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54,118	Biotin	1,169,423,585	Chemical compound (vitamin B7)	[ "B vitamins", "Carboxylic acids", "Cofactors", "Thiolanes", "Ureas" ]	Biotin (also known as vitamin B<sub>7</sub> or vitamin H) is one of the B vitamins. It is involved in a wide range of metabolic processes, both in humans and in other organisms, primarily related to the utilization of fats, carbohydrates, and amino acids. The name biotin, borrowed from the German Biotin, derives from the Ancient Greek word [] Error: : no text (help) (bíotos; 'life') and the suffix "-in" (a suffix used in chemistry usually to indicate 'forming'). ## Chemical description Biotin is classified as a heterocyclic compound, with a sulfur-containing tetrahydrothiophene ring fused to a ureido group. A C5-carboxylic acid side chain is appended to the former ring. The ureido ring, containing the −N−CO−N− group, serves as the carbon dioxide carrier in carboxylation reactions. Biotin is a coenzyme for five carboxylase enzymes, which are involved in the catabolism of amino acids and fatty acids, synthesis of fatty acids, and gluconeogenesis. Biotinylation of histone proteins in nuclear chromatin plays a role in chromatin stability and gene expression. ## Dietary recommendations The US National Academy of Medicine updated Dietary Reference Intakes for many vitamins in 1998. At that time there was insufficient information to establish estimated average requirement or recommended dietary allowance, terms that exist for most vitamins. In instances such as this, the academy sets adequate intakes (AIs) with the understanding that at some later date, when the physiological effects of biotin are better understood, AIs will be replaced by more exact information. The biotin AIs for both males and females are: 5 μg/day of biotin for 0-to-6-month-olds, 6 μg/day of biotin for 7-to-12-month-olds, 8 μg/day of biotin for 1-to-3-year-olds, 12 μg/day of biotin for 4-to-8-year-olds, 20 μg/day of biotin for 9-to-13-year-olds, 25 μg/day of biotin for 14-to-18-year-olds, and 30 μg/day of biotin for those 19 years old and older. The biotin AIs for females who are either pregnant or lactating, respectively, are: 30 μg/day of biotin for pregnant females 14-to-50-years old and 35 μg/day of biotin for lactating females 14-to-50-years old. Australia and New Zealand set AIs similar to the US. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) also identifies AIs, setting values at 40 μg/day for adults, pregnancy at 40 μg/day, and breastfeeding at 45 μg/day. For children ages 1–17 years, the AIs increase with age from 20 to 35 μg/day. ### Safety The US National Academy of Medicine estimates upper limits for vitamins and minerals when evidence for a true limit is sufficient. For biotin, however, there is no upper limit because adverse effects of high biotin intake have not been determined. The EFSA also reviewed safety and reached the same conclusion as in the United States. ### Labeling regulations For US food and dietary supplement labeling purposes the amount in a serving is expressed as a percent of daily value. For biotin labeling purposes 100% of the daily value was 300 μg/day, but as of May 27, 2016, it was revised to 30 μg/day to bring it into an agreement with the adequate intake. Compliance with the updated labeling regulations was required by January 1, 2020, for manufacturers with US\$10 million or more in annual food sales, and by January 1, 2021, for manufacturers with lower volume food sales. A table of the old and new adult daily values is provided at Reference Daily Intake. ## Physiology Biotin is a water-soluble B vitamin. Consumption of large amounts as a dietary supplement results in absorption, followed by excretion into urine as biotin. Consumption of biotin as part of a normal diet results in urinary excretion of biotin and biotin metabolites. ### Absorption Biotin in food is bound to proteins. Digestive enzymes reduce the proteins to biotin-bound peptides. The intestinal enzyme biotinidase, found in pancreatic secretions and in the brush border membranes of all three parts of the small intestine, frees biotin, which is then absorbed from the small intestine. When consumed as a biotin dietary supplement, absorption is nonsaturable, meaning that even very high amounts are absorbed effectively. Transport across the jejunum is faster than across the ileum. The large intestine microbiota synthesize amounts of biotin estimated to be similar to the amount taken in the diet, and a significant portion of this biotin exists in the free (protein-unbound) form and, thus, is available for absorption. How much is absorbed in humans is unknown, although a review did report that human epithelial cells of the colon in vitro demonstrated an ability to uptake biotin. Once absorbed, sodium-dependent multivitamin transporter (SMVT) mediates biotin uptake into the liver. SMVT also binds pantothenic acid, so high intakes of either of these vitamins can interfere with transport of the other. ### Metabolism and excretion Biotin catabolism occurs via two pathways. In one, the valeric acid sidechain is cleaved, resulting in bisnorbiotin. In the other pathway, the sulfur is oxidized, resulting in biotin sulfoxide. Urine content is proportionally about half biotin, plus bisnorbiotin, biotin sulfoxide, and small amounts of other metabolites. ### Factors that affect biotin requirements Chronic alcohol use is associated with a significant reduction in plasma biotin. Intestinal biotin uptake also appears to be sensitive to the effect of the anti-epilepsy drugs carbamazepine and primidone. Relatively low levels of biotin have also been reported in the urine or plasma of patients who have had a partial gastrectomy or have other causes of achlorhydria, as well as burn patients, elderly individuals, and athletes. Pregnancy and lactation may be associated with an increased demand for biotin. In pregnancy, this may be due to a possible acceleration of biotin catabolism, whereas, in lactation, the higher demand has yet to be elucidated. Recent studies have shown marginal biotin deficiency can be present in human gestation, as evidenced by increased urinary excretion of 3-hydroxyisovaleric acid, decreased urinary excretion of biotin and bisnorbiotin, and decreased plasma concentration of biotin. ## Biosynthesis Biotin, synthesized in plants, is essential to plant growth and development. Bacteria also synthesize biotin, and it is thought that bacteria resident in the large intestine may synthesize biotin that is absorbed and utilized by the host organism. Synthesis starts from two precursors, alanine and pimeloyl-CoA. These form 7-keto-8-aminopelargonic acid (KAPA). KAPA is transported from plant peroxisomes to mitochondria where it is converted to 7,8-diaminopelargonic acid (DAPA). The enzyme dethiobiotin synthetase catalyzes the formation of the ureido ring via a DAPA carbamate activated with ATP, creating dethiobiotin, which is then converted into biotin. The last step is catalyzed by biotin synthase, a radical SAM enzyme. The sulfur is donated by an unusual [2Fe-2S] ferredoxin. ## Cofactor biochemistry The enzyme holocarboxylase synthetase covalently attaches biotin to five human carboxylase enzymes: - Acetyl-CoA carboxylase alpha (ACC1) - Acetyl-CoA carboxylase beta (ACC2) - Pyruvate carboxylase (PC) - Methylcrotonyl-CoA carboxylase (MCC) - Propionyl-CoA carboxylase (PCC) For the first two, biotin serves as a cofactor responsible for transfer of bicarbonate to acetyl-CoA, converting it to malonyl-CoA for fatty acid synthesis. PC participates in gluconeogenesis. MCC catalyzes a step in leucine metabolism. PCC catalyzes a step in the metabolism of propionyl-CoA. Metabolic degradation of the biotinylated carboxylases leads to the formation of biocytin. This compound is further degraded by biotinidase to release biotin, which is then reutilized by holocarboxylase synthetase. Biotinylation of histone proteins in nuclear chromatin is a posttranslational modification that plays a role in chromatin stability and gene expression. ## Deficiency Primary biotin deficiency, meaning deficiency as a consequence of too little biotin in the diet, is rare, because biotin is contained in so many foods. Subclinical deficiency can cause mild symptoms, such as hair thinning, brittle fingernails, or skin rash, typically on the face. Aside from inadequate dietary intake (rare), deficiency of biotin can be caused by a genetic disorder that affects biotin metabolism. The most common among these is biotinidase deficiency. Low activity of this enzyme causes a failure to recycle biotin from biocytin. Rarer are carboxylase and biotin transporter deficiences. Neonatal screening for biotinidase deficiency started in the United States in 1984, with many countries now also testing for this genetic disorder at birth. Treatment is lifelong dietary supplement with biotin. ### Diagnosis Low serum and urine biotin are not sensitive indicators of inadequate biotin intake. However, serum testing can be useful for confirmation of consumption of biotin-containing dietary supplements, and whether a period of refraining from supplement use is long enough to eliminate the potential for interfering with drug tests. Indirect measures depend on the biotin requirement for carboxylases. 3-Methylcrotonyl-CoA is an intermediate step in the catabolism of the amino acid leucine. In the absence of biotin, the pathway diverts to 3-hydroxyisovaleric acid. Urinary excretion of this compound is an early and sensitive indicator of biotin deficiency. ### Deficiency as a result of metabolic disorders Biotinidase deficiency is a deficiency of the enzyme that recycles biotin, the consequence of an inherited genetic mutation. Biotinidase catalyzes the cleavage of biotin from biocytin and biotinyl-peptides (the proteolytic degradation products of each holocarboxylase) and thereby recycles biotin. It is also important in freeing biotin from dietary protein-bound biotin. Neonatal screening for biotinidase deficiency started in the United States in 1984, which as of 2017 was reported as required in more than 30 countries. Profound biotinidase deficiency, defined as less than 10% of normal serum enzyme activity, which has been reported as 7.1 nmol/min/mL, has an incidence of 1 in 40,000 to 1 in 60,000, but with rates as high as 1 in 10,000 in countries with high incidence of consanguineous marriages (second cousin or closer). Partial biotinidase deficiency is defined as 10% to 30% of normal serum activity. Incidence data stems from government mandated newborn screening. For profound deficiency, treatment is oral dosing with 5 to 20 mg per day. Seizures are reported as resolving in hours to days, with other symptoms resolving within weeks. Treatment of partial biotinidase deficiency is also recommended even though some untreated people never manifest symptoms. Lifelong treatment with supplemental biotin is recommended for both profound and partial biotinidase deficiency. Inherited metabolic disorders characterized by deficient activities of biotin-dependent carboxylases are termed multiple carboxylase deficiency. These include deficiencies in the enzymes holocarboxylase synthetase. Holocarboxylase synthetase deficiency prevents the body's cells from using biotin effectively and thus interferes with multiple carboxylase reactions. There can also be a genetic defect affecting the sodium-dependent multivitamin transporter protein. Biochemical and clinical manifestations of any of these metabolic disorders can include ketolactic acidosis, organic aciduria, hyperammonemia, rash, hypotonia, seizures, developmental delay, alopecia and coma. ## Use in biotechnology Chemically modified versions of biotin are widely used throughout the biotechnology industry to isolate proteins and non-protein compounds for biochemical assays. Because egg-derived avidin binds strongly to biotin with a dissociation constant K<sub>d</sub> ≈ 10<sup>−15</sup> M, biotinylated compounds of interest can be isolated from a sample by exploiting this highly stable interaction. First, the chemically modified biotin reagents are bound to the targeted compounds in a solution via a process called biotinylation. The choice of which chemical modification to use is responsible for the biotin reagent binding to a specific protein. Second, the sample is incubated with avidin bound to beads, then rinsed, removing all unbound proteins, while leaving only the biotinylated protein bound to avidin. Last, the biotinylated protein can be eluted from the beads with excess free biotin. The process can also utilize bacteria-derived streptavidin bound to beads, but because it has a higher dissociation constant than avidin, very harsh conditions are needed to elute the biotinylated protein from the beads, which often will denature the protein of interest. ## Interference with medical laboratory results When people are ingesting high levels of biotin in dietary supplements, a consequence can be clinically significant interference with diagnostic blood tests that use biotin-streptavidin technology. This methodology is commonly used to measure levels of hormones such as thyroid hormones, and other analytes such as 25-hydroxyvitamin D. Biotin interference can produce both falsely normal and falsely abnormal results. In the US, biotin as a non-prescription dietary supplement is sold in amounts of 1 to 10 mg per serving, with claims for supporting hair and nail health, and as 300 mg per day as a possibly effective treatment for multiple sclerosis (see § Research). Overconsumption of 5 mg/day or higher causes elevated concentration in plasma that interferes with biotin-streptavidin immunoassays in an unpredictable manner. Healthcare professionals are advised to instruct patients to stop taking biotin supplements for 48 h or even up to weeks before the test, depending on the specific test, dose, and frequency of biotin uptake. Guidance for laboratory staff is proposed to detect and manage biotin interference. ## History In 1916, W. G. Bateman observed that a diet high in raw egg whites caused toxic symptoms in dogs, cats, rabbits, and humans. By 1927, scientists such as Margarete Boas and Helen Parsons had performed experiments demonstrating the symptoms associated with "egg-white injury." They had found that rats fed large amounts of egg-white as their only protein source exhibited neurological dysfunction, hair loss, dermatitis, and eventually, death. In 1936, Fritz Kögl and Benno Tönnis documented isolating a yeast growth factor in a journal article titled "Darstellung von krystallisiertem biotin aus eigelb." (Representation of crystallized biotin from egg yolk). The name biotin derives from the Greek word bios ('to live') and the suffix "-in" (a general chemical suffix used in organic chemistry). Other research groups, working independently, had isolated the same compound under different names. Hungarian scientist Paul Gyorgy began investigating the factor responsible for egg-white injury in 1933 and in 1939, was successful identifying what he called "Vitamin H" (the H represents Haar und Haut, German for 'hair and skin'). Further chemical characterization of vitamin H revealed that it was water-soluble and present in high amounts in the liver. After experiments performed with yeast and Rhizobium trifolii, West and Wilson isolated a compound they called co-enzyme R. By 1940, it was recognized that all three compounds were identical and were collectively given the name: biotin. Gyorgy continued his work on biotin and in 1941 published a paper demonstrating that egg-white injury was caused by the binding of biotin by avidin. Unlike for many vitamins, there is insufficient information to establish a recommended dietary allowance, so dietary guidelines identify an "adequate intake" based on best available science with the understanding that at some later date this will be replaced by more exact information. Using E. coli, a biosynthesis pathway was proposed by Rolfe and Eisenberg in 1968. The initial step was described as a condensation of pimelyl-CoA and alanine to form 7-oxo-8-aminopelargonic acid. From there, they described three-step process, the last being introducing a sulfur atom to form the tetrahydrothiophene ring. ## Research ### Multiple sclerosis High-dose biotin (300 mg/day = 10,000 times adequate intake) has been used in clinical trials for treatment of multiple sclerosis, a demyelinating autoimmune disease. The hypothesis is that biotin may promote remyelination of the myelin sheath of nerve cells, slowing or even reversing neurodegeneration. The proposed mechanisms are that biotin activates acetyl-coA carboxylase, which is a key rate-limiting enzyme during the synthesis of myelin, and by reducing axonal hypoxia through enhanced energy production. Clinical trial results are mixed; a 2019 review concluded that a further investigation of the association between multiple sclerosis symptoms and biotin should be undertaken, whereas two 2020 reviews of a larger number of clinical trials reported no consistent evidence for benefits, and some evidence for increased disease activity and higher risk of relapse. ### Hair, nails, skin In the United States, biotin is promoted as a dietary supplement for strengthening hair and fingernails, though scientific data supporting these outcomes in humans are very weak. A review of the fingernails literature reported brittle nail improvement as evidence from two pre-1990 clinical trials that had administered an oral dietary supplement of 2.5 mg/day for several months, without a placebo control comparison group. There is no more recent clinical trial literature. A review of biotin as treatment for hair loss identified case studies of infants and young children with genetic defect biotin deficiency having improved hair growth after supplementation, but went on to report that "there have been no randomized, controlled trials to prove efficacy of supplementation with biotin in normal, healthy individuals." Biotin is also incorporated into topical hair and skin products with similar claims. The Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act of 1994 states that the US Food and Drug Administration must allow on the product label what are described as "Structure:Function" (S:F) health claims that ingredient(s) are essential for health. For example: Biotin helps maintain healthy skin, hair and nails. If a S:F claim is made, the label must include the disclaimer "This statement has not been evaluated by the Food and Drug Administration. This product is not intended to diagnose, treat, cure, or prevent any disease." ## Animals In cattle, biotin is necessary for hoof health. Lameness due to hoof problems is common, with herd prevalence estimated at 10 to 35%. Consequences of lameness include less food consumption, lower milk production, and increased veterinary treatment costs. Results after 4–6 months from supplementing biotin at 20 mg/day into daily diet reduces the risk of lameness. A review of controlled trials reported that supplementation at 20 mg/day increased milk yield by 4.8%. The discussion speculated that this could be an indirect consequence of improved hoof health or a direct effect on milk production. For horses, conditions such as chronic laminitis, cracked hooves, or dry, brittle feet incapable of holding shoes are a common problem. Biotin is a popular nutritional supplement. There are recommendations that horses need 15 to 25 mg/day. Studies report biotin improves the growth of new hoof horn rather than improving the status of existing hoof, so months of supplementation are needed for the hoof wall to be completely replaced. ## See also - Biotin deficiency - Biotin sulfoxide - Biotinidase deficiency - Biotinylation - Multiple carboxylase deficiency - NeutrAvidin - Photobiotin
23,956,566	Irish Mercantile Marine during World War II	1,173,682,768	Overview of the IMM during World War II	[ "Independent Ireland in World War II", "Ireland and the Commonwealth of Nations", "Maritime history of Ireland", "Merchant navy" ]	The Irish Mercantile Marine during World War II continued essential overseas trade in the conflict, a period referred to as The Long Watch by Irish mariners. Irish merchant shipping saw to it that vital imports continued to arrive and exports, mainly food supplies to Great Britain, were delivered. Irish ships sailed unarmed and usually alone, identifying themselves as neutrals with bright lights and by painting the Irish tricolour and EIRE in large letters on their sides and decks. Nonetheless, twenty percent of seamen serving in Irish ships perished, victims of a war not their own: attacked by both sides, though predominantly by the Axis powers. Often, Allied convoys did not stop to pick up survivors, while Irish ships regularly answered SOS signals and stopped to rescue survivors, irrespective of which side they belonged to. Irish ships rescued 534 seamen. At the outbreak of World War II, known as "The Emergency", Ireland declared neutrality and became more isolated than ever before. Shipping had been neglected since the Irish War of Independence. Foreign ships, on which Ireland's trade had hitherto depended, were less available; neutral American ships would not enter the "war zone". In his Saint Patrick's Day address in 1940, Taoiseach Éamon de Valera lamented: "No country had ever been more effectively blockaded because of the activities of belligerents and our lack of ships..." Ireland was a net food exporter. The excess was shipped to Britain. The Irish Mercantile Marine ensured that Irish agricultural, and other, exports reached Britain, and that British coal arrived in Ireland. Some foods such as wheat, citric fruits and tea were imported. Ireland depended on, mainly, British tankers for petroleum. Initially Irish ships sailed in British convoys. In the light of experience they chose to sail alone, relying on their neutral markings. German respect for that neutrality varied from friendly to tragic. "Cross-channel" trade, between Ireland and Britain, was from both national perspectives, the most important Irish trade route. Irish ships crossed the Atlantic on a route defined by the Allies: a line from Fastnet Rock to the Azores and then along the line of latitude at 38° North. Ships on the "Lisbon-run", imported wheat and fruits from Spain and Portugal, as well as goods transhipped from the Americas. They followed the line of longitude at 12° West, while Allied convoys to Gibraltar were 20° West. There were never more than 800 men, at any one time, serving on Irish ships in the war. ## Background Following independence in 1921, there was no state encouragement to develop the mercantile marine. "Our new leaders seemed to turn their backs upon the sea and to ignore the fact that we are an island". Each year the fleet declined. In 1923, the merchant fleet consisted of 127 ships. This number dropped every year until 1939 when, at the start of World War II, the fleet numbered only 56 ships. Only 5% of imports were carried on Irish flagged vessels. There were several reasons for this decline: a consequence of the war of independence, a policy of self-sufficiency, the economic depression, the lack of investment and government neglect. Foreign ships, on which Ireland had hitherto depended, were withdrawn. "In the period April 1941 and June 1942 only seven such ships visited the country". The war of independence (1919–1921), and the civil war (1921–1922) which followed it, left the country in near economic collapse. There had been destruction of industry and infrastructure. Many industries relocated abroad. It was often cheaper to transport by sea, within Ireland, rather than using the poor road and rail networks. To take advantage of this commercial opportunity, new coasters were acquired in the 1930s, intended to ply between Irish ports. These ships would be invaluable once hostilities began. Many of these small coasters were lost, particularly on the "Lisbon run", a voyage for which they were never intended. The then Taoiseach (Prime Minister) Éamon de Valera advocated a policy of self-sufficiency. Foreign imports were discouraged. "It was an important status symbol in the modern world for a country to produce her own goods and be self-sufficient." The global economic depression of the early 1930s affected Ireland less because of the partial recovery following the civil war and because industry was protected behind tariff barriers established in the Anglo-Irish Trade War (1932–1938). The need for extra sea capacity was readily met by British and other foreign ships. Foreign ships were used, rather than preserving the home fleet. Banks were reluctant to lend to Irish industry, preferring British government gilts. Although there was state support for many industries, this did not extend to shipping. In 1933 de Valera's government established the Turf Development Board, turf became Ireland's primary source of fuel during the emergency years and was stockpiled as imported coal was in short supply. In 1935 civil servants in de Valera's own department warned him of the consequences a war would have on the importation of fuel. He ignored that warning. Earlier, in 1926 the Ports and Harbours Tribunal was initiated. The tribunal received "abundant evidence" of "inefficient, uneconomic and extravagant management". It submitted a report in 1930 with recommendations which were not implemented until after the war. The tribunal observed "the public generally do not, we fear, appreciate the importance of our harbours ...". Vickers-Armstrongs liquidated their subsidiary Vickers (Ireland) Ltd. on 15 November 1938; their Dublin Dockyard had ceased operation in 1937. On 2 September 1939 the "realisation dawned on Ireland that the country was surrounded by water and that the sea was of vital importance to her". By this point, however, British wartime restrictions on shipping were already in place. Historian Bryce Evans has argued that the failure of Seán Lemass and others to establish an Irish mercantile marine in the 1930s would exacerbate Irish supply problems in the Second World War. ### Response Seán Lemass as Minister for Industry and Commerce, and later Minister for Supplies sought to address these issues. Many infant industries were developed in the 1930s behind a protective tariff barrier. (This is the origin of the term "Tariff Jews", Seán Lemass from 1932 helped Jewish entrepreneurs to set up manufacturing businesses) These industries proved valuable in the war years. They reduced the need for imports, for example in 1931 over five million pairs of shoes were imported, by 1938 this had fallen to a quarter of a million pairs. Between 1931 and 1938, Gross Industrial Output rose from £55 million to £90 million; and Industrial Employment from 162,000 to 217,000. In 1933 the government established the Industrial Credit Corporation to finance industry. In 1938, Life Assurers were required to hold their reserves in Ireland, to make capital available for industry; promptly five of the six UK providers closed, lodging their business with Irish Assurance. Private enterprises established included: Grain Importers Ltd., Animal Feed Stuffs Ltd., Fuel Importers Ltd., Oil and Fats Ltd., Timber Importers Ltd., and Tea Importers Ltd. Industry was encouraged, such as the plans for Irish National Refineries Ltd. to build an oil refinery. The former Vickers repair yard in Dublin port was reopened, in 1940, by the Dublin Port and Docks Board. It repaired British and Irish ships. Semi-state enterprises were established, including Irish Shipping in 1941 which purchased nine vessels and leased six more. ### War declared At the outbreak of the Second World War Ireland declared neutrality. There were a total of 56 Irish ships at the outbreak of World War II; 15 more were purchased or leased in the conflict, and 16 were lost. Up to then most Irish-registered ships had been flying the red ensign of the United Kingdom Merchant Navy. All were required by UK law to fly the Red Ensign, but some, such as the Wexford Steamship Company ships, had always travelled under the tricolour. With the outbreak of hostilities, choices were forced. The Irish government ordered all Irish ships to fly the tricolour. Some British ships were on the Irish register, such as the whalers which were Scottish-owned (Christian Salvesen Shipping) but Irish-registered in order to take advantage of the Irish whale quota. The six whale catchers and the two factory ships were pressed into British naval service, after their owners transferred them to the British registry. Some ships which could be described as British also choose the Tricolour. Kerrymore, which was registered as belonging to R McGowan of Tralee, was actually owned by Kelly Colliers of Belfast. Most of the crew had addresses in loyalist areas of Belfast. For six years they sailed under the tricolour. The British and Irish Steam Packet Company's which operated the Dublin to Liverpool route, flew the tricolour. But, no flag was a protection against mines; Munster struck a mine approaching Liverpool and sank. There were over 200 passengers and 50 crew on board. A few hours later they were all rescued by the collier Ringwall. Four were injured; and one died later. The L&NWR ferries Cambria, Hibernia and Scotia were Irish-registered and sailed between Dún Laoghaire and Holyhead, under the Red Ensign. Their British crews were taken aback when the tricolour was hoisted. They went on strike and refused to sail until the ships were transferred to the British registry and red ensign was restored. Scotia was sunk in the Dunkirk evacuation with the loss of 30 crew and 300 troops. Hibernia had a fortunate escape on the night of 20 December 1940. She was berthing at Dún Laoghaire when a German bomber swooped down. All lights were extinguished. Bombs fell on the nearby Sandycove railway station. The GWR ferries operated the Rosslare to Fishguard route sailed under the red ensign. Thirty lives were lost when their Saint Patrick was bombed and sunk. The British and Irish Steam Packet Company had some of its ships on the British registry with others on the Irish registry. ## Cargo ### Exports The main export was agricultural produce to Britain. In the First World War, Ireland's food production increased to meet Britain's needs; a pattern which would be repeated for the Second World War. In 1916 there were 1,735,000 acres (702,130 ha) under plough, this increased to 2,383,000 acres (964,370 ha) in 1918, and then fell back. By the start of the trade war in 1932 tillage had fallen to 1,424,000 acres (576,270 ha). The trade war between Ireland and Britain started in 1932, in which Britain imposed a tax on Irish products. Cattle from the Irish Republic were taxed but cattle from Northern Ireland were not. So, cattle were smuggled across the border. In 1934/5, about 100,000 cattle were "exported" in this way. The Department of Supplies was "all in favour of the smuggling and urged that nothing should be done which might stop it". By then, Britain was anxious to secure Irish food supplies before another world war. Survival in the looming war was the spur. There were a series of agreements from the "cattle-coal pact" of 1935 to the Anglo-Irish Trade Agreement of 1938 which ended the dispute, on terms favourable to Ireland. Under the "cattle-coal pact", the British set up a central authority for the purchase of cattle, under John Maynard Keynes. The prices set before the war were attractive. As the war progressed, open market prices rose dramatically. Cattle from Northern Ireland fetched a better price, so smuggling, as practised in the trade war, resumed. In answer to the demand for food in World War II, the area under plough increased from 1,492,000 acres (603,790 ha) in 1939 to 2,567,000 acres (1,038,830 ha) in 1944. Studies are inconclusive on how vital Irish food exports were to Britain, due to the difficulties in accounting for the effect of smuggling, the unreliability of statistics, and wartime censorship. While Ireland's food production was increasing, British food imports were falling; for example the UK imported 1,360,000 tons of food in August 1941, but only 674,000 tons in August 1942. Before and during the second world war, Ireland was a net food exporter and the Irish people enjoyed a high calorie diet. (Nonetheless, the poor experienced real deprivation). Food was donated to war-refugees in Spain. The nation did need to import certain foods, such as fruits, tea and wheat. Nearly half of Ireland's wheat was imported from Canada. Domestic food production relied on imported fertilizer and imported animal feeding stuffs. In 1940, 74,000 tons of fertilizer were imported, only 7,000 tons arrived in 1941. Similarly 5 million tons of animal feed were imported in 1940, falling to one million in 1941 and negligible quantities thereafter. ### Imports Although Ireland had a surplus of food, some foods were not grown in Ireland, as the climate was unsuitable. Only small plots of wheat were cultivated. A series of orders for compulsory tillage were enacted, with the threat that those who did not put their fields to wheat would have their land confiscated. In 1939, 235,000 acres (95,100 ha) of wheat were planted; by 1945 this had increased to 662,000 acres (267,900 ha). Yet, a shortfall remained and imports were required.Clashes between smugglers and Customs were commonplace. In 1940 the infamous "Battle of Dowra" took place on the border of counties Leitrim and Fermanagh. Revenue crews from Blacklion and Glenfarne intercepted over one hundred men with donkey loads of smuggled flour. Unwilling to part with their bounty, the smugglers used cudgels, boots, stones and fists in the ensuing struggle. Most of the flour was destroyed in the fray and some Revenue people were injured. Early in 1942, the Allies restricted wheat deliveries to Ireland. In return, the Irish threatened to withhold the export of Guinness beer. To the great annoyance of David Gray, the United States Ambassador to Ireland, Ireland received 30,000 tons of wheat. Gray complained of a waste of "a vital necessity for what Americans regard at the best as a luxury and at worst a poison". `By 1944–45 coal imports were only one-third of those of 1938-9 and supplies of oil had almost ceased. The production of town gas, manufactured from imported coal, was so adversely affected that regulations were brought in limiting its use, enforced by the "Glimmer Man". Britain relaxed these restrictions from 19 July 1944.` There were plans to build an oil refinery in Dublin. In the event, this refinery was not completed. Nonetheless, seven oil tankers were built in Bremen-Vegesack, Germany for Inver Tankers Ltd. Each 500 feet (150 m) long and capable of carrying 500 tons were on the Irish register. Britain asked Ireland to requisition the tankers, The reply was that it was not Irish policy to requisition vessels, instead offering to transfer them to the British register. They were transferred on the 6th, war had been declared on the 3rd. > In a manner reminiscent of Chamberlain's handover of the ports to de Valera, two days after the outbreak of war, de Valera himself transferred the tankers to the British registry without getting any promise of fuel supply in return. Two days after the transfer, on 11 September 1939, while still flying the Irish tricolour, Inverliffey was sunk. In spite of Captain William Trowsdale's protestation that they were Irish, said that they "were sorry" but they would sink Inverliffey as she was carrying petrol to England, considered contraband to the Germans. U-38's next encounter with the Irish tricolour was less gallant. U-38 shelled the fishing trawler Leukos, all 11 crew were lost. Inver Tankers' entire fleet was lost in the war. ## U-boat encounters Vizeadmiral Karl Dönitz issued a standing order to U-boats on 4 September 1940, which defined belligerent, neutral and friendly powers. Neutral included "Ireland in particular". The order concluded: "Ireland forbids the navigation of her territorial waters by warships under threat of internment. That prohibition is to be strictly observed out of consideration for the proper preservation of her neutrality. Signed, Dönitz". However those orders did not always protect Irish ships. Wolf Jeschonnek, commander of was mildly reprimanded "An understandable mistake by an eager captain" for sinking Irish Oak. When sank Luimneach on the Lisbon run, her commander recorded in his war diary "flying a British or Irish flag". A supplement to Dönitz's order found after was scuttled off Cork read: "for political reasons, Irish ships and also at times Irish convoys are not to be attacked within the blockade zone if they are seen to be such. However, there is no special obligation to determine neutrality in the blockade zone.". There were many encounters with U-boats, some pleasant, others not so. On 16 March 1942 the Estonian ship leased her to Irish Shipping, Irish Willow was stopped by , which signalled "Send master and ship's papers". As Capt Shanks hailed from Belfast and therefore legally a British subject, this was considered unwise. Chief Officer Harry Cullen and four crew rowed to the U-boat. He said that his (39-year-old) captain was too elderly for the boat. He added that it would be Saint Patrick's Day in the morning. They were treated to schnapps in the conning tower and given a bottle of cognac to bring back to Irish Willow. Later, Irish Willow performed a dangerous rescue of 47 British sailors from Empire Breeze. On 20 March 1943 , commanded by Kapitänleutnant Heinrich Oskar Bernbeck stopped Irish Elm. Rough seas prevented Elm's crew from pulling their rowboat alongside the submarine to present their papers, so the interview was conducted by shouting. In the course of the conversation, Elm's Chief Officer Patrick Hennessy gave Dún Laoghaire as his home address. Bernbeck asked if "the strike was still on in Downey's", a pub near Dún Laoghaire harbour. (The Downey's strike started in March 1939 and lasted 14 years.) ## Convoys The Irish and British authorities co-operated in the chartering of ships. They made combined purchases of wheat, maize, sugar, animal feeds and petrol. At the start of the war, Irish ships joined convoys protected by the Royal Navy. The advantages were protection and cheaper insurance. These advantages were not borne out by experience. So they chose to sail alone. The ability to insure ships, cargo, and crew has a significant impact on the profitability of shipping. Insurance of Irish ships in the 'Long Watch' was problematic. One important aspect of this was that Irish ships usually didn't travel in convoy and insurers such as Lloyd's of London charged a higher premium to insure ships not in convoy. An example of the insurance problems faced, concerns the crew of City of Waterford. When this ship joined Convoy OG 74, the lives of the crew were insured. The ship suffered a collision with the Dutch tugboat Thames, and sank. Waterford's crew was rescued by HMS Deptford and then transferred to the rescue ship . Walmer Castle was bombed two days later and five of City of Waterford's survivors died. When their families made life insurance claims, they were refused, because at their time of death they were not crew of City of Waterford, but passengers of Walmer Castle. Later the Irish government introduced a compensation scheme for seamen lost or injured on Irish ships and Irish Shipping opened its own marine insurance subsidiary, which made a handsome profit. Two Limerick Steamship Company ships, Lanahrone and Clonlara were part of the "nightmare convoy" OG 71, which left Liverpool on 13 August 1941. As merchant ships of a neutral country the Limerick ships had no blackout facilities, and the Master of the British Convoy Commodore's ship, the liner Aguila, objected that this would make the convoy visible to the enemy at night. In an apparently vain attempt to make them less visible, the vice admiral who was Convoy Commodore positioned the two Irish ships in the centre of the convoy. On 19 August in separate attacks the Norwegian destroyer HNoMS Bath was drawn away from the convoy and sunk by , and three minutes later sank the British merchant ship Alva. Clonlara rescued 13 survivors from Alva. Two hours later sank the Commodore ship Aguila and the British cargo ship Ciscar. Two days later sank Clonlara. The Flower-class corvette HMS Campion rescued 13 survivors (eight from Clonlara, five from Alva). Eight merchant ships, two naval escorts and over 400 lives were lost. Five of the convoy's surviving merchant ships reached Gibraltar; 10 retreated to neutral Portugal. This was described as "a bitter act of surrender could ever come our way". In Lisbon Lanahrone's crew went on strike, which was resolved with extra life-rafts and pay. The crew of Irish Poplar was waiting in Lisbon; when the remnants of OG 71 limped in. The crew of Irish Poplar resolved to sail home alone. While City of Dublin brought Clonlara's survivors to Cork, Lanahrone joined Convoy HG 73. Nine of the 25 ships in that convoy were lost. These experiences and the inability of the Royal Navy to protect merchant ships had a most profound effect on all Irish Ships. Thereafter they were blacked out when sailing in Allied convoys. Ship-owners, on the advice of their masters, decided not to sail their vessels in British convoys and by the early months of 1942 the practice had ceased. Captain William Henderson of Irish Elm, returning from a transatlantic voyage reported "circled by two German bombers, probably Condors, they circled for a considerable time and inspected closely but didn't molest. The incident had given the crew great confidence in the protection afforded by the neutral markings". ## Trade routes ### British routes This "cross-channel" trade accounted for most of Ireland's trade. The ships ranged, in age, from Dundalk, built two years before the start of the war in 1937, to Brooklands built in 1859. The most important vessels to Ireland were the ten colliers and to Britain the livestock carriers. Initially Germany respected the neutrality of Irish vessels, apologising for the first attack on the collier Kerry Head and paying compensation. Losses came from mines, rather than direct attacks. Meath suffered such a fate; while she was being inspected by the British Naval Control Service, she was struck by a magnetic mine, drowning seven hundred cattle, and destroying both vessels. In August 1940 Germany "required" Ireland to cease food exports to Britain. On 17 August 1940, Germany declared a large area around Britain to be a "scene of warlike operations". It was believed that attacks on Irish ships and the bombing of Campile was to reinforce that message. Lord Haw-Haw in a broadcast on German, threatened that Dundalk would be bombed if the export of cattle to Britain continued. On 24 July 1941, George's Quay, Dundalk was bombed. Nonetheless, the trade continued. The first attack, after the German ultimatum, was against the schooner Lock Ryan, returning to Arklow. She was strafed and bombed by three German aircraft. Fortunately Lock Ryan's cargo of china clay absorbed the blast and although badly damaged, she survived. Germany acknowledged the attack but refused to pay compensation for the damage as she was in "the blockaded area", "through which the Irish had been offered free passage but on terms which were rejected". There were many attacks on ships on the cross-channel trade. In 1940 nine Irish ships were lost. That figure may be small compared with Allied losses, but it represents a larger proportion of the small Irish fleet. There were restrictions on reporting attacks on ships. Frank Aiken, the Minister for the Co-ordination of Defensive Measures, whose responsibilities included censorship, reverted this policy. His intention was to let Germany know that the Irish public know, and "they don't like it". There had been a British proposal for transshipment. William Warnock, the Irish chargé d'affaires in Berlin told Germany that Ireland was refusing to transship British cargoes, while protesting against the attacks on Irish ships, and other neutral ships with Irish cargoes. Deliberate attacks on cross-channel shipping ceased on 5 November 1941, when the collier Glencree was strafed. There were attacks on other routes. Mines were a constant danger. ### The Iberian trade In November 1939, Roosevelt signed the Fourth Neutrality Act forbidding American ships from entering the "war zone", which was defined as a line drawn from Spain to Iceland. Cargoes intended for Ireland were shipped to Portugal. It was up to the Irish to fetch them from there. This route, known as the Iberian Trade or the Lisbon run. Setting sail from Ireland, the ships would carry agricultural products to the United Kingdom. There they would discharge their cargo, load up on fuel, pick up a British export (often coal), and carry it to Portugal. In Portugal, usually Lisbon, Irish ships loaded the waiting American cargo, such as fertilizer or agricultural machinery. Sometimes the cargo was not there: it may have been delayed, or lost at sea due to the war. In this case, the Irish captains would load a "cargo of opportunity" and bring it back to Ireland. This might be wheat or oranges; on occasions, they even purchased their own cargo of coal. was fortunate to have a cargo of coal when two unidentified aircraft attacked her with cannon fire. The shells lodged in the coal, rather than piercing her hull. Britain denied involvement, but when the coal was discharged shell fragments of British manufacture were found. The attackers were de Havilland Mosquitos of the Polish squadron of the RAF. The Cymric was not so fortunate, she vanished in the same waters without a trace. The Lisbon run was undertaken by small coastal trading vessels, commonly called coasters, which were not designed for deep-sea navigation. Small, and having low freeboard (frequently around one foot (30 cm)) these ships were designed never to be out of sight of land, and to be able to make quickly to a harbour when the weather turned foul. has become the exemplar of the Irish Mercantile Marine in the Emergency. Only 335 gross register tons (GRT) and 142 feet (43 m) long, Kerlogue was attacked by both sides[^1] and rescued both sides. Her rescue of 168 German sailors, given her size, was dramatic. From January 1941, British authorities required Irish ships to visit a British port and obtain a "navicert". This visit sometimes proved fatal. It also added up to 1,300 miles (2,100 km) to the voyage. A ship with a "navicert" was given free passage through allied patrols and fuel, however they would be searched. Irish ships on the "Lisbon run" carried UK exports to Spain and Portugal. ### Atlantic routes Some British ships traded between Ireland and Britain. Other destinations were served by Irish and other neutral ships. Philip Noel-Baker (Churchill's Parliamentary Secretary) was able to tell the British parliament that "no United Kingdom or Allied ship has been lost while carrying a full cargo of goods either to or from Eire on an ocean voyage." He added "a very high proportion of imports from overseas sources into Eire, and of such exports as are sent overseas from Eire, are already carried in ships on the Eire or on a neutral register." and "The trade between Great Britain and Eire is of mutual benefit to both countries, and the risks to British seamen which it involves are small." In the economic depression, the Limerick Steamship Company sold both its ocean-going ships, Knockfierna and Kilcredane. They were Ireland's last ocean-going ships. At the outbreak of hostilities Ireland did not have a ship designed to cross the Atlantic. British ships were not available. American ships would only travel to Portugal. Ireland depended on other neutrals. In 1940 a succession of these ships, from Norway, Greece, Argentina, and Finland, usually carrying wheat to Ireland, were lost. Soon many of these nations were no longer neutral. Ireland had to acquire its own fleet. Irish Shipping was formed. Irish Poplar was Irish Shipping's first ship. It was acquired in Spain after it had been abandoned by its crew. Other ships were acquired from Palestine, Panama, Yugoslavia, and Chile. Frank Aiken, the Minister for the Co-ordination of Defensive Measures in the Irish government, negotiated the bareboat chartering of two oil-burning steamships from the United States Maritime Commission's reserve fleet. They were both lost to U-boats. Irish Oak was sunk in controversial circumstances by . All 33 crew of Irish Pine were lost when she was sunk by U-608. Three ships were from Estonia, They were in Irish ports when Estonia was annexed by the Soviet Union. Their crews refused to return to the new Estonian SSR. The ships were sold to Irish Shipping. The SS Cetvrti (Jugoslavia) was abandoned in Dingle Bay after being strafed on 1 December 1940. She was salvaged by Fort Rannoch of the Irish Navy; she was purchased and renamed Irish Beech. An Italian ship, Caterina Gerolimich had been trapped in Dublin since the outbreak of the war. After the fall of Italian Fascism she was chartered, repaired and renamed Irish Cedar. When the war was over, she returned to Naples with a cargo of food, a gift from Ireland to war-ravaged Italy. Irish Hazel was bought on 17 June 1941. She was 46 years old, and required extensive repairs. "She was fit for nothing but the scrap yard." A British yard bid for, and won, the contract to renovate her. This work was completed in November 1943. Even though the Irish government paid for her purchase and for the repairs she was requisitioned by the British Ministry of War Transport and renamed Empire Don. She was returned to Irish Shipping in 1945. The Irish Shipping fleet imported, across the Atlantic: 712,000 tons of wheat, 178,000 tons of coal, 63,000 tons of phosphate (for fertilizer), 24,000 tons of tobacco, 19,000 tons of newsprint, 10,000 tons of timber and 105,000 tons of assorted other cargo. Figures from the other shipping companies have not survived. ## After the war When the hostilities were over, on 16 May 1945, Éamon de Valera, in his speech to the nation said: "To the men of our Mercantile Marine who faced all the perils of the ocean to bring us essential supplies, the nation is profoundly grateful." The Ringsend area of Dublin has a long maritime tradition. When housing was being redeveloped in the 1970s, some streets were named after ships which were lost: Breman Road, Breman Grove, Cymric Road, Isolda Road, Pine Road, Leukos Road, Kyleclare Road and Clonlara Road. The "An Bonn Seirbhíse Éigeandála" for "An tSeirbhís Mhuir-Thráchtála" or in English: "Emergency Service Medal" of the "Mercantile Marine Service"'', was awarded to all who had served six months, or longer, on an Irish-registered ship in the Emergency. On 24 September 2001, a plinth and plaque, embossed with the Irish tricolour was erected to commemorate those crews lost on neutral Irish registered vessels in 1939–45. "a very significant gesture by our British friends towards recognising the debt of honour owed to all shipmates irrespective of nationality who lost their lives in the Second World War." in the National Memorial Arboretum in England. In Dublin, an annual commemoration, is held on the third Sunday of November. The Cork commemoration is held on the fourth Sunday of November in the former offices of the White Star Line. The Belfast commemoration is held on the second Sunday of May. ## Ships ## See also - The Emergency (Ireland) - internal, national issues in World War II - Irish neutrality during World War II - international relations - \- the exemplar of neutral Irish ships in World War II. - Battle of the Atlantic ## Publications [^1]: Fisk, (1983). In Time of War, page 275: "Kerlogue{{'}}s tricolour, shredded by RAF gunfire is now in the National Maritime Museum of Ireland".
2,307,065	KXGN-TV	1,167,011,698	CBS/NBC affiliate in Glendive, Montana	[ "1957 establishments in Montana", "CBS network affiliates", "Dawson County, Montana", "Montana Television Network", "NBC network affiliates", "Television channels and stations established in 1957", "Television stations in Montana" ]	KXGN-TV (channel 5) is a television station in Glendive, Montana, United States, affiliated with CBS and NBC. It is owned by The Marks Group alongside radio stations KXGN (1400 AM) and KDZN (96.5 FM). The three stations share studios on South Douglas Street in downtown Glendive; KXGN-TV's transmitter is located at Makoshika State Park. The station also airs news and other programs from the Montana Television Network, a network of CBS affiliates in Montana. KXGN-TV is the only television station in Glendive, reckoned as the smallest television market in the United States. Nielsen Media Research ranks it last of the 210 designated market areas for television in the United States, with just 3,900 households. Its status as the smallest station in the United States has earned it notoriety in the broadcasting industry; over its history, publications including the Los Angeles Times and Sports Illustrated have profiled KXGN-TV. The station's lone local program is a public affairs program covering issues in eastern Montana, though in the past it has produced limited local newscasts, and it does provide regional newscasts from the CBS and NBC affiliates in Billings. ## History ### Moore ownership The founder of KXGN-TV was Lewis W. Moore, who had moved from Havre to Glendive in 1945 and owned the Rose Theater. In 1948, he started KXGN radio as a hedge against the possible decline of the movie theater business and to reach rural consumers with advertisements for his picture house in Glendive. Because of the radio station, Moore was well positioned to start a television station. On December 21, 1956, his Glendive Broadcasting Corporation filed with the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to build a new TV station on channel 5 in Glendive, having previously asked for the channel to be authorized in addition to UHF channel 18. The FCC approved on March 13, 1957, and KXGN-TV began broadcasting on November 1. From the beginning, it was clear that KXGN-TV would be a small station. In a 1959 United States Senate hearing in Helena which focused on the issue of cable television putting some small stations in the Mountain West out of business, Moore noted that KXGN's population served was the smallest "of any TV station in America, perhaps in the world". It initially had no network affiliation at all, struggling to produce five hours of live and filmed programming a day with a staff of nine. In 1962, salvation came when a receiving facility and microwave hookup were built east of Glendive at Wibaux to receive and send on programs from CBS affiliate KDIX-TV in Dickinson, North Dakota. The hookup allowed Moore to raise enough money to relocate the station to its present studio facilities, a former implement dealership, and a higher tower site in 1963. Moore was also able to get ahead of the cable problem by purchasing a 50 percent stake in the cable system built to serve Glendive with television in 1968, and even after local viewers could subscribe to a choice in programming, KXGN remained popular because of its extensive community service orientation and unduplicated coverage of eastern Montana. By that time, ABC programs were off the schedule; the station had settled into its pattern for the next 40 years of being a primary CBS affiliate with selected NBC programs. CBS would later grant the station permission to air CBS programming from 6 to 9 p.m., as it does today, to improve ratings; this also allowed it to air NBC or other programming in the 9 p.m. hour. Local programming included live bingo five days a week during the winter months and local news specials as needed. ### Sale to Marks In 1988, Moore put KXGN radio and television on the market in order to complete his retirement. The move came at a tough time for the stations and the market they served. The Burlington Northern railroad had stopped operating through Glendive years prior; low oil prices depressed the region's energy sector; the worst drought since the 1930s negatively impacted the livestock and feed industries; and after Black Monday in 1987, national spot advertising sales dropped precipitously. To cut costs, KXGN dropped the Associated Press newswire, laid off staff, and canceled its public affairs show, the weekly Let's Talk About It. General manager "Dapper Dan" Frenzel, who had worked at the station since 1964, attempted to build a coalition of local buyers to take over the station, but they could not meet Moore's \$1 million asking price. Instead, a Michigan man with a penchant for small-town TV struck a deal to purchase the KXGN stations in 1989. Stephen Marks owned WBKB-TV in Alpena, Michigan, also a single-station market, and said he liked one-station areas because they could command all of the available TV revenue in the area. The sale took longer than Moore had expected because the FCC at the time had a rule that normally barred cross-ownership of radio and television stations. It was not until May 1990 that the FCC granted a waiver, noting the economic conditions inherent in the small-market stations, their extensively integrated operation, and the fact they had been co-owned for the television station's entire history. The commission also cited the availability of other electronic media through two Glendive-licensed radio stations, six other signals, and the cable system (which Moore sold off in 1986), as well as a daily newspaper. Marks added KDZN in 1995; the FCC approved of the purchase of the FM station because of the substantial losses that KXGN AM, then supported entirely by the TV station, and KDZN had incurred in the region's continuing poor economy. KXGN also aired some Fox programming, primarily the NFL on Fox, when Fox gained football rights from CBS in 1994. Frenzel died of a heart condition in 2003 and was replaced by Paul Sturlaugson as general manager. ### Digital television transition Sturlaugson's most pressing challenge in the 2000s was leading the station through its costly upgrade to digital television. If not for the DTV Delay Act pushing the final cutoff date back by four months from February to June 2009, KXGN-TV would not have converted in a timely manner, as the equipment had not arrived by February. While many stations had a May 1, 2002, deadline to start a digital signal, KXGN-TV requested and received multiple extensions due to financial hardship. In 2008, the FCC had permitted it to convert to digital on VHF channel 5 instead of the originally allocated channel 10, a process that saved money but delayed installation of the facility. After the successful digital conversion, in September 2009, KXGN added a dedicated NBC subchannel, an idea Sturlaugson had discussed prior to the transition; Marks had previously signed KXGN up to carry the never-launched .2 Network in 2008. The station's various translators were converted to digital service by their operators in the years that followed; for instance, the retransmitters at Plevna were converted at the end of 2011, also expanding the reach of the NBC subchannel. Marks died on May 11, 2022; his company The Marks Group had 14 radio stations and five TV stations (including KXGN-TV) at the time of his death. ## Programming ### CBS KXGN-TV's CBS subchannel (5.1) clears the entire CBS schedule. Some CBS programs—particularly CBS Mornings, The Price Is Right, and Let's Make a Deal—are aired one hour ahead of their usual Mountain Time Zone airings. The CBS Evening News is aired at 5:00 p.m. instead of 5:30 p.m. to accommodate the KTVQ 5:30 p.m. newscast. Even after dropping NBC from its primary subchannel, KXGN has retained the 6:00 p.m. to 9:00 p.m. CBS prime time block intact, opting to show syndicated programming at 9:00 p.m. Since 1990, KXGN-TV has been a formal member of the Montana Television Network (MTN), airing the noon and evening newscasts of KTVQ in Billings and contributing Eastern Montana news to MTN. ### NBC The NBC subchannel (5.2) airs NBC programming generally in pattern for the Mountain Time Zone. Regional newscasts from KULR-TV in Billings, with the exception of the first hour of its morning newscast, Wake Up Montana, are also shown live. ### Local news KXGN aired a daily evening local newscast under various titles, including Action 5 News and Montana East News, until 2015. (The title Action 5 News was used in the 1980s when Terry Kegley anchored the newscast; he also chose the name.) The newsgathering and production was often a one-person operation in which the anchor conducted interviews for the newscast and then produced the program with one studio camera. Former longtime personality Ed Agre, who joined KXGN in 1993, was once profiled by Sports Illustrated for his duties in this capacity, including traveling to produce high school sports shows. In the later years of the newscast's operation, Emilie Boyles served as the station's sole reporter and editor. By that time, the five-minute newscast aired at 9:55 p.m. and 7:25 a.m., the following day, on KXGN's CBS subchannel and 4:55 p.m. on KXGN's NBC subchannel. The local newscast was cancelled in 2015; since then, the only local production on KXGN has been Let's Talk About It, a half-hour public affairs program that airs on Sundays on both of KXGN's subchannels. It also airs on KXGN and KDZN radio as well as Marks-owned KGCX in Sidney. ## Technical information ### Subchannels The station's digital signal is multiplexed: ### Translators Like many other Montana stations, KXGN relies heavily on a mix of broadcast translators and cable TV systems to extend its reach to more viewers, many of them outside of the defined Glendive market, from Ekalaka in the south to Scobey and Plentywood in the north. - Baker: K27LT-D - Circle: K16GP-D - Culbertson: K34GY-D - Ekalaka: K13LN-D - Plentywood: K28OB-D - Plevna: K03HD-D - Poplar: K05KK-D, K17MS-D - Scobey: K13MA-D - Sidney–Fairview: K13IG-D
74,043,816	2023 CONCACAF Nations League final	1,172,954,467	Soccer match between international teams	[ "2022–23 CONCACAF Nations League", "2022–23 in CONCACAF football", "2023 in American soccer", "Canada men's national soccer team matches", "June 2023 sports events in the United States", "United States men's national soccer team matches" ]	The 2023 CONCACAF Nations League final was a soccer match between Canada and the United States to determine the winner of the 2023–23 CONCACAF Nations League's top division, League A. The match was the second final match of the CONCACAF Nations League, an international tournament contested by the men's national teams of CONCACAF, covering North America, Central America, and the Caribbean. It was played on June 18, 2023, at Allegiant Stadium in Paradise, Nevada, United States, in the Las Vegas area, which had hosted the finals tournament. The United States won the final 2–0 to secure a second consecutive CONCACAF Nations League title, with goals from Chris Richards and Folarin Balogun in the first half. U.S. midfielder Giovanni Reyna was named man of the match for his two assists. Canada finished as runners-up in their first Nations League final, which was also their first CONCACAF tournament final since the 2000 Gold Cup. ## Venue The 2023 final was played at Allegiant Stadium, an indoor stadium in the Las Vegas-area community of Paradise, Nevada in the United States. The 65,000-seat stadium, primarily home to the Las Vegas Raiders of the National Football League, had a retractable grass surface and was designed to accommodate soccer. The entire Nations League Finals tournament was hosted at Allegiant Stadium with two sets of doubleheaders for both rounds. It was the second CONCACAF tournament final at the stadium, following the 2021 Gold Cup final. The entire 2023 Nations League Finals was played at Allegiant Stadium. ## Route to final Note: In all results below, the score of the finalist is given first (H: home; A: away; N: neutral). ### Canada In the inaugural edition of the Nations League, Canada had been unseeded and qualified for League A after playing through a qualification tournament. They finished second in their League A group behind the United States, tying on points but losing on goal differential. Canada also qualified for the 2021 Gold Cup, where they again finished second to the United States in the group stage but advanced; in the tournament's semi-finals, they lost to Mexico in stoppage time. For the 2022–23 Nations League, Canada remained in League A and were drawn into Group C alongside Honduras and Curaçao. The team's players were involved in a pay dispute with the Canada Soccer Association and refused to play in a pre-Nations League friendly, but confirmed they would play in the tournament to prevent sanctions. During the June window, they defeated Curaçao 4–0 at home in Vancouver with two goals from Alphonso Davies and lost 2–1 on the road to Honduras. Following their appearance in the 2022 FIFA World Cup, Canada returned to Nations League play in March 2023 with a 2–0 defeat of Curaçao in Willemstad; Jonathan David and Cyle Larin both scored in the first half against the home side, who had a player sent off with a second yellow card. They were tied with Honduras on points and ahead on goal difference; the two teams would play eachother in the final matchday. Canada secured their first semifinal berth with a 4–1 victory in Toronto as Larin scored twice and extended his lead as the country's top international goalscorer. Canada qualified for their first Nations League final with a 2–0 win against Panama in the semifinals. They took the lead in the 25th minute with David's shot through goalkeeper Orlando Mosquera's legs; Davies, who had been recovering from an earlier thigh injury, scored the team's second goal in the 69th minute shortly after entering the match as substitute. The Nations League final was their first CONCACAF tournament final since the 2000 Gold Cup, which they won. ### United States The United States were the defending champions of the Nations League and Gold Cup, having won both tournaments in 2021 against long-time rivals Mexico. They were drawn into Group D of League A alongside El Salvador and Grenada, both of whom had been promoted from League B. The United States had secured a World Cup berth—their first since 2014—and 19 players from the qualifiers were called up during the June window for the Nations League and two friendlies. Several key players, including goalkeeper Matt Turner, midfielder Weston McKennie, defender Sergiño Dest, and forward Gio Reyna, were excluded from the roster while they recovered from injuries; among their replacements were Major League Soccer (MLS) players and newcomer dual-nationals from European leagues. The Americans opened their defense of the Nations League title with a 5–0 victory over Grenada in Austin, Texas, with four goals from Jesús Ferreira and one from Paul Arriola—both FC Dallas players. Their second match, on a muddy pitch at Estadio Cuscatlán in San Salvador, ended as a 1–1 draw with El Salvador following a stoppage time header from Jordan Morris. Both teams had a player sent off earlier with red cards. Head coach Gregg Berhalter was replaced by interim manager Anthony Hudson as the United States returned to Nations League play after the World Cup. Their 7–1 win in Grenada included two goals from Christian Pulisic, two from McKennie, and one from debutant Alejandro Zendejas. The team finished their group stage play by defeating El Salvador 1–0 in Orlando to top Group D with 10 points; Ricardo Pepi scored the lone goal of the match shortly after entering as a substitute. Hudson was replaced in May 2023 by former Berhalter assistant B. J. Callaghan, who would make his debut as interim head coach in the Nations League Finals' semifinal round against Mexico. Callaghan called up a squad of players from European clubs, choosing to limit their playing time to the Nations League Finals and give them a longer break instead of reusing the same roster for the Gold Cup. The United States earned a 3–0 victory against Mexico in the semifinal, which extended an unbeaten streak against their rivals to six matches. Pulisic scored late in the first half and in the opening minute of the second half before skirmishes broke out between players. Pepi added a third goal that was initially flagged as offside but granted following video review. Four players were shown red cards, including McKennie and Dest, and the match ended prematurely in stoppage time due to homophobic chants. ## Broadcasting The Nations League final was broadcast on television in the United States on Univision and TUDN in Spanish. It was carried in English on Paramount+, an online streaming service, with coverage provided by CBS Sports. The Canadian broadcast was produced by online streaming service OneSoccer and simulcast on Telus Optik TV. ## Match ### Summary The United States entered the final missing several players: McKennie and Dest were suspended, while Miles Robinson was out injured. Callaghan named Joe Scally and Walker Zimmerman to replace Dest and Robinson in the backline, while Brendan Aaronson would replace McKennie in the midfield. It was the youngest-ever lineup for the United States in a tournament final, with an average age of 23 years, 314 days. Canada's starting lineup had two changes from the semifinal against Panama: defender Scott Kennedy replaced Steven Vitória; and midfielder Jonathan Osorio started in place of Tajon Buchanan. Canada began the match with the majority of possession, but were vulnerable to counter-attacks from the United States. The first goal of the final came from a Reyna corner in the 12th minute that was headed in by Chris Richards from close range. Folarin Balogun—who had recently joined the United States team—missed a header from a set-piece in the 28th minute but scored the team's second goal in the 34th minute. A turnover at midfield allowed Reyna to receive the ball and pass it forward into Balogun's run into the box. A few minutes later, Canada had two chances to score that forced a pair of saves from Matt Turner and a clearance from Antonee Robinson. Richards and Balogun both recorded their first international goals, becoming the first U.S. players to score their debut goal in a tournament final. The United States entered half-time with a 2–0 lead. Reyna was replaced by Luca de la Torre at half-time due to injury concerns after being tackled by Alistair Johnston in stoppage time. The United States continued to put pressure on Canada and had two chances to score a third goal: Richards collected a misplayed clearance and his header hit the crossbar in the 55th minute; it was quickly followed by a shot by Balogun off a corner kick that was blocked off the line by Kennedy. John Herdman brought on two defenders, as well as Buchanan, in the 61st minute for Canada to change the team's shape as they continued to have the majority of possession but few chances to score; the team's 10 shots were all from outside the penalty area. Cyle Larin missed two chances to score for Canada in the 67th minute—a low shot that was blocked and a follow-up that went over the crossbar. The United States later moved to a three-man defense to close out the match, which ended in a 2–0 victory. Reyna was named man of the match for his first-half performance. ### Details ## Post-match The United States clinched their second consecutive Nations Leagues title and ninth international trophy; as winners of the competition, they also won a \$1 million cash prize for the tournament. A month after taking over as interim head coach, Callaghan won his first trophy; he remained as head coach until Berhalter's return after the 2023 Gold Cup. With the victory, the United States also extended their home unbeaten streak against Canada to 22 matches, with their most recent loss in 1957 during qualifiers for the 1958 FIFA World Cup. Atiba Hutchinson, Canada's captain, retired from international soccer after the match—his 104th appearance for the national team. Herdman attributed Canada's defeat to their lack of resources, as they only had four days to prepare for the tournament due to the financial issues that the Canada Soccer Association faced.
13,041,817	Potcake dog	1,163,886,380	null	[ "Dog breeds originating in North America", "Mixed-breed dogs" ]	The potcake dog is a mixed-breed dog type found on several Caribbean islands. Its name comes from a traditional local dish of seasoned rice and pigeon peas; overcooked rice that sticks to the bottom of the cooking pot (forming the 'pot cake') is commonly mixed with other leftovers and fed to the dogs. Although appearance varies, potcakes generally have smooth coats, cocked ears, and long faces. ## History Dogs on various Caribbean islands share a common ancestry; many residents of Turks and Caicos were originally from nearby islands and took their dogs with them. Three types may have contributed to development: dogs the Arawak brought with them to the Bahamas; terriers protecting supplies from rodents on ships that arrived in Eleuthera, New Providence, and the Abaco Islands; and dogs from North Carolina that arrived with Loyalists during the American Revolutionary War period. It is also likely that the early Spanish settlers may have introduced their own dogs. As these could have included fighting dogs, the Arawak dogs may have been exterminated. In addition, many breeds were imported in the 20th century which interbred with the local dogs, making the mix of breeds in the potcake dynamic. DNA studies have shown no residue of early dog DNA in today's potcakes. Any such remaining DNA has become inconsequential due to the constant imports of dogs with the arrival of colonizers. The type's name is derived from the term "potcake", which refers to the congealed rice mixture at the bottom of the family cooking pot that Bahamians have traditionally fed dogs In Nassau alone, there are an estimated 5,000 to 8,000 stray potcakes. In the late 1970s, The Bahamas named the type the "Royal Bahamian Potcake". As of February 2011, the Bahamas Kennel Club lists it separately from the mixed-breed dog within Group 9 – Non-Registered. ## Description ### Appearance Although described as having a "shepherd-mix" look, the potcake dog's appearance varies by island. It may resemble a typical pariah dog or have hound, mastiff, spaniel, terrier, or retriever characteristics. The type typically has pointed and cocked ears, a long face, and a smooth coat without undercoat, or less commonly, a "shaggy" or rough coat. As a result of their mixed heritage, potcakes vary widely in terms of color, with many being brown, white, black, and far more with mixed coats. On average, a potcake dog will stand approximately 24 inches (61 cm) at the withers. Healthy dogs typically weigh from 45 to 50 pounds (20 to 23 kg), while strays may weigh only 25 pounds (11 kg). ### Behavior According to Jane Parker-Rauw, potcake dogs are intelligent, loyal, calm, and resilient. Unlike many dog breeds, potcakes are able to eat many foods that would be upsetting to most dogs. Their stomachs are incredibly hardy. However, they tend to wander if not properly confined or supervised. ## Overpopulation and rescue efforts The number of stray potcake dogs on the Turks and Caicos Islands has apparently increased, despite spay-and-neuter programmes designed to minimise their numbers. Because the territory is dependent on tourism, officials consider the dogs nuisances, and police have shot and poisoned them. Strays have a median age of three years. In the Bahamas, misconceptions about spaying and neutering dissuade residents from altering their pets. According to The Bahamas Advocates for Animal Rights group, there are 11,000 unowned dogs in New Providence. Forty-five percent of tourists report seeing roaming dogs, though two percent state they were "scared" by their presence. Local organizations adopt out stray potcake dogs to alleviate the overpopulation problem. In 2005, Turks and Caicos-based rescue organization Potcake Place became a registered charity. They run a puppy socialization program in which tourists take available potcakes on walks. Puppies are vaccinated and sent on airlifts to adopters worldwide. Additionally, several no-kill US shelters and nonprofit animal rescues accept potcake puppies. The Humane Society of Grand Bahama, located in Freeport, ships them to Florida on ferries. The canine charity OutPaws airlifted 1,001 potcakes from the Caribbean to Denver, Colorado, in 2013, and placed them all for adoption to Colorado families. The 1001st potcake wandered into camp shortly before the take-off of the plane, and was included in the group. Additional rescue programs exist in Puerto Rico and Saint Croix. ## Notable dogs A potcake dog named Amigo is the mascot of the Humane Society of Grand Bahama and the BEKIND Campaign, a collaboration with the HSUS to bring greater attention to animal welfare issues. He was also an Ambassador of Hope for homeless animals until his death due to cancer in 2007. Amigo has appeared on MSNBC, Fox News, and CNN, and received the Ambassador of Goodwill and Hollywood Life Breakthrough of the Year 2007 awards. In 2009, he was one of four potcake dogs honoured in a series of commemorative stamps.
