line service places without road access, such as Finse and Myrdal. Operating deficits are covered by the Norwegian Ministry of Transport and Communications. In 2018 the fastest line used 6 hours and 32 minutes from Oslo to Bergen. ### Freight Freight trains are operated by CargoNet, hauled by El 14 and El 16 locomotives. Most transport is from the terminal at Alnabru in Oslo to the terminal at Bergen Station. Freight trains use the Roa-Hønefoss Line instead of going via Drammen since it is shorter—distance is more important than speed for freight trains. CargoNet operates up to four daily trains from Oslo, plus one from Drammen. Rail freight on (the Bergensbanen), the Bergen line, increased by 80% from 2001 to 2005, but further growth is not possible without better infrastructure. In 2006, CargoNet indicated they wanted five more passing loops, as well as lengthening them to increase freight train length from 400 metres (1,300 ft) to 600 metres (2,000 ft), claiming they could double freight traffic with adequate infrastructure. ### Heritage Parts of the closed sections of Vossebanen, from Midttun to Garnes have been converted to a heritage railway—the Old Voss Line—that is operated with steam trains by the Norwegian Railway Club during the summer. At Finse there is a navvy museum, and the old navvy road has become a cycle track. The branch Flåm Line has been converted to a tourist route. The railway has spectacular scenery and a vertical descent of 864 metres (2,835 ft) or 5.5% along the 20 kilometres (12 mi) route from Myrdal to Flåm. Passenger services are provided by Vy, but marketing is performed by Flåm Utvikling. The stock used on the railway are El 18 hauling NSB B3 wagons, the latter all painted green. ## Future propositions ### A call for more investment in railways In 2002 the Norwegian National Rail Administration warned that lack of funding might lead to a closure of all long-distance passenger trains in Norway, including the Bergen Line. Torild Skogsholm, Minister of Transport and Communications assured that it was not the government's policy to close railway lines. In 2004 the Progress Party suggested closing down the railway line and replacing it with a motorway between Bergen and Oslo, arguing that the railway was unprofitable, and that bus transport was cheaper while easier truck transport would aid business. Other political parties rejected the proposal pointing out the better environmental performance of the railway and that the railway transports large volumes of freight. ### Upgrades The original plans for Bergensbanen from 1894 included the construction of a new line—the Ringerike Line—from Hønefoss to Sandvika just west of Oslo. This line would reduce the distance on Bergensbanen by 60 kilometres (37 mi) and 50 minutes travel time. There has been a continual decision to build this railway line, but it has never received any funding. These plans were discussed more after 2000, and a detailed plan has been done. Combined with other improvements totaling investments of NOK 7 billion, travel time could be reduced to four and a half hours. The project is scheduled to be started in 2024, and finished around 2030, now at a cost of 36 billion NOK including 20 km motorway. ### High-speed rail Several suggestions for high-speed rail from Oslo to Bergen have been launched. Preliminary studies performed for the National Rail Administration suggested a positive cost-benefit ratios on building high-speed rail from Oslo to Bergen. The most suitable route would approximately follow the existing route (but with a new tunnel Oslo–Hønefoss). Oslo–Trondheim and Oslo–Halden are assumed to be built earlier because of lower cost. Two lobbyist suggestions to the route have also been launched. The one involves a "high-speed ring" from Oslo, via Numedal to Geilo, then following Bergensbanen to Bergen and continuing south to Stavanger and back to Oslo via Kristiansand. Norsk Bane has launched the idea of building a common line from Oslo to Haukeli and then branching off to Bergen and Stavanger. Such long-distance high-speed railways are not included in the preliminary long-term plan for 2010–2040, and it is likely that railways Hamar–Trondheim and Drammen–Kristansand will be built first since they are easier to build. It is likely that a high-speed railway to Bergen will be built sometime in the period 2030–2060. ## Stations between Oslo and Bergen ### Line gradients This image gives a graphical illustration of the gradient of the line, with both Oslo and Bergen at, or very close to, sea level; and the highest point on the line being near to Finse, at or above 1,222 metres (height above sea level). ### Stations on the line ## See also - List of highest railways in Europe
197,948	USS Mississippi (BB-41)	1,138,564,430	Dreadnought battleship of the United States Navy	[ "1917 ships", "New Mexico-class battleships", "Ships built in Newport News, Virginia", "Ships of the Aleutian Islands campaign", "Symbols of Mississippi", "World War I battleships of the United States", "World War II battleships of the United States" ]	USS Mississippi (BB-41/AG-128), the second of three members of the New Mexico class of battleship, was the third ship of the United States Navy named in honor of the 20th state. The ship was built at the Newport News Shipbuilding Company of Newport News, Virginia, from her keel laying in April 1915, her launching in January 1917, and her commissioning in December that year. She was armed with a battery of twelve 14-inch (356 mm) guns in four three-gun turrets, and was protected by heavy armor plate, with her main belt armor being 13.5 inches (343 mm) thick. The ship remained in North American waters during World War I, conducting training exercises to work up the crew. Throughout the 1920s and 1930s, the ship served in the Pacific Fleet. In May 1941, with World War II and the Battle of the Atlantic raging, Mississippi and her two sister ships were transferred to the Atlantic Fleet to help protect American shipping through the Neutrality Patrols. Two days after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Mississippi departed the Atlantic to return to the Pacific Fleet; throughout her participation in World War II, she supported amphibious operations in the Pacific. She shelled Japanese forces during the Gilbert and Marshall Islands and the Philippines campaigns and the invasions of Peleliu and Okinawa. The Japanese fleet attacked American forces during the Philippines campaign, and in the ensuing Battle of Leyte Gulf, Mississippi took part in the Battle of Surigao Strait, the last battleship engagement in history. After the war, Mississippi was converted into a gunnery training ship, and was also used to test new weapons systems. These included the RIM-2 Terrier missile and the AUM-N-2 Petrel missile. She was eventually decommissioned in 1956 and sold to ship breakers in November that year. ## Design Mississippi was 624 feet (190 m) long overall and had a beam of 97 ft 5 in (29.69 m) and a draft of 30 ft (9.1 m). She displaced 32,000 long tons (32,514 t) as designed and up to 33,000 long tons (33,530 t) at full combat load. The ship was powered by four-shaft Curtis turbines and nine oil-fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers rated at 32,000 shaft horsepower (24,000 kW), generating a top speed of 21 knots (39 km/h; 24 mph). The ship had a cruising range of 8,000 nautical miles (15,000 km; 9,200 mi) at a speed of 10 kn (19 km/h; 12 mph). Her crew numbered 1,081 officers and enlisted men. As built, she was fitted with two lattice masts with spotting tops for the main gun battery. The main armored belt was 8–13.5 in (203–343 mm) thick, while the main armored deck was up to 3.5 in (89 mm) thick. The main battery gun turrets had 18 in (457 mm) thick faces on 13 in (330 mm) barbettes. The conning tower had 16 in (406 mm) thick sides. The ship was armed with a main battery of twelve 14-inch (356 mm)/50 caliber guns in four, three-gun turrets on the centerline, placed in two superfiring pairs forward and aft of the superstructure. Unlike earlier American battleships with triple turrets, these mounts were true three-gun barrels, in that each barrel could elevate independently. The secondary battery consisted of fourteen 5-inch (127 mm)/51 caliber guns mounted in individual casemates clustered in the superstructure amidships. Initially, the ship was to have been fitted with twenty-two of the guns, but experiences in the North Sea during World War I demonstrated that the additional guns, which would have been placed in the hull, would have been unusable in anything but calm seas. As a result, the casemates were plated over to prevent flooding. The secondary battery was augmented with four 3-inch (76 mm)/50 caliber guns. In addition to her gun armament, Mississippi was also fitted with two 21-inch (530 mm) torpedo tubes, mounted submerged in the hull, one on each broadside. ### Modifications Mississippi was heavily modernized in the early 1930s. Her original turbines were replaced with new geared models manufactured by Westinghouse, and she received six express boilers designed by the Bureau of Engineering. This improved her performance to a top speed of 22 knots (41 km/h; 25 mph) from 40,000 shaft horsepower (30,000 kW). Her armament was also revised, with the main battery turrets being modified to allow elevation to 30 degrees, greatly extending the range of the guns. Two of the 5-inch guns were removed, and eight 5-inch/25 caliber anti-aircraft guns were installed. She received an additional 2-inch (51 mm) armored deck, and her underwater protection was improved. Both lattice masts were removed; a heavy tower bridge was built in place of the fore mast, and a light pole mast was erected in place of the main mast. These alterations greatly increased her displacement, to 33,420 long tons (33,960 t) standard and 36,157 long tons (36,737 t) full load. Her crew increased significantly, to 1,443. In early 1945, while under repair for combat damage, Mississippi received a new secondary battery. The old 51-caliber 5-inch guns were removed, and eight more of the 25-caliber anti-aircraft guns were installed, along with thirteen quadruple Bofors 40 mm mounts and forty 20 mm Oerlikon guns. To compensate for the added weight, the ship's armored conning tower was removed. ## Service history The keel for Mississippi was laid down on 5 April 1915 at the Newport News Shipbuilding Company of Newport News, Virginia. She was launched on 25 January 1917, and after completing fitting-out work, was commissioned into the US Navy on 18 December 1917. Then-Captain Joseph Lee Jayne served as the ship's first commanding officer. After completing sea trials off Virginia, Mississippi departed the United States on 22 March 1918 for the Gulf of Guacanayabo in Cuba, where she conducted further training. From 1919 to 1921, William A. Moffett served as the ship's commander. On 31 January 1919, she left for another round of training in the Caribbean. Before the start of fleet maneuvers in March, Mississippi had a flying-off platform built atop her forward superfiring turret, and during the maneuvers that year, she operated a Hanriot HD.1. The ship launched the aircraft three times during the maneuvers, but as she had no landing facilities, the pilot had to land ashore and then be loaded back onto the platform. Later in the year, she returned to Hampton Roads, Virginia, where she began a cruise between Boston and New York. Mississippi was then reassigned to the Pacific Fleet and she accordingly left the east coast on 19 July. Throughout the 1920s, the ship routinely returned to the Caribbean for winter training exercises. Two of the original fourteen 5-in/51 caliber guns were removed in 1922. During Fleet Problem I, held in February 1923, Mississippi sank the old pre-dreadnought Coast Battleship No. 4 (formerly USS Iowa), battering her first with her 5-inch guns at ranges between 8,000 to 10,000 yards (7,300 to 9,100 m) before firing a salvo of 14-inch shells that struck Coast Battleship No. 4 amidships and inflicted fatal damage. During the gunnery exercise, spotter aircraft were used for the first time to help direct an American battleship's guns in a major exercise. While conducting gunnery practice off San Pedro on 12 June 1924, there was an explosion in her forward superfiring Gun Turret No. 2. The resulting fire asphyxiated 44 members of the turret crew. Upon returning to port the gunpowder that was still in Gun No. 5, the remaining gun in the turret, exploded and killed four members of the rescue team. The shell that was in the gun narrowly missed the passenger ship Yale. This was, at the time, the deadliest peace-time disaster in the Navy's history. She left San Francisco on 15 April 1925 for war games held off Hawaii, after which she went on a cruise to Australia, returning to California on 26 September. The ship returned to the east coast in early 1931 for a major modernization at Norfolk Navy Yard that began on 30 March. This overhaul significantly changed the ship's profile by removing the original fore and aft lattice mast. The former was replaced with a tower. Modernization also included replacement of earlier 3-inch/50 cal anti-aircraft guns with eight 5-inch/25 caliber guns. Further training exercises followed in September 1933. On 24 October 1934, she passed through the Panama Canal on her way back to the Pacific Fleet, where she remained through mid-1941, apart from the normal winter cruises in the Caribbean. By this time, World War II had broken out in Europe, spawning the Battle of the Atlantic. In response, President Franklin D. Roosevelt initiated the Neutrality Patrols to protect American shipping. On 7 May 1941, Admiral Harold Rainsford Stark, the Chief of Naval Operations, transferred Mississippi, the battleships Idaho and New Mexico, the aircraft carrier Yorktown, four light cruisers, and two destroyer squadrons to the Atlantic to reinforce the Neutrality Patrols. On 15 June, Mississippi arrived back in Norfolk, where she prepared to make her first patrol in the North Atlantic, which consisted of escorting a convoy from Newport, Rhode Island to Hvalfjordur, Iceland. She began another convoy escort mission on 28 September, also to Iceland. Mississippi remained there through November to protect American shipping in the area. During this period, she was assigned to the "White Patrol", a special task group, along with the other two battleships and a pair of heavy cruisers. ### World War II On 9 December, two days after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Mississippi departed Iceland, bound for the Pacific Theater. She reached San Francisco on 22 January 1942, where she conducted training and escorted convoys along the west coast over the following seven months. Beginning in May 1942, the original 5-inch/51 caliber guns of the secondary battery were removed to make room for anti-aircraft machine guns. On 6 December, she escorted a convoy of troop ships to Fiji, returning to Pearl Harbor on 2 March 1943. Her first major combat operation began on 10 May, when she left Hawaii to support the liberation of the Aleutian Islands. She bombarded Kiska on 22 July, and the Japanese garrison withdrew from the island a few days later. After the conclusion of the campaign, Mississippi returned to San Francisco for an overhaul. On 19 October, she left San Pedro to join the invasion fleet that would attack the Gilbert Islands. During the Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign on 20 November, while Mississippi was bombarding Makin, there was again an explosion in her No. 2 turret, this time killing 43 men. After repairs, she continued on in the campaign, bombarding Kwajalein on 31 January 1944, Taroa on 20 February, and Wotje on 21 February. On 15 March, she shelled Japanese positions at Kavieng on New Ireland, before returning to the United States for an overhaul in Puget Sound. This overhaul increased the number of 5-inch/25 cal guns from eight to fourteen. After returning to the fleet, Mississippi provided gunfire support for the Marines that went ashore at Peleliu, bombarding Japanese positions on 12 September, three days before the landing. She remained there, shelling the island for a week, before proceeding on to Manus, which had recently been taken by American forces. Assigned to the invasion fleet for the Philippines under Rear Admiral Jesse B. Oldendorf, Mississippi left Manus on 12 October and arrived off Leyte on the 19th, when she began the coastal bombardment. During the Battle of Leyte Gulf, on the night of 24 October, Mississippi and the rest of the coastal bombardment battleships decisively defeated the Japanese Southern Force under Vice Admiral Shōji Nishimura in the Battle of Surigao Strait. During the battle, the Japanese warships failed to detect the American vessels with their radar. Additionally, the narrow strait forced the Japanese to steam in line ahead, while Mississippi and the other battleships were stationed at the entrance, where they were able to fire full broadsides. As a result, Nishimura was unable to avoid having his "T" crossed. In the ensuing action, American destroyers inflicted heavy damage on the Japanese force, which was then annihilated by the concentrated fire from the battleships. Mississippi, which was equipped with older fire control radar, had trouble identifying targets in the darkness, and so fired only one 12-gun salvo, after Oldendorf had given the order to cease fire. This salvo was the last fired in the action, and proved to be the last time a battleship fired its guns at another battleship. Mississippi remained off Leyte, providing gunfire support until 16 November, when she withdrew to the Admiralty Islands to make preparations for the next operation. On 28 December, she returned to Leyte, anchoring in San Pedro Bay. The ship began shelling Japanese positions on the island of Luzon on 6 January 1945. During the bombardment, a Japanese kamikaze struck the ship, but she remained on station, bombarding the Japanese defenses, until 10 February, when she withdrew to Pearl Harbor for repairs. She returned to service in time to join the invasion fleet that attacked Okinawa, arriving off Nakagusuku Wan on 6 May. She shelled Shuri Castle, inflicting heavy damage on a major strongpoint in the Japanese defensive line. Another kamikaze (initially identified as a friendly plane) hit the ship on 5 June, but she remained in action off Okinawa until 16 June. In July 1945 she had repairs done in USS ABSD-5, a floating repair dry dock. After the Japanese government announced it would surrender, Mississippi steamed to Sagami Wan, Honshū, as part of the occupation force, arriving there on 27 August. She was present during the signing of the surrender documents on 2 September in Tokyo Bay. Four days later, she left Japanese waters, bound for the United States. She reached Norfolk on 27 November. ### Postwar career Upon arriving in Norfolk, the ship was converted into a gunnery training ship, and was assigned the hull number AG-128 on 15 February 1946. In some references her hull number is given as EAG-128. The initially planned armament as a training ship differed somewhat from that actually installed. No. 1 turret was replaced by a twin 6-inch (152 mm)/47 caliber dual-purpose turret, the same as mounted on the Worcester class light cruisers. No. 2 and No. 3 14-inch turrets were removed, but No. 4 turret was initially retained. Three twin 5-inch (127 mm)/38 caliber dual-purpose mounts, two single 5-inch/54 caliber dual-purpose mounts (as on the Midway class aircraft carriers), two twin 3-inch (76 mm)/50 caliber mounts, and two 40 mm Bofors quad mounts were installed. Additional weapons proposed but not equipped included two twin 5-inch/54 caliber mounts and two twin 3-inch/70 caliber mounts, but the twin 5-inch/54 mount (originally for the Montana-class battleships) never entered service and the 3-inch/70 mount was not ready until 1956. Also, a triple 8-inch/55 caliber rapid-fire turret as on the Des Moines class heavy cruisers was proposed in place of No. 3 14-inch turret, but this was not equipped. It is unclear if a proposed mixed 20 mm Oerlikon battery of quadruple, twin, and single mounts was installed. Mississippi was reconstructed at the Norfolk Naval Shipyard from November 1945 through April 1948. During the yard period she served as the flagship of the operational development force from 18 March to 15 May 1947, and as the flagship of Battleships-Cruisers Atlantic Fleet (COMBATCRULANT) from 11 June to 14 July 1947. In April 1947 she effectively replaced Wyoming as an anti-aircraft training ship, with Wyoming mooring at a pier across from Mississippi and the bulk of Wyoming's crew "cross-decking" to Mississippi. After emerging from the reconstruction, she served in the operational development force, carrying out gunnery tests and helping evaluate new weapon systems. The ship had two new RIM-2 Terrier missile launchers installed in 1952 with No. 4 turret removed, the work being completed on 9 August at the Norfolk Naval Shipyard. The first test firings of a ship-borne Terrier missile took place on 28–29 January 1953 off Cape Cod. Mississippi later tested the Petrel missile, a radar-homing weapon, in February 1956. On 17 September, Mississippi was decommissioned at Norfolk, sold for scrap to Bethlehem Steel on 28 November, and subsequently broken up.