25,174,998	Jiloca (river)	1,144,419,438	River in Aragón, Spain	[ "Ebro basin", "Province of Teruel", "Province of Zaragoza", "Rivers of Aragon", "Rivers of Spain" ]	The Jiloca () is a river in Aragón, Spain, a tributary of the river Jalón, and part of the watershed of the Ebro basin. The course of the river runs through the provinces of Teruel and Zaragoza. It has a length of 126 kilometres (78 mi) and an average flow rate of 2.1 cubic metres per second (74 cu ft/s), although this varies between the seasons. The river flows in a generally north easterly direction from its source near Monreal del Campo. The valley was an historic route between the Meseta Central and the Mediterranean coast. Roman bridges remain in many pueblos and remains of watermills can be seen. The water is generally of good quality and supports a range of wildlife. Cleaning works by the regional government have been criticised by environmental organisations who claim that the ecology has been damaged. The watershed covers an area of 2,957 square kilometres (1,142 sq mi). ## Course The source is disputed, tradition holds that it rises at an artesian well, the Fuente de Cella, at the base of the Sierra Albarracín in Teruel province. The well is surrounded by an elliptical parapet wall built by the Italian engineer Domingo Ferrari. It is now thought that the stretch of river between Cella and Monreal del Campo is the remains of an 18th-century canal which was cut to drain the Laguna Cañizar at Villarquemado. It is currently accepted that the Jiloca raises at the Ojos (Eyes) of Monreal, 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) from the town. These are a series of ponds linked by channels. From Monreal the river flows northwards and near Luco de Jiloca (Calamocha), the Jiloca is joined by its only tributary, the Pancrudo, which rises 46 kilometres (29 mi) away in the Sierra de la Costera. From this point there is an irrigation channel which waters a small valley near Daroca. The river flows on from Daroca in a north easterly direction, past Manchones, Morero, Montón, Morata de Jiloca, Maruenda and Paracuellos de Jiloca until it joins the Jalón between Carramolina and Calatayud. Towns named after the river are Morata de Jiloca, Paracuellos de Jiloca, Fuentes de Jiloca, Torremocha de Jiloca, Velilla de Jiloca and Villanueva de Jiloca. ### Hydrographics The Jiloca has an average flow rate of 2.1 cubic metres per second (74 cu ft/s), although there are seasonal variations, due to a long dry season and wet seasons in the spring and autumn in the Meseta Central. Annual rainfall in the watershed varies from around 400 millimetres (16 in) to 950 millimetres (37 in), with peak precipitation in May and June. The watershed covers an area of 2,957 square kilometres (1,142 sq mi). ## Natural history The Ojos de Monreal are a series of artesian wells which form pools connected by small channels. This area is rich in wildlife, including waterfowl, grebes, wrens, kingfishers, owls, orioles and woodpeckers. There are frequently visiting wildfowl from the Laguna de Gallocanta, some 23 kilometres (14 mi) away. Thickets of poplar, willow and walnut trees give plenty of shelter. The water is considered in very good condition according to the assessment of the Plan Hidrológico de la Cuenca del Ebro (Hydrological Plan of the Ebro). Further downstream in the valley between Manchones and Morero, birdlife includes goshawks, eagles, orioles, robins, finches, hoopoe and kestrels. Deer and bobcats are found in the Sierra Santa Cruz which borders the river, hedgehogs and shrews are to be found near the banks. Trees include poplars, elm, and ash. In 2000, the Asociación Naturalista de Aragón strongly condemned cleaning works by the regional government, which they said were systematically destroying riparian vegetation, killing fish and upsetting the ecology of the river in the reaches between Daroca and Calatayud. In November 2009, an investigation into soil erosion in the Jiloca basin was announced, with the intention of determining suitable future land use strategies. ## History In the past many water-mills were powered by the river, but now only ruins of these remain. The valley of the Jiloca is an ancient route between the Meseta Central, the Ebro and the coast of the Levante. Many Roman bridges remain in the pueblos of the valley. ## Tributary There is one tributary, the Pancrudo, which rises 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) above the pueblo of Pancrudo, in Teruel province and flows generally north east past Torre los Negros, Navarette del Rio and Lechago before joining the Jiloca at Luca de Jiloca after 46 kilometres (29 mi). ## See also - List of rivers of Spain - Ribera del Jiloca - Jiloca Comarca
12,559,437	Mississippi Highway 53	1,025,853,883	Highway in Mississippi	[ "State highways in Mississippi" ]	Mississippi Highway 53 (MS 53) is a state highway in Mississippi. The highway starts at U.S. Highway 49 (US 49) in Gulfport and travels northwestward to MS 603 in Hancock County. The road then travels north to Poplarville, meeting Interstate 59 (I-59). MS 53 ends at MS 26 and US 11 in southwestern Poplarville. The road that became MS 53 has existed since 1928, and the highway was designated in 1950. The highway was completely paved by 1957, and an interchange was created at I-59 in 1967. ## Route description MS 53 is located in Harrison, Hancock, and Pearl River counties. The highway is legally defined in Mississippi Code § 65-3-3, as part of the state highway system. The section from US 49 to MS 26 is known as the Larkin I. Smith Memorial Highway. The highway starts at its intersection with US 49 and North Swan Road in northern Gulfport. The road travels westward towards the unincorporated area of Lyman after crossing over a KCS Railway railroad. MS 53 travels northwestward through Lizana and rural western Harrison County. At Herman Ladner Road, the highway turns westward and crosses the Wolf River, entering Hancock County. Near Sellers in Hancock County, the road travels northwest to its T-intersection at MS 603. MS 53 turns northward at the intersection, and shifts westward at Dogwood Lane, south of the county line. The highway enters Pearl River County past Road 205. Once inside Pearl River County, the road intersects multiple private driveways through the farmland. At Savannah, MS 53 intersects Savannah Millard Road, which has an interchange at I-59. Past Jesse Wells and Restertown Roads, the highway intersects a road that leads to the Poplarville-Pearl River County Airport. The highway enters Poplarville near the diamond interchange at I-59, and it becomes concurrent with MS 26. MS 53 ends at US 11 after crossing a Norfolk Southern railroad and Jumpoff Creek. ## History The road that became MS 53 existed at least since 1928, as a gravel road from Lyman to Poplarville. A small section of the road near Poplarville was paved in 1939. By 1948, a few miles of the road near Lyman was paved, and MS 53 was designated along the road two years later. Almost all of MS 53 in Harrison County was paved by 1953. A small portion in Pearl River County was also paved during this time. The Pearl River section of the highway was near completely paved by 1956, and all of the highway was completely paved one year later. By 1967, an interchange was created at I-59 and MS 53. ## Major intersections
13,710,913	John Grant (Gunpowder Plot)	1,146,838,183	Member of the failed Gunpowder Plot	[ "1570s births", "1606 deaths", "16th-century English people", "16th-century Roman Catholics", "17th-century English people", "17th-century Roman Catholics", "English Roman Catholics", "English criminals", "Executed English people", "Executed Gunpowder Plotters", "People executed by Stuart England by hanging, drawing and quartering", "People from Stratford-on-Avon District" ]	John Grant (c. 1570 – 30 January 1606) was a member of the failed Gunpowder Plot, a conspiracy to replace the Protestant King James I of England with a Catholic monarch. Grant was born around 1570, and lived at Norbrook in Warwickshire. He married the sister of another plotter, Thomas Wintour. Grant was enlisted by Robert Catesby, a religious zealot who had grown so impatient with James's lack of toleration for Catholics that he planned to kill him, by blowing up the House of Lords with gunpowder. Grant's role in the conspiracy was to provide supplies for a planned Midlands uprising, during which James's daughter, Princess Elizabeth, would be captured. However, on the eve of the planned explosion, Guy Fawkes was discovered guarding the explosives the plotters had positioned in the undercroft beneath the House of Lords, and arrested. As the government searched for Fawkes's accomplices, Grant and the others engaged in a futile mission for support for the uprising. They stole horses from Warwick Castle, and further supplies from Hewell Grange, before stopping at Holbeche House. The plotters laid in front of the fire some of the gunpowder they had collected, to dry out, but a stray spark ignited the powder, and in the resultant conflagration Grant was blinded. Government forces besieged the house, and he was captured and taken to London. At his arraignment in January 1606 Grant pleaded not guilty to high treason, but he was nevertheless sentenced to be hanged, drawn and quartered, and was executed three days later, on 30 January. ## Background Born some time around 1570, John Grant lived at Norbrook, near Snitterfield in Warwickshire. He was married to Thomas Wintour's sister, Dorothy, with a son, Wintour Grant. He is described by author Antonia Fraser as a melancholy individual, but also an intellectual who studied Latin and other languages. He was a resolute character, as the poursuivants who searched his home for Catholic priests were no doubt aware; he was so unwelcoming to them that they eventually shied away from Norbrook. Grant was also involved in the Essex Rebellion against Elizabeth I, as were several of the men with whom he became better acquainted through what became known as the Gunpowder Plot. ## Plot English Catholics hoped that the years of persecution they had suffered during Elizabeth's reign would end when James I came to the throne, as his attitude appeared moderate, even tolerant towards Catholics. In Robert Catesby's view however, James had reneged on his promises, and he quickly lost patience with the new dynasty. He therefore planned to kill James by blowing up the House of Lords with gunpowder, and inciting a popular revolt during which a Catholic monarch would be restored to the throne. Catesby enlisted the help of six fellow Catholics, and by 25 March 1605 he had recruited three others: Robert Wintour, Christopher Wright, and Grant. Grant had received a letter from Catesby inviting him to a meeting that took place in Oxford at the Catherine Wheel inn, where he and Robert Wintour swore an oath after which they were told of the plan. Grant's role in the uprising centred on his house at Norbrook, ideally located in the English Midlands close to Warwick and Stratford, and to Catesby's childhood home at Lapworth (then owned by John Wright). In summer 1605 Grant likely stored weapons and ammunition at Norbrook, but he was also to take charge of the provision of rare war horses from the nearby Warwick Castle. Concern over the plague had delayed Parliament's opening from February, to October 1605, and the government later claimed that by December 1604 the plotters were busily digging a tunnel beneath Parliament. No evidence exists to substantiate this claim, and no trace of a tunnel was ever found, but perhaps because of the change of dates Grant seems not to have been involved in the endeavour, which was stopped when the tenancy to the undercroft beneath the House of Lords became available. By 20 July the explosives were in position, but the opening of Parliament was again prorogued, this time until 5 November 1605. As Catesby added three more to the conspiracy, the last few details were worked out; Fawkes was to light the fuse that would set off the explosion, and then escape to the continent, while the others would incite the Midlands uprising, and capture James's daughter, Princess Elizabeth. Thus, as the plot moved closer to fruition, on Monday 4 November Grant and a friend were to be found in Dunchurch at the Red Lion inn, with the newly recruited Everard Digby and his "hunting party". The group attended a Mass the next morning, before moving on. ## Failure Tipped off by an anonymous letter to William Parker, 4th Baron Monteagle, late on Monday night the authorities had made a search of Parliament. There they had discovered Fawkes guarding the gunpowder the plotters had placed in the undercroft beneath the House of Lords. Catesby and the others, en route to the Midlands, had been alerted to his arrest by those conspirators who had since fled London, and together had ridden to Dunchurch to meet Digby and his party. By Wednesday 6 November the government was busy searching for Fawkes' accomplices, and towards the end of the day Grant's name appeared on the list of suspects drawn up by the Lord Chief Justice. However, confirmation of his status as a fugitive would not arrive until the next day, when provoked by their raid for supplies on Warwick Castle, the government issued a public proclamation naming Percy, Catesby, Rookwood, Thomas Wintour and both Wright brothers as wanted men. On the same proclamation Grant was misidentified as Edward Grant, and Catesby's servant, Thomas Bates, was probably also misnamed as Robert Ashfield. From Warwick they rode to Grant's home at Norbrook, collecting muskets, calivers and ammunition that he had stored there. Then they continued west through Snitterfield toward Alcester, before stopping at Huddington at about 2:00 pm that afternoon. Early the next morning they attended a Mass conducted by Father Nicholas Hart, who also heard their confessions—a sign that in Fraser's opinion demonstrates that none of them thought they had long to live. Riding through pouring rain, the fugitives helped themselves to arms, ammunition and money from the vacant home of Lord Windsor at Hewell Grange. Any hopes they harboured of a larger uprising were dashed by the locals, who on hearing that the party stood for "God and Country", replied that they were for "King James as well as God and Country". The group finally reached Holbeche House, on the border of Staffordshire, at about 10:00 pm. Tired and desperate they spread in front of the fire some of the now-soaked gunpowder taken from Hewell Grange, to dry out. An ember from the fire landed on the powder, and the resultant flames engulfed Catesby, Rookwood, Grant and another man. Grant was blinded by the conflagration, his eyes "burnt out". Some of the plotters disappeared into the night, but Grant stayed with Catesby, Thomas Wintour, Rookwood, the Wright brothers and Percy. With the arrival of the Sheriff of Worcester and his company early on 8 November, the house was besieged. Catesby and Percy were killed, as were both Wright brothers. Wintour and Rookwood were each wounded and were easily captured, as was Grant. ## Trial and execution Grant and the survivors were taken first to Worcester in the custody of the Sheriff, and then to the Tower of London. At their arraignment on 27 January 1606 all except Digby pleaded "Not Guilty", but the outcome was never in doubt; they were all found guilty of high treason, and sentenced to be hanged, drawn and quartered. The first executions were scheduled for Thursday 30 January 1606. Along with Digby and Robert Wintour (Bates was brought separately, from the Gatehouse Prison), Grant was strapped to a wattled hurdle and dragged through the streets of London to St Paul's churchyard, by St.Paul's Cathedral. Digby was the first to ascend the scaffold, and before he was executed gave a short speech. Wintour followed, saying little. Grant was next. At his trial, when asked why a death sentence should not be pronounced against him, he had replied that he was "guilty of a conspiracy intended, but never effected." Similarly, when faced with the executioner's halter he refused to confess—the only one of the condemned to do so. He was led quietly up the ladder and crossed himself, before being hanged and then subjected to the latter part of his sentence. The other four plotters were executed the following day, in Old Palace Yard.
6,688,182	Notodden Airport	1,147,752,109	Airport in Telemark, Norway	[ "1955 establishments in Norway", "Airports established in 1955", "Airports in Vestfold og Telemark", "Notodden", "Water aerodromes in Norway" ]	Notodden Airport (Norwegian: Notodden lufthavn; ) is a municipal regional airport at Heddal in Notodden, a municipality in Vestfold og Telemark county, Norway. The airport is mostly used for general aviation, and has extensive sailplane activity. In 2011, the airport had 5,078 aircraft movements and 3,423 passengers. The airport has a single 1,393-by-40-meter (4,570 by 131 ft) runway with flight information service and instrument landing system. In connection with the airport is a water aerodrome, which uses the lake of Heddalsvatnet for take-off and landing. The airport was opened in 1955, and the following year Braathens SAFE started services to Oslo and Stavanger. Low patronage forced the airline to abandon the route in 1959. In 1968, the runway was extended and the municipality hoped to establish charter services, but these never realized. Partnair started flights to Oslo and Stavanger in 1985, but these were terminated less than a year later, again due to low patronage. In 1998, Air Team started flights to Oslo and Stavanger, which were replaced by Bergen Air Transport services to Bergen from 2000. ## History The first plans for an airport serving Notodden were launched in 1954 by Reidar Hedwig-Dahl, director of the tourist office. In late 1954 or early 1955, he held a meeting with Ludvig G. Braathen, owner of Braathens SAFE, and representatives for his airline. They saw Notodden as a possible gateway to Telemark and Braathen promised to start flying to an airport serving Notodden, should one be built. At the time, Braathen had started flying to several smaller airports in Norway using a fleet of de Havilland Heron aircraft. Braathen had been traveling around Norway and encouraging municipalities to build regional airports, stating that he wanted more but smaller airports than the central authorities were planning. He succeeded at having similar airports built in Hamar and Røros. The issue was first discussed politically on 23 April 1955. The municipalities of Heddal and Notodden reached an agreement concerning financing and ownership the airport, whereby Notodden would own seven elevenths and Heddal four elevenths of the airport. Construction of the airport cost 200,000 Norwegian krone (NOK), which included a 1,000-by-40-meter (3,280 by 130 ft) runway. This was sufficient for the Herons, but the plans included the possibility to extend the runway by another 240 meters (790 ft) to allow landing by larger aircraft, such as the Douglas DC-3. Construction took seven and a half months, and the airport opened on 11 November 1955 (1955-11-11). The operating costs were estimated at NOK 17,850 for the first year. This excluded air traffic control, which was covered by the state. Braathens SAFE started test flights on 14 March 1956, with the service taking 20 minutes from Oslo Airport, Fornebu. The scheduled service was inaugurated on 21 May as a stop on Braathens SAFE's route between Oslo and Stavanger Airport, Sola. Passengers could travel twice each day to both airports, with tickets costing NOK 30. The service was seasonal and only flown during the summer half of the year. Notodden Airport proved to have too few passengers, resulting in the route being terminated after the end of the 1958 season. The last season, the service was operated by Thor Solberg on contract with Braathens SAFE. From 1959, Solberg started with a two-month service with six weekly round trips to Fornebu, after securing a NOK 5,000 guarantee from the municipality to cover any losses. The route was abandoned after the single season. General aviation activities at the airport gradually increased. In the early 1960s, sailplanes became popular at the airport. The aerodrome is located with good wind and air pressure conditions for sailplane flying, and Oslo Flyklubb stationed two of its sailplanes at Tuven. Ronald Stensrud established a pilot school in 1966, but was forced to close after failing to make ends meet. In 1967, Notodden Municipality granted NOK 900,000 and Telemark County Municipality granted NOK 600,000 for the runway to be extended to 1,400 meters (4,600 ft). The new section of runway was laid down to Heddalsvatnet. At the same time, the gravel runway was asphalted. This was sufficient to allow Fokker F-27 Friendship and Convair CV-440 Metropolitan to operate. The plan was to serve international charter flights during winter, which would bring tourists to neighboring mountain resorts. During a time when there was a heated political debate over state grants to airport, Notodden was the only airport which had expanded without any central grants. The airport never succeeded at attracting any regular charter services. The opening was planned for 18 October 1968, but was delayed to the following year after the airport was flooded a week before the scheduled date. The construction work resulted in a legal dispute between the municipality and the consulting company Norsk Teknisk Byggekontroll. The initial filling of earthwork had proved insufficient, so additional earthwork had to be filled, costing an additional NOK 840,000. The municipality demanded that the consulting company cover NOK 250,000 of the extra cost. In 1979, Det Norske Helikoperskole started Norway's first helicopter pilot school at the airport. This was met with protests from the neighbors, who were affected by noise pollution all day long. The municipality was sued by 600 locals who wanted to prohibit the school from operating. During an air show in 1983, the airport was visited by a Boeing 737-200 from Braathens SAFE and General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon from the Royal Norwegian Air Force. In March 1985, Partnair was granted concession for scheduled services from Fornebu via Notodden to Stavanger. The route was started on 15 August using a ten-seat Beechcraft 200 Super King Air and flew twice a day, five days a week. This route was made possible after an instrument landing system was installed at the airport. The NOK 2 million cost had been paid for by Norsk Hydro, while Tinfos had paid NOK 100,000 for new landing lights. The upgrades also included a new terminal, which included a café in the second story and seating for 14 people. Ticket sales and check-in was managed by NSB Reisebyrå, a subsidiary of the Norwegian State Railways. After five months, Partnair had lost NOK 1.2 million on the route. In average, they were selling three to four tickets per flight to Stavanger, and one to Oslo. From March 1986, the leg from Notodden to Oslo was dropped and the service to Stavanger reduced. However, the route proved unprofitable and was eventually terminated later the same month. As part of the Oslo Airport location controversy, after the new airport was decided located to Gardermoen, there was a public discussion as to what to do with the general aviation which had operated from Fornebu. While some local aircraft owners wanted to keep a small part of Fornebu for general aviation, the authorities decided to close the airport completely. Instead, the general aviation was distributed to various private airports in Eastern Norway, including Notodden. In May 1998, Air Team started flights from Notodden to Bergen. Air Team gradually moved all its operations, including its pilot school, to Notodden. After Fornebu was closed in October, the airline experienced a quadrupling of patronage, as Gardermoen had given longer travel time for people in Buskerud and Telemark. In addition to business travel, the airline catered offshore workers commuting to the North Sea via Bergen. The airline stated that it intended to also open routes to Stavanger and Copenhagen. In 1999, the British airport operator TBI announced it was in negotiations to purchase an airport close to Oslo, and Dagens Næringsliv speculated that it could be Notodden. The municipality confirmed that they were in negotiations to establish a limited company to operate the airport, which would be jointly owned by Air Team and the municipality. In 2000, Bergen Air Transport started flying between Notodden and Bergen, using a Cessna 421B. It transported 1,000 passengers in 2000, and 1,500 the following year. During the summer of 2002, the company also attempted to fly from Notodden to Kristiansund Airport, Kvernberget, but was forced to give up due to lack of passengers. In 1995, the airport saw 770 arriving and departing passengers. It increased to 2,467 the following year but fell to 986 in 1998 before increasing to 3,682 in 1999. The patronage has since varied significantly from year to year, but has stayed in the range between 1,500 and 3,500 passengers per year. On 20 November 2003, Notodden Airport was closed for all scheduled traffic by the Norwegian Civil Aviation Authority, due to a not conforming with safety requirements. Bergen Air Transport was forced to reroute all its aircraft to Skien Airport, Geiteryggen. Following an investment of NOK 500,000 from the airline and NOK 1.2 million from the municipality, scheduled services could commence. The municipality had ambitions to upgrade the airport to a higher standard, which would allow it to serve charter aircraft weighing more than 5.7 tonnes (5.6 long tons; 6.3 short tons) and with more than nine passengers. The plans were abandoned after 11 neighboring municipalities rejected giving grants for the necessary technical upgrades. Notodden Municipality instead started a program to increase the popularity of the airport by targeting companies in the neighboring municipality of Kongsberg to encourage use of the airport, instead of going to Oslo Airport, Gardermoen and Sandefjord Airport, Torp. Another NOK 250,000 was invested from 1 October 2004 to keep meet safety requirements. Starting in October 2004, security control was introduced. In September 2007, the Bergen Air Transport bought a new hangar at Notodden, giving it ample space for expansion, and new arrival and departure facilities. Larger airports in the region are Oslo-Gardermoen, 166 km and over 2 hours away by road, and Sandefjord 110 km away. ## Facilities The airport consists of a 1,393 by 40 meters (4,570 by 131 ft) asphalted runway aligned 12–30. County Road 152 crosses the runway, forcing the road to close when the full length runway is in use. It has a flight information service (AFIS) and is located 19 meters (62 ft) above mean sea level. It has category 3 fire fighting and a rescue vessel. The airport is equipped with an instrument landing system. In connection with the airport lies a water aerodrome, which uses Heddalsvatnet for landing and take-off. The area for landing and take-off is 1,000 by 100 meters (3,280 by 330 ft) and has the same center-line as the runway. The airport is operated by the limited company Notodden Lufthavn AS, which is again owned by Notodden Municipality. Tuven is dominated by general aviation, in part organized by Notodden flyklubb and Kongsberg flyklubb. In 2010, the airport had 5,078 aircraft movements and 3,423 passengers, making it the scheduled airport in Norway the fewest passengers. Flyteknisk, a retailer and maintainer of Cessna aircraft, including seaplanes, is based at the airport. ## Airlines and destinations As of 24 June 2022, there are no regular scheduled flights ## Statistics
18,622,977	Strange Overtones	1,156,991,188	David Byrne and Brian Eno single from 2008	[ "2008 singles", "2008 songs", "Brian Eno songs", "David Byrne songs", "Electronic songs", "Gospel songs", "Song recordings produced by Brian Eno", "Song recordings produced by David Byrne", "Songs about music", "Songs written by Brian Eno", "Songs written by David Byrne" ]	"Strange Overtones" is a song recorded by David Byrne and Brian Eno, written by the duo with Leo Abrahams. It was released on August 4, 2008 by means of free download as the lead single from Byrne's and Eno's second collaborative studio album Everything That Happens Will Happen Today (2008). "Strange Overtones" is an uptempo electronic gospel song, and its lyrics explore the themes of humanity overcoming technology that are central to the album. "Strange Overtones" was well received by critics, and was downloaded 40,000 times in its first three days of release. ## Recording and release While discussing the 2006 remix of My Life in the Bush of Ghosts at a dinner party, Eno suggested finishing some songs that he had written but that did not have lyrics. Byrne visited Eno's studio to listen to the demos and the two decided to collaborate to finish writing the songs. They continued working on the tracks in New York City and London, with regular e-mail correspondence to finish the composition. Multi-instrumentalist and previous Eno collaborator Leo Abrahams performed guitar, percussion instruments, and piano in his London home studio and played guitar with Byrne on one occasion. Abrahams would continue working on the tracks in his home studio through May 2008, with all collaborations being carried on via e-mail. "Strange Overtones" is the first single off the album Everything That Happens Will Happen Today. The track was released for free on August 4, 2008, as a DRM-free MP3 available only through the album's website. This is part of the unorthodox Internet-based marketing scheme the two used to promote the album, inspired by the success of Radiohead's 2007 album In Rainbows and the self-promotional strategies of Nine Inch Nails for the albums Year Zero, Ghosts I–IV, and The Slip. In September 2008, Jon Yeo created a music video for the track featuring the paintings of Eno. A live recording of the song also appeared on Everything That Happens Will Happen on This Tour – David Byrne on Tour: Songs of David Byrne and Brian Eno, released on May 11, 2009. The song was also featured on the soundtrack album to Wall Street: Money Never Sleeps, along with several other David Byrne compositions. In 2020, the song was covered by the indie rock group Whitney on their covers album, Candid. ## Composition Eno has also said the album is about "paint[ing] a picture of the human trying to survive in an increasingly digital world;" themes that are explored in this song. "Strange Overtones" has been described as "a song about writing a song"—the subject of the song struggles to write innovative music, but is overheard by a neighbor using beats that are "twenty years old." In terms of the genre of music, both Byrne and Eno have called it "electronic Gospel"—the backing tracks are the kind of electronic music for which Eno is known, paired with hopeful and inspiring lyrics from Byrne— this song in particular features an uptempo backing track. Eno had been thinking about Gospel for several years, but couldn't write lyrics to hopeful songs. Eno considers the album "[S]omething that combines something very human and fallible and personal, with something very electronic and mathematical sometimes." And they tried to "make that picture of the human still trying to survive in an increasingly complicated digital world... It's quite easy to make just digital music and it's quite easy to make just human music, but to try and make a combination is sort of, exciting, I think." Byrne considered his job as lyricist to "bring more humanity" to Eno's instrumentals, which can be "cold and academic." ## Reception The song was downloaded over 40,000 times in its first three days of availability. One of the earliest reviews for "Strange Overtones" was on the August 11, 2008, episode of NPR's All Songs Considered. The Los Angeles Times called the track "intimate" and Stereogum echoed this by labeling it "warm"; it also received a positive review from Rolling Stone. Pitchfork Media gave the song several adulations, including a positive review in their discussion of Everything That Happens Will Happen Today and naming the song number 11 track of 2008—including appearances on eight editors' end of the year lists—and placing number 297 on the Top 500 Tracks of the 2000s. Pitchfork also solicited the opinions of musicians for their favorite albums and songs of the year and The Watson Twins proclaimed "Strange Overtones" one of the best songs of 2008. KCMP's Top 89 of 2009 featured the song on two editor's lists. Mark Wheat of NPR named it one of the top 10 songs of 2009. Ranking 60th for the year, this song was one of several from Everything That Happens Will Happen Today which appeared on The Village Voice'''s Pazz & Jop singles poll for 2008—"Life Is Long" placed 337, "My Big Nurse" was 350, "Everything That Happens" ended up at 748, and "I Feel My Stuff" reached 942. In addition, a vote was cast for "Strange Undertones". ## Personnel - Leo Abrahams – guitars, bass guitar, Dubreq Stylophone, programming, co-production - David Byrne – vocals, rhythm guitar, production, composition - Brian Eno – backing vocals, organ solo, Omnichord piano, keyboards, programming, production, composition - Steve Jones – delay guitar - Mauro Refosco – bongo, conga, tambourine - Seb Rochford – live drums - Robert Wyatt – frame drum solo ## See also - Songs of David Byrne and Brian Eno Tour - Ride, Rise, Roar''
13,216,235	Sybil (cat)	1,170,232,369	Chief Mouser to the Cabinet Office	[ "1999 animal births", "2009 animal deaths", "Chief Mousers to the Cabinet Office", "Individual cats in England" ]	Sybil (c. 1999 – 27 July 2009) was a cat living at 10 and 11 Downing Street who was employed as the chief mouser to the Cabinet Office as the pet of the chancellor of the Exchequer, Alistair Darling, and his wife, Margaret. When introduced in September 2007, Sybil was the first cat employed at Downing Street as chief mouser since Humphrey, who retired in November 1997. Six months after moving, Sybil, who did not adjust well to life in central London, was moved to the home of one of the Darlings' friends; on 27 July 2009, she died there after a short illness. ## Early life and career Sybil was born around 1999, and was named after Sybil Fawlty, a character in the BBC sitcom Fawlty Towers. Several publications described her as being of Scottish origin. She was moved from the chancellor of the Exchequer Alistair Darling's family residence in Edinburgh to 11 Downing Street in the summer of 2007, and employed as chief mouser to the Cabinet Office in September of that year. A spokesman for the prime minister, Gordon Brown, said in a press briefing that he "[understood] Mr and Mrs Darling have a cat and it has recently been brought to Downing Street", and that Brown and his wife, Sarah, "do not have a problem with it". Unlike her predecessor Humphrey, who was given £100 per year after his retirement, Sybil did not receive any money from the Cabinet Office to cover food and veterinary costs, with the Darlings covering those expenses. Sybil was the first cat at Downing Street since Humphrey was removed in November 1997, possibly due to Cherie Blair's reported aversion to cats. Upon her arrival, The Daily Telegraph stated that those who had written to the Treasury concerning Sybil's welfare had received a "souvenir photo" of her in return. On 13 September 2007, two days after her introduction, Margaret Thatcher met Sybil during a visit to 10 Downing Street. In March 2008, Sybil was prohibited from hunting mice in the Treasury due to maintenance regulations restricting the use of animals for pest control. ## Retirement and death Six months after moving to Downing Street, Sybil, who did not adjust well to life in central London, was moved to the home of one of the Darling family's friends in London. On 27 July 2009, she died after a short illness; the chancellor's spokeswoman announced that Sybil had died at the Darlings' friend's home in London, whilst The Independent stated that Margaret had returned Sybil to Scotland, and that she had died there. ## See also - List of individual cats
36,613,262	X-Men: Days of Future Past	1,172,372,199	2014 American superhero film	[ "2010s American films", "2010s British films", "2010s English-language films", "2010s adventure films", "2010s superhero films", "2014 3D films", "2014 controversies", "2014 controversies in the United States", "2014 films", "2014 science fiction action films", "2014 science fiction films", "20th Century Fox films", "Alternate timeline films", "American 3D films", "American alternate history films", "American dystopian films", "American nonlinear narrative films", "American post-apocalyptic films", "American science fiction action films", "American sequel films", "American superhero films", "Apocalyptic films", "Bad Hat Harry Productions films", "British 3D films", "British nonlinear narrative films", "British sequel films", "Cultural depictions of Richard Nixon", "Drone films", "Fiction about mind control", "Film controversies", "Film controversies in the United States", "Films about shapeshifting", "Films about time travel", "Films based on works by Chris Claremont", "Films directed by Bryan Singer", "Films produced by Bryan Singer", "Films produced by Lauren Shuler Donner", "Films produced by Simon Kinberg", "Films scored by John Ottman", "Films set in 1973", "Films set in 2023", "Films set in China", "Films set in Moscow", "Films set in New York City", "Films set in Paris", "Films set in Saigon", "Films set in Westchester County, New York", "Films set in the White House", "Films shot in Montreal", "Films with screenplays by Jane Goldman", "Films with screenplays by Matthew Vaughn", "Films with screenplays by Simon Kinberg", "Human experimentation in fiction", "Live-action films based on Marvel Comics", "Obscenity controversies in film", "Sexual-related controversies in film", "Superhero adventure films", "TSG Entertainment films", "Teen superhero films", "Vietnam War films", "X-Men (film series) films" ]	X-Men: Days of Future Past is a 2014 American superhero film directed & co-produced by Bryan Singer and written by Simon Kinberg from a story he created with Jane Goldman and Matthew Vaughn. The film is based on the Marvel Comics superhero team the X-Men, the fifth mainline installment of the X-Men film series, a sequel to X-Men: The Last Stand (2006) and X-Men: First Class (2011), a follow-up to The Wolverine (2013), and the seventh installment overall. It stars an ensemble cast, including Hugh Jackman, James McAvoy, Michael Fassbender, Jennifer Lawrence, Halle Berry, Anna Paquin, Elliot Page, Peter Dinklage, Ian McKellen, and Patrick Stewart. The story, inspired by the 1981 Uncanny X-Men storyline "Days of Future Past" by Chris Claremont and John Byrne, focuses on two time periods, with Logan traveling back in time to 1973 to change history and prevent an event that results in unspeakable destruction for both humans and mutants. Vaughn had directed X-Men: First Class and was set to return in Days of Future Past before leaving for Kingsman: The Secret Service and the 2015 version of Fantastic Four. Thus Singer, who had directed the first two X-Men films, made his return as a director, and brought along most of the crew from those productions. With a budget of \$205 million, the film's principal photography began in Montreal, Quebec, in April 2013, and concluded in August the same year, with additional filming and pick-ups taking place in November 2013 and February 2014. Twelve companies handled the visual effects. X-Men: Days of Future Past premiered in New York City on May 10, 2014, and was theatrically released on May 23 by 20th Century Fox. The film received praise for its story, visual effects, action sequences, acting, and thematic elements but criticized its depiction of time travel. During its theatrical run, the film earned over \$746 million worldwide, making it the sixth-highest-grossing film of 2014, as well as the third-highest- grossing film in the series behind Deadpool and Deadpool 2. The film received an Academy Award nomination for Best Visual Effects, making it the first X-Men film to be nominated for an Oscar. A sequel, titled X-Men: Apocalypse, was released on May 27, 2016 ## Plot In a dystopian 2023, robot Sentinels hunt down and kill mutants and all humans who either possess the genetic potential to have mutant offspring or try to protect them. In Moscow, they attack a small band of X-Men survivors consisting of Kitty Pryde, Colossus, Blink, Warpath, Bishop, Iceman, and Sunspot. With no way out, the mutants sacrifice themselves to buy Kitty enough time to send Bishop's consciousness a few days into the past to warn the others of the coming attack and ensure their survival. Having averted the attack, the group retreats to a remote Chinese temple and are joined by Storm, Wolverine, Charles Xavier, and Magneto. Xavier explains that the Sentinels were originally conceived by Bolivar Trask, a weapons designer whom Raven Darkhölme assassinated in 1973. In response, government forces captured Raven and experimented on her, using her DNA to create Sentinels capable of adapting to any mutant power. Xavier plans to go back in time to 1973 and prevent Trask's assassination in the hopes of altering the future. However, the plan changes. Upon learning time-traveling would kill Charles, Wolverine volunteers instead as his regenerative abilities would allow him to survive. Awakening in his younger body in 1973, Wolverine goes to the X-Mansion, learning from Hank McCoy that the school has been closed for years due to the Vietnam War and Erik Lehnsherr (Magneto) has been imprisoned for assassinating JFK. A young, broken Xavier turned to alcoholism and frequently uses a serum that allows him to walk but at the cost of his telepathic abilities. Hoping to reunite with Raven, Xavier agrees to help Wolverine. Aided by the newly recruited Quicksilver, the trio breaks Lehnsherr out of The Pentagon. Raven discovers Trask has been experimenting on mutants and plots to assassinate him at the Paris Peace Accords, but Xavier, McCoy, and Logan foil her attempt. Lehnsherr attempts to kill Raven, believing this would change the future. McCoy fights him, allowing Raven to escape but publicly exposing the three as mutants. Trask takes advantage of this and convinces President Nixon to authorize the Sentinel program. Lehnsherr retrieves his helmet and secretly takes control of Trask's Sentinel prototypes by infusing them with steel. Returning to the X-Mansion, Xavier abandons the serum and by reading Logan's mind, is able to communicate with his future self, who inspires him to protect the relationship between mutants and humans. After Xavier uses his mutant-tracking computer Cerebro to find Mystique, he, McCoy, and Logan travel to Washington, D.C. to stop Raven from assassinating Trask. At a ceremony where Nixon unveils the Sentinels, the three search for Raven. Lehnsherr appears, activates the Sentinels, and barricades the White House with the RFK Stadium. During the battle, Lehnsherr impales Logan with rebar and throws him into the Potomac River. Nixon, Trask, and a disguised Raven retreat to the White House Bunker. However, Lehnsherr rips the bunker out of the building with the intention of killing everyone inside. In 2023, the X-Men make their last stand as an onslaught of Sentinels attack the temple. Many mutants perish while trying to buy more time. In 1973, Raven reveals herself and subdues Lehnsherr with a plastic gun, saving Nixon and his cabinet. She attempts to kill Trask but Xavier telepathically convinces her to spare him, leading the public to believe that a mutant saved the president. As a result, the Sentinel program is decommissioned, altering the timeline and erasing the dark future of 2023 from history. The mutants in the past depart separately; Trask is later arrested for selling military secrets to foreign governments. Wolverine awakens in 2023 at the X-Mansion to find that Xavier's school is thriving and the X-Men are all alive, including Jean Grey and Scott Summers. Logan asks Xavier for information about modern history from 1973 to the present. Upon realizing that the Wolverine from the original timeline has returned, Charles assents. Back in 1973, the younger Logan is rescued by Raven, having disguised herself as Major William Stryker. In a post-credits scene set in ancient Egypt, a crowd chants to En Sabah Nur, who telekinetically elevates building blocks to build pyramids as his Four Horsemen observe from afar. ## Cast - Hugh Jackman as Logan / Wolverine: A mutant with accelerated healing, heightened animal-like senses, and—in 1973—retractable bone claws; in the future, his skeleton and claws are laced with adamantium in his body, making him virtually invulnerable. His healing factor also slows his aging, allowing him to live above the lifespan of an ordinary human. Jackman noted how Wolverine driving the plot in spite of his gruff personality made for interesting story choices, as "if you want someone to go back to take someone's head off, fantastic, but he's really got to go back and almost act in parts as inspiration, as mentor, as guide, because he can't do it all on his own, which is always his preferred method". - James McAvoy and Patrick Stewart as Charles Xavier / Professor X: A mutant pacifist and the world's most powerful telepath. He is also the founder of Xavier's School for Gifted Youngsters, and the leader of the X-Men. Singer described the younger Xavier as "a very different beast from First Class's feckless playboy. He's a wounded animal, bearded, long-haired, filled with rage at the way the world has treated him". Kinberg said the film was intended to be the story of the younger Xavier beginning to "become the Professor Xavier we know" as Wolverine mentored him. - Michael Fassbender and Ian McKellen as Erik Lehnsherr / Magneto: A powerful mutant who can manipulate magnetic fields. While he dissents with Xavier due to a wish to prove mutant-kind's superiority, they revert to being allies as adult Erik helps the X-Men battle against Sentinels in the future. - Jennifer Lawrence as Raven / Mystique: A mutant with the shapeshifting ability, and also Xavier's childhood friend and adopted sister. Singer said Mystique "is less innocent, evolved, getting closer to where Mystique was in X-Men 2". Lawrence had suffered skin irritations from the full body make-up used in First Class, and the process was changed so from the neck down it would be a bodysuit, whose zipper was digitally removed in post-production. As a result, the make-up process was reduced from eight hours to three. The make-up team at Legacy Effects sculpted Mystique's scales digitally, making them shorter in size and placed in a way that they would accentuate Lawrence's face. - Halle Berry as Ororo Munroe / Storm: A mutant who can manipulate weather and one of the most battle-tested and powerful X-Men. Asked if her pregnancy affected her role, Berry replied, "I wasn't in as much as I was meant to be. My ever-growing belly was posing a constant challenge! What I could do was getting more limited so the role that I play is so different from what it could have been, due to my surprise pregnancy". According to Kinberg, Berry had another scene in the film that was cut because of Berry's limited schedule. - Nicholas Hoult as Hank McCoy / Beast: A mutant with leonine attributes, super-strength, agility, reflexes and enhanced speed. Hoult plays the character in scenes set in 1973 while Kelsey Grammer makes an uncredited cameo appearance as Beast in the future setting. The cameo was added because the writers felt Hoult's Beast was "such a sweet, young character" that audiences would want to learn he survived. Once Grammer learned of this opportunity to return as Beast, a character he had enjoyed playing in The Last Stand, he called Singer asking to get involved, and was flown from New York in secret to avoid drawing attention. - Anna Paquin as Rogue: A mutant who could absorb the life force and mutant abilities of anyone she touches until taking a cure in The Last Stand. Kinberg wrote a shorter part for Paquin than initially planned because she did not have much time to be on-set. During post-production, Paquin's role was reduced to a cameo after most of her scenes were cut; these scenes were later restored on an alternate version of the film, which was released to home media. According to Kinberg, Rogue was to be rescued by the future Magneto and Xavier to provide the elder characters a mission, "something like Unforgiven". Eventually the producers felt it was a subplot that did "not service the main story", and reshot scenes to replace them. However, she was still featured in the film's various promotional materials. Paquin later stated that she still had fun making the film and did not mind that the majority of her scenes had been cut from it. - Elliot Page as Kitty Pryde / Shadowcat: A mutant who can pass through solid objects. As the youngest member of the X-Men, she plays an important role in their fight for survival. Singer described Pryde as the prime facilitator and that Pryde's phasing ability enables time-travel to happen. Kinberg, when asked why Pryde is not the time-traveler in the film adaptation of the comic-book story, said, "[If] we tried to follow the original and use Kitty, we had a problem because [Elliot] is 25 years old and [they'd] be -20 in the First Class era". - Peter Dinklage as Dr. Bolivar Trask: A military scientist and the head of Trask Industries who creates a range of robots called Sentinels, designed to find and destroy mutants. Dinklage said Trask "sees what he's doing as a good thing—[his ambition is] definitely blind and he's quite arrogant. He has striven all his life for a certain respect and attention". He also said Trask is opposed by Richard Nixon. Singer said he is a fan of Dinklage and of the television series Game of Thrones in which Dinklage stars as Tyrion Lannister, which inspired him to cast Dinklage. - Shawn Ashmore as Bobby Drake / Iceman: A mutant who can create and manipulate ice. Ashmore said about his role, "In the first X-Men I had to make a rose for Rogue but that was the extent of the character, so it's cool to see over these four movies going from that to X2—where you sort of see him do an ice wall—and in X3 he finally gets to battle, and in Days of Future Past we're soldiers". - Omar Sy as Bishop: A mutant who can absorb energy and redirect it in kinetic blasts. Singer said Bishop, along with Warpath, Sunspot and Blink, are not fresh recruits. He said, "they're more refugees that are living day to day in this hideously ruined world. They don't have much hope in the future. They're on the run and they join forces with the remaining X-Men to try to do this one last attempt at fixing the world". - Evan Peters as Peter Maximoff / Quicksilver: A mutant who can move, speak and think at supersonic speeds. Peters described Quicksilver as "very fast, he talks quick, he moves quick. Everything else is very slow compared to him, it's like he's always at the ATM waiting for the bastard in front of him to finish". - Josh Helman as Maj. William Stryker: A military officer who hates mutants. Helman was originally chosen to play a younger version of Juggernaut before that character was removed from the script. Brian Cox, who portrayed adult Stryker in X2, appears in archive footage. - Daniel Cudmore as Peter Rasputin / Colossus: A mutant who can transform his body into organic steel, which grants him superhuman strength, stamina, and durability while in that form. Cudmore was asked whether he trained for his role, he replied, "I didn't have a ton of time to get film ready for this. A trainer friend of mine from Vancouver put together a quick little workout program for me. Since the role was for Colossus, I was aiming to bulk up a bit and get stronger. I ended up eating a lot more. Because of how much I was eating, I had to eat every 2-3 hours to keep my calories up". - Fan Bingbing as Blink: A mutant who has the ability to create portals to teleport. Fan said the film was the first of a five X-Men movie contract she signed with 20th Century Fox. - Adan Canto as Sunspot: A mutant with an ability to project solar energy and create flames who also possesses solar-powered strength and flight. To prepare for the role, Canto researched Sunspot because when he was cast, he did not know the level of involvement his character has in the film. - Booboo Stewart as Warpath: A bowie knives wielding mutant and expert tracker with super agility, reflexes, stamina, acute senses and enhanced strength. In preparation for the role, Stewart gained 50 pounds and grew his hair much longer than its usual length. Additionally, Famke Janssen and James Marsden reprise their roles as Jean Grey and Scott Summers, respectively, in cameo appearances. Lucas Till reprises his role as Havok. Evan Jonigkeit portrays Toad. Gregg Lowe portrays Ink. X-Men comic book writers Len Wein and Chris Claremont appear as United States congressmen. Michael Lerner plays Senator Brickman. Mark Camacho portrays U.S. President Richard Nixon. Zehra Leverman portrays Quicksilver's mother Ms. Maximoff. Singer cameos as a man with a small film camera as Magneto walks away after Mystique's escape in Paris. In a post-credits scene, Brendan Pedder portrays the ancient mutant, En Sabah Nur. ## Production ### Development Producer Lauren Shuler Donner stated in August 2006 that a continuation of the X-Men main film series would require a renegotiation. New cast members of X-Men: The Last Stand were signed, while the older cast members were not. Donner said, "There is forty years worth of stories. I've always wanted to do Days of Future Past and there are just really a lot of stories yet to be told". She later pitched the idea of a fourth installment of the X-Men franchise to director Bryan Singer, following the completion of the 2011 prequel X-Men: First Class. In March 2011, Donner said the film was in "active development at Fox"; she said, "We took the treatment to Fox and they love it ... And X4 leads into X5". 20th Century Fox saw X-Men: First Class as the first film of a new X-Men trilogy. Donner compared the franchise plans to the darker, more mature content of the Harry Potter film series. Early reports said Matthew Vaughn and Singer were returning to direct and produce the sequel, respectively. While still attached to the project as a director, Vaughn said, "First Class is similar to Batman Begins, where you have the fun of introducing the characters and getting to know them, but that takes time. But with the second one, you can just get on with it and have a rollicking good time. That's the main difference between Batman Begins and The Dark Knight". Describing the possible beginning of the film, Vaughn said, "I thought it would be fun to open with the Kennedy assassination, and we reveal that the magic bullet was controlled by Magneto". Singer said the film could be set around the civil rights movement or the Vietnam War, and that Wolverine could once again be featured. Singer also talked about "changing history" in an interview with Empire magazine. He said he does not want people to panic about events in the past "erasing" the storylines of the previous X-Men films, as he believes in multiverses, explaining the possibility of certain events can exist equally in the histories of alternate universes. ### Writing Kinberg said the main focus of this film was the future of the X-Men film series. With the use of cast members from the original trilogy and from First Class, they needed to decide the sequels' destination. In preparation for the film, Kinberg studied films about time travel, including Back to the Future, The Terminator, and Terminator 2: Judgment Day. Singer originated a philosophy and a set of rules for the time travel in the film so the story would be as plausible as possible. "Days of Future Past" is a storyline in the Marvel Comics comic book The Uncanny X-Men issues \#141–142, published in 1981. It deals with a dystopian future in which mutants are incarcerated in internment camps. An adult Kate Pryde transfers her mind into her younger self, the present-day Kitty Pryde, who brings the X-Men to prevent a fatal moment in history that triggers anti-mutant hysteria. This storyline was the basis for the film. According to Kinberg, as they were writing the script, they thought it was more sensible for Wolverine to travel between time periods instead of Kitty Pryde, because of his ageless look and ability to heal rapidly. He further stated of making Wolverine the time traveler, "We made the decision for a lot of reasons ... he's the protagonist of the franchise, and probably the most beloved character to a mass audience". Kinberg and Vaughn considered Bishop and Cable candidates for the role of time traveler. Kinberg said Rachel Summers was in the first draft of the script; she sent Wolverine back to 1973. The character was later replaced with Kitty Pryde, to whom Kinberg gave a secondary power of sending people's consciousnesses into the past. Angel Salvadore, Juggernaut, Jubilee, Nightcrawler and Psylocke were also considered for the film. Singer was asked how the film integrates the themes of the earlier X-Men films; he said, "It establishes that some villain characters may have been right with their fears. It confronts the notions of hope and second chances. Its characters that are lost trying to find themselves. In X-Men 1 and 2, the characters had come into their own and knew who they were. In this one, they're all lost and they're trying to keep it together". ### Pre-production In November 2011, Simon Kinberg—co-writer of X-Men: The Last Stand and co-producer of X-Men: First Class—was hired to write the film's screenplay. In May 2012, 20th Century Fox announced the film would be released on July 18, 2014. The release was later moved forward to May 23, 2014. In August 2012, the title for the film was confirmed to be X-Men: Days of Future Past. The film is inspired by Chris Claremont and John Byrne's X-Men comic book storyline, "Days of Future Past", which introduced the idea of an alternate future for mutants that grew from the Brotherhood of Evil Mutants' killing of a senator, leading to a future in which mutants are hunted by Sentinels. In October 2012, Vaughn left the role of director to focus on Mark Millar's Kingsman: The Secret Service (2014). He originally wanted a different First Class sequel helmed by another director with a young Wolverine possibly played by Tom Hardy, before returning to direct Days of Future Past (set in the 1980s) himself. Singer was later announced as the film's director; it was his third directorial role in the X-Men film series. In preparation for the film, Singer approached James Cameron to discuss time travel, string theory and multiverses. In the same month, Richard Stammers was approached to be the visual effects supervisor, as Singer liked his work in the 2012 film Prometheus. Singer brought back most of the crew he had in X-Men and X2. In December 2012, two long-absent designers were hired: production designer John Myhre, who had only done X-Men, and costume designer Louise Mingenbach—who also did X2 and X-Men Origins: Wolverine. In February 2013, John Ottman—who aside from X-Men, collaborated on all of Singer's works since the 1995 film The Usual Suspects—was confirmed to work on the music and the editing of the film. ### Casting Singer used the online social networking service Twitter to announce casting of the film. In November 2012, he announced that James McAvoy, Michael Fassbender, Jennifer Lawrence and Nicholas Hoult would reprise their roles from X-Men: First Class. Later the same month, he announced that Patrick Stewart and Ian McKellen would reprise their respective roles as the older versions of the characters played by McAvoy and Fassbender. In December, Singer announced that Hugh Jackman would reprise his role as Wolverine. In January 2013, Singer announced that Anna Paquin, Shawn Ashmore, and Elliot Page would reprise their roles of Rogue, Iceman, and Kitty Pryde. In February, Singer announced that Peter Dinklage would star in the film as the main antagonist. In March, Singer announced that French actor Omar Sy had joined the cast. Halle Berry said in an interview that she would reprise her role as Storm, which was followed by an announcement from Singer that Berry would be in the film. Singer tweeted a picture of the cast, which confirmed that Daniel Cudmore would return as Colossus and that Fan Bingbing and Booboo Stewart had joined the cast. In April, Singer announced that American singer and songwriter Lady Gaga had joined the cast as Dazzler, but it was later revealed as an April Fools' Day prank. Singer retweeted a photograph of himself, Adan Canto, and confirmed cast members Patrick Stewart, McKellen, and Ashmore, which was followed by a confirmation from Canto that he had joined the cast. In May, Singer announced that Evan Peters had been cast as Quicksilver. In June, Australian actor Josh Helman was cast in a role. In July, Singer tweeted a picture of actor Lucas Till on the set of the film, which confirmed that he was returning as Havok. In January 2014, Evan Jonigkeit had been cast as the younger version of Toad. Stan Lee, co-creator of the X-Men, was scheduled to shoot a cameo appearance in late August 2013 at Montreal, Canada, but ultimately chose to attend the Fan Expo in Toronto instead. ### Filming X-Men: Days of Future Past had a production budget of \$205 million. Principal photography began on April 15, 2013, at Mel's Cité du Cinema in Montreal, Canada, and ended on August 17, 2013. Filming had to begin in April 2013 to accommodate the cast's individual schedules. Olympic Stadium, Montreal City Hall, and McGill University were also used as filming locations. An aerial plate unit was sent to film in Washington, D.C. Additional filming took place in Montreal in November 2013 and February 2014. According to the Calgary Herald, the film is the second most expensive produced by 20th Century Fox after Avatar (2009). Comic book writer Chris Claremont said in an interview that he was consulted for the film. X-Men: Days of Future Past is the first X-Men film to be filmed in native 3D; it was shot using Arri Alexa-M cameras with Leica Prime lenses and Fujinon Zoom lenses, along with 3ality Technica TS-35 camera rigs and Stereo Image Processor (SIP) technology systems. Director of photography Newton Thomas Sigel was asked about using Arri Alexa-M cameras; he said, "For Bryan and myself, the Alexa has been almost the gateway to getting the look we like in film". Sigel added that the Arri Alexa-M camera's small size was a big advantage to the film's main unit, which carried three 3D rigs. The film also used the Alexa XTs for the production's 2D work. Production designer John Myhre said his work load was "six months squeeze[d] down in to 3-4 months", given the sets were massive but he did not have the usual time to design and build before principal photography began. The lue underground hallways and Cerebro sets were faithful recreations of the sets seen in the first X-Men, albeit ransacked and damaged to imply the government had raided the mansion. The sets had many hidden "Xs", including the staircase of the X-Mansion. Myrhe said he wanted to embrace the 1970s setting in the same way First Class embraced its 1960s setting, and costume designer Louise Mingenbach also drew heavily from 1970s styles for the clothing seen in the 1973 scenes. Hoult wore corduroys, Jackman a wooden-paneled buckle and a peacock-print shirt, and McAvoy wore a brown leather jacket. Peters wore 1981-inspired clothing; this was Mingenbach's way of showing Quicksilver's irreverence for the exact time and place. In one scene, Mingenbach gave Fassbender as the younger Erik Lehnsherr a fedora as a nod to the one the character wore in the first X-Men film. For the future period of the film, Mingenbach wanted a darker, slightly futuristic and tactical look for the characters. This included changing the suit Patrick Stewart had previously worn as Xavier to battle fatigues. The Sentinels had two separate versions, to depict how the earlier prototypes built by Trask in the 1970s evolved into the adaptable killing machines of the dystopian future. Singer described the 1973 version as "a little fun and stylish but also a little retro", with a key element being that they are made of plastic to be unaffected by Magneto's powers. Myhre used styles from molded plastics from the 1970s to design Sentinels from that period, and cited inspiration from both the cars of the decade and "those wonderful TV sets that were round with smoked glass panels". The overall style was bulky to fit "the traditional idea of a robot looks like", and drew the most from the comics version, such as the purple color and a humanoid shape, while trying to stand out on its own with its retro design. The robots' ability to fly was compared to a Harrier jump jet, as the Sentinels had vertical takeoff and could glide. Life-sized Sentinels were built by Legacy Effects to be featured on the set, and had articulated joints to be fully poseable. The sound effects averted metallic noises, while adding woof effects on the Sentinels' footsteps to display its weight on the ground. On the other hand, the future Sentinels would resemble "giant versions of Mystique" to show how their technological development was based on studying the shapeshifting mutant's DNA. Thus their design is sleek and feminine, with a body covered in mechanical scales that move during the process of adapting to a mutant's attack, while also featuring angular and dark faces to enhance the intimidation. The future robots would feature what Singer described as "biomechanical technology to transform to adapt to other mutants, to take on their physicality and some of their powers to use against mutantkind", which the director imagined to be fueled by nanotechnology and "the ability to really change things almost at a molecular level". The Sentinels' heads would also open up as an extra weapon, and for straighter combat the robots could create blades and spikes out of their limbs. The crackling sound of the robots' scales was made by rubbing riveted belts on shale rocks. For the future setting of the film, a set featuring a hillside monastery was built. Myhre was inspired by Chinese temples built on the sides of cliffs. The future set also featured a mixture of architectural styles from China, India, and Indonesia. Part of the set was a big wall, which was inspired by the Great Wall of China. ### Visual effects X-Men: Days of Future Past had 1,311 visual effects shots produced by twelve studios. Richard Stammer served as the overall effects supervisor based on his work for Prometheus. The leading company was Moving Picture Company, who created the future Sentinels and worked on the sequences involving the X-Jet and Cerebro's red virtual world. The Sentinels' scaled bodies were created by adapting a tool originally developed to create hair and fur, which would later evolve into creating a proxy representation of each individual scale as a "follicle". Another major contributor was Digital Domain, with effects from the 1973 portion that encompassed nearly a third of the work. These included the Sentinels, Mystique's transformations and eyes, and various digital environments. Digital augmentation turned a remote airstrip into a Vietnam prisoner camp and added Paris' famed mansard rooftops to the Montreal locations. The environment work based on Washington, D.C. required the team to study period references of the National Mall and White House, and photograph almost all of RFK Stadium to create a detailed digital replica. Rising Sun Pictures created a sequence considered by many reviewers the centerpiece of the film's effects, where Quicksilver uses his super speed in the Pentagon kitchen. Depicting how, to a speedster, actions in real time come down to a virtual standstill, objects float around in slow motion. After doing a LIDAR scan of the kitchen set, the digital recreation added many computer generated props—cooking gear, cutlery, vegetables and water released by a fire sprinkler system—rendered in near microscopic detail regarding placement and lighting, particularly because the footage had to work in 3D. To simulate Quicksilver running on the walls, Evan Peters and a stunt double were filmed in both the set being suspended by a harness and on a treadmill that stood in front of a chroma key green screen. Only Peters' legs were digitally replaced. Despite the sequence only having 29 effects shots, it required nearly seven months of work from RSP's team of 70 artists. Rhythm and Hues Studios worked on Beast's transformations, the creation of Xavier's plane, and speed effects for Quicksilver. They also worked with Digital Domain on the sequence featuring the inside of the 1973 Sentinel. Mokko Studio worked on Mystique's eyes and costume fixes. Cinesite worked on the future New York City in the opening prologue along with clean-ups, wire removals, and production fixes. Fuel VFX worked on holographic effects and Havok's mutant powers. Vision Globale worked on visual effects relating to a dream and flashback sequence. Hydraulx, Lola and Method Studios handled a number of compositions and production fixes. The Third Floor worked on extensive story-boarding and visualisation. ## Music Director Bryan Singer's regular collaborator John Ottman worked on the score of the film, in addition to being its editor, thereby becoming the first composer to score more than one film in the X-Men film series, having previously scored X2 (2003). He reused some of themes from X2, including the title theme, which is a first for a X-Men film. He also used modern instrumentation and synth elements for the score, upon Singer's request, as it could be compared to other contemporary superhero scores. The soundtrack was digitally released by Sony Classical Records on May 26, 2014 and followed by a physical release on June 30, 2014. An expanded version of the soundtrack, including music exclusive to The Rogue Cut, was released on July 10, 2015. ## Release The world premiere of X-Men: Days of Future Past occurred at the Jacob K. Javits Convention Center in New York City on May 10, 2014. It was released in international markets in 2D and 3D theaters on May 21, 2014, and in the United States on May 23, 2014. Premiere events were also held in London, Beijing, Moscow, Singapore, São Paulo, Melbourne, and Tokyo. ### Marketing In June 2013, 20th Century Fox presented a set tour video of X-Men: Days of Future Past at the CineEurope conference in Barcelona; director Bryan Singer acted as the tour guide. The set tour video was included with the home video release of the 2013 film The Wolverine. In July 2013, Singer, writer Simon Kinberg, producers Lauren Shuler Donner and Hutch Parker, together with cast members Jennifer Lawrence, Evan Peters, Omar Sy, Elliot Page, Shawn Ashmore, Anna Paquin, Halle Berry, Ian McKellen, Patrick Stewart, Hugh Jackman, James McAvoy, Michael Fassbender, Nicholas Hoult, and Peter Dinklage presented at the 2013 San Diego Comic-Con International. Footage from the film was screened. In August 2013, Singer presented footage from the film at the Fantasia International Film Festival. In March 2014, 20th Century Fox presented footage from the film at CinemaCon. In April 2014, Page presented footage from the film at the 2014 MTV Movie Awards. Kinberg and Dinklage attended WonderCon to discuss the film. Singer withdrew from the publicity rounds for the film because of a lawsuit alleging sexual abuse filed against him. In July 2014, 20th Century Fox and Oculus Rift presented a "virtual reality experience" in 2014 San Diego Comic-Con International. Attendees were given a chance to sit in a replica of Professor X's wheelchair and virtually hunt Mystique in the San Diego Convention Center. In July 2013, a mid-credits scene teasing X-Men: Days of Future Past was attached to the theatrical release of The Wolverine. The scene, set two years after the events of The Wolverine, depicts Wolverine going through an airport security checkpoint while a commercial for Trask Industries plays in the background. Suddenly, Wolverine notices that all the metal objects around him start to shake and levitate. He turns around to see Magneto, who says he needs Wolverine's help to combat a threat to all mutants. When Wolverine asks Magneto why he should trust him, the people around them freeze as Xavier approaches Wolverine and assures him that Magneto is telling the truth. Adam Pockross of Yahoo! Movies described the mid-credits scene as the coolest part of The Wolverine and wrote, "Boom! And that's how you tease the next film: by giving us so much to chew on, yet so few answers". The first official trailer for X-Men: Days of Future Past was released in October 2013. Jason Callina of New Jersey's Herald News gave the trailer a positive response, saying, "it is fantastic to see characters that I grew up with in the flesh ... we still have to wait till the end of May to see if Fox succeeded, but for now they have my interest". Ben Child of The Guardian criticized the trailer for the number of characters that would appear in the film. Child wrote, "overloading the movie with superheroes might please fans of the comic books, but the rest of us will be chewing on our own spleens when the umpteenth brightly coloured dude turns up to spout one line of dialogue, then drop off the map". A mid-credits scene teasing X-Men: Days of Future Past was attached to the theatrical release of The Amazing Spider-Man 2 in April 2014. In the scene, which is set during the Vietnam War, Mystique tries to infiltrate a military camp led by William Stryker to recruit fellow mutants Havok, Ink, and Toad. The Amazing Spider-Man 2 director Marc Webb had an existing contract with Fox Searchlight Pictures to direct another film following 500 Days of Summer (2009). After The Amazing Spider-Man, Webb's negotiations with Sony Pictures Entertainment stalled because of his commitment to Fox. Fox eventually agreed to allow Webb to direct the sequel of The Amazing Spider-Man, and in exchange, Sony promoted the X-Men film without charge. In addition, three viral websites were launched before the release of the film—Trask-Industries.com in July 2013, TheBentBullet.com in November 2013 and 25Moments.com in April 2014. To further promote the film, Jackman made a guest appearance on the April 28, 2014, episode of WWE Raw. The segment received mixed reactions. ### Bryan Singer controversy In April 2014, just one month before the film's release date, director Bryan Singer was accused in a civil lawsuit of sexual assault of a minor. According to the suit filed by attorney Jeff Herman, Singer was alleged to have drugged and raped actor and model Michael Egan in Hawaii after meeting him at parties hosted by convicted sex offender Marc Collins-Rector in the late 1990s. Singer's attorney called the allegations "completely fabricated" and said Singer planned to countersue. Singer denied the allegations in a statement, calling them "outrageous, vicious, and completely false." As a result, Singer withdrew from the publicity rounds for the film because of the sexual abuse lawsuit alleging sexual abuse filed against him. On May 22, 2014, just a day before the film's release date, Singer's attorney presented evidence to Federal District Judge Susan Oki Mollway stating that neither Singer nor Egan were in Hawaii at the time. In early August 2014, Egan sought to withdraw his lawsuit via a Request for Court Order of Dismissal, and asked that it be granted "without prejudice or an award of costs or fees, in the interest of justice." In May 2014, another lawsuit was filed by Herman on behalf of an anonymous British man. Both Singer and producer Gary Goddard (who was also named separately in the first case) were accused of sexually assaulting "John Doe No. 117." According to the lawsuit, Goddard and Singer met the man for sex when he was a minor and engaged in acts of "gender violence" against him while in London for the premiere of Superman Returns. The charge against Singer in this case was dismissed, at the accuser's request, in July 2014. Singer's controversies was later cited in the 2014 documentary film on child sexual abuse in Hollywood, An Open Secret, but details of Egan's allegations were omitted after Egan withdrew his lawsuit during the film's production. Author Bret Easton Ellis alleged that two of his former partners had attended underage sex parties hosted by Singer and fellow director Roland Emmerich. ### Promotional partners In July 2013, CKE Restaurants and 20th Century Fox announced a promotional partnership for the theatrical release of X-Men: Days of Future Past. The promotion included advertising, in-restaurant merchandising, collectors' cups, and a film-themed burger, the Western "X-Tra" Bacon Thickburger, sold at CKE Restaurants outlets Hardee's and Carl's Jr. Zachary Eller, senior vice president of marketing partnerships & promotions at 20th Century Fox, said, "their fun and irreverent advertising campaigns are a great fit with our film and we couldn't be more thrilled to join together to feed mutants everywhere!" Mountain Dew partnered with the film to promote it globally; the promotion included prizes, a television commercial, online exclusives, in-store and in-theater advertisements, and commemorative packaging featuring X-Men characters from future and past. Anna Roca, senior vice president of international promotions at 20th Century Fox, stated, "The adventurous, energetic attitude of [Mountain Dew's] fan base mirrors the franchise's own—and their international reach helps bring our beloved mutants to more corners of the world than ever before". In March 2014, British train operator Virgin Trains West Coast revinyled a Class 390 Pendolino train, featuring the film characters on the carriages. It was launched at London Euston station with Hugh Jackman and James McAvoy attending the launch. Kia Motors collaborated with 20th Century Fox to promote the home media release of the film with a Wolverine-themed Sorento. The SUV made its debut at the 2015 Australian Open, with a series of videos featuring Rafael Nadal teaming up with the X-Men to save the tennis event from the Sentinels. ### Home media In June 2014, cable network FX acquired the television rights to X-Men: Days of Future Past. The film was released by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment on digital download on September 23, 2014, and on DVD, Blu-ray and Blu-ray 3D on October 14, 2014. In the United Kingdom, it was released on November 10, 2014. Three versions were released; a Deluxe Edition containing the Blu-ray 3D, Blu-ray and digital download; a Blu-ray and digital download combo pack; and a single-disc DVD. The Film Was Made Available To Max On June 3, 2023. #### The Rogue Cut 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment released an alternate version of the film, titled The Rogue Cut, on July 14, 2015. It added 17 minutes of previously unused footage, including a subplot involving Anna Paquin's character Rogue, whose role was reduced to a brief cameo in the theatrical release. The Rogue Cut was also screened at the 2015 San Diego Comic-Con International. In the Rogue Cut, Rogue's role is more consequential, and the narrative is more complex: when Kitty Pryde is accidentally wounded after Wolverine's consciousness experiences a phase between past and future from seeing Stryker in 1973, Bobby Drake (Iceman) proposes breaking into the heavily guarded remains of Cerebro at the former X-Mansion, the one place where Xavier's mind cannot reach others from the outside, in order to rescue Rogue, who is being held captive there. Xavier, Magneto, and Iceman succeed in rescuing Rogue, but at the cost of Iceman's life. Rogue uses her power to take over for Kitty in regards to keeping Wolverine's mind in 1973, for the remaining time until the moment history is changed, with a suggestion that Wolverine is aware of the switch as he appears to feel Rogue's presence. The Sentinels are able to find the X-Men through a tracking device inside a Sentinel's hand that was severed from the X-Jet during their escape. In another major scene, Mystique stops at the X-Mansion the night before the Sentinel-unveiling ceremony, revisits her previous romance with Beast, and destroys Cerebro the following morning in order to prevent Xavier from finding her. A new mid-credits scene shows Bolivar Trask imprisoned at Magneto's former prison cell beneath the Pentagon for selling military secrets to foreign countries. ## Reception ### Box office Worldwide, X-Men: Days of Future Past earned \$262.8 million during its opening weekend, the highest worldwide opening weekend for an X-Men film. The film grossed \$233.9 million in the US and Canada, and \$512.1 million in other markets, for a worldwide gross of \$747.9 million, making it the highest-grossing entry in the X-Men film series before being surpassed by Deadpool two years later. Deadline Hollywood calculated the net profit of the film to be \$77.3 million, accounting for production budgets, P&A, talent participations, and other costs, with box office grosses, and ancillary revenues from home media, placing it sixteenth on their list of 2014's "Most Valuable Blockbusters". In the United States and Canada, the film earned \$8.1 million from Thursday night showings, which is the highest late-night opening for an X-Men film. It was also the highest-grossing film during its opening weekend, earning \$90.8 million, which made it the second-highest opening weekend of the series, at the time, behind X-Men: The Last Stand (\$102.7 million). The film also had the third-highest opening weekend for a 20th Century Fox film, after the latter film and Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith (\$108.4 million). During the four-day Memorial Day weekend, it earned \$110.6 million. The audience was 56% male and 59% were older than 25. Elsewhere, the film was the highest-grossing film during its opening weekend, taking \$172 million, making it Fox International's highest opening weekend. The film's highest-grossing debuts were in China, South Korea, the United Kingdom, Ireland, and Malta. It was also the highest-grossing debut for a 20th Century Fox film in 11 markets, including South Korea, Brazil, the Philippines, and India. It became the highest-grossing X-Men film in Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, China, Colombia, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Ecuador, Egypt, Finland, France, Hong Kong, Hungary, India, Israel, Italy, Malaysia, Lebanon, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, the Philippines, Poland, Singapore, Slovakia, South Korea, Sweden, Thailand, the United Kingdom & Ireland, and Venezuela. ### Critical response On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes X-Men: Days of Future Past holds an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average rating of . The website's critical consensus reads, "X-Men: Days of Future Past combines the best elements of the series to produce a satisfyingly fast-paced outing that ranks among the franchise's finest installments." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 75 out of 100, based on 44 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale. Sean O'Connell of CinemaBlend gave the film four and a half stars out of five, and said it was "the greatest, most complete and staggeringly entertaining [X-Men film] to date". Empire gave it four out of five stars and called it, "The best X-Men film since the second one". Steve Rose of The Guardian rated the film three stars out of five; he said, "Non-devotees might struggle, but director Bryan Singer whips up the action towards a symphonic climax". David Rooney of The Hollywood Reporter said, "While it's more dramatically diffuse than the reboot and lacks a definitive villain, the new film is shot through with a stirring reverence for the Marvel Comics characters and their universe". Justin Chang of Variety said, "If the characters' quandaries at times feel overly circumscribed, they're also advanced with a bracing emotional directness, devoid of either cynicism or sentimentalism, that touches genuine chords of feeling over the course of the film's fleet 130-minute [sic] running time". In 2016, James Charisma of Playboy ranked the film \#8 on a list of "15 Sequels That Are Way Better Than The Originals". In contrast, Robbie Collin of The Daily Telegraph rated the film two stars out of five and called the plot "a curate's egg, thoroughly scrambled". He concluded, "The film squanders both of its casts, reeling from one fumbled set-piece to the next. It seems to have been constructed in a stupor, and you watch in a daze of future past". Simon Abrams, writing for RogerEbert.com, gave the film two-and-a-half stars out of four, calling it a "visually driven and paint-by-numbers plot". Abrams was critical of the undeveloped subplots that built up because the film's pacing left little time to develop each element of the story set in the 1970s. Following criticism of X-Men: The Last Stand for killing off major characters such as Professor Charles Xavier, Cyclops, and Jean Grey, X-Men: Days of Future Past has subsequently been viewed by some critics as a revision of those controversial plot elements in X-Men: The Last Stand. ### Accolades ## See also - 2014 in film - List of American films of 2014 - List of British films of 2014 - List of films featuring drones - List of films featuring time loops - List of highest-grossing films
11,610,016	1983 World Championships in Athletics – Women's marathon	1,170,709,992	Long distance running race at the 1983 World Championships in Athletics	[ "1983 in women's athletics", "1983 marathons", "Events at the 1983 World Championships in Athletics", "Marathons at the World Athletics Championships", "Marathons in Finland", "Women's marathons" ]	The women's marathon was one of the road events at the 1983 World Championships in Athletics in Helsinki, Finland. It took place on 7 August 1983, starting and finishing at the Helsinki Olympic Stadium. The race was won by Norway's Grete Waitz in 2:28:09, ahead of Marianne Dickerson of the United States in second and the Soviet Union's Raisa Smekhnova in third. In warm conditions, Rumiko Kaneko of Japan and Ireland's Carey May led in the early stages, before Jacqueline Gareau of Canada took over, trailed by a pack of runners which included two of the favourites, Waitz and Julie Brown. Ireland's Regina Joyce took the lead by the 12-mile (19 km) point and opened a gap of around 30 seconds ahead of the chasing group. After 19 miles (31 km), she was caught by a group led by Waitz, who was increasing the pace of the race. Gradually those running with her dropped back, leaving her to win the race by three minutes. Smekhnova was just ahead of Dickerson when they entered the stadium, but was passed by the American in a sprint finish. ## Background The women's marathon was not an established event at an international level. It had not featured in the Olympic Games and had only become popular during the 1970s. Historically, some experts claimed that running the marathon distance, 26 miles 385 yards (42.195 km), was dangerous for women's health. As it gained prominence through the 1970s, there were calls for it to be added to the Olympics, though there was significant opposition. The governing body for athletics, the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF, now World Athletics) announced that it would be added to the programme for the inaugural World Championships in Athletics in 1983, making it the first global championships to feature a women's marathon. In 1983, an American runner, Joan Benoit, established a new fastest time for the women's marathon, when she ran 2:22:43 at the 1983 Boston Marathon; cutting almost three minutes off the previous fastest time, held jointly by Allison Roe of New Zealand and Norway's Grete Waitz. Of the three, only Waitz was taking part in the World Championships: Benoit did not run in the Avon International Marathon in Los Angeles, which the United States used as a qualifying race, choosing to focus on shorter distances instead. In Benoit's absence, The Observer and The Times described Waitz as the favourite for the race. The American press rated Julie Brown as their best chance of victory in the race; writing in the Hartford Courant, Amby Burfoot said that despite the fact Waitz had beaten Brown in their previous meetings, Brown had "recently brought a new maturity to her road racing". The race started at the Helsinki Olympic Stadium, and moved onto the streets of Helsinki, following an undulating course that Brown suggested would prevent fast times. The course passed Helsinki's docks, looped around the shore road, and past Market Square. After looping through downtown Helsinki, they returned to the stadium along the same route, to finish on the track. ## Summary The race started at 15:05 local time on 7 August 1983, the opening day of the Championships, in clear, dry conditions, with temperatures of around 21 °C (70 °F). Early on, Japan's Rumiko Kaneko and Ireland's Carey May led, passing the 3.1 miles (5 km) mark in 18:14. Canada's Jacqueline Gareau then established a small lead, passing the 6.2-mile (10 km) mark in 36:13, around 20 yards (18 m) ahead of a pack which included: Waitz of Norway; all three United States runners, Marianne Dickerson, Debbie Eide and Brown; Rosa Mota of Portugal; Italy's Laura Fogli and May from Ireland. Two miles (3.2 km) later, Gareau still led, and the pack behind her had grown to include 13 runners. David Miller, a journalist for The Times, criticised her inexperience in pressing ahead too early, but Gareau said it was the only way she could secure a good finishing position. Her lead, which peaked at around 30 seconds, was eroded and she was passed by Ireland's Regina Joyce between 10 and 12 miles (16 and 19 km) into the race. Waitz asked Brown if she thought they should go with her, but Brown said no: "She'll come back to us". Joyce, who had also opened up a lead of 30 seconds at one stage, led the race until the 19-mile (31 km) mark, when a surge from Waitz broke up the chasing group, and she led a smaller pack of five runners at the front. Along with Waitz were two Soviet athletes, Lyutsia Belyayeva and Raisa Smekhnova, Dickerson and Joyce. Running into the wind, they formed a single-file procession behind Waitz. Two miles (3.2 km) later, Waitz was clear at the front; Smekhnova had tried to stay with her for as long as possible, but Waitz continued to extend her lead. Brown was unable to match the leaders' pace from around the 20-mile (32 km) stage due to an Achilles injury and dropped out of the race completely three miles later. Behind, Joyce had dropped out of medal contention when she had to stop for a toilet break, leaving Dickerson to vie with Smekhnova for second place. The American athlete was around 130 yards (120 m) behind Smekhnova with 3.2 miles (5.1 km) of the race remaining, but was closing the gap. Waitz won the race in 2:28:09 and had time to complete a victory lap before Smekhnova narrowly led Dickerson as they entered the stadium. Dickerson had enough energy left for a sprint finish, and passed Smekhnova on the bend of the track, and finished second in 2:31:09, exactly three minutes behind Weitz, and four seconds ahead of Smekhnova, who claimed the bronze medal. Mota finished in fourth, while the early race leader, Gareau, placed fifth. Waitz, who was running her first female-only race, said that the makeup of the race changed her tactics significantly, as there were no men around her to share the pacing responsibilities: "Here, the final time didn't really matter. The idea was to win the Championship." ## Results ## See also - 1982 European Athletics Championships – Women's marathon - Athletics at the 1984 Summer Olympics – Women's marathon - 1986 European Athletics Championships – Women's marathon
52,333,697	Hemp in Kentucky	1,166,811,914	Production and legality of hemp in the US state	[ "Agriculture in Kentucky", "Cannabis in Kentucky", "Hemp agriculture in the United States" ]	Kentucky was the greatest producer of hemp in the United States during the 19th and 20th centuries, when it was the source of three fourths of U.S. hemp fiber. Production started to decline after World War I due to the rise of tobacco as the cash crop in Kentucky and the foreign competition of hemp fibers and finished products. In 1970, federal policies virtually banned the production of industrial hemp during the War on Drugs saying all Cannabis sativa is a Schedule I controlled substance. Federal law under the Agricultural Act of 2014 allowed research back into hemp. Kentucky began production again with 33 acres in 2014. As of the 2016 harvest season, only two U.S. states other than Kentucky had over 100 acres (40 ha) in hemp production: Colorado and Tennessee. The first 500-acre commercial crop was planted in Harrison County in 2017, and research permits were issued for over 12,000 acres (4,900 ha) that year. The 2016 documentary Harvesting Liberty concerns the 21st century Kentucky hemp industry. ## History ### Early cultivation In the 18th century, John Filson wrote in Kentucke and the Adventures of Col. Daniel Boone (an appendix of his 1784 work The Discovery, Settlement and Present State of Kentucke) of the quality of Kentucky's land and climate for hemp production. The first hemp crop in Kentucky was raised near Danville in 1775. Kentucky was the greatest producer of U.S. hemp in the 19th and 20th centuries, with thousands of acres of hemp in production. Senator Henry Clay was a "hemp pioneer" and the "strongest advocate" of Kentucky hemp. He grew it on his Kentucky estate Ashland and brought new seeds to the state from Asia. Clay's oratory on the Senate floor in 1810 in favor of requiring the Navy to use domestic hemp exclusively for ship's rigging was widely reprinted in newspapers and is credited for beginning the elaboration of the American System. According to a 1902 periodical, Kentucky was responsible for three quarters of U.S. hemp fiber production. Shelby County was one of the main producing counties of hemp. Supposedly Hempridge Road received its name from Senator Henry Clay. It is said that local residents presented Clay with a walking stick fashioned from a hemp stalk. Clay was so delighted that he reportedly declared any community producing such a hempstalk should be “known as Hempridge.” Production reached a peak in 1917 at 18,000 acres, mostly grown in the Bluegrass region, then waned due to market forces after World War I as other sources of fiber were introduced. A Federal program to reintroduce hemp for wartime needs in Kentucky and other states during World War II reached 52,000 acres in Kentucky in 1943. The WWII effort is documented in the U.S Department of Agriculture film Hemp for Victory . ### Decline and criminalization Production of hemp had seen a decline after World War I due to market forces including the rise of tobacco as the cash crop of choice in Kentucky and foreign sources of hemp fiber and finished products. The availability of cheap synthetic fiber after World War II even further discouraged farmers from growing it. Federal policies, tightened by the Controlled Substances Act of 1970, virtually banned the production of industrial hemp during the War on Drugs. According to an industry group, "the 1970 Act abolished the taxation approach [of the 1937 Marijuana Tax Act] and effectively made all cannabis cultivation illegal". The Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) refused to issue permits for legal hemp cultivation and held that, since industrial hemp is from the same species plant as prohibited cannabis (despite its being of lower THC yield), both were prohibited under the Controlled Substances Act. In the words of a 2015 PBS NewsHour segment on hemp, "[t]o the federal government, hemp is just as illegal as marijuana", and according to Newsweek, "all cannabis sativa—whether grown to ease chronic pain, get stoned or make rope—is a schedule I controlled substance". During this criminalized period, the Cornbread Mafia began its illegal cultivation of marijuana by cross-breeding imported cannabis seeds with native hemp plants left behind after the "Hemp For Victory" period in World War II. ### Partial re-legalization By the late 20th century, consumer demand for hemp products was resurgent but American farmers were left as bystanders. Imported agricultural products were allowed from other countries, including Canada, but growing hemp legally was not possible in the United States. In 1994, Kentucky was one of the first states to consider reintroducing hemp cultivation, with a commission convened by governor Brereton Jones to investigate legal pathways to do so. In 2013, Kentucky passed a state law, Senate Bill 50, allowing production for agricultural research purposes. Although the Industrial Hemp Farming Act of 2013, which would have allowed hemp production, failed, agricultural hemp was allowed by federal law under the Agricultural Act of 2014 (farm bill). 33 acres in 2014, 922 acres in 2015, 2,350 in 2016, 12,800 acres in 2017, and 6,700 acres in 2018. As of 2016 harvest season, only two U.S. states other than Kentucky had over 100 acres (40 ha) in hemp production: Colorado and Tennessee. The was conducted under the auspices of the Kentucky Department of Agriculture. Research at the University of Kentucky's Spindletop Research Farm sought to improved agronomy and includes research on optimizing cannabinoid yield. The first research crops at Spindletop and Murray State University were planted in May 2014, with seed obtained from California and, after a legal battle with the DEA, imported from Italy. The researchers are also engineering new mechanical harvesters that can reach the 10–12-foot (3.0–3.7 m) high flowers of tall-growing hemp. The first 500-acre commercial crop was planted in Harrison County in 2017, and research permits were issued for over 12,000 acres (4,900 ha) that year. ## Legal status Under federal law, the THC present in both cannabis and hemp remains a Schedule I controlled substance. Under state law, all hemp grown in compliance with the 2014 farm bill must have a delta-9 THC content not more than 0.3%. Farmers participating in the program must use seeds provided by an educational institution with a DEA license and use varieties expected to be low in THC. A sample of each farmer's hemp crop is tested by the state. Under the 2018 United States farm bill, commodity hemp production was federally legalized. ## Production Businesses exist in Kentucky which provide agricultural products based on hemp or supporting hemp production. Cynthiana-based Ananda Hemp has been operating in the Commonwealth since 2014. ### Oil extraction Testing of a \$400,000 oil extraction facility in Winchester began in March 2016, with full production capacity of 20,000 lb (9,100 kg) per hour expected by the end of the year. GenCanna and Atalo Holdings are hopeful of turning their property at Winchester into a "Hemp Research Campus". ### Seed production Three varieties of hemp seed from Lexington seed company were the first to be certified by Colorado Department of Agriculture. Certified in late 2016 for the 2017 Colorado crop, the varieties were originally from Italy and Serbia. ## Documentaries and Books Documentary films concerning Kentucky hemp have included Hemp for Victory (U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1942) and Harvesting Liberty (Mike Lewis, 2016), which shows farmers in rural Kentucky considering hemp farming for food, fuel and fiber. The nonfiction book, The Cornbread Mafia by James Higdon has 14 references to Kentucky hemp. ## See also - Agriculture in Kentucky - History of Kentucky
62,666,835	Teraupo'o	1,085,190,516	Tahitian resistance leader	[ "1855 births", "1910 deaths", "Deaths from Spanish flu", "French Polynesian exiles", "French Polynesian royalty", "French prisoners and detainees", "People from Raiatea" ]	Teraupo'o (c. 1855 – 23 December 1918) was a Tahitian (Maohi) resistance leader of the islands of Raiatea and Tahaa who fought off French rule from 1887 to 1897 during the decade-long Leeward Islands War. Born during the decades following the Franco-Tahitian War (1844–1847), Teraupo'o was a lesser chief from the village of Avera, on the east coast of Raiatea. He grew to resent the French after being mistreated by an officer. After King Tamatoa VI of Raiatea submitted to French annexation, Teraupo'o refused to surrender and led the native resistance against the French and installed a resistance government under Tuarii as queen at Avera. He and his followers, dubbed the Teraupiste, included a majority of the natives of Raiatea and Tahaa. They fought off French colonial rule from 1887 until 1897 while attempting to convince the British to support their cause to remain independent. The French under Governor Gustave Gallet sent for reinforcement to quell the native resistance and defeated the native forces of Raiatea in battle and the subsequent guerilla campaign that followed. Teraupo'o was captured on the night of 15–16 February 1897. After he was defeated and captured, he was exiled to New Caledonia until 1905 when he was allowed to return to Raiatea. He lived out the rest of his life as a recluse and died in 1918 of the Spanish flu epidemic. ## Early life He was born in c. 1855 with the name Hapaitahaa a Etau, at Avera, a village on the east coast of the island of Raiatea in the Leeward Islands, a part of the larger Society Islands group. He also initially bore the name Taraiupo'o, meaning "Headhunter", while his later adopted name Teraupo'o, meaning "This Head" in the Tahitian language. Teraupo'o was considered a "chief of a minor lineage". The Society Islands were evangelized by British missionaries and converted to Protestant Christianity by the London Missionary Society (LMS) in the early 19th century. The ari'i rahi (supreme rulers) were early patrons of the British Protestants. By the mid-19th century, the adoption of a British parliamentary system of government eroded the traditional supremacy of the ari'i rahi in favor of the ra'atira (freemen) class. Local chiefs and tāvana (district governors) gain greater power and autonomy at the expense of the nominal island monarchs especially in Raiatea-Tahaa. A decade before Teraupo'o's birth, the neighboring Kingdom of Tahiti had been subjugated under a protectorate in the Franco-Tahitian War (1844–1847) but the kingdoms of the Leeward Islands including Raiatea-Tahaa were ensured independence by France and Great Britain under the Jarnac Convention or the Anglo-French Convention of 1847. According to French historian Auguste Charles Eugène Caillot, Teraupo'o grew to resent the French after he was kicked by a French captain or pilot in Raiatea. He allegedly received a kick from the officer in “dans la partie la moins noble de son individu" (the least noble part of his person). ## French annexation In 1880, King Tahitoe of Raiatea accepted the provisional protectorate by French commissioner Isidore Chessé. Tahitoe was deposed by his subjects for requesting the protectorate and his daughter and successor Queen Tehauroa unsuccessfully attempted to enlist the protection of the British to preserve the independence of Raiatea in accordance with the Convention of 1847. On 16 March 1888, the French annexed Raiatea and Tahaa after formal negotiation between Great Britain and France abrogated the 1847 Convention. The last independent monarch of Raiatea-Tahaa, King Tamatoa VI was originally from the royal family of Huahine. On 25 September 1887, five chiefs of Raiatea petitioned Papeete to send a French resident administrator. Teraupo'o refused to comply with the order of King Tamatoa VI to surrender to the French, and he built up a resistance force in 1887. Two French warships and government schooner was landed in Raiatea to override the ruling of the native courts to the advantage of a few European residents disgruntled with the recent economic depression of the copra and cotton trade. This action resulted in greater resentment within the rank of the anti-French faction of the population. LMS missionary William Edward Richards wrote that Tamatoa "abdicated rather than become the tool of the native French party" and "One or two villages [were] shelled and a great many native houses burnt down" by the French...and this made the Raiateans still more ‘resolute’ not to ‘yield quietly’ as the missionary advised". Tamatoa VI returned to Huahine to become a tāvana (district governor) and left the government of Raiatea without a king. ## War of resistance Richards wrote in 1888 that "the whole of the Raiatean Government (save one governor Teraupoo) were enrolled as Frenchmen and nearly the whole of the people banded together as one man to resist them." Teraupo'o led the native resistance against the French in the place of Tamatoa VI. He installed a resistance government under Tuarii (a younger daughter of Tahitoe) as queen at Avera. The French established themselves at the former capital of Uturoa and appointed a résident, Marie Maximilien Gustave Alby, and had the support of Tahaa chief Tavana who became known as the viceroy of Raiatea-Tahaa. A prolonged war prevented the French from entering the rural areas of Raiatea as the native resorted to guerilla warfare. The conflict leading to the annexation of the Leeward Islands became known as the Leewards War, the Raiatean rebellion or the Teraupo’o War. Bearing his rifle, the "'oporo 'ute'ute" or "red pepper", Teraupo'o was able to muster a force of 800 men or nearly one third of the population of the island although Newbury noted that "hardly more than 359 Ra'iateans [were] under arms". The followers of the rebel chief were referred to as the Teraupiste. Teraupo'o's brother Hupe served as his généralissime or general-in-chief. The courageous chiefess Mai of Tevaitoa and her husband Moti Roi and the chief Faterehau of Opoa and his wife, a half-white woman, named Taupe allied themselves with the Teraupiste. Foreign residents were also attracted to his cause. Jose Jordan, son of American settler and blacksmith Joseph Jordan, was a partisan of Teraupo'o, and was exiled for his involvement. The German G. Neuffer became an adopted son of Teraupo'o and supplied him with arms and funds. From the few surviving letters of Teraupo'o, he was known to have been resolute in the belief that Great Britain would intervene on the behalf of their cause and rescue the natives from the French. The Raiateans unsuccessfully appealed to Robert Teesdale Simons, the British Consul in Tahiti, for assistance and offered their country to the "Great White Queen". In 1895, Queen Tuarii travelled to the British protectorate Rarontonga to seek help from the British Resident Frederick Moss who refused to meet with her. Attempts were made to mediate the conflict by Consul Simons and Tati Salmon, an Anglo-Tahitian businessman of royal descent. The French Protestant missionary Jean-Frédéric Vernier, former chaplain of Tahiti's Queen Pōmare IV, also unsuccessfully attempted to sway the natives. Teraupo'o also controlled the Raiatean pastors. French Protestant missionary Pastor Gaston Brunel, who took charge of the Protestant schools on the island in 1894 and was largely sympathetic to the natives, visited the camp of the resistance leader often and gain valuable insight into the rebellion. French artist Paul Gauguin, who witnessed the final phase of the rebellion, noted that diplomacy failed to persuade the natives of Raiatea to surrender. Gauguin also witnessed the 1896 expedition to Raiatea. The French appointed Governor Gustave Gallet to suppress the entrenched rebellion. Gallet had previous experience with suppressing the 1878 Kanak rebellion in New Caledonia. In 1896, two French warships, the Duguay Trouin and L'Aube arrived from New Caledonia with two hundred French soldiers to quell the native resistance. The invasion force was further reinforced with a company of Tahitian volunteers. On 27 December 1896, Governor Gallet attempted to parley with the rebels to avoid bloodshed. He set an ultimatum for the rebels to surrender by 1 January 1897. The rebel government at Avera under Queen Tuarii and 1700 rebels reluctantly surrendered. Teraupo'o and the rebels of Tahaa and the district of Tevaitoa refused the call, prompting the French to land and engage the remaining armed natives. The French routed the underequipped and disorganized native forces and many fled into the mountains to escape capture. The armed native resistance ended with the capture of Teraupo'o. He and his wife and daughter fled into the mountains of Vaiaau. They evaded the French expeditionary force by hiding in the cave in the Faneuhi mountain (located at ) and rolling a boulder in front of the entrance during the day. The hiding place was discovered on the night of 15 February and 16 February 1897 when light from a fire within the cave gave the location away. On orders to capture him alive, Teraupo'o was led out of the cave by gunpoint while his family remained defiant. French historian Bruno Saura credited the discovery to "two Polynesians in the service of the French" while American historian Edward Dodd credited to an "astute French lieutenant". The casualties of the six-week campaign were nearly fifty deaths mainly on the side of the Raiateans. ## Exile and death After the capture of Teraupo'o, the Chamber of Deputies in Paris proclaimed "the victorious end of the last military campaign in our islands". The Chamber ratified annexation on 19 November 1897. The captured resistance leaders were deported to Nouméa, New Caledonia and their followers were deported to the Ua Huka in the Marquesas Islands while others were conscripted as forced laborers to improve the roads of Raiatea. Teraupo'o, his wife and his brother Hupe were exiled in New Caledonia until 1905. Teraupo'o was allowed to return to Raiatea in 1905 and lived out the rest of his life as a "silent, unreconstructed recluse". He died at Vaiaau on 23 December 1918, at the height of the Spanish flu epidemic. His grave is currently located at Pamatai point (located at ) under a road. The next indigenous leader to advocate French resistance and Tahitian separatism was Pouvanaa a Oopa in 1958.
1,626,603	Polygonia c-album	1,172,651,455	Species of butterfly	[ "Butterflies described in 1758", "Butterflies of Africa", "Butterflies of Asia", "Butterflies of Europe", "Nymphalini", "Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus" ]	Polygonia c-album, the comma, is a food generalist (polyphagous) butterfly species belonging to the family Nymphalidae. The angular notches on the edges of the forewings are characteristic of the genus Polygonia, which is why species in the genus are commonly referred to as anglewing butterflies. Comma butterflies can be identified by their prominent orange and dark brown/black dorsal wings. To reduce predation, both the larval and adult stages exhibit protective camouflage, mimicking bird droppings and fallen leaves, respectively. During the later stage of development, the larvae also develop strong spines along their backs. The species is commonly found in Europe, North Africa, and Asia, and contains several subspecies. Although the species is not migratory, the butterflies are strong fliers, resulting in an open population structure with high gene flow and increased genetic variation. ## Description The outer margins of the wings are strongly and irregularly dentate, excavated and angulated. The upper side of the wings has a bright orange ground colour, decorated with brown marks and light spots on the edge. The reverse is marbled with brown. Folded, the butterfly looks like a dead leaf. The hindwings have on the reverse side a white spot usually in the shape of C. The sexual dimorphism is slight and concerns the intensity of the coloration, the silhouette and the size, the male having a wingspan of 22 to 24 mm. and the female of 25 to 26 mm. The seasonal dimorphism is more marked: the first generation ( hutchinsoni form, named for Emma Hutchinson, May-June) has the upperside fawn orange and the underside brown-gold and the hindwing bears distally a broad dark red-brown area in which is situated a row of light brown hastate spots, the underside is dark, being either unicolorous or prominently marmorated. , while the second generation (form c-album (July, in autumn and spring after overwintering) has a more reddish upper and dark brown underside (ground-colour is less bright). In the summer-form the wings are less dentate, and the hindwing has a narrow dark submarginal band, near which stands a row of light lunules proximally bordered by a band of brown arcs; the underside is of a paler colour, being less distinctly — sometimes, however, very prominently — marmorated and shaded. ## Taxonomy and phylogeny The comma belongs to the family Nymphalidae, the largest family of butterflies with 13 subfamilies. Within the genus Polygonia, a sister-group relationship between P. c-album and P. faunus is strongly supported by larval development analysis and synapomorphies. In both species, the adults and larvae have similar polyphagous habits. The genus Polygonia is also closely related to the genera Kanisha and Roddia, each containing a single species: K. canace and R. l-album. ## Geographic range and habitat The comma inhabits areas including Europe, North Africa, and Asia. It is primarily a woodland butterfly, living in low-density forests with sunshine and moist soil. Specifically, the species is commonly found in the woodland, country lanes, and garden areas of Norway, Sweden, and Great Britain. As a food generalist, or polyphagous species, comma butterflies can feed upon a variety of host plants, leading to widespread ranges across continents. In response to climate change, they are also undergoing range expansion. ### Subspecies The following subspecies are found in the indicated parts of the comma's range: - P. c. c-album Europe - P. c. imperfecta (Blachier, 1908) North Africa - P. c. extensa (Leech, 1892) western China, central China - P. c. kultukensis (Kleinschmidt, 1929) Transbaikalia - P. c. hamigera (Butler, 1877) Ussuri (type locality Edo, Japan) - P. c. koreana (Bryk, 1946) Korea - P. c. sachalinensis (Matsumura, 1915) Sakhalin - P. c. asakurai (Nakahara, 1920) Taiwan - P. c. agnicula (Moore, 1872) Nepal <sup>[4]</sup> ## Food resources ### Larval host plant preferences and selection For comma butterflies, food resources consumed during development are the primary source of nitrogen and protein during adulthood. Because they feed exclusively on plants, making them a phytophagous species, the quality of plants upon which the larvae feed is strongly correlated with their future fitness. The larval form is often divided into five developmental stages known as instars. Although during the first three instars larvae are observed to remain almost entirely upon the underside of leaves, the fourth and fifth instar larvae are more active in obtaining food resources. The later instar larvae are specialized feeders and favor several host plants during the larval stage: Urtica dioica, Ulmus glabra, Salix caprea, R. uva-crispa, and Betula pubescens. While pupal weight and overall larval survival rates are similar among larvae regardless of host plant, the larval development times differ significantly. As a result, larvae prefer feeding on plants that allow them to develop in the shortest amount of time. Larvae reared on U. dioica demand the shortest development time and is thus favored over other plants. On the other hand, B. pubescens is at the bottom of the host plant preference hierarchy. Favoring plants in the family Urticaceae is speculated to have originated from the species’ ancestors, providing an explanation for larval preference for U. dioica. Within the U. dioica plant, larvae are not shown to differentiate between high quality (fresher) and low quality (wilting) nettles, a pattern expected of a polyphagous species. ## Reproduction and life history ### Mating #### Mating system Comma butterflies have a polyandrous mating system where females mate with multiple males to receive the necessary amount of sperm to fertilize their eggs. The polyandrous female distributes her matings equally over her lifetime, so males' mating success increases proportionally to their lifespan. The mating success of both sexes is correlated to the duration of an individual's life, so no difference in mortality rates is observed between males and females. #### Female mate choice Females exercise mate choice before, during, and after mating and can distinguish between males who were reared on high-quality versus low-quality host plants. The ability to recognize adults reared on higher quality host plants is selected for because males fed better plants during development provide superior nuptial gifts. In comma butterflies, nuptial gifts are edible spermatophores containing spermatozoa and nutrients. When comparing the two common host plants U. dioica and S. caprea, females preferentially choose to mate with males reared on U. dioica, because these males have higher protein content and increased spermatophore production. Females preferentially mate with males which provide larger investments, in the form of nuptial gifts. When females mated with males with higher-quality nuptial gifts, they not only allocate more resources to egg production but also use the resources to improve their own reproductive success. The investments can be used to increase female life expectancy, female maintenance, and future reproduction. During each mating, males allocate a constant amount of investment towards each nuptial gift, indicating that male mate choice does not play a role in allocation of resources. ### Oviposition Females recognize and select a host plant carefully before laying their eggs upon it, generally favoring host plants where larval development time is minimized. Akin to the preferred host plants for larvae, females prefer plants in the order Urticales. Despite the overall preference for plants leading to short larval development, host plant preference variation between females exists. Although the partiality for certain plant species appears to be inherited across populations, the pattern is not significant within a single population. This pattern of deviation results from the open population structure with high gene flow. ### Parent-offspring conflict In theory, females would prefer host plants where their offspring performance is maximized, and the larvae would benefit from being able to feed on the best resources nearby their hatch site. However, this is not always observed in nature due to external factors such as predators, parasites, and pathogens. Instead, there is a trade-off between female host plant preference and larval fitness in many species of butterfly. In P. c-album, instead of accepting the host plant that the female selected, first instar larvae leave their hatch site in search of alternative food sources. Larvae that stay on the inferior host are not only smaller, but also have lower survival and growth rates. ### Egg mass Unlike female host plant preference, egg mass is not shown to be sex-linked. Instead, egg mass is most likely controlled by additive autosomal genes, where the egg sizes of offspring are intermediate compared to its parents. The type of host plant chosen during the larval stage is not correlated with their offspring's egg mass, indicating that egg size is not related to fitness. ### Life history #### Egg Females lay their eggs on a variety of host plants, preferring those that minimize larval development time. Unlike some butterflies who lay their eggs in batches, comma females often lay their eggs singly. After each egg is laid, the female scouts out other possible host plants before determining the site of her next egg. The eggs are green when first laid, and gradually turn yellow and ultimately grey before hatching,<sup>[2]</sup> which generally takes four to five days. Although the female can allocate more resources into egg production based on the nuptial gifts received by mates, the total number of eggs laid or the mass of the eggs are altered based on the host plant. A lack of correlation suggests that neither egg quantity nor egg mass indicate future fitness for the offspring. #### Larva The larval period is separated into five distinct stages or instars. During the first three instars, the comma larvae have a cryptic appearance to avoid detection while they primarily stay on the underside of leaves. Fourth and fifth instar larvae search for food more actively. However, the beginning of the fourth instar also marks the development of black, white, and orange patterns. To avoid predation despite its conspicuous appearance, the larva develops strong spines along its body. The larvae have a continuous white marking along their backs to mimic bird droppings. In its final instar, the white colouration disappears but the spines persist. Three possibilities describing why spines may develop during later instars are as follows: smaller larvae cannot sustain the spines, larger larvae benefit more from spines as their predators shift from invertebrates to vertebrates, or because an effective spine pattern cannot be achieved upon the surface area of the smaller larvae. Aside from the formation of spines, no other defence against predators appears to be present. While fourth and fifth instar larvae are rarely preyed upon by the same predator, removal of the spines leads to repeated predation, indicating that no chemical defence mechanism exists to deter enemies. #### Pupa P. c-album adults undergo one of two morphs: the directly developing morph or the diapausing (delayed development) morph. For both males and females, directly developing adults have a shorter pupal time of around 10 days, whereas the diapausing adults spend over 11 days pupating. Additionally, the pupae whose adult stage would enter the directly developing morph had larger pupal weights, consistent with the notion that the lighter morph allocates more resources towards maturation and reproduction. #### Adult Full-grown comma butterflies have a wingspan of about 45 mm or 1.8 inches. The name comma butterfly derives from the small white 'C'-shaped marking resembling a comma on the underside of its wings. Commas can exhibit both mimicking and polyphenism, a phenomenon where multiple morphs exist in a population. Due to their orange and dark brown/black appearance, the butterflies resemble fallen leaves when their wings are closed. Adults can also undergo one of two morphs: the directly developing morph or the diapausing morph. During the directly developing morph, the butterflies mature sexually at a rapid rate. Females undergoing this morph oviposit in the summer, leading the phase to also be referred to as the summer morph. Butterflies portraying the summer morph have light coloured undersides. The diapausing morph, also known as the spring or winter morph, occurs when the female enters a reproductive diapause, a time when sexual maturity is postponed, and hibernates before ovipositing in the spring instead. During the diapausing morph, the undersides of the wings are much darker. ## Predators, parasites, and diseases ### Predators Because of their wide distribution around the world, comma butterflies have a variety of vertebrate and invertebrate predators, including blue tits, chickens, and other birds. ### Parasites The two main parasites that have been known to affect comma butterflies are Glypta erratica, a type of stem borer in Eupatorium, and Pteromalus vanessae. P. vanessae often oviposit in the larvae of butterflies such as P. c-album and Nymphalis antiopa. ### Diseases P. c-album are known to be infected by cytoplasmic virus diseases. The disease infection usually starts in the cytoplasm of the midgut and progresses throughout the foregut and hindgut as well. ### Antipredator adaptations #### Larva The first three larval instars are camouflaged, the dark colours making the larvae less vulnerable to detection. In the fourth instar, the appearance of the larval body is relatively more colourful with white, black, and orange aposematic patterns. A white stripe along its back mimics the pattern of bird droppings, further displaying protective colouration of the species. During the transition between the third and fourth instars, the larvae also develop strong spines along their backs. Decreased predation by birds on P. c-album third-instar larvae has been shown compared to other larval stages, indicating that the spines increase defence. However, this appears to provide limited protection as some birds were able to consume the larvae despite the appearance of spikes. #### Adult Adults also make use of camouflage. The underside of adult wings mimic the patterns of a fallen leaf. The similarity is further exaggerated by the irregular wing edges, not resembling a typical butterfly, that are characteristic of the genus Polygonia. The butterflies can also undergo one of two morphs: directly developing (summer) or diapausing (spring/winter). The diapausing morph is triggered when resources are allocated to survival, resulting in a less conspicuous, darker appearance of adults to avoid predation. ## Physiology ### Diapause Under cold winter conditions, adults can undergo diapause, a period of delayed sexual maturation to maximize survival. The diapause morph is based upon the length of the day that the larvae experienced during the development stage of the life cycle. The diapausing morph is more commonly observed in P. c-album butterflies inhabiting south Europe, North Africa, and Asia. The threshold for the photoperiod triggering diapause is primarily due to autosomal genes but may also be influenced by sex-linked genes and/or parental effects. Females tend to enter a diapause based on a photoperiod that is intermediate to the parents, and males are more likely to enter diapause than females. This indicates that males and females have evolved different optimal lifecycles. Females profit from larger body size, because it is correlated with fecundity whereas male fitness is not related to size. ### Thermoregulation Although dark appearances such as the early instars and the diapause morph are commonly seen in species as a means of thermoregulation, the behaviour of commas makes the theory unlikely for this species. During the first three instars, the cryptically coloured larvae spend most of their time under leaves, limiting their exposure to the sun. Although the later instar larvae are more dispersive in search of food resources, basking is very rarely observed. Thus, their body temperatures do not elevate dramatically in the presence of sunshine, decreasing the effect that dark exteriors customarily have on biological processes such as metabolism and development rate. However, P. c-album larvae are observed basking during the two later instars. This may be explained by the resemblance that the later instar larvae have to bird droppings, which would limit predation despite increasing exposure to predators. Thermoregulatory behaviours may have a much more pronounced effect on later instar larvae but do not appear to affect the first three larval stages. ### Polyphenism Comma adults are dimorphic. The two phases are the directly developing morph (summer morph) and the diapausing morph (winter/spring morph). The two morphs are determined by autosomal genes, which determine which phase the adults will undergo based on the length of the day experienced during the larval stage. During winter, the length of the day is short, and butterfly survival rate is lower. To allow the adults to survive through the cold winter and oviposit during the spring, the adults go through the diapausing morph which feature darker wings for greater protective colouration during hibernation. When the photoperiods are longer during summertime, the adults go through the directly developing phase with a lighter appearance. The lighter appearance is attributed to fewer resources allocated to producing a protective appearance and more resources used to assist reproduction. ## Interactions with humans ### Climate change Climate change has dramatically affected the habitat ranges of the comma, encouraging range expansion and feeding upon a wider variety of host plants. In Britain, comma butterflies have shown the greatest shift in habitat and feeding resources, altering its preferred host plant from H. lupulus to U. glabra and U. dioica. The movement of the distribution appears to be following a change in climate. Although not a migrating butterfly species, the butterflies at the edges of the range show much higher dispersal tendencies than those living within the range. ### Population change In the 19th century, the British population of the comma crashed, possibly as a result of reduced hop (H. lupulus) farming. From about 1930 the population recovered, and the comma is now one of the more familiar butterflies in Southern England. It is also found in Scotland and in North Wales. Since the 1970s in Britain, specialist butterflies have decreased in population as their preferred habitat and host plants area becomes smaller. On the other hand, generalist species such as P. c-album have started to expand their range. In particular, comma butterflies have expanded along the northern edge of their range.
7,876,679	Nandanar	1,166,273,995	Nayanar saint	[ "Dalit Hindu saints", "Dalit saints", "Nayanars", "Paraiyar leaders", "People from Thanjavur district" ]	Nandanar (also spelt as Nantanar), also known as Thirunaallaippovaar () and Tirunallaipovar Nayanar, was a Nayanar saint, who is venerated in the Hindu sect of Shaivism. He is the only Paraiyar saint in the Nayanars. He is generally counted as the eighteenth in the list of 63 Nayanars. Like the other Nayanars, he was a devout devotee of the god Shiva. The tale of Nandanar is retold numerous times in folk tales, folk music, plays, films and literature in Tamil society. While Nandanar is included in Nayanar list since the 8th century CE, the 12th century CE Periya Puranam gives a full hagiographical account of his life. The tale focuses on two miracles attributed to him. In Sivalokanathar Temple, Tirupunkur; his prayers are said to have moved a giant stone bull, which still appears in the moved position in the temple. Nandanar is said to have ritually purified himself by fire at Thillai Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram. Nandar's tale features in temple lore and religious literature related to both these temples. Gopalakrishna Bharati's 19th-century retelling of the saint's life remains the basis of many later retellings. It expands the original narrative adding elements of oppression of the Dalit saint by higher castes. While the original account of the Periya Puranam focuses on the saint's observance of caste norms, Dalit retellings emphasize his exploitation and superior religiosity. Apart from collective worship Nandanar enjoys being part of the Nayanars in Shiva temples of Tamil Nadu, shrines depicted to Nandanar exist in both the sites of his miracles. The saint also became an icon of protest in Dalit rights movements. ## Accounts of life One of the most prominent Nayanars, Sundarar (8th century) is the first to name Nandanar (called Tirunalaipovar) in literature, however Tirunalaipovar ('The one who will go tomorrow') relates to the tale of Nandanar longing to visit Chidambaram; no details of his life are revealed. In the eleventh century, Nambiyandar Nambi devotes a stanza to Nandanar in his Tiruttondar Tiruvandhadhi while recalling the lives of the Nayanars. Tirunalaipovar is described as a Pulayar (Pulaiya, Pulai) who lived in Adhanur. He is said to have visited Thillai Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram of his patron god Shiva "by God's grace" and "three thousand Brahmins (priests) of Chidambaram saluted him." The earliest full (and primary religious) account of Nandanar's life is found in the Tamil Periya Puranam by Sekkizhar (12th century), which is a hagiography of the 63 Nayanars, but it was the Nandanar Charitram by the Tamil poet Gopalakrishna Bharati (1810–1896) brought Nandanar's tale to public attention. The Nandanar Charitam (printed in 1861), the magnum opus of Bharati, added new elements to Sekkizhar's tale. Though it is unknown when he lived exactly, generally he is dated to 7th or 8th century CE. ### The Periya Puranam The Periya Puranam narrates that Nandanar belonged to Adhanur (Adanoor) in the Chola kingdom. He was born in the Pulaiya caste, who were regarded "untouchables" (see Dalits). They were agricultural labourers and singers. Another description considers Nandanar from the Dalit caste of Paraiyar, who served as labourers and were drummers as per the caste code. Nandanar was born in poverty, in Pulaippadi, the Pulai slums of Adhanur. He was a staunch devotee of the god Shiva, the patron god of Shaivism. He was a leather maker, who crafted drums and other musical instruments. He also served as a village servant, a watchman, a labourer as well as the "town crier", who used to beat the drums. In Nandanar's times, Dalits were not allowed to enter Hindu temples. So, Nandanar would stand outside a Shiva temple and sing the praises of Shiva and dance. However, he harboured a strong urge to pay his respects to the icon of Shiva at Sivalokanathar Temple, Tirupunkur. He stood outside the temple, but a huge stone Nandi (the bull mount of Shiva, whose sculpture is generally seen in Shiva temples, facing Shiva in the garbhagriha - sanctum sanctorum) blocked his path of vision. The compassionate Shiva ordered Nandi to move a little to side and the bull complied, allowing the Nayanar to see the central icon of Shiva, unobstructed. Nandanar cleaned up the surroundings of the temple and dug a pond (which serves as the temple tank) in honour of Shiva. He circumambulated the shrine and returned to Adanur. Nandanar visited many temples of Shiva and served the god. Once, he longed to visit the Thillai Nataraja Temple of Chidambaram, which enshrines Shiva as Nataraja, the Lord of Dance. He used to say everyday that he will go the next day to Chidambaram, but never actually dared to step in the holy town, where he was prohibited entry. Thus, he came to be known as "Tiru-Nalai-povar", 'he who will go tomorrow'. Finally, Nandanar reached the boundary of Chidambaram, but feared to set foot in the town. He saw the smoke of fire sacrifices and heard the chants of the Vedic scriptures. Thinking about how he can see Nataraja's dancing icon, the Nayanar circumambulated the town numerous times and finally succumbed to fatigue and slept. Shiva appeared in his dream and told Nandanar to enter the temple through a holy fire. The god also informed the Brahmin priests of Chidambaram to prepare a pyre. Next day, the Brahmins approached Nandanar as per the divine order. Nandanar entered the holy fire chanting the name of Shiva and reappeared in a new purified form. He looked like a Brahmin sage, wearing matted hair (characteristic of a Shaiva) and the sacred thread worn by Brahmins across his chest. His body was smeared with sacred ash. The gods showered flowers on the Nayanar from heaven and the Brahmins cheered. With the Brahmins, Nandanar went in the garbhagriha and saw Nataraja. The Nayanar disappeared in the image of Nataraja and became one with Shiva. The Periya Puranam version is interpreted as a Brahmanical narrative, where a particular Dalit is granted salvation by transforming into a Brahmin; the superiority of the Brahmins is reinforced and the legitimacy of the ban of Dalits is not challenged. ### The Nandanar Charitam Bharati was an ardent devotee of Shiva and wrote three operas in honour of various Nayanar saints. Though Bharati was himself an upper caste Brahmin, he was a crusader for the rights of the Dalits. While Sekkizhar exalts Nandanar's devotion to Shiva, Bharati presents the grim reality of ostracization that the Nayanar suffered. Bharati's Nandanar is "not a rebel, but only a protester". The Nandanar Charitam focuses on the atrocities that Nandanar and Dalits as a whole had to suffer at the hands of upper castes. The opera Nandanar Charitam was embedded with the social message that Shiva grants emancipation irrespective of caste. The play starts with the term "May I come", a warning to higher-caste people that Dalits had to cry out before entering any street, so as to not pollute the higher caste members. The Nayanar first clashes with his own Dalit brethren. They oppose his devotion for the Lord of Chidambaram, whom they call a Brahmin god. The Dalit elders — headed by Pariyakilavan — define his duties as a pariah and advise him to not confront caste rules. They tell him to worship the folk deities of the pariah, instead of Shiva, the god of Brahmanical Hinduism. The Dalits also feel that Nandanar needs to abide by the social norms and give up his taboo idea of entering a temple. A villainous Brahmin landlord Vetiyar (Vediyar) appears in Bharati's tale. He torments his bonded labourer Nandanar and chastises him repeatedly for trying to go beyond caste norms. Vetiyar sees Nandanar's bhakti and desire to enter a temple "not only as undesirable and irreligious, but also as a serious threat to his social status." Vetiyar refuses to grant him permission to Chidambaram and even resorts to violence. After much persuasion, the Brahmin relents on the condition that the saint do an impossible task of cultivating and harvesting the field in one night. Aided by Shiva's attendant ganas, the saint completes the task. The Brahmin realizes the piety of the Nayanar, apologizes to him and lets him go. Bharati retained the final confrontation with the Brahmins of Chidambaram and his ritual purification by fire. Bharati concludes in a poem saying that "it is said in the epics that the Lord worshipped by Gopalakrishna granted salvation even to Untouchables!" ### Variants In stories of higher caste Hindus (especially Brahmins), Nandanar is a Brahmin or God himself somehow trapped in the body of an untouchable and whose true form is revealed by the fire trial. Other tales focus on his strict adherence to caste norms, his obedience of his Brahmin master and his refusal to enter the holy temple as an untouchable. The Dalits strongly believe in his piety and portray Brahmins as the root cause of all the misery of the Nayanar. Nandanar fits in the Dalit narrative that proves that their religiosity is on par or superior to the higher castes. They say that Nandanar was 'swallowed by God'. The sashes round Nataraja's waist are interpreted as the legs of the saint, who merged into the god. The temple lore of Tirupunkur narrates that Shiva instructed his son Ganesha to aid Nandanar in digging the temple tank named Nandanar tirtha, after the saint. Another variant tells that Ganesha dug up the tank in the night so that Nandanar can bathe in its sacred waters before seeing Shiva in the temple. In the early half of the 20th century, the novel Nandan, by A. Gopalasami Iyengar and G. Aravamudha Iyengar, includes reformist Brahmin characters that argue Nandan's case against their peers. Nandan also echoes the reformist ideas of Hindu spiritual leaders like Ramanuja and Vivekananda, and progressive upper-caste leaders. The short story Puthiya Nandan by Pudhumaipithan (1906-1948) places the classical tale of the Nayanar in a contemporary setting. While retelling Nandan's ancient tale, it also alludes to the Dalit rights movements of Mahatma Gandhi and Periyar E. V. Ramasamy (see Self-Respect Movement). Indira Parthasarathy's Nandan Kathai (1978) builds the tale of Nandanar (referred in the work as Nandan) further, introducing two non-Brahmin upper caste landholders, who are as ruthless as Bharati's Vediyar. Nandanar is portrayed as a lover of art, rather than God. He wants to see the cosmic dance of Nataraja. A Devadasi called Abhirami also appears; no significant female characters are found in earlier narratives. Indira is blunt in reprimanding the Dalits for not understanding Nandanar. Nandan Kathai is a quest for liberation of Dalits and women alike. Unlike earlier narratives, Indira's tale is devoid of miracles and is a story of how Nandanar falls prey to a conspiracy. The Vediyar-priest, the Vediyar-landlord and the two non-Brahmin upper caste landholders, hatch a plot to end Nandan. They make Nandanar believe that God harvested crop from the field, an allusion to the miracle of Vediyar's impossible task in Bharati's work. Then, they persuade him to organize a dance contest between Bharatnatyam, the high-caste elites' dance and the folk dance of the Dalits. Finally, in the climax, Nandanar agrees to undergo a fire-trial, reassured by the earlier miracle, but he and Abhirami burn in the flames. The upper castes succeed in sending a warning to Dalits how trespassers of the caste code, longing for salvation, would be punished. ## Celebration in Hindu religion Nandanar is specially worshipped in the Tamil month of Purattasi, when the moon enters the Rohini nakshatra (lunar mansion). He is depicted with a shaved head, folded hands (see Anjali mudra) with a kamandalu and a danda (staff), like a seer. He receives collective worship as part of the 63 Nayanars. Their icons and brief accounts of his deeds are found in many Shiva temples in Tamil Nadu. Their images are taken out in procession in festivals. A water tank in Chidambaram is considered sacred as it is believed to be the site of Nandanar's fire-purification. A "recently built" (as mentioned in the 1992 book) small shrine dedicated to the Nayanar, exists in south-west part of the town, whose name means 'Nandanar has become the temple'. A sculpture of Nandanar as a singer is found in the Chidambaram temple, besides another in Airavatesvara Temple of Darasuram (12th century) depicting him in the trial by fire. Sundarar venerates Nandanar in the Tiruthonda Thogai, a hymn to Nayanar saints, calling him "Nalaippovan", the "holy pilgrim" who will go tomorrow. An earlier hymn to Shiva praises the god who is served by Nalaippovan. The devotional poet Tyagaraja (1767–1847) also narrates the tale of Nandanar in his poems. Devotional works dedicated to Nataraja of the Chidambaram temple narrate Nandanar's tale. Umapathi Sivacharya's Kunchitangristava (early fourteenth century) mentions Nandan's legend. While another Sanskrit work Hemasabhanatha Mahatmya devotes its ninth chapter to the Nayanar. The Sthala Purana of the Nataraja temple called Chidambara Mahatmya praises the god as served by Nandan. The Nandi in Sivalokanathar Temple, Tirupunkur is seen placed off centre as a testimony of Nandanar's devotion and the miracle. A stone image of the saint is worshipped in the temple. The Dvarapalas (gate-keeper sculptures) are depicted with his heads leaning downwards, said to be in honour of Nandanar. In 1959, a shrine was created outside the Shiva temple, from where the stone image of Nandanar looks eternally at Shiva. Nandanar is depicted with his hands joined above his head, praying to Shiva. Scenes of Bharati's opera and the local legend of Nandanar and Ganesha digging the temple tank are seen on the shrine. ## Remembrance in society Nandanar's influence was and remains limited primarily to the Tamil-speaking areas. The Christian missionary Rev. A. C. Clayton—who was "sympathetic" to the Dalit cause—used Nandanar's narrative (retold as The Legend of Nandan) to suggest that bhakti (devotion)—which saw no distinction of class or caste—was the superior means to salvation than the jnana-marga (salvation by knowledge) propagated by the Brahmins and also challenged the authority of the Brahmin orthodoxy. Nandanar became "the hero of tales of caste protest". The "Adi Dravida" (Dalit) leaders of the Self-Respect Movement used Nandanar as an exemplar to prove that social superiority originates not from birth, but the qualities and deeds of people. In 2010, Cadres of the Tamil Nadu Untouchability Eradication Front (TNUEF) and the Communist Party of India (Marxist) under the leadership of P. Samath, protested to bring down the wall on the South Gate of the Chimdabaram temple, which was—as per a tale—built as Nandanar entered from the gate. The walled gate was the symbol of the oppression of the Dalit caste and caste discrimination, as per the protesters who demanded its demolition. The state government — which currently governs the temple — contented that the veracity of Nandanar's tale and its connection to the walled Gate, cannot be ascertained. Thus, it — contented that the veracity of Nandanar's tale and its connection to the walled Gate, cannot be ascertained and thus, refused the protesters' demands. P.Sampath, president of the Tamil Nadu Untouchability Eradication Front (TNUEF) and an office-bearer politician from the Tamil Nadu unit of Communist Party of India (Marxist) (known as CPI (M)), calls the Chidambaram fire-trail as Brahmin propaganda to conceal the truth that Nandanar was burnt at the stake. Basu suggests that Nandanar "continues to inspire them (Dalits) as a symbol of resistance and a hope of a better future". However, as per Aktor, young Dalits identify with recent Dalit leaders like B. R. Ambedkar and are unaware or uninterested in the "obedient Nandanar". Ambedkar, himself had dedicated his book The Untouchables, to three Dalit saints, including Nandanar. In speech in Chidambaram, Mahatma Gandhi called Nandanar, a true practitioner of Satyagraha, a means of Nonviolent resistance. Gandhi said: "Nanda broke every barrier and won his way to freedom, not by brag, not by bluster, but by the purest form of self-suffering... he shamed them [his persecutors] into doing justice by his lofty prayer, by the purity of his character, ... he compelled God himself to descend and made Him open the eyes of his persecutors". Nandanar's tale is retold numerous times through folk tales, plays, literature and art forms like Villu Paatu and "musical discourses". A number of Tamil films, all titled Nandanar, recall Nandanar's tale following Bharati's version. Besides a silent film in 1923, another silent film Nandanar, subtitled The Elevation of the Downtrodden, directed by P. K. Raja Sandow, in 1930. The first talkie film on Nandanar was made in 1931. The 1935 film featured K. B. Sundarambal, who also performed on stage as the Nayanar numerous times. The 1942 film, starring Dandapani Desikar in the lead, courted controversy for its overly Brahmin overtones and was banned in Kolar Gold Fields after protests by Dalits, however the ban was lifted after Desikar met and personally apologized to the Dalits for being part of the climax, which featured the fire-purification. Another film on Nandanar was released in 1943. S. Balachander acted in the 1948 film. N. S. Krishnan presented the story as a "narrative art form", while A. Padmanabhan released a small booklet on the saint's life for children. C. T. Indra says that Nandanar was made immortal in legend and remembered over the years "as a strategy of public management of anxiety. ... In the Essentialist way, Nandan's devotion was cited down the ages to play down the social inequities and play up his spiritual qualifications."
3,997,448	Ralph Vary Chamberlin	1,173,714,032	American biologist	[ "1879 births", "1967 deaths", "20th-century American zoologists", "American arachnologists", "American ethnographers", "Arachnologists", "Brigham Young University faculty", "Cornell University College of Agriculture and Life Sciences alumni", "Ethnobiologists", "Fellows of the American Association for the Advancement of Science", "Harvard University staff", "Historians of Utah", "Latter Day Saints from Utah", "Myriapodologists", "Scientists from Salt Lake City", "University of Pennsylvania faculty", "University of Utah alumni", "University of Utah faculty" ]	Ralph Vary Chamberlin (January 3, 1879October 31, 1967) was an American biologist, ethnographer, and historian from Salt Lake City, Utah. He was a faculty member of the University of Utah for over 25 years, where he helped establish the School of Medicine and served as its first dean, and later became head of the zoology department. He also taught at Brigham Young University and the University of Pennsylvania, and worked for over a decade at the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard University, where he described species from around the world. Chamberlin was a prolific taxonomist who named over 4,000 new animal species in over 400 scientific publications. He specialized in arachnids (spiders, scorpions, and relatives) and myriapods (centipedes, millipedes, and relatives), ranking among the most prolific arachnologists and myriapodologists in history. He described over 1,400 species of spiders, 1,000 species of millipedes, and the majority of North American centipedes, although the quantity of his output was not always matched with quality, leaving a mixed legacy to his successors. He also did pioneering ethnobiological studies with the Goshute and other indigenous people of the Great Basin, cataloging indigenous names and cultural uses of plants and animals. Chamberlin was celebrated by his colleagues at the University of Utah, however he was disliked among some arachnologists, including some of his former students. After retirement he continued to write, publishing on the history of education in his home state, especially that of the University of Utah. Chamberlin was a member of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church). In the early twentieth century, Chamberlin was among a quartet of popular Mormon professors at Brigham Young University whose teaching of evolution and biblical criticism resulted in a 1911 controversy among University and Church officials, eventually resulting in the resignation of him and two other professors despite widespread support from the student body, an event described as Mormonism's "first brush with modernism". ## Biography ### Early life and education Ralph Vary Chamberlin was born on January 3, 1879, in Salt Lake City, Utah, to parents William Henry Chamberlin, a prominent builder and contractor, and Eliza Frances Chamberlin (née Brown). Chamberlin traced his paternal lineage to an English immigrant settling in the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1638, and his maternal lineage to an old Pennsylvania Dutch family. Born to Mormon parents, the young Chamberlin attended Latter-day Saints' High School, and although very interested in nature, initially decided to study mathematics and art before choosing biology. His brother William, the eldest of 12 children, also shared Ralph's scientific interests and would later teach alongside him. Ralph attended the University of Utah, graduating with a B.S. degree in 1898, and subsequently spent four years teaching high school and some college-level courses in biology as well as geology, chemistry, physics, Latin, and German at Latter-day Saints' University. By 1900 he had authored nine scientific publications. In the summer of 1902 Chamberlin studied at the Hopkins Marine Station of Stanford University, and from 1902 to 1904 studied at Cornell University under a Goldwin Smith Fellowship, and was a member of the Gamma Alpha fraternity and Sigma Xi honor society. He studied under entomologist John Henry Comstock and earned his doctorate in 1904. His dissertation was a taxonomic revision of the wolf spiders of North America, in which he reviewed all known species north of Mexico, recognizing 67 out of around 150 nominal species as distinct and recognizable. Zoologist Thomas H. Montgomery regarded Chamberlin's monograph as one of "decided importance" in using the structure of pedipalps (male reproductive organs) to help define genera, and in its detailed descriptions of species. ### Early career: University of Utah > It is to Professor Chamberlin that credit should be given for starting medical training in the University of Utah. After returning from Cornell, Chamberlin was hired by the University of Utah, where he worked from 1904 to 1908, as an assistant professor (1904–1905) then full professor. He soon began improving biology courses, which at the time were only of high school grade, to collegiate standards, and introduced new courses in vertebrate histology and embryology. He was the first dean of University of Utah School of Medicine, serving from 1905 to 1907. During the summer of 1906, his plans to teach a summer course in embryology at the University of Chicago were cancelled when he suffered a serious accident in a fall, breaking two leg bones and severing an artery in his leg. In 1907, University officials decided to merge the medical school into an existing department, which made Chamberlin's deanship obsolete. He resigned as dean in May, 1907, although remained a faculty member. The medical students strongly objected, crediting the school's gains over the past few years largely to his efforts. In late 1907 and early 1908, Chamberlin became involved in a bitter lawsuit with fellow Utah professor Ira D. Cardiff that would cost them both their jobs. Cardiff, a botanist hired in spring of 1907, claimed Chamberlin offered him a professorship with a salary of \$2,000 to \$2,250 per year, but upon hiring was offered only \$1,650 by the university regents. Cardiff filed suit for \$350, which a court initially decided Chamberlin must pay, and Chamberlin's wages were garnished. The two became estranged and uncommunicative. There had been tension between them for some time—Chamberlin's supporters claimed Cardiff was involved in his dismissal as dean—and the Salt Lake Tribune noted "friction between the two men, of a different nature and not entirely due to financial matters, arose even before Professor Cardiff received his appointment". In March 1908 the university regents fired both Chamberlin and Cardiff, appointing a single new professor to head the departments of zoology and botany. In July, upon appeal, the suit was overturned and Cardiff ordered to pay costs. Chamberlin had by then secured a job at Brigham Young University. ### Brigham Young University In 1908, Chamberlin was hired to lead the Biology Department at Brigham Young University (BYU), a university owned and operated by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), during a period which BYU president George H. Brimhall sought to increase its academic standing. LDS College professor J. H. Paul, in a letter to Brimhall, had written Chamberlin was "one of the world's foremost naturalists, though, I think, he is only about 28 years of age. I have not met his equal ... We must not let him drift away". Chamberlin oversaw expanded biology course offerings and led insect-collecting trips with students. Chamberlin joined a pair of newly hired brothers on the faculty, Joseph and Henry Peterson, who taught psychology and education. Chamberlin and the two Petersons worked to increase the intellectual standing of the University. In 1909 Chamberlin's own brother William H. Chamberlin was hired to teach philosophy. The four academics, all active members of the Church, were known for teaching modern scientific and philosophic ideas and encouraging lively debate and discussion. The Chamberlins and Petersons held the belief that the theory of evolution was compatible with religious views, and promoted historical criticism of the Bible, the view that the writings contained should be viewed from the context of the time: Ralph Chamberlin published essays in the White and Blue, BYU's student newspaper, arguing that Hebrew legends and historical writings were not to be taken literally. In an essay titled "Some Early Hebrew Legends" Chamberlin concluded: "Only the childish and immature mind can lose by learning that much in the Old Testament is poetical and that some of the stories are not true historically." Chamberlin believed that evolution explained not only the origin of organisms but of human theological beliefs as well. In late 1910, complaints from stake presidents inspired an investigation into the teachings of the professors. Chamberlin's 1911 essay "Evolution and Theological Belief" was considered particularly objectionable by school officials. In early 1911 Ralph Chamberlin and the Peterson brothers were offered a choice to either stop teaching evolution or lose their jobs. The three professors were popular among students and faculty, who denied that the teaching of evolution was destroying their faith. A student petition in support of the professors signed by over 80% of the student body was sent to the administration, and then to local newspapers. Rather than change their teachings, the three accused professors resigned in 1911, while William Chamberlin remained for another five years. In 1910, Chamberlin was elected a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. ### Pennsylvania and Harvard After leaving Brigham Young, Chamberlin was employed as a lecturer and George Leib Harrison Foundation research fellow at the University of Pennsylvania from 1911 to 1913. From March 1913 to December 31, 1925, he was the Curator of Arachnids, Myriapods, and Worms at the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard University, where many of his scientific contributions were made. Here his publications included surveys of all known millipedes of Central America and the West Indies; and descriptions of animals collected by the Canadian Arctic Expedition (1913–1916); by Stanford and Yale expeditions to South America; and by various expeditions of the USS Albatross. He was elected a member of the American Society of Naturalists and the American Society of Zoologists in 1914, and in 1919 served as second vice-president of the Entomological Society of America. He served as a technical expert for the U.S. Horticultural Board and U.S. Biological Survey from 1923 until the mid 1930s. ### Return to Utah Chamberlin returned to the University of Utah in 1925, where he was made head of the departments of zoology and botany. When he arrived, the faculty consisted of one zoologist, one botanist, and an instructor. He soon began expanding the size and diversity of the biology program, and by the time of his retirement the faculty consisted of 16 professors, seven instructors, and three special lecturers. He was the university's most celebrated scientist according to Sterling M. McMurrin, and his course on evolution was among the most popular on campus. He established the journal Biological Series of the University of Utah and supervised the graduate work of several students who would go on to distinguished careers, including Willis J. Gertsch, Wilton Ivie, William H. Behle and Stephen D. Durrant; the latter three would later join Chamberlin as faculty members. From 1930–1939, Chamberlin was secretary-treasurer of the Salt Lake City Mosquito Abatement Board and conducted mosquito surveys of the region, identifying marshes controlled by local hunting clubs as the main source of salt marsh mosquitoes plaguing the city. From 1938-1939 he took a year-long sabbatical, during which he studied in European universities and museums, presided over a section of the International Congresses of Entomology in Berlin, and later studied biology and archaeology in Mexico and South America. In 1942 he received an honorary Doctor of Science from the University of Utah. He retired in 1948, and in 1957, an honor ceremony was held by the Utah Phi Sigma Society in which a portrait of Chamberlin painted by Alvin L. Gittins was donated to the University and a book of commemorative letters produced. In 1960 the University of Utah Alumni Association awarded Chamberlin its Founders Day Award for Distinguished Alumni, the university's highest honor. > Wherever he has been, [Chamberlin] has produced unusual stimulation in students, many becoming imbued with his enthusiasm for the use of accurate, tested knowledge. Many caught the vision of what human life can mean when viewed in the light of man's evolutionary background and interpreted in terms of his emerging intelligence which has outdistanced so many of his animal competitors in the evolutionary race." Chamberlin was noted by colleagues at Utah for being a lifelong champion of the scientific method and instilling in his students ideas that natural processes must be used to explain human existence. Angus and Grace Woodbury wrote that one of his greatest cultural contributions was his ability "to lead the naive student with fixed religious convictions gently around that wide gulf that separated him from the trained scientific mind without pushing him over the precipice of despair and illusion." His influence continued as his students became teachers, gradually increasing societal understanding of evolution and naturalistic perspectives. His colleague and former student Stephen Durrant stated "by word, and especially by precept, he taught us diligence, inquisitiveness, love of truth, and especially scientific honesty". Durrant compared Chamberlin to noted biologists such as Spencer Fullerton Baird and C. Hart Merriam in the scope of his contributions science. ### Personal life and death On July 9, 1899, Chamberlin married Daisy Ferguson of Salt Lake City, with whom he had four children: Beth, Ralph, Della, and Ruth. His first marriage ended in divorce in 1910. On June 28, 1922, he married Edith Simons, also of Salt Lake, and with whom he had six children: Eliot, Frances, Helen, Shirley, Edith, and Martha Sue. His son Eliot became a mathematician and 40-year professor at the University of Utah. Chamberlin's second wife died in 1965, and Chamberlin himself died in Salt Lake City after a short illness on October 31, 1967, at the age of 88. He was survived by his 10 children, 28 grandchildren, and 36 great-grandchildren. ## Research Chamberlin's work includes more than 400 publications spanning over 60 years. The majority of his research concerned the taxonomy of arthropods and other invertebrates, but his work also included titles in folklore, economics, anthropology, language, botany, anatomy, histology, philosophy, education, and history. He was a member of the American Society of Naturalists, Torrey Botanical Club, New York Academy of Sciences, Boston Society of Natural History, Biological Society of Washington, and the Utah Academy of Sciences. ### Taxonomy Chamberlin was a prolific taxonomist of invertebrate animals who named and described over 4,000 species, specializing in the study of arachnids (spiders, scorpions, and their relatives), and myriapods (millipedes, centipedes, and relatives), but also publishing on molluscs, marine worms, and insects. By 1941 he had described at least 2,000 species, and by 1957 had described a total of 4,225 new species, 742 new genera, 28 new families, and 12 orders. Chamberlin's taxonomic publications continued to appear until at least 1966. Chamberlin ranks among the most prolific arachnologists in history. In a 2013 survey of the most prolific spider systematists, Chamberlin ranked fifth in total number of described species (1,475) and eighth in number of species that were still valid (984), i.e. not taxonomic synonyms of previously described species. At the University of Utah Chamberlin co-authored several works with his students Wilton Ivie and Willis J. Gertsch, who would both go on to become notable spider scientists: the "famous duo" of Chamberlin and Ivie described hundreds of species together. Chamberlin described or co-described more than a third of the 621 spiders known to occur in his native Utah. Chamberlin was also a leading expert in North American tarantulas, describing over 60 species. Chamberlin worked with other groups of arachnids as well, including scorpions, harvestmen, and schizomids, and described several pseudoscorpions with his nephew Joseph C. Chamberlin, himself a prominent arachnologist. Among fellow arachnologists, Chamberlin was regarded as influential but not particularly well-liked: in many of his papers co-authored with Ivie, it was Ivie himself who did most of the collecting, and describing, while Chamberlin remained first author, and a 1947 quarrel over recognition led to Ivie abandoning arachnology for many years. When arachnologist Arthur M. Chickering sent Chamberlin a collection of specimens from Panama, Chamberlin never returned them and in fact published on them, which made Chickering reluctant to collaborate with colleagues. Chamberlin is said to have eventually been banned from the Museum of Comparative Zoology by Ernst Mayr in his later years, and after Chamberlin's death his former student Gertsch said "his natural meanness finally got him". Chamberlin's other major area of study was myriapods. He was publishing on centipedes as early as 1901, and between then and around 1960 was the preeminent, if not exclusive, researcher of North American centipedes, responsible for naming the vast majority of North American species, and many from around the world. In addition, he named more than 1,000 species of millipedes, ranking among the three most prolific millipede taxonomists in history. His 1958 "Checklist of the millipeds of North America", a compilation eight years in the making of all records and species north of Mexico, represented nearly a 600% increase in species recorded from the previous such list published over 50 years earlier, although the work itself described no new species. Chamberlin contributed articles on millipedes, pauropods and symphylans to the 1961 edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica. Although a prolific describer of species, his legacy to myriapod taxonomy has been mixed. Many of Chamberlin's descriptions of centipedes and millipedes were often brief and/or unillustrated, or illustrated in ways which hindered their use in identification by other researchers. He described some new species based solely on location, or on subtle leg differences now known to change during molting, and many of Chamberlin's names have subsequently been found to be, or are suspected to be, synonyms of species already described. Biologist Richard Hoffman, who worked with Chamberlin on the 1958 checklist, later described Chamberlin as "an exemplar of minimal taxonomy", and stated his taxonomic work on Central American myriapods "introduced far more problems than progress, a pattern which was to persist for many decades to come". Hoffman wrote Chamberlin was "an admitted 'alpha taxonomist' whose main interest was naming new species", although recognized Chamberlin's work with stone centipedes as pioneering, and of a quality unmatched in Chamberlin's later work. Chamberlin studied not only arthropods but soft-bodied invertebrates as well. He described over 100 new species and 22 new genera of polychaete worms in a two-volume work considered one of the "great monuments" in annelid taxonomy by the former director of the Hopkins Marine Station, and published on Utah's molluscan fauna. He was section editor on sipunculids as well as myriapods for the academic journal database Biological Abstracts. William Behle has noted he also made indirect contributions to ornithology, including leading several multi-day specimen collecting trips and guiding the graduate research of Stephen Durrant, who worked on Utah game birds, and Behle himself, who studied nesting birds of the Great Salt Lake. After Chamberlin's death, his collection of some 250,000 spider specimens was donated to the American Museum of Natural History in New York, bolstering the museum's status as the world's largest arachnid repository. Similarly, his collection of millipedes was deposited in the National Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.C., helping to make that museum the world's largest single collection of millipede type specimens—the individual specimens used to describe species. ### Great Basin cultural studies Early in his career, Chamberlin studied the language and habits of indigenous peoples of the Great Basin. He worked with the Goshute band of the Western Shoshone to document their uses of over 300 plants in food, beverages, medicine, and construction materials—their ethnobotany—as well as the names and meanings of plants in the Goshute language. His resulting publication, "The Ethno-botany of the Gosiute Indians of Utah", is considered the first major ethnobotanical study of a single group of Great Basin peoples. He also published surveys of Goshute animal and anatomical terms, place and personal names, and a compilation of plant names of the Ute people. One of Chamberlin's later colleagues at the University of Utah was Julian Steward, known as the founder of cultural ecology. Steward himself described Chamberlin's work as "splendid", and anthropologist Virginia Kerns writes that Chamberlin's experience with indigenous Great Basin cultures facilitated Steward's own cultural studies: "in terms of ecological knowledge, [Steward's younger informants] probably could not match the elders who had instructed Chamberlin. That made his research on Goshute ethnobotany all the more valuable to Steward." Chamberlin gave Goshute-derived names to some of the organisms he described, such as the spider Pimoa, meaning "big legs", and the worm Sonatsa, meaning "many hooks", in the Goshute language. ### Other works Chamberlin's work extended beyond biology and anthropology to include historical, philosophical, and theological writings. At BYU he published several articles in the student newspaper on topics such as historical criticism of the Bible and the relationship of evolutionary theory with religious beliefs. In 1925, he wrote a biography of his brother William H. Chamberlin, a philosopher and theologian who had died several years earlier. Utah philosopher Sterling McMurrin, stated the biography "had a considerable impact" on his own life, and noted "the fact that the book adequately and persuasively presents W. H. Chamberlin's philosophic thought shows the philosophical competence of Ralph Chamberlin" In 1932, Chamberlin wrote "Life in Other Worlds: a Study in the History of Opinion", one of the earliest surveys from ancient to modern times of the concept of cosmic pluralism, the idea that the universe contains multiple inhabited worlds. After retiring in 1948, Chamberlin devoted significant attention to the history of the University of Utah. In 1949 he edited a biographical tribute to John R. Park, an influential Utah educator of the 19th century. Assembled from comments and reflections from Park's own students, Memories of John Rockey Park was praised by University of Utah English professor B. Roland Lewis, who claimed it "warrants being read by every citizen of [Utah]." Later in his career, Chamberlin produced an authoritative book, The University of Utah, a History of its First Hundred Years, which BYU historian Eugene E. Campbell called "an excellent history of this important western institution." The University of Utah also contains an extensive account of the University of Deseret, the LDS Church-founded university that preceded the University of Utah. ## Religious views > Chamberlin believed wholeheartedly in Darwin's theory of evolution including its least desirable implications such as the brutality of nature implied by natural selection and the descent of man from lower primates. It is also clear that Chamberlin was a devout Mormon ... Chamberlin believed that since science and religion were different parts of one eternal truth they could be reconciled. Chamberlin was a Mormon, an active member of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church). He believed that there should be no animosity between religion and science. Stake President George W. McCune described a 1922 meeting in which Chamberlin testified "to the effect that all his labors and researches in the laboratories of science, while very interesting, and to a great extent satisfying to the intellect, did not satisfy the soul of man, and that he yearned for something more," adding Chamberlin "bore testimony that he knew that ours is the true Church of Jesus Christ." University of Oregon doctoral student Tim S. Reid called Chamberlin clearly devout, however, Sterling McMurrin stated "spiders are different from metaphysics, and I think Ralph was not such a devout Mormon." ## Selected works ### Scientific - (With Wilton Ivie) - (With Richard L. Hoffman) ### Historical & biographical - (With William C. Darrah and Charles Kelly) ## Eponymous taxa The taxa (e.g. genus or species) named after Chamberlin are listed below, followed by author(s) and year of naming, and taxonomic family. Taxa are listed as originally described: subsequent research may have reassigned taxa or rendered some as invalid synonyms of previously named taxa. - Paeromopus chamberlini Brolemann, 1922 - Tibellus chamberlini Gertsch, 1933 (Philodromidae) - Hivaoa chamberlini Berland, 1942 (Tetragnathidae) - Euglena chamberlini D. T. Jones, 1944 (Euglenaceae) - Chondrodesmus chamberlini Hoffman, 1950 (Polydesmida, Chelodesmidae) - Chamberlinia Machado, 1951 (Geophilomorpha, Oryidae) - Haploditha chamberlinorum Caporiacco, 1951 (Tridenchthoniidae) - Rhinocricus chamberlini Schubart, 1951 - Chamberlineptus Causey, 1954 (Spirostreptidae) - Varyomus Hoffman, 1954 (Polydesmida, Euryuridae) - Chamberlinius Wang, 1956 - Haplodrassus chamberlini Platnick & Shadab, 1975 (Gnaphosidae) - Myrmecodesmus chamberlini Shear, 1977 (Pyrgodesmidae) - Aphonopelma chamberlini Smith, 1995 (Theraphosidae) - Mallos chamberlini Bond & Opell, 1997 (Dictynidae) - Pyrgulopsis chamberlini Hershler, 1998 (Hydrobiidae) ## See also - Creation–evolution controversy - Ann Chamberlin, granddaughter - Ecology of the Great Basin - Great Basin Desert - Mormon views on evolution
8,317,764	The Confessions Tour (album)	1,165,032,336	null	[ "2007 live albums", "2007 video albums", "Films directed by Jonas Åkerlund", "Grammy Award for Best Long Form Music Video", "Live video albums", "Madonna live albums", "Madonna video albums", "Warner Records live albums", "Warner Records video albums" ]	The Confessions Tour is the second live album by American singer and songwriter Madonna. It was released on January 26, 2007, by Warner Bros. Records. Directed by Jonas Åkerlund, the album chronicles Madonna's 2006 Confessions Tour and includes the full version of the television broadcast special The Confessions Tour: Live from London. It was recorded at Wembley Arena during the London dates of the tour, and was released in both CD and DVD format. The DVD contains the entire concert and the CD includes thirteen live songs only. The album became the first release from Semtex Films, a production company founded by Madonna in 2006. The Confessions Tour received generally positive reviews from contemporary critics and won the Best Long Form Music Video category at the 50th Grammy Awards. The album reached number one on the official charts in Belgium (Wallonia), Czech Republic, Hungary, Greece, Italy, Mexico, Portugal and Spain and the top-five in most musical markets. It received moderate success in her native country, peaking at number fifteen on the U.S. Billboard 200 albums chart. The DVD reached the top of the video charts in most of the countries it charted, including Australia, Italy, Spain and the United States. Commercially, The Confessions Tour has sold more than 1 million copies worldwide. ## Background Following the 2006 live release I'm Going to Tell You a Secret, Madonna released her second live album, The Confessions Tour. The album was recorded at Wembley Arena on August 15 and 16, 2006, during the London stop of her 2006 Confessions Tour, which was promoting her 2005 studio album Confessions on a Dance Floor. It was the first release from her new production company, Semtex Films and was released in both DVD and CD formats, capturing the tour as directed by Jonas Åkerlund. The DVD release consists of the full twenty-one song set list of the tour, while the CD captures thirteen highlights from the same. The tour was first shown on NBC during the Thanksgiving of 2006. This broadcast was edited, cutting the likes of "Paradise (Not For Me)" and heavily editing the performance of "Live to Tell". Madonna's performance of the latter, while hanging from a glass embellished crucifix and wearing a crown made of thorns on her head, faced strong reaction from the media and religious groups. Asian media and services company Fridae reported that the album was banned in Singapore, Malaysia and parts of East Asia, because of the inclusion of the performances in the DVD. ## Critical reception Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic felt that the CD version of the album was "not all that much fun to hear, even if the reinterpretations of the 20-year-old hits are interesting. The DVD doesn't feel as cold thanks entirely to the pizzazz of the visuals and the determined efficiency of the show, but even so, this is primarily of interest to the diehards who don't mind purchasing another live CD/DVD set just a year after the first." Ed Gonzalez from Slant Magazine felt that the concert finale in the album "is a reminder that Madonna's music need not be motivated by sex or politics to be good as long as it displays a smidgen of heart and soul." Thomas Inskeep from Stylus Magazine also complimented the finale of the tour. According to him, "[The Confessions Tour] is almost exclusively up-tempo, staged within an inch of its life yet more vivacious than anything she's done in years. Its CD companion is a pared-down 13 tracks taken from the live show, and good God it smokes." However, he felt that the disc loses its momentum during the "Confessions" part, which demonstrates a trio of individuals confessing about their sufferings in life. Jody Rosen from Entertainment Weekly commented that "Madonna must be seen as well as heard, as the video portion of this CD/DVD proves". Chuck Campbell from Quad-City Times said "the CD is handy, blocking out the DVD's distracting images so fans can concentrate on the music at the heart of Madonna's success". He further describes that the CD/DVD combo "fills in the blanks left by I'm Going to Tell You a Secret". Tom Young from BBC Music said that he did not see the actual performances on the tour and felt that "some of the magnitude of the performance is lost and the track/scene changes appear needlessly long-winded. [...] As far as live albums go, this is a job well done." Stephen M. Deusner from Pitchfork gave a negative review for the album, stating "Madonna herself is mostly to blame. On stage, she draws from a deep well of amazing pop songs and has the money and power to reinvent this sort of traveling circus. So why not try to break down the wall between performance and audience and hold a gigantic rave? [...] Åkerlund gives you everything you don't want from a concert film: incessant quick cuts that you give you no sense of space or stage, overdubbed music and vocals that give you no sense of performance, and only a few shots of the audience to gauge their excitement." Mini Anthikad-Chhibber The Hindu commented that "Madonna pulls out all stops in this effort turn the world into a dance floor and one just has to doff one's hat to her energy." At the 50th Grammy Awards held on February 10, 2008, at Staples Center in Los Angeles, The Confessions Tour won in the category of Grammy Award for Best Long Form Music Video. ## Commercial performance The Confessions Tour has sold more than 1 million copies worldwide. In the United States, the album debuted at number 15 on the Billboard 200 chart with first week sales of 40,000 according to Nielsen SoundScan. In Canada, it debuted at number two on the Canadian Albums Chart. The same position was attained in Argentina, where was certified Gold by the Cámara Argentina de Productores de Fonogramas y Videogramas (CAPIF) for shipments of 20,000 copies. In the same country, the DVD also proved to be successful, ending as one of the best-selling records of 2008 and receiving a Platinum certification in two different formats. The album topped the charts in Mexico, and attained the number four position in Brazil. The Confessions Tour was not able to enter the official ARIA Albums Chart, but debuted at number-one on the Australian Top 40 DVD chart, on the issue dated February 12, 2007. At the year end Australian chart for 2007, The Confessions Tour became the 27th best selling DVD in Australia. The album was certified Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA), for shipment of 15,000 copies in DVD units. In New Zealand, the album entered at number 23. In Japan, the album reached a peak of number ten on the Oricon weekly albums chart and was present on the chart for twelve weeks. In Hong Kong, it was awarded a Gold Disc Award by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry for becoming one of ten biggest-selling international album for 2007. Across Europe The Confessions Tour reached the top of the charts in Belgium (Wallonia), Czech Republic, Italy, Portugal and Spain, while reaching the top ten of the rest of the European nations. In the United Kingdom, it debuted at number seven on the UK Albums Chart with 22,227 copies, while in Norway, the album just missed the top ten of the charts. In Czech Republic, the album remained for three weeks at the number-one position and had sold 7,582 units there, as of February 2008. In Netherlands, 35,000 copies of the album were shipped. The commercial success in Europe enabled the album to debut at position two on Billboard's European Top 100 Albums chart, behind Norah Jones' studio album Not Too Late. ## Track listing Notes - "Music Inferno" includes "The Duck Mixes the Hits" medley video interlude. ### Formats - CD/DVD – double disc digipak edition containing the live DVD and the live CD. - DVD – DVD keep case packed with the DVD. - Digital download – The live film and 15 audio performances, including the bonus tracks "Ray of Light" and "Get Together." ## Personnel Credits adapted from The Confessions Tour CD liner notes: - Director – Jonas Åkerlund - Production company – Semtex Films, Semtex TV Productions - Producer – Sara Martin - Executive producers – Madonna, Angela Becker, Guy Oseary and John Payne - Photography – Eric Broms - Film editing – Jonas Åkerlund, Philip Richardson, Johan Söderberg and Danny Tull - Costume designer – Jean-Paul Gaultier and Arianne Phillips ## Charts ### Album ### Year-end album charts ### DVD ### Monthly charts ### Year-end DVD charts ### All-time DVD charts ## Certifications and sales !colspan="3"\\|Album \\|- !colspan="3"\\|DVD \\|- ## See also - List of number-one hits of 2007 (Italy) - List of number-one albums of 2007 (Portugal) - List of number-one albums of 2007 (Spain)
54,062,299	Spanish conquest of El Salvador	1,170,571,530	Campaign undertaken by the Spanish conquistadores	[ "16th century in Central America", "16th-century conflicts", "History of Mesoamerica", "Military history of El Salvador", "Native American genocide", "Spanish conquest of Central America", "Wars involving El Salvador", "Wars involving Spain" ]	The Spanish conquest of El Salvador was the campaign undertaken by the Spanish conquistadores against the Late Postclassic Mesoamerican polities in the territory that is now incorporated into the modern Central American country of El Salvador. El Salvador is the smallest country in Central America, and is dominated by two mountain ranges running east–west. Its climate is tropical, and the year is divided into wet and dry seasons. Before the conquest the country formed a part of the Mesoamerican cultural region, and was inhabited by a number of indigenous peoples, including the Pipil, the Lenca, the Xinca, and Maya. Native weaponry consisted of spears, bows and arrows, and wooden swords with inset stone blades; they wore padded cotton armour. The Spanish conquistadores were largely volunteers, receiving the spoils of victory instead of a salary; many were experienced soldiers who had already campaigned in Europe. The Spanish expeditions to Central America were launched from three different Spanish jurisdictions, resulting in rival conquests by mutually hostile Spanish captains. Spanish weaponry included swords, firearms, crossbows and light artillery. Metal armour was impractical in the hot, humid climate of Central America and the Spanish were quick to adopt the quilted cotton armour of the natives. The conquistadors were supported by a large number of Indian auxiliaries drawn from previously encountered Mesoamerican groups. The first campaign against the native inhabitants was undertaken in 1524 by Pedro de Alvarado. Alvarado launched his expedition against the Pipil province of Cuzcatlan, also known as Nequepio, from the Guatemalan Highlands, but by July 1524 he had retreated back to Guatemala. Gonzalo de Alvarado founded San Salvador the following year, but it was eradicated by a native attack in 1526, during a general uprising that spread across the region. Pedro de Alvarado returned to campaign in El Salvador in 1526 and 1528, and in the latter year, Diego de Alvarado reestablished San Salvador and issued encomiendas to his supporters. In 1528, the uprising finally ended when the Spanish stormed the native stronghold at the Peñol de Cinacantan. In 1529, El Salvador became embroiled in a jurisdictional dispute with neighbouring Nicaragua. Pedrarias Dávila sent Martín de Estete at the head of an expedition to annex the territory to Nicaragua. Estete captured the leader of a rival Spanish expedition in eastern El Salvador, and marched on San Salvador, before being repulsed by a relief force sent from Guatemala. In 1530, Pedro de Alvarado ordered the establishment of a new settlement at San Miguel, in the east of the country, to protect against further incursions from Nicaragua and to assist in the conquest of the surrounding area. Indigenous uprisings against the invaders continued, spreading from neighbouring Honduras. The general uprising across the two provinces was put down by the end of 1538, and by 1539 the province was considered pacified. The conquistadores discovered that there was little gold or silver to be found in El Salvador, and it became a colonial backwater with a small Spanish population, within the jurisdiction of the Captaincy General of Guatemala. ## El Salvador before the conquest Before the conquest, El Salvador formed a part of the Mesoamerican cultural region. The central and western portions of the territory were inhabited by the Pipil, a Nahua people culturally related to the Aztecs of Mexico. The Pipil were divided into three main provinces in El Salvador; the two largest were Cuscatlan and Izalco, while Nonualco was the smallest of the three. Cuscatlan extended from the Paz River in the west to the Lempa River in the east. Izalco lay to the southwest of Cuscatlan and was subservient to it on the eve of the Spanish conquest; its territory is now incorporated into the modern departments of Ahuachapan and Sonsonate. The Nonualco area is in the region of La Paz centered around the city of Zacatecoluca. Other indigenous groups with territories in El Salvador were the Ch'orti' and the Poqomam (both of these were Maya peoples), the Lenca, the Xinca, the Kakawira, the Mangue, and the Matagalpa. The Postclassic Maya and Pipil cities were relatively small by Mesoamerican standards, especially when compared with the great Maya cities of the earlier Classic period (c. 250–950 AD). The Lenca occupied territory to the east of the Lempa River, where their principal kingdom was Chaparrastique. Chaparrastique extended across territory now incorporated into the departments of La Unión, Morazán, and San Miguel. The Ch'orti' and Poqomam occupied territories in the west near the present day border of Guatemala. The extreme east of El Salvador was occupied by the Mangue, with the Matagalpa in the southeast. The population of the entire territory of El Salvador is variously estimated between 130,000 and 1,000,000 at the time of the conquest; the low-mid estimates within this range are more likely. The three principal kingdoms of Cuscatlan, Izalco, and Chaparrastique engaged in regular warfare, and smaller groups occasionally rebelled against their larger neighbours. There was flourishing trade, with cacao as the principal commodity, although maize, cotton, and balsam were also traded. ### Native weaponry and tactics The Pipil used wooden weapons with stone blades. Their weapons included long spears, atlatls (spear-throwers), arrows, and the macana (a wooden sword with inset obsidian blades similar to the Aztec macahuitl). These weapons proved inferior to elements of Spanish warfare such as steel, the horse and firearms. The Spanish described how the natives of El Salvador wore thick cotton armour, described as three fingers thick, that extended down to their feet and significantly encumbered them. After the first two large-scale battles between the Spanish and Pipil armies resulted in decisive victories for the European invaders, the natives preferred to flee their settlements at their approach rather than face the conquistadors on an open battlefield. A common tactic of the natives was to concentrate themselves in strongly defended mountaintop fortresses. ## Background to the conquest Christopher Columbus discovered the New World for the Kingdom of Castile and Leon in 1492. Private adventurers thereafter entered into contracts with the Spanish Crown to conquer the newly discovered lands in return for tax revenues and the power to rule. The Spanish founded Santo Domingo on the Caribbean island of Hispaniola in the 1490s. In the first decades after the discovery of the new lands, the Spanish colonised the Caribbean and established a centre of operations on the island of Cuba. In the first two decades of the 16th century, the Spanish established their domination over the islands of the Caribbean Sea, and used these as a staging point to launch their campaigns of conquest on the continental mainland of the Americas. From Hispaniola, the Spanish launched expeditions and campaigns of conquest, reaching Puerto Rico in 1508, Jamaica in 1509, Cuba in 1511, and Florida in 1513. The Spanish heard rumours of the rich empire of the Aztecs on the mainland to the west of their Caribbean island settlements and, in 1519, Hernán Cortés set sail to explore the Mexican coast. By August 1521 the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan had fallen to the Spanish. The Spanish conquered a large part of Mexico within three years, extending as far south as the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. The newly conquered territory became New Spain, headed by a viceroy who answered to the Spanish Crown via the Council of the Indies. The conquest of Central America that followed was effectively an extension of the campaign that overthrew the Aztec Empire. ## Conquistadors The conquistadors were all volunteers, the majority of whom did not receive a fixed salary but instead a portion of the spoils of victory, in the form of precious metals, land grants and provision of native labour. Many of the Spanish were already experienced soldiers who had previously campaigned in Europe. A sizeable portion of the Spanish conquistadors were from the southwestern regions of Spain, with their origins in Andalusia and Extremadura. Up to 1519, according to licenses issued in Spain, over half were from these two regions. From 1520 to 1539, this fell to just under half of all conquistadors leaving Spain. The conquest of the Central American Isthmus was launched from three directions; Mexico, Panama, and the Caribbean island of Hispaniola. Relations between rival conquistadors were dominated by mutual distrust, greed, and envy. The conquistadors were accompanied by a great many indigenous allies. These included Tlaxcaltecs, Mexicas, Cholutecs, Xochimilcos, Texcocanos, and Huejotzincas that accompanied Pedro de Alvarado from central Mexico, Zapotecs and Mixtecs that joined him as he marched south towards Guatemala and El Salvador, and Kaqchikels that joined him in Guatemala. A key strategy was the establishment of colonial towns across the territories that underwent the process of conquest and colonisation; they were used to project Spanish power over the surrounding countryside. The Spanish were particularly horrified by the Mesoamerican religious practice of human sacrifice, prompting them to attempt to eradicate the native religion. ### Spanish weapons and armour The steel sword was the greatest Spanish advantage in terms of weaponry. The conquistadors employed broadswords, rapiers, firearms (including the arquebus), crossbows and light artillery such as the falconet. An important Spanish advantage was the use of war horses; their deployment often terrified the native inhabitants of the Americas, who had never seen horses until European contact. As important as the physical advantage given to a mounted conquistador was the ability to rapidly move bodies of troops across a battlefield to outmaneuver their opponents, who were exclusively on foot. Repeated mounted charges could have a devastating impact on massed native infantry. The Spanish also employed fierce war dogs in battle. When laying siege to native fortresses, they would on occasion build wooden siege engines padded with cotton armour, which would act to shield attackers from enemy missiles, and allow them to climb over any fortifications. Mounted conquistadors were armed with a 3.7-metre (12 ft) lance, that also served as a pike for infantrymen. A variety of halberds and bills were also employed. As well as the one-handed broadsword, a 1.7-metre (5.5 ft) long two-handed version was also used. Crossbows had 0.61-metre (2 ft) arms stiffened with hardwoods, horn, bone and cane, and supplied with a stirrup to facilitate drawing the string with a crank and pulley. Crossbows were easier to maintain than matchlocks, especially in a humid tropical climate. Metal armour was of limited use in the hot, wet tropical climate. It was heavy and had to be constantly cleaned to prevent rusting; in direct sunlight, metal armour became unbearably hot. Conquistadores often went without metal armour, or only donned it immediately prior to battle. They were quick to adopt quilted cotton armour based upon that used by their native opponents, and commonly combined this with the use of a simple metal war hat. Shields were considered essential by both infantry and cavalry; generally this was a circular target shield, convex in form and fashioned from iron or wood. Rings secured it to the arm and hand. ## Impact of Old World diseases Diseases introduced to the Americas by the conquistadors had a great impact upon indigenous populations. As the Spanish were occupied with the conquest of Mexico, these diseases ran ahead of them from 1519 onwards. A smallpox epidemic swept through Guatemala in 1520–1521, and is also likely to have spread throughout the Pipil region of El Salvador. By the time the Spanish arrived in the area in 1524, it is estimated that up to 50% of the native population of El Salvador had already been eliminated by the new diseases, against which they had no immunity. It is likely that disease had significantly weakened the Pipil by the time they fielded large armies against the Spanish at Acajutla and Tacuzcalco. Further waves of epidemic diseases spread across Mesoamerica in 1545–1548, and again in 1576–1581, reducing indigenous populations to just 10% of their pre-contact levels, making successful resistance against the European colonisers extremely difficult. The deadliest of the newly introduced diseases were smallpox, malaria, measles, typhus, and yellow fever. Their introduction was catastrophic in the Americas; it is estimated that 90% of the indigenous population had been eliminated by disease within the first century of European contact. ## Spanish discovery of El Salvador Gil González Dávila and Andrés Niño first explored the coast of El Salvador in 1522 as they sailed northwest along the Pacific coast of Central America from Panama, and briefly landed in the Bay of Fonseca. El Salvador fell in a frontier region between rival conquests launched southward from Mexico under the command of Hernán Cortés and his trusted lieutenant Pedro de Alvarado, and northward from Panama under the command of Pedrarias Dávila. ## Conquest The territory now incorporated into El Salvador was not politically unified at the time of Spanish contact. As with neighbouring regions, this hindered the progress of incorporation into the Spanish Empire, as each small kingdom had to be overcome in turn; this contrasted with Mexico where a large empire had been rapidly overcome with the fall of its capital, Tenochtitlan. As Spanish authority gradually spread out from Mexico and Panama, this left El Salvador in an intermediate region temporarily beyond Spanish control. Spanish colonial towns were founded according to the whim of individual conquistadors, with no formal planning of their location or of communication routes between them, often leaving them isolated. In 1548, El Salvador was formally placed within the jurisdiction of the Audiencia Real of Guatemala, which extended along the Central American isthmus from Chiapas, now in southern Mexico, to Costa Rica. ### First expeditions, 1524–1528 Pedro de Alvarado entered El Salvador from Guatemala in the rain season of 1524, leading an army of 250 Spaniards, 100 of which were mounted, and 5,000 Guatemalan allies. The invaders overcame the natives in pitched battles and fought off guerrilla attacks on their forces. Alvarado crossed the Río Paz from Guatemala on 6 June 1524, and arrived at Mopicalco, in what is now the department of Ahuachapán, to find it abandoned. They continued to Acatepeque, where the inhabitants had also fled the approaching Spanish expedition. #### Battle of Acajutla, 1524 From Acatepeque, the Spanish expedition proceeded to Acajutla, on the Pacific coast. On 8 June 1524, they met with a massed native force, arrayed for battle half a league (approximately 2 kilometres (1.2 mi)) beyond the settlement. Alvarado's army initially approached close to the waiting warriors, before feigning a retreat towards a nearby hill. The native forces pursued for a quarter of a league, arriving within bow-shot of the invaders, at which point Alvarado ordered both cavalry and infantry to charge. In the battle that followed, the defending natives were killed to a man. Alvarado described how the natives were so encumbered by their thick cotton armour and their weapons, that when they fell they were unable to stand back up to defend themselves. Many Spaniards were wounded in the battle, and Alvarado was seriously injured by an arrow that passed through his leg, he needed much time to recover and was left with a permanent limp. The Spanish rested in Acajutla for five days after the battle, in order to rest and recover from their wounds. #### Battle of Tacuzcalco, 1524 Six days after the battle, Alvarado marched northeast searching for the city of Tacuzcalco, some 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) from Acajutla, in the modern department of Sonsonate. Pedro de Portocarrero led a group of mounted scouts that managed to capture two native lookouts, from whom they learned that a large native army had gathered near the city, with forces gathered from the surrounding area. The Spanish scouts advanced until they found the enemy, then waited for the vanguard of forty cavalry led by Gonzalo de Alvarado. Pedro de Alvarado was travelling in the rearguard, slowed by his wounds. Alvarado watched the battle unfold from a nearby viewpoint, and left command in the hands of his brothers. He sent Gómez de Alvarado with twenty cavalry to attack the left flank, and Gonzalo de Alvarado with thirty cavalry against the right flank. He sent Jorge de Alvarado with the rest of his men against a mass of warriors that was still distant but they stood off for a time, believing that the two forces were separated by a swamp. As soon as the Spanish discovered that the apparent swamp was in fact solid ground, they charged the enemy and routed them, killing a great many. After this battle, the Pipil refused to confront the Spanish upon an open battlefield, and resorted to guerilla tactics. #### Retreat to Guatemala, 1524 Alvarado rested two days at Tazuzcalco, before proceeding to Miahuaclan, which had been abandoned by its inhabitants, then on to Atehuan (modern Ateos, near the Pipil city of Cuzcatlan, capital of the province of the same name). Messengers from the lords of Cuzcatlan brought promises of submission to the King of Spain, but when Pedro de Alvarado's army arrived at the city, he found that the majority of the inhabitants had fled. Alvarado sent messengers to them, ordering them to return and submit, but they refused. Alvarado tried them in their absence, and condemned them to death; he branded all the Pipil prisoners as slaves. Although the Spanish had won decisive victories at Sonsonate and Acajutla, they failed to take the fortified Pipil cities of Cuzcatlan and Izalco. Alvarado was informed that extensive lands lay ahead, with difficult terrain, many cities, and large populations. Frustrated by the lack of progress, Alvarado withdrew to Guatemala to regroup, with the intention of returning in the dry season; He had been in the province of Cuzcatlan for seventeen days, and left it at the end of June 1524. #### Founding of San Salvador Gonzalo de Alvarado founded the settlement of Villa de San Salvador in early 1525, before May of that year, but it was attacked and destroyed by natives in 1526, during a general Pipil uprising that engulfed the province of Cuzcatlan. Diego de Alvarado, who was Pedro de Alvarado's cousin, was sent to reconquer Cuzcatlan in the same year; he was accompanied by 300 Indian auxiliaries from Soconusco, 160 of whom died in the campaign. He was joined by Pedro de Alvarado after the latter returned from an expedition to Chiapas. By 1526, the territory of El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras was racked by indigenous wars against the Spanish invaders. Izalco did not join the general uprising, having been militarily exhausted by the battles of Acajutla and Tacuzcalco. The campaign that followed lasted two years, during which the Spanish battled continually against indigenous resistance. During this time, the natives defended themselves from fortified mountain strongholds. Pedro de Alvarado undertook further expeditions to El Salvador in 1526 and 1528. In 1528, the conquest of Cuzcatlan was completed, with the aid of a significant body of Nahua allies from central and southern Mexico. On 1 April 1528, Diego de Alvarado reestablished San Salvador, and distributed encomienda rights among his supporters. This site is now known as Ciudad Vieja, and is situated 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) south of Suchitoto. The location may have been chosen because it occupied a no-man's-land between the territory of the Pipil to the west, the Lenca to the east, and the Ch'orti' to the north. For the first few years, San Salvador was a frontier town under the constant threat of indigenous attack. Soon after the town was re-founded, a Spaniard and some indigenous auxiliaries were killed when visiting a nearby settlement. #### Battle of Cinacantan, 1528 The uprising around San Salvador was put down about a month later, when the Spanish stormed the mountaintop stronghold at Cinacantan, 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) south of the modern town of Tamanique. The hostile natives had retreated to their stronghold after their earlier attack. The uprising was considered the first native rebellion in Cuzcatlan, since the initial invasion had already taken place, and San Salvador founded as a Spanish town. A Spanish column was despatched from San Salvador, led by Diego de Alvarado and supported by indigenous auxiliaries. They found three or four allied native groups had set up a defensive position upon the strongly fortified Peñol de Cinacantan ("Rock of Cinacantan", now known as Cerro Redondo); at least one of the groups was Pipil, and possibly all of them. The sides of the fortress were shear, except for a single approach that was strongly defended. As the Spanish party attempted to storm the fortress, the natives threw rocks down upon them, and showered them with arrows and spears. On the first day, Spanish assaults were twice beaten back. Seeing that the fortress could not easily be taken, the Spanish built a wooden siege engine, which greatly impressed the defenders. One of the native lords called a truce and asked the Spanish to return to San Salvador, and promised that the rebellious Indians would arrive to swear loyalty to the King of Spain. The attackers believed this to be a trick, and launched a new attack using their newly built siege tower. They breached the fortifications and killed many of the defenders, while many others fled in terror. Once the fortress had fallen, the defeated Pipil defenders were given in encomienda to the inhabitants of San Salvador; the inhabitants were probably reduced to Tamanique. ### Inter-Spanish rivalry, 1529–1530 In 1529, Pedrarias Dávila sent an expedition led by Martín de Estete to annex the territory of El Salvador to his domains in neighbouring Nicaragua, going so far as to distribute the unconquered natives of the Gulf of Fonseca in encomienda to his followers. At the time, Diego de Rojas was in command of the Spanish forces attempting to pacify indigenous resistance centred on Popocatepet. In January or February 1530, Martín de Estete captured Rojas, and marched on San Salvador, but was unable to gain the support of the residents there, and set up camp at Perulapan (modern San Martín Perulapán), just to the south, which he called Ciudad de los Caballeros ("City of the Knights"). The acting governor of Guatemala, Francisco de Orduña, sent his captain Francisco López at the head of an expedition to drive out the interlopers. López left Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala in March 1530 with thirty cavalry, and an unspecified body of infantry. The residents of San Salvador rose up in arms to join the relief force; Estete abandoned his camp and retreated towards Nicaragua, taking with him 2,000 enslaved Cuzcatlecos. López pursued Estete and caught up with his forces after crossing the Lempa River. Estete and his second-in-command fled for Nicaragua, and his soldiers surrendered to López. Diego de Rojas was freed, and the slaves recovered. This intervention put an end to Pedrarias Dávila's hopes of securing El Salvador as part of Nicaragua. ### Eastern El Salvador, 1530–1538 In order to defend against further rival Spanish incursions from the southeast, Pedro de Alvarado established the Spanish town of San Miguel, which he also used as a base of operations for attacks against the Lenca. A Spanish force commanded by Luis de Moscoso Alvarado, consisting of about 120 Spanish cavalry, accompanied by infantry and Indian auxiliaries, crossed the Lempa River and founded San Miguel on 21 November 1530. In addition to the Spanish colonists, the settlement included Mexica and Tlaxcalan allies, among other Indian auxiliaries. Most of the Spanish population of San Miguel abandoned El Salvador with Pedro de Alvarado when he set out on his expedition to Peru. Cristóbal de la Cueva, under orders from Jorge de Alvarado in Guatemala, had entered Honduras with about 40 men to establish a new port and road to Guatemala, and to put down a native uprising there. He was challenged by Andrés de Cerezeda, governor of Honduras, and eventually marched south to San Miguel with his men, bringing an urgently needed influx of new colonists. San Miguel was refounded as San Miguel de la Frontera by Cristóbal de la Cueva on 15 April 1535. De la Cueva brought the area back within the jurisdiction of Guatemala, although the governor of Honduras vigorously protested. Eastern El Salvador, centred on the town of San Miguel, became the Province of San Miguel, which included the territory of the pre-Columbian province of Chaparrastique. In early 1537, San Miguel was isolated by a general Lenca uprising that spread south from Honduras. A native army laid siege to San Miguel over the course of three days from 27 March. Their surprise attack caught many of the inhabitants defenceless, and 50–60 Spanish colonists were killed, more than half of the Spaniards then resident in the town. After three days the attackers were repulsed by reinforcements that were passing through from Guatemala en route to Peru, with the help of a detachment from San Salvador under the command of Antonio de Quintanilla. This uprising enveloped the territory of El Salvador, led by the Lenca ruler Lempira, and focused upon the Peñol de Cerquín, about 80 kilometres (50 mi) north of San Salvador, within Honduras. Francisco de Montejo, then governor of Honduras, urgently appealed to San Salvador for reinforcements and supplies. Montejo sent twenty Spaniards supported by native auxiliaries south towards the Valley of Xocorro, within the jurisdictional claim of San Miguel, but a scouting party was captured by the Spaniards resident there, and Montejo's column withdrew back to Honduras; en route to Comayagua they were attacked by a Lenca force, and killed almost to a man. The inhabitants of San Salvador, alarmed by the uprising engulfing the region, responded by sending a great quantity of weapons, armour, gunpowder, and other supplies to Francisco de Montejo in Honduras. They also sent 100 Indian auxiliaries, with 1,000 native porters. Further supplies were forthcoming from the embattled residents of San Miguel. By the end of 1538, Lempira's stronghold had been taken by the Spanish, and Montejo crossed from Honduras to San Miguel to assist in putting down continued indigenous resistance in the district. ## Colonial organisation By 1539, the Spanish advances in El Salvador were sufficient that Cuzcatlan was considered fully pacified. In the immediate aftermath of the Spanish conquest, the conquistadors sought wealth through slaving and mining, but both of these industries soon faltered, and the colonists instead turned to agriculture. In 1545, San Salvador was moved to its current location, and on 27 September 1546, it was elevated in status to a city. El Salvador originally formed three administrative divisions, those of Sonsonate (Izalcos), San Salvador (Cuzcatlan), and San Miguel. Sonsonate was an alcaldía mayor, while San Salvador, San Miguel, and Choluteca (now in Honduras) formed the alcaldía mayor of San Salvador. From 1524, all of these fell within the jurisdiction of Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala. In 1542, this jurisdiction was reorganised as the Real Audiencia de Guatemala, and later the Captaincy General of Guatemala. Ecclesiastically, all of El Salvador fell within the Roman Catholic diocese of Guatemala. The native inhabitants of the Izalco region of El Salvador, famed for its prodigious production of cacao, were among the most heavily exploited in the whole Spanish Empire. By the end of the 16th century, this had led to the collapse of cacao production in the province. ## Historical sources The Annals of the Cakchiquels, an indigenous document from the Guatemalan Highlands, contains an account of Pedro de Alvarado's initial incursion into El Salvador. Pedro de Alvarado wrote four letters to Hernán Cortés describing his conquest of Guatemala and El Salvador, of which two survive. One of these relates his expedition into El Salvador, with an eye to military detail. It is of particular use in its description of tactics and weaponry, although it is disdainful of the native culture. ## See also - Atlácatl - Spanish conquest of Guatemala - Spanish conquest of Honduras - Spanish conquest of Nicaragua
38,802,442	Symphonic Odysseys	1,093,282,759	Concert of music from video games by Nobuo Uematsu	[ "2011 live albums", "Square Enix", "Video game concert tours" ]	Symphonic Odysseys: Tribute to Nobuo Uematsu was a symphonic tribute concert first held in Cologne, Germany on July 9, 2011 at the Cologne Philharmonic Hall. The concert exclusively paid homage to the work of Japanese composer Nobuo Uematsu and featured music selected from his works as a video game music composer. Among the games featured were Lost Odyssey, Blue Dragon, Last Story, King's Knight, Chrono Trigger, Final Fantasy Legend, and selected works from the Final Fantasy series. The concert was produced and directed by Thomas Böcker, with arrangements provided by Finnish composer and musician Jonne Valtonen, along with Roger Wanamo, Masashi Hamauzu, and Jani Laaksonen. The concert was performed by the WDR Rundfunkorchester Köln and the WDR Radio Choir Cologne under conduction from Arnie Roth, with guest performers Benyamin Nuss and Juraj Čižmarovič joining the orchestra. A video recording of Symphonic Odysseys was streamed live online. The concert was initially scheduled for a single performance, but after selling out within twelve hours a second concert was added prior in the same day in Cologne. This too sold out, resulting in a total attendance of over 4000. In June 2017, the London Symphony Orchestra and the London Symphony Chorus performed Symphonic Odysseys under the baton of Eckehard Stier, with guest performer Mischa Cheung. The first concert took place on 18 June at the Philharmonie de Paris in Paris, France, the second on 20 June at the Barbican Centre in London, United Kingdom. Same as in Cologne years before, Nobuo Uematsu was present at both events as guest of honour. A recording of the concerts in Cologne was published as a two-disc album on December 28, 2011 by Dog Ear Records, Uematsu's own record label. The albums, along with the concerts themselves, received varied reviews, with some critics giving enthusiastic praise, especially in regards to the quality of the performance, the choice of source material, and the quality of the arrangements, while one critic greatly disliked several of the arrangements. ## Concert ### Production Thomas Böcker and then WDR Symphony Orchestra Cologne director Winfried Fechner began collaborating on orchestrated video game concerts in 2007, after Fechner had attended the Fifth Symphonic Game Music Concert held in Leipzig. As their ideas and plans materialized, three projects were set in motion to determine the interest of a younger audience in classical music performance and the aptitude of the WDR orchestra in focusing on a new source of compositions. The first project was PROMS: That's Sound, That's Rhythm, held in early 2008, featuring a mixture of classical works and video game music, ranging from works by Ralph Vaughan Williams and Morton Gould as well as arrangements of music from video games such as Shenmue and Castlevania previously featured in the Symphonic Game Music Concerts. The second project, held in August 2008, was a composer-specific concert titled Symphonic Shades – Hülsbeck in Concert, focusing entirely on the works of German video game composer Chris Hülsbeck, while the third project was a concert of music from the video games by Square Enix titled Symphonic Fantasies: Music from Square Enix, held in September 2009. A third "Symphonic" concert, Symphonic Legends – Music from Nintendo, was then held in September 2010, and afterwards Böcker decided to have one final production to close out the "Symphonic" series. The fourth concert was first announced by Winfried Fechner in March 2010 as Symphonic Odysseys - Uematsu in Concert, with the subtitle later changed to "Tribute to Nobuo Uematsu". The sole composer featured in the concert is Nobuo Uematsu, a Japanese video game composer best known for his work at Square Enix, who is considered one of the most famous and respected composers in the video game community. He has composed the music for dozens of video games, including the majority of the Final Fantasy series, and his compositions had been a significant component of the Symphonic Fantasies concert. Böcker has said that he considers Uematsu to be "the most famous composer of video game music and in general one of the most influential", and that Uematsu's 20020220 - Music from Final Fantasy concert in 2002 was a big influence on his own concerts. The decision to focus the event on Uematsu was made in part due to Uematsu's own desire to one day hear a concert based on his compositions as a whole; he was also very interested in hearing more experimental arrangements of his pieces than have been done in the past after watching the Symphonic Fantasies concert. A website was set up for news and updates on the concert, including video messages from Nobuo Uematsu himself. Tickets for the concert went on sale on December 1, 2010, and were sold out within 12 hours, prompting the addition of a second performance to be held earlier in the afternoon of the same day. This too sold out, resulting in a total attendance of over 4000. Third and fourth performances were held almost six years later on June 18, 2017 in Paris, and June 20, 2017 in London, both by the London Symphony Orchestra. Jonne Valtonen and Roger Wanamo, the arrangers for the Symphonic Fantasies and Symphonic Legends concerts, returned as the lead arrangers for the concert. Additional arrangements were made by Jani Laaksonen and Masashi Hamauzu, and Mikko Laine served as the lyricist for the choral components of the concert. Uematsu was not involved in any aspect of the production, even song selection, as he wanted to be surprised by the result. The style of arrangements followed in the tradition of the shows preceding Symphonic Odysseys, featuring a number of rich, sophisticated suites structured for melodic storytelling. A focus was put on presenting a balanced mix of fan favorites as well as lesser known material that was not commonly performed in orchestra concerts based on video game music. Böcker styled the concert to be a mix of Shades and Fantasies, in that there was a mix of shorter pieces with longer suites. The titles chosen to be featured in the concert were the Final Fantasy series, King's Knight, Chrono Trigger, the SaGa series, The Last Story, Blue Dragon, and Lost Odyssey. Additionally, Uematsu composed an original fanfare to open the concert, which was arranged by Jonne Valtonen. ### Show The first two concerts were held on July 9, 2011, at 3:00 and 8:00 pm, at the Cologne Philharmonic Hall in Cologne, Germany. Symphonic Odysseys was performed by the WDR Rundfunkorchester Köln and the WDR Radio Choir Cologne, conducted by Arnie Roth. Nobuo Uematsu was in attendance, and Ralph Erdenberger served as the presenter. The concert was also broadcast live online. The concert was divided into two acts separated by an intermission, with the first act focusing on Uematsu's earlier works and the second act made up of material composed in the later parts of his career. The event was initiated by the original opening fanfare composed by Uematsu followed by a nearly nineteen-minute-long piano concerto of Final Fantasy music from the first six titles in the series, presented in 3 movements: "Grave - Allegro", "Adagio Cantabile", and "Allegro Molto". The piano was played by Benyamin Nuss. The placement of the piece was a throwback to Nuss's performance at Symphonic Fantasies, where he also performed a piano concerto at the beginning of the concert. The concerto was the one that Wanamo was most excited about arranging for the concert. It was followed by arrangements of individual pieces from King's Knight, Chrono Trigger, the SaGa series, and Final Fantasy X. After a brief intermission, the second act was started by arrangements of pieces from The Last Story, Final Fantasy XIV and Blue Dragon. The Blue Dragon piece featured a violin performance by Juraj Čižmarovič, who also performed at the Symphonic Legends concert. They were followed by a suite of music from Lost Odyssey to round out the second half of the concert, which lasted twenty minutes. The concert was extended by two encore performances featuring Benyamin Nuss on piano; the first was an arrangement from Final Fantasy X, and the second a suite of battle music from Final Fantasy VII. The programme of the performances by the London Symphony Orchestra and the London Symphony Chorus differed only slightly from the first performance in Cologne. Conducted by Eckehard Stier and with guest performer Mischa Cheung, the concerts took place on 18 and 20 June, 2017, at the Philharmonie de Paris in Paris, France and on 20 June at the Barbican Centre in London, United Kingdom. ### Set List ## Album The concert in Cologne was recorded and released as an album titled Symphonic Odysseys by Dog Ear Records, Nobuo Uematsu's recording label. It was announced to be in production on October 26, 2011, and released on December 28, 2011. The artwork for the album features a cross between a sword and a violin on a white background, in the vein of the Symphonic Fantasies album, which had a cross between a violin and a game controller. The cover art was produced by German design house Schech, who earlier provided the artwork for the European release of Symphonic Fantasies. Accompanying the CD is a booklet which contains photos of the concert and discusses the arrangers and compositions included in each song. The album contains everything played at the concert, with the Final Fantasy suite split into three tracks, and the album is split at the intermission into two CDs. Its fourteen tracks have a duration of 1:34:56. While Dog Ear Records published the album in Japan, the album was released in Europe through the online music retailer MAZ-Sound. ## Reception The Symphonic Odysseys concert received varied reviews, with praise given the performance and choice of source material, and both praise and criticism given to the quality of the arrangements. Audun Sorlie of Original Sound Version stated that it was "the greatest live music event I have ever attended," and said that the standing ovation at the end was "the longest[...] I've been part of". Original Sound Version named the concert as the best of the year for 2011 in their year-end awards. In his review of the album for the site, Jayson Napolitano said that the arrangements for the concert were "top notch", and brought attention to works by the composers which were typically overlooked. Joe Hammond of Square Enix Music Online said that it was "an outstanding concert — possibly the most successful in Europe to date" and added that it was "a tour de force of flawless performances and impeccable orchestrations and arrangements". He felt that several of the pieces surpassed the arrangements played in the Distant Worlds and Symphonic Fantasies concerts, and made special note of the third movement in the Final Fantasy concerto and the Lost Odyssey suite. Polish site GameMusic.net's Mariusz Borkowski, in his review of the album, made particular note of Benyamin Nuss's piano performance during the Final Fantasy concerto and Juraj Čižmarovič's violin performance in the Lost Odyssey suite. He stated that the concert "sets new standards as to how a professional game music event should be organised." In contrast to the enthusiastic praises of other critics, Kyle Miller of RPGFan felt that many of the pieces were "disorganized and ineptly arranged", and that the arrangements had a lack of enthusiasm. He reserved praise only for the fanfare and the Lost Odyssey suite. Benjamin Schmädig of the German site 4Players.de felt that while some of the arrangements were "excellently arranged", they did "not make a mark in the overall impression", specifically noting "On Windy Meadows", "Main Theme and Save the World", and "Spreading Your Wings" as "spot-on, but conventional fan service", and found that the Lost Odyssey suite was lacking a rousing finale, with a relatively unremarkable choir compared to Valtonen's previous work. He also dismissed the efforts of the concert's moderator as childish. Unlike Miller, however, he felt that the other concert pieces were outstanding, especially the Final Fantasy concerto and "Silent Light". He also praised the concert's use of Uematsu's less-often arranged pieces and concluded his review with the verdict of a "fantastic, sometimes even magnificent evening of games". The album release received similar reviews to the original concert. Napolitano, in addition to reiterating some of Sorlie's praises from the original concert about the quality of the arrangements, praised the production values of the album, noting the "crisp, clean sound" as similar to the listening experience of being at the concert and superior to that of the live stream of the concert and that the applause between pieces had been edited out. Hammond called it a "phenomenal album release", stating that it would appeal to both classical music fans and video game music fans. Neither Miller nor Borkowski made note of the differences between the concert and the album, and Schmädig did not review the album.