5,184,366	550 Madison Avenue	1,167,102,098	Office skyscraper in Manhattan, New York	[ "1984 establishments in New York City", "AT&T buildings", "John Burgee buildings", "Madison Avenue", "Midtown Manhattan", "Modernist architecture in New York City", "Office buildings completed in 1984", "Philip Johnson buildings", "Postmodern architecture in New York City", "Skyscraper office buildings in Manhattan", "Sony" ]	550 Madison (formerly known as the Sony Tower, Sony Plaza, and AT&T Building) is a postmodern skyscraper at 550 Madison Avenue between 55th and 56th Streets in the Midtown Manhattan neighborhood of New York City. Designed by Philip Johnson and John Burgee with associate architect Simmons Architects, the building was completed in 1984 as the headquarters of AT&T and later became the American headquarters of Sony. The building consists of a 647-foot-tall (197-meter), 37-story office tower with a facade made of pink granite. It originally had a four-story granite annex to the west, which was demolished and replaced with a shorter annex in the early 2020s. At the base of the building is a large entrance arch facing east toward Madison Avenue, flanked by arcades with smaller flat arches. A pedestrian atrium, connecting 55th and 56th Streets midblock, was also included in the design, which enabled the building to rise higher without the use of setbacks. The ground-level lobby is surrounded by retail shops, which were originally an open arcade. The office stories are accessed from a sky lobby above the base. Atop the building is a broken pediment with a circular opening. The building has received much attention ever since its design was first announced in March 1978. The AT&T Building at 550 Madison Avenue was intended to replace 195 Broadway, the company's previous headquarters in Lower Manhattan. Following the breakup of the Bell System in 1982, near the building's completion, AT&T spun off its subsidiary companies. As a result, AT&T never occupied the entire building as it had originally intended. Sony leased the building in 1991, substantially renovated the base and interior, and acquired the structure from AT&T in 2002. Sony sold the building to the Chetrit Group in 2013 and leased back its offices there for three years. In 2016, the Olayan Group purchased 550 Madison Avenue with plans to renovate it. 550 Madison Avenue was designated a city landmark by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission in 2018. ## Site 550 Madison Avenue is in the Midtown Manhattan neighborhood of New York City. The rectangular land lot is bounded by Madison Avenue to the east, 56th Street to the north, and 55th Street to the south. The land lot covers approximately 36,800 square feet (3,420 m<sup>2</sup>), with a frontage of 200 feet (61 m) on Madison Avenue and 189 feet (58 m) on both 55th and 56th Streets. The building is on the same city block as the Corning Glass Building to the west. Other nearby buildings include St. Regis New York and 689 Fifth Avenue to the southwest, the Minnie E. Young House to the south, the New York Friars Club and Park Avenue Tower to the east, 432 Park Avenue to the northeast, 590 Madison Avenue to the north, and Trump Tower and the Tiffany & Co. flagship store to the northwest. Prior to 19th-century development, the site had been occupied by a stream. The current building directly replaced fifteen smaller structures, including several 4- and 5-story residences dating from the late 19th century. These residences had become commercial stores by the middle of the 20th century. The stretch of Madison Avenue in Midtown was a prominent retail corridor during the 20th century, but new office buildings were developed on the avenue in the two decades after World War II ended. Nevertheless, until the 1970s, the current site of 550 Madison Avenue was described by New York magazine as "unusually human" compared to Midtown's other office developments. ## Architecture 550 Madison Avenue, also known as the AT&T Building and later the Sony Tower, was designed by Philip Johnson and John Burgee of Johnson/Burgee. Completed in 1984 as the headquarters of telecommunications company AT&T, it subsequently served as the American headquarters of media conglomerate Sony. Johnson had been an influential figure in modernist architecture during the late 20th century, having helped design the Seagram Building nearby in the 1950s, but he reverted to more classical motifs for 550 Madison Avenue's design. The building was among Johnson and Burgee's most influential works and, according to the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC), is considered the world's first postmodern skyscraper. Alan Ritchie of Johnson/Burgee was named as design manager, while Simmons Architects was the associate architect. Numerous engineers and contractors were involved in the building's construction. These included structural engineer Leslie E. Robertson of Robertson & Fowler Associates; associate engineer Leroy Callender; foundation engineer Mueser, Rutledge, Johnston & DeSimone; mechanical engineer Cosentini Associates; and interior designer ISD Inc. Frank Briscoe was the construction manager, while William Crow Construction and HRH Construction were the general contractors. There were also several material suppliers. In constructing the building, AT&T had requested the building use material sourced only from within the United States. ### Form The primary portion of the building is the 37-story office tower along Madison Avenue, on the eastern section of the land lot. This tower is 647 feet (197 m) tall, as measured between sidewalk level and the highest point of the tower's broken pediment. It contains no setbacks. Unlike other postmodernist structures with irregular ground-level plans, 550 Madison Avenue was designed as a rectangle at ground level, similar to older International Style buildings. The tower stories have a footprint measuring 200 by 90 feet (61 by 27 m). There was also a three- and four-story annex at the western end of the site. At the time of 550 Madison Avenue's construction, there was a lease on the adjacent Corning Glass Building that limited the height of any structures near that building to 60 feet (18 m) in height. This restriction included the westernmost lots of the AT&T site, so the roof of the annex was exactly 60 feet tall. Following an early-2020s renovation, the annex was demolished and replaced with a single-story annex. ### Facade 550 Madison's articulation is inspired by classical buildings, with three horizontal sections similar to the components of a column: a base, shaft, and capital. The facade is clad with 60,000 pieces of roughly textured pink Stony Creek granite, weighing up to 7,000 pounds (3,200 kg) apiece, supplied by Castellucci & Sons from its Connecticut quarry. More than 13,000 short tons (12,000 long tons; 12,000 t) of granite is used, representing over 160,000 cubic feet (4,500 m<sup>3</sup>) of the material. The stonework cost \$25 million in total and required an additional 6,000 short tons (5,400 long tons; 5,400 t) of steel to support it. Varying reasons are given for the use of granite. Johnson considered pink granite as "simply the best" type of stone, and Ritchie said the Stony Creek pink granite had "more character" than granite for other sources. Conversely, Burgee said the pink color was chosen to contrast with 590 Madison Avenue, the gray-green granite structure built simultaneously by IBM to the north. The granite facade helped to reduce energy compared to the glass curtain walls used on many of the city's contemporary skyscrapers. Only about one-third of 550 Madison Avenue's facade is clad in glass. At the time that the plans were announced in 1978, Johnson said this would make 550 Madison Avenue the city's "most energy-efficient structure". The windows are recessed into granite surrounds that are up to 10 inches (250 mm) deep. The architects had wanted the windows to be deeper, but this was not possible because of the cost of the granite. Additionally, the round mullions of the original design were given a more rectangular shape, and the window arrangement was dictated by the interior use. The building also includes more than 1,000 pieces of brass manufactured by the Chicago Extruded Metals Company. #### Base The main entrance is on Madison Avenue and consists of an archway measuring 116 feet (35 m) high by 50 feet (15 m) wide, with a recess 20 feet (6.1 m) deep. Within the archway is a 70-foot (21 m) arched window, topped by a circular oculus with a 20-foot (6.1 m) radius. Both windows have glazed glass panels and vertical and horizontal bronze mullions. These windows are surrounded by stonework with rhombus tiles. The side walls have smaller round arches and rectangular stonework, while the top of the arch contains recessed rectangular lights. According to architectural writer Paul Goldberger, the arch may have been influenced by the Basilica of Sant'Andrea, Mantua. AT&T said the arch was supposed to make the building appear dominant and give it "a sense of dignity". To the left and right of the main entrance arch are three flat-arched openings, measuring 60 feet (18 m) tall by 20 feet (6.1 m) wide, with voussoirs at their tops. Originally, 550 Madison Avenue had an open-air arcade north and south of the central archway, extending west to the public atrium behind the building. The arcade measured 60 feet high; it was conceived as a 100-foot-high space but was downsized "for reasons of scale". The presence of the arcade allowed for what Johnson described as "a more monumental building" with more floor area. The space is supported by 45 granite columns weighing 50 short tons (45 long tons; 45 t) apiece. The granite columns are designed to resemble load-bearing columns; they use thicker stone to represent solidity, and they contained notches to represent depth. There was initially no retail space on the Madison Avenue front because, according to critic Nory Miller, "AT&T didn't want a front door sandwiched between a drug store and a lingerie shop." After the AT&T Building's opening, the arcade gained a reputation for being inhospitable, dark, and windy. Following a renovation in the 1990s, the arcade was enclosed with recessed display windows with grids of bronze mullions. When the windows were replaced in the early 2020s, transparent mullions were added. At the extreme ends on Madison Avenue are single-story flat arches surmounted by flagpoles. These lead to recessed passages along 55th and 56th Streets, which act as an extension of the sidewalks on these streets. There are multicolored granite pavement tiles within these passages. The 56th and 57th Street facades contain flat arches measuring 16 feet (4.9 m) tall, supported by granite-clad piers at regular intervals. Just above each flat arch is a circular opening with canted profiles, atop which are four vertically aligned rectangular openings. The circular openings were carved in false perspective, making the arcades on either side appear deeper than they actually were. The granite wall of the original annex on 55th Street was windowless and contained three garage doors. The granite wall on 56th Street had a tall window bay, a garage door, and a cornice. #### Shaft The intermediate stories of the office tower are divided on all sides into several window bays, each of which contains one single-pane window on each floor. The Madison Avenue and western facades are identical to each other, as are the 55th and 56th Street facades. The west and east facades contain nine bays each. The center bay is eight windows wide, flanked by three sets of four windows on either side, as well as a wide single window at the extreme north and south ends. Granite spandrels separate the windows on different stories, except at the executive offices in the top three stories, which contained bays with glazed curtain walls. The north and south facades contain six bays each, separated by granite piers. The granite panels contain real and false joints to give a consistent appearance. The granite panels are typically 2 or 5 inches (51 or 127 mm) thick, while the mullions are 6 or 10 inches (150 or 250 mm) square. The granite panels are extremely heavy, with many panels weighing over 1 short ton (0.89 long tons; 0.91 t), so they could not be hung onto the steel frame as with typical skyscrapers. Leslie Robertson determined that each granite panel had to be anchored individually to the steel frame, and the mounting apparatus had to be strong enough to support the weight of two panels. #### Pediment At the roof is a broken pediment, consisting of a gable that faces west toward Fifth Avenue and east of the Madison Avenue. The center of the pediment contains a circular opening that extends the width of the roof. The opening measures 34 feet (10 m) across. Within the opening are ribbed slats, which contain vents for the building's HVAC system; according to Johnson, the vents were supposed to create steam puffs when there was a certain amount of moisture in the air. The remainder of the gable is trimmed with a stone coping. The granite slabs are suspended from a steel parapet. The pediment, inspired by classical designs, was included to unify the symmetrical facades. Johnson may have also been inspired by his dissatisfaction with the Citigroup Center's sloped roof, visible from his own office in the Seagram Building. Johnson/Burgee wanted to make the roof recognizable upon the skyline, and they decided upon a pediment because it was well suited for the narrow tower. During the design process, Johnson/Burgee had considered various ornamental designs before deciding on the circular notch. One of the previous buildings on the site, the Delman Building at 558 Madison Avenue, had contained a similar broken pediment, although Johnson repudiated claims it influenced 550 Madison Avenue's rooftop. Instead, Johnson claimed to have been inspired by Al-Khazneh in the Jordanian city of Petra. ### Features 550 Madison Avenue has a gross floor area of 685,125 square feet (63,650.2 m<sup>2</sup>). The superstructure is composed of steel tubes, except at the base, where the superstructure is composed of shear walls connecting the sky lobby and foundation. The steel beams were constructed by Bethlehem Steel. The colonnade at the base was insufficient to protect against wind shearing. As a result, the core of the tower contains two concrete and steel "shear tubes", each measuring 25 by 31 feet (7.6 by 9.4 m). In addition to its 37 above-ground stories, the building is designed with three basements. One of these basement levels contained a 45-spot parking garage, originally meant for AT&T board members, as well as vehicular elevators for delivery trucks. #### Lobbies 550 Madison Avenue contains a main lobby just inside the large arch on Madison Avenue. The lobby measures 50 by 50 feet (15 by 15 m) and originally contained a floor made of black-and-white marble, as well as walls made of granite. The floor pattern was inspired by the designs of British architect Edwin Lutyens. The lobby's ceiling was a groin vault. One wall of the main lobby contained an arcade with Byzantine-inspired column capitals, behind which was an elevator lobby with bronze elevator doors. After a 2020s renovation, the lobby was redesigned with large windows at its western end, as well as decorative materials like terrazzo, leather, and bronze mesh. The terrazzo floors incorporate some of the original marble flooring. The lowest portions of the lobby wall are decorated with the mesh, while the rest of the walls are covered in white marble. Solid Sky, a 20,000-pound (9,100-kilogram) spherical blue sculpture by Alicja Kwade, hangs in the lobby. Spirit of Communication (also Golden Boy), a 20,000-pound (9,100-kilogram) bronze statue that stood atop AT&T's previous headquarters at 195 Broadway, was removed from that building in 1981 and relocated to 550 Madison Avenue's main lobby in 1983. The artist Evelyn Beatrice Longman created the statue in 1916. It depicts a 24-foot-tall (7.3 m) winged male figure on top of a globe, wrapped by cables, clutching bolts of electricity in his left hand. The statue was repainted in gold leaf when it was relocated to 550 Madison Avenue. The statue was placed on a pedestal inside the lobby, with the circular window atop the main entrance arch seeming to form a halo above the statue. It was relocated to AT&T's Basking Ridge, New Jersey, facility in 1992. From the main lobby, elevators led to a sky lobby on the seventh floor, 77 feet (23 m) above ground level. The sky lobby was clad with veined Breccia Strazzema marble. It originally contained the building's security checkpoints. As designed, the sky lobby had sparse decoration. Between 1992 and 1994, after Sony acquired the building. Dorothea Rockburne was hired to paint two abstract frescoes, and Gwathmey Siegel redesigned the lobby with wooden paneling and black glass. The frescoes, titled "Northern Sky" and "Southern Sky", measure 30 by 30 feet (9.1 by 9.1 m) and consist of red and yellow patterns with spheres. When the building was renovated in the 2020s, the Rockwell Group converted the sky lobby into an amenity space. The amenity spaces include a central lounge flanked by Rockburne's paintings, as well as four conference rooms, a small cafe, library, hearth room, pool room, screening room, and fitness center. #### Atrium and annex Between the annex to the west and the main tower to the east was an atrium measuring 40 feet (12 m) wide by 100 feet (30 m) tall. The public atrium between the annex and the tower was originally covered by a metal and glass roof, the ceiling of which was a half-barrel vault (shaped as a quarter-circle). The presence of the atrium not only allowed additional floor area but also was aligned with the atrium in the IBM Building at 590 Madison Avenue. According to Burgee, he wanted the atrium to have a distinct identity from the office tower. The atrium, designed as an open-air pedestrian pathway, was enclosed in the 1990s when Sony moved to the building. A large television screen was installed with this renovation. In the early 2020s, a new garden called 550 Madison Garden was constructed within the atrium. The garden contains shrubs, trees, bulbs, and perennial plants and is split into several sections. The space is open every day between 7 a.m. and 11 p.m.. It is covered by a 70-foot-tall (21 m) metal-and-glass canopy, which collects 93,000 U.S. gallons (350,000 L) of rainwater every year. The garden's greenery extends onto the roof of a rebuilt annex to the west. The atrium also includes a waterfall and seating, as well as circular floor pavers to demarcate various parts of the space. The design details include inscriptions on the pavers, as well as a "steam pit" that is heated during the winter. The parking garage and truck elevators were in the annex, with a ramp to the garage from 56th Street and the elevators from 55th Street. The annex had its own lobby near 56th Street. There was also retail space within the original annex, facing the western wall of the atrium. The annex originally contained Infoquest, an AT&T technology exhibit, which opened in 1986 and operated until about 1993. The annex became the Sony Wonder museum in 1994; it was open on Tuesdays through Saturdays, and Sony described the free exhibits as a "technology and entertainment museum for all ages". The original annex was demolished during the early 2020s, and a one-story replacement structure was built in its place. #### Office spaces The office stories cover the fifth through 33rd stories. 550 Madison's height is equivalent to that of a 60-story building with 8-foot (2.4 m) ceilings. However, the ceilings at 550 Madison Avenue were typically designed to be 10 feet (3.0 m) high, and executive suites had ceilings of 12 feet (3.7 m). At the time, computer hardware required taller ceilings than was usual. As originally designed, the acoustic ceiling panels had air conditioning vents and minimal ceiling lighting, as each worker's desk had task lighting. In addition to offices, the building contained a two-story auditorium at the fifth and sixth stories, as well as a CCTV studio at the eighth story. The office stories were generally less ornately decorated than the lobbies, but the 33rd- and 34th-floor executive offices contained ornate wood paneling. AT&T had requested that the highest-quality materials be used, although escalating costs during construction led to the substitution of cheaper material in some places. The acoustic ceilings were manufactured by the Industrial Acoustics Company, which manufactured 325,000 square feet (30,200 m<sup>2</sup>) of perforated steel panels clad with vinyl. In addition, AT&T bought \$5.5 million worth of honey-colored Burmese teak furnishings such as paneling, trim, and doors from L. Vaughn Company, which hired 75 workers to supply the rare wood. The decorative materials used in the building included Burmese teak document cabinets, Turkish onyx elevator panels, Chinese silk in the employee dining room, and Italian leather in the executive dining room. Italian marble was used for the executive staircases. After Sony moved into the building in 1992, Gwathmey Siegel renovated the interior with additional staircases, as well as doors topped with glass panels. The offices were refitted with sound systems and Sony videocassette recorder systems. The spaces were generally more flexible than under AT&T's occupancy, as they were meant to accommodate record and movie production. A conference center for Sony was also installed on the 28th floor. The AT&T executive offices on the 35th floor were retained and an executives' dining club called the Sony Club was opened within the space. By 2020, the seventh floor was being renovated into amenity space, including a food hall, fitness center, library, screening room, and pool hall. ## History AT&T was established in 1885 and had occupied a headquarters at 195 Broadway in Lower Manhattan since 1916. In the subsequent decades, AT&T became the world's largest corporation, and maintenance costs on the headquarters had increased significantly. With its continued growth, AT&T acquired land for a new facility in Basking Ridge, New Jersey, in 1970, although the company repudiated claims that it was fleeing for the suburbs. Furthermore, John D. deButts, who became AT&T's CEO in 1972, wished to construct a new Midtown headquarters as a monument to the company and to boost his own name recognition. The 195 Broadway headquarters had a capacity of only 2,000 workers, but AT&T had 5,800 headquarters workers by the mid-1970s, most of them in New Jersey. ### Development #### Site acquisition AT&T began looking for a Midtown site in the early 1970s, hiring James D. Landauer Associates to assist with site selection. It wished to build a site near Grand Central Terminal but eschewed Park Avenue as being too prominent. The western blockfront of Madison Avenue between 56th and 57th Streets was being acquired by IBM, which refused to give up its lot to AT&T. On the block immediately to the south, Stanley Stahl had paid \$12 million since 1970 for a lot of 23,000 square feet (2,100 m<sup>2</sup>). On Stahl's block, AT&T acquired seven buildings in late 1974, followed by two adjacent buildings to the west in 1975, the latter of which were acquired in anticipation of AT&T being allowed to construct extra space. Stanley W. Smith, president of the 195 Broadway Corporation, paid Stahl \$18 million for his assemblage in October 1975. The land value appreciated significantly in the following years; by 1982, Stahl's plot alone was worth \$70 million. To save time and limit inflation-related costs, AT&T awarded some construction contracts before certain design details were finalized. Demolition permits for the site had been approved by 1976, but because of subsequent delays, the vacant lot was temporarily considered for a park or taxpayer building. The Alpine Wrecking Corporation was hired to dismantle the existing structures. The company removed non-load-bearing walls, salvaged recyclable materials, demolished the structures' upper stories by hand, and finally used machinery to destroy the lower stories. The two buildings nearest the Corning Glass Building were temporarily preserved to allow that building's fire code rating to be retained. #### Planning and design Around 1977, a committee of three AT&T officials and three officials from Smith's offices mailed questionnaires to twenty-five architects or design firms which the executives deemed "highly qualified". Thirteen of the recipients responded. Conversely, Johnson/Burgee recalled that they set aside the questionnaire until AT&T called them two weeks afterward. Smith visited eight candidates and picked three finalists: Johnson/Burgee, Roche-Dinkeloo, and Hellmuth, Obata & Kassabaum. The three finalists were to give presentations to the committee and high ranking officials. Johnson recalled that he did not have an elaborate presentation, but instead brought photographs of his past work and came with Burgee. According to AT&T officials, "there was no close second" candidate; Smith subsequently recalled that Johnson/Burgee were open to different design ideas. On June 17, 1977, the day after the presentations, The New York Times reported that AT&T had hired Johnson/Burgee to design a 37-story headquarters on the site. Johnson was quoted as saying that he wanted the new headquarters to be a "landmark" representing the company. The Wall Street Journal reported shortly afterward that Johnson was conducting a "feasibility study" for the headquarters. AT&T mandated that Johnson/Burgee select an associate architect as per the provisions of the Equal Employment Opportunity Act of 1972. Harry Simmons Jr., head of a small African-American firm, was selected out of seven interviewees from a field of 28 candidates. Simmons's firm was tasked with designing twenty percent of the overall architectural detail. According to design manager Alan Ritchie, DeButts explained "what he wanted in broad terms" but gave wide latitude to the final design. Johnson and Burgee examined various structures, such as the entries to the Tribune Tower design competition, for inspiration. Judith Grinberg created a 7-foot-tall (2.1 m) sketch of the AT&T Building's facade "to interpret [Johnson's] design intent"; the sketch was sold to London's Victoria and Albert Museum in 2010. In addition, Howard W. Swenson created numerous styrofoam models for the building and helped to refine the design details. The New York City Department of Buildings received blueprints for the new headquarters in January 1978. A Times editorial that month praised the AT&T project, as well as the neighboring IBM development at 590 Madison Avenue, as a "declaration of corporate commitment" to New York City, which had then recently rebounded from its fiscal crisis. AT&T announced its official plans on March 30, 1978, in front of New York City Hall. A rendering of the headquarters was shown on the front page of the next day's Times. Mayor Ed Koch described the project as "a strong vote of confidence" in the city's future, and the news media characterized it as part of a trend of midtown revitalization. AT&T initially expected construction to begin in late 1978 and be complete by 1982 at an estimated cost of \$60 million. The design, particularly the broken pediment, received widespread media attention, prompting AT&T to reexamine the plan in detail before deciding to proceed without modifications. In late 1978, the project received several floors' worth of zoning "bonuses" and exemption from setback regulations, in exchange for public space, a three-story communications museum, and a covered arcade on Madison Avenue. The next month, Johnson decided to use Stony Creek pink granite on the AT&T Building's facade. #### Construction Construction started in December 1978 with the excavation of the foundations. The same month, AT&T received a \$20 million tax abatement toward the construction cost. The foundation excavation cost \$3.1 million and largely consisted of blasting into the underlying bedrock. The detonations used about 50,000 pounds (23,000 kg) of Tovex gel. The underlying rock layer was made of mica schist, the composition of which was unpredictable if detonated, so about 8,000 small blasts were used to excavate the foundation. The resulting hole was 45 to 50 feet (14 to 15 m) deep. Excavations were ongoing in February 1979 when deButts was replaced by Charles L. Brown as AT&T CEO. Brown, who was less enthusiastic about a grand headquarters than deButts had been, sought a review of the project, but construction continued nonetheless. In the face of rising construction costs, the architects were compelled to swap some of the expensive materials with cheaper materials, such as replacing granite in the elevator cabs with wood. Steel for the superstructure was constructed starting in March 1980. Before the steel beams were placed, the workers erected the shear tubes at the building's core, as well as the 50-ton granite columns supporting the base. Because the steel only started above the sky lobby, atop the base, the workers climbed through the shear tubes to complete the sky lobby, then installed the steel crane in place. Furthermore, the IBM Building was simultaneously under construction on 56th Street, limiting access on that street. The project only had one construction manager, Frank Briscoe. Shortly after work started, two additional foremen were hired after Local 282, the union whose workers were constructing the building, threatened a strike. In December 1980, Paul Goldberger wrote for The New York Times that "the arch is beginning to take shape". At its peak, the project's three foremen had to balance the requests of about "three dozen powerful prime contractors and 150 subcontractors and suppliers", according to Inc magazine. Workers from more than 70 trades were involved in the construction of the building. The cladding was erected starting in September 1981, several months behind schedule. The workings were so complex that even the facade cladding required the involvement of members of four construction unions. The building topped out on November 18, 1981. Because of the hastened pace of construction, the contractors made some mistakes; for instance, electrical ducts had to be carved into the concrete floors after they were built. By late 1982, the work was one year late and \$40 million over budget. ### Completion and early years Throughout nearly the entire development process, AT&T faced an antitrust lawsuit from the United States Department of Justice. The parties reached an agreement in January 1982, with AT&T consenting to divest its Bell System effective January 1, 1984. Shortly after this agreement, AT&T decided to seek a lessee for 300,000 sq ft (28,000 m<sup>2</sup>) of space on the 7th through 25th floors, nearly half the space in the building. AT&T sought to rent out the space for as much as \$60 per square foot (\$650/m<sup>2</sup>) but had few potential takers. The company had expected to relocate as many as 1,500 employees, but the impending divestiture meant it only needed to move 600 employees into 550 Madison Avenue. In early 1983, AT&T reneged on its rental proposal after city government officials warned AT&T officials that the building's tax exemption could be canceled if AT&T were to receive rental income. The first occupants moved to their offices on July 29, 1983, and the Spirit of Communication statue was dedicated two months later, with full occupancy expected by the time of the Bell System divestiture at the end of the year. However, only three of the office stories were occupied by the end of the year. With the Bell System divestiture, about 1,200 employees were moved from 195 Broadway to 550 Madison Avenue by January 1984. That month, AT&T's longtime advertising agency N. W. Ayer & Son displayed a large welcome message from its own offices nearby. New York magazine reported in February 1984 that the executive offices were not occupied and that full completion was not expected until that May. The completion of 550 Madison Avenue took place sometime in 1984 but was overlooked by the media, which instead publicized the divestiture. The building ultimately cost \$200 million, a rate of about \$200 per square foot (\$2,200/m<sup>2</sup>), although New York placed the cost as high as \$220 million. Despite the high cost of construction, the Bell System divestiture meant that AT&T never fully occupied 550 Madison Avenue. In early 1984, AT&T indicated that, rather than constructing a museum in the annex for bonus zoning, it planned to use the annex for a showroom. The change of plan came following the Bell divestiture and the reduced presence it expected to have at the building. After the city firmly opposed the move, AT&T agreed to construct a three-story exhibition space within the annex. In exchange, AT&T was granted a \$42 million, ten-year tax abatement that August. The museum, which was named Infoquest Center, opened in May 1986. That September, AT&T announced it planned to move up to 1,000 of its 1,300 employees to Basking Ridge, placing at least 600,000 square feet on the market. The company was reconsidering leasing out its Madison Avenue headquarters by early 1987. After Koch threatened to rescind the entire tax abatement, AT&T agreed to limit the relocation to 778 employees. The fine dining restaurant The Quilted Giraffe relocated to the building in June 1987. ### Sony ownership Having decreased in size substantially, AT&T sought to sublet 80 percent of the space at 550 Madison Avenue in January 1991. At the time, AT&T wanted to move most employees to cheaper space. AT&T had signed a tentative 20-year lease with Sony by that May, although neither company confirmed the rumor at the time. Sony signed a 20-year lease agreement for the entire building that July, including an option to purchase 550 Madison Avenue. AT&T also forfeited \$14.5 million of tax abatements to the city government, equivalent to the taxes forgiven since 1987. The refunded tax abatements were used to fund programs at the financially distressed City University of New York for the 1991–1992 academic year. AT&T relocated its headquarters to 32 Avenue of the Americas, its long-distance telephone building in Lower Manhattan, and removed the Spirit of Communication statue. With the sale of the building, Burgee said, "The period of making image buildings for companies appears to be over." #### Renovation After Sony leased the building, it became known as the Sony Tower. In early 1992, Gwathmey Siegel designed a renovation of the base, with Philip Johnson as consultant. The arcade space was to be converted into retail space and, in exchange, the atrium was to be expanded with new planters and public seating. Edwin Schlossberg was hired to design the new storefronts and redesign the annex. Sony expected that 8,727 sq ft (810.8 m<sup>2</sup>) of the arcade could be converted into stores at a rate of \$200 per square foot (\$2,200/m<sup>2</sup>). According to Sony, the arcades were "dark, windy and noisy", and a conversion to commercial space would provide "retail continuity" with the remainder of Madison Avenue. Johnson was not overly concerned about the closure of the arcade, saying, "It isn't that my ideas have changed. The period has changed." The plan did face some opposition: the original associate architect Harry Simmons Jr. said that a "valued and useful space" would be razed, while Joseph B. Rose of the local Manhattan Community Board 5 said it would create "a dangerous precedent" for converting public plazas to commercial space. David W. Dunlap of The New York Times said the changes were "unquestionably an improvement" not only aesthetically, but also functionally. The New York City Planning Commission had to review and approve the proposal. While the plans resulted in a net loss in public space, they also increased the overall zoning bonus. The commission approved slightly modified plans in September 1992, which retained small portions of the arcade. Sony bought out the Quilted Giraffe's lease and the restaurant closed at the end of 1992. The Sony Tower was renovated between 1992 and 1994. Windows with bronze gridded frames were installed to close off the atrium, which became Sony stores, and the annex was converted into the Sony Wonder technology museum. The annex was completely gutted because, under guidelines set by the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, the existing ramps and passageways were too steep. Inside, Dorothea