23,140,545	Mordor	1,172,056,510	Evil land in J. R. R. Tolkien's Middle-earth legendarium	[ "Fictional elements introduced in 1954", "Middle-earth realms" ]	In J. R. R. Tolkien's fictional world of Middle-earth, Mordor (pronounced ; from Sindarin Black Land and Quenya Land of Shadow) is the realm and base of the evil Sauron. It lay to the east of Gondor and the great river Anduin, and to the south of Mirkwood. Mount Doom, a volcano in Mordor, was the goal of the Fellowship of the Ring in the quest to destroy the One Ring. Mordor was surrounded by three mountain ranges, to the north, the west, and the south. These both protected the land from invasion and kept those living in Mordor from escaping. Commentators have noted that Mordor was influenced by Tolkien's own experiences in the industrial Black Country of the English Midlands, and by his time fighting in the trenches of the Western Front in the First World War. Another forerunner that Tolkien was very familiar with is the account of the monster Grendel's unearthly landscapes in the Old English poem Beowulf. Others have observed that Tolkien depicts Mordor as specifically evil, and as a vision of industrial environmental degradation, contrasted with either the homey Shire or the beautiful elvish forest of Lothlórien. ## Geography ### Overview Mordor was roughly rectangular in shape, with the longer sides on the north and south. Three sides were defended by mountain ranges: the Ered Lithui ("Ash Mountains") on the north, and the Ephel Dúath on the west and south. The lengths of these ranges are estimated to be 498, 283 and 501 miles (801, 455 and 806 kilometres) respectively, which gives Mordor an area of roughly 140,000 square miles (360,000 square kilometres). To the west lay the narrow land of Ithilien, a province of Gondor; to the northwest, the Dead Marshes and Dagorlad, the Battle Plain; to the north, Wilderland; to the northeast and east, Rhûn; to the southeast, Khand; and to the south, Harad. Not far from the Dead Marshes is another dismal swamp, the Nindalf or Wetwang, beside the Emyn Muil hills. ### The Black Gate In the northwest, the pass of Cirith Gorgor led into the enclosed plain of Udûn. Sauron built the Black Gate of Mordor (the Morannon) across the pass. This added to the earlier fortifications, the Towers of the Teeth – Carchost to the east, Narchost to the west, guard towers which had been built by Gondor to keep a watch on this entrance. The passage through the inner side of Udûn into the interior of Mordor was guarded by another gate, the Isenmouthe. Outside the Morannon lay the Dagorlad or Battle Plain, and the Dead Marshes. ### The Mountains of Shadow The Ephel Dúath ("Fence of Shadow") defended Mordor on the west and south. The main pass was guarded by Minas Morgul, a city built by Gondor as Minas Ithil. The fortress Durthang lay in the northern Ephel Dúath above Udûn. A higher, more difficult pass, Cirith Ungol, lay just to the north of the Morgul pass. Its top was guarded by a tower, built by Gondor. The route traversed Torech Ungol, the lair of the giant spider Shelob. Inside the Ephel Dúath ran a lower parallel ridge, the Morgai, separated by a narrow valley, a "dying land not yet dead" with "low scrubby trees", "coarse grey grass-tussocks", "withered mosses", "great writhing, tangled brambles", and thickets of briars with long, stabbing thorns. ### Interior The interior of Mordor was composed of three large regions. The core of Sauron's realm was in the northwest: the arid plateau of Gorgoroth, with the active volcano Mount Doom located in the middle. Sauron's main fortress Barad-dûr was on the north side of Gorgoroth, at the end of a spur of the Ash Mountains. Gorgoroth was volcanic and inhospitable to life, but home to Mordor's mines, forges, and garrisons. Núrn, the southern part of Mordor, was less arid and more fertile; Sauron's slaves farmed this region to support his armies, and streams fed the salt Sea of Núrnen. To the east of Gorgoroth lay the dry plain of Lithlad. ### Mount Doom Mount Doom, Orodruin, or Amon Amarth ("Mountain of Fate") is more than an ordinary volcano; it responds to Sauron's commands and his presence, lapsing into dormancy when he is away from Mordor, and becoming active again when he returns. It is the place where the One Ring was forged, and its magma heart is the only place where it can be destroyed. When Sauron is defeated at the end of the Third Age with the destruction of the One Ring, the volcano erupts violently. Tolkien stated in his "Guide to the Names in The Lord of the Rings", intended to assist translators, that the phrase "Crack of Doom" derives from William Shakespeare's play Macbeth, Act 4 scene 1. Tolkien wrote that the phrase meant "the announcement of the Last Day" by a crack of thunder, or "the sound of the last trump[et]" (he cites the use of "crack" to mean a trumpet's sound in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight at lines 116 and 1166) at the Last Judgment as described in the Book of Revelation. He further states that "Doom" originally meant "judgement", and by its sound and its use in the word "doomsday" carries the "senses of death, finality, and fate". Another possible source of the name, mentioned by Tolkien and discussed by the Tolkien scholar Jared Lobdell, is a pair of tales of supernatural events by the English novelist Algernon Blackwood, "The Willows" and "The Glamour of the Snow". According to the fanzine Niekas, Tolkien "more or less found Mordor" on a Mediterranean cruise in September 1966. When sailing past the volcano of Stromboli, Tolkien said he had 'never seen anything that looked so much like [Mount Doom].' The International Astronomical Union names all mountains on Saturn's moon Titan after mountains in Tolkien's work. In 2012, they named a Titanian mountain "Doom Mons" after Mount Doom. The Swedish melodic death metal band Amon Amarth, whose lyrics deal primarily with Viking culture and Norse mythology, and the North American doom metal band Orodruin, are named after the mountain. In Peter Jackson's film adaptation of The Lord of the Rings, Mount Doom was represented by two active volcanoes in New Zealand: Mount Ngauruhoe and Mount Ruapehu, located in Tongariro National Park. In long shots, the mountain is either a large model or a CGI effect, or a combination. The production was not permitted to film the summit of Ngauruhoe because the Māori hold it to be sacred, but some scenes on the slopes of Mount Doom were filmed on the slopes of Ruapehu. In the TV series The Lord of the Rings: The Rings of Power, Mount Doom undergoes a phreatomagmatic eruption in the Second Age. This was set off when orcs opened a floodgate, releasing water on to hot magma deep underground. The water would, a geologist explained, then flash to steam, causing an explosion. ### Barad-dûr The name Barad-dûr is Sindarin, from barad "tower" and dûr "dark". It was called Lugbúrz in the Black Speech of Mordor, from lug "tower" and búrz "dark". The Black Speech (created by Sauron) was one of the languages used in Barad-dûr. The soldiers there used a debased form of the tongue. In The Lord of the Rings "Barad-dûr," "Lugbúrz," and "the Dark Tower" are occasionally used as metonyms for Sauron. In the Second Age, Sauron began to stir again and chose Mordor as a stronghold in which to build his fortress. It was strengthened by the power of the One Ring, which had recently been forged; its foundations would survive as long as the Ring existed. Gandalf described the Ring as being the "...foundation of Barad-dûr..." The Dark Tower is described as being composed of iron, being black and having battlements and gates. In a painting by Tolkien, however, the walls are of mainly grey stone and brick, and battlements, gates and towers are not visible. In The Two Towers Barad-dûr is described as "...that vast fortress, armoury, prison, furnace of great power..." The same paragraph goes on to say the Dark Tower had 'immeasurable strength'. The fortress was constructed with many towers and was hidden in clouds about it: "...rising black, blacker and darker than the vast shades amid which it stood, the cruel pinnacles and iron crown of the topmost tower of Barad-dûr." The structure could not be clearly seen because Sauron created shadows about himself that crept out from the tower. In Frodo's vision on Amon Hen, he perceived the immense tower as "...wall upon wall, battlement upon battlement, black, immeasurably strong, mountain of iron, gate of steel, tower of adamant... Barad-dûr, Fortress of Sauron." There was a look-out post, the "Window of the Eye", at the top of the tower. This window was visible from Mount Doom where Frodo and Sam had a terrible glimpse of the Eye of Sauron. Barad-dûr's west gate is described as "huge" and the west bridge as "a vast bridge of iron." In The Return of the King, Sam Gamgee witnessed the destruction of Barad-dûr: "... towers and battlements, tall as hills, founded upon a mighty mountain-throne above immeasurable pits; great courts and dungeons, eyeless prisons sheer as cliffs, and gaping gates of steel and adamant..." Barad-dûr, along with the One Ring, Mordor, and Sauron himself, were destroyed on 25 March, a traditional Anglo-Saxon date for the crucifixion; the quest to destroy the One Ring began in Rivendell on 25 December, the date of Christmas. ### First Age In The Atlas of Middle-earth, the cartographer Karen Wynn Fonstad assumed that the lands of Mordor, Khand, and Rhûn lay where the inland Sea of Helcar had been, and that the Sea of Rhûn and Sea of Núrnen were its remnants. This was based on a First Age world-map drawn by Tolkien in the Ambarkanta, where the Inland Sea of Helcar occupied a large area of Middle-earth between the Ered Luin and Orocarni, its western end being close to the head of the Great Gulf (later the Mouths of Anduin). ## History ### Early history Sauron settled in Mordor in the Second Age of Middle-earth, and it remained the pivot of his evil contemplations. He built his great stronghold Barad-dûr, the Dark Tower, near the volcano Mount Doom (Orodruin), and became known as the Dark Lord of Mordor. Sauron aided the elves in the creation of the Rings of Power in Eregion in Eriador, and secretly forged the One Ring in Orodruin. He then set about conquering Middle-earth, launching an attack upon the Elves of Eregion, but was repelled by the Men of Númenor. Over a thousand years later, the Númenóreans under Ar-Pharazôn sailed to Middle-earth to challenge Sauron's claim to be "King of Men". Sauron let them capture him and take him back to Númenor, where he caused its destruction. He at once returned to Mordor as a spirit and resumed his rule. ### The Last Alliance and Third Age Sauron's rule was interrupted again when his efforts to overthrow the surviving Men of Númenor and the Elves failed. The army of the Last Alliance of Elves and Men advanced on Mordor; in a great battle on the Dagorlad ("Battle Plain"), Sauron's forces were destroyed and the Black Gate was stormed. Barad-dûr was then besieged; after seven years, Sauron broke out and was defeated on the slopes of Orodruin. Sauron fled into Rhûn, and Barad-dûr was levelled. Gondor built fortresses at the entrances to Mordor to prevent his return, maintaining the "Watchful Peace" for over a thousand years. The Great Plague in Gondor caused the fortifications guarding Mordor to be abandoned, and Mordor again filled with evil things. The Ringwraiths took advantage of Gondor's decline to re-enter Mordor, conquered Minas Ithil, and took over the fortresses. At the time of Bilbo Baggins's quest in The Hobbit, Sauron returned into Mordor from Dol Guldur, feigning defeat, but readying for war. ### War of the Ring The Council of Elrond decided to send the Ring to Mount Doom to destroy it and Sauron's power. It was carried into Mordor by two Hobbits, Frodo Baggins and Sam Gamgee; they entered by the pass of Cirith Ungol. In the War of the Ring, Sauron attempted to storm Minas Tirith, the capital of Gondor, but was defeated by Gondor and Rohan in the Battle of the Pelennor Fields. The victors sent an army to the Black Gate to distract Sauron from the Ring. He responded by emptying Mordor of its armies, sending them to the Black Gate. As a result, the plain of Gorgoroth was left almost deserted and Frodo and Sam were able to travel across it to Mount Doom. During the Battle of the Morannon, the One Ring was destroyed in Mount Doom, along with Sauron's power, Barad-dur, and the morale of his armies. This ultimate defeat of Sauron ended the Third Age. Gorgoroth became empty as its Orcs fled or were killed. The land of Núrn was given to Sauron's freed slaves. ## Languages and peoples At the time of the War of the Ring, Sauron had gathered great armies to serve him. These included Easterlings and Haradrim, who spoke a variety of tongues, and Orcs and Trolls, who usually spoke a debased form of the Common Speech. Within Barad-dûr and among the captains of Mordor (the Ringwraiths and other high-ranking servants such as the Mouth of Sauron), the Black Speech was still used, the language devised by Sauron during the Dark Years of the Second Age. In addition to ordinary Orcs and Trolls, Sauron had bred a more powerful strain of Orcs, the Uruk-hai, and a strong and agile breed of Trolls, the Olog-hai, who could endure the sun. The Olog-hai knew only the Black Speech. ## Naming Within Tolkien's fiction, "Mordor" had two meanings: "Black Land" in Sindarin, and "Land of Shadow" in Quenya. The root mor ("dark", "black") also appeared in Moria, which meant "Black Pit", and Morgoth, the first Dark Lord. Popular sources have conjectured or stated directly that "Mordor" came from Old English morðor, "mortal sin" or "murder". Against this, the philologist Helge Fauskanger notes that Tolkien had been using both the elements of the name, "mor" and "dor" (as in Gondor, Eriador) for decades before assembling them into "Mordor". Fauskanger writes that there are however several words that sound like "mor" with connotations of darkness. Italian moro (cf. Latin maurus, black, and Mauri, a North African tribe) means a Moor, and the adjective means "black"; Tolkien said that he liked the Italian language. Greek Μαυρός (mauros) means "dark, dim". He notes, too, the possible connection in Tolkien's mind with Mirkwood, the dark Northern forest, from Norse myrk "dark", cognate with English "murky". He adds that words like "Latin mors 'death' or Old English morðor 'murder'—further darkened the ring of this syllable." Finally, Fauskanger mentions the Arthurian names like Morgana, Morgause, and Mordred; the Mor- element here does not mean "dark", possibly being connected to Welsh mawr "big", but Tolkien could have picked up the association with Arthurian evil. ## Origins ### Grendel's wilderness in Beowulf Tolkien, a scholar of Old English, was an expert on Beowulf, calling it one of his "most valued sources" for Middle-earth. The medievalists Stuart D. Lee and Elizabeth Solopova compare Tolkien's account of Mordor and the neighbouring landscapes to the monster Grendel's wilderness in Beowulf. In particular, they compare Frodo and Sam's crossing of the Dead Marshes and what Gollum called its "tricksy lights", with Beowulf's "fire on the water"; and their traversal of the parched Morgai, full of rocks and vicious thorns, with Grendel's dangerous moors. Lee and Solopova write that the Beowulf description both emphasises the coming horror, "play[ing] on ideas of desolation, wintry landscapes and the supernatural", and like Tolkien giving realistic descriptions of nature. At the same time, they write, both the Beowulf poet and Tolkien incorporate "an element of fantasy": Grendel's moor is both full of water and a "craggy headland .. inhabited by supernatural evil", while Tolkien fills the landscapes in and around Mordor with "similar ambiguity and sense of unease". ### 'Black Country' of the West Midlands An art exhibition entitled "The Making of Mordor" at the Wolverhampton Art Gallery (2014) claims that the steelworks and blast furnaces of the West Midlands near Tolkien's childhood home inspired his vision of, and his name Mordor. This industrialized area has long been known as "the Black Country". Philip Womack, writing in The Independent, likens Tolkien's move from rural Warwickshire to urban Birmingham as "exile from a rural idyll to Mordor-like forges and fires". The critic Chris Baratta notes the contrasting environments of the well-tended leafy Shire, the home of the hobbits, and "the industrial wastelands of Isengard and Mordor." Baratta comments that Tolkien clearly intended the reader to "identify with some of the problems of environmental destruction, rampant industrial invasion, and the corrupting and damaging effects these have on mankind." ### First World War's Western Front The New York Times related the grim land of Mordor to Tolkien's personal experience in the trenches of the Western Front in the First World War. Jane Ciabattari, writing on the BBC culture website, calls the hobbits' struggle to take the ring to Mordor "a cracked mirror reflection of the young soldiers caught in the blasted landscape and slaughter of trench warfare on the Western Front." In one of his letters in 1960, Tolkien himself wrote that "The Dead Marshes [just north of Mordor] and the approaches to the Morannon [an entrance to Mordor] owe something to northern France after the Battle of the Somme". ### Stromboli Tolkien was reported in the science fiction fanzine Niekas to have gone on a cruise near the volcano of Stromboli, in September 1966, and to have said that Mordor "more or less" corresponded to the Mediterranean volcanic basin and that "he saw Mount Doom"; his boat sailed past the erupting volcano by night. ### Evil The critic Lykke Guanio-Uluru sees Mordor as specifically evil, marked by Sauron: a land that is "dying, struggling for life, though not yet dead", evil being able to disfigure life but not to destroy it completely. It is contrasted, writes Guanio-Uluru, with the beauty of Lothlorien, and marked by negative adjectives like "harsh, twisted, bitter, struggling, low, coarse, withered, tangled, stabbing, sullen, shrivelled, grating, rattling, sad". ## Allusions in other works ### In film Mordor features in all three films of Peter Jackson's Lord of the Rings trilogy. In the first film, Sean Bean, playing Boromir, the warrior from Gondor, declares to the Council of Elrond that "one does not simply walk into Mordor". In the second, Andy Serkis's digital Gollum guides Frodo and Sam to the Black Gate. In the final film, Frodo and Sam struggle across the shattered volcanic plain of Gorgoroth to Mount Doom, dressed as orcs, under the red glare of the volcano and the watchful Eye of Sauron from an exaggeratedly Gothic Barad-dûr, while the Army of the West gathers for the final battle in front of the Black Gate and witnesses the cataclysmic destruction of everything Sauron had built when the Ring is destroyed. For Jackson's film trilogy, Richard Taylor and his design team built an 18 ft (5 m) high miniature ("big-ature") of Barad-dûr. Jackson's The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King movie (2003) showed Barad-dûr as clearly visible from the Black Gate of Mordor, which is not the case in the book. Jackson portrayed Barad-dûr, like the other enemy fortresses of Isengard, Minas Morgul and the Black Gate, in "an exaggerated Gothic fashion" with a black metallic appearance. In The Lord of the Rings, the Eye was within the "Window of the Eye" in the topmost tower, whereas in Jackson's film trilogy the Eye appeared between two horn-like spires that curved upwards from the tower top. In Womack's view the 2019 biopic Tolkien explicitly connects Mordor to trench warfare: "riders become bloody knights; smoke billows and turns into the form of dark kings." ### In other media The third verse of Led Zeppelin's 1969 song "Ramble On" by Jimmy Page features a "bizarre" Middle-earth including a Mordor where one can meet beautiful women: "Twas in the darkest depths of Mordor / I met a girl so fair / But Gollum, and the evil one crept up / And slipped away with her". In the city of Warsaw, Poland, an area in the south-western district of Mokotów, in the neighbourhoods of Służewiec and Ksawerów, is commonly known as Mordor. There are located two small streets named in reference Tolkien works, J. R. R. Tolkiena Street, and Gandalfa Street. The 2014 Middle-earth: Shadow of Mordor is a third-person open world action-adventure video game set in Middle-earth. In 2015 NASA published photographs taken as the New Horizons space probe passed within 7,000 miles (11,000 km) of Pluto. A photo of Pluto's largest moon, Charon, shows a large dark area near its north pole. The dark area has been unofficially called Mordor Macula. ## See also - Dol Guldur - The Last Ringbearer
587,792	Des Corcoran	1,170,877,768	Australian politician (1928–2004)	[ "1928 births", "2004 deaths", "20th-century Australian politicians", "Australian Labor Party members of the Parliament of South Australia", "Australian military personnel of the Korean War", "Australian military personnel of the Malayan Emergency", "Deputy Premiers of South Australia", "Officers of the Order of Australia", "People from Millicent, South Australia", "Premiers of South Australia", "Treasurers of South Australia" ]	James Desmond Corcoran AO (8 November 1928 – 3 January 2004) was an Australian politician who served as the 37th premier of South Australia between February and September 1979, following the resignation of Don Dunstan. During his brief premiership Corcoran also served as state treasurer. Born at Millicent in the southeast of the state, he served in the Australian Army in the Korean War and Malayan Emergency, reaching the rank of captain, and being twice mentioned in despatches. Following his discharge in 1961, Corcoran was elected to the House of Assembly, succeeding his father Jim Corcoran – who retired at the 1962 election – as the member for the electoral district of Millicent representing the Australian Labor Party. Corcoran was a key figure in the modernisation of the state branch of the Labor Party, which had been in opposition since 1933. When the party gained power in 1965, Corcoran was allocated the portfolios of irrigation, lands and repatriation in the government of Frank Walsh. Upon Walsh's retirement in 1968, Corcoran contested the party leadership but was defeated by Dunstan. In the Dunstan cabinet, Corcoran retained responsibility for irrigation and lands, and replaced repatriation with immigration. In March 1968, he became the first formally appointed deputy premier of the state, and gained the tourism portfolio. Two months later, Labor lost government and Corcoran nearly lost his seat, but retained his role as Dunstan's deputy. At the 1970 state election, Labor returned to the government benches, and Corcoran regained his position as deputy premier, and took up the marine and works ministries. Dunstan and Corcoran had very different styles, but they formed a strong and respectful partnership. From 1975, unfavourable redistributions caused Corcoran to shift to metropolitan seats, first Coles, then from 1977, Hartley, which he held until 1982. Following the 1977 state election, he gained the environment portfolio, retaining marine and works. After Dunstan's resignation, Corcoran became premier and decided to call an early election to gain a personal mandate, buoyed by polling. This proved unwise, as the campaign went badly, business groups and media openly supported the opposition Liberal Party, and Labor lost office. Having retained Hartley, Corcoran resigned as Labor leader and did not contest the 1982 election. Made an Officer of the Order of Australia in 1982 in recognition of his service to politics and government, Corcoran was also awarded the Centenary Medal in 2001. He died in 2004 following a long illness, and was granted a state funeral. Described as a larger than life character who was respected on both sides of politics, Corcoran's long and successful partnership with Dunstan was a hallmark of his political life. ## Early life and military service James Desmond "Des" Corcoran was born on 8 November 1928 in Millicent, South Australia. He was the youngest of nine children of Jim Corcoran and his wife Teresa Catherine née Sutton. Jim had served as a corporal in the 27th Battalion of the Australian Imperial Force on the Western Front during World War I, and had been wounded during the Battle of Amiens in August 1918. Des attended Tantanoola Primary School, but left school at 13 and worked in a bakery. He joined the Australian Labor Party (ALP) in 1941. His mother died when he was 16, and around that time he and his older brother Robert embarked on a working holiday around Australia. While in Wollongong in New South Wales, they saw an advertisement for men to enlist in the Australian Army to fight in the Korean War, and after tossing a coin to decide what to do, they both went to enlist. In the meantime, following his unsuccessful attempt to be elected to the electoral district of Victoria in the South Australian House of Assembly in a by-election in 1932, Jim Corcoran was also unsuccessful in the state elections of 1933 and 1944, before finally prevailing in a by-election in September 1945. He was unsuccessful in his bid to be re-elected in the 1947, and 1950 state elections. Robert served in Korea as a Royal Australian Army Ordnance Corps sergeant with the 3rd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment in 1951–1952. Des was allocated the service number 23934, and allotted as an infantry soldier and posted to the 1st Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (1 RAR). The battalion trained at Ingleburn, New South Wales, then embarked at Sydney on 3 March 1952 and sailed for Japan on the troop transport , arriving in Kure on 18 March. After further training, 1 RAR was transported to Korea aboard the Empire Longford and disembarked in Korea on 1 June to join the 28th Commonwealth Infantry Brigade. The following month the battalion was detached to the British 29th Infantry Brigade, and relieved units on Hills 159, 210 and 355. Its duties included general patrolling along the Jamestown Line, a series of static defensive positions just north of the 38th Parallel (38°N) along which the earlier mobile war had settled into trench warfare. Its main tasks were securing defences, repairing minefield fences, and conducting reconnaissance of enemy positions to gather information. By early December 1952, Des was a corporal and temporary sergeant in D Company when a four-man patrol was negotiating an enemy minefield. One of the men initiated a mine and was killed by the resulting explosion, which wounded two others. The unwounded soldier ran back to friendly lines for assistance, and Corcoran came forward under enemy mortar fire, dragged and carried the wounded men in, and then brought in the body of the dead soldier. For his "courage and skill in evacuating casualties through minefield gaps", and as a patrol commander in 1 RAR, Corcoran was mentioned in despatches. While Des was still serving in Korea, his father Jim was again elected to the district of Victoria in the March 1953 state election. Des returned to Australia in March 1954, and after several weeks of leave, was posted to New Guinea. At the 1956 state election, Jim Corcoran successfully contested the new electoral district of Millicent which had been excised from the district of Victoria as part of a redistribution, and successfully defended it in the 1959 state election. On 31 August 1957, Des married Carmel Campbell at the school chapel at Rostrevor College. The couple had eight children. Des Corcoran was promoted to warrant officer class two and served for twenty months as the company sergeant major of the headquarters of the 28th Commonwealth Infantry Brigade Group in Malaya during the Malayan Emergency, for which he was mentioned in despatches for a second time, this time for "outstanding service". Identified for his potential as an officer but lacking the necessary educational qualifications, Corcoran undertook six months of study with the Australian Army Education Service to receive his intermediate certificate, then completed his leaving certificate in six weeks, completing five subjects with a distinction in English. He was subsequently commissioned as a captain. ## Politics Des Corcoran left the Army in 1961 and in the 3 March 1962 state election was elected to the House of Assembly for the ALP, succeeding his father as the member for Millicent. He received 53.1 per cent of the two-party preferred votes, defeating Ren DeGaris of the Liberal and Country League (LCL). In his first speech in the house, on 24 July 1962, his father was present in the gallery, and he attributed his successful election to James Corcoran's "able and honest representation" of the people of the seat of Millicent. His speech emphasised policy areas that would remain central to his political interests throughout his career. These included: ensuring that country South Australians had the same access to services as those who lived in Adelaide, especially in areas such as utilities and education; and the promotion of the agriculture, fishing and forestry industries in the southeast of the state. He was a strong proponent of the paper industry and water controls for the irrigation scheme in the southeast. Labor had been in opposition in the state since 1933, and Corcoran, along with his colleagues Don Dunstan, Mick Young and Clyde Cameron, was a key player in the modernisation of the state Labor Party as a political force. This saw the ALP develop policy and campaign hard on education, health and working conditions, and against racial discrimination and the malapportionment of electoral districts in the state, known as the Playmander. When the ALP won government in South Australia for the first time since 1930 in the 6 March 1965 state election, Corcoran became Minister of Irrigation, Minister of Lands, and Minister of Repatriation. In the election, Corcoran increased his share of the votes to 61.8 per cent. Corcoran served on the parliamentary committee on land settlement from March to November 1965. The new Premier, Frank Walsh, was a Catholic like Corcoran, when the Labor caucus was dominated by Protestants, and the ALP federally was still reeling from the 1955 split of the party and the creation of the socially conservative and Catholic-dominated Democratic Labour Party. Corcoran's father Jim had died in May 1965. Walsh was already 67 years old when he became premier, and the ALP rules applying at the time required him to retire from parliament at the next election. He was reluctant to do so, and made moves to have the rules modified to allow him to serve on. His party colleagues resisted this, and ultimately the ALP state council passed a congratulatory motion that included thanking him for "selflessly stepping down so that a new leader could establish himself before the next election". In the face of this, Walsh reluctantly resigned effective from 1 June 1967. Coinciding with Walsh's retirement, there was an ALP leadership ballot which included Corcoran, Dunstan, Gabe Bywaters and Cyril Hutchens. In the first round Corcoran received ten votes and Dunstan nine from the caucus of twenty-five, but in the second round Dunstan was the clear winner with fourteen votes and a majority, with Corcoran receiving eleven votes. In Dunstan's 1967–1968 cabinet, Corcoran dropped the repatriation portfolio and took up immigration, retaining lands and irrigation. Walsh remained in cabinet – with the social welfare portfolio – until March 1968. On 26 March 1968, Corcoran became the first officially-appointed deputy premier – the position having been informal up to that point – and gained the tourism portfolio, which was combined with immigration. Labor lost government at the 2 March 1968 state election, mainly due to losing two marginal rural seats. Corcoran was nearly defeated in his own seat, winning by a single vote over his LCL rival Martin Cameron. Cameron disputed the result and a by-election was held on 22 June, with Corcoran receiving 52.5 per cent of the votes. This left the ALP and LCL on nineteen seats each, so that the leader of the LCL, Steele Hall, had to rely on the independent Tom Stott, who was elected as Speaker and therefore had a casting vote. The Playmander had enabled the LCL to form a minority government despite only receiving 43 per cent of the state-wide votes. During the term in opposition, Corcoran was Dunstan's deputy, and the pair worked together well despite any rift that may have been caused by the struggle to succeed Walsh. In Labor's victory at the 30 May 1970 state election, Corcoran retained the seat of Millicent with 54 per cent of the votes. He resumed his role as deputy premier, and held the works and marine portfolios. Corcoran handled the interaction between the Dunstan ministry and the Labor caucus, using his strong personality to settle disputes. Over the next nine years, Dunstan and Corcoran made an unconventional but strong team. A devout Catholic and man of high personal morals, Corcoran privately opposed many of the social reforms Dunstan was implementing, such as liberalised abortion and homosexuality laws. In addition, Corcoran disliked Dunstan's glamorous image and fondness for the arts. A conservative dresser, Corcoran did not at all share Dunstan's enthusiasm for wearing casual clothes on public occasions. Nevertheless, the two men felt a wary respect for one another and managed to maintain a working relationship. Behind the scenes, Dunstan sometimes found Corcoran's plain-speaking style useful to control others within the ALP. Corcoran held Millicent with 56.5 per cent of the votes in the 10 March 1973 state election, defeating the LCL's Murray Vandepeer. When Millicent was subjected to a redistribution following that election, Corcoran's majority was theoretically eliminated, and Corcoran transferred to the eastern Adelaide district of Coles, previously held by Labor by the retiring Len King, for the 12 July 1975 state election. Corcoran won the seat with 52.4 per cent of the votes, and Vandepeer received 59.9 per cent of the votes in Millicent. When Coles was in turn subjected to a redistribution that undermined his margin, Corcoran transferred to the newly created and nearby northeastern Adelaide district of Hartley, receiving 58.8 per cent of the votes at the 17 September 1977 state election, with Coles falling to Jennifer Cashmore of the Liberal Party (the renamed LCL). Corcoran gained the environment portfolio in the new government, while retaining his other portfolios. By early 1979, Dunstan's health had deteriorated to the point that he could not continue in office, and he resigned in February. On 15 February, Corcoran was elected his successor, thus finally achieving his ambition of becoming premier. He also served as state treasurer along with adding the ethnic affairs portfolio to immigration. Mike Rann, who later became premier, served as Corcoran's press secretary during his short premiership. Spurred by positive opinion polls in mid-1979, Corcoran called a snap election after less than a year in the hope that he would gain a mandate of his own. The election campaign was plagued by problems; business groups and the state's main afternoon tabloid newspaper, The News, openly sided with the Liberal Party. At the 15 September 1979 state election, the Liberals under David Tonkin achieved an eleven per cent swing towards them and won. Corcoran held Hartley with 50.7 per cent of the votes. Corcoran resigned his commissions as premier and treasurer on 18 September, and resigned from the Labor leadership on 2 October. He was succeeded by the much younger John Bannon, whose urbane style and academic background meant he was much closer in style to Dunstan than to Corcoran. At the 6 November 1982 state election, Bannon easily defeated Tonkin and led Labor back into government, but Corcoran did not contest his seat of Hartley, which was retained for Labor by Terry Groom. Corcoran was appointed as an Officer of the Order of Australia in the 1982 Australia Day Honours, "in recognition of service to politics and government". Between 1983 and 1987 Corcoran served on the Council of the Australian War Memorial. In 2001, Corcoran was awarded the Centenary Medal. ## Death and legacy Corcoran died in Adelaide on 3 January 2004, aged 75, after a long illness. Upon his death, Rann, by then premier himself, described the strong and historic political partnership between Dunstan and Corcoran as "very successful", despite the two being "chalk and cheese". Rann went on to say that Corcoran would be "sorely missed" as someone who was larger than life and respected across the political spectrum in South Australia. He also noted that Corcoran would be remembered "for his gregarious personality and how he so often used humour to heal differences". Don Hopgood, who served as education minister alongside Corcoran, observed that he brought strength to the Dunstan administration. Then opposition leader Dean Brown, who had himself served as premier between 1993 and 1996, stated that Corcoran was "approachable and enjoyed a good yarn and joke", and recalled that "his word could always be trusted and all members of the Parliament held him in very high esteem". Corcoran was farewelled with a state funeral held at St Francis Xavier's Cathedral, Adelaide, on 8 January, and was buried at North Brighton Cemetery.
98,361	New Jersey Route 20	1,160,346,597	State highway in Passaic County, New Jersey, US, known as McLean Boulevard	[ "Limited-access roads in New Jersey", "State highways in New Jersey", "Transportation in Passaic County, New Jersey" ]	Route 20, known locally as McLean Boulevard, is a state highway that runs 4.15 miles (6.68 km) in New Jersey, United States. It runs along the east side of Paterson, Passaic County, following the west bank of the Passaic River between the Garden State Parkway and U.S. Route 46, and River Street (County Route 504), at which point County Route 504 begins. It is a four- to six-lane expressway for most of its length that runs through residential and commercial areas of Paterson, intersecting with Interstate 80 and Route 4 at interchanges. The northernmost part of the route is a county-maintained one-way pair that follows 1st and 2nd Avenues. ## Route description Route 20 begins at an interchange with U.S. Route 46 and County Route 630 (Crooks Avenue) just north of the Garden State Parkway on the border of Clifton and Paterson. The road follows the bend of the Passaic River directly north of Dundee Lake, heading to the north into Paterson as McLean Boulevard, a four-lane divided highway. The route runs in between the Passaic River to the east and two large cemeteries to the west before coming to an interchange with Interstate 80 and Market Street. Past Interstate 80, Route 20 becomes a six-lane divided highway that heads under New York, Susquehanna and Western Railway's New Jersey Subdivision line and through a mix of residential and commercial areas. The next interchange along the route is for Route 4 (Broadway), with access to both eastbound Route 4 and westbound Broadway from both directions. The road continues further north as a four-lane divided highway, heading through more urbanized areas of Paterson. It crosses County Route 651 (East 33rd Street/Morlot Avenue), which crosses the Passaic River to become County Route 78 (Morlot Avenue) in Bergen County. Route 20 continues to follow the Passaic River as a 45 mph (72 km/h) road through commercial areas, featuring an intersection with County Route 652 (5th Avenue). Past this intersection, the route proceeds through urban areas, turning west and splitting into a one-way pair. Here, the route becomes county maintained, with the northbound direction following 1st Avenue and the southbound direction following 2nd Avenue before coming to an end at County Route 504 (River Street). ## History The present-day routing of Route 20 north of Market Street was legislated in 1927 as part of Route 3, which was to run from the New York border at Greenwood Lake to Secaucus. In addition, the present day routing south of Route 4 was also legislated as part of that route, which was to run from the George Washington Bridge to Cape May. In 1929, the western terminus of Route 3 was moved to Paterson as Route S4B (now Route 208) was planned to replace the alignment of Route 3 from Paterson to the New York border. McLean Boulevard through Paterson was built by the 1930s. A new highway was to be built connecting the two, bypassing the Paterson Plank Road to the north. In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering, Route 20 was legislated to follow the former alignment of Route 3 between Paterson and East Rutherford as Route 3 was moved to the Route S3 freeway that was built between East Rutherford and Clifton. By this point, the Paterson Plank Road was no longer in the state highway system. Another freeway routing of Route 20 was planned in 1959. This road, which was to be a six-lane freeway called the Paterson Peripheral, was to run from Clifton north to the existing Route 20 in downtown Paterson. This road was completed between the Garden State Parkway and Valley Road by 1969 and north to Interstate 80 in 1975. Upon completion, this road received the Route 20 designation. In 1972, the state once again took over maintenance of the Paterson Plank Road from Route 3 to Route 17 in East Rutherford and made it a part of the route. As it became clear that these three sections of Route 20 would not be connected, especially after the designation of the Great Falls Historic District, they received three different route designations by the 1990s. The freeway section of Route 20 from the Garden State Parkway to Interstate 80 was designated Route 19, the section between Route 3 and Route 17 was designated Route 120, and the Route 20 designation was retained along McLean Boulevard through Paterson. The unfinished section of Route 20 that was to connect McLean Boulevard to Paterson Plank Road was built as a northern extension of the Route 21 freeway in 2000. ## Major intersections ## See also
44,136,352	Pah Wongso	1,094,205,206	Dutch social worker and educator	[ "1904 births", "1975 deaths", "20th-century Indonesian male actors", "Indo people", "Indonesian male film actors", "Indonesian people of Chinese descent", "Indonesian people of Dutch descent", "Indonesian social workers", "People from Tegal", "Red Cross personnel", "World War II civilian prisoners held by Japan" ]	Louis Victor Wijnhamer (11 February 1904 – 13 May 1975), better known as Pah Wongso (Chinese: 伯王梭; pinyin: Bó Wángsuō), was an Indo social worker popular within the ethnic Chinese community of the Dutch East Indies, and subsequently Indonesia. Educated in Semarang and Surabaya, Pah Wongso began his social work in the early 1930s, using traditional arts such as wayang golek to promote such causes as monogamy and abstinence. By 1938, he had established a school for the poor, and was raising money for the Red Cross to send aid to China. In late 1938, Pah Wongso used a legal defense fund, which had been raised for him when he was charged with extortion, in order to establish another school; this was followed by an employment center in 1939. In 1941, Star Film released two productions, Pah Wongso Pendekar Boediman and Pah Wongso Tersangka, starring him and featuring his name in the title. During the Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies, Pah Wongso was held in a series of concentration camps in South-East Asia. He was repatriated after the War, and raised funds for the Red Cross and ran an employment office until his death. ## Early life and social work Louis Victor Wijnhamer was born on 11 February 1904 in Tegal, Central Java, in the Dutch East Indies. One of three siblings, Wijnhamer was born to an ethnic Dutch administrator from Surabaya, Louis Gregorius Wijnhamer and J. F. Ihnen; he was of Indo descent. He studied at the senior high school in Semarang, before spending some time at the Suikerschool in Surabaya, later arriving in Batavia (now Jakarta). There, between 1927 and 1937, he worked as an amanuensis at the School tot Opleiding van Inlandsche Artsen. By the early 1930s, Wijnhamer, known as Pah Wongso, was recognised in West Java for his promotion of social causes. These included promoting monogamy and faith in Western medicine, as well as combating gambling and the use of opium and alcohol. In conveying his messages he often used the Sundanese wayang golek (a form of rod puppet), as the local people were generally unable to read. He was able to speak Dutch, Malay, and Javanese fluently, and had some command of Chinese and Japanese. This social work was funded predominantly from Pah Wongso's day job, selling fried peanuts (kacang goreng). By 1938 Pah Wongso had married and opened a school for poor children, particularly those of mixed Chinese descent, in Gang Patikee; it was funded by donations. He was also a member of the Indies branch of the Red Cross, and recognized for his humanitarian work. He organised night fairs in various cities in the Indies (including in Yogyakarta, Semarang, and Surabaya), holding auctions and selling drinks and snacks in order to raise money to send aid to China, then fighting against the Japanese. ## Establishment of schools and popularity After one of these fairs, in Yogyakarta, Pah Wongso was arrested for writing a threatening letter to Liem Tek Hien, who refused to pay f. 10 for a walking stick he said that he had not purchased, and held at Struiswijk Prison in Batavia. He was charged with "attempted extortion and unpleasant treatment". The case was widely followed by ethnic Chinese in the Indies, and the newspaper Keng Po established a defense fund for Pah Wongso, which raised more than f. 1,300 by mid-June 1938; this had reached almost f. 2,000 by the end of the month. The case was brought to trial on 24 June 1938. Although Liem regretted reporting Pah Wongso to the police, the prosecutor called for a two-month sentence, while the defence asked for an acquittal, or time served. Ultimately, on 28 June 1938 the judge gave a sentence of one month – equal to the time Pah Wongso had served – and he was released. Pah Wongso appealed the court sentence, calling for an acquittal; in August 1938 his sentence was reduced to a 25-cent fine. The defense fund collected by Keng Po, totaling almost f. 3,500 by August, was allocated to the establishment of a school; on 8 August 1938 the Pah Wongso Crèches school for impoverished youth opened at 20 Blandongan St. in Batavia. By the end of the year Pah Wongso had participated in a march on opium use and been featured in a special issue of Fu Len. In 1939 Pah Wongso expanded his school in Blandongan to include an employment office. Established with f. 1,000, the office was located above the school and by November 1939 was training 22 job seekers. The Pah Wongso Crèches, meanwhile, served more than 200 ethnic Chinese and indigene students. He continued speaking out against the working conditions in the Indies, giving a lecture to a 1,000-strong audience at the Queens Theatre in Batavia in October 1939. He remained highly popular with the ethnic Chinese. In 1941, Star Film made two films starring Pah Wongso to take advantage of his popularity. The first, Pah Wongso Pendekar Boediman (Pah Wongso the Cultured Warrior), depicted him as a nut seller who investigates the murder of a rich hajji. It was released to popular acclaim, although the journalist Saeroen suggest this was predominantly because of Pah Wongso's existing popularity within the Chinese community. A second film, a comedy titled Pah Wongso Tersangka, depicted Pah Wongso as a suspect in an investigation and was released in December 1941. Writing in the magazine Pertjatoeran Doenia dan Film, "S." praised the introduction of comedy to the Indies' film industry, and expressed hope that the film would "leave audiences rolling with laughter". ## Later life In March 1942, the Empire of Japan occupied the Dutch East Indies. Pah Wongso was captured in Bandung on 8 March, and spent three years in a series of concentration camps in South-East Asia, including in Thailand, Singapore and Malaya. He returned to the Indies, now independent and known as Indonesia, by 1948, when he established the "Tulung Menulung" (literally "mutual assistance") social office; he also worked for Bond Motors' Jakarta branch. In the mid-1950s he met President Sukarno, and by 1957 a biography of Pah Wongso was for sale. He and his wife Gouw Tan Nio (also known as Leny Wijnhamer) had their fifth child on 3 February 1955. Pah Wongso continued to raise money for the Red Cross by selling fried peanuts. He also continued to operate his school in Blandongan, as well as the employment office, which trained young men and women for positions such as maids, gardeners, and bellhops, then placed them with employers. Several of Pah Wongso's students came from islands other than Java. De Nieuwsgier gave the story of one young man, from Bengkulu, who had come to Java to study, been robbed of all his possessions while in Jakarta, then been helped by Pah Wongso to find work. Pah Wongso continued operating his school and employment office, under the auspices of the Pah Wongso Foundation, into the 1970s. He touted that the foundation had found positions for 1,000 young women and 11,000 young men, and advertisements offering to place labourers were issued in Indonesian, English, and Dutch. The institution also provided printing services; wrote letters on demand in English, Dutch, and Indonesian; and provided wayang performances with four kinds of puppets. Pah Wongso died in Jakarta on 13 May 1975. ## Explanatory notes
30,075	Tiger	1,172,199,557	Largest species of the cat family	[ "Apex predators", "Big cats", "Conservation-reliant species", "EDGE species", "Extant Pleistocene first appearances", "Fauna of South Asia", "Fauna of Southeast Asia", "Felids of Asia", "Mammals described in 1758", "Mammals of East Asia", "National symbols of Bangladesh", "National symbols of India", "National symbols of Malaysia", "National symbols of Singapore", "Panthera", "Species endangered by agricultural development", "Species endangered by deliberate extirpation efforts", "Species endangered by human consumption for medicinal or magical purposes", "Species endangered by logging", "Species endangered by urbanization", "Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus" ]	The tiger (Panthera tigris) is the largest living cat species and a member of the genus Panthera. It is most recognisable for its dark vertical stripes on orange fur with a white underside. An apex predator, it primarily preys on ungulates, such as deer and wild boar. It is territorial and generally a solitary but social predator, requiring large contiguous areas of habitat to support its requirements for prey and rearing of its offspring. Tiger cubs stay with their mother for about two years and then become independent, leaving their mother's home range to establish their own. The tiger was first scientifically described in 1758. It once ranged widely from the Eastern Anatolia Region in the west to the Amur River basin in the east, and in the south from the foothills of the Himalayas to Bali in the Sunda Islands. Since the early 20th century, tiger populations have lost at least 93% of their historic range and have been extirpated from Western and Central Asia, the islands of Java and Bali, and in large areas of Southeast and South Asia and China. What remains of the range where tigers still roam free is fragmented, stretching in spots from Siberian temperate forests to subtropical and tropical forests on the Indian subcontinent, Indochina and a single Indonesian island, Sumatra. The tiger is listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List. As of 2015, the global wild tiger population was estimated to number between 3,062 and 3,948 mature individuals, with most populations living in small isolated pockets. India currently hosts the largest tiger population. Major reasons for population decline are habitat destruction, habitat fragmentation and poaching. Tigers are also victims of human–wildlife conflict, due to encroachment in countries with a high human population density. The tiger is among the most recognisable and popular of the world's charismatic megafauna. It featured prominently in the ancient mythology and folklore of cultures throughout its historic range and continues to be depicted in modern films and literature, appearing on many flags, coats of arms and as mascots for sporting teams. The tiger is the national animal of India, Bangladesh, Malaysia and South Korea. ## Etymology The Middle English tigre and Old English tigras derive from Old French tigre, from Latin tigris. This was a borrowing of Classical Greek τίγρις 'tigris', a foreign borrowing of unknown origin meaning 'tiger' and the river Tigris. The origin may have been the Persian word tigra ('pointed or sharp') and the Avestan word tigrhi ('arrow'), perhaps referring to the speed of the tiger's leap, although these words are not known to have any meanings associated with tigers. The generic name Panthera is derived from the Latin word panthera and the Ancient Greek word πάνθηρ ('panther'). ## Taxonomy In 1758, Carl Linnaeus described the tiger in his work Systema Naturae and gave it the scientific name Felis tigris. In 1929, the British taxonomist Reginald Innes Pocock subordinated the species under the genus Panthera using the scientific name Panthera tigris. ### Subspecies Following Linnaeus's first descriptions of the species, several tiger specimens were described and proposed as subspecies. The validity of several tiger subspecies was questioned in 1999. Most putative subspecies described in the 19th and 20th centuries were distinguished on basis of fur length and colouration, striping patterns and body size, hence characteristics that vary widely within populations. Morphologically, tigers from different regions vary little, and gene flow between populations in those regions is considered to have been possible during the Pleistocene. Therefore, it was proposed to recognize only two tiger subspecies as valid, namely P. t. tigris in mainland Asia, and P. t. sondaica in the Greater Sunda Islands. This two-subspecies proposal was reaffirmed in 2015 by a comprehensive analysis of morphological, ecological and molecular traits of all putative tiger subspecies using a combined approach. The authors proposed recognition of only two subspecies, namely P. t. tigris comprising the Bengal, Malayan, Indochinese, South Chinese, Siberian and Caspian tiger populations of continental Asia, and P. t. sondaica comprising the Javan, Bali and Sumatran tiger populations of the Sunda Islands. The continental nominate subspecies P. t. tigris constitutes two clades: a northern clade composed of the Siberian and Caspian tiger populations, and a southern clade composed of all other mainland populations. The authors of the 2015 study noted that this two-subspecies reclassification will affect tiger conservation management. It would make captive breeding programs and future re-wilding of zoo-born tigers easier, as one tiger population could then be used to bolster the population of another population. However, there is the risk that the loss of subspecies uniqueness could negatively impact protection efforts for specific populations. In 2017, the Cat Classification Task Force of the IUCN Cat Specialist Group revised felid taxonomy in accordance with the two-subspecies proposal of the comprehensive 2015 study, and recognized the tiger populations in continental Asia as P. t. tigris, and those in the Sunda Islands as P. t. sondaica. This two-subspecies view is still disputed by researchers, since the currently recognized nine subspecies can be distinguished genetically. Results of a 2018 whole-genome sequencing of 32 specimens support six monophyletic tiger clades corresponding with the living subspecies and indicate that the most recent common ancestor lived about 110,000 years ago. The following tables are based on the classification of the species Panthera tigris provided in Mammal Species of the World, and also reflect the classification used by the Cat Classification Task Force in 2017: ### Evolution The tiger's closest living relatives were previously thought to be the Panthera species lion, leopard and jaguar. Results of genetic analysis indicate that about 2.88 million years ago, the tiger and the snow leopard lineages diverged from the other Panthera species, and that both may be more closely related to each other than to the lion, leopard and jaguar. The geographic origin of the Panthera is most likely northern Central Asia. The tiger–snow leopard lineage dispersed in Southeast Asia during the Miocene. Panthera zdanskyi is considered to be a sister taxon of the modern tiger. It lived at the beginning of the Pleistocene about two million years ago, its fossil remains were excavated in Gansu of northwestern China. It was smaller and more "primitive", but functionally and ecologically similar to the modern tiger. It is disputed as to whether it had the striping pattern. Northwestern China is thought to be the origin of the tiger lineage. Tigers grew in size, possibly in response to adaptive radiations of prey species like deer and bovids, which may have occurred in Southeast Asia during the Early Pleistocene. Panthera tigris trinilensis lived about and is known from fossils excavated near Trinil in Java. The Wanhsien, Ngandong, Trinil, and Japanese tigers became extinct in prehistoric times. Tigers reached India and northern Asia in the late Pleistocene, reaching eastern Beringia, Japan, and Sakhalin. Some fossil skulls are morphologically distinct from lion skulls, which could indicate tiger presence in Alaska during the last glacial period, about 100,000 years ago. Fossil teeth and bones found in Borneo were attributed to the Bornean tiger and date to about 13,745 to 3,000 years ago. It may have accessed Borneo, when the sea level was low during a glaciation period, and may have survived until about 200 years ago. In the Ille Cave on the island of Palawan, two articulated phalanx bones were found amidst an assemblage of other animal bones and stone tools. They were smaller than mainland tiger fossils, possibly due to insular dwarfism. It has been speculated that the tiger parts were either imported from elsewhere, or that the tiger colonised Palawan from Borneo before the Holocene. Fossil remains of tigers were also excavated in Sri Lanka, China, Japan and Sarawak dating to the Late Pliocene, Pleistocene and Early Holocene. Results of a phylogeographic study indicate that all living tigers had a common ancestor 108,000 to 72,000 years ago. The potential tiger range during the late Pleistocene and Holocene was predicted applying ecological niche modelling based on more than 500 tiger locality records combined with bioclimatic data. The resulting model shows a contiguous tiger range at the Last Glacial Maximum, indicating gene flow between tiger populations in mainland Asia. The Caspian tiger population was likely connected to the Bengal tiger population through corridors below elevations of 4,000 m (13,000 ft) in the Hindu Kush. The tiger populations on the Sunda Islands and mainland Asia were possibly separated during interglacial periods. The tiger's full genome sequence was published in 2013. It was found to have repeat compositions much as other cat genomes and "an appreciably conserved synteny". ### Hybrids Captive tigers were bred with lions to create hybrids called liger and tigon. They share physical and behavioural qualities of both parent species. Breeding hybrids is now discouraged due to the emphasis on conservation. The liger is a cross between a male lion and a tigress. Ligers are typically between 3 and 3.5 m (10 and 12 ft) in length, and weigh between 350 and 450 kg (800 and 1,000 lb) or more. Because the lion sire passes on a growth-promoting gene, but the corresponding growth-inhibiting gene from the female tiger is absent, ligers grow far larger than either parent species. The less common tigon is a cross between a lioness and a male tiger. Because the male tiger does not pass on a growth-promoting gene and the lioness passes on a growth inhibiting gene, tigons are around the same size as their parents. Some females are fertile and have occasionally given birth to litigons when mated to a male Asiatic lion. ## Description The tiger has a muscular body with strong forelimbs, a large head and a tail that is about half the length of its body. Its pelage colouration varies between shades of orange with a white underside and distinctive vertical black stripes; the patterns of which are unique in each individual. Stripes are likely advantageous for camouflage in vegetation such as long grass with strong vertical patterns of light and shade. The tiger is one of only a few striped cat species; it is not known why spotted patterns and rosettes are the more common camouflage pattern among felids. The orange colour may also aid in camouflage as the tiger's prey are dichromats, and thus may perceive the cat as green and blended in with the vegetation. A tiger's coat pattern is still visible when it is shaved. This is not due to skin pigmentation, but to the stubble and hair follicles embedded in the skin. It has a mane-like heavy growth of fur around the neck and jaws and long whiskers, especially in males. The pupils are circular with yellow irises. The small, rounded ears have a prominent white spot on the back, surrounded by black. These spots are thought to play an important role in intraspecific communication. The tiger's skull is similar to a lion's skull, with the frontal region usually less depressed or flattened, and a slightly longer postorbital region. The lion skull shows broader nasal openings. Due to the variation in skull sizes of the two species, the structure of the lower jaw is a reliable indicator for their identification. The tiger has fairly stout teeth; its somewhat curved canines are the longest among living felids with a crown height of up to 90 mm (3.5 in). ### Size There is notable sexual dimorphism between male and female tigers, with the latter being consistently smaller. The size difference between them is proportionally greater in the large tiger subspecies, with males weighing up to 1.7 times more than females. Males also have wider forepaw pads, enabling sex to be identified from tracks. It has been hypothesised that body size of different tiger populations may be correlated with climate and be explained by thermoregulation and Bergmann's rule, or by distribution and size of available prey species. Generally, males vary in total length from 220 to 310 cm (87 to 122 in) and weigh between 90 and 300 kg (200 and 660 lb) with skull length ranging from 295 to 383 mm (11.6 to 15.1 in). The largest tiger on record reportedly weighed 423 kg (933 lb). Females vary in total length from 190 to 275 cm (75 to 108 in), weigh 65 to 167 kg (143 to 368 lb) with skull length ranging from 265 to 318 mm (10.4 to 12.5 in). In either sex, the tail represents about 0.6 to 1.1 m (2 ft 0 in to 3 ft 7 in) of the total length. The Bengal and Siberian tigers are the largest, while the Sumatran tiger is smaller and less heavy, rarely exceeding 142 kg (313 lb) in weight. ### Colour variations There are three other colour variants – white, golden and nearly stripeless snow white – that are now virtually non-existent in the wild due to the reduction of wild tiger populations, but continue in captive populations. The white tiger has white fur and sepia-brown stripes. The golden tiger has a pale golden pelage with a blond tone and reddish-brown stripes. The snow white tiger is a morph with extremely faint stripes and a pale reddish-brown ringed tail. Both snow white and golden tigers are homozygous for CORIN gene mutations. The white tiger lacks pheomelanin (which creates the orange colour), and has dark sepia-brown stripes and blue eyes. This altered pigmentation is caused by a mutant gene that is inherited as an autosomal recessive trait, which is determined by a white locus. It is not an albino, as the dark pigments are scarcely affected. The mutation changes a single amino acid in the transporter protein SLC45A2. Both parents need to have the allele for whiteness to have white cubs. Between the early and mid 20th century, white tigers were recorded and shot in the Indian states of Odisha, Bihar, Assam and in the area of Rewa, Madhya Pradesh. The local maharaja started breeding tigers in the early 1950s and kept a white male tiger together with its normal-coloured daughter; they had white cubs. To preserve this recessive trait, only a few white individuals were used in captive breeding, which led to a high degree of inbreeding. Inbreeding depression is the main reason for many health problems of captive white tigers, including strabismus, stillbirth, deformities and premature death. Other physical defects include cleft palate and scoliosis. The Tiger Species Survival Plan has condemned the breeding of white tigers, alleging they are of mixed ancestry and of unknown lineage. The genes responsible for white colouration are represented by 0.001% of the population. The disproportionate growth in numbers of white tigers points to inbreeding among homozygous recessive individuals. This would lead to inbreeding depression and loss of genetic variability. There are also records of pseudo-melanic or black tigers which have thick stripes that merge. In Simlipal National Park, 37% of the tiger population has this condition, which has been linked to isolation and inbreeding. ## Distribution and habitat The tiger historically ranged from eastern Turkey and Transcaucasia to the coast of the Sea of Japan, and from South Asia across Southeast Asia to the Indonesian islands of Sumatra, Java and Bali. Since the end of the last glacial period, it was probably restricted by periods of deep snow lasting longer than six months. Currently, it occurs in less than 6% of its historical range, as it has been extirpated from Southwest and Central Asia, large parts of Southeast and East Asia. It now mainly occurs in the Indian subcontinent, the Indochinese Peninsula, Sumatra and the Russian Far East, while its status in the Korean Peninsula is unknown. The tiger is essentially associated with forest habitats. Tiger populations thrive where populations of wild cervids, bovids and suids are stable. Records in Central Asia indicate that it occurred foremost in Tugay riverine forests along the Atrek, Amu Darya, Syr Darya, Hari, Chu and Ili Rivers and their tributaries. In the Caucasus, it inhabited hilly and lowland forests. Historical records in Iran are known only from the southern coast of the Caspian Sea and adjacent Alborz Mountains. In the Amur-Ussuri region, it inhabits Korean pine and temperate broadleaf and mixed forests, where riparian forests provide food and water, and serve as dispersal corridors for both tiger and ungulates. On the Indian subcontinent, it inhabits mainly tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests, moist evergreen forests, tropical dry forests and the swamp forests of the Sundarbans. In the Eastern Himalayas, tigers were documented in temperate forest up to an elevation of 4,200 m (13,800 ft) in Bhutan and of 3,630 m (11,910 ft) in the Mishmi Hills. In Thailand, it lives in deciduous and evergreen forests. In Sumatra, tiger populations range from lowland peat swamp forests to rugged montane forests. ## Ecology and behaviour ### Social and daily activities When not subject to human disturbance, the tiger is mainly diurnal. It does not often climb trees but cases have been recorded. It is a strong swimmer and often bathes in ponds, lakes and rivers, thus keeping cool in the heat of the day. Individuals can cross rivers up to 7 km (4.3 mi) wide and can swim up to 29 km (18 mi) in a day. During the 1980s, a tiger was observed frequently hunting prey through deep lake water in Ranthambhore National Park. The tiger is a long-ranging species, and individuals disperse over distances of up to 650 km (400 mi) to reach tiger populations in other areas. Radio-collared tigers in Chitwan National Park started dispersing from their natal areas earliest at the age of 19 months. Four females dispersed between 0 and 43.2 km (0.0 and 26.8 mi), and 10 males between 9.5 and 65.7 km (5.9 and 40.8 mi). None of them crossed open cultivated areas that were more than 10 km (6.2 mi) wide, but moved through forested habitat. Adult tigers lead largely solitary lives. They establish and maintain territories but have much wider home ranges within which they roam. Resident adults of either sex generally confine their movements to their home ranges, within which they satisfy their needs and those of their growing cubs. Individuals sharing the same area are aware of each other's movements and activities. The size of the home range mainly depends on prey abundance, geographic area and sex of the individual. In India, home ranges appear to be 50 to 1,000 km<sup>2</sup> (19 to 386 sq mi) while in Manchuria, they range from 500 to 4,000 km<sup>2</sup> (190 to 1,540 sq mi). In Nepal, defended territories are recorded to be 19 to 151 km<sup>2</sup> (7.3 to 58.3 sq mi) for males and 10 to 51 km<sup>2</sup> (3.9 to 19.7 sq mi) for females. Young female tigers establish their first territories close to their mother's. The overlap between the female and her mother's territory reduces with time. Males, however, migrate further than their female counterparts and set out at a younger age to mark out their own area. A young male acquires territory either by seeking out an area devoid of other male tigers, or by living as a transient in another male's territory until he is older and strong enough to challenge the resident male. Young males seeking to establish themselves thereby comprise the highest mortality rate (30–35% per year) amongst adult tigers. To identify his territory, the male marks trees by spraying urine, anal gland secretions, marking trails with feces and marking trees or the ground with their claws. Females also use these "scrapes", urine and fecal markings. Scent markings of this type allow an individual to pick up information on another's identity, sex and reproductive status. Females in oestrus will signal their availability by scent marking more frequently and increasing their vocalisations. Although for the most part avoiding each other, tigers are not always territorial and relationships between individuals can be complex. An adult of either sex will sometimes share its kill with others, even with unrelated tigers. George Schaller observed a male share a kill with two females and four cubs. Unlike male lions, male tigers allow females and cubs to feed on the kill before the male is finished with it; all involved generally seem to behave amicably, in contrast to the competitive behaviour shown by a lion pride. Stephen Mills described a social feeding event in Ranthambore National Park: > A dominant tigress they called Padmini killed a 250 kg (550 lb) male nilgai – a very large antelope. They found her at the kill just after dawn with her three 14-month-old cubs, and they watched uninterrupted for the next ten hours. During this period the family was joined by two adult females and one adult male, all offspring from Padmini's previous litters, and by two unrelated tigers, one female the other unidentified. By three o'clock there were no fewer than nine tigers round the kill. Male tigers are generally less tolerant of other males within their territories than females are of other females. Territory disputes are usually solved by intimidation rather than outright violence. Several such incidents have been observed in which the subordinate tiger yielded by rolling onto its back and showing its belly in a submissive posture. Once dominance has been established, a male may tolerate a subordinate within his range, as long as they do not live in too close quarters. The most serious disputes tend to occur between two males competing for a female in oestrus, sometimes fighting to the death. Facial expressions include the "defense threat", where an individual bares its teeth, flattens its ears and its pupils enlarge. Both males and females show a flehmen response, a characteristic grimace, when sniffing urine markings, but flehmen is more often associated with males detecting the markings made by tigresses in oestrus. Tigers roar to signal their presence to other individuals over long distances. This vocalisation is forced through an open mouth as it closes and can be heard 3 km (1.9 mi) away. They may roar three or four times in a row, and other tigers may respond in kind. When tense, tigers will moan, a sound similar to a roar but softer and made when the mouth is at least partially closed. Moaning can be heard 400 m (1,300 ft) away. Aggressive encounters involve growling, snarling and hissing. During an attack, an explosive "coughing roar" or "coughing snarl" is emitted through an open mouth and exposed teeth. Chuffing—soft, low-frequency snorting similar to purring in smaller cats—is heard in more friendly situations. Other vocalisations include grunts, woofs and miaows. ### Hunting and diet Tigers mostly feed on large and medium-sized mammals, particularly ungulates weighing 60–250 kg (130–550 lb). Range-wide, the most selected prey are sambar deer, Manchurian wapiti, barasingha and wild boar. Tigers are capable of taking down larger prey like adult gaur and wild water buffalo, but opportunistically eat much smaller prey, such as monkeys, peafowl and other ground-based birds, hares, porcupines and fish. They also prey on other predators, including dogs, leopards, bears, snakes and crocodiles. Tiger attacks on adult Asian elephants and Indian rhinoceros have also been reported. More often, tigers take the more vulnerable small calves. When in close proximity to humans, tigers sometimes prey on domestic livestock like cattle, horses and donkeys. Although almost exclusively carnivorous, tigers occasionally eat vegetation for dietary fibre such as fruit of the slow match tree. The tigers is thought to be mainly a nocturnal predator. It generally hunts alone and overpowers its prey from any angle, using its body size and strength to knock the prey off balance. Successful hunts usually require the tiger to almost simultaneously leap onto its quarry, knock it over, and grab the throat or nape with its teeth. Some tigers can reach speeds of about 49–65 km/h (30–40 mph) but only in short bursts; consequently, tigers must be close to their prey before they break cover. If the prey senses the tiger's presence before this, the tiger usually abandons the hunt rather than give chase or battle pre-alerted prey. Horizontal leaps of up to 10 m (33 ft) have been reported, although leaps of around half this distance are more typical. One in 2 to 20 hunts, including stalking near potential prey, ends in a successful kill. When hunting larger animals, tigers prefer to bite the throat and use their powerful forelimbs to hold onto the prey, often simultaneously wrestling it to the ground. The tiger remains latched onto the neck until its target dies of strangulation. By this method, tigers killed gaurs and water buffaloes weighing over a ton. Although they can kill healthy adults, tigers often select the calves or infirm of very large species. Healthy adult prey of this type can be dangerous to tackle, as long, strong horns, legs and tusks are all potentially fatal to the tiger. No other extant land predator routinely takes on prey this large on its own. With small prey such as monkeys and hares, the tiger bites the nape, often breaking the spinal cord, piercing the windpipe, or severing the jugular vein or common carotid artery. Rarely, tigers have been observed to kill prey by swiping with their paws, which are powerful enough to smash the skulls of domestic cattle, and break the backs of sloth bears. After killing their prey, tigers sometimes drag it to conceal it in vegetation, grasping with their mouths at the site of the killing bite. This, too, can require great physical strength. In one case, after it had killed an adult gaur, a tiger was observed to drag the massive carcass over a distance of 12 m (39 ft). When 13 men simultaneously tried to drag the same carcass later, they were unable to move it. An adult tiger can go for up to two weeks without eating, then gorge on 34 kg (75 lb) of flesh at one time. In captivity, adult tigers are fed 3 to 6 kg (6.6 to 13.2 lb) of meat a day. ### Enemies and competitors Tigers usually prefer to eat self-killed prey, but eat carrion in times of scarcity and also steal prey from other large carnivores. Although predators typically avoid one another, if a prize is under dispute or a serious competitor is encountered, displays of aggression are common. If these fail, the conflicts may turn violent; tigers may kill or even prey on competitors such as leopards, dholes, striped hyenas, wolves, bears, pythons, and mugger crocodiles on occasion. Crocodiles, bears, and large packs of dholes may win conflicts with tigers, and crocodiles and bears can even kill them. The considerably smaller leopard avoids competition from tigers by hunting at different times of the day and hunting different prey. In India's Nagarhole National Park, most prey selected by leopards were from 30 to 175 kg (66 to 386 lb) against a preference for heavier prey by tigers. The average prey weight in the two respective big cats in India was 37.6 kg (83 lb) against 91.5 kg (202 lb). With relatively abundant prey, tigers and leopards were seen to successfully coexist without competitive exclusion or interspecies dominance hierarchies that may be more common to the African savanna, where the leopard lives beside the lion. Golden jackals may scavenge on tiger kills. Tigers appear to inhabit the deep parts of a forest while smaller predators like leopards and dholes are pushed closer to the fringes. ### Reproduction and life cycle The tiger mates all year round, but most cubs are born between March and June, with a second peak in September. Gestation ranges from 93 to 114 days, with an average of 103 to 105 days. A female is only receptive for three to six days. Mating is frequent and noisy during that time. The female gives birth in a sheltered location such as in tall grass, in a dense thicket, cave or rocky crevice. The father generally takes no part in rearing. Litters consist of two or three cubs, rarely as many as six. Cubs weigh from 780 to 1,600 g (28 to 56 oz) each at birth, and are born with eyes closed. They open their eyes when they are six to 14 days old. Their milk teeth break through at the age of about two weeks. They start to eat meat at the age of eight weeks. At around this time, females usually shift them to a new den. They make short ventures with their mother, although they do not travel with her as she roams her territory until they are older. Females lactate for five to six months. Around the time they are weaned, they start to accompany their mother on territorial walks and are taught how to hunt. A dominant cub emerges in most litters, usually a male. The dominant cub is more active than its siblings and takes the lead in their play, eventually leaving its mother and becoming independent earlier. The cubs start hunting on their own earliest at the age of 11 months, and become independent around 18 to 20 months of age. They separate from their mother at the age of two to two and a half years, but continue to grow until the age of five years. Young females reach sexual maturity at three to four years, whereas males at four to five years. Unrelated wandering male tigers often kill cubs to make the female receptive, since the tigress may give birth to another litter within five months if the cubs of the previous litter are lost. The mortality rate of tiger cubs is about 50% in the first two years. Few other predators attack tiger cubs due to the diligence and ferocity of the mother. Apart from humans and other tigers, common causes of cub mortality are starvation, freezing, and accidents. Generation length of the tiger is about eight years. The oldest recorded captive tiger lived for 26 years. Occasionally, male tigers participate in raising cubs, usually their own, but this is extremely rare and not always well understood. In May 2015, Amur tigers were photographed by camera traps in the Sikhote-Alin Nature Reserve. The photos show a male Amur tiger pass by, followed by a female and three cubs within the span of about two minutes. In Ranthambore, a male Bengal tiger raised and defended two orphaned female cubs after their