Rockburne was commissioned to paint two fresco murals for the formerly bare sky lobby, and additional staircases, conference centers, and offices were installed on the office stories. Barry Wine, founder of the Quilted Giraffe, was hired as the chef for the building's private dining club. #### Use The new atrium and retail spaces, known as Sony Plaza, were completed in 1994, and the Sony Wonder museum opened in the annex that May. The company name was prominently displayed in Sony Plaza: the company logo was emblazoned on the jackets of the atrium's security guards, and banners with Sony's name were displayed. In its first year, the converted Sony retail space at ground level received less profit than expected, prompting Sony Plaza Inc. to hire a new general manager in 1995. The atrium was criticized for being inhospitable to the homeless, as private security guards had been hired to patrol the space. Sony leased four stories at 555 Madison Avenue immediately to the east in February 1995. By the following year, Sony was renovating its space within 555 Madison Avenue; the company installed fiber-optic cables under Madison Avenue to connect its two buildings, and it installed microwave communications equipment atop 555 Madison Avenue. Sony had consolidated most of the operations for its Sony Music Entertainment division at the Sony Tower on 550 Madison Avenue, for which The New York Times noted that "such high-profile and elaborate space is appropriate and necessary." This was part of a move to consolidate Sony's United States operations away from the Sony Corporation of America, which had overseen Sony Pictures and Sony Music, and give more control over the United States operations to executives in Japan. It was described by The Wall Street Journal as indicative of "a long-term commitment to the area". In 2002, Sony exercised its option to purchase the building from the cash-strapped AT&T for \$236 million, or \$315 per square foot (\$3,390/m<sup>2</sup>). This was a relatively cheap price in comparison to the building's location in Midtown Manhattan. Two years later, Sony contemplated selling the building once its merger with Bertelsmann was completed. Part of the Sony Wonder museum was renovated in 2008 and reopened the following year. An accumulation of ice dislodged from an upper floor after a February 2010 blizzard, breaking the glass ceiling of the atrium and injuring several inside. ### Redevelopment #### Chetrit purchase By 2012, Sony was looking to sell off the Sony Tower, as the company perceived that the costs of keeping its American headquarters in Midtown were too high. Potential buyers started submitting bids for the Sony Tower in December 2012. Sony received over 20 bids, including from Joseph Sitt's Thor Equities, Mitsui Fudosan, and a partnership led by the Brunei Investment Agency. All of the bids included converting at least part of the space to hotel or condominium use. In January 2013, Sony announced it was to sell the building to Joseph Chetrit's Chetrit Group for \$1.1 billion, leasing back its offices there. Shortly afterward, Sony filed eviction proceedings against Joseph Allaham, a longtime tenant and Chetrit's friend, who operated a pizzeria and a restaurant in the base. Allaham ultimately decided to relocate his restaurant and retain his pizzeria. The Chetrit Group planned to redevelop the Sony Tower with condominiums and the first Oetker Collection hotel in the United States. In February 2015, the developers filed a condominium offering that called for 96 residences, which were to be sold at a combined total of \$1.8 billion. The offering included what was then considered Manhattan's most expensive residence, a three-story penthouse in the upper stories costing \$150 million. Dorothea Rockburne expressed concern that the developers would not adequately preserve two of her frescoes in the sky lobby, which was set to be converted into the hotel's lobby. Sony permanently closed the Sony Wonder Technology Lab in January 2016. Over the following months, Sony moved its headquarters and stores south to 11 Madison Avenue. #### Olayan redevelopment Following a declining real estate market in the 2010s, Chetrit abandoned its condominium conversion plan. Chetrit sold the building to Olayan Group in April 2016 for \$1.4 billion, relinquishing the "Sony Tower" name. Olayan and Chelsfield announced plans to rebrand 550 Madison Avenue and reconfigure the existing space, which was then empty besides Allaham's pizzeria. A group of banks including ING Group, Bank of East Asia, Crédit Agricole, Société Générale, and Natixis provided \$570 million in financing to facilitate the redevelopment. The pizzeria closed in September 2017. In late October 2017, the Olayan Group announced plans to renovate the building with designs by Snøhetta. The firm planned to add a glass curtain wall along the base on Madison Avenue, as well as demolish the arcade and annex on the western end of the site, replacing it with a garden. The renovation was anticipated to cost \$300 million and raise rents at the building to between \$115 and \$210 per square foot, some of the highest office rents in New York City. Several architecture critics, architects, and artists voiced their opposition to the plans, and a November protest and petition drew media coverage. Shortly afterward, the LPC voted to calendar the building for consideration as a landmark. Though there were efforts to preserve the significant interiors, demolition of the building's original ground floor lobby began in January 2018. The LPC determined that the lobby was not eligible for interior landmark status because its design had changed significantly when Spirit of Communication was removed and the arcades were enclosed. By that February, the original lobby had been demolished. On July 31, 2018, the LPC voted unanimously to designate the exterior as a New York City landmark; the commission wrote that the building was among the "most important postmodernist buildings" worldwide. Filmmaker and cultural heritage activist Nathan Eddy, who petitioned to preserve the original status, described the designation as "an astonishing and marvelous victory". After the landmark designation, plans for the lobbies were modified so the western end of the ground-floor lobby faced the atrium, and Rockburne's frescoes were to be mounted on the sky lobby. These new plans were approved by the LPC in February 2019. The original plan to demolish the annex and atrium was also scrapped. In Snøhetta's updated plan, the atrium was to be planted with greenery and connected to 717 Fifth Avenue, and the atrium's roof and the annex were to be replaced. The New York City Planning Commission approved the modified design for the plaza in January 2020. Olayan executive Erik Horvat said the renovation would help 550 Madison "compete against Hudson Yards, One Vanderbilt and the best buildings in the city". The canopy over the midblock atrium was being installed by August 2021. The new lobby was completed that October, at which point 550 Madison Avenue was 45 percent leased. The Chubb Group leased ten floors the next month, becoming the first confirmed tenant within the renovated building. Other major tenants included luxury fashion retailer Hermès, which leased three stories, and private equity company Clayton, Dubilier & Rice, which leased five stories. The atrium opened in November 2022 with three food stalls. The renovation provided space for 2,000 employees, compared to 1,000 beforehand. Restaurateur Simon Kim signed a lease in January 2023 for a three-level restaurant covering 15,000 square feet (1,400 m<sup>2</sup>). ## Impact ### Critical reception #### Contemporary commentary The AT&T Building received much publicity from architectural critics from the time plans were announced in March 1978. When the building was announced, Paul Goldberger it "post-modernism's major monument", but felt that the broken pediment "suggests that a joke is being played with scale that, may not be quite so funny when the building [...] is complete". Ada Louise Huxtable described the design as "a monumental demonstration of quixotic aesthetic intelligence rather than art" and dubbed it 1978's "non‐building of the year". Michael Sorkin of The Village Voice dismissed the building as merely a "Seagram Building with ears". Architects and members of the public wrote letters about the design, many of which were sardonic and disapproving. Robert Hughes of Time magazine called it "peculiar rather than radical" but said it gave other designers permission "to build their own monuments of the hybrid" postmodernist style. Much controversy surrounded the roof's broken pediment. Goldberger was the first person to publicly characterize the pediment as "Chippendale", after the British manufacturer's furniture, but said the term had been first used by Arthur Drexler of the Museum of Modern Art, who did not want to be associated with the nickname. The pediment gained more notice elsewhere. Chicago Tribune architecture critic Paul Gapp wrote that the pediment had "made instant history" and incited "a natural uproar", and the Atlanta Constitution quoted various architects who said the design "couldn't possibly succeed" and was "a tragedy" if taken seriously, Conversely, The Baltimore Sun expressed optimism that the design would inspire similar structures in Downtown Baltimore. The cynical response to the initial plans led Johnson to publicly defend his plan in 1978, both in a New York Times op-ed and a speech for the American Institute of Architects. Der Scutt, architect of the neighboring Trump Tower, said in 1981 in response to criticism of 550 and 590 Madison Avenue: "I can't find anything oppressively hideous in IBM or AT&T. What is wrong with 'a showcase of superscale' in a city that prides itself as being culturally ecstatic about it's [sic] skyscrapers?" When 550 Madison Avenue was nearly finished, Goldberger re-appraised it as an important structure architecturally, though he said the completion "threatened to be something of an anticlimax". Ellen Posner of The Wall Street Journal said "It is not at all surprising that some of the original negative votes have been recast as positive". After the building was completed, it was received much more positively than during its construction. Susan Doubliet wrote for Progressive Architecture that the building was "more pleasure to passers-by than anyone would have predicted", while also stating that "more was expected" of the disorganized design. Art historian Vincent Scully said 550 Madison Avenue "takes charge of the street" and that the pediment "has the effect of making us wonder why we ever allowed people to build skyscrapers with flat tops". Conversely, in a 1987 New York magazine poll of "more than 100 prominent New Yorkers", 550 Madison Avenue was one of the ten most disliked structures in New York City. Huxtable disliked the entrance lobby, which she called "an oddly awkward and unsatisfactory space, distorted by its overreaching height and narrow dimensions". #### Retrospective commentary Sony's redesign of the building's atrium and arcades in the 1990s received mixed criticism. Some onlookers praised the openness of the atrium and retail spaces; one visitor interviewed by The New York Times regarded the changes as akin to a television commercial in exchange for a public benefit. Others disapproved of the many references to Sony, including Ruth Messinger, Manhattan's borough president at the time, who perceived the atrium as "overly commercial". Progressive Architecture characterized the atrium as "not so bad" aesthetically but said that Sony's commercial amenities were not necessarily a sufficient tradeoff for public space. After the 2020s renovation, architectural critic Justin Davidson wrote that "the link between structure and detail has been snapped. The original lobby and sky lobby are both gone and, with them, Johnson’s sense of lugubrious grandeur." Metropolis magazine said of the redesigned plaza: "Snøhetta has succeeded in doing something far greater than giving one historic building a refresh, providing a promising model for putting the public back into POPS." ### Architectural significance With ornamental additions such as the pediment and ground-level arch, the building challenged architectural modernism's demand for stark functionalism and purely efficient design. Wolf Von Eckardt wrote for The Washington Post in 1978, "I believe Johnson may well unite contemporary architecture again and lead it out of both the glass box and the concrete sculpture to a new ecumenic gentility." Similarly, critic Reyner Banham thought the building had the potential to reshape architecture in New York City and in the postmodern era. The effect on the public at large has been described as legitimizing the postmodern movement globally. Johnson described the building as "a symbolic shift from the flat top" of International Style skyscrapers like the nearby Lever House. In a conversation with LPC researchers, Burgee said he received numerous letters from younger architects who expressed their gratitude that "the previous rules no longer apply". The design also influenced some of Johnson and Burgee's other works during the 1980s. For his design of the AT&T Building, Johnson received the Bronze Medallion from the city government in 1978. Johnson also received the 1978 Gold Medal from the American Institute of Architects, and he was the first architect to receive a Pritzker Architecture Prize in 1979. ## See also - List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan from 14th to 59th Streets - List of tallest buildings in New York City - AT&T Corporate Center - Sony Building (Tokyo)
28,022,556	A Christmas Carol (Doctor Who)	1,168,934,561	2010 Christmas special episode of Doctor Who	[ "2010 British television episodes", "British Christmas television episodes", "Doctor Who Christmas specials", "Eleventh Doctor episodes", "Fiction set in the 5th millennium", "Television episodes directed by Toby Haynes", "Television episodes written by Steven Moffat", "Television shows based on A Christmas Carol" ]	"A Christmas Carol" is an episode of the British science fiction television programme Doctor Who. It is the sixth Doctor Who Christmas special since the programme's revival in 2005, and it was broadcast on 25 December 2010 on both BBC One and BBC America, making it the first episode to premiere on the same day in both the United Kingdom and United States. It was written by Steven Moffat and directed by Toby Haynes. In the episode, a crashing space liner with more than four thousand people on board has been caught in a strange cloud belt. The alien time traveller the Doctor (Matt Smith) lands on the planet below and meets the miserly Kazran Sardick (Michael Gambon), a man who can control the cloud layer but refuses to help. Inspired by Charles Dickens's 1843 novella A Christmas Carol, the episode has the Doctor attempting to use time travel to alter Kazran's past and make him kinder so that he will save the spaceship. Moffat enjoyed writing the episode and was a fan of Dickens' story himself. The story features flying sharks and fish, which were things Moffat was afraid of as a child. The episode features the acting debut of Welsh singer Katherine Jenkins, who also sang in the episode with a song written specifically for her. "A Christmas Carol" was filmed through July and August 2010 mainly on sets designed by the show's new set designer Michael Pickwoad. The special was seen by 12.11 million viewers in the UK and received generally positive reviews from critics. ## Plot ### Synopsis A space liner carrying more than four thousand passengers loses control when passing through strange electrified clouds over a human-inhabited planet. The Eleventh Doctor discovers the clouds are controlled by the bitter old man Kazran Sardick, who refuses to allow the ship to land safely. Discovering Kazran's fear of his domineering father, the inventor of the cloud controlling machine, and his wish to never be like him, the Doctor travels to Kazran's past to change it. Meeting Kazran as a young boy, the Doctor uses his sonic screwdriver to summon a shark that swims in the clouds and fog. The shark eats the screwdriver, wounding it, and is unable to swim back to the clouds. To save the shark, Kazran takes her to a cryogenics storeroom where Kazran's father has kept people in storage as "security" for loans, including a woman called Abigail. Abigail, once released, sings to soothe the shark while the Doctor uses Abigail's storage unit to transport the shark back to the skies. As the Doctor and Kazran return Abigail to storage, Kazran promises her they will see her every Christmas Eve. The Doctor keeps this promise, and romance blooms between Kazran and Abigail. However, after one such visit, Kazran requests the Doctor end the practice, keeping Abigail in storage indefinitely as Abigail has an incurable illness and one day left to live. Though old Kazran in the present is pleased with his new memories, he remains bitter at Abigail's fate and refuses to help save the ship. Old Kazran is soon visited by holographic images of the ship's crew and passengers in the present, imploring Kazran's help, but he waves away the holograms. The Doctor appears, bringing young Kazran with him to show the child Kazran his future; the realisation of how much his bitter future self now resembles his feared father causes Kazran to change his mind and decide to save the ship. The Doctor finds his changes to Kazran's past have locked him out from the controls of Kazran's father's machine. The Doctor instead has Abigail sing through one half of the broken sonic screwdriver; the other half, still in the shark, resonates in the atmosphere, disrupting the storm to allow the ship to land safely. Kazran releases Abigail knowing this will be the last time, but Abigail understands and believes it is time for them to share a Christmas Day. ### Continuity Several nods to earlier outfits in the series appear in "A Christmas Carol". Amy Pond wears her kissogram policewoman's outfit from Series 5's "The Eleventh Hour", while Rory Williams wears a Roman centurion's outfit as seen in "The Pandorica Opens" and "A Good Man Goes to War". In one of the many Christmas Eves the Doctor and Kazran spend with Abigail, they present themselves to her in long, stripy scarves, the Fourth Doctor's trademark accessory. The two also appear in fezzes, an item of clothing the Doctor became fond of in "The Big Bang". Kazran's controls are "isomorphic", which means that only he can use them. In Pyramids of Mars (1975), the TARDIS's controls are said to be isomorphic, though in subsequent adventures this feature was retained or ignored as the plot demanded. ## Production ### Writing Writer Steven Moffat, who was also head writer and executive producer of the series, wanted to make the special "really Christmassy" because the previous Christmas special, "The End of Time", had been darker than usual as it led to the Tenth Doctor's (David Tennant) regeneration. He stated that he had "never been so excited about writing anything. I was laughing madly as I typed along to Christmas songs in April". Moffat stated that A Christmas Carol was "probably [his] favourite Christmas story" and that it lent itself to Doctor Who, as there was an aspect similar to time travel in the story. He also pointed out that the Doctor intentionally based his reform of Kazran on Charles Dickens' story; Dickens exists as a character in the Doctor Who universe, having appeared in the 2005 episode "The Unquiet Dead". The concept of the sky shark was based on Moffat's childhood fear of sharks which had evolved to swim outside the water. Moffat noted that Kazran was unlike other villains found in Doctor Who, as he was not completely "wicked". Instead he was more of a "damaged" character; the Doctor recognises this when Kazran demonstrates his inability to hit a little boy, due to it reminding him of when his father beat him. This allowed the Doctor to want to change his past and "defrost" his soul. The phrase "halfway out of the dark" is used in the episode, a reference to the fact that the hard winter is almost over as well as a metaphor for Kazran. ### Casting Starting with this episode, Arthur Darvill achieved regular status as companion Rory. British actor Michael Gambon was cast in the role of Kazran. Andy Pryor, the casting director, did not believe Gambon would be available, and was surprised when Gambon accepted the role. Matt Smith (the Doctor), Karen Gillan (Amy Pond), and Darvill were very honoured to work with him. Moffat stated, "Michael Gambon is as distinguished an actor as I can imagine and the fact that he was Dumbledore means that he is already known to millions of children". Kazran was played as a boy by Laurence Belcher and as a young adult by Danny Horn. Director Toby Haynes said that acting came naturally to Belcher and he "captured the story" and drew the audience in. The episode also features the acting debut of Welsh singer Katherine Jenkins. Shortly before her 30th birthday in June 2010, Jenkins was asked about the part, and she accepted. Moffat was unaware that Jenkins had no former acting experience. Jenkins originally was not interested in acting, but thought that she would "like to try" Doctor Who, as it was "such an iconic show". Producer Sanne Wohlenberg believed that Jenkins was "a perfect fit" for the role, though she was nervous. ### Filming and effects A read-through took place in Cardiff on Thursday, 8 July and production started on 12 July 2010 and lasted into August 2010. The episode marked the debut of Michael Pickwoad as the new set designer. Pickwoad and Haynes worked together to create the town, incorporating elements that would be needed in a society that shared its daily life with fish. Nearly all windows in the town are round, reminiscent of submarines. The structures were made out of metal, filmed at a local steel works. Kazran's study was designed to be very large, as Kazran spent several scenes in there alone and would feel "dwarfed" by it. The walls were intended to look like copper that had turned green, which when combined with the red drapes created the Christmas colours of red and green. The painting of Kazran's father was created by taking a picture of Gambon, lightly printing it on a canvas, and painting in the details. Kazran's controls were inspired by a church organ. The Doctor's first scene in the episode is falling down the chimney and presenting himself to Kazran. Smith was pleased with the entrance of his character, noting similarities between the Doctor and Santa Claus. However, a stuntman performed the scene. For the scene in which a sky fish nibbles on the sonic screwdriver, the screwdriver was dangled in front of a greenscreen and tapped with a pen to create the effect of the fish nudging it. To maintain secrecy of the episode's plot, the model shark was given the codename "Clive". The scenes in which the characters ride through the air in a sleigh pulled by one of the flying sharks was filmed in front of a greenscreen. The sleigh was in fact a rickshaw which crew members rocked back and forth as a wind machine created the effect of flying through the air. As it was impossible to film underneath the rickshaw, a miniature model of the sleigh was used for the shots underneath the sleigh rather than computer-generated effects. ### Music The episode features a song specifically written for Jenkins, titled "Abigail's Song". In the script it was written that the song was unique and specific to Doctor Who, and composer Murray Gold was contacted to write the song. Jenkins did a demo and then sang the song while filming the actual scene, as she thought it would look more natural. Afterwards she sang the final version and a new, lighter arrangement was composed by the National Orchestra of Wales. Selected pieces of music from this special, as composed by Gold, were released on a soundtrack 21 March 2011 by Silva Screen Records. ## Broadcast and reception "A Christmas Carol" was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One on Christmas Day 2010. According to overnight figures, "A Christmas Carol" was tied with Come Fly with Me as the second most-watched programme on Christmas Day in the United Kingdom, behind EastEnders, and with an average viewership of 10.3 million peaking at 10.7 million. The final rating for BBC One was 12.11, making the episode the fourth highest rated of the entire canon since the series was revived in 2005, behind previous specials "Voyage of the Damned" (13.31 million, 2007), "The Next Doctor" (13.10 million, 2008), and Part Two of "The End of Time" (12.27 million, 2010). "A Christmas Carol" was the third highest rated show on all UK TV for the week ending 26 December 2010. In addition, 716,000 watched the show on the BBC's iPlayer, making it the eighth most downloaded show for December 2010. This special had an Appreciation Index of 83. "A Christmas Carol" is the first episode of Doctor Who that was broadcast the same day in the United Kingdom and in the United States on BBC America. In the United States, 727,000 viewers watched "A Christmas Carol", an 8% increase on the previous holiday special, part one of "The End of Time". The special was broadcast in Canada on Space on 26 December and in Australia on ABC1 on the same day, where it had overnight ratings of 880,000 viewers. ### Critical reception The episode received generally positive reviews. Dan Martin of The Guardian described the episode as a "sumptuous triumph". Website Den of Geek's Simon Brew applauded Moffat for "not taking the easy way out" with the adaptation, saying it was "really quite mad, undoubtedly festive, and it treats the Dickens source material with respect". However, he also wondered if young children "would have enjoyed 'A Christmas Carol' quite as much" as adults. Keith Phipps of The A.V. Club gave the special an A−, naming it the "best Doctor Who Christmas special" he had seen. He praised Gambon, Smith, both actors playing the younger Kazran and thought Gillan and Darvill "[made] the most of what they're given", though he commented that "Katherine Jenkins is more an ethereal presence with a lovely voice...than an actress". Dave Golder of SFX gave the episode four and a half out of five stars, explaining that, although there were "creaky" moments, it was "the most adult Christmas special we've yet been given, with some complex story-telling techniques, a plot driven by the characters and some quite mind-bending concepts". He praised Jenkins' debut and Smith, whom he described as "a force of nature unleashed on screen". IGN's Cindy White rated the episode 8 out of 10, describing it as a "clever remix" of A Christmas Carol and praising Smith, Gambon, and Jenkins. Brad Trechak, writing for TV Squad, praised Moffat's "expertly woven story". MTV's Rick Marshall called it "easily one of the best episodes of the series' modern era...populated with just the right amount of humor, drama, scares, and sentimental reverence for the classic story that inspired its narrative". Sam McPherson of Zap2it said that he "enjoyed 'A Christmas Carol' more than I have almost any other special that has aired since the series restarted in 2005", but thought that "some parts were absolutely silly, and others were absolutely incoherent" due to the frantic pace. While he considered Amy and Rory "criminally underused", they were responsible for "heavy laughs" and left the Doctor to be the "delight of the episode". The Daily Telegraph's Chris Harvey was less enthusiastic about the episode, saying that it "started nicely", but that "by the time she was singing to the shark, I'd had enough," while thinking that, "It's not really for old curmudgeons like me, who got more of a kick out of Michael Gambon's miserly Kazran Sardick when he was sneering and snarling at the beginning of the episode than when he had been thoroughly heartwarmed by the end." "A Christmas Carol" was nominated for the 2011 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation (Short Form), but lost to the preceding series finale "The Pandorica Opens"/"The Big Bang". ## DVD and Blu-ray release "A Christmas Carol" was released on DVD and Blu-ray as a standalone in Region 2 on 24 January 2011, followed by Region 1 release in the two formats on 15 February 2011. It contained the associated Doctor Who Confidential for the episode, as well as a cut-down version of the Doctor Who Prom. The special was also included in the Complete Sixth Series box set released on 21 November 2011 (Region 2) and 22 November (Region 1). The ten Christmas specials between "The Christmas Invasion" and "Last Christmas" inclusive were released in a boxset titled Doctor Who – The 10 Christmas Specials on 19 October 2015. ## Soundtrack The soundtrack for the episode was released in the United Kingdom on 21 March 2011 and digitally in the United States on 22 November 2011. The soundtrack features classical music star Katherine Jenkins singing "Abigail's Song". It was reissued on white vinyl LP in a limited first pressing edition of 500 on 1 December 2014. ## See also - Adaptations of A Christmas Carol
52,997,730	Sovereignty Restoration Day	1,167,972,291	Hawaiian national holiday	[ "1843 establishments in Hawaii", "Celebrations in Hawaii", "Hawaiian sovereignty movement", "July observances" ]	Sovereignty Restoration Day (Hawaiian: Lā Hoʻihoʻi Ea) is a national holiday of the former Hawaiian Kingdom celebrated on July 31 and still commemorated by Native Hawaiians in the state of Hawaii. It honors the restoration of sovereignty to the kingdom, following the occupation of Hawaiʻi by Great Britain during the 1843 Paulet Affair, by British Rear-Admiral Richard Darton Thomas and when King Kamehameha III uttered the phrase: Ua Mau ke Ea o ka ʻĀina i ka Pono (). During the monarchy, the holiday was observed annually by the native and foreign communities in Hawaii. King Kamehameha V, who deemed the holiday inappropriate, officially dropped it as a national holiday in 1867 and replaced with Kamehameha Day (on June 11). It was briefly revived as a national holiday from 1891 until the overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom in 1893. During the ensuing years of the 1890s, the holiday continued to be observed privately by loyalists of the monarchy as a form of opposition and resistance. It is still celebrated by proponents of the Hawaiian sovereignty movement as a day of resistance against what sovereignty advocates consider an ongoing American occupation of Hawaiʻi. In 2022, the day was recognized by the State of Hawaii as a special day of remembrance. ## Background On February 10, 1843, Captain Lord George Paulet, of HMS Carysfort landed in Honolulu in response to the complaints by the British Consul in Honolulu Richard Charlton, who had an underlying land dispute with the Hawaiian government, and claimed British subjects were being denied their legal rights. Paulet, without the authorization of his superiors, unilaterally occupied the kingdom in the name of Queen Victoria on February 25 despite the protests of Hawaiian King Kamehameha III and his ministers. The Hawaiian king ceded his sovereignty under protest to the British government. Paulet placed himself and a committee in charge, restricted trade in the ports, destroyed all Hawaiian flags that could be found, and raised the British Union Jack in their place. After a five-month occupation, Rear-Admiral Richard Darton Thomas, the Commander-in-Chief of the Pacific Station, sailed into Honolulu on his flagship HMS Dublin on July 26, 1843, and requested an interview with the king. Kamehameha III was more than happy to tell his side of the story, and a new treaty was negotiated with the British giving British subjects on the islands "perfect equality with the most favored foreigners". On July 31, 1843, Thomas raised the Hawaiian flag in place of the Union Jack at the plains east of Honolulu (now part of downtown Honolulu), formally ending the occupation, and gave a speech affirming the independence and sovereignty of the Hawaiian kingdom and the friendship of the British government. The site of the ceremony was later made into a park in honor of the event and named Thomas Square. ## Official observation Following the restoration of sovereignty at Thomas Square, King Kamehameha III held an afternoon thanksgiving service at Kawaiahaʻo Church where he uttered the phrase: Ua Mau ke Ea o ka ʻĀina i ka Pono ("The life of the land is preserved in the righteousness of the people"). This phrase was adopted in 1959 as the motto of the state of Hawaii. The king declared a ten-day holiday and the entire community including foreigners and native Hawaiians rejoiced in festivities with a lavish luau of suckling pig, fish and poi. The event was later made into an annual holiday and was observed by his successor King Kamehameha IV (1855–1864). During the fourth anniversary of the restoration in 1847, King Kamehameha III and his wife Queen Kalama hosted a grand luau at their summer palace, Kaniakapupu, attended by an estimated ten thousand guests. During the latter part of the reign of King Kamehameha V (1864–1872) the celebration was deemed inappropriate by the king and his ministers since it brought back unpleasant memories of the British occupation by Paulet, and the official holiday was discontinued. The holiday was still being officially sanctioned in 1865 and 1866. No public celebration was held in 1867, and it ceased to be officially observed. There are also later assertions that the holiday was dropped "to suit the delicate feelings of a few Englishmen who did not like the memory of these events revived". However, the anniversary was still remembered by people in private. In 1872, the king replaced the holiday with Kamehameha Day (on June 11) to honor his grandfather Kamehameha I who had conquered and united the Hawaiian Islands in 1810. This is the only holiday from the time of the Hawaiian monarchy that remains an official holiday of the state of Hawaii. The 1890 session of the Hawaiian legislature briefly restored the date as a national holiday effective July 31, 1891, during the reign of Queen Liliuokalani. In 1893, the Hawaiian monarchy was overthrown and the queen yielded her authority to the United States government under protest. The Provisional Government of Hawaii, which was established as an interim regime while a treaty of annexation was being pushed through the United States Congress, abolished the holiday. Private observance of the fiftieth anniversary on July 31, 1893, was watched by the oligarchical government with an air of suspicion, while royalists and supporters of the deposed queen hoped in vain for another restoration to occur. After 1893, the holiday continued to be observed privately by loyalists of the monarchy as a form of opposition and resistance. By the time the Territory of Hawaii was organized in 1898 the holiday had become a historical footnote. ## Modern-day observation The tradition of this celebration was revived in 1985 by Hawaiian sovereignty movement activist Kekuni Blaisdell during the Hawaiian Renaissance. Today, the holiday is upheld by proponents of the Hawaiian sovereignty movement who compare the British occupation of 1843 to what they believe is the ongoing modern American occupation of the islands and believe the United States government should "follow the example of the British to restore the Hawaiian nation". In Honolulu, the holiday is marked by the celebration of Hawaiian culture, history and activism through organized speeches, presentations, marches, hula performances, music rallies and flag-raising. On the other islands, sovereignty groups organize historical reenactments, rallies, and the ceremonial raising of the Hawaiian flag in place of the American flag. On July 31, 2018, a 12-foot bronze statue of Kamehameha III and a flagpole flying the Hawaiian flag was unveiled at Thomas Square in a ceremony honoring the 175th anniversary of the restoration of Hawaiian sovereignty in 1843. The statue was created by Oregon artist Thomas Jay Warren for \$250,000 allotted by the Mayor's Office of Culture and the Arts and is part of Mayor Kirk Caldwell's plans to revamp the park. Thomas Square is one of four sites in Hawaii where the Hawaiian flag is allowed to fly alone without the United States flag. The others are the Royal Mausoleum at Mauna ʻAla, ʻIolani Palace and Puʻuhonua o Hōnaunau. In 2022, the State of Hawaii passed a legislative bill officially recognizing Lā Hoʻihoʻi Ea as a special day of observance.