mother had died of illness. The cubs remained under his care, he supplied them with food, protected them from his rival and sister, and apparently also trained them. ## Conservation In the 1990s, a new approach to tiger conservation was developed: Tiger Conservation Units (TCUs), which are blocks of habitat that have the potential to host tiger populations in 15 habitat types within five bioregions. Altogether 143 TCUs were identified and prioritized based on size and integrity of habitat, poaching pressure and population status. They range in size from 33 to 155,829 km<sup>2</sup> (13 to 60,166 sq mi). In 2016, an estimate of a global wild tiger population of approximately 3,890 individuals was presented during the Third Asia Ministerial Conference on Tiger Conservation. The WWF subsequently declared that the world's count of wild tigers had risen for the first time in a century. Major threats to the tiger include habitat destruction, habitat fragmentation and poaching for fur and body parts, which have simultaneously greatly reduced tiger populations in the wild. In India, only 11% of the historical tiger habitat remains due to habitat fragmentation. Demand for tiger parts for use in traditional Chinese medicine has also been cited as a major threat to tiger populations. Some estimates suggest that there are fewer than 2,500 mature breeding individuals, with no subpopulation containing more than 250 mature breeding individuals. India is home to the world's largest population of wild tigers. A 2014 census estimated a population of 2,226, a 30% increase since 2011. On International Tiger Day 2019, the 'Tiger Estimation Report 2018' was released by Prime Minister Narendra Modi. The report estimates a population of 2967 tigers in India with 25% increase since 2014. Modi said "India is one of the safest habitats for tigers as it has achieved the target of doubling the tiger population from 1411 in 2011 to 2967 in 2019". As of 2022, India accounts for 75 percent of global tiger population. The Tiger Census of 2023 reports tiger population in India at 3167. In 1973, India's Project Tiger, started by Indira Gandhi, established numerous tiger reserves. The project was credited with tripling the number of wild Bengal tigers from some 1,200 in 1973 to over 3,500 in the 1990s, but a 2007 census showed that numbers had dropped back to about 1,400 tigers because of poaching. Following the report, the Indian government pledged \$153 million to the initiative, set up measures to combat poaching, promised funds to relocate up to 200,000 villagers in order to reduce human-tiger interactions, and set up eight new tiger reserves in India. India also reintroduced tigers to the Sariska Tiger Reserve and by 2009 it was claimed that poaching had been effectively countered at Ranthambore National Park. In the 1940s, the Siberian tiger was on the brink of extinction with only about 40 animals remaining in the wild in Russia. As a result, anti-poaching controls were put in place by the Soviet Union and a network of protected zones (zapovedniks) were instituted, leading to a rise in the population to several hundred. Poaching again became a problem in the 1990s, when the economy of Russia collapsed. The major obstacle in preserving the species is the enormous territory individual tigers require, up to 450 km (280 mi) needed by a single female and more for a single male. Current conservation efforts are led by local governments and NGO's in concert with international organisations, such as the World Wide Fund for Nature and the Wildlife Conservation Society. The competitive exclusion of wolves by tigers has been used by Russian conservationists to convince hunters to tolerate the big cats. Tigers have less impact on ungulate populations than do wolves, and are effective in controlling the latter's numbers. In 2005, there were thought to be about 360 animals in Russia, though these exhibited little genetic diversity. However, in a decade later, the Siberian tiger census was estimated from 480 to 540 individuals. In China, tigers became the target of large-scale 'anti-pest' campaigns in the early 1950s, where suitable habitats were fragmented following deforestation and resettlement of people to rural areas, who hunted tigers and prey species. Though tiger hunting was prohibited in 1977, the population continued to decline and is considered extinct in southern China since 2001. Having earlier rejected the Western-led environmentalist movement, China changed its stance in the 1980s and became a party to the CITES treaty. By 1993 it had banned the trade in tiger parts, and this diminished the use of tiger bones in traditional Chinese medicine. The Tibetan people's trade in tiger skins has also been a threat to tigers. The pelts were used in clothing, tiger-skin chuba being worn as fashion. In 2006 the 14th Dalai Lama was persuaded to take up the issue. Since then there has been a change of attitude, with some Tibetans publicly burning their chubas. In 1994, the Indonesian Sumatran Tiger Conservation Strategy addressed the potential crisis that tigers faced in Sumatra. The Sumatran Tiger Project (STP) was initiated in June 1995 in and around the Way Kambas National Park to ensure the long-term viability of wild Sumatran tigers and to accumulate data on tiger life-history characteristics vital for the management of wild populations. By August 1999, the teams of the STP had evaluated 52 sites of potential tiger habitat in Lampung Province, of which only 15 these were intact enough to contain tigers. In the framework of the STP a community-based conservation program was initiated to document the tiger-human dimension in the park to enable conservation authorities to resolve tiger-human conflicts based on a comprehensive database rather than anecdotes and opinions. The Wildlife Conservation Society and Panthera Corporation formed the collaboration Tigers Forever, with field sites including the world's largest tiger reserve, the 21,756 km<sup>2</sup> (8,400 sq mi) Hukaung Valley in Myanmar. Other reserves were in the Western Ghats in India, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, the Russian Far East covering in total about 260,000 km<sup>2</sup> (100,000 sq mi). Tigers have been studied in the wild using a variety of techniques. Tiger population have been estimated using plaster casts of their pugmarks, although this method was criticized as being inaccurate. More recent techniques include the use of camera traps and studies of DNA from tiger scat, while radio-collaring has been used to track tigers in the wild. Tiger spray has been found to be just as good, or better, as a source of DNA than scat. ## Relationship with humans ### Tiger hunting The tiger has been one of the most sought after game animals of Asia. Tiger hunting took place on a large scale in the early 19th and 20th centuries, being a recognised and admired sport by the British in colonial India, the maharajas and aristocratic class of the erstwhile princely states of pre-independence India. A single maharaja or English hunter could claim to kill over a hundred tigers in their hunting career. Over 80,000 tigers were slaughtered in just 50 years spanning from 1875 to 1925 in British-ruled India. Tiger hunting was done by some hunters on foot; others sat up on machans with a goat or buffalo tied out as bait; yet others on elephant-back. King George V on his visit to Colonial India in 1911 killed 39 tigers in a matter of 10 days One of these is on display at the Royal Albert Memorial Museum. Historically, tigers have been hunted at a large scale so their famous striped skins could be collected. The trade in tiger skins peaked in the 1960s, just before international conservation efforts took effect. By 1977, a tiger skin in an English market was considered to be worth US\$4,250. ### Body part use Tiger parts are commonly used as amulets in South and Southeast Asia. In the Philippines, the fossils in Palawan were found besides stone tools. This, besides the evidence for cuts on the bones, and the use of fire, suggests that early humans had accumulated the bones, and the condition of the tiger subfossils, dated to approximately 12,000 to 9,000 years ago, differed from other fossils in the assemblage, dated to the Upper Paleolithic. The tiger subfossils showed longitudinal fracture of the cortical bone due to weathering, which suggests that they had post-mortem been exposed to light and air. Tiger canines were found in Ambangan sites dating to the 10th to 12th centuries in Butuan, Mindanao. Many people in China and other parts of Asia have a belief that various tiger parts have medicinal properties, including as pain killers and aphrodisiacs. There is no scientific evidence to support these beliefs. The use of tiger parts in pharmaceutical drugs in China is already banned, and the government has made some offences in connection with tiger poaching punishable by death. Furthermore, all trade in tiger parts is illegal under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora and a domestic trade ban has been in place in China since 1993. However, the trading of tiger parts in Asia has become a major black market industry and governmental and conservation attempts to stop it have been ineffective to date. Almost all black marketers engaged in the trade are based in China and have either been shipped and sold within in their own country or into Taiwan, South Korea or Japan. The Chinese subspecies was almost completely decimated by killing for commerce due to both the parts and skin trades in the 1950s through the 1970s. Contributing to the illegal trade, there are a number of tiger farms in the country specialising in breeding them for profit. It is estimated that between 5,000 and 10,000 captive-bred, semi-tame animals live in these farms today. However, many tigers for traditional medicine black market are wild ones shot or snared by poachers and may be caught anywhere in the tiger's remaining range (from Siberia to India to the Malay Peninsula to Sumatra). In the Asian black market, a tiger penis can be worth the equivalent of around \$300 U.S. dollars. In the years of 1990 through 1992, 27 million products with tiger derivatives were found. In July 2014 at an international convention on endangered species in Geneva, Switzerland, a Chinese representative admitted for the first time his government was aware trading in tiger skins was occurring in China. ### Man-eating tigers Wild tigers that have had no prior contact with humans actively avoid interactions with them. However, tigers cause more human deaths through direct attack than any other wild mammal. Attacks are occasionally provoked, as tigers lash out after being injured while they themselves are hunted. Attacks can be provoked accidentally, as when a human surprises a tiger or inadvertently comes between a mother and her young, or as in a case in rural India when a postman startled a tiger, used to seeing him on foot, by riding a bicycle. Occasionally tigers come to view people as prey. Such attacks are most common in areas where population growth, logging, and farming have put pressure on tiger habitats and reduced their wild prey. Most man-eating tigers are old, missing teeth, and unable to capture their preferred prey. For example, the Champawat Tiger, a tigress found in Nepal and then India, had two broken canines. She was responsible for an estimated 430 human deaths, the most attacks known to be perpetrated by a single wild animal, by the time she was shot in 1907 by Jim Corbett. According to Corbett, tiger attacks on humans are normally in daytime, when people are working outdoors and are not keeping watch. Early writings tend to describe man-eating tigers as cowardly because of their ambush tactics. Man-eaters have been a particular problem in recent decades in India and Bangladesh, especially in Kumaon, Garhwal and the Sundarbans mangrove swamps of Bengal, where some healthy tigers have hunted humans. Because of rapid habitat loss attributed to climate change, tiger attacks have increased in the Sundarbans. The Sundarbans area had 129 human deaths from tigers from 1969 to 1971. In the 10 years prior to that period, about 100 attacks per year in the Sundarbans, with a high of around 430 in some years of the 1960s. Unusually, in some years in the Sundarbans, more humans are killed by tigers than vice versa. In 1972, India's production of honey and beeswax dropped by 50% when at least 29 people who gathered these materials were devoured. In 1986 in the Sundarbans, since tigers almost always attack from the rear, masks with human faces were worn on the back of the head, on the theory that tigers usually do not attack if seen by their prey. This decreased the number of attacks only temporarily. All other means to prevent attacks, such as providing more prey or using electrified human dummies, did not work as well. ### In captivity In Ancient Roman times, tigers were kept in menageries and amphitheatres to be exhibited, trained and paraded, and were often provoked to fight gladiators and other exotic beasts. Since the 17th century, tigers, being rare and ferocious, were sought after to keep at European castles as symbols of their owners' power. Tigers became central zoo and circus exhibits in the 18th century: a tiger could cost up to 4,000 francs in France (for comparison, a professor of the Beaux-Arts at Lyons earned only 3,000 francs a year), or up to \$3,500 in the United States, where a lion cost no more than \$1,000. In 2007, over 4,000 captive tigers lived in China, of which 3,000 were held by about 20 larger facilities, with the rest held by some 200 smaller facilities. In 2011, 468 facilities in the USA kept 2,884 tigers. Nineteen US states banned private ownership of tigers, fifteen require a license, and sixteen states have no regulation. Genetic ancestry of 105 captive tigers from fourteen countries and regions showed that forty-nine animals belonged distinctly to five subspecies; fifty-two animals had mixed subspecies origins. Many Siberian tigers in zoos today are actually the result of crosses with Bengal tigers. ## Cultural depictions Tigers and their superlative qualities have been a source of fascination for mankind since ancient times, and they are routinely visible as important cultural and media motifs. They are also considered one of the charismatic megafauna, and are used as the face of conservation campaigns worldwide. In a 2004 online poll conducted by cable television channel Animal Planet, involving more than 50,000 viewers from 73 countries, the tiger was voted the world's favourite animal with 21% of the vote, narrowly beating the dog. ### Mythology and legend In Chinese mythology and culture, the tiger is one of the 12 animals of the Chinese zodiac. In Chinese art, the tiger is depicted as an earth symbol and equal rival of the Chinese dragon – the two representing matter and spirit respectively. The Southern Chinese martial art Hung Ga is based on the movements of the tiger and the crane. In Imperial China, a tiger was the personification of war and often represented the highest army general (or present day defense secretary), while the emperor and empress were represented by a dragon and phoenix, respectively. The White Tiger (Chinese: 白虎; pinyin: Bái Hǔ) is one of the Four Symbols of the Chinese constellations. It is sometimes called the White Tiger of the West (Chinese: 西方白虎), and it represents the west and the autumn season. The tiger's tail appears in stories from countries including China and Korea, it being generally inadvisable to grasp a tiger by the tail. In Korean mythology and culture, the tiger is regarded as a guardian that drives away evil spirits and a sacred creature that brings good luck – the symbol of courage and absolute power. For the people who live in and around the forests of Korea, the tiger considered the symbol of the Mountain Spirit or King of mountain animals. So, Koreans also called the tigers "San Gun" (산군) means Mountain Lord. In Buddhism, the tiger is one of the Three Senseless Creatures, symbolising anger, with the monkey representing greed and the deer lovesickness. The Tungusic peoples considered the Siberian tiger a near-deity and often referred to it as "Grandfather" or "Old man". The Udege and Nanai called it "Amba". The Manchu people considered the Siberian tiger as "Hu Lin", the king. In Hinduism, the god Shiva wears and sits on tiger skin. The ten-armed warrior goddess Durga rides the tigress (or lioness) Damon into battle. In southern India the god Ayyappan was associated with a tiger. Dingu-Aneni is the god in North-East India is also associated with tiger. The weretiger replaces the werewolf in shapeshifting folklore in Asia; in India they were evil sorcerers, while in Indonesia and Malaysia they were somewhat more benign. In Taiwanese folk beliefs, Aunt Tiger portrays the story of a tiger, which turns into an old woman, abducts children at night and devours them to satisfy her appetite. In Greco-Roman tradition, the tiger was depicted being ridden by the god Dionysus. ### Literature and media In the Hindu epic Mahabharata, the tiger is fiercer and more ruthless than the lion. William Blake's poem in his Songs of Experience (1794), titled "The Tyger", portrays the tiger as a menacing and fearful animal. In Rudyard Kipling's 1894 The Jungle Book, the tiger Shere Khan is the mortal enemy of the human protagonist Mowgli. Yann Martel's 2001 Booker Prize winning novel Life of Pi, features the title character surviving shipwreck for months on a small boat with a large Bengal tiger while avoiding being eaten. The story was adapted in Ang Lee's 2012 feature film of the same name. Friendly tiger characters include Tigger in A. A. Milne's Winnie-the-Pooh and Hobbes of the comic strip Calvin and Hobbes, both represented as stuffed animals come to life. Tony the Tiger is a famous mascot for Kellogg's breakfast cereal Frosted Flakes, known for his catchphrase "They're Gr-r-reat!". ### Heraldry and emblems The tiger is one of the animals displayed on the Pashupati seal of the Indus Valley civilisation. The tiger was the emblem of the Chola Dynasty and was depicted on coins, seals and banners. The seals of several Chola copper coins show the tiger, the Pandyan emblem fish and the Chera emblem bow, indicating that the Cholas had achieved political supremacy over the latter two dynasties. Gold coins found in Kavilayadavalli in the Nellore district of Andhra Pradesh have motifs of the tiger, bow and some indistinct marks. The tiger symbol of Chola Empire was later adopted by the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam and the tiger became a symbol of the unrecognised state of Tamil Eelam and Tamil independence movement. The Bengal tiger is the national animal of India and Bangladesh. The Malaysian tiger is the national animal of Malaysia. The Siberian tiger is the national animal of South Korea. The Tiger is featured on the logo of the Delhi Capitals IPL team. In European heraldry, the tyger, a depiction of a tiger as imagined by European artists, is among the creatures used in charges and supporters. This creature has several notable differences from real tigers, lacking stripes and having a leonine tufted tail and a head terminating in large, pointed jaws. A more realistic tiger entered the heraldic armory through the British Empire's expansion into Asia, and is referred to as the Bengal tiger to distinguish it from its older counterpart. The Bengal tiger is not a common creature in heraldry, but is used as a supporter in the arms of Bombay and emblazoned on the shield of the University of Madras. ## See also - Siegfried & Roy, two famous tamers of tigers - List of largest cats - Tiger King, a 2020 crime documentary series on the exotic pet trade
45,590,275	Bob Muglia	1,134,111,959	American business executive (born 1959)	[ "1959 births", "American technology chief executives", "Businesspeople from Connecticut", "Living people", "Microsoft employees", "University of Michigan alumni" ]	Bob Muglia (born 1959) is an American business executive and research and development specialist. He was formerly the Chief Executive Officer of Snowflake Computing, a data warehousing startup. Muglia is known for managing divisions at Microsoft that supported the Microsoft Office Suite, Windows Server and MSN Network product families. He was one of four presidents that reported directly to Microsoft CEO Steve Ballmer. Muglia held several executive positions at Microsoft before resigning from the company in 2011. He worked briefly for Juniper Networks, then accepted his position as CEO of Snowflake Computing in June 2014. ## Early life Bob Muglia was born in 1959 in Connecticut. His father was an automotive parts salesman. Muglia started working at his first job when he was 15 years old. He moved to Michigan and earned an undergraduate degree from the University of Michigan in 1981. After graduating, he started working for ROLM Corporation. ## Career ### Microsoft #### Windows and business software Bob Muglia started his Microsoft career in 1988. He was the first product manager for SQL Server. Muglia also served as the director of Windows NT Program Management and User Education. He was promoted to vice president of the Windows NT division in October 1995. Muglia later held the position of vice president of the Server Application group, until he was promoted to senior vice president of the Applications and Tools group in February 1998. Bob Muglia was influential in a corporate restructuring at Microsoft in 1999, which assigned business divisions to customer types, rather than technologies. As part of the re-structuring, Muglia became head of the business-productivity group, which oversaw Microsoft Office, Exchange and other business software. According to Computer Reseller News, Muglia pushed developers to visit customers, created customer advisory boards and led other efforts to incorporate customer input into product development at Microsoft. Muglia testified in the United States v. Microsoft Corp. antitrust lawsuit, and in a case between Microsoft and Sun Microsystems regarding Microsoft's use of Java. According to New York Times reporters Steve Lohr and Koel Brinkley, the judge embarrassed Muglia by rebuking him for his persistent characterization of an email from Bill Gates. Muglia also negotiated aggressively with RealNetworks, regarding an antitrust dispute between the two companies. In August 2000, Muglia was appointed to vice president of a new .NET Services Group. The following year he was reassigned to focus on database technologies as senior vice president of the Enterprise Storage Services Group. He helped develop Microsoft's plan for autonomic computing, which was announced in March 2003. By early 2004, Muglia held the position of senior vice president of the Windows Server Division. #### Servers and tools division Another re-organization at Microsoft in 2005 resulted in Muglia taking the position of Senior Vice President of Servers and Tools before being promoted to president of the division in 2009. This made Muglia one of four presidents at Microsoft. During his tenure, the business group grew its revenues more than ten percent each year for six years. The division accounted for more than 20 percent of Microsoft's revenues by January 2009. In this position, Muglia led Microsoft's ten-year plan for data center and desktop automation products, its Dynamic Systems Initiative and its Dynamic IT strategy. In October 2010, developers criticized Muglia for suggesting Microsoft would put less emphasis on Silverlight; a statement he later retracted. Muglia announced his resignation from Microsoft in January 2011; he was replaced by Satya Nadella, now Microsoft's CEO. He was the fourth executive reporting directly to Microsoft CEO Steve Ballmer to resign between early 2010 and 2011. According to Financial Times, Ballmer credited Muglia for growing the servers and tools division, but implied the departure was related to disagreements between the two executives about the company's cloud computing strategy. ### Juniper In July 2011, a few months prior to Muglia's last day at Microsoft, Juniper Networks announced it would hire Muglia as the executive vice president of its software division. He reported to then Juniper CEO Kevin Johnson, who (along with other Juniper staff) is also a former Microsoft executive. Muglia was hired to consolidate Juniper's software groups under a new division called Software Solutions. He also helped develop Juniper's software-defined networking (SDN) strategy. In December 2013 Muglia quit Juniper, a month after Shaygan Kheradpir was appointed as the company's new CEO. Several other Juniper executives also left around this time. ### Snowflake computing Bob Muglia was Chief Executive Officer of Snowflake Computing, a cloud-based data-warehousing startup until April 2019. He joined the company in June 2014, a couple years after it was founded in 2012. Snowflake Computing came out of stealth mode that October.
7,426,003	Council House, Perth	1,161,986,892	Office building in Perth, Western Australia	[ "1963 establishments in Australia", "Brutalist architecture in Australia", "Landmarks in Perth, Western Australia", "Office buildings completed in 1963", "Office buildings in Perth, Western Australia", "State Register of Heritage Places in the City of Perth" ]	Council House is a 13-storey office building on St Georges Terrace in Perth, Western Australia. Located beside Stirling Gardens and Government House in the city's central business district, the 49.8-metre (163 ft) building was designed by Howlett and Bailey Architects and opened by Queen Elizabeth II in 1963, after Perth hosted the 1962 British Empire and Commonwealth Games. For most of its history, it has served as the headquarters for the City of Perth. Built in a modernist style, the building has been the subject of vigorous public debate about its heritage value. Some parties, such as the Royal Australian Institute of Architects, consider the building to be an important example of modernist architecture in the city, whilst others consider it ugly. These conflicting views led to animosity in the 1990s, when the State Government refused to heritage list the property, and instead recommended its demolition. Despite this, the City of Perth opted to renovate the tower and keep it as its headquarters. Following this, the building was admitted to the State's Heritage Register. ## Prior site history The site was originally home to the Colony's governing Legislative Council in a building which came to be known as the Old Government Offices or Public Offices. The building was designed by Acting Civil Engineer Henry Reveley in August 1836 after he was asked to prepare plans for public offices on the site. A call for tenders was made, and the tender accepted was for £1,833, well above the £1,200 maximum specified in the call for tenders. Payment was delayed until February 1839. The Public Offices stood 10 metres (33 ft) back from St Georges Terrace. The Legislative Council occupied the building until 1870, when it moved to a chamber adjoining the new Perth Town Hall. The Legislative Council returned to the building in 1890 after the newly formed Legislative Assembly took over that chamber. In the 1890s, the building became a post office, before being taken over by the Department of Agriculture, and the building continued to be used as public offices until 1961. Additions to the building in the 1930s included a second storey, which contained a Legislative Council room and offices for senior public servants. Showing its age, the building eventually became what was described as a "rat-infested hell-hole". The Perth City Council had been based from 1871 in the Perth Town Hall, then in 1925 moved to offices in Murray Street. The site of the Public Offices on St Georges Terrace was chosen as the site for a new home for the Perth City Council in 1954. Immediately south of the Public Offices building stood the Soldiers' Institute building. This building was taken over from the Returned Soldiers' League by the ABC in 1937 for its 6WF radio studio. ## Competition and construction With the news that Perth would be hosting the 1962 British Empire and Commonwealth Games, Perth City Council in 1959 launched an international competition to design its new building. The brief in the competition was to design a "creative building that marked where Perth was at the time" and have the building ready in time for the opening of the Commonwealth Games. Following the competition announcement,184 architects registered, with 61 designs eventually entered into the competition, including one by Jeffrey Howlett and Don Bailey from the Melbourne architectural firm Bates, Smart and McCutcheon. The jury assessing the competition entries, which included architect Harry Seidler, described the Howlett-Bailey plan as "a remarkably simple solution to a complex problem" and declared them winners of the competition. The ABC moved to new premises on Adelaide Terrace in 1960 when the Council House site was taken over by the Perth City Council for construction to begin. Both the Public Offices and Soldiers' Institute buildings were demolished to make way for the redevelopment. Excavations for construction of the building's foundations started in October 1961 and the first concrete pour occurred in November 1961. The building was not completely finished by the time Perth hosted the Commonwealth Games in November 1962, however the builders rushed to finish the ground, eighth, and 10th floors in time so that foreign dignitaries could be entertained in the reception areas. Following the Games, the fit-out of the building was finished in March 1963, and on 25 March 1963 Queen Elizabeth II officially opened Council House, unveiling a 2.4-metre (7.9 ft) tall ceremonial plaque set in granite from the original 1817 Waterloo Bridge in London. Construction of Council House was performed by J. Hawkins and Son Pty Ltd, and cost £1.5 million. It was the first building in Perth to use complete window walling. In order to reduce the heat entering the building through these full-height windows, the building used internal blinds and external sun-breakers. When the building was opened, all Perth City Council activities were moved there. Part of Howlett and Bailey's plans for the complex included the extension of Terrace Road westwards across the sites of the Old Court House and the Supreme Court, but this was never done. Also part of their plan was the construction of an elliptical auditorium called the "Public Suite" behind Council House; the plan to build this was dropped after the completion of Council House, with the design reformulated by Howlett and Bailey and the building eventually built on the opposite side of Government House as the Perth Concert Hall. ## 1990s refurbishment and heritage listing The building continued to serve as the headquarters for the Perth City Council from its completion until 1994, when it was vacated to allow for the removal of asbestos which had been used to insulate the building's steel frame. The Council moved to office space in the Westralia Square building. In 1994, Commissioners appointed by the State to oversee the break-up of the Perth City Council voted to demolish the building. At the time, refurbishment costs were estimated to run to \$42 million. The State Government's plan was to demolish the building and extend Stirling Gardens right across the site to beside Government House, as part of a broader plan entitled "Perth – A City for People" which also included the Northbridge Tunnel, the sinking of Riverside Drive, and the housing of Supreme Court and District Court under the one roof. The State Government suggested that the Council move into the Old Treasury Building across St Georges Terrace, for which they offered an incentive of \$30 million. Significant public debate ensued about whether the building should be kept. Those prominent in the fight to save the building included Bill Warnock, architect Ken Adam, and the Royal Australian Institute of Architects. Others said it was "out of date, unattractive, and out of step" with the older heritage buildings which surround it. Graham Kierath, the Minister for Heritage, also refused to place the building on the WA Register of Heritage Places, despite calls from the Heritage Council and the National Trust to do so. This decision "stunned" the Institute of Architects. Despite the recommendation for demolition, in late 1995, the councillors of the newly formed City of Perth had a feasibility study carried out into whether Council House could be refurbished. This feasibility study was carried out by Architects Cox Howlett and Bailey, of which one of the partners was the son of original designer Jeffrey Howlett, and cost \$100,000. The study indicated that the building could be economically refurbished, and in December 1996 the Council unanimously agreed to press ahead with refurbishment plans, removing its asbestos and building an underground car park at the rear of the site. The decision to refurbish was helped by the fact that interest rates at the time were so low that it was cheaper to service a loan than to pay rent. At the time, the refurbishment was expected to cost around \$26 million. The new 95-bay car park at the rear of the building required the removal of a New Zealand Kauri Pine estimated to be up to 150 years old, and was described by John Cowdell, a Labor MLC, as a "disgrace" which would undermine the heritage value of the precinct. There was also some concern expressed that the refurbishment might cause the building to lose heritage value through the updating of its interiors. The contract to refurbish the building was won by John Holland Group, the construction company of Janet Holmes à Court, on 29 July 1997, at a price of \$25.3 million. The architect for the refurbishment was Geoffrey Clough of Peter Hunt and Daryl Jackson Architects. The building was "stripped back to bare bones" and the tiny tiles coating the building's distinctive "T"-shaped fins were removed, repaired, and re-glued to the surface. The refurbishment also involved the construction of a new "Lord Mayoral space and reception area" on the eleventh floor (formerly a plant level), the full enclosure of the ground floor (which had previously been partially open to the elements) and the replacement of gold Venetian blinds which had been a feature of the building in the past. The City of Perth moved back to Council House in February 1999 and placed three unused floors of Council House for lease. The refurbishment was widely considered a "qualified success", with the building "handsomely restored". The 2001 state election resulted in a change of government, with the Labor Party returning to power. The restored building was finally placed on the interim heritage list by Heritage Minister Michelle Roberts on 5 March 2006. Former Heritage Minister Graham Kierath, who had resisted the nomination in the 1990s, attacked the decision to list the building as pandering to left-wing supporters. The Heritage Council of Western Australia recommended on 17 November 2006 that the listing of the building go ahead. The building was entered as a permanent entry on the Heritage Register on 8 December 2006. > While the building is different from our traditional notion of heritage, Council House will be as important to future generations as many of our colonial buildings that are considered priceless to the community today. ## Design and reaction Council House is constructed from concrete-encased steel frame, with lifts and service rooms located at its eastern end and a fire escape stairwell at its western end. Level 9 houses the distinctive circular Council Chamber, which features wood panelling and has been restored to largely its original state in the 1990s refurbishment (by contrast to most of the other levels of the building). The building is almost completely clad with glass, which led to criticism about its excessive air conditioning costs. The glass exterior of the building has T-shaped white sunbreakers superimposed in an alternating pattern across the building, coated with fine mosaic tiles. With the newly enclosed top floor, the building now has 13 levels above ground. The building, which was the favourite creation of its designer Jeffrey Howlett, has been called the most important example of modernist architecture in Perth and "one of the State's modernist icons". The building has been described as demonstrating "modernist aspirations" from the Bauhaus school, exuding "brutalist warmth". Stephen Neille, the Chair of Architectural Design at Curtin University, described it as reflecting Perth of that time: a city "brimming with confidence and consciously promoting itself to the world as a modern city". Adrian Iredale, from architects Iredale Pederson Hook, described the building as "simultaneously elegant and heavy and introducing poetry through the repetitive system of sun shading, the big Ts that hover in front of the facade on all sides." The building has divided the public over the years, with some branding the building an "eyesore" and a "hideous folly", whereas others considered it a "classic example of 1960s architecture and an important reminder of Perth's past" and a "unique building". It has been suggested by Associate Ralph Hoare from the Australian Institute of Architects said the building should never have been built on St Georges Terrace, having been built in the "wrong place". > When it was built, it reflected this great optimism in WA, this was the sixties. I really think that's a superb building as it still mirrors the Perth of its time. ### LED lighting The outside of the building was fitted with over 22,000 LED lights which was officially turned on on 7 April 2010. The LEDs located on the roof, "T" window structures, and bulkheads are able to be individually computer controlled and coloured. The lights were installed at a cost of \$1.08 million.
2,167,742	Cyrus K. Holliday	1,131,305,808	American railroad executive (1826–1900)	[ "1826 births", "1900 deaths", "19th-century American businesspeople", "19th-century American politicians", "American city founders", "Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway presidents", "Mayors of Topeka, Kansas", "People buried in Topeka Cemetery", "Republican Party Kansas state senators" ]	Colonel Cyrus Kurtz Holliday (April 3, 1826 – March 29, 1900) was an American railroad executive who was one of the founders of the township of Topeka, Kansas in the mid 19th century; and was Adjutant General of Kansas during the American Civil War. The title Colonel, however, was honorary. He was the first president of the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway, as well as one of the railroad's directors for nearly 40 years, up to 1900. A number of railway locomotives have been named after him, as well as the former town of Holliday, Kansas. He was also the Deputy Grand Master of the Grand Lodge A.F. & A.M. of Kansas. As a Freemason, he was a member of Topeka Lodge \#17 and was highly influential in the decision of moving the State Capitol to the city of Topeka. ## Education and early career He was born on April 3, 1826, to David and Mary (Kennedy) Holliday, in Kidderminster, Pennsylvania (near Carlisle). The younger Holliday received a public school education, graduating from Allegheny College in Meadville, Pennsylvania, where he studied law, in 1852. Although he moved to Kansas in 1854, Allegheny College's alumni records show Holliday receiving a master's degree in 1855. While he was still in Meadville, he was asked to prepare legal documentation for a new railroad that would connect to the city. The proposed railroad (likely the Pittsburgh and Erie Railroad which was sometimes known as "The Meadville Line") would almost connect with a larger nearby system (the Atlantic and Great Western Railroad), which meant that it could become a feeder route to the larger railroad. Holliday saw the potential of the line and instead of asking for a standard fee to create the documents, he asked for and was granted a partnership in the new railroad. When this railroad was purchased by the larger system, Holliday earned \$20,000 from the sale. After the sale was completed, he married Mary Dillon Jones. He soon followed the many others making the migration to settle land west of the Mississippi River, but Mary stayed behind in Pennsylvania. The two were reunited later in Kansas after the births of their children, Lillie and Charles King. ## Founding Topeka and military service In 1854 he moved to Kansas, leaving his wife behind in Pennsylvania to follow later. He first settled in Lawrence in October 1854. On December 10, 1854, after helping to find a location for the new townsite of Topeka, he wrote a letter to his wife saying: > I am now thirty miles above Lawrence on the Kansas River assisting in starting a new town. We are just about in the central portion of the "settled" Territory and with perhaps the best landing and the most eligible site for a city in the entire country. ... So I think it must be, and in a few years when civilization by its magic influence shall have transformed this glorious country from what it is now to the brilliant destiny awaiting it, the Sun in all his course will visit no land more truly lovely and desirable than this. Here, Mary, with God's kind permission, we will make our home; and I have every reason to believe a home it will truly be. In 1855 Holliday received the honorary title of Colonel for supervising a regiment during the Wakarusa War. He also served as the Adjutant General of Kansas during the Civil War from May 2, 1864, to March 31, 1865. Although his Colonel title was only honorary, he continued to use it long after his military service. In 1861, Holliday served in the Kansas State Senate, and although he ran for Congress in 1874, he was defeated in that election. He was a Republican. Holliday had broad interests in developing the natural resources of Kansas. In the 1890s he became mistakenly convinced that Ellis and Trego counties in central Kansas contained mineral deposits of tin, zinc, and gold. In 1899 his son Charles K. Holliday founded Smoky Hill City, Kansas, near the supposed mineral deposits. ## Santa Fe Railroad Once Topeka was founded, it needed transportation to connect it to the rest of the country. Holliday's legal skills were called on again to create the paperwork for a new railroad. In 1859 he singlehandedly wrote the charter for the Atchison and Topeka Railroad Company, which would connect the two cities by rail following the route of the Santa Fe Trail. Kansas Territory governor Samuel Medary approved the charter on February 11, 1859. Holliday was named a director and president of the new railroad on September 17, 1860, which was renamed in 1863 to the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railroad. During his tenure as president, Holliday secured land grants from the federal government that would soon be used by the railroad to populate the western portion of Kansas in order to build a customer base for the railroad. He stepped down from the presidency at the end of 1863, but remained on the board of directors until July 27, 1865. He rejoined the board on September 24, 1868, this time serving until his death on March 29, 1900. ## Legacy Holliday is buried in Topeka Cemetery, Topeka, Kansas. He is memorialized for his contributions to Kansas and the Santa Fe: - Cyrus K. Holliday, Locomotive \#1, a vintage locomotive was displayed by the AT&SF into the 1960s. The locomotive is now preserved in the Kansas History Museum as Santa Fe No. 132. - He is portrayed in the 1940 movie "Santa Fe Trail" by Henry O'Neill as a promoter of commerce and development in the American West of his time. - Locomotive \#1 on the Disneyland Railroad in the Disneyland Resort bore the name "C.K. Holliday" since the park's opening in 1955. - Locomotive \#2 of the Disneyland Railroad in Disneyland Paris was also named "C.K. Holliday" in his honor. - In 1960, he was inducted into the Hall of Great Westerners of the National Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum. - The Cyrus Hotel, opening in January 2019, has been named in his honor in Topeka, KS.
37,426,076	2012–13 Harvard Crimson men's basketball team	1,171,450,689	American college basketball season	[ "2012 in Boston", "2012 in sports in Massachusetts", "2012–13 Ivy League men's basketball season", "2013 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament participants", "2013 in Boston", "2013 in sports in Massachusetts", "Harvard Crimson men's basketball seasons" ]	The 2012–13 Harvard Crimson men's basketball team represented Harvard University during the 2012–13 NCAA Division I men's basketball season. The Crimson, led by sixth year head coach Tommy Amaker, played their home games at Lavietes Pavilion and are members of the Ivy League. Harvard entered the season as the two-time defending Ivy League Champion, but its roster was greatly changed due to graduation and the 2012 Harvard cheating scandal that led to the withdrawal of two star players. With reduced expectations, the team entered the season expected to finish second in conference. During the season, the team swept the three opponents that are also from Boston. The win against Boston College, gave Amaker his sixth victory against no defeats over Atlantic Coast Conference foes. Despite the team's turmoil, it prevailed to win the 2012–13 Ivy League men's basketball season regular season championship, earning the team an automatic bid to the 2013 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament, where it won the school's first ever NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament game. The tournament victory over \#3 seed New Mexico was also the school's first victory over a top 10 ranked team. The team was led by Wesley Saunders who was unanimous First Team All-Ivy and Ivy League Rookie of the Year Siyani Chambers who was also a first team honoree. Both Steve Moundou-Missi and Laurent Rivard earned honorable mention All-Ivy recognition. Harvard tied an Ivy League single-season team record with 13 combined Player of the Week and Rookie of the Week Awards. ## Roster ## Preseason Prior to the season, Harvard won all four games on its international training trip to Italy. The team announced that senior Christian Webster and junior Laurent Rivard would serve as captain. The Crimson only returned one starter from the prior year. Harvard's two captains from the prior season, Keith Wright and Oliver McNally were seniors. Wright had been the Ivy League Men's Basketball Player of the Year in 2011. Wright, the Crimson all-time leader in blocked shots, signed with Uppsala Basket of the Swedish Basketball League, and McNally, signed with the Moncton Miracles of the National Basketball League of Canada. The team welcomed five freshmen and ten returning players. The Ivy League media selected Harvard as the preseason runner-up to Princeton, giving the team the only first place vote that did not go to Princeton. Jeff Goodman of CBS Sports also selected Princeton first and Harvard second with his preseason predictions, noting that Harvard had been his preseason favorite until the September cheating scandal that involved about 125 athletes and students ensnared Kyle Casey and Brandyn Curry, leading to their withdrawal. Casey and Curry had been first-team and second-team All-Ivy selections respectively for the 2011–12 Ivy League men's basketball season, respectively. Both players withdrew from school in hopes of preserving their final year of athletic eligibility following the investigation. Harvard appeared on 14 televised games in the regular season. Of these 14, six came on the NBC Sports Network. In addition, the team had four games broadcast on four different ESPN networks. Its February 23 game against Yale was televised by CBS Sports. ## Schedule Harvard's November 14 contest against Massachusetts was televised on ESPN as part of the network's Tip-Off Marathon. Harvard lost the contest 67–64. On December 4, the team defeated Boston College for its fifth consecutive victory against Boston College Eagles men's basketball, making Amaker a perfect 6–0 against the Atlantic Coast Conference. The team also defeated cross-town rivals and Boston University as well as in-state rival Holy Cross. Harvard's contest against Columbia that was originally scheduled for February 9 at 7:00 PM at Levien Gymnasium in Manhattan was postponed until February 10 at 2:00 PM due to the February 2013 nor'easter (also known as Winter Storm Nemo). Harvard had cruised to a 9–1 record in conference play and then fell to 7–2 Princeton on March 1. The following night, Princeton defeated Dartmouth and Harvard lost to Penn to give Princeton the lead in the conference race. Harvard earned the Ivy League Championship with wins on March 8 and 9 over Columbia and Cornell to finish at 11–3 in conference as Princeton was swept on the same nights to Yale and Brown to fall to 9–4 in conference. On March 21 in the 2013 NCAA tournament, Harvard earned the school's first NCAA tournament victory and its first victory over a top 10 opponent when it defeated number three seeded New Mexico (#10 AP Poll/#10 Coaches' Poll). The victory was the first by an Ivy League team in the tournament since the 2009–10 Cornell Big Red men's basketball team advanced to the Sweet Sixteen. Two days later, the team lost to Arizona, ending its season. \\|- !colspan=9 style="background:#991111; color:#FFFFFF;"\\| Regular season \\|- !colspan=9 style="background:#991111; color:#FFFFFF;"\\| 2013 NCAA Tournament N.B. Source: ### In season Each week the Ivy League selects a player of the week and a rookie of the week. Led by Wesley Saunders' 5 Ivy League Player of the Week Awards and Siyani Chambers' 6 Rookie of the Week Awards, Harvard tied the Ivy League record with 13 single-season weekly recognitions. ### All-Ivy Siyani Chambers was named the unanimous choice for Ivy League Rookie of the Year and the first freshman to be first team All-Ivy. Chambers and Saunders were the first Harvard teammates selected together as first team All-Ivy. The following players earned Ivy League postseason recognition: First Team All-Ivy - ^Wesley Saunders, (So., G/F - Los Angeles) - Siyani Chambers, (Fr., G - Golden Valley, Minn.) Honorable Mention All-Ivy - Steve Moundou-Missi, (So., F - Yaounde, Cameroon) - Laurent Rivard, (Jr., G - Saint-Bruno-de-Montarville, Québec, Canada) ^Unanimous Selection On March 12, the U.S. Basketball Writers Association named Saunders to its 2012–13 Men's All-District I (ME, VT, NH, RI, MA, CT) Team, based upon voting from its national membership. The National Association of Basketball Coaches announced their Division I All‐District teams on March 26, recognizing the nation’s best men’s collegiate basketball student-athletes. Selected and voted on by member coaches of the NABC, 240 student-athletes, from 24 districts were chosen. The selections on this list were then eligible for the State Farm Coaches’ Division I All-America teams. Saunders and Chambers were among the District 13 first team selections.
7,570,666	Haystacks (Monet series)	1,160,873,875	1890–91 Series of paintings by Claude Monet	[ "1890s paintings", "Farming in art", "Paintings by Claude Monet", "Paintings in National Galleries Scotland", "Paintings in the Art Institute of Chicago", "Paintings in the Musée d'Orsay", "Series of paintings by Claude Monet" ]	Haystacks is the common English title for a series of impressionist paintings by Claude Monet. The principal subject of each painting in the series is stacks of harvested wheat (or possibly barley or oats: the original French title, Les Meules à Giverny, simply means The Stacks at Giverny). The title refers primarily to a twenty-five canvas series (Wildenstein Index Numbers 1266–1290) which Monet began near the end of the summer of 1890 and continued through the following spring, though Monet also produced five earlier paintings using this same stack subject. A precursor to the series is the 1884 Haystack Near Giverny (Pushkin Museum). The series is famous for the way in which Monet repeated the same subject to show the differing light and atmosphere at different times of day, across the seasons and in many types of weather. The series is among Monet's most notable work. The largest Haystacks collections are held at the Musée d'Orsay and Musée Marmottan Monet in Paris, and in the Art Institute of Chicago. Other collections include the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, the Metropolitan Museum and Museum of Modern Art in New York, the National Museum of Western Art in Tokyo, and the Musée de l'Orangerie in Paris. The Art Institute of Chicago collection includes six of the twenty-five Haystacks. Other museums that hold parts of this series include the Getty Center in Los Angeles, the Hill-Stead Museum in Farmington, Connecticut (which also has one of five from the earlier 1888–89 harvest), the Scottish National Gallery, the Minneapolis Institute of Arts, Kunsthaus Zürich, Tel Aviv Museum of Art and the Shelburne Museum, Vermont. Private collections hold the remaining Haystacks paintings. ## Monet background Monet settled in Giverny in 1883. Most of his paintings from 1883 until his death 40 years later were of scenes within 3 kilometres (2 mi) of his home and gardens. Monet was intensely aware of and fascinated by the visual nuances of the region’s landscape and by the endless variations in the days and in the seasons—the stacks were just outside his door. Monet had previously painted a single subject in different light and different moods. However, as he matured as a painter, his depictions of atmospheric influences were increasingly concerned not only with specific effects but with the overall color harmonies that allowed him an autonomous use of rich color. The conventional wisdom was that the stacks were a simple subject but also an unimaginative one. However, contemporary writers and friends of the artist noted that Monet's subject matter was always carefully chosen, the product of careful thought and analysis. Monet undertook to capture the stacks in direct light and then to re-examine them from the same view-point in different, often more muted, light and atmospheric conditions. It was then not unusual for Monet, in search of harmonious transitions within the series, to alter the canvases back in his studio. ## Series background The stacks depicted in the series are commonly referred to in English as hay, wheat or grain-stacks. In reality they stored sheafs of grain primarily for bread—so wheat [or possibly barley or oats]—and not hay, an animal food. The 10-to-20-foot (3.0 to 6.1 m) stacks were a way of keeping the sheafs dry until the grain could be separated from the stalks by threshing. The local method of storing and drying unthreshed-grains was to use straw, or sometimes hay, as a thatched 'roof' for the stack, shielding the wheat, barley or oats from the elements until, once dry-enough, they could be threshed. The threshing machines then traveled from village to village. Thus, although the grain was harvested and the stacks were built by July, it often took until the following spring or even later—so through all the light and atmosphere changes of summer, autumn, winter and spring—for all the stacks to be reached by the threshing-machines. Grain storage/drying-stacks like these became common throughout Europe in the 19th century and survived until the inception of combine harvesters. The shapes of stacks were regional: in Normandy, where Giverny is situated, it was common for them to be round with quite steeply-pitched thatched 'roofs'—just as Monet painted. The stacks belonged to Monet's farmer-neighbour, Monsieur Quéruel. Noticing the way the light changed on M. Quéruel's stacks, Monet asked his stepdaughter, Blanche Hoschedé, to bring him two canvases, one for sunny and one for overcast conditions. But Monet soon found he could not catch the ever-changing light and mood on merely two canvases: as a result, his willing helper was quickly bringing as many canvases as her wheelbarrow could hold. Monet's daily routine therefore came to involve carting paints, easels and many unfinished canvases back and forth, working on whichever canvas most closely resembled the scene of the moment as the conditions and light fluctuated. Although he began painting the stacks en plein air, Monet later revised his initial impressions in his studio, both to generate contrast and to preserve the harmony within the series. Monet produced numerous Haystacks paintings. He painted five paintings (Wildenstein Index Numbers 1213–1217) with stacks as his primary subject during the 1888 harvest. His earlier landscapes (Wildenstein Index Number 900–995, 1073) had included stacks [and also some more-accurately described hayricks: that is smaller piles of hay for animal-feed] in an ancillary manner. The general consensus is that only the canvases produced using the 1890 harvest (Wildenstein Index Number 1266–1290) comprise the Haystacks series proper. However some commentators include additional paintings when referencing this series. For example, the Hill-Stead Museum talk of their two stack paintings even though one is from the 'proper' 1890 harvest, the other from the 1888 harvest. Monet's Haystacks series is one of his earliest to rely on repetition to illustrate nuances in his perception across natural variations such as times of day, seasons, and types of weather. For Monet, the concept of producing and exhibiting a series of paintings related by subject and vantage point began in 1889, with at least ten paintings done at the Valley of the Creuse, and subsequently shown at the Galerie Georges Petit. This interest in the serial motif would continue for the rest of his career. ## Thematic issues Although the mundane subject was constant throughout the Haystack series, the underlying theme may be seen as the transience of light. This concept enabled Monet to use repetition to show nuances of perception as the time of day, the seasons and the weather changed. The almost unvarying subject provided the basis for him to compare changes of light and mood across his nuanced series. The first paintings in the series were started in late September or early October 1890, and he continued producing these paintings for about seven months. These paintings made Monet the first painter to paint such a large quantity of pictures of the same subject matter differentiated by light, weather, atmosphere and perspective. Beginning in the 1880s and 1890s, Monet focused on Haystacks and a number of other subjects (other series included the Mornings on the Seine, Poplars, Rouen Cathedral, the Houses of Parliament, and the Water Lilies, among others). In order to work on many paintings virtually simultaneously, he would awake before dawn so as to begin at the earliest time of day: > ... for the Early Mornings on the Seine series, he chose to paint at and before dawn, which made it 'an easier subject and simpler lighting than usual', because at this time of day the effects did not change so rapidly; however, this involved him getting up at 3:30 a.m., which seems to have been unprecedented even for so inveterate an early riser as Monet." As the morning progressed and the light changed he would switch to sequentially later canvas settings, sometimes working on as many as ten or twelve paintings a day, each one depicting a slightly different aspect of light. The process would be repeated over the course of days, weeks, or months, depending on the weather and the progress of the paintings until they were completed. As the seasons changed the process was renewed. Certain effects of light only last for a few minutes, thus the canvases documenting such ephemera received attention for no more than a few minutes a day. Further complicating matters, the light of subsequent sunrises, for example, could alter substantially and would require separate canvases within the series. Subsequently, different hues are evident in each painting, and in each work, color is used to describe not only direct but reflected light. At differing times of day and in various seasons stacks absorb the light from diverse parts of the color spectrum. As a result, the residual light that is reflected off of the stacks is seen as ever-changing, and manifests in distinctive coloring. Many notable painters have been influenced by this particular series, including Les Fauves, Derain, and Vlaminck. Kandinsky's memoirs refer to the series: “What suddenly became clear to me was the unsuspected power of the palette, which I had not understood before and which surpassed my wildest dreams.” The Haystacks series was a financial success. Fifteen of these were exhibited by Durand-Ruel in May 1891, and most of the paintings were sold within a month. They were especially popular among collectors from America, with twenty out of the thirty Haystacks created landing in American collections. Of the American collectors, Bertha Honoré Palmer bought nine of Monet's Haystacks. The 1891 exhibit met with great public acclaim. Octave Mirbeau described Monet's daring series as representing "what lies beyond progress itself." Others described the stacks as "faces of the landscape"—they represented the countryside as a retreat from daily problems and home for contentment with nature. Camille Pissarro said: "These canvases breathe contentment." Most of the paintings sold immediately for as much as 1,000 francs. Additionally, Monet’s prices, in general, began to rise steeply. As a result, he was able to buy outright the house and grounds at Giverny and to start constructing a waterlily pond. After years of mere subsistence living, he was able to enjoy success. The series demonstrates his intense study of light and atmospheric conditions and Monet was a perfectionist in his renderings. Monet destroyed more than one series of paintings that he found wanting. However, this series escaped his own harsh self-criticism and destruction. ## 1888–1889 paintings From the 1888 harvest, Monet produced three canvases featuring two stacks each (Wildenstein \#'s 1213–5) against the backdrop of hills along the left bank of the Seine and a few Giverny houses to the right. Then, he turned to his left to capture two scenes (1216–7) in which the hills are shrouded by a line of poplars. ## 1890–1891 series On May 14, 2019, a privately held work from this series (Grainstacks, 1890) exchanged hands at \$110.7 million, setting a record for a Monet work and becoming the first impressionist work to surpass \$100 million. The buyer of the work was Hasso Plattner. Since September 2020, the painting is on display at the Museum Barberini in Potsdam. Climate activists threw mashed potatoes at the painting in October 2022, but it was not damaged and was cleaned and put back on display. ## See also - List of paintings by Claude Monet
1,114,056	Sybil Thorndike	1,150,899,158	English actress (1882–1976)	[ "1882 births", "1976 deaths", "20th-century English actresses", "Actresses awarded damehoods", "Anglican pacifists", "Burials at Westminster Abbey", "Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire", "English Christian pacifists", "English Christian socialists", "English Shakespearean actresses", "English film actresses", "English silent film actresses", "English stage actresses", "Female Christian socialists", "Members of the Order of the Companions of Honour", "People educated at Rochester Grammar School", "People from Gainsborough, Lincolnshire", "People from Rochester, Kent", "Wives of knights" ]	Dame Agnes Sybil Thorndike, Lady Casson, (24 October 1882 – 9 June 1976) was an English actress whose stage career lasted from 1904 to 1969. Trained in her youth as a concert pianist, Thorndike turned to the stage when a medical problem with her hands ruled out a musical career. She began her professional acting career with the company of the actor-manager Ben Greet, with whom she toured the US from 1904 to 1908. In Britain she played in old and new plays on tour and in the West End, often appearing with her husband, the actor and director Lewis Casson. She joined the Old Vic company during the First World War, and in the early 1920s Bernard Shaw, impressed by seeing her in a tragedy, wrote Saint Joan with her in mind. She starred in it with great success. She became known as Britain's leading tragedienne, but also appeared frequently in comedy. During the Second World War, Thorndike and her husband toured in Shakespeare productions, taking professional theatre to remote rural locations for the first time. Towards the end of the war she joined Ralph Richardson and Laurence Olivier for two seasons staged by the Old Vic company in the West End. After the war she and Casson made many overseas tours, playing in Europe, Asia, Africa and Australia. They also appeared on Broadway. Thorndike was mainly known as a stage actress, but made several films from the 1920s to the 1960s, among them The Prince and the Showgirl (1957) and Uncle Vanya (1963), both with Olivier. She also broadcast from time to time on radio and television. Her last stage appearances were in 1969 at the theatre named in her honour, the Thorndike Theatre, Leatherhead. ## Early years Thorndike was born on 24 October 1882 in Gainsborough, Lincolnshire, the eldest of the four children of the Rev Arthur John Webster Thorndike (1853–1917) and his wife Agnes Macdonald, née Bowers (1857–1933), the daughter of a shipping merchant. From both parents Thorndike absorbed values of tolerance and concern for others that remained with her throughout her life. When she was two years old her father was appointed a minor canon of Rochester Cathedral. She was educated at Rochester Grammar School for Girls, and first trained as a classical pianist, making weekly visits to London for lessons at the Guildhall School of Music. In May 1899 Thorndike gave her first solo piano recital, but shortly afterwards she developed recurrent pianist's cramp, and although she performed in leading concert venues in London – the Bechstein, Steinway and St James's halls – by 1902 it was clear that a musical career would be impossible. She studied for the stage at the drama school run by Ben Greet, who engaged her for an American tour beginning in August 1904, in advance of which she made her professional début at Cambridge in June, as Palmis in W. S. Gilbert's The Palace of Truth. She remained in Greet's company for three years playing in Shakespearean repertory throughout the US. On her return to England, Thorndike was spotted by Bernard Shaw in a one-off Sunday night performance at the Scala Theatre in London; he invited her to join the company for a revival of his Candida to be given in Belfast by Annie Horniman's players. The company was based at the Gaiety Theatre, Manchester, where she first appeared in September 1908 as Bessie Carter in Basil Dean's Marriages are Made in Heaven. She played parts in nine other plays by authors ranging from Euripides to John Galsworthy. In the company she met, and formed a lifelong partnership with, the actor Lewis Casson. They married in December 1908 at her father's church. They had two daughters and two sons, all of whom went on the stage for some or all of their careers. Thorndike appeared at the Coronet Theatre, London, in June 1909 with the Horniman company, and at the Duke of York's Theatre in March 1910 with Charles Frohman's repertory company, appearing there as Winifred in The Sentimentalists, Emma Huxtable in The Madras House, Romp in Prunella and Maggie Massey in Chains. She then went to New York, where she appeared at the Empire Theatre in September 1910, as Emily Chapman in Smith opposite John Drew. Between her return to Britain and the outbreak of the First World War in 1914, Thorndike appeared in the West End at the Aldwych Theatre in June 1912 as Beatrice Farrar in Hindle Wakes, and at the Playhouse Theatre in July 1912 in the same role. She returned to Manchester for a second season at the Gaiety later in the year, playing a range of roles in nine plays. At the Court Theatre in London in May 1913 she played the title role in St John Ervine's Jane Clegg, and in October she appeared in both Manchester and London as Hester in Eden Phillpotts' The Shadow. ## 1914–1919 Between November 1914 and May 1918 Thorndike played in four seasons at the Old Vic (and one at the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre in 1916) with a mostly Shakespearean repertory. According to her biographer Jonathan Croall she played "most of the main female characters" and – with a shortage of young actors during the war – she took six male roles including Prince Hal in Henry IV Part 1, the Fool in King Lear, Ferdinand in The Tempest and Puck in A Midsummer Night's Dream. Her non-Shakespearean roles included Lady Teazle in The School for Scandal, Peg Woffington in Masks and Faces, Kate Hardcastle in She Stoops to Conquer, the Angel Gabriel in the mystery play The Star of Bethlehem, and Nancy in a stage version of Oliver Twist adapted by her brother Russell, who was the leading man of the company. Together, the siblings wrote and co-starred in two revues for the company: The Sausage String's Romance, or a New Cut Harlequinade and Seaman's Pie, a Naval Review of Revues and Other Things. After leaving the Old Vic company Thorndike was engaged by C. B. Cochran, and appeared at the Oxford Music Hall, London, in June 1918 as Françoise in a sketch, "The Kiddies in the Ruins", which was introduced into The Better 'Ole. In various West End theatres during 1919 she appeared as Sygne de Coûfontaine in The Hostage, Naomi Melsham in The Chinese Puzzle, Clara Bortswick in The Great Day, Anne Wickham in Napoleon and in October she played Hecuba in The Trojan Women, adding to her growing reputation as Britain's leading tragedienne. Praising her as "a new leading lady" for the West End, The Times predicted, "Much as the Old Vic will regret it, it is hardly conceivable that Miss Thorndike will be allowed to cross over to the south side of the river again". In the event, she continued to appear in Old Vic productions as well as in the West End for nearly thirty years. ## 1920s In early 1920 Thorndike successfully repeated her Hecuba and played the title roles in Shaw's Candida and in another Euripides play, Medea. The critic J. T. Grein wrote of the latter, "It is a great example of tragic acting, and a magnificent achievement". Later in the year Thorndike joined her brother and her husband in a two-year run of Grand Guignol melodramas at the Little Theatre. The vogue for theatrical horror began to wane and Casson and Thorndike joined Bronson Albery and Lady Wyndham in the management of the New Theatre in 1922. They opened with Shelley's verse tragedy The Cenci. Shaw saw a performance, and told his wife, "I have found my Joan". He was planning a play about Joan of Arc, which he completed in 1923. It was his custom to open his plays on Broadway before their West End premieres, and the first actress to play his Joan was Winifred Lenihan, but the part was written with Thorndike in mind. Saint Joan opened at the New Theatre in March 1924. Thorndike's performance received praise from the critics, but there were reservations: in The Times, A. B. Walkley said that she performed beautifully, but he found her "rusticity of speech a superfluity". The critic of The Daily Telegraph felt that no other actress could have better "hit off the Maid's simplicity without losing her strength". Desmond MacCarthy in New Statesman, praised Thorndike for emphasising the "insistive, energetic, almost pert traits of the Maid as Mr Shaw conceives her" but thought she missed "the sweetness and simplicity of the Maid's replies and demeanour in the trial scene" though driving home Joan's "distress, her alertness, her courage". In The Observer, Lennox Robinson wrote that Thorndike's performance "was beautiful, was entirely satisfying. Mr Shaw was, indeed, nobly served." The initial London production ran for 244 performances, and Thorndike starred in revivals over the following 17 years not only in London (1925, 1926, 1931 and 1941) but at the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées, Paris (1927) and on tours of South Africa (1928) and the Middle East, Australia and New Zealand (1932−33). In 1927−28 Thorndike was again a member of the Old Vic company, for a season at the Lyric Theatre, Hammersmith. She played Katherina in The Taming of the Shrew, Portia in The Merchant of Venice, Beatrice in Much Ado About Nothing and Chorus and the Princess of France in Henry V. In the 1920s Thorndike entered films, appearing in four: as Mrs Brand in Moth and Rust (1921), various parts in Tense Moments from Great Plays (1922), Edith Cavell in Dawn (1928) and the Mother in To What Red Hell (1929). In 1923 she made her first radio broadcasts for the BBC; during the decade these included two of her best-known stage roles: Medea and Saint Joan. ## 1930s Thorndike's roles of the early 1930s included the title part in Racine's Phèdre, Mrs Alving in Ibsen's Ghosts, and Emilia in a celebrated production of Othello at the Savoy Theatre with Paul Robeson and Peggy Ashcroft as Othello and Desdemona. In 1931 she was appointed DBE, the fifth actress to be made a Dame. She appeared in a wide range of plays, both classical and modern, often under Casson's direction. From April 1932 to April 1933 Thorndike and Casson made a tour of Egypt, Palestine, Australia and New Zealand, in which she appeared in the satirical comedy Advertising April; Shaw's Captain Brassbound's Conversion; Ghosts; Clemence Dane's Granite; Macbeth; a romantic comedy, Madame Plays Nap; Milestones; The Painted Veil; Saint Joan and Sidney Howard's domestic drama The Silver Chord. In the West End in September 1933 Thorndike appeared in The Distaff Side, by John van Druten, which she took to Broadway the following year, having in the interim played Gertrude in Hamlet for the Old Vic company at Sadler's Wells in an uncut, five-hour production directed by Greet (who appeared as Polonius). Thorndike and Casson were among the actors who felt an obligation to appear in the provinces as well as in the West End − according to the critic Hannen Swaffer "Sybil is the only actress whom the provinces treat like a queen" − and her expressed view was, "No actor has any business to say that they won't tour, it's part of our work". In 1936 the couple toured in plays by Euripides, Shaw, Noël Coward and D. H. Lawrence, and followed this with a tour of a new play, Six Men of Dorset, by Miles Malleson and Harvey Brooks the following year. In 1938 Thorndike appeared in New York as Mrs Conway in J. B. Priestley's Time and the Conways, and in London as Volumnia in the Old Vic production of Coriolanus with Olivier in the title role as her son. In the West End she created the role of Miss Moffat in the long-running The Corn is Green (1938) by Emlyn Williams. According to The Times, this play "showed her at the top of her form as an English spinster with a vocation for teaching, and obtained for her and the author, who himself played the Welsh mining lad who was her star pupil, a heartening success on the eve of war and of new developments in theatrical life". Thorndike made three films during the decade, appearing as Madam Duval in A Gentleman of Paris (1931), Mrs Hawthorn in Hindle Wakes (1931) and Ellen in Tudor Rose (1936). She made her television début in 1939 as the Widow Cagle in a melodrama, Sun Up. ## Second World War When the Second World War began in September 1939, Thorndike, a convinced pacifist, protested against the conflict, but recognised that while it lasted the populace needed entertainment. In 1940 she took part in a film of Shaw's Major Barbara as General Baines, after which she and Casson joined a touring Old Vic company taking Macbeth to even the remotest corners of Wales. As there were few available hotels the actors frequently stayed with mining families, whom Thorndike found "wonderfully hospitable". By 1941, with the London blitz coming to an end, it was practical for the London theatre to revive, and the Old Vic company presented Shakespeare's rarely seen King John, in which Thorndike played Constance. As its own theatre had been severely bombed, the company played at the New Theatre. Later in the year the Cassons again toured Wales, adding Candida and Medea to their repertory. When Ralph Richardson, Olivier and John Burrell were appointed to re-establish the Old Vic as a leading London company in 1944 they recruited Thorndike, who played Aase in Peer Gynt, Catherine Petkoff in Arms and the Man, Queen Margaret in Richard III, Marina in Uncle Vanya, Mistress Quickly in Henry IV, Parts 1 and 2, Jocasta in Oedipus Rex and the Justice's Lady in The Critic. Between August 1944 and April 1946 the company played in London and toured for the armed forces in Belgium, Germany and France. After the defeat of Germany in 1945 a Nazi blacklist was found in Berlin, naming eminent people to be arrested after an invasion of Britain. Among them was Thorndike, as a prominent member of the National Council for Civil Liberties. ## Post-war and 1950s When the Old Vic company played a season in New York in 1946 Thorndike chose to remain in England to appear with Casson. They were in Priestley's The Linden Tree in 1947, in which year Thorndike played Mrs Squeers in Nicholas Nickleby for the cinema, followed by another film, Britannia Mews in 1948, as Mrs Mouncey. In the theatre Thorndike and Casson were in a revival of John Home's tragedy Douglas at the Edinburgh Festival (1950), and without Casson, Thorndike starred with her old friend Edith Evans in N. C. Hunter's Waters of the Moon. The play, described by Croall as "a cosy middle-class drama [with] certain elements of Chekhov", received tepid reviews but proved popular with audiences and ran for 835 performances at the Theatre Royal, Haymarket between 1951 and 1953. The Cassons rejoined forces in Hunter's next play, A Day by the Sea (1953), directed by and co-starring John Gielgud. Like its predecessor, the play appealed more to the public than to the critics, and ran for 386 performances at the Haymarket. During the mid- and late-1950s Thorndike and Casson were seen more abroad than at home. They toured the Far East, New Zealand and India in 1954, giving dramatic recitals. Together with Richardson they toured Australia and New Zealand in 1955, presenting The Sleeping Prince and Separate Tables. The couple toured southern Africa, Kenya, Israel, and Turkey in 1956, giving dramatic recitals. In the West End in June 1956 Thorndike played Amy, Lady Monchensey in The Family Reunion, with Casson, Paul Scofield and Gwen Ffrangcon-Davies. In New York the couple appeared in the world premiere of Graham Greene's The Potting Shed, which ran on Broadway for 143 performances in 1957, after which they revisited Australia and New Zealand, touring in The Chalk Garden. During the 1950s Thorndike appeared in eleven films: Stage Fright (as Mrs Gill, 1950), Gone to Earth (Mrs Marston, 1951), The Lady with a Lamp (Miss Bosanquet, 1951), The Magic Box (the Aristocratic Client, 1951), Melba (Queen Victoria, 1953), The Weak and the Wicked (Mabel, 1953), The Prince and the Showgirl (The Queen Dowager, 1957), Alive and Kicking (Dora, 1958), Smiley Gets a Gun (Granny, 1958), Shake Hands with the Devil (Lady Fitzhugh, 1959) and Jet Storm (Emma Morgan, 1959). Among her television appearances was a studio production of Waters of the Moon with Evans, Casson and Kathleen Harrison. ## Later years, 1960–1976 Thorndike's first stage role of the 1960s was Lotta Bainbridge in Coward's Waiting in the Wings; she and Marie Löhr played the lead roles of two residents in a retirement home for actors and actresses, perpetuating, and finally resolving, an ancient feud. She said of it, "I loved that play. It's the most lovely modern play I've played", but the piece was not a great box-office success and closed after 188 performances. In 1961 Thorndike played the longest part of her career, the title role in Hugh Ross Williamson's Teresa of Avila, about the eponymous saint. She thought it "the most thrilling part I've been offered since Saint Joan", but Williamson's script, even after extensive revision by Casson, proved disappointing. Reviews were enthusiastic in their praise of Thorndike's performance, but neither the critics nor the public liked the play, which closed after six weeks. In 1962 Olivier, as director of the Chichester Festival, mounted a production of Uncle Vanya. He assembled a cast headed by Michael Redgrave in the title role, supported by Olivier (as Astrov), Fay Compton, Joan Greenwood and Joan Plowright, in addition to Thorndike as Marina, the nurse, and Casson as Waffles. The critic J. C. Trewin wrote of "the most remarkably complete production – in my experience at least – of any play in our period". He called Thorndike's nurse "a miracle of gruff tenderness". The production was acknowledged as the highlight of the festival, and was revived the following year. Between the two stagings Thorndike appeared for the first time in a musical – playing the formidable Miss Crawley in an adaptation of Thackeray's Vanity Fair. The piece received bad reviews. The Guardian said that at her age Thorndike "should have known better than be caught up in this piece of prolonged nonsense", although The Times found consolation in her "blazingly theatrical figure" who "stamps every line with comic authority". Olivier moved from Chichester to become the founding director of the National Theatre in late 1963. He included Uncle Vanya in his first season, with many of his Chichester cast reprising their roles, but Casson, by this time in his late eighties, declined, and Thorndike did likewise. At the Duchess Theatre in January 1964 she appeared as the Dowager Countess of Lister in William Douglas-Home's play The Reluctant Peer, a comic fictionalisation of the author's elder brother's recent renunciation of his peerage so as to be eligible for the premiership. Once again, Thorndike's notices were better than those for the play. Bernard Levin wrote, "she gets her fangs deep into the meatiest part she has had for years" and praised "the relish and zest she brings to her playing". She thought the critics were wrong to dismiss the play – "they only want avant-garde and classics now" – and was sorry when her contractual commitments forced her to leave the cast six months into the eighteen-month run. After appearing in two successive box-office failures – Arthur Marshall's Season of Goodwill (1964) and William Corlett's Return Ticket (1965) – Thorndike rejoined Casson in what turned out to be their last West End production together, a revival of the classic black comedy Arsenic and Old Lace. With Athene Seyler co-starring as her equally well-meaning and homicidally lunatic sister, Thorndike enjoyed herself, the critics were enthusiastic, and the play ran from February to November 1966. Thorndike appeared no more on the London stage after that. At the Yvonne Arnaud Theatre, Guildford, in January 1967 she played Claire Ragond in The Viaduct, and at the same theatre in February 1968 she appeared as Mrs Basil in Call Me Jacky. Later in that year she toured as Mrs Bramson in Emlyn Williams's thriller Night Must Fall. During the 1960s Thorndike appeared in three films, as Lady Caroline in Hand in Hand (1960), Aunt Cathleen in The Big Gamble (1961), and as Marina in a film adaptation of Olivier's Chichester production of Uncle Vanya (1963). The television was not her favourite medium – she found it restricting – although she had a success in 1965 as Mrs Moore in a BBC adaptation of E. M. Forster's A Passage to India. Forster congratulated her on her performance, but she replied, "I loved Mrs Moore, but I am not wild about TV as a medium to express her! She's bigger than that". Casson died in May 1969, and Thorndike's only stage role after that was in the inaugural performance of the theatre named in her honour, the Thorndike Theatre, Leatherhead, in October of that year, as the Woman in There Was an Old Woman by John Graham. She was created Companion of Honour in 1970. Her last public appearance was at the National Theatre's final night at the Old Vic in February 1976, where from a wheelchair she acknowledged the applause of her fellow members of the audience. Thorndike and Casson had long lived at Swan Court, Chelsea, where she died on 9 June 1976, aged 93. Her ashes were interred in Westminster Abbey the following month, after a memorial service there. ## Reputation Thorndike described herself as "an old-fashioned socialist, an Anglican and a pacifist – a mixture of which Mr Marx might disapprove". Corin Redgrave recalled, "Her shining spirit came through almost everything she did. She never wavered in her humanitarian Christian socialist beliefs". Giving the address at her memorial service, Gielgud called Thorndike "the most loved actress since Ellen Terry". Her obituarist in The Times said the same. Croall and many others have concurred. Opinion is more divided about Thorndike's qualities as an actress. Sheridan Morley enlarged on Gielgud's comment, writing that she was not only the most loved actress but "one might add also the best". Gielgud thought her very fine in her playing of tragedy − "she was one of the few actresses of her generation who dared even to attempt it [and] riveted her audiences with her superb authority and vocal power" − but he thought her inclined to "hit too hard" in comedy. Hallam Tennyson felt "she over-elocuted: she was the last trace of the Irving-Terry era in which the important thing was to speak beautifully and clearly and be heard throughout the auditorium". Paul Scofield thought her "a glorious actress who suggested immense power. She aimed at the big targets, and used every ounce of her being to do justice to great classical themes". ## Notes, references and sources