4,453,630	Stones Bitter	1,173,751,122	Beer manufactured by Molson Coors	[ "Beer brands", "Beer brands of the United Kingdom", "Molson Coors brands", "Yorkshire cuisine" ]	Stones Bitter is a beer manufactured and distributed in the United Kingdom by the North American brewer Molson Coors. It is a bitter with a straw-golden hue. Stones Bitter was first brewed in 1948 by William Stones Ltd at the Cannon Brewery in Sheffield. It was designed for the local steelworkers and became successful in its local area, becoming one of Sheffield's best known products. The brewing giant Bass Charrington acquired William Stones in 1968, and began to heavily promote the keg variant of Stones Bitter, which eventually became the highest selling bitter in the country. However the keg version was promoted at the expense of the traditional unpasteurised and unfiltered cask conditioned version. In the 1990s, the ABV of Stones was gradually reduced, and, as ale sales declined, Stones reverted from a national into a regional brand. Following the closure of the Cannon Brewery, Stones has been brewed at a number of different breweries. When Bass exited its brewing business, Stones became a Coors brand (later Molson Coors). Stones was promoted through a series of television advertisements in the 1980s that starred Michael Angelis and Tony Barton. It eventually became the United Kingdom's longest ever running bitter campaign. Stones sponsored the Rugby Football League Championship and its successor the Rugby Super League throughout the 1980s and 1990s. ## History The head brewer Edward "Ted" Collins first produced Stones Bitter at the Cannon Brewery in 1948. It was designed for the steelworkers of Sheffield's Lower Don Valley. The product was formulated as the working classes began to favour bitter over the dark mild style of beer. The beer's straw colour made it reasonably unusual for the time, and its individuality helped it to become an immediate success. By the 1960s its local reputation was "colossal", and it accounted for 80 per cent of William Stones' sales. Stones had such a strong local following that it was described as being "more of a religion than a beer." From 1979, keg Stones began to be promoted heavily nationwide, and the beer was introduced to the South of England for the first time. The beer was promoted following the withdrawal of the unpopular Brew Ten, which was itself intended to replace Bass's regional ales. Originally the beer would be produced at the Cannon Brewery and then transported to Bass' Hope & Anchor brewery, also in Sheffield, for pasteurisation and kegging, but eventually demand for Stones Bitter became too great for the Cannon alone, and production was also extended to other Bass breweries. In the early 1980s Stones Bitter was produced at Bass' Runcorn brewery, although this ceased after drinkers complained of headaches from the poorly manufactured beer. The Runcorn beer had been brewed at a higher temperature, which increased the amount of hangover-inducing fusel oils in the beer. Stones Bitter became the highest selling beer for Bass Breweries from 1981, when it overtook Worthington E in sales. Stones was the ninth most popular beer in the United Kingdom in 1989, with two per cent of all beer sales. Demand was such that the Cannon Brewery was paying up to £1.5 million per month in duty by 1991. Cask conditioned Stones won silver in the Bitter category in the CAMRA Champion Beer of Britain in 1991. Stones was the highest selling bitter in the UK by 1992, a million barrel a year brand, described by Bass as "a tremendously important brand with untapped potential". That same year, Bass were criticised for reducing the ABV of Stones from 4.1 per cent to 3.9 per cent ABV in order to reduce the impact of beer duty. The current packaging was introduced in 1994, and evokes Vulcan, the Roman god of fire and blacksmiths, and protector of craftsmen. In 1997, the Yorkshire Post described the beer as "one of Sheffield's most famous exports", and "a name which carries as much pride as the Made in Sheffield stamp." In 1997, Bass decided to deprioritise Stones in order to concentrate on promoting Worthington as their national ale brand. Stones' ABV was further reduced to 3.8 per cent in August 1998, and then to 3.7 per cent a few months later leading to its derision in the Yorkshire Evening Post. Following the closure of the Cannon Brewery in 1999, canned Stones has been brewed in Burton upon Trent and keg Stones in Tadcaster. The cask conditioned variant was brewed by Highgate Brewery of Walsall, Thwaites Brewery of Blackburn and finally Everards of Leicester. It was restored to 4.1 per cent ABV and its original recipe in August 2006, with Coors claiming that it would be "like [how] Stones used to taste." The product was discontinued in 2011. In 2006, Off Licence News identified the canned variant as "continuing a slow but sure decline that has seen its status redefined from national brand to Yorkshire regional over the last decade." As of 2012, Stones Bitter is among the twenty highest selling ales in the United Kingdom, with estimated annual volumes at over 100,000 hectolitres. Cask conditioned Stones Bitter returned in 2021, brewed under licence by Sheffield brewer TrueNorth. ## Recipe and flavour The recipes for brewery conditioned and cask conditioned Stones differed: Brewery conditioned Stones is brewed with a blend of hops from America (Columbus and Zeus) and Europe (Magnum and Admiral). The barley variety used is Pearl. The beer comes in kegs and 440ml cans, and is described as having a "fragrant grapefruit-citrus hop aroma, [which] cuts through a characteristically sulphury background with a fruity edge. The unusual salts balance ensures that the bitterness isn’t dry." Cask conditioned Stones used Challenger hops, and was dry hopped with English Goldings. It was described as having an aroma of hops, sulphur and grapefruit, with a salty, moreish and zesty taste. ## Advertising A major television campaign ran nationally from 1983 until 1991 with the tagline (coined by playwright Peter Whelan): "(Wherever you may wander) there's no taste like Stones". The series initially starred Bernard Hill and Tony Barton, although Hill was replaced by Michael Angelis from 1984 onwards. The advertisements followed the characters of Jeff and Dave as they got into scrapes in various overseas locations, with humorous results. By 1987 it had become the UK's longest running bitter campaign of all time. From 1993 Stones was only advertised in the north of England. The 1994-96 "Sheffield Gold" campaign was set in a steel foundry: a nod to the city's heritage, although it was filmed in the Czech Republic because Sheffield's own foundries were considered to be too clean and automated for the desired gritty and industrial effect. A spokesman for Bass explained: "We wanted sparks and goggles." It was to be the final major marketing push for Stones, and as of 2012 the only marketing support for the brand is the provision of Stones branded glassware and bar merchandise for regular stockists. ### Sponsorships Stones Bitter sponsored the Rugby Football League Championship from 1986 to 1995, and then its successor the Rugby Super League from 1996–7. A 1986–8 set of poster advertisements with the tagline "Stones, sheer poetry" supported the sponsorship. In 1995 and 1996, Stones sponsored the Doncaster Handicap and the Park Hill Stakes horse racing events. Stones Bitter are also sponsors of the Sheffield Steelers, they have a sponsor on the bottom of their jersey. It also sponsored midlands sports show Central Sports Special.
33,049,538	Fame Kills: Starring Kanye West and Lady Gaga	1,172,168,404	Canceled 2009–10 concert tour by Kanye West and Lady Gaga	[ "2009 in American music", "2010 in American music", "Cancelled concert tours", "Co-headlining concert tours", "Concert tours of Canada", "Concert tours of the United States", "Kanye West concert tours", "Lady Gaga concert tours" ]	Fame Kills: Starring Kanye West and Lady Gaga was a planned co-headlining concert tour by American record producer and vocalist Kanye West, and singer Lady Gaga. For the tour, which would have supported West's fourth album 808s & Heartbreak (2008) and Gaga's The Fame Monster EP (2009), the pair conceived a production that would unite their different musical audiences. The tour was scheduled to run from November 2009 to January 2010, but was canceled after public controversy regarding West's interruption of Taylor Swift's Best Female Video speech at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards. Shortly after the cancellation, Gaga embarked on her own tour, The Monster Ball Tour, while West went on to make his album My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy, released on November 22, 2010. ## Background and development In June 2009, Kanye West announced on The View he would be touring with Lady Gaga, but she would not perform as an opening act. "She's talented and so incredible that she's not an opening act", he said. "We're doing it together, with no opening act." In August, Gaga expressed her belief that the tour would be "one of the most groundbreaking moments in touring history." Before the singer agreed to collaborate with West, she demanded that the tour would remain accessible to her gay fans. "I'm gay", she recalled telling West in an interview with Out magazine, "my music is gay. My show is gay. And I love that it's gay. And I love my gay fans and they're all going to be coming to our show. And it's going to remain gay." The tour's stage was designed by Gaga and West as a traverse; "Instead of being on just one end of the arena, the stage traverses the entire arena", Gaga noted. "It's not really in-the-round; it's more of a runway." The concept of the tour was to feature the performers on opposite ends of the stage, with Gaga's end representing "home and humble beginnings" and West's end representing "the fame", with the two fighting for each other's positions throughout the show. West would perform his singles, Gaga would perform hers, and then the duo would perform several duets. Gaga said she enjoyed designing Fame Kills with West, calling themselves "creative kindreds." She explained that they did not plan to tour for themselves, but rather for "everybody else"; the goal of the tour would have been to bring two different groups of fans and music enthusiasts together. "I make pop music and Kanye's fans love pop music because he has changed what hip-hop means", she said. "For me, the tour is more about just bringing people together and having a big dance party. The show is a celebration of creativity, art, fashion and choreography." She also noted that West showed her a lot during the creative planning of the show, such as one instance where Gaga wanted to put side panels on the stage that would have obstructed the view for some fans. "He was like, 'I'm not selling a ticket to a fan who can't see the show,' and he's right", she said. A promotional video for the tour was released in September 2009. West posted the video on his blog accompanied by the text, "What happened to all the rock stars? The fame killed them!" The 30-second clip features slow-motion footage of a topless Gaga being carried by a man presumed to be West. Daniel Kreps from Rolling Stone described it as "soft 70s porn", while adding that he had "no idea what [the text in the video] has to do with the 30-second clip, but we're sure it'll start to make more sense as more promos roll out as we approach the tour's launch." At Gaga's Fame Ball tour, she sang a short piano version of West's "Heartless". ## Cancellation Following singer Taylor Swift's win for the music video "You Belong with Me" at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards for Best Female Video, West stormed the stage, grabbed Swift's microphone, and declared that singer Beyoncé deserved the award for her "Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)" video. He declared, "Yo, Taylor, I'm really happy for you, and I'm going to let you finish, but Beyoncé had one of the best videos of all time." West was profusely criticized by celebrities and fans alike over the incident. Following the interruption, the status of Fame Kills was rumored to be in question. A representative from a US urban radio station commented: "I think this could potentially affect his upcoming tour with Lady Gaga. This isn't an urban tour — urban audiences can be a bit more forgiving than mainstream audiences are. I can see him going on stage and people booing him. It's unfortunate." Less than a week after the ticket sales began, the tour was canceled but no reason was given. Various rumors circulated as to why the tour was canceled. It was suspected that it was canceled due to poor ticket sales, feuding between Gaga and West's management teams, and Gaga's desire to play in smaller venues. Gaga's choreographer, Laurieann Gibson, said the tour was terminated due to "creative differences" between the singers. Gaga claimed that the cancellation was a mutual decision, and added that she would soon embark on her own headlining tour The Monster Ball Tour in the coming weeks, while West would be taking a break from his career. In 2016, West claimed that Gaga had been solely responsible for canceling the tour following the MTV incident. Gaga was scheduled to begin The Monster Ball Tour in March 2010, but following the cancellation of Fame Kills, The Monster Ball Tour began in November 2009. Gaga said that while she was inspired by what she and West had planned to do with the Fame Kills tour, she decided not to use any of the ideas and concepts they created together, citing integrity. ## Scheduled tour dates All tour dates were canceled.
13,719,524	Whale barnacle	1,167,162,656	Barnacles that attach to whales	[ "Barnacles" ]	Whale barnacles are species of acorn barnacle that belong to the family Coronulidae. They typically attach to baleen whales, and sometimes settle on toothed whales. The whale barnacles diverged from the turtle barnacles about three million years ago. Whale barnacles passively filter food, using tentacle-like cirri, as the host swims through the water. The arrangement is generally considered commensal as it is done at no cost or benefit to the host. However, some whales may make use of the barnacles as protective armor or for inflicting more damage while fighting, which would make the relationship mutualistic where both parties benefit; alternatively, some species may just increase the drag that the host experiences while swimming, making the barnacles parasites. After hatching, whale barnacles go through six molting stages before searching for a host, being prompted to settle by a chemical cue from the host skin. The barnacle creates a crown-shaped shell, and in most instances, deeply embeds itself into the skin for stability while riding a fast-moving host. The shell plates are made of calcium carbonate and chitin. Whale barnacles may live for up to a year, and often slough off along migration routes or at whale calving grounds. Because of this, fossil whale barnacles can be used to study ancient whale distribution. ## Taxonomy ### Evolution Whale barnacles may have originated from the turtle barnacles (Chelonibiidae)—which attach to turtles, sirenians, and crabs—as a group that changed its specialization to baleen whales. Turtle barnacles are known from before the Early Tertiary which ended 23 million years ago (mya), and whale barnacles probably diverged in the Late Pliocene 3.5 to 3 mya. Chelonibia testudinaria turtle barnacle remains from the Pliocene of Italy seemed to have been associated with right whales (Balaena spp.), and could represent a transitional phase; the lack of competing barnacle species and the softer skin compared to the turtle carapace may have led to a divergence and a dispersal. Since whale barnacles are monophyletic (the family contains a common ancestor and all its descendants), this dispersal only successfully occurred once. Since whale barnacles may become detached from their hosts along migration routes and at breeding grounds, their remains on the seabed are used as indicators of ancient whale distribution and migratory habits, similar to the function of trace fossils. ### Classification Whale barnacles are a family of acorn barnacles. The family Coronulidae was first erected in 1817 by English marine biologist William Elford Leach, and was placed into the order Campylosomata with Balanidae alongside the order Acamptosomata with Cineridea and Pollicipedides, under the superfamily Coronuloidea. In 1825, English zoologist John Edward Gray divided Coronulidae into four subfamilies: Tubicinella, Polylepas, Platylepas, and Astrolepas. In 1854, Charles Darwin reclassified barnacles, and moved all sessile barnacles into the family Balanidae, separating this into the subfamilies Chthamalinae and Balaninae. He was unsure whether to classify whale barnacles into the latter subfamily or follow Leach and Gray and create the subfamily Coronulinae to include sessile barnacles that attach to large vertebrates. In 1916, biologist Henry Augustus Pilsbry differentiated turtle barnacles from whale barnacles and assigned them to Chelonibiinae and Coronulinae, respectively; he also recognized two forms of Coronulinae, coronulid and platylepadi, based on anatomical differences and host preferences. In 1976, the family Coronulidae was redefined to include Coronulinae, Platylepadinae, Chelonibiinae, and Emersoniinae; Coronuloidea was rearranged to include Coronulidae, Tatraclitidae, and Bathylasmatida. In 1981, Coronulidae was reorganized to include the subfamilies Coronulinae, Chelonibiinae, and Xenobalaninae. In 2007, these were redefined as Coronuloidea comprising three families: Coronulidae, Chelonibiidae, and Platylepadidae. In 2021, a reclassification of the barnacles resulted in the members of Platylepadidae being moved back into Coronulidae, and Coronulidae was no longer grouped into subfamilies. According to the World Register of Marine Species (WoRMS), there are 35 accepted species of whale barnacles (species in the family Coronulidae), 24 of which exist today. † denotes extinct: Family Coronulidae Leach, 1817 - Genus Cetolepas Zullo, 1969 - †Cetolepas hertleini Zullo, 1969 - Genus Cetopirus Ranzani, 1817 - Cetopirus complanatus Mörch, 1852 - †Cetopirus fragilis Collareta et al., 2016 - Genus Chelolepas Ross & Frick, 2007 - Chelolepas cheloniae Monroe & Limpus, 1979 - Genus Coronula Lamarck, 1802 - Coronula diadema (Linnaeus, 1767) - Coronula reginae Darwin, 1854 - †Coronula aotea Fleming, 1959 - †Coronula barbara Darwin, 1854 - †Coronula bifida Bronn, 1831 - †Coronula dormitor Pilsbry & Olson, 1951 - †Coronula ficarazzensis Gregorio, 1895 - †Coronula macsotayi Weisbord, 1971 - Genus Cryptolepas Dall, 1872 - Cryptolepas rhachianecti Dall, 1872 - †Cryptolepas murata Zullo, 1961 - Genus Cylindrolepas Pilsbry, 1916 - Cylindrolepas darwiniana Pilsbry, 1916 - Cylindrolepas sinica Ren, 1980 - Genus Platylepas Gray, 1825 - Platylepas coriacea Monroe & Limpus, 1979 - Platylepas decorata Darwin, 1854 - Platylepas hexastylos (Fabricius, 1798) - Platylepas indicus Daniel, 1958 - Platylepas krugeri (Krüger, 1912) - Platylepas multidecorata Daniel, 1962 - Platylepas ophiophila Lanchester, 1902 - Platylepas wilsoni Ross, 1963 - †Platylepas mediterranea Collareta et al., 2019 - Genus Stomatolepas Pilsbry, 1910 - Stomatolepas dermochelys Monroe & Limpus, 1979 - Stomatolepas elegans (Costa, 1838) - Stomatolepas muricata Fischer, 1886 - Stomatolepas pilsbryi Frick, Zardus & Lazo-Wasem, 2010 - Stomatolepas pulchra Ren, 1980 - Stomatolepas transversa Nilsson-Cantell, 1930 - Genus Tubicinella Lamarck, 1802 - Tubicinella cheloniae Monroe & Limpus, 1979 - Tubicinella major Lamarck, 1802 - Genus Xenobalanus Steenstrup, 1852 - Xenobalanus globicipitis Steenstrup, 1852 - Genus †Emersonius Ross, 1967 - †Emersonius cybosyrinx Ross, 1967 The National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) and the Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS) both have different classifications for Coronulidae, though neither are authoritative like WoRMS. NCBI defines Coronulidae as containing Coronula, Cryptolepas, Xenobalanus, and the turtle barnacles Chelonibia; and ITIS Coronula, Cryptolepas, Cetopirus, Xenobalanus, and Polylepas. ## Description ### Adulthood All acorn barnacles create a crown-shaped shell with six to eight plates and a hole at the peak. C. diadema is typically barrel-shaped, has most of the shell emergent from the skin, and has been measured in the North Pacific to reach 39–50 millimetres (1.5–2.0 in) in height. Coronula reginae, which is typically 13–19 millimetres (0.51–0.75 in) high; Cetopirus, which has been recorded in two individuals as 12 and 28 millimetres (0.47 and 1.10 in) high and 53 and 74 millimetres (2.1 and 2.9 in) in diameter, respectively; and Cryptolepas are flattened and deeply embedded in the skin. Tubicinella is tall and tube-shaped with ridges that may serve to prevent the skin from rejecting the barnacle, and typically exceeds 50 millimetres (2.0 in) in height. Xenobalanus has a star-shaped shell deeply embedded into the skin, and develops a long stalk, much like goose barnacles, which hangs off the host; Xenobalanus may be around 30 millimetres (1.2 in) in size. The fleshy appendage exiting the hole—the "apertural shroud"—is more prominently displayed than in other barnacles. The cirri, feeding tentacle-like structures which extend out of the aperture, are short and thick, probably enabling them to remain more stable while riding a fast-moving host. Whale barnacles have reduced opercular plates which only partially close the hole at the top, probably because these barnacles lack predators and thus any need to defend themselves. The plates, like in turtle barnacles, are made of calcium carbonate and chitin. Inside the plates, the soft barnacle itself is encased in a cuticle which is periodically molted. When they are shed from the host, whale barnacles can leave round marks, but Xenobalanus leaves a unique star-shaped scar. C. diadema, based on infestation sizes and the number of juveniles that are present as the year progresses, may have a lifespan of about a year. C. diadema has been observed to slough off in areas with high whale traffic, such as migration routes and breeding areas. ### Development Unlike coastal acorn barnacles which have been widely studied, the development of a whale barnacle was first researched in 2006 with Coronula diadema collected from the fin of a beached humpback whale. Immediately after hatching, the newly born nauplius larvae molted and, after six molts, reached the cyprid stage, the last stage before maturity. Unlike other barnacles, the stage II and III nauplius had a pair of horns projecting from the head, and the eyes in stage IV were crescent shaped. The cyprid had circular eyes and, like other barnacles, had several oil cells in the head which probably acted as food reserves as cyprids do not feed. The cyprids seemed to be induced to settle onto a substrate by a cue released from whale skin, though they do not have to settle on the skin. Though the mechanism is not fully understood, coastal barnacles receive settling cues from a certain protein, so it may be that whale barnacles use the alpha-2-macroglobulin, a plasma protein of the blood common in vertebrates. After settling, the juvenile barnacles formed a ring-shaped structure that firmly gripped onto the skin, growing upwards as a cylinder. Wall plates did not form at first, though the juveniles did develop stripes. This cylindrical shape is similar to the adult T. major, which attaches to right whales. ## Ecology ### Cirri Cirri are used by barnacles to capture food particles in the current. The barnacles extend their cirri into a fan-shape, catch particles, and then retract the cirri back into the shell to transfer the particles into the mouth. First, a membrane—the opercular membrane shielding the barnacle from the water—is opened and the cirri emerge from the shell and are spread. At full extension, three of the six cirri do not protrude past the membrane. The cirri then do a forward stroke, and the long cirri and membrane begin retraction. They do a backward stroke and the cirri roll back up into the shell. In Cryptolepas, this process was observed as taking 1.2 to 1.9 seconds, however the forward and backward strokes can be skipped entirely, and the cirri can simply be extended and quickly coil back up. Adolescent barnacles have shorter cycles than adults. In fast currents, the cirri do not retract. Land-based barnacles have to reorient their cirri depending on the direction of the current; but since the current only flows in one direction for whale barnacles—from the head to the tail of the host—adults have lost that ability. However, the cirri do have a special function during copulation. At this time, the barnacle acting as a male (barnacles are hermaphrodites) fully extends its cirri, and the penis begins a searching movement around its circumference. Having encountered another barnacle, the pair begin a series of intense cirral movements which was observed in Cryptolepas as lasting around 32 seconds. ### Symbiosis Whale barnacles typically attach to baleen whales and have a commensal relationship–the barnacle benefits and the whale is neither helped nor harmed. A single humpback whale may carry up to 450 kg (990 lb) of barnacles. On right whales (Eubalaena spp) an endemic species of barnacle, Tubicinella is embedded in patches of roughened, calcified skin called callosities. The distribution of callosities and the light colored cyamids that occupy the callosities forms a unique pattern for individual whales, and is used to identify markers by researchers. Since barnacles require that water flow independently over them to filter food, colonies may follow the direction of water currents produced by the animal in areas with moderate flow. However, Xenobalanus exclusively inhabits the most turbulent environments for barnacles on flippers, flukes, and dorsal fins. Barnacle larvae may reach these sites passively, being deposited naturally by vortexes created by the animal, or may crawl to more suitable locations. Xenobalanus stimulates the growth of calcified skin around itself which prevents the skin from shedding and dislodging the barnacle. On baleen whales, barnacles are often found in conjuncture with whale lice. The goose barnacle Conchoderma auritum often attaches to the shell of C. diadema. Though whale barnacles are generally considered to be commensals, callosities could be an adaptation to prevent barnacles from adding to drag by concentrating infestations, and a heavy infestation may lead to eczema. Xenobalanus can more easily grow on sick skin with a weakened immune system, and younger individuals tend to have larger infestations presumably because they are less resistant; further, given it has a stalk, it increases the drag felt by the host and may be considered parasitic in that sense. A Cryptolepas infection on captive beluga whales (Delphinapterus leucas) elicited an immune response by the skin, and the barnacles were ejected after a few weeks. Gray whales have been observed rubbing against the gravelly seafloor to dislodge barnacles. Conversely, some whales may use barnacles as weapons or protective armor to add power to a strike in mating battles or against orcas (Orcinus orca), or as a deterrent to being bitten by orcas. This would make the relationship between whale barnacles and certain whales mutualistic in which both parties benefit. It may be that some baleen whales, in the context of the fight-or-flight response, are adapted for a fight response, namely the humpback and gray (Eschricthius robustus) whales. As such they may have evolved to attract barnacles, sacrificing speed for damage and defense. Others, the Balaenoptera, are adapted for a flight response, probably evolving an antifouling mechanism in their skin to deter infestations, avoiding unnecessary weight which would hinder speed. However, the bowhead whale (Balaena mysticetus), the North Atlantic (Eubalaena glacialis), and North Pacific (E. japonica) right whales, which favor fight responses, are generally barnacle-free. It may be that a reduction in population caused by historic whaling restricted their distribution and contact with other whales, thus impeding the barnacles' ability to infect other whales. ### Hosts C. diadema are common to abundant on the humpback whale (Megaptera novaengliae), and uncommon to rare on other species of whale. Cryptolepas is abundant on the gray whale, but has been recorded on the orca, the beluga whale, and in the stomach of the topsmelt silverside (Atherinops affinis). Topsmelt are known to pick off the dead skin and whale lice often found in association with barnacles. Tubicinella major has been recorded only the southern right whale. Cetopirus complanatus inhabits exclusively the southern right whale Eubalaena australis. Xenobalanus has been recorded on: the pilot whales (Globicephala spp.), common bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus), Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin (T. aduncus), pantropical spotted dolphin (Stenella attenuata), striped dolphin, spinner dolphin (S. longirostris), Cuvier's beaked whale (Ziphius cavirostris), franciscana (Pontoporia blainvillei), orca, false killer whale (Pseudorca crassidens), tucuxi (Sotalia fluviatilis), rough-toothed dolphin (Steno bredanensis), Risso's dolphin (Grampus griseus), pygmy killer whale (Feresa attenuata), common dolphins (Delphinus spp.), dusky dolphin (Lagenorhynchus obscurus), melon-headed whale (Peponocephala electra), sperm whale, finless porpoise (Neophocaena phocaenoides), harbor porpoise (Phocoena phocoena), vaquita (P. sinus), Burmeister's porpoise (P. spinipinnis), True's beaked whale (Mesoplodon mirus), common minke whale, sei whale, Eden's whale (B. edeni), blue whale, fin whale, and humpback whale. ## See also - Whale louse
2,811,697	Mountain of Madness	1,162,979,748	null	[ "1997 American television episodes", "Television shows written by John Swartzwelder", "The Simpsons (season 8) episodes" ]	"Mountain of Madness" (originally titled "The Most Excellent Snowy Mountain Adventure") is the twelfth episode of the eighth season of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 2, 1997. In the episode, Mr. Burns forces the workers of the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant to go for a team-building hike in the mountains. Burns and Homer are paired together and trapped in a cabin that gets buried by several avalanches. "Mountain of Madness" was directed by Mark Kirkland and written by John Swartzwelder. Swartzwelder's script underwent many rewrites, during which the story was completely rewritten from scratch. Several new designs and backgrounds had to be created for the wilderness scenes. The episode received mostly positive reviews. ## Plot During a fire drill at the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant, the employees panic and fail to evacuate the plant within 15 minutes. Outraged, Mr. Burns announces his workers must compete in a team-building exercise at a snow-covered mountain retreat. Due to a misunderstanding, Homer brings his family along by mistake for a vacation. The employees must work in pairs: Homer is partnered with Burns, while Smithers competes alone due to an odd number of participants (having originally thought the drawing was rigged so that he and Burns would be team-mates). The goal is to reach a cabin at the mountaintop, which contains food and alcohol; the last team to arrive will be fired. Burns persuades Homer to cheat by using a snowmobile to reach the cabin. Arriving early, they enjoy the comfortable surroundings and each other's company. They clink their champagne glasses and inadvertently cause an avalanche that buries the entire cabin. They make several attempts to escape, but only cause more avalanches. Homer and Burns start blaming each other for causing the avalanches. They realize it may take days to be rescued and pass the time by playing games and building snowmen dressed in their clothes. Meanwhile, Bart and Lisa attempt to help Smithers get to the cabin, but inadvertently waste time looking for food and searching for gold, much to Smithers' dismay. Lenny and Carl arrive at the right spot but find the cabin gone and unaware it is buried beneath them, so they leave. The other employees reach a ranger station, thinking it is their destination. When the workers realize that Homer and Burns have yet to arrive, they suspect something bad has happened to them. After a few hours in the cabin, Homer and Burns are beset by cabin fever and have paranoid thoughts. After a vicious struggle, Burns accidentally ignites the propane tank, launching the building from the snow and propelling it toward the workers, who are preparing a rescue operation. When the fuel is spent, the cabin comes to a halt just inches from hitting the ranger station, and Burns and Homer emerge cold and disheveled. Burns reminds everyone of the contest, so the workers rush inside. Lenny is fired after being the last person in the cabin. After, Burns realizes his workers have learned the value of teamwork and announces that no one will be fired after all. Lenny prepares to harangue Burns for firing him, but falls in a pit of snow. The workers and Homer's family celebrate their shared victory while Homer and Burns eye each other suspiciously. ## Production The script for "Mountain of Madness" is credited to John Swartzwelder, although it underwent many rewrites. According to Josh Weinstein, "a Swartzwelder script is like a finely tooled crazy German machine and if you have the wrong engineers try to fix it, it blows up. And that's the thing, 'cause it had great jokes but we sort of changed the story and went through a bunch of drafts." The story was completely rewritten and as a result, the plot became odder and quirkier with the scenes of paranoia deriving from this. The original script was "really crazy" but a lot of the more insane material was cut. However, most of the rewrites were done during the script-writing and did not require any major animation changes. One change was the ending, which was added after the animatic. The episode features several pairings of established characters who had previously interacted little, such as Waylon Smithers with Bart and Lisa. Weinstein feels that this was one of the first episodes to notably develop Lenny and Carl as a duo. The episode was directed by Mark Kirkland and a lot of new designs and backgrounds had to be created for the wilderness scenes. The backgrounds were designed by animator Debbie Silver. The design of the forest ranger was based on then-Vice President Al Gore. In the episode, Marge watches an old film which includes a comment from naturalist John Muir. The impression of Muir was done by Dan Castellaneta, who originally based the voice on an impersonator he met at Yosemite National Park. However, the producers asked him to make the voice older and crazier. The episode makes references to the Ritz Brothers, Bobbsey twins, John Muir and Bazooka Joe. ### Proposed ideas for the episode The episode was going to have Principal Skinner, Bart, and Lisa as the main characters trapped in the cabin, Edna Krabappel was going to be the one who competes alone due to an odd number of participants, and Homer as the one helping Edna get to the cabin. However, Mr. Burns takes over Skinner's role, Homer takes over Bart and Lisa's role, Smithers takes over Edna's role, Bart and Lisa take over Homer's role, and Marge has the same role. This idea would later turn into the season 12 episode "Skinner's Sense of Snow". The episode was originally going to begin in medias res on a giant snow-covered mountain where the workers find Mr. Burns and Homer, heard them calling for help, and discover that they are trapped under the snow. Smithers then tells the viewer, "Oh, hi! I know what you're thinking. You were wondering how Simpson and Mr. Burns got into this mess. I can tell you, but it'll have to be quick before those two are frozen to death." and quickly goes back to the beginning of the story. The whole episode is used as a flashback narrated by Smithers until he says, "And that is how Simpson and Mr. Burns both got stuck in the snow. I sure hope that they are okay!" After that, Burns gives up and accidentally ignites the cabin's propane tank. But those scenes and Smithers' narration are deleted from the final cut. ## Reception In its original broadcast, "Mountain of Madness" finished 26th in ratings for the week of January 27-February 2, 1997, with a Nielsen rating of 10.5, equivalent to approximately 10.2 million viewing households. It was the fourth-highest-rated show on the Fox network that week, following The X-Files, World's Scariest Police Chases, and King of the Hill. Since airing, the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics. The authors of the book I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide, Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, called it "an inventive episode, with several memorable moments". Tim Raynor of DVDTown.com said there are some "good, sidesplitting moments to say the least for this witty episode". DVD Movie Guide's Colin Jacobson called the episode "a good show" and praised it for the "snowy setting [that] allows the other characters to expand as well".