42,390,600	Essex Reef Light	1,141,639,429	Lighthouse in Connecticut, United States	[ "Connecticut River", "Essex, Connecticut", "Lighthouses completed in 1889", "Lighthouses in Connecticut", "Transportation buildings and structures in Middlesex County, Connecticut" ]	The Essex Reef Light or Essex Reef Post Light, also known as Hayden's Point Light, was a light in Essex, Connecticut on the Connecticut River. The 21-foot (6.4 m) wooden tower was erected in 1889 and replaced with a skeleton tower by 1919. The skeleton tower was further altered to an automatic gas light a few years prior to 1931. Its keeper, Gilbert Burnett "Bernie" Hayden served for 30 years. As of 2014, a 26-foot (7.9 m) skeleton tower serves as an active daymark and it has a green flash every 4 seconds. ## Construction The Essex Reef Light was constructed in 1889 as part of a \$15,000 appropriation by Congress that included several other beacons. The exact cost of the structure is unknown. The light was a 21-foot (6.4 m) tall wooden hexagonal pyramidal tower with a black lantern that used a 6th order Fresnel lens. The 1900 Light List gave its position as 41.2036 North and 72.2254 West. The hexagonal tower was accessible from a ladder directly by boat with no other landing. The foundation rests upon the river bottom and was a 15-foot (4.6 m) square crib that was made of yellow pine timbers and sheathed with planks that was filled with stones and protected by riprap. The crib extends up to the high water mark to a frustum of a 15-foot (4.6 m) square pyramid that is reduced to 10 feet (3.0 m) at its top and filled with stone. The sides and top are planked and the corners were covered with boiler plate and angle irons. The original light was a hexagonal beacon lantern made of brass and copper with a sixth order Fresnel lens. The oil for the light was stored in boxes in the lower portion of the lantern. ## Service The Essex Reef Light was first lit on July 1, 1889, it featured a fixed red light until December 15, 1892, when it was changed to a fixed white light. In 1914, the light was deactivated for the winter in between January 12–15 and relit between March 14–16. A skeleton tower was already in place by 1919 and the date of replacement or removal of the original light is unknown. On December 17, 1919, the light characteristic was changed from fixed white to flashing white every 3 seconds and it was reported that the light's strength was 70 candlepower. In 1931, The Day noted that the skeleton tower was "in recent years" converted to automatic gas beacons. In 1963, buoys were established near the Essex Reef light. Currently the skeleton tower is active with a height of 26 feet (7.9 m) and has a green flash every 4 seconds. It has a square green daymark with the number 25. ## Keepers Gilbert B. Hayden (also known as Burnett or Bernie) was noted as a keeper of the light with sparse details found in The Day. In 1914, it noted his return to duties after a "few weeks vacation" that followed the light's deactivation for the winter. In 1931, The Day also contained information about Bernie's service, stating that he "gave the best part of his life to tending [the] Essex light". Bernie Hayden tended the light 30 years until his resignation in 1919. He made two trips by boat every day to light and extinguish the Essex Reef Light. He later became nearly blind and his friends petitioned the government for a pension, but was denied on the grounds that only those in exposed water positions could receive a pension. According to local tradition, it was commonplace for townspeople to tell Bernie Hayden that the light floated down the river and Bernie Hayden would join in the joke and claim to recover the light and return it to its rightful place. ## See also - List of lighthouses in Connecticut - List of lighthouses in the United States
1,339,139	Freddie Mitchell	1,166,288,628	American football player (born 1978)	[ "1978 births", "20th-century African-American sportspeople", "21st-century African-American sportspeople", "African-American players of American football", "All-American college football players", "American football wide receivers", "Living people", "Philadelphia Eagles players", "Players of American football from Burlington County, New Jersey", "Players of American football from Lakeland, Florida", "Sportspeople from Moorestown, New Jersey", "UCLA Bruins baseball players", "UCLA Bruins football players" ]	Freddie Lee Mitchell II (born November 28, 1978) is an American former professional football player who was a wide receiver for four seasons with the Philadelphia Eagles of the National Football League (NFL). He was chosen as a consensus All-American in 2000 while playing college football for the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA). Philadelphia selected him in the first round of the 2001 NFL Draft, and he spent four seasons as a member of the Eagles, culminating in an appearance in Super Bowl XXXIX following the 2004 NFL season. A four-sport athlete at Kathleen High School, Mitchell committed to UCLA to play football for the Bruins. In his collegiate debut in 1998, he had four receptions for 108 yards, including a 79-yard touchdown from Cade McNown, as well as a 34-yard touchdown pass to Brian Poli-Dixon. Mitchell broke his femur the following week against Houston and missed most of the season. Limited by a knee cartilage injury throughout the 1999 season, he finished with 38 receptions for 533 yards. As a junior in 2000, Mitchell was a Fred Biletnikoff Award finalist and earned first-team All-Pacific-10 Conference (Pac-10) honors at the conclusion of the season. In the 2000 Sun Bowl, he had nine catches for a Sun Bowl record of 180 yards. He declared for the 2001 NFL Draft following the 2000 season and finished his college career with 77 catches for 1,494 yards and nine touchdowns. Mitchell was drafted by the Eagles with the 25th selection in the first round of the 2001 NFL Draft. He began the 2001 season as the fourth wide receiver, but surpassed Na Brown to become the team's slot receiver in week eight. When the Eagles signed Antonio Freeman before the 2002 season, Mitchell became the fourth receiver again and caught twelve passes the entire year. Mitchell became the slot receiver once again during the 2003 season, after Freeman left. In the NFC Divisional Playoff Game against the Green Bay Packers, with the Eagles facing a 4th and 26 situation, he caught a 28-yard pass from Donovan McNabb to help lead the team to a win in overtime. He finished the 2003 season with a career-high 35 catches for 498 yards and two touchdowns. The presence of Terrell Owens in 2004 led to limited opportunities for Mitchell to catch passes and he showed his frustration on and off the field. When Owens went down with an ankle injury towards the end of the season, Mitchell replaced him as the starter and had a two-touchdown performance in the Divisional Playoff Game against the Minnesota Vikings. After the game, Mitchell said, "I just want to thank my hands for being so great." In the week prior to Super Bowl XXXIX against the New England Patriots, he created controversy by offending members of the Patriots' secondary, including Rodney Harrison. He caught one pass for 11 yards in the Super Bowl and was released by the Eagles on May 6, 2005. The Kansas City Chiefs signed him shortly after, but he declined to have arthroscopic surgery on his injured knee and he was released before the start of the season. After his NFL career ended, Mitchell bought a barbecue restaurant in Lakeland in 2008, but the venue was closed in September 2009. Mitchell served time in prison for tax fraud from 2013 to 2016. ## Early years Mitchell grew up as the son of a pastor in Lakeland, Florida. He attended Kathleen High School in Lakeland, where he lettered in cross country, baseball, football, and basketball. In baseball, Mitchell was used as a pinch hitter and played outfielder. He played in the Polk County East–West Senior All-Star Game in 1997 for the West squad. He had a .388 batting average, three home runs, and eleven runs batted in (RBI). Mitchell was drafted by the Tampa Bay Devil Rays in the 47th round of the 1997 Major League Baseball Draft after graduating from Kathleen. He had brief contract negotiations with the Devil Rays, but decided to attend college instead of signing with a professional team. He was a guard in basketball, and scored 11 points in the 1997 Class 4A boys' high school basketball state championship for Kathleen as the Red Devils won their first ever title. Mitchell, who had three steals in the game, was called for a technical foul after he went out-of-bounds and punched a cooler. In football, he contributed as a wide receiver, kick returner, punt returner, holder for kicker Paul Edinger, and defensive back. Mitchell earned The Ledger second-team all-Lakeland area honors as a utility player following the 1995 season. Mitchell visited the University of Florida, Florida State University, the University of Miami, and Michigan State University before he committed to the University of California, Los Angeles to play football for the Bruins. He chose to play on the West Coast mainly because of the opportunities presented for his career after football. ## College career While attending the University of California, Los Angeles, Mitchell played for the UCLA Bruins football team from 1997 to 2000. He sat out the 1997 season by taking a redshirt and subsequently lengthening his college football eligibility. In his first game, a 49–31 win over Texas on September 12, 1998, Mitchell threw a 34-yard touchdown pass to Brian Poli-Dixon and had four catches for 108 yards and one touchdown pass (79 yards) from quarterback Cade McNown. He had one rushing attempt for 30 yards on a reverse, 78 yards on three kickoff returns, and 17 yards on three punt returns. He was named the Pacific-10 Conference Offensive Player of the Week for his efforts in the game. On September 19, Mitchell had surgery on his left femur after suffering a fracture at the end of a kickoff return in the first quarter of a 42–24 win over Houston the same day. Mitchell was expected to miss the rest of the season. However, after a "remarkable" recovery, according to a member of the UCLA medical staff, Mitchell was able to play for eleven snaps in the Rose Bowl on January 1, 1999. He threw a 61-yard touchdown pass to Durell Price on a flea flicker play in the first quarter of the loss to Wisconsin. In the summer prior to the 1999 season, Mitchell and Poli-Dixon trained with Minnesota Vikings receivers Randy Moss and Cris Carter in Florida. Mitchell, Poli-Dixon, Danny Farmer, and the rest of the UCLA receiving corps called themselves "The Birds" for their ability to "fly all over the field". Mitchell was hampered by a knee cartilage issue throughout his redshirt sophomore season. In his first career start, replacing the injured Farmer in the season-opener against Boise State, Mitchell had one catch for 11 yards from Drew Bennett, one kickoff return for 15 yards, and four punt returns for 33 yards. In the next week in a loss against the Ohio State Buckeyes, Mitchell again started in place of Farmer and gained 31 yards on two reverses, had four kickoff returns for 73 yards and completed a pass for 18 yards. In a 35–21 win over Fresno State on September 18, Mitchell, again starting in place of Farmer, caught nine passes for 149 yards, both career-highs. Mitchell caught 10 passes for 103 total yards in the next four games. He led the team in receiving for three consecutive weeks to follow: in his sixth start of the season, a 55–7 blowout loss to Oregon State, he caught five passes for 58 yards; in the Bruins' third-straight loss, this time to Arizona, he had 42 yards on four receptions; and in a 23–20 win in overtime against Washington, he successfully received four passes for 82 yards, including a 43-yard pass from Ryan McCann. In the final game of the season, against USC, Mitchell caught five passes for 88 yards. He had a total of 38 catches for 533 yards with no touchdowns and six starts in 1999, and finished 15th in the Pac-10 in receptions with 3.5 per game and 17th in receiving yards with 48.5 per game. Mitchell played baseball for the Bruins in the offseason prior to the 2000 football season. He was teammates with future Philadelphia Phillies second baseman Chase Utley and introduced Utley to his future wife, Jennifer Cooper. Mitchell was drafted in the 2000 Major League Baseball Draft in the 50th round by the Chicago White Sox. Utley said of Mitchell's decision not to play baseball professionally, "he chose the right sport in football, that's for sure. He was a good batting practice hitter—that's about it. He wasn't quite the same once the game got going." The Bruins earned the Pac-10 Conference Championship with Mitchell as a member in 2000. Mitchell earned preseason first-team All-Pac-10 honors from The Sporting News and Lindy's Sports before the 2000 season as he prepared to take over the starting wide receiver job following Farmer's graduation. Mitchell, along with teammate Poli-Dixon, was named to the Fred Biletnikoff Award watchlist for the best wide receiver in college football during the preseason. In the season-opener against third-ranked Alabama, Mitchell threw a 31-yard touchdown pass to Poli-Dixon on a trick play in the first quarter and made a 46-yard touchdown reception from McCann in the third quarter. He finished the game with four catches for 91 yards in the upset win. In the 24–21 win over Fresno State on September 9, Mitchell led the team in receiving with six receptions for 58 yards and a 20-yard touchdown pass from McCann. Mitchell's catches went into the double-digits against third-ranked Michigan, as he had ten receptions for 137 yards in the 23–20 upset win on September 16. On September 23, in the third quarter of a 29–10 loss against Oregon, Mitchell caught what appeared to be a touchdown in the corner of the end zone, but was ruled out-of-bounds by the officials. The Bruins settled for a field goal on the drive and Mitchell explained after the game that "I knew it was a touchdown, you knew it was a touchdown, everybody does. The ref[eree] knew it too because he looked at me like he was sorry." On the next series, however, Mitchell caught a 54-yard touchdown pass from backup quarterback Bennett. Mitchell finished the game with eight receptions for 158 yards. In a 38–31 comeback win over Arizona State on September 30, he caught two touchdown passes from Cory Paus in the third quarter, one of which was for 80 yards, and had four total catches for 125 yards in the game. On October 14, in a triple-overtime loss to California, Mitchell made eight receptions for 167 yards and caught a 35-yard touchdown from Paus in the fourth quarter. Mitchell was named to the BCSfootball.com Midseason All-America team after posting 38 receptions for 736 yards and six touchdowns midway through the season. Over the next four games, Mitchell recorded 26 catches for 438 yards, including a seven-catch, 185-yard game against Stanford on November 4. He caught a 41-yard touchdown pass from Paus in the game. In a 38–35 loss to USC on November 18, Mitchell broke Farmer's single-season record of 1,274 yards in 1998 with 1,314 yards. He made four receptions for 140 yards and a four-yard touchdown in the game, and threw a 45-yard touchdown pass to Poli-Dixon. Mitchell was named a semi-finalist for the Biletnikoff Award in late October. He was named a finalist for the award in late November alongside Antonio Bryant of Pittsburgh and Marvin Minnis of Florida State, but lost out to Bryant. Mitchell earned first-team All-America honors by the Walter Camp Football Foundation following the season, as well as first-team All-Pac-10 honors. He earned CNNSI.com honorable mention All-America honors. He was named a winner of UCLA's Henry R. "Red" Sanders Award for Most Valuable Player, the winner of the George W. Dickerson Award for Outstanding Offensive Player against USC, and a winner of the Team Captain Award at the UCLA football award banquet. In the 2000 Sun Bowl against Wisconsin on December 29, Mitchell made nine receptions for a Sun Bowl-record 180 yards, including a 64-yard touchdown catch. Though the Bruins lost the game 21–20, Mitchell said Badgers cornerback Jamar Fletcher "couldn't stop [him]." Mitchell was called for two taunting penalties on Fletcher, but still won MVP honors following the game. Mitchell finished the season with 77 catches for 1,494 yards and nine touchdowns. In October 2000, Mitchell told the Eugene Register-Guard, a newspaper in Eugene, Oregon, that he was "definitely returning" for his senior season. By mid-November, however, he told the Associated Press that he was "leaning to staying, but nothing's firm." Mitchell instead chose to forgo his senior year and entered the NFL Draft in early January 2001. He stated, "I have had a great time, but it's time for me to give something back to my family." Mitchell said he would be quieter in the NFL: "You won't hear no more trash talking from Freddie Mitchell, those are the big boys, I'm just a little kid again. I'm humble." He had 119 catches for 2,135 yards and 10 touchdowns in his career as a Bruin. ## Professional career ### Pre-draft After Mitchell declared for the 2001 NFL Draft, one NFL scout told the Milwaukee Journal-Sentinel in February, "I don't think he's as fast as people in the press try to say he is. He's absolutely fearless over the middle but he prefers to trap the ball instead of to extend for it. I don't think he has nearly the explosion to be considered a first." Mitchell was also criticized by scouts for his small frame and potential character issues. Draft analyst Mel Kiper, Jr. rated Mitchell as the 16th-best prospect in the draft following the NFL Scouting Combine in which he ran a 4.4-second 40-yard dash, and called him a player on the rise. Kiper also rated him as the fifth-best wide receiver in the draft and projected Mitchell to be drafted in the mid-first round following his performance at the Combine. In rating players several times leading up to the draft, Kiper re-watched game film of each player and adjusted their rankings accordingly. In his March 5 mock draft, Kiper projected Mitchell to be drafted by the Green Bay Packers with the tenth overall selection. He ranked Mitchell as the 18th-best player in the draft on March 30. NFLDraftScout.com projected Mitchell to be drafted in the second round and rated him as the eighth-best wide receiver in the draft. Kiper ranked him the fourth-best wide receiver in the draft on April 2. In his April 10 mock draft, Kiper projected Mitchell to be drafted by the Denver Broncos with the 24th overall selection. Ed Bouchette of the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette ranked Mitchell as the sixth-best wide receiver in the draft. Mitchell hired Tom Condon of IMG Football as his agent leading up to the draft. ### Philadelphia Eagles #### 2001 season Mitchell was selected by the Philadelphia Eagles in the first round (25th overall) of the 2001 NFL Draft. He was the fifth wide receiver taken in the draft. He worked out with his new quarterback Donovan McNabb in Arizona and Los Angeles before mini-camp started. Because of NCAA rules regarding graduation, Mitchell was unable to attend the Eagles' mini-camp until after UCLA's senior class graduated. He studied the Eagles' playbook in the meantime. He asked the NFL for an exemption, but the league refused, and he arrived for his first practice on June 18, 2001. Mitchell signed a five-year, \$5.5 million contract with the Eagles on July 26, in time for the start of training camp. During training camp, Mitchell practiced as a backup behind James Thrash and Todd Pinkston. Special teams coordinator John Harbaugh asked Mitchell if he was willing to practice as a kickoff returner in practice, but Mitchell declined, citing the fracture of his femur on a kickoff return in college. Nonetheless, he still practiced on the kickoff coverage team, and on the punt coverage team as a gunner. Mitchell suffered a hip pointer during the morning session on July 31, but returned for the afternoon session without limitation. A hamstring injury limited him at the end of training camp. Before the start of the 2001 season, head coach Andy Reid said, "Mentally, [Mitchell is] right there. He's picked everything up, he's a smart kid. He's wide-eyed, ready to learn. He's done a nice job when he's been in there." Mitchell began the season as the team's fourth wide receiver behind Thrash, Pinkston, and Na Brown. Mitchell's difficulty in learning the complex playbook, as well as the lingering hamstring injury, limited him in the Eagles' first six games of the season. In his first career NFL game, a week one matchup against the St. Louis Rams on September 9, Mitchell played in a few snaps but was not thrown to. Mitchell was listed as "questionable" due to his hamstring injury before the start of the week two game against the Seattle Seahawks on September 23, and was not activated. Against the Dallas Cowboys in week three on September 30, Mitchell returned to the field and caught his first pass, which went for no gain. In weeks four and six, against the Arizona Cardinals and New York Giants, respectively, Mitchell recorded no catches. In week seven against the Oakland Raiders, he made a catch for 15 yards. Due to Brown's ineffective play, Mitchell replaced him as the Eagles' slot receiver in week eight against the Cardinals and had four receptions for 62 yards. In a week nine game against the Minnesota Vikings on November 11, Mitchell caught three passes for 38 yards and had one rushing attempt for 12 yards. He caught two passes for 15 yards and had one rush for a loss of 16 yards in week ten against the Cowboys. Mitchell was listed as "probable" on the team's injury report due to a shoulder injury before a week eleven game against the Washington Redskins, but did not record any catches in the game. He made three receptions for 60 yards in a week twelve win over the Kansas City Chiefs on November 29, and Reid said, "Every week we're giving Freddie a little bit more responsibility and he's coming along very well right now." In a week thirteen game against the San Diego Chargers, Mitchell caught one pass for five yards and attempted a pass off of a reverse that was knocked down. Against Washington in week 14, Mitchell caught his first career touchdown pass, a four-yard reception in the second quarter. He had two catches for 27 yards in the game. Mitchell caught two passes in each of the next two games for a total of 61 yards. Mitchell made his first two career starts in week seventeen and in a wild card playoff game win against the Buccaneers. He did not record any receptions in either game. Against the Chicago Bears in a divisional playoff game win on January 19, Mitchell caught two passes for 14 yards. In the NFC Championship Game against the Rams on January 27, Mitchell caught one pass for two yards. A pass intended for him on a fourth-down play was intercepted by Rams defensive back Aeneas Williams to clinch the win for St. Louis. Mitchell finished the season with 21 receptions for 283 yards and one touchdown. #### 2002 season After the Eagles signed Antonio Freeman to a one-year contract in August 2002, Mitchell was demoted to the fourth wide receiver behind Pinkston, Thrash, and Freeman. Mitchell mainly contributed on special teams for the Eagles throughout the 2002 season. In the first fifteen weeks of the season, Mitchell caught a total of six passes for 53 yards as a backup. Against the Cowboys in week sixteen, Pinkston left the game due to turf toe, and Mitchell caught two passes for 17 yards in his place. Mitchell started in place of Pinkston in the last regular season game against the Giants on December 28, and led the team in receiving with four catches for 35 yards. Mitchell only caught twelve passes for 105 yards over the entire season. It was after this dismal performance, despite having the benefit of Pro Bowl quarterback Donovan McNabb passing to him, that Mitchell began to be labeled as a "bust." #### 2003 season Mitchell competed with rookie Billy McMullen for the third wide receiver position in 2003 after Freeman left the Eagles following the 2002 season. He eventually beat out McMullen for the slot receiver job. Eagles staff, players, and media called Mitchell one of the most improved players in training camp. Donovan McNabb commented that Mitchell's "offseason workouts as well as his mindset has been a whole lot different". In the first four weeks of the season, Mitchell caught six passes for 55 yards. Mitchell had one catch for 29 yards against the Redskins on October 5, and he recovered a Redskins onside kick to clinch the win for the Eagles. He had one reception for 27 yards in a game against the Cowboys in week six. Mitchell started in week seven in place of Pinkston against the Giants but recorded no catches. Against the New York Jets in week eight, he had two catches for 29 yards. In week nine against the Atlanta Falcons, Mitchell caught a 37-yard touchdown pass from McNabb and finished with two catches for 43 yards. He made seven receptions in the next two games for 83 yards. Against the New Orleans Saints in week twelve, Mitchell started and made two receptions for 24 yards. In weeks thirteen and fourteen, he had a combined six catches for 98 yards. On December 15, in a week fifteen game against the Miami Dolphins, Mitchell threw his first touchdown pass, a 25-yard pass to Brian Westbrook, and caught two passes for 30 yards in the 34–27 win. Against the San Francisco 49ers in week sixteen on December 21, Mitchell made two catches for 23 yards and caught an eight-yard touchdown pass in the second quarter of a week seventeen game against the Redskins on December 27. He had four catches for 47 yards in the game. Mitchell's most significant play, according to Philadelphia media and fans, came on January 11, 2004, in the NFC Divisional Playoff Game against the Packers. Late in the game, with the Eagles losing by three points and facing a 4th and 26 situation, Mitchell caught a 28-yard pass for a first down. The Eagles tied the score on the same drive and won the game in overtime. Mitchell had another catch for nine yards in the game. In the NFC Championship Game on January 18 against the Carolina Panthers, he caught four passes for 38 yards in the loss. Mitchell had 35 catches for 498 yards and two touchdowns in 2003. #### 2004 season With the Eagles' acquisition of wide receiver Terrell Owens and the departure of Thrash, Mitchell kept his role as the slot receiver in 2004. Peter King said Mitchell had "a great training camp" and that he "might be having the best camp of any player I've seen this summer." He made seven receptions in the first four weeks of the season for a total of 118 yards receiving, including three catches for 71 yards against the Detroit Lions in week three. He started against the Panthers on October 17 in week six but did not record any catches. In the following three weeks, Mitchell only had two receptions for 31 yards, with both catches coming against the Cleveland Browns in week seven. His most notable catch of the season was a 60-yard reception during the Eagles' November 15, 2004, Monday Night Football game against the Cowboys. This catch is remembered primarily for the manner in which McNabb extended the play by eluding the Cowboys' pass rush for 14.1 seconds before eventually throwing to Mitchell. Over the subsequent four weeks, Mitchell had one reception in each game for a combined 54 yards. He began to openly voice his frustration over the limited role he continued to play in the Eagles' offense due to Owens' prominence. At one point during the season, after he made a catch, Mitchell would point to his wrist as if to say "it's about time." In a week fifteen game against the Cowboys, Owens suffered an ankle injury and was expected to miss the remainder of the season. Mitchell, who suffered a quad contusion during the game, did not make a catch against Dallas, but was named the starter in Owens' place opposite Pinkston. Against the Rams in week sixteen, Mitchell caught a seven-yard touchdown pass from McNabb in the first quarter and finished the game with two receptions for 28 yards. In the final game of the regular season against the Cincinnati Bengals, Mitchell had six receptions for 76 yards and a touchdown. He finished the season with only 22 catches. In a divisional playoff game against the Vikings on January 16, 2005, Mitchell caught a two-yard touchdown pass in the first quarter and celebrated by feigning to pull his pants up, a reference to the touchdown celebration by Vikings' wide receiver Randy Moss, who pretended to pull his pants down to moon Green Bay fans the week before and was heavily criticized for doing so. Mitchell recovered an L. J. Smith fumble in the endzone for a touchdown in the second quarter, and finished the game with a team-high five receptions for 65 yards. In a press conference after the game, Mitchell said, "I just want to thank my hands for being so great." He had two receptions for 20 yards against the Atlanta Falcons in the NFC Championship Game on January 23. In the game, Mitchell sported a well-publicized frohawk. ##### Super Bowl controversy The Eagles finished the 2004 season with a 13–3 record and earned a trip to Super Bowl XXXIX, where they were to play the AFC champion New England Patriots. During the week leading up to the game, Mitchell sat for a short ESPN interview conducted by Dan Patrick. Asked to identify the members of the Patriots' secondary, Mitchell claimed he did not know them by name, only by number, and then deliberately stated each of their numbers incorrectly. Finally, he said he "had something" for safety Rodney Harrison. Harrison responded by calling Mitchell a "jerk". The normally tight-lipped Patriots head coach Bill Belichick later said of Mitchell, "[a]ll he does is talk. He's terrible, and you can print that. I was happy when he was in the game." Mitchell caught only one pass for 11 yards in the 24–21 loss. After the Super Bowl, Mitchell continued to criticize the Patriots, as well as Belichick, saying that the way the Patriots reacted reminded him of "little girls". ### Later career Mitchell held out from the Eagles' mini-camp in late April 2005, with Andy Reid stating, "I did not want him here." Mitchell was released from the team on May 6. He finished his career with the Eagles with 90 receptions for 1,263 yards and five touchdowns. Mitchell worked out for the Kansas City Chiefs on June 6, 2005, following his release from the Eagles. He signed with the Chiefs on June 17 after Az-Zahir Hakim decided against signing with the team. Mitchell did not receive a signing bonus. He began practicing with the team on the last day of mini-camps, June 18, and received extra practice with the coaches the following week. He suffered a knee injury during practice on July 30 and was scheduled to undergo arthroscopic surgery the following week, but declined to go through with it. He was released on September 2 due to concerns about his knee. Mitchell elected to have knee surgery on September 6 following his release. Mitchell worked out for several teams after his release from the Chiefs, but did not sign a contract with any of them. He worked out for the Green Bay Packers on October 25, 2005, the Dallas Cowboys on August 6, 2006, the Cleveland Browns on October 11, 2006, the Toronto Argonauts of the Canadian Football League on February 11, 2007, the Tennessee Titans on July 26, 2007, and the Baltimore Ravens on May 29, 2008. The Philadelphia Soul of the Arena Football League expressed interest in signing Mitchell in January 2006, but president Ron Jaworski, a former Eagles quarterback, had difficulties contacting him. ## Personal Mitchell's first cousin is former running back Rod Smart, who played on the Eagles with Mitchell in 2001. Mitchell enjoys country music. Mitchell had several nicknames during his tenure in Philadelphia. These included "Fast Freddie," the "Sultan of Slot," "First Down Freddie," "FredEx" (claiming he "always delivers"), the "People's Champ," and "Hollywood." While with the Eagles, Mitchell was a resident of Moorestown, New Jersey. Mitchell appeared on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno while on UCLA's campus, deliberately answering questions incorrectly. He appeared on A Dating Story, a reality television show, in May 2002. In the episode, Mitchell took Tiffany Schmid, a model in the Philadelphia area, to Great Adventure Amusement Park for their date. Mitchell, as well as several other NFL players, received threatening hate mail in 2003, apparently due to his appearance on the reality show with Schmid as a mixed-race couple at the time. In January 2011, Mitchell appeared on Bravo's The Millionaire Matchmaker, a dating show in which Patti Stanger sets millionaires up to find love. Mitchell's fiancée left him after Super Bowl XXXIX in February 2005 after they had been together for two years. In 2008, Mitchell returned to Lakeland and bought a local barbecue restaurant called "Brothers' Bar-B-Que." In February 2009, Mitchell was under investigation when a package containing 7 pounds (3.2 kg) of marijuana was delivered to his business. Mitchell was briefly detained, but was not charged. The restaurant was closed briefly in June for violations, but reopened shortly thereafter. On September 3, 2009, the restaurant was closed and Mitchell was named in a suit for failure to make payments on the business. Mitchell officially lost the restaurant in September 2009 after a court ruling. In December 2009, Mitchell was pulled over for speeding in suburban Philadelphia. Due to an outstanding warrant for failure to pay child support, he was arrested on charges of being a fugitive from justice, and was later released on \$250,000 bail. Mitchell turned himself in to authorities on March 12, 2012, after being indicted on federal tax fraud charges. He was arraigned on March 22 on the charges, and a warrant for his arrest in Indiana for failure to pay child support led to his incarceration in Orange County, Florida. In May 2012, Mitchell filed a lawsuit against a married couple, who were defendants in his previous charges, citing fraud, breach of contract, and intentional infliction of emotional distress. Mitchell pleaded guilty on March 8, 2013, to one count of conspiring to file a false tax claim with the federal government. At a hearing on October 24, 2013, in Orlando, Florida, he claimed that his crime stemmed from concussions he suffered during his career in the NFL, adding that he had headaches, insomnia, and memory loss. That memory loss was cited as a possible reason for his failing to pay child support in that case as well. His attorneys asked the judge in the case that Mitchell only be sentenced to community service and probation. On October 29, 2013, he was sentenced to serve 37 months in prison. He began his sentence on December 6, 2013. On May 4, 2012, Mitchell participated in a charity golfing event to benefit the Palm Beach State College Foundation. He rang the ceremonial Liberty Bell in Philadelphia before the start of a National Basketball Association game between the Philadelphia 76ers and Toronto Raptors on December 22, 2018. In September 2021, Mitchell was affected by Hurricane Ida, after his home was flooded.
3,411	...Baby One More Time (album)	1,173,270,068	null	[ "1999 debut albums", "Albums produced by David Kreuger", "Albums produced by Denniz Pop", "Albums produced by Kristian Lundin", "Albums produced by Max Martin", "Albums produced by Per Magnusson", "Albums produced by Rami Yacoub", "Albums recorded at Cheiron Studios", "Britney Spears albums", "Jive Records albums" ]	...Baby One More Time is the debut studio album by American singer Britney Spears. It was released on January 12, 1999, by Jive Records. Spears had been a child performer on The All-New Mickey Mouse Club from 1993 to 1994, and was looking to expand her career as a teen singer. After being turned away by several record companies, Spears signed with Jive for a multi-album deal in 1997. She travelled to Sweden to collaborate with producers Max Martin and Rami Yacoub, who had been writing songs with producer Denniz Pop and others, for ...Baby One More Time. Their collaboration created a pop, bubblegum pop, dance-pop, and teen pop record, with Spears later saying that she felt excited when she heard it and knew it was going to be a hit record. The album was completed in June 1998. Upon its release, ...Baby One More Time garnered mixed reviews from music critics, with many praising its commercial appeal but deeming it silly and premature. Despite its initial mixed reception, it helped Spears receive a nomination for Best New Artist at the 42nd Annual Grammy Awards (2000). Retrospectively, it has been hailed for its major impact on pop culture, citing it as one of the most influential pop records of all time. A massive global commercial success, it made Spears the fifth artist under the age of 18 to top the US Billboard 200. It has been certified 14× platinum (diamond) by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). Spears' best-selling album, it has sold over 25 million copies worldwide, making it one of the best-selling albums of all time, as well as the best-selling debut album by a female artist. ...Baby One More Time produced five singles. The lead single, "...Baby One More Time", brought Spears tremendous global success, reaching number one in most countries it charted in and becoming one of the best-selling physical singles of all time. In 2020, it was named the greatest debut single of all time by Rolling Stone. Subsequent singles "Sometimes" and "Born to Make You Happy" peaked within the top ten in most international countries while "(You Drive Me) Crazy" became Spears' second US Billboard Hot 100 top-ten hit. Spears heavily promoted the album through interviews and televised performances. Furthermore, she embarked on her first headlining concert tour, entitled ...Baby One More Time Tour (1999) and later continued with (You Drive Me) Crazy Tour (2000). ## Recording and production In June 1997, Spears was in talks with then-manager Lou Pearlman to join the female pop group Innosense. Her mother, Lynne Spears, asked family friend and entertainment lawyer Larry Rudolph for his opinion and submitted a tape of Spears singing over a Whitney Houston karaoke song along with some pictures. Rudolph decided to pitch her to record labels, which required a professional demo. He sent Spears an unused song from Toni Braxton; she rehearsed for a week and recorded in a studio with an audio engineer. Spears traveled from her hometown Kentwood, Louisiana, to New York City with the demo and met executives from four labels, returning to Kentwood the same day. Three rejected her, arguing audiences wanted pop bands such as the Backstreet Boys and the Spice Girls, and "there wasn't going to be another Madonna, another Debbie Gibson or another Tiffany." Two weeks later, executives from Jive Records returned calls to Rudolph. Jive's senior vice president of A&R Jeff Fenster stated: "It's very rare to hear someone that age who can deliver emotional content and commercial appeal. [...] For any artist, the motivation—the 'eye of the tiger'—is extremely important. And Britney had that." Jive soon appointed Britney to work with producer Eric Foster White for a month, who reportedly shaped her voice from "lower and less poppy" delivery to "distinctively, unmistakably Britney." One of the first songs Spears recorded with Foster White was "From the Bottom of My Broken Heart", which was released as the album's 4th single. Foster White also produced "Autumn Goodbye", which was the B-side to Spears' debut single "...Baby One More Time". During the same session for "Autumn Goodbye", Spears and Foster White also worked on a song called "Love Is On", which ultimately did not make the album and was later given to Sharon Cuneta. Spears recorded a lot of material with Eric Foster White, such as "Autumn Goodbye", "E-Mail My Heart", "From the Bottom of My Broken Heart", "I'm So Curious", "I Will Still Love You", "Way It Is Loving You", "I'll Be There For You", "Soda Pop", "Thinkin' About You", "Nothing Less Than Real", "Wishing on a Falling Star" and a cover of "You Got It All" by the Jets. She also recorded a cover of Sonny & Cher's 1967 single "The Beat Goes On". White was responsible for the vocal recording and song production, while additional production was handled by English electronic music group All Seeing I. After hearing the material, Jive Records president Clive Calder ordered a full studio album. Spears flew to Cheiron Studios in Stockholm, where half of ...Baby One More Time was recorded from May 1998, with producers Max Martin and Rami Yacoub, and contributions from others, including songwriting from Denniz Pop, who was too ill to attend any recording sessions. Martin showed Spears and her management a track titled "Hit Me Baby One More Time", originally written for American group TLC, who had rejected it. Spears later said that she felt excited when she heard it and knew it was going to be a hit. "We at Jive said, 'This is a fuckin' smash'", revealed the label's A&R executive, Steven Lunt; however, other executives were concerned that the line "Hit Me" would condone domestic violence, and later revised it to "...Baby One More Time". Spears revealed that she "didn't do well at all the first day in the studio [recording the song], I was just too nervous. So I went out that night and had some fun. The next day I was completely relaxed and nailed it. You gotta be relaxed singing '... Baby One More Time'." By June 1998, the album had been completed. ## Music and lyrics Spears originally envisioned "Sheryl Crow music, but younger – more adult contemporary" for ...Baby One More Time, but acquiesced to the wishes of her label, since "It made more sense to go pop, because I can dance to it—it's more me." The album opens with its lead single, "...Baby One More Time", a teen pop and dance-pop song beginning with a three-note motif in the bass range of the piano. Its opening was compared to many other songs, such as "We Will Rock You" (1977), "Start Me Up" (1981), "These Words" (2004) and the theme song of the film Jaws due to the fact the track "makes its presence known in exactly one second". According to Blender, "...Baby One More Time" is composed of "wah-wah guitar lines and EKG-machine bass-slaps". Claudia Mitchell and Jacqueline Reid-Walsh, authors of Girl Culture: Studying Girl Culture: A Readers' Guide (2008), observed that the lyrics of the song "gesture toward [Spears] longing for the return of an ex-boyfriend." "(You Drive Me) Crazy" runs through a moderately slow dance beat, and has an R&B melody mixed with edgy synthesized instrumentals. "Sometimes" is a ballad, which Spears begins with the lines "You tell me you're in love with me / That you can't take your pretty eyes away from me / It's not that I don't wanna stay / But every time you come too close I move away". Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic noted the song has "a catchy hook and endearing melody, with a reminiscent euro-dance rhythm." "Soda Pop" draws influences from bubblegum pop and dancehall, and features background vocals from co-writer Mikey Bassie. Spears' vocals on the fifth track, "Born to Make You Happy" span more than an octave. Its lyrics allude to a relationship that a woman desires to repair, not quite understanding what went wrong, as she comes to realize that "I don't know how to live without your love / I was born to make you happy". "From the Bottom of My Broken Heart" is a sentimental slow-tempo teen pop ballad. "I Will Be There" is a pop rock song featuring a guitar riff similar to Natalie Imbruglia's "Torn" (1997), with a "rousing chorus about standing by your man (or a best friend or a house pet)", as noted by Kyle Anderson of MTV. "E-Mail My Heart" is a sensitive piano ballad on which Spears sings: "E-mail me back / And say our love will stay alive". The cover of Sonny & Cher's 1967 single "The Beat Goes On" is influenced by bossa nova and trip hop, and features a sound similar to spy film themes. Among the bonus tracks included on select editions of the album is a cover of J'Son's 1996 song "I'll Never Stop Loving You". ## Release and promotion Promotion for ...Baby One More Time began in May 1998, when Spears performed "...Baby One More Time", "Sometimes" and "You Got It All" at the Singapore Jazz Festival. Subsequently, she embarked on the L'Oréal-sponsored promotional tour titled L'Oreal Hair Zone Mall Tour, visiting malls and food courts across North America from June to August. In December, "...Baby One More Time" first showed up on MTV's and The Box's most-requested video charts. In the United States, ...Baby One More Time was originally set for an October 1998 release, but was pushed back to January 12, 1999, due to marketing issues, with its international release occurring within the following three months. Spears had appeared on Ricki Lake, The Howie Mandel Show, and was a presenter at the 1999 American Music Awards prior to the release. However, after hurting her knee in February, she rescheduled appearances on several shows, such as The Tonight Show with Jay Leno and Live with Regis and Kathie Lee. Additionally, she appeared on MTV Spring Break and on the hundredth episode of Nickelodeon's All That. After recovering, Spears embarked on another promotional schedule, appearing at the 1999 Kids' Choice Awards on May 1, Live with Regis and Kathie Lee on May 3, MTV's FANatic on May 12, and The Rosie O'Donnell Show on May 25. Outside the US, Spears visited the German shows Wetten, dass..? and Top of the Pops on June 25. She also went to the United Kingdom, making appearances on programmes such as This Morning, CD:UK and National Lottery. Spears visited the music variety show Hey! Hey! Hey! Music Champ in Japan, and performed at the Festival Bar in Italy. Spears was also featured on an episode of the ABC sitcom Sabrina, the Teenage Witch, in which she played herself. According to People, Spears was returning a favor to actress Melissa Joan Hart, who played a cameo role in Spears' music video for "(You Drive Me) Crazy". The episode aired on September 24. The same month, Spears performed on The Rosie O'Donnell Show on September 27, and visited Carson Daly on MTV's Total Request Live the following day. Spears also performed live with Joey McIntyre in the Disney Channel taped concert event titled Britney Spears & Joey McIntyre in Concert. In November, Spears performed "...Baby One More Time" and "(You Drive Me) Crazy" at the 1999 MTV Europe Music Awards. Promotion for the album continued in early 2000, when Spears performed at the 2000 American Music Awards, and also performed "From the Bottom of My Broken Heart" in a medley with "...Baby One More Time" at the 42nd Annual Grammy Awards. On March 5, 1999, it was reported that Spears was planning her first headlining tour. She announced that the tour would start in July. On May 12, Tommy Hilfiger was announced as the main tour sponsor, as Spears was being featured in the company's "AllStars" campaign at the time. On December 17, during the premiere of the music video of "From the Bottom of My Broken Heart" on Total Request Live, Spears called the show to announce the March 2000 US tour dates. The extension, entitled (You Drive Me) Crazy Tour, was considered a prelude to her future world tour, Oops!... I Did It Again Tour. The leg's main sponsor was Got Milk?, whose media director Peter Gardiner explained: "Britney is magic with teen-age girls, and that's an absolutely crucial target for milk". Spears shot an advertising campaign to be shown before her performances began. The secondary sponsor was Polaroid, who released I-Zone as the tour's official camera. Spears used the I-Zone onstage to take pictures of the audience and further promote the product. The show was divided into segments, separated by interludes, and ended with an encore. The set list consisted of songs from ...Baby One More Time and several covers. Some changes were made during the 2000 leg, with the covers replaced by songs from her second studio album Oops!... I Did It Again (2000). The tour received positive critical reception. During the tour, Spears was accused of lip synching, although she denied those claims. On April 20, the concert at Hilton Hawaiian Village in Honolulu, Hawaii, was taped. It was slightly altered from its tour incarnation and featured different costumes. On June 5, it was broadcast on Fox, airing several times during the year. On November 21, Jive Records released the video album Britney Spears: Live and More!, which included the Fox special. It was certified triple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for shipping 300,000 units. On August 14, 2017, 18 years after the release of ...Baby One More Time, it was announced that 2,500 pink-and-white-swirl copies of the album would be released on vinyl exclusively through Urban Outfitters on November 3. During the celebration of the 20th anniversary of Spears' debut single "...Baby One More Time", on October 19, 2018, Legacy Recordings announced the global release of the album on vinyl for November 23. ## Singles The title track was released as the lead single from ...Baby One More Time and Spears' debut single on September 28, 1998. It received generally favorable critical reviews, which mostly praised its composition. After its accompanying music video premiered in late November, the single attained worldwide success in early 1999, peaking atop the US Billboard Hot 100 and in most countries it charted in. It received numerous certifications around the world, and is one of the best-selling singles of all time, selling over ten million copies. The music video, directed by Nigel Dick, portrays Spears as a high school student who starts to sing and dance around the school, while watching her love interest from afar. In 2010, the video was voted the third most influential video in the history of pop music on Jam!. "Sometimes" was released as the second single from ...Baby One More Time on April 6, 1999. It achieved commercial success internationally, reaching number one in Belgium, the Netherlands and New Zealand. In the United States, however, it missed the top 20, peaking at number 21 on the Billboard Hot 100. The song's accompanying music video was directed by Nigel Dick. During rehearsals, on February 11, 1999, Spears injured her left knee and needed surgery. After recuperating in Kentwood, Louisiana, the video was filmed on April 9–10 at Paradise Cove in Malibu, California. It premiered on MTV's Total Request Live on May 6. In May 1999, Max Martin and Spears went to the Battery Studios in New York City to re-record the vocals of "(You Drive Me) Crazy", for a reproduced version subtitled "The Stop! Remix", which was going to be included on the original motion picture soundtrack for the film Drive Me Crazy (1999). The remix was subsequently released as the third single from ...Baby One More Time on August 24. It features the addition of a stanza in which Spears yells "Stop!", then all sound cutting out, followed by a transition, while omitting the lines "Lovin' you mean so much more, more than anything I ever loved before". The video was directed by Nigel Dick, and featured actors Melissa Joan Hart and Adrian Grenier. "Born to Make You Happy" was released as the fourth and final European single from ...Baby One More Time on December 6, 1999, to a mixed critical reception. A commercial success, it peaked within the top five in 11 countries and atop the UK Singles Chart. Its accompanying music video was directed by Bille Woodruff, and choreographed by Wade Robson. Despite its success in Europe, the song was never released as a single in the US. "From the Bottom of My Broken Heart" was released as the fourth and final North American and Oceanian single from ...Baby One More Time on December 14, 1999. The song received mixed critical reviews, which branded it a classic hit and competent single, despite considering it an unremarkable song referring only to kissing. It achieved moderate commercial success, peaking at number 14 on the US Billboard Hot 100. In Oceania, it peaked at number 37 in Australia and number 23 in New Zealand. It was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) on March 28, 2000. The song's accompanying music video, directed by Gregory Dark, was released on December 17, 1999. It elicited controversy due to the fact that Dark had previously directed pornographic films. ## Critical reception ...Baby One More Time received mixed reviews from music critics upon its release. In a positive review, Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic gave the album four out of five stars. Paul Verna from Billboard considered the album "a top 40-ready workout filled with hook-laden songs from the same bag as the title cut". The Village Voice critic Robert Christgau highlighted the title track and "Soda Pop" while summing the album up as a "girl next door" version of Madonna. Kyle Anderson of MTV said he "was surprised in more ways than one" with his first listening of ...Baby One More Time, commenting he "expected there to be a lot of filler (there sort of is), though I didn't expect it to be as odd (at least sonically) as it ended up being. There has never been any mystery to why Spears became such a superstar, but these songs probably would have been huge even if Britney wore burlap sacks in all of her videos." Barry Walters of Rolling Stone gave the album two stars out of five, and compared the album's sound to early hits of Debbie Gibson, Mariah Carey and Samantha Fox. Walters also said that "while several Cherion-crafted kiddie-funk jams serve up beefy hooks, shameless schlock slowies, like 'E-Mail My Heart', is pure spam." An NME reviewer rated ...Baby One More Time one out of ten, saying that "we seem to have reached crisis point: pubescent pop is now so rife that 17-year-old Britney 'lizard-lounge' Spears is already halfway through her lucrative showbiz career". He also found the album premature, commenting: "hopefully, if she starts to live the wretched life that we all eventually do, her voice will show the scars, she'll stop looking so fucking smug, she'll find solace in drugs and we'll be all the happier for it. Now grow up, girl. Quick!" Amanda Murray of Sputnikmusic felt that "with the exception of the terrific title track, ...Baby One More Time is a collection of either competent pop songs underwhelmingly executed or underwhelmingly written pop songs competently executed." ## Accolades \\|- ! scope="row"\\| 1999 \\| Juno Award \\| Best Selling Album (Foreign or Domestic) \\| rowspan="2"\\| ...Baby One More Time \\| \\| style="text-align:center;"\\| \\|- ! scope="row"\\| 1999 \\| Teen Choice Award \\| Choice Music – Album \\| \\| style="text-align:center;"\\| \\|- ! scope="row"\\| 1999 \\| YoungStar Award \\| Best Young Recording Artist or Musical Group \\| rowspan="2"\\| Britney Spears \\| \\| style="text-align:center;"\\| \\|- ! scope="row"\\| 1999 \\| Billboard Music Award \\| Female Albums Artist of the Year \\| \\| style="text-align:center;"\\| \\|- ! scope="row"\\| 2000 \\| Guinness World Record \\| Best Selling Album in the US by a Female Artist \\| rowspan="5"\\| ...Baby One More Time \\| \\| style="text-align:center;"\\| \\|- ! scope="row"\\| 2000 \\| American Music Award \\| Favorite Pop/Rock Album \\| \\| style="text-align:center;"\\| \\|- ! scope="row"\\| 2000 \\| Blockbuster Entertainment Award \\| Favorite CD \\| \\| style="text-align:center;"\\| \\|- ! scope="row"\\| 2000 \\| Hungarian Music Award \\| Foreign Pop Album of the Year \\| \\| style="text-align:center;"\\| \\|- ! scope="row"\\| 2003 \\| Guinness World Record \\| Best Selling Album by a Teenage Solo Artist \\| \\| style="text-align:center;"\\| ## Commercial performance In the United States, ...Baby One More Time debuted atop the Billboard 200, selling 121,000 copies in its first week. Spears broke several records by doing so. The singer became the first new female artist to have a number-one single on the Billboard Hot 100 and number one album on the Billboard 200 at the same time; the first new artist (male or female) to have a single go to the number one spot the same week that the album debuted at number one; and the first new female artist to have the first single and first album at number one the same week. Spears is also the youngest female in Billboard history to have a simultaneous single and album at number one in the same week, and became the fifth artist under the age of 18 to top the Billboard 200. After fluctuating within the top five, the album went back to the summit in its fourth week. It sold over 500,000 copies within its first month, according to Nielsen SoundScan. Its fifth week became the album's highest-selling week with 229,000 copies sold, bringing the total to 804,000 copies. ...Baby One More Time spent a total of six non-consecutive weeks at number one, and sold over 1.8 million copies in the US within its first two months. In its 47th week on the Billboard 200, the album held strong at number three, reaching the ten-million sales mark in the country. The album was certified diamond by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) on December 9, 1999, making then-18-year-old Spears the youngest artist to receive that certification, breaking the record held by Alanis Morissette, who was 21 when her album Jagged Little Pill (1995) was certified diamond. It became the 14th album since 1991 to sell over ten million copies in the US, and Spears became the best-selling female artist of 1999. ...Baby One More Time spent a total of 51 weeks within the top ten on the Billboard 200. It was the second best-selling album of 1999 in the US, only behind Millennium by the Backstreet Boys. The album has spent a total of 103 weeks on the Billboard 200. ...Baby One More Time landed at number three on BMG Music Club's all-time best-sellers list, selling 1.6 million units through the club. As of May 2020, it has sold 10.7 million copies in the US according to Nielsen SoundScan, with the BMG Music Club sales bringing its total to 12.3 million units. ...Baby One More Time debuted atop the Canadian Albums Chart, spending nine non-consecutive weeks at the summit. On December 12, 1999, the Canadian Recording Industry Association (CRIA) certified it diamond, for sales of over one million units. The album spent two weeks at number two on the European Top 100 Albums, and sold over four million copies across Europe, being certified quadruple platinum by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI). It peaked at number two on the UK Albums Chart, and has been certified quadruple platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI). It peaked at number four in France, being certified double platinum by the Syndicat National de l'Édition Phonographique (SNEP). In addition, it has been certified triple gold in Germany, and decuple platinum (diamond) by the Polish Society of the Phonographic Industry (ZPAV). In Australia, it debuted at number nine on the ARIA Albums Chart, reaching number two nine weeks later. The album became the seventh highest-selling of 1999 in the country, and was certified quadruple platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) the following year after shipping 280,000 copies to retailers. The album debuted at number three in New Zealand, later being certified triple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand (RIANZ). ## Impact and legacy Spears was at the forefront of the female teen pop explosion starting in 1999 and extending through the 2000s, leading the pack of Christina Aguilera, Jessica Simpson, and Mandy Moore. All of these performers had been developing material in 1998, but the market changed dramatically in December 1998 when Spears' debut single and video were charting highly. RCA Records signed Aguilera and rushed her debut single to capitalize on Spears' success, producing the hit single "Genie in a Bottle" in May 1999 and Aguilera's eponymous debut studio album in August. Aguilera's album sold millions but not as many as ...Baby One More Time. Simpson consciously modeled her persona as more mature than Spears; her single "I Wanna Love You Forever" charted in September 1999, and her album Sweet Kisses followed shortly after. Moore's first single, "Candy", hit the airwaves a month before Simpson's single, but it did not perform as well on the charts; Moore was often seen as less accomplished than Spears and the others, coming in fourth of the "pop princesses". Fueling media stories about their competition for first place, Spears and Aguilera traded barbs but also compliments through the 2000s. The Daily Yomiuri reported that "critics have hailed her as the most gifted teenage pop idol for many years, but Spears has set her sights a little higher-she is aiming for the level of superstardom that has been achieved by Madonna and Janet Jackson." Rolling Stone wrote: "Britney Spears carries on the classic archetype of the rock & roll teen queen, the dungaree doll, the angel baby who just has to make a scene." Rami Yacoub who co-produced Spears's debut album with lyricist Max Martin commented: "I know from Denniz Pop and Max's previous productions, when we do songs, there's kind of a nasal thing. With N' Sync and the Backstreet Boys, we had to push for that mid-nasal voice. When Britney did that, she got this kind of raspy, sexy voice." Chuck Taylor of Billboard observed, "Spears has become a consummate performer, with snappy dance moves, a clearly real-albeit young-and funkdified voice ... "(You Drive Me) Crazy", her third single ... demonstrates Spears' own development, proving that the 17-year-old is finding her own vocal personality after so many months of steadfast practice." Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic referred to her music as a "blend of infectious, rap-inflected dance-pop and smooth balladry." Sputnikmusic writer Amanda Murray noted the album "offers a marker for Spears' progression as an artist, as a celebrity, and as a woman." In 2010, the album was included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die. Spears became an international pop culture icon immediately after launching her recording career. Rolling Stone wrote: "One of the most controversial and successful female vocalists of the 21st century," she "spearheaded the rise of post-millennial teen pop ... Spears early on cultivated a mixture of innocence and experience that generated lots of cash". She is listed by the Guinness World Records as having the "Best-selling album by a teenage solo artist". Melissa Ruggieri of the Richmond Times-Dispatch reported, "She's also marked for being the best-selling teenage artist. Before she turned 20 in 2001, Spears sold more than 25 million albums worldwide". Barbara Ellen of The Observer reported: "Spears is famously one of the 'oldest' teenagers pop has ever produced, almost middle aged in terms of focus and determination. Many 19-year-olds haven't even started working by that age, whereas Britney, a former Mouseketeer, was that most unusual and volatile of American phenomena — a child with a full-time career. While other little girls were putting posters on their walls, Britney was wanting to be the poster on the wall. Whereas other children develop at their own pace, Britney was developing at a pace set by the ferociously competitive American entertainment industry". ...Baby One More Time is Spears' most commercially successful album to date, with worldwide sales of 25 million copies. It was ranked at number 41 on the all-time US Billboard 200 chart, and at number 16 on the Billboard 200 albums by women. ## Track listing Notes - The very first pressings of the album feature a hidden spoken message by Spears after "The Beat Goes On". In it, Spears thanks fans and promotes the then-upcoming Backstreet Boys album, Millennium, with snippets of songs featured on the album. - "Soda Pop" originally appeared on the soundtrack to the TV series Sabrina the Teenage Witch in 1998, in a slightly longer version. - signifies a co-producer - signifies an additional producer - signifies a remixer ## Personnel Credits are adapted from the liner notes of ...Baby One More Time, except where noted. - Mikey Bassie – vocals (track 4) - Daniel Boom – engineering - Jimmy Bralower – drum programming - Jason Buckler – production - Larry Busacca – photography - Andreas Carlsson – backing vocals - Tom Coyne – mastering - Denniz Pop – production (uncredited) - Nikki Gregoroff – backing vocals - Nana Hedin – backing vocals - Andy Hess – bass - Dean Honer – production - David Kreuger – production - Tim Latham – engineering, mixing - Tomas Lindberg – bass - Kristian Lundin – production - Per Magnusson – keyboards, production, programming - Max Martin – backing vocals, engineering, keyboards, mixing, production, programming - Charles McCrorey – engineering assistance - Andrew McIntyre – electric guitar - Jackie Murphy – art direction, design - Lisa Peardon – photography - Dan Petty – acoustic guitar, electric guitar - Doug Petty – keyboards - Don Philip – vocals (track 8) - Rami – production - Albert Sanchez – photography - Aleese Simmons – backing vocals - Britney Spears – vocals - Chris Trevett – engineering, mixing - Eric Foster White – arrangement, bass, drum programming, electric guitar, engineering, keyboards, mixing, production - Timothy White – photography ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Monthly charts ### Year-end charts ### Decade-end charts ### All-time charts ## Certifications and sales ## Release history ## See also - Teen pop - Britney Spears discography - List of Billboard 200 number-one albums of 1999 - List of number-one albums of 1999 (Canada) - List of number-one hits of 1999 (Germany) - List of number-one albums of 1999 (Portugal) - List of best-selling albums - List of best-selling albums by women - List of best-selling albums in the United States
18,766,787	SS El Oriente	1,125,554,088	Cargo ship built in 1910 for the Morgan Line	[ "1910 ships", "Cargo ships of the United States Navy", "Ocean liners", "Ships built in Newport News, Virginia", "Steamships of Switzerland", "Transport ships of the United States Army", "World War I auxiliary ships of the United States", "World War I passenger ships of the United States", "World War II auxiliary ships of the United States" ]	SS El Oriente was a cargo ship built in 1910 for the Morgan Line, a subsidiary of the Southern Pacific Company. During World War I, she was known as USS El Oriente (ID-4504) in service with the United States Navy. At the end of war, she reverted to her original name of SS El Oriente. During World War II she was chartered by the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) as SS Henri Dunant (sometimes also spelled Henry Dunant), but reverted to her original name of SS El Oriente at the end of the charter. SS El Oriente was one of four sister ships that carried cargo and a limited number of passengers for the Morgan Line. She was acquired by the U.S. Navy in July 1918, and converted to carry horses and mules to France, and after the Armistice, was converted again to carry American troops home from Europe. El Oriente returned to the Morgan Line in 1919 and sailed with them until June 1941, when the entire Morgan Line fleet was purchased by the United States Maritime Commission. El Oriente served as a civilian-crewed cargo ship during World War II, sailing primarily between the United States and the United Kingdom. In September 1944, she was chartered by the ICRC and sailed under the Swiss flag carrying food parcels to American prisoners of war held in German camps. Henri Dunant continued to sail under Swiss charter until October 1945, when she was returned to the United States and reverted to her former name. El Oriente was placed in the James River Reserve Fleet in November 1945, and was sold for scrapping in July 1946. ## Early career SS El Oriente was a cargo and passenger steamship launched on 11 May 1910 by the Newport News Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Co. of Newport News, Virginia (yard no. 132), and delivered to the Atlantic division of the Morgan Line on 24 October 1910. She was the third of four sister ships; the other three being El Sol, El Mundo, and El Occidente. El Oriente was 6,008 gross register tons (GRT), was 430 feet 2 inches (131.11 m) long by 53 feet 1 inch (16.18 m) abeam, and made 16 knots (30 km/h). The vessel sailed for the Morgan Line, the brand name of the Southern Pacific Steamship Company (a subsidiary of the Southern Pacific Railroad), which employed her to carry cargo and a limited number of passengers between New York; New Orleans, the eastern terminus of the Southern Pacific line; and Galveston, Texas. ## World War I After the United States declared war on Germany in April 1917, it's unclear what role, if any, El Oriente played early on in the war. Her sister ships and were both requisitioned by the United States Shipping Board (USSB) on behalf of the United States Army, and both were designated as animal transport ships. If El Oriente were used by the Army as an animal transport ship, she would have needed a refit which typically meant that any second- or third-class passenger accommodations had to be ripped out and replaced with ramps and stalls for the horses and mules carried. It is known that El Oriente sailed in an American convoy to France on 16 April 1918 with U.S. Navy transports Maui, Calamares, Pocahontas, and Madawaska, British transports Czar and Czaritza, and U.S. cruiser Seattle, and reached France on 28 April. The next recorded activity of El Oriente was on 29 July, when she was acquired by the U.S. Navy and commissioned the same day. El Oriente was assigned to the Naval Overseas Transportation Service (NOTS) and carried animals and supplies for the U.S. Army, joining her two sister ships, El Sol and El Occidente in that duty. El Oriente's first Navy voyage to France began when she sailed from Newport News with 500 animals on 11 August. Unlike earlier animal transport crossings for the Army, where there was as much as a 4% mortality rate, the voyages in August 1918 and after carried a transport veterinarian and a permanent veterinary detachment to care for the animals while on board the ship. As part of this new program, El Oriente delivered her full load of horses and mules— suffering no losses—at Bordeaux on 2 September. El Oriente made an additional roundtrip with 500 more animals in October, losing only three of her equine cargo during the voyage. El Oriente continued sailing for the NOTS through April 1919, sometimes carrying a small number of troops on return voyages to the United States. At that time El Oriente was converted to carry troops, and assigned to the Cruiser and Transport Force to help return larger numbers American servicemen from Europe. She sailed on 11 June for Bordeaux and returned with officers and men of the 6th Cavalry Regiment on 4 July. She made additional voyages in July and August, returning 978 members of the 3rd Infantry Division to Philadelphia on the latter voyage. In all, El Oriente returned 2,986 healthy and wounded American servicemen from France in three voyages. On 15 September at Philadelphia, El Orente was decommissioned, and returned to the Morgan Line soon after. ## Interwar civilian service El Oriente resumed cargo service with the Morgan Line, and enjoyed a quiet career, typically sailing between New York and Galveston. One event of note occurred in February 1922 when El Oriente came upon the wreck of the schooner, Caldwell H. Colt, which had run aground on a reef near the Tortugas Light during a gale. When El Oriente came upon the hulk, only her captain remained alive, surviving without food or water for several days before his rescue. El Oriente continued on to Galveston and landed the man there. ## World War II In June 1941, the United States Maritime Commission (USMC) announced that it had requisitioned the entire Morgan Line fleet of ten ships, including El Oriente and her remaining sister ships, El Occidente and El Mundo. The ships were to finish previously scheduled cargo runs and be handed over to the USMC over the following six weeks. The USMC had been charged with assembling a 2,000,000 GRT U.S. fleet to "aid the democracies" fighting Germany in World War II, and paid \$4.7 million for the ships and a further \$2.6 million for repairs and refits. El Oriente was handed over to the USMC and assigned to United States Lines, Inc., for operation. The cargo ship was placed under Panamanian registry by U.S. Lines. Little is known of El Oriente's movements over the next eight months, but on 17 February El Oriente sailed from Houston, Texas, to Philadelphia and on to Reykjavík. From Reykjavík, she sailed to the Clyde, arriving there at the end of July. Over the next 5 months, El Oriente sailed around the British Isles, calling at Kirkwall, Belfast Lough, Barrow-in-Furness, and Liverpool, and back to Clyde in late December. From there, she sailed on one trip to Murmansk where she arrived on 27 January 1943. Murmansk had limited port facilities and slow unloading of cargo (often performed by Soviet women and political prisoners), which, coupled with inclement weather and long waits for convoy escorts, often required lengthy stays by Allied cargo ships. El Oriente was no exception, staying in Murmansk for nearly five weeks. To compound the lengthy wait (and, often, accompanying boredom) faced by cargo ships waiting to unload, the nearest German airfield was 35 miles (56 km) away—about 7 to 10 minutes flying time—which gave almost no advance warning of air raids. German dive bombers would silently glide in below Soviet anti-aircraft fire, drop their payloads, and fly away. El Oriente was caught in one such attack on 27 February, with four of the ship's Naval Armed Guards men killed in the attack. El Oriente departed Kola Inlet on 1 March and returned to Liverpool, from which she sailed in a convoy for New York on 6 April, and returned to Belfast Lough in late June. After calling at Barry and Milford Haven, El Oriente began two roundtrips to New York at the end of June. In October the ship visited Loch Ewe, Methil, and Immingham before returning to New York again in November. After another transatlantic crossing and circuit amongst British ports, El Oriente returned to New York in May 1944. In June, the cargo vessel sailed to Cuba, calling at Havana and Puerto Tarafa before returning to New York. She next sailed to La Guaira, Venezuela; Maracaibo, Venezuela; and Júcaro, Cuba, before returning to New York in mid August. El Oriente sailed to Philadelphia in mid September in preparation for a charter. ## Red Cross ship On 28 September 1944, El Oriente was chartered by the International Committee of the Red Cross, reflagged as a Swiss ship, and renamed SS Henry Dunant (sometimes erroneously spelled as Henri Dunant), after Red Cross movement founder Henry Dunant. She was last of 14 ships chartered by Swiss interests to sail under the Swiss flag during World War II. On 5 October, Henry Dunant departed Philadelphia with a cargo of mail and 900,000 food parcels intended for Allied prisoners of war interned in German camps. Henry Dunant continued sailing for the ICRC through 24 October 1945. The ship returned to Norfolk, resumed her former name of El Oriente, and entered the James River Reserve Fleet on 7 November 1945. On 3 July 1946, El Oriente was sold for scrapping to the Patapsco Scrap Co., of Baltimore, Maryland, for \$12,175.