26,967,253	Pershing Square Building	1,143,245,329	Office skyscraper in Manhattan, New York	[ "1923 establishments in New York City", "42nd Street (Manhattan)", "Midtown Manhattan", "New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan", "Office buildings in Manhattan", "Park Avenue", "Romanesque Revival architecture in New York City", "Skyscraper office buildings in Manhattan" ]	The Pershing Square Building, also known as 125 Park Avenue or 100 East 42nd Street, is a 25-story office building in Midtown Manhattan in New York City. It is located on the eastern side of Park Avenue between 41st and 42nd streets, across from Grand Central Terminal to the north and adjacent to 110 East 42nd Street to the east. The Pershing Square Building was designed in the Romanesque Revival style by John Sloan and T. Markoe Robertson of the firm Sloan & Robertson, working with York and Sawyer. It was erected within "Terminal City", a collection of buildings located above the underground tracks surrounding Grand Central, and makes use of real-estate air rights above the tracks. The building is located directly above the New York City Subway's Grand Central–42nd Street station. The Pershing Square Building, as well as 110 East 42nd Street, were built on the site of the Grand Union Hotel. Construction started in 1921 and was completed in 1923. Ownership of the Pershing Square Building passed to several companies; the latest such change occurred in 2010, when SL Green Realty bought the building. It was made a New York City designated landmark in 2016. ## Site The Pershing Square Building is at 125 Park Avenue in the Midtown and Murray Hill neighborhoods of Manhattan in New York City. It is bounded by 42nd Street to the north, Park Avenue to the west, and 41st Street to the south, at the west end of the city block that is also bounded by Lexington Avenue to the east. The rectangular land lot occupies 24,786 square feet (2,302.7 m<sup>2</sup>), with a frontage of 197.5 feet (60.2 m) on Park Avenue and a depth of 125.5 feet (38.3 m) on 41st and 42nd Streets. On the same block, 110 East 42nd Street and the Chanin Building are to the east. Other nearby buildings include the Grand Hyatt New York hotel to the northeast, 101 Park Avenue to the south, One Grand Central Place to the west, and One Vanderbilt to the northwest. The completion of the underground Grand Central Terminal in 1913 resulted in the rapid development of Terminal City, the area around Grand Central, as well as a corresponding increase in real-estate prices. Among these were the New York Central Building at 47th Street and Park Avenue, as well as the Grand Central Palace across 42nd Street from the present Pershing Square Building. By 1920, the area had become what The New York Times called "a great civic centre". ## Architecture The building was designed in the Romanesque Revival style by the firms of Sloan & Robertson and York & Sawyer. The design shares many elements with 110 East 42nd Street directly to the east, which was also designed by York & Sawyer. ### Form John Sloan's plan for the Pershing Square Building called for a U-shaped tower above a five-story rectangular base, used in many other New York City skyscrapers erected before the 1916 Zoning Resolution. Above that would be a 14-story middle section, with a recessed "light court" on the eighth floor, followed by a five-story top section and two recessed attic floors. The original plans called for shops and restaurants in the first floor and basement. The design was later changed to fit with the neighboring 110 East 42nd Street. As ultimately built, the structure rises from a square 7-story base with 3-story-high decorative arches on the lowest three floors. The tower above the seventh floor continues in a U-shaped configuration to the top floor. The second floor would be 30 feet (9.1 m) high and would be used as a banking floor. The 20 floors above it were to be used as office floors. The wall between the Pershing Square Building and 110 East 42nd was made of hollow tile, as a brick wall would have been too heavy for the foundation, and would have necessitated the removal of the top five or six stories of both buildings. Sloan also had to design the top floors in order to meet the conditions that the BSA had set in exchange for allowing the Pershing Square Building's zoning variance. For instance, since the cornice could not project more than 1 foot (30 cm) from the building lot line, Sloan's design incorporated corbelling at the top of the facade, and a setback two-story attic above the 23rd floor. The 24th-floor attic is located about 7 feet (2.1 m) behind the building boundary and mostly consists of one story with a hip roof. There are also gable-roofed 25th-story penthouses at 41st and 42nd Streets. The attics, with their roofs made of red tiles, resembled "a villa on the hilltop", as described by architect Charles Downing Lay. ### Facade The building facade is clad in beige brick, with elaborate decoration designed by Sloan and produced by the Atlantic Terra Cotta Company. The facade contains a similar color to that of 110 East 42nd Street, with tan-gray Ohio sandstone cladding, as well as similar arcades, vertical strips, and cornice design. Sloan's mixture of Romanesque and Renaissance Lombard detailing on the Pershing Square Building contrasted with the near-exclusive use of Italian Romanesque details on 110 East 42nd's facade. Architectural critic Francisco Mujica described the Pershing Square Building as being among the "first skyscrapers in which brick cladding was used for decorative purposes", and the unprecedented material usage led the New York City Department of Buildings to publish a special report on the facade. The decorated terracotta tiles were manufactured by Atlantic Terra Cotta, which used small pieces to provide a similarity with the brick cladding. Atlantic Terra Cotta roughened the terracotta pieces before burning them so that they would appear to be a rough surface. The tiles' colors were characterized by Atlantic Terra Cotta's journal as "a soft gray fire-flashed with golden brown". The color spotting was meant to "tone the marked variations down into a softly harmonious play of color". Much of the ornamentation is located at the base, particularly around the banking facility on the second floor. These decorations include columns whose capitals depict dolphins, shields, and eagles. One of the figures at the fifth-floor level represents a Roman caduceator, or peace commissioner. He holds a caduceus in one hand as an emblem of office and, in the other, a cornucopia to suggest the benefits of a prospective peace. ### Subway entrance The New York City Subway's Grand Central–42nd Street station, serving the , is located directly underneath the northwest corner of the Pershing Square Building. Within the building, two stairs lead from Park Avenue to the subway station. ## History In 1913, the Dual Contracts were signed by the Interborough Rapid Transit Company (IRT) and the Brooklyn–Manhattan Transit Corporation (BMT), two companies who operated parts of the present New York City Subway. A set of platforms at Grand Central, now serving the IRT Lexington Avenue Line (), was to be built diagonally under the building site as part of the agreement. At the time, the site under the proposed station was occupied by Grand Union Hotel, which was condemned via eminent domain in February 1914. The condemnation proceedings for the hotel cost \$3.5 million (equal to \$ million in ). To pay the station's construction cost, the Public Service Commission approved the construction of a 25-story building above the station. By May 1915, the building site had been excavated for the construction of the building. Despite the passage of the 1916 Zoning Resolution, which required architectural setbacks to provide light to the streets below, the building plans conformed with the older zoning codes, which did not require setbacks. Though the IRT Lexington Avenue Line's 42nd Street station opened in 1918, the site above the station was not developed as planned. The 25-story building's site, and the portion of Park Avenue immediately adjacent to it, was renamed Pershing Square in 1919 to honor World War I general John J. Pershing. The site was then proposed for use as an open plaza with a three-story memorial "Victory Hall", but the idea of a victory hall was opposed by Fiorello H. La Guardia, president of the New York City Board of Aldermen. The Transit Commission attempted to sell the building site in May 1920 for \$2.8 million (equal to \$ million in ), but no one placed a bid. Then in July 1920, a realty consortium headed by investor Henry Mandel offered \$2.9 million for the hotel (equal to \$ million in ), a proposal that was accepted. Other members of this consortium included the accountant Samuel D. Leidesdorf. ### Planning and construction By September 1920, Mandel had created the Pershing Square Building Corporation, of which he was majority stockholder. The corporation was headed by Leidesdorf. In January 1921, the Pershing Square Building Corporation received title to the site, with conditions that necessitated a subway entrance and a maximum building height and weight. Mandel gave the Bowery Savings Bank the eastern half of the hotel site, which would be developed into an office building at 110 East 42nd Street. As per the purchase agreement between the bank and the corporation, the structures were to contain interlocking structures, including what was believed to be the city's tallest party wall separating two buildings. Mandel hired architect John Sloan to create a design for a building, and Sloan had submitted preliminary plans by May 1921. According to Sloan's plans, the structure would contain no setbacks, contravening the 1916 Zoning Resolution. Though the Fifth Avenue Association filed a complaint with the city's Board of Standards and Appeals (BSA) to enforce the zoning code, Sloan stated that the inclusion of setbacks would be structurally unsafe, expensive, as well as a contravention of the existing agreement. The BSA ruled in favor of the Pershing Square Building Corporation, as the footings had been laid before the zoning resolution was passed. As such, the Pershing Square Building was the last tall building constructed after the 1916 Zoning Resolution that did not contain setbacks or a front plaza. The firm York and Sawyer was designated as the building's new primary architects in September 1921, and Sloan received a \$10,000 payment and architectural credit in return for giving his drawings to York and Sawyer (). The architects were also designing the adjacent 110 East 42nd Street. By the next month, the plans were finalized, and construction was imminent. That month, the opponents appealed the BSA's decision to the statewide Court of Appeals. In April 1922, S.W. Straus & Co. underwrote a \$6 million mortgage loan for the building (equal to \$ million in ). By then, excavation had been nearly completed, and the first lessees had already signed for space in the building. John York of York & Sawyer then requested that Sloan remain on the project to devise the preliminary plans. Sloan later sued York & Sawyer over the latter's failure to pay compensation, resulting in a \$14,260 architect's fee being paid out to Sloan in 1928 (). Sloan would form a partnership with Thomas Markoe Robertson in 1923, and in addition to co-designing the Pershing Square Building, the pair would design the Pershing Square Building and several other New York City structures, including the Chanin Building and Graybar Building in the Grand Central area. ### Later history When the Pershing Square Building was completed in 1923, it immediately became popular among tenants. A mezzanine above the second floor, also designed by Sloan, was added in 1924 when Pacific Bank rented space in the building. The following year, in 1925, real estate operator Louis Frankel filed a lawsuit in the New York Supreme Court against Samuel Leidesdorf, alleging that he had been denied the profits from the Pershing Square Building's construction, and sought to have all stock in the Pershing Square Building Corporation transferred to him. The State Supreme Court subsequently ruled against Frankel. The Pershing Square Building was renamed the Continental Can Building when the American Can Company leased space in the 24th and 25th floors in 1945. This name was dropped in 1970, and the following year the Leidesdorf estate sold the Pershing Square Building to Prudential Financial. In 1977, Prudential sold the building to an anonymous West German investor for \$24 million (about \$ million in ) by transferring ownership to Suttom NV, a company based in the Netherlands Antilles. After Suttom NV sold the building in 1994, it passed through numerous ownerships, including GE Capital (1994), 125 Park Avenue LLC (1997); GE Capital subsidiary Watch Holdings LLC (1998); and Sri Six Operating Company (2004). The real estate firm Shorenstein Properties had a stake in Sri Six. SL Green purchased the building in 2010 from Shorenstein Properties. The Pershing Square Building received several renovations, especially in the 1990s and 2000s. The upper floors' masonry and windows were replaced; the ground-level facades at Park Avenue and 42nd Street were renovated; and the lobby was renovated with a new 42nd Street entrance in 2006–2008. The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) hosted public hearings in 2013 to determine whether the Pershing Square Building and four other structures in East Midtown should be designated as New York City landmarks. SL Green opposed a potential landmark designation for the Pershing Square Building and the nearby Graybar Building, which it also owned, saying that the designations would prevent SL Green from improving access to the Grand Central–42nd Street station. In mid-2016, the LPC proposed protecting twelve buildings in East Midtown, including the Graybar Building, in advance of proposed changes to the area's zoning. On November 22, 2016, the LPC designated the Pershing Square Building and ten other nearby buildings as city landmarks. ## Tenants A New-York Tribune article in January 1923 stated that, although the Pershing Square Building was not complete yet, its space was 60% leased. At the time, the lessees included International Paper and the Royal Baking Powder Company, as well as York & Sawyer's own offices. The second-floor banking space was leased by Pacific Bank in 1924, and the company added a mezzanine above the existing hall. Attorneys, realtors, and insurance and investment companies also took space in the building, as did those in the architecture and building construction industry. The Pershing Square Building served as a hub or offices for several transportation companies in the bus and aviation industries. In 1929, the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad started using the Pershing Square Building as one of its waiting rooms for intercity buses, after its previous terminal at Pennsylvania Station had closed down. Besides American Airlines, other airlines such as Trans-Canada Air Lines and Northwest Airlines also rented space in the building. Manhattan Air Terminal, Inc. opened an airline ticket office in the Pershing Square Building's banking room mezzanine in 1972, selling tickets for flights on various airlines. There were numerous tenants who took space in the Pershing Square Building for several decades. These included Pacific Bank, who occupied the second and second-mezzanine floors starting in 1924; American Maize Products Company, which moved into the building in 1929; the company of advertiser William Esty, which rented the entire 23rd floor in 1930; and the executive offices of American Airlines, which rented four floors in 1943. From 1945 to 1970, the building was named for the American Can Company, who took up the 24th and 25th floors. The electronics company Philips started occupying space in the Pershing Square Building in the 1950s and still retained a presence in the building by 2016. Pandora Media and Robert Half International were among the other relatively recent companies who took space in the building, while Canon USA subsidiary MCS Business Solutions moved its headquarters to 125 Park Avenue in 1998. The furniture company Haworth moved to the Pershing Square Building in 2007, taking up the former banking floor and airline ticket office on the second floor and mezzanine. ## Critical reception The Pershing Square Building's brick-clad facade was unprecedented at the time of its construction. The architect Robert A. M. Stern, in his book New York 1930, called the use of brick ornamentation on the Pershing Square Building's brick facade "increasingly important" as the Lombard Revival architectural movement grew in New York City in later years. Later reviews were more critical; in 2013, the Real Estate Board of New York published a report claiming that the Pershing Square Building's design "was old-fashioned even before it was finished". Real Estate Weekly said in July 2016, prior to the building's landmark designation that November, that "The building is notably absent from the AIA Guide for New York City", a guidebook of architecturally significant structures in New York City.

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