1,864,762	Acts of Peter and the Twelve	1,170,106,842	c. 4th century Christian text	[ "1945 archaeological discoveries", "2nd-century Christian texts", "3rd-century Christian texts", "Apocryphal Acts", "Nag Hammadi library", "Petrine-related books", "Pseudepigraphy" ]	The Acts of Peter and the Twelve or the Acts of Peter and the Twelve Apostles is a Christian text from about the 4th century. It is the first treatise in Codex VI of the Nag Hammadi library texts, taking up pages 1–12 of the codex's 78 pages. The writing extends the Parable of the Pearl from Matthew 13:45–46. In the text, Peter the Apostle meets a pearl merchant named Lithargoel, who is later revealed to be Jesus. Jesus commands the apostles to care for the poor. ## History Before its discovery in Nag Hammadi, Egypt in 1945, the text was completely unknown. The discovered text is written in Coptic and was likely created in c. 300–350 AD. The retention of two Greek vocatives in the text, however, is evidence that the tractate is a translation of a Greek original. Scholars give a general estimate for the date of the original as the 2nd or 3rd century AD, but its final redaction may have been written as late as 367 AD. The first four sheets of papyrus, containing pages 1–8, have some damage to the text at the top. Thus, the introductory lines are unclear. On the other two sheets of papyrus, containing pages 9–12, the text is mostly intact. Along with the rest of the works in the Nag Hammadi library, the text was translated into English and published in The Nag Hammadi Library in English in 1977. The publication was part of the work of the Coptic Gnostic Library Project, which began in 1966 at Claremont Graduate University. Douglas M. Parrott and R. McL. Wilson translated the text to English. The text has also been translated into French, German, and Norwegian. ### Summary The apostles arrive at a small city called Habitation and Peter seeks lodging. They meet a man who introduces himself as Lithargoel, meaning "the light, gazelle-like stone". Lithargoel warns Peter that the road is very dangerous and the apostles must abandon everything they have and fast to travel it. Peter discovers that the city is named Habitation because those who endure the trials and difficulties of the storms will inhabit the city and be included in the kingdom of heaven. Peter and the apostles forsake everything as Lithargoel instructed and evade the hardships successfully. They rest at the city gate and talk about the faith. Lithargoel changes his appearance to a physician. Peter is frightened when the physician addresses him by his name, but Peter then recognizes him as Jesus Christ. The apostles worship him and pledge to do as he wishes. Jesus commands them to go back to the city of Habitation to teach and heal all those who have believed in his name. Jesus explains that physicians of souls heal the heart. Jesus also tells the apostles not to dine with the rich men of the city who do not acknowledge him and to judge them with uprightness so that their ministry may be glorified and his name may be glorified in the churches. The apostles worship the Lord Jesus and he departs from them in peace. ## Analysis Since the narrative voice shifts between first and third person, scholars have debated whether it is the work of multiple authors or simply literary technique. Theologian Andrea L. Molinari argues that the text contains five voice shifts and three separate sources, but a shift in voice does not necessarily entail a change of source. Citing analyses by New Testament scholar Vernon K. Robbins and Stephen J. Patterson, Molinari notes that in the narration of ancient sea-voyage stories, it was common to shift to first-person plural voice. But the text also has voice shifts when the narrative perspective changes. Molinari concludes that the author of the text added his own material to the end of two other sources. Molinari believes that the entirety of the text up to the point that the physician quickly leaves and comes back (1.1–9.1) is from a single source. He believes that the post-resurrection appearance (9.1–9.29) is from a second source. The remainder of the text (9.30–12.19), in Molinari's view, is the author's attempt to link the other two sources with his own beliefs about pastoral ministry. Academic István Czachesz argues that the text is an allegory for monasticism and that it came from a Pachomian monastery in 347–367 AD. Czachesz sees parallels between the written Pachomian rules and Lithargoel's warnings about avoiding the dangers of the road. Czachesz believes that the city of Habitation could be symbolic of the monastery, and Lithargoel could represent Pachomius. Furthermore, the themes expressed by Jesus near the end of the text—providing for the poor, healing them, and condemning the rich—match the Pachomian monastic tradition. Czachesz also finds the explanation for the meaning of Lithargoel's name questionable. He considers it grammatically problematic to simply combine the Greek words for 'stone' and 'light'. He suggests instead that the name comes from the Greek adjective meaning 'forgetful', which is also used in Syriac as a Greek loanword. This change allows Czachesz to theorize that Lithargoel was originally the protagonist of the pearl merchant story, based on similarities to the Hymn of the Pearl. It also allows Czachesz to identify Syria as the origin of the pearl narrative, which was later edited by the Pachomian redactor. Scholars debate whether the work is Gnostic, since the texts discovered at Nag Hammadi in Egypt were mostly Gnostic writings. Although the text lacks explicitly Gnostic views, its themes could be interpreted as Gnostic. Molinari hypothesizes that the source material of the pearl merchant story contained elaborate Gnostic themes, but Czachesz considers Molinari's Gnostic hypothesis unnecessary. Religious historian Alicia J. Batten explores thematic affinities between the text and the Epistle of James. She sees the most obvious and significant similarities between the two works as the critique of the rich and the directive to care for the poor. Both works also emphasize endurance, renunciation of the world, and healing both the body and soul. She concludes that although the author does not explicitly cite James, the author may have drawn from ideas in James.
155,054	Ordsall Hall	1,143,780,555	Historic country house in Ordsall, England	[ "Buildings and structures in Salford", "Country houses in Greater Manchester", "Grade I listed buildings in Greater Manchester", "Historic house museums in Greater Manchester", "Reportedly haunted locations in North West England", "Tourist attractions in Salford" ]	Ordsall Hall is a large former manor house in the historic parish of Ordsall, Lancashire, England, now part of the City of Salford, in Greater Manchester. It dates back more than 750 years, although the oldest surviving parts of the present hall were built in the 15th century. The most important period of Ordsall Hall's life was as the family seat of the Radclyffe family, who lived in the house for more than 300 years. The hall was the setting for William Harrison Ainsworth's 1842 novel Guy Fawkes, written around the plausible although unsubstantiated local story that the Gunpowder Plot of 1605 was planned in the house. Since its sale by the Radclyffes in 1662 the hall has been put to many uses: a working men's club, a school for clergy, and a radio station among them. The house was bought by the old Salford Council in 1959 and opened to the public in 1972, as a period house and local history museum. The hall is a Grade I listed building, and entrance is free. ## History Ordsall Hall is a formerly moated Tudor mansion, the oldest parts of which were built during the 13th century, although there has been a house on the site for over 750 years. David de Hulton is recorded as the owner of the original hall, in 1251. The manor of Ordsall came into the possession of the Radclyffe family in about 1335, but it was not until 1354 that Sir John Radclyffe established his right of inheritance. The manor was described in 1351 as a messuage, 120 acres (48.6 ha) of land, 12 acres (4.9 ha) of meadow and 12 acres (4.9 ha) of wood. ### Radclyffe family home During the 1340s Sir John Radclyffe campaigned with Edward III in France, distinguishing himself at the battles of Caen, Crècy and Calais. As a reward for his service, the king allowed Sir John to take some Flemish weavers back to his Ordsall estate, where he built cottages for them to live in. English weaving skills at that time were poor, and textiles from Manchester were considered to be of particularly poor quality, so the Flemish weavers were employed in instructing the local weavers. They also started up a silk weaving industry, the foundation for Manchester's later cotton industry. The Dutch humanist and theologian Erasmus stayed at Ordsall Hall in 1499, and described it thus: > ... the floors are made of clay and are covered with layers of rushes, constantly replenished, so that the bottom layer remains for 20 years harbouring spittle, vomit, the urine of dogs and men, the dregs of beer, the remains of fish and other nameless filth ... The original cruck hall was replaced by the present Great Hall in 1512, after Sir Alexander Radclyffe was appointed High Sheriff of Lancashire. The hall is typical of others built at that time in the northwest of England, although it is one of the largest, and is unusual for the period in having no wall fireplace. The hall has an elaborate roof structure, as in the similar Rufford Old Hall. There is a slightly later small room above the large oriel bay, which may be an early addition as at Samlesbury Hall. Other alterations and additions were made during the 17th century, including a modest brick house added onto the west end in 1639, perhaps intended as a home for Sir Alexander's bailiff, as he himself no longer used the hall as his main residence by that time. The house was built at 90° to the timber-framed building, to which it was later joined. During the Civil War Sir Alexander, as a Royalist, was imprisoned and suffered financial hardship. Reduced means eventually forced his heir, John Radclyffe, into selling the hall to Colonel Samuel Birch in 1662, thus ending more than 300 years of his family's occupation. ### Later use At the time of the 1666 hearth tax survey, Ordsall Hall was the largest house in Salford, with 19 hearths. The Oldfield family of Leftwich, near Northwich, bought the estate at the end of the 17th century, and in 1704 it was sold again, to John Stock, a trustee of Cross Street Chapel. His family were probably the last owners to reside at the hall. The Stocks lived in the hall's central section, comprising "a large hall, lounge dining room, a chapel, six rooms on a floor, with brewhouse, large courts, stable, etc", while the two wings were leased tenants from about 1700. In 1756 the hall was sold to Samuel Hill of Shenstone, Staffordshire. Two years later, on Hill's death, the house passed to his nephew, Samuel Egerton of Tatton. The hall remained in occupation until 1871, the last residents being the descendants of John Markendale, who had taken over the lease of the building in 1814. The land surrounding the hall was used by the Mather family of cowkeepers and butchers for many years. During the last quarter of the 19th century Ordsall Hall became engulfed "in mean streets and industry". From 1875 Haworth's Mill rented the hall and used it as a working men's club. The Great Hall was converted into a gymnasium after being cleared of the inserted floor and later partitions, and provision was made elsewhere for billiards, a skittle alley, and a bowling green. In 1883 the hall was bought by the Earl Egerton of Tatton, and restored during 1896–98 by the Manchester architect Alfred Darybshire at a cost of £6,000 (). The restoration allowed the earl to found a clergy training school at the hall. Provisions for the school included the construction of a church dedicated to St Cyprian in the north forecourt, and a new servants' wing on the south side. In 1908 the school was moved to Egerton Hall, changing its name to the Manchester Theological College. The men's social club at Ordsall Hall survived until 1940. During the Second World War the hall was used as a radio station. In the 1960s the church and servants' wing built for the clergy school were demolished. Salford Corporation purchased Ordsall Hall from the executors of the Baron Egerton of Tatton in 1959. After major restoration work, it was opened to the public in April 1972, as a period house and local history museum. Like many old buildings, Ordsall Hall has stories of hauntings. A White Lady who is said to appear in the Great Hall or Star Chamber is popularly believed to be Margaret Radclyffe, who died of a broken heart in 1599 following the death in Ireland of her brother, Alexander. In March 2007 the Extraordinary Ordsall Campaign applied for a grant of £5.1 million from the Heritage Lottery Fund (HLF), to regenerate Ordsall Hall and secure its future. After supporters had raised £1 million by September 2008, the HLF provided the remaining £4.1 million. Only 40 per cent of the building was then open to the public, but following restoration work further rooms were expected to be opened. The building closed for refurbishment in early 2009, and re-opened to the public on 15 May 2011. In 2013 the newly restored building received a Bronze Award in the Small Visitor Attraction category organised by tourist body VisitEngland, one of 320 nominations from across the country. ## Architecture There are two separate elements to the present-day house: the timber-framed south range built in the 15th century, and the brick west range constructed in 1639. The hall was originally built around a central quadrangle, but the other wings making up that space are no longer present. Drawing on the earliest description of the house, from 1380, the Salford City Council describes how it comprised "a hall, five chambers, a kitchen and a chapel. It was associated with two stables, three granges, two shippons, a garner, a dovecote, an orchard and a windmill, together with 80 acres [32.4 ha] of arable land and six acres [2.4 ha] of meadow." Substantial alterations appear to have taken place during the early years of Samuel Egerton's ownership in the mid-18th century. The canopy at the dais end of the Great Hall was destroyed – although part of it can still be seen in the north wall – when a floor was inserted and new rooms were formed with lath and plaster partitions. The east wing of the hall was probably demolished at about the same time, but certainly before 1812, the date of the earliest estate map. There are believed to have been underground passages leading from the hall into Manchester. One, running under the River Irwell to the Hanging Bridge Hotel at the northern end of Deansgate, was described in 1900, following the rediscovery of the Hanging Bridge after it had been buried for 200 years: > ... I was shown a door in Hanging Bridge Hotel cellar where the arches could be seen and a door made up ... it was the entrance to an underground passage under the Irwell, possibly to Ordsall Hall ... the owner had not traversed the passage himself, but the previous owner had, but had to turn back because of bad smells .... ## Guy Fawkes Harrison Ainsworth, in his 1842 novel Guy Fawkes, wrote about the local story that the Gunpowder Plot of 1605 was planned by Guy Fawkes and Robert Catesby in Ordsall Hall's Star Chamber. Guy Fawkes is supposed to have escaped capture by the king's soldiers by way of a tunnel from Ordsall Hall to an inn at the cathedral end of Hanging Bridge, at the northern end of present-day Deansgate. There is no firm supporting evidence, but the Radclyffes were prominent Roman Catholics and were acquainted with the Catesby family. The legend is remembered in the name of the modern road that runs to the east of the hall, Guy Fawkes Street. ## Gallery ## See also - Grade I listed buildings in Greater Manchester - Listed buildings in Salford, Greater Manchester
45,591,515	The American and the Queen	1,167,009,669	null	[ "1910 drama films", "1910 films", "1910 lost films", "1910s American films", "1910s English-language films", "American black-and-white films", "American drama short films", "American silent short films", "Films set in Europe", "Lost American drama films", "Silent American drama films", "Thanhouser Company films" ]	The American and the Queen is a 1910 American silent short drama produced by the Thanhouser Company. The film focuses on Maud, the fictional queen of Rumania, who is overthrown by her cousin, Rupert. Maud is thrown into prison after refusing the romantic advances of Rupert. She escapes with the aid of her lady-in-waiting and a priest. A wealthy American named Jack Walton, foils an assassination attempt on Maud and he falls in love with her. Maud is recaptured and set to be executed when the priest comes up with a plan to save her, by marrying Jack and Maud. The ceremony takes place through her cell window, and soon the United States military arrives to save the now wife of an American. Rupert is killed in the ensuing conflict. No known cast or production credits for the film is known. The film was released on November 11, 1910 and was met with neutral to negative reviews by critics. The patriotic element of the film was cited as likely being comical for European audiences and the film was also used as an example of an inappropriate example of American flag-waving. The film is presumed lost. ## Plot Though the film is presumed lost, a synopsis survives in The Moving Picture World from October 22, 1910. It states: "Maud, the beautiful queen of Rumania, is deposed through the efforts of her wicked cousin, Rupert, who seizes the throne. He tries to make love to Maud, but when she spurns him he has her thrown into prison. Through the efforts of her faithful lady-in-waiting, and the kindly priest, the young queen escapes. While on a steamer, her cousin's spy locates her and decides to give her poison, but his attempt is detected by Jack Walton, wealthy young American who has seen the queen and fallen in love with her without knowing anything as to her history. A number of noblemen urge the queen to make an effort to regain the throne, and when Jack joins his plea to theirs, she consents. But the queen is only in her country a few hours when she is arrested during the absence of Jack on a mission." "Jack prepares to save the queen, but has hit on no definite plan. Then Father Paul proposes a scheme. The queen's prison is on the ground floor; it is possible for her to stretch her hand through the bars. And Jack marries the woman he loves, though a stone wall is between them. The priest, with the bridegroom is outside, and the careless guards do not see them. Rupert then sends for his cousin again, and for the second time he offers to marry her. But she spurns him. Then he orders her execution. The sentence is about to be carried out when Jack arrives with a squad of U.S. troops from a troop ship in the harbor. The queen is entitled to their protection, for she is now the wife of an American. And she gets it. Rupert loses his life and the ensuing combat." ## Production The writer of the scenario is unknown, but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan. He was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions. A reviewer said that the film was a poor take on Anthony Hope, but did not further expand on the nature of this connection. This was likely a reference to Anthony Hope's works like The Prisoner of Zenda and may have been made due to the arrival of a foreigner who resolves a royal conspiracy. Bowers would list this film as being of "patriotic" character instead of listing it simply as a drama or a comedy production. The patriotic element of the film was heavily promoted in advertising and was likely true given the reaction of viewers to the film. One article in The Moving Picture News referred to the film as an example of a problematic use of the United States flag appearing suddenly with the marines at the climax of the plot, all while on foreign soil. The film director is unknown, but it may have been Barry O'Neil or Lucius J. Henderson. Cameramen employed by the company during this era included Blair Smith, Carl Louis Gregory, and Alfred H. Moses, Jr. though none are specifically credited. The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions. The cast credits are unknown, but many 1910 Thanhouser productions are fragmentary. In late 1910, the Thanhouser company released a list of the important personalities in their films. The list includes G.W. Abbe, Justus D. Barnes, Frank H. Crane, Irene Crane, Marie Eline, Violet Heming, Martin J. Faust, Thomas Fortune, George Middleton, Grace Moore, John W. Noble, Anna Rosemond, Mrs. George Walters. ## Release and reception The single reel drama, approximately 1,000 feet long, was released on November 11, 1910. The film was originally planned to be released on November 4, but it was delayed and some advertisements and later listings for the film give the erroneous date. The film received negative reviews in trade publications from even those which typically praised even the weaker productions. Though it was not well-received, the production was not criticized as sharply as Avenged had been. Walton of The Moving Picture News stated that the film was "[a] very feeble echo on Anthony Hope. The throne room staging is ridiculous and so is the resolution. The flag-waving business is feebly melodramatic. Princes, etc. don't sit on that sort of chair. I'm an admirer of Thanhouser, but this thing is straight, plain punk. In Europe it will be received as a Yankee joke." The reviewer for The Moving Picture World was decidedly neutral, highlighting only the novelty of the plot and refraining from any criticism or praise of the merits of the production. The New York Dramatic Mirror was negative, but not scathing. The reviewer stated, "The narrative is very entertaining - or could be made so, if the producer had cared to trouble himself about details. In its present crude form, its wild impossibility rather grates upon a spectator, because every scene in the film has some inconsistency. At least, it was worth doing well. Unfortunately, neither the acting nor the mounting has any particular merit." ## See also - List of American films of 1910
14,790,747	Cardiff City F.C. Under-23s and Academy	1,172,418,175	The youth football academy at Welsh side Cardiff City	[ "2004 establishments in Wales", "Cardiff City F.C.", "Football academies in the United Kingdom" ]	The Cardiff City F.C. Academy is the youth football academy at Welsh side Cardiff City. The category two academy has a range of players from ages 7 to 18. The Cardiff City Under-21 side is the highest age group of football other than the senior first team at the club, although the side is allowed to field up to three overage players and a goalkeeper. The age range was initially set at under-21 until 2016 when the limit was increased to players under 23 years of age. From the summer of 2022, the team once again became an Under-21 team. The side competes in the Professional Development League 2. The youth system at the club was given academy status in 2004 following the investment of chairman Sam Hammam. The academy had several managers in its formative years, including John Kerr who died suddenly while employed in the position. Several players who progressed through the academy in the first five years went on to play for the senior side and represent Wales at international level, such as Joe Ledley, Darcy Blake, Chris Gunter and Aaron Ramsey. Former Cardiff player Neal Ardley spent five years in charge of the academy before departing in 2012, witnessing the construction of the House of Sport training complex. Dick Bate spent two years as the academy manager between 2012 and 2014 before being replaced by James McCarthy. The academy attracted national attention in 2019 when player development manager Craig Bellamy and other staff members were accused of bullying players. Bellamy stepped down from the role and a later enquiry stated that the environment at the academy had been "unacceptable". In 2020, the club announced plans to upgrade the academy to category one status, the highest possible rating available, and appointed Steve Morison as manager of the under-23 side. ## History ### Background In the post-war era, Cardiff City had developed players using local feeder clubs in a network established under the management of Cyril Spiers. With competitive football suspended during wartime, Spiers had focused his efforts on attracting the best local young players. Spiers resigned from the club before the end of the war over a dispute with the board but his work reaped rewards for his replacement Billy McCandless. He led the club to the Football League Third Division South title with several of Spiers' former youth players in the side. In the early 1990s, Cardiff's youth system introduced a number of players into the senior squad. The most prominent of these, such as Nathan Blake, Damon Searle and Jason Perry, were known in the media as "the darling buds of Eddie May" in reference to the club's manager. By the late 1990s, Cardiff chairman Steve Borley led an investment in the club's youth system along with manager Frank Burrows. The move was in direct response to several Cardiff-born players, including future Welsh internationals Craig Bellamy, Mark Pembridge, Gareth Bale and David Cotterill, leaving the area to sign for more sophisticated youth programmes. Neal Ardley, who managed the academy for five years, later stated that during this period, the youth system at Cardiff was an "unattractive prospect" and that staff at the club had described how "we could not have attracted those players at that point because the club had nothing to offer." ### Academy status #### Early progress Chairman Sam Hammam announced plans for the club to be granted academy status within two years in 2003. This coincided with the youth team using the improved training facilities at the Vale of Glamorgan Hotel and the announcement of a new sponsorship deal for the academy with Brace's Bakery. The club's youth system, ranging from 7- to 18-year-olds, was granted academy status in 2004, with the first match under the new designation being an under-18s fixture against Everton in August of that year. Hammam projected an annual cost of £1 million to run the academy. Hammam invested in the academy as part of his business plan to improve the long-term development of the club's infrastructure, hoping to produce Welsh players for the club's first team. The academy was initially managed by Matthew Crocker before he left the role and was replaced by coach and former professional John Kerr. He remained in the role before his death in 2006 while on holiday in France. In its formative years under Kerr, the academy enjoyed some success with five players making their professional debuts for the first team within the first two years. Although four, Joe Ledley, Darcy Blake, Curtis McDonald and Joe Jacobson, had all been with the club prior to the academy's founding and one, Cameron Jerome, had been released by another team before signing for Cardiff. Lee Robinson was appointed as Kerr's replacement in June 2006. During the 2006–07 season, two further graduates of the academy, Chris Gunter and Aaron Ramsey, both made their professional debuts. In making his debut, Ramsey became the youngest player in the club's history to feature for the senior side at 16 years and 124 days. Robinson was credited as being a key figure in Ramsey's decision to reject interest from other clubs by local media, but left Cardiff suddenly in 2007 with the club refusing to elaborate on the decision. Former Cardiff player Neal Ardley was appointed as academy manager in September 2007 shortly after his retirement from playing. One of Ardley's early initiatives was the scouting of local parks teams, with a side being organised to take on Cardiff's academy players. The match resulted in several local players being signed to the academy, including Ibrahim Farah. By this time, Cardiff's academy was also operating five development centres around South Wales, including Brecon, Newport, Neath and the South Wales valleys. In 2010, the Academy moved into the newly built Cardiff City House of Sport (HOS), an indoor football centre and multi-sport venue. The sports facilities are also used by the wider local community in Cardiff. The first phase of the building was opened in November 2010 and it was expended in the second phase (House of Sport 2) in April 2013. The third phase of the building (House of Sport 3) was opened on 18 January 2016. #### Further development In 2011, a new age group team was launched as the Cardiff City under-21 side to compete in a newly formed development league following a restructure of reserve and youth team football in the English football league system. Former Cardiff player Kevin Cooper was appointed as the team's manager. Malky Mackay was appointed as manager of Cardiff's first team in 2011 and stated his hope of the club's youth system providing more players for the first team. In his first season, Mackay gave debuts to Joe Ralls and Theo Wharton and also gave debuts to several academy players in the following years, including Declan John and Ben Nugent. The club's takeover by Malaysian businessman Vincent Tan also led to the opening of an academy in Kuala Lumpur. At the start of the 2012–13 season, a new academy tier system was introduced in English football with clubs judged on the quality of facilities and the support they provide. Cardiff applied for the highest category but were eventually designated a category two academy. Academy manager Ardley, who had applied for the senior team managers position along with Mackay, left the club in October 2012 after being appointed manager of League Two side AFC Wimbledon. Dick Bate, who had previously worked as the elite coaching director for the Football Association, was named as Ardley's replacement in November 2012. He remained in the role until June 2014 when the club underwent a major staff reshuffle which included Bate and Kevin Cooper leaving their roles within the academy. Academy coach James McCarthy was appointed as the new manager of the academy following Bate's departure. In 2016, the regulations involving tier academies were criticised when Rabbi Matondo left Cardiff's academy to sign for Manchester City. Under the regulations, teams with tier one academies, such as Manchester City, can freely sign players from lower ranked academies. Cardiff received compensation, believed to be around £500,000, for Matondo who was sold by Manchester City to FC Schalke 04 for around £10 million without appearing for the senior side. The same year, the Premier League raised the age limit of the Premier Development League sides to under-23s. #### Restructuring Following the arrival of Neil Warnock as first team manager in 2018, the youth system at Cardiff underwent a significant overhaul. This included the departure of several coaches and the arrival of former players Craig Bellamy and Andy Legg. Warnock criticised the under-23 squad, stating "and I don't think it's giving the younger players, the 18-year-olds, the right opportunities". Bellamy was appointed as a player development manager, assisting all of the academies age groups. The club's under-18 side went on to win the Premier Development League Division Two South in the 2018–19 season. However, less than a year into the role, Bellamy stood down after an accusation of bullying from the parents of a former academy player which he denied. No charges were brought against Bellamy but an independent investigation commissioned by the club described that there had been an "unacceptable coaching environment" within the academy for which Bellamy later apologised and stated "The allegations [...] made against me were difficult for me to come to terms with as I deplore bullying and any form of discrimination." Following his departure, Bellamy criticised Warnock over his reluctance in promoting academy players to the senior side, although Warnock responded by stating his belief that there were no players of sufficient quality within the youth system at the time. Warnock left the club in 2019 and was replaced by Neil Harris. Soon after, the club announced plans to upgrade the academy to a category one facility in the hope of increasing the number of players impacting on the senior side. One of Harris' first appointments at the club was the hiring of his former player Steve Morison as the new manager of the under-23 squad. ## Noted graduates ### At Cardiff City Since the youth system at the club was granted academy status in June 2004, several players have gone on to feature for the first team. The following current or former players have made at least one senior appearance for the club after having been part of the youth academy. ### At other clubs The following players have gone on to play senior professional football after having left or been released by the academy. Those in bold have been capped at full international level. ## Personnel `As of 30 January 2023` - Head of Academy - Gavin Chesterfield - Academy operations manager - Gavin Reen - Under 21s Manager - Darren Purse - Under 18s Manager - Steve Jenkins - Head of Academy Coaching - Dane Facey - Head of Academy Recruitment - Ben Clarke - Lead Youth Development Coach - Ben Adams - Head of Academy Medical - Clare Briers - Lead foundation coach (9–11) - Lawrence Hallett - Senior Education Officer - Olivia Linton ## Under-21 squad The Under-21 development team compete in the Professional Development League 2. Players with squad numbers have appeared in or are part of the senior squad but regularly return to play for the under-21 team. The side is also able to field three overage players and one overage goalkeeper in the matchday squads. ## Under 18s The under-18s team play in Division 2 South of the Professional Development League.
64,030,004	1st and 4th Missouri Infantry Regiment (Consolidated)	1,039,656,651	Infantry regiment in the Confederate States Army	[ "1862 establishments in Mississippi", "1865 disestablishments in Alabama", "Units and formations of the Confederate States Army from Missouri" ]	The 1st and 4th Missouri Infantry (Consolidated) was an infantry regiment that served in the Confederate States Army during the American Civil War. The regiment was formed on November 7, 1862 when the 1st Missouri Infantry and the 4th Missouri Infantry were consolidated as a result of heavy battle losses in both units. The regiment served in several battles in the 1863 Vicksburg campaign, including a charge that almost broke the Union line at the Battle of Champion Hill. When the Siege of Vicksburg ended with a Confederate surrender, the regiment was captured and later exchanged. In 1864, the regiment fought in the Atlanta campaign, and suffered heavy losses at the Battle of Franklin. On April 9, 1865, the regiment surrendered at the Battle of Fort Blakely, and was paroled in May when the war ended for all effective purposes. ## Organization On November 7, 1862, the 1st Missouri Infantry and the 4th Missouri Infantry were combined into a single unit. The consolidation occurred because both units had suffered heavy losses. Because Archibald MacFarlane, the colonel of the 4th Missouri, had been severely wounded at the Second Battle of Corinth and was unfit for further service, Amos Camden Riley, colonel of the 1st Missouri, commanded the regiment. Hugh A. Garland served as the regiment's major; the regiment did not have a lieutenant colonel until Garland was promoted to that rank on May 1, 1863. The regiment's company organization as of November 7, 1862, was: - Company "A": Originally Company "A" of the 1st. Commanded by William C. P. Carrington. - Company "B": Originally Companies "A", "F", and "G" of the 4th. Commanded by Francis McShane. - Company "C": Originally Companies "B" and "C" of the 4th. Commanded by Daniel Hays. - Company "D": Originally Companies "B" and "D" of the 1st. Commanded by Robert J. Duffy. - Company "E": Originally Companies "E" and "H" of the 4th. Commanded by Norval Spangler. - Company "F": Originally Companies "E", "F", and "H" of the 1st. Commanded by Lewis H. Kennerly. - Company "G": Originally Companies "C" and "G" of the 1st. Commanded by James MacFarland. - Company "H": Originally Company "K" of the 4th. Commanded by Jeptha D. Feagan. - Company "I": Originally Companies "D" and "I" of the 4th. Commanded by Matthew G. Norman. - Company "K": Originally Companies "I" and "K" of the 1st. Commanded by Charles L. Edmondson. ## Service history ### 1863 #### Grand Gulf and Champion Hill After organization, the new regiment was assigned to the First Missouri Brigade. The First Missouri Brigade, commanded by Colonel Francis M. Cockrell, was transferred to the vicinity of Grand Gulf, Mississippi in early March 1863. While at Grand Gulf, the brigade built fortifications. The 1st and 4th Missouri (Consolidated), along with the 2nd Missouri Infantry, 3rd Missouri Infantry, and Henry Guibor's artillery battery, crossed the Mississippi River to Louisiana to observe Union movements. On April 15, the Missourians were ordered back to Grand Gulf, and the regiment participated in artillery fire with Union naval ships at the Battle of Grand Gulf. After Union Major General Ulysses S. Grant landed in Mississippi in order to move against Vicksburg, Bowen sent many of his men from Grand Gulf to Port Gibson, Mississippi to try to stop Grant. However, the 1st and 4th Missouri (Consolidated) was on detached duty guarding a bridge, and missed the ensuing Battle of Port Gibson on May 1. After Bowen withdrew from the Port Gibson area, the 1st and 4th Missouri (Consolidated) was next engaged at the Battle of Champion Hill on May 16. Bowen's division was under the commanded of Lieutenant General John C. Pemberton, and Pemberton had aligned his troops near Champion Hill to try to stop Grant's advance towards Vicksburg. A strong Union assault broke the left flank of the Confederate line, and Cockrell's brigade was sent to try to prevent a complete collapse of the line. The 1st and 4th Missouri (Consolidated) formed on the right end of Cockrell's line, and soon came under heavy Union fire. The regiment then charged the Union position, buying time for Brigadier General Martin E. Green's Confederate brigade to arrive. Together, the brigades of Cockrell and Green, including the 1st and 4th Missouri (Consolidated), charged the Union line, which was driven back some distance. After driving Union troops from a crossroads and recapturing some cannons the Confederates had lost earlier in the battle, the Confederates charged towards the Champion family plantation, which was on a hill and was a key terrain feature. Brigadier General Alvin P. Hovey's Union division was broken by the Confederate charge, and the Confederates kept pressing forward. However, Union reinforcements and a strong line of artillery blunted the charge, and Bowen's men were forced to give up the ground they had gained. The 1st and 4th Missouri (Consolidated) lost six flagbearers at Champion Hill. In total, the regiment lost 46 men killed, 80 wounded, and 52 missing in the fight, for a total of 178. #### Vicksburg After the retreat from Champion Hill, the 1st and 4th Missouri (Consolidated) was next engaged on May 17, at the Battle of Big Black River Bridge. Cockrell's brigade, Green's brigade, and a brigade of Tennessee soldiers commanded by Brigadier General John C. Vaughn had formed a line protecting the bridge over the Big Black River. A Union charge broke the Confederate line, forcing most of the Confederates into a retreat that turned into a rout towards the river crossing. The 1st and 4th Missouri (Consolidated) provided a rear guard for the fleeing Confederates, and was one of the few Confederate units to leave the field without routing. After the fight at the Big Black River, the Confederate army retreated within the defenses of Vicksburg. During the Siege of Vicksburg, the 1st and 4th Missouri (Consolidated) helped defeat Union attacks on May 19 and 22, and the regiment captured the flag of the 8th Missouri Infantry (Union) during the former engagement. The regiment also saw action on July 1, helping to plug a gap in the Confederate line after a Union mine exploded a portion of the Confederate line. During the siege, the regiment lost 34 men killed and 59 wounded; the remaining 344 men of the regiment were captured by Union forces when the Confederate garrison surrendered on July 4. After the surrender, the men of the regiment were paroled, and were ordered to wait at Demopolis, Alabama until officially exchanged. Many of the Missourians did not report to Demopolis. The prisoner exchange process was completed on September 12, allowing the unit to rejoin Confederate service. In October, the regiment became part of the division of Major General Samuel French at Meridian, Mississippi. The regiment was later transferred to Mobile, Alabama, and then served patrol duty for a time in northern Alabama. ### 1864 #### Atlanta campaign The 1st and 4th Missouri (Consolidated) and Cockrell's Missouri Brigade fought as a unit of the Confederate Army of Tennessee during the Atlanta Campaign from May to September 1864. During the campaign, the regiment was part of French's division of Major General Leonidas Polk's corps. Cockrell, now promoted to brigadier general, still commanded the brigade the regiment was in. Besides the 1st and 4th Missouri (Consolidated), Cockrell's brigade contained the 2nd and 6th Missouri (Consolidated), the 3rd and 5th Missouri (Consolidated), and the 1st and 3rd Missouri Cavalry (Consolidated). The regiment was engaged at the Battle of New Hope Church on May 25 and 26, where Colonel Riley was killed in action. Regimental command then passed to Hugh Garland, who was promoted to colonel on May 30. The regiment was then in combat at the Battle of Kennesaw Mountain on June 27. At Kennesaw Mountain, the 1st and 4th Missouri (Consolidated) and the rest of Cockrell's brigade was part of the Confederate line at a promontory named Pigeon Hill. Cockrell's brigade had deployed skirmishers, who were quickly driven in when the Union troops charged the position on Pigeon Hill. Cockrell's men drove back all of the Union assaults made against their position, and were engaged in combat for about an hour. Cockrell's brigade, including the 1st and 4th Missouri (Consolidated), participated in several smaller engagements during the Atlanta campaign, as well as the Siege of Atlanta. The regiment lost 19 men killed, 57 wounded, and 4 missing over the course of the campaign, for a total of 80. #### Franklin-Nashville campaign Cockrell's Missouri troops were heavily engaged in the Battle of Allatoona on October 5, 1864. General John Bell Hood, now commander of the Confederate army, dispatched French's division, which contained Cockrell's brigade, to capture a fortified Union position at Allatoona Pass. At Allatoona, Cockrell's four-regiment brigade aligned with the 1st and 4th Missouri (Consolidated) second from the left. Cockrell's brigade initially drove in Union skirmishers and captured an outer redoubt. The 1st and 4th Missouri (Consolidated) captured the flag of the 39th Iowa Infantry. However, the Confederates were unable to capture the main Union fort, and were forced to withdraw. At Allatoona, the 1st and 4th Missouri (Consolidated) lost 5 men killed, 37 wounded, and 2 missing, for a total of 44. The regiment also participated in the Battle of Franklin on November 30, 1864. In Franklin, as at Allatoona, the 1st and 4th Missouri (Consolidated) was aligned as the second regiment from the left in Cockrell's brigade. Cockrell's brigade reached the main Union line near a cotton gin, where the brigade ran into very heavy fire. Cockrell was wounded during the charge, and command of the brigade fell to Colonel Elijah Gates of the 1st and 3rd Missouri Cavalry (Consolidated), who was also wounded, but remained with the unit. The Confederates were able to break a hole in the Union line, but a strong counterattack drove the Confederates out of the main Union line. The First Missouri Brigade was decimated at Franklin, suffering 419 losses out of the 696 engaged in a frontal assault on the fortified Union lines. The 1st and 4th Missouri (Consolidated)'s commanding officer, Colonel Hugh A. Garland, was also killed in the charge. Garland had been carrying the regiment's flag when he fell; the flag was captured by Union troops. The regiment had entered the battle with around 100 men, and lost 35 of them killed, 25 wounded, and 2 missing, for a total of 62. The regiment, as well as the rest of the First Missouri Brigade, was on detached duty after Franklin, and missed the Battle of Nashville. ### 1865 After the failure of the Nashville campaign, the 1st and 4th Missouri (Consolidated) was ordered to Mobile, Alabama, where it participated in the defense of Fort Blakely. During the Battle of Fort Blakely on April 9, 1865, the Confederate defenses, including the 1st and 4th Missouri (Consolidated), were overrun by a strong Union assault. The Missourians were forced to surrender during the fall of the fort, and were sent to Ship Island, Mississippi as prisoners of war. The survivors of the regiment were paroled on May 13, while at Jackson, Mississippi; the war had ended for all effective purposes by that time. ## Commanders The 1st and 4th Missouri (Consolidated) was commanded by Riley and Garland. Garland had served as lieutenant colonel for the regiment previously, and the consolidated regiment's majors were Garland and Bradford Keith. ## See also - List of Missouri Confederate Civil War units - 1st Missouri Infantry (Confederate) - 4th Missouri Infantry (Confederate)
3,096,875	Bump Elliott	1,165,880,242	American athlete, coach, and administrator (1925–2019)	[ "1925 births", "2019 deaths", "American football running backs", "Coaches of American football from Illinois", "College Football Hall of Fame inductees", "Iowa Hawkeyes athletic directors", "Michigan Wolverines football coaches", "Michigan Wolverines football players", "Military personnel from Detroit", "Military personnel from Illinois", "Players of American football from Detroit", "Players of American football from Illinois", "Sportspeople from Bloomington, Illinois", "United States Marine Corps personnel of World War II", "United States Marines" ]	Chalmers William "Bump" Elliott (January 30, 1925 – December 7, 2019) was an American football player, coach, and college athletics administrator. He played halfback at Purdue University (1943–1944) and the University of Michigan (1946–1947). Elliott grew up in Bloomington, Illinois, enlisted in the United States Marine Corps as a senior in high school and was assigned to the V-12 Navy College Training Program at Purdue University. He received varsity letters in football, baseball, and basketball at Purdue, before being called into active duty in late 1944, serving with the Marines in China. After being discharged from the military, he enrolled at the University of Michigan in 1946 and joined the football team for whom his brother Pete Elliott played quarterback. In 1947, he played for an undefeated and untied Michigan football team known as the "Mad Magicians", led the Big Nine Conference in scoring, won the Chicago Tribune Silver Football trophy as the Most Valuable Player of the conference, and was selected as an All-American by the American Football Coaches Association. After graduating from Michigan in 1948, Elliott spent ten years as an assistant football coach at Oregon State, Iowa, and Michigan. He was appointed as Michigan's head football coach in 1959 and held that position until 1968, leading the team to a Big Ten Conference championship and Rose Bowl victory in the 1964 season. For a period of 21 years, from 1970 to 1991, he was the athletic director at the University of Iowa. During his tenure as athletic director, he hired coaches Dan Gable, Hayden Fry, Lute Olson, C. Vivian Stringer, and Dr. Tom Davis, and the Iowa Hawkeyes won 41 Big Ten Conference championships and 11 NCAA titles. In 1989, Elliott was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame. ## Early life Chalmers William Elliott was born in Detroit, but grew up in Bloomington, Illinois. His father, J. Norman Elliott, was an ears, nose and throat doctor who also coached football at Illinois Wesleyan University from 1930 to 1934. Elliott's given name is Chalmers, but he was known by the nickname "Bump" since he was six months old, though no one remembered how he received the nickname, "not even his mother." Elliott and his younger brother, Pete Elliott, both played football together for Bloomington High School, where Bump was an All-State halfback in 1942, and Pete made it as a fullback in 1943. Had it not been for World War II, Bump and Pete likely would have attended the University of Illinois, which was about 50 miles from their home in Bloomington. However, both brothers wanted to get into the V-12 Navy College Training Program, and Illinois did not have such a program. Bump enlisted in the United States Marine Corps while still a senior in high school and was called to active duty in 1943. He was assigned to the V-12 officer training program at Purdue University. His brother, Pete, also enlisted and was assigned to officer training at Michigan. ## Purdue University and military service Elliott attended Purdue from 1943 to 1944. In his freshman year, Elliott earned varsity letters in football, basketball and baseball. He played three games for the unbeaten and untied 1943 Purdue Boilermakers football team and was described as "a capable triple-threater and stellar defensive performer." He scored a touchdown against Minnesota in his first game, and made a key interception at Purdue's ten-yard line in the season's final game against Indiana. A May 1944 newspaper article reported that the 19-year-old Elliott, who had been a "high school sensation last year," had won three major athletic letters in his first year as a Naval V-12 student at Purdue. "A speedy 160-pound, five foot 10-inch performer, he lost little time making his mark in football last fall once he became eligible upon completion of his first V-12 term." Elliott appeared in the final three games of the football season, and his performance in the season's final game against Indiana "provided one of the highlights of the Boilermaker season." In basketball, he was "consistent as a guard on Purdue's cage combination." In baseball, Elliott played shortstop and center field, where he was "a steady fielder with a strong arm." In a May 1944 game, Elliott led the Boilermakers to a 17–4 win over Wisconsin, with five hits, five stolen bases, four RBIs, three runs scored, and four putouts in center field. His performance against Wisconsin was "one of the biggest baseball days ever turned" by a Big Ten baseball player. Elliott played in the first six games of the 1944 football season for Purdue before being transferred by the Marine Corps. In a game against Marquette in late September, he broke up a 7–7 tie with successive touchdown runs of 24 and 71 yards. He was also the only defensive player in 1944 to pull down Illinois' Buddy Young from behind. Elliott received orders to report for active duty in October 1944, and he played his last game in a Purdue uniform against the Michigan Wolverines on October 28, 1944. In November 1944, Elliott was sent to Parris Island. He was later sent to China and emerged from the war as a Marine lieutenant. ## University of Michigan Elliott and his younger brother, Pete, were teammates again at Michigan in 1946 and 1947. After his discharge from the military, Bump joined Pete at Michigan, where Pete played quarterback and Bump was the right halfback for the undefeated 1947 team.Before the 1948 Rose Bowl, one article noted that the two brothers roomed together at Michigan and arranged their programs so that their classes were identical. The article observed: "They look alike, act alike and think alike and in Ann Arbor, Mich., when they walk down the street any Michigan student can recognize Bump and Pete, the inseparable Elliott Brothers, Wolverines right half and quarterback respectively." The brothers shared the same distinctive golden red hair, and the two were so close that they told a reporter in 1947 that a girl had to receive "the Bumper stamp of approval" before passing Pete's test. ### 1946 season After being discharged from the Marine Corps, Elliott attended the University of Michigan, where he joined his brother, Pete, in Michigan's backfield. Elliott "practically stepped off a World War II transport from Marine Corps duty in China to Michigan's Ferry Field and stardom." With less than a week of conditioning after his discharge from the Marines, he was reported to be giving Michigan's coaching staff "something lovely to look at." In a 14–14 tie with Northwestern in mid-October 1946, Elliott scored all 14 of Michigan's points. He scored the first touchdown late in the first quarter on a 37-yard pass from Bob Chappuis in the corner of the end zone. In the fourth quarter, Michigan fullback Bob Wiese intercepted a pass on Michigan's 1-yard line, and lateralled to Elliott on the Michigan 40-yard line. From that point, Elliott ran it back 60 yards down the sideline for his second touchdown. He again scored two touchdowns in Michigan's 21–0 win over Minnesota on November 2. He also helped Michigan to a 28–6 win over Wisconsin with a bullet pass to end Bob Mann in the end zone. ### Big Nine MVP in 1947 In 1947, Elliott played for the Wolverines team known as the "Mad Magicians" that went undefeated and untied, beating the USC Trojans, 49–0, in the 1948 Rose Bowl. The team is considered to be the greatest Michigan team of all time. Along with Bob Chappuis, Elliott was one of the key players in Michigan's undefeated season. He led the Big Nine Conference in scoring, made the All-American team picked by the American Football Coaches Association (AFCA), and was voted Most Valuable Player in the Big Nine, winning the Chicago Tribune Silver Football trophy. Elliott was one of two Michigan players in 1947, along with fullback Jack Weisenburger, who played both offense and defense. Indeed, Elliott was actually a four-way threat as he contributed in rushing, receiving, punt returns, and defense. He scored a total of 12 touchdowns in 1947—eight rushing, two receiving, one on a punt return, and another on an interception return. He contributed 911 all-purpose yardage – 438 rushing, 318 receiving, and 155 on punt returns. He averaged 6.4 yards per carry as a rusher, 19.9 yards per reception, and 17.2 yards per punt return. Michigan head coach Fritz Crisler called Elliott the greatest right halfback he had ever seen. Elliott had a breakthrough season that began with the team's "Blue" versus "White" exhibition game in mid-September in which he scored four touchdowns, including 50- and 60-yard runs. He scored touchdowns in each of the team's early season wins over Michigan State (55–0), Stanford (49–13), and Pitt (69–0). His touchdown against Pitt came on defense, as he intercepted a pass and ran it back 37 yards. In the Big Nine opener against Northwestern, Elliott scored on a nine-yard run less than two minutes after the game started, as the Wolverines won, 49–21. In Michigan's closest contest of the 1947 season, a 13–6 win over Minnesota, Elliott caught a 40-yard pass from Bob Chappuis on his fingertips at the Minnesota 15-yard line and went on to score with a minute and 15 seconds to go in the first half. Said one reporter: "It was the exceptional speed of Elliott on this play that turned the tide. He completely outmaneuvered the Minnesota secondary." The biggest challenge of the 1947 season came in a 14–7 win over Illinois. The Associated Press (AP) described Elliott as Michigan's "Big Cog" in the Illinois game, and the United Press proclaimed: "Bump Elliott Steals Show in 14 to 7 Defeat of Illinois Saturday." In the first quarter, he ran back a punt 75 yards for a touchdown, as Bob Mann "bulldozed the path with a vicious block", and "the Bloomington blaster scampered down the sidelines." Elliott also set up the Wolverines second score with a long reception to the Illinois four-yard line. He also played a key role on defense, intercepting a pass at the Michigan nine-yard line to halt an Illinois drive. Another article concluded: "The individual hero was Bump Elliott, a 168-pound halfback who loped 74 yards for one touchdown and caught a pass for a 52 yard gain to set up the second and winning marker." Elliott finished the season scoring two touchdowns each in games against Indiana and Ohio State. At the end of the season, Elliott and Chappuis both received 16 of 18 possible points in voting by the AP for the All-Big Nine football team. Elliott weighed only 160 pounds (72.6 kg; 11 st 6.0 lb) during his All-American season in 1947. Asked later about how he managed to compete at his weight, Elliott noted, "I was awful lucky to get by at that weight." ### 1948 Rose Bowl against USC As the Big Nine Conference champions, the 1947 Wolverines were invited to play in the 1948 Rose Bowl game against the USC Trojans. Michigan dominated the game, winning 49–0, as "the shifty Chappuis and the speedy Elliott began to fake (the Trojans) out of their shoes." Elliott scored on an 11-yard touchdown pass from Chappuis. In August 1948, Elliott was chosen as the captain of the College All-Stars in their game against the Chicago Cardinals at Soldier Field. Injured in practice, Elliott was unable to play as the Cardinals beat the All-Stars, 28–0. ### Application for 1948 eligibility denied Elliott applied for an extra year of eligibility in 1948. Due to his military service, he played in only three games as a freshman and six games in his sophomore season. Under the Big Nine Conference code, he was eligible for a fifth season due to a war-caused stay at Purdue in 1943 and 1944. However, his request was denied by the Big Nine Conference. The decision was criticized by Michigan's representative on the Big Nine faculty committee as a "grave injustice." Nonetheless, Elliott set the Michigan career interception return yards record that stood for five years until Don Oldham pushed the record from 174 yards to 181 yards. His 174 career yards still ranks fifth in school history. ## Coaching career The Elliott brothers served as assistant coaches together at Oregon State University in 1949 and 1950, before going their separate ways. The Elliotts' coached against each other in the early 1960s while Bump was the head football coach at Michigan and Pete held the same position at the University of Illinois. In November 1963, Pete Elliott's Illinois team was ranked No. 2 in the country and the favorite for the Rose Bowl when it faced off against Bump Elliott's Michigan team. Michigan had a record of 2–3–1 when the brothers met in 1963, but Michigan came out on top, 14–8, marking the fourth time in four games that Bump's Wolverines came out on top of brother Pete's Illini. After graduating from Michigan, Bump turned down an offer to play professional football for the Detroit Lions of the National Football League (NFL), saying he said he had obtained a job in Chicago outside of football. Elliott also considered going into medicine as his father had done, but he chose instead to go into coaching. He started his coaching career at Michigan in the fall of 1948 as assistant backfield coach. In the spring of 1949, he was hired as an assistant coach under Kip Taylor at Oregon State, where he remained for three seasons, from 1949 to 1951. Elliott later recalled, "I was only 24 when Kip Taylor hired me as backfield coach at Oregon State, and it bothered me a little because there were two backs on the squad who were older than I was." It was even worse for his brother Pete, who was 22 when he was hired to coach the ends. Bump recalled: "After practice one night some players noticed Pete light up a cigarette. One of his ends drew Pete aside and said in a fatherly voice, 'You shouldn't smoke, coach; I didn't do it when I was your age." Oregon State had an overall record of 14–15 in Elliott's three years as an assistant coach. In 1952, Elliott was hired as an assistant at the University of Iowa under its head coach, Forest Evashevski, another former All-American at the Michigan. On being hired at Iowa, Elliott said, "I should feel at home back in the Big Ten. I grew up in Bloomington – 40 miles from Illinois. I played at Purdue and Michigan and coached at Michigan. My father went to Iowa and Northwestern and now I'm coaching at Iowa." He stayed at Iowa until 1957. Elliott was with the Hawkeyes in 1956 when they went 9–1, won the Big Ten championship, and defeated his former team, Oregon State, 35–19, in the 1957 Rose Bowl game. Elliott returned to Michigan in 1957 as a backfield coach under Bennie Oosterbaan. In 1959, Elliott was elevated to head football coach at Michigan. He was the head coach for ten years from 1959 to 1968, posting a career record of 51–42–2, for a .547 winning percentage. In Big Ten Conference play, his record was 32–34–2 (.485). Although his tenure at Michigan was unsuccessful by the school's historic standards, he did lead the 1964 Wolverines to a 9–1 record, a Big Ten title and a win in the 1965 Rose Bowl against Oregon State. His final team, in 1968, won eight of its first nine games but then suffered a humiliating 50–14 loss against Ohio State. Despite having a 36-point lead, Ohio State Coach Woody Hayes passed for, and failed to get, a two-point conversion after the final score and with 1:23 remaining in the game. When asked why he went for the two-point conversion, Hayes reportedly said, "Because we couldn't go for three!" Shortly after the game, Elliott resigned, and athletic director Don Canham hired Bo Schembechler to replace him as head coach. Schembechler would use the memory of the 1968 Ohio State loss to motivate his team the following season. There were reports during the 1968 season that Elliott had been given an ultimatum: "Either win or face the possibility of being kicked upstairs." There were also reports when Don Canham was hired that Elliott had expected to be named athletic director and that there was "bad blood" between Canham and Elliott. However, Canham later denied that Elliott was "eased out" of his job. In an interview with Joe Falls, Canham said: "Bump and I are close personal friends. Bump is not naïve – he knows that when you work at a place for 10 years and you're not winning consistently, it doesn't become fun for anybody – the coach, the alumni, the players or anybody else. We talked about this and we talked about it openly. If Bump had said to me, 'Look, give me a couple of more years,' I would have given it to him. I mean that. I didn't fire Bump Elliott. My first year as director Bump had an 8 and 2 record. Anyone could live with that." According to Canham, he met with Elliott in December 1968 and offered him the job of associate athletic director. Canham told Elliott he could stay on as coach if he wanted, but Canham could not promise him that the job of associate athletic director would still be open in another couple of years. Canham said: "Bump smiled at me and said, 'I don't have to think about it.' He was ready to get out. I did not force him, and I mean that in all honesty. But the job had ceased to be fun for him." Schembechler later recalled that he remained loyal to Elliott when he took over as Michigan's head coach in 1969. When Schembechler won the Big Ten championship in 1969, he said, "I made certain I let everyone know I won with Bump's kids. Bump was a man of great class and he showed it to me again and again in that first year, never getting in the way, always trying to be helpful, always trying to encourage me." After Michigan won the 1969 Ohio State game, the team presented the game ball to Elliott, and Schembechler noted that "I don't remember when I felt happier about anything in my life." From 1969 to 1970, Elliott was the associate director of athletics at Michigan. ## Athletic director at Iowa Elliott became the men's athletic director at the University of Iowa in 1970, succeeding Forest Evashevski. He came to Iowa in the midst of a feud between Evashevski and football coach Ray Nagel. Evashevski resigned in May 1970, and Elliott was hired to replace him. On accepting the job, Elliott noted: "It's difficult to leave a town where you've lived for 13 years (Ann Arbor, Michigan), but the opportunity is so good at Iowa with the people and the school that no one could pass it up." During Elliott's tenure, the school's teams won 34 Big Ten championships and 11 NCAA titles, as well as making three Rose Bowl appearances and one trip to the Final Four in basketball. The university also built a basketball arena (Carver-Hawkeye Arena), erected an indoor workout center for football and added more than 10,000 seats to its football stadium. His career at Iowa was marked by a general resurgence in the competitiveness of Iowa athletics. Elliott hired a number of notable coaches, including Lute Olson, Dan Gable, Hayden Fry, and Dr. Tom Davis. During Elliott's 21 years as athletic director, the Iowa Hawkeyes won 41 Big Ten championships in football (1981, 1985, 1990), wrestling (1974–1990), men's basketball (1970, 1979), baseball (1972, 1974, 1990), men's gymnastics (1972, 1974, 1986), men's swimming (1981, 1982). Elliott was known as "a coach's AD." "He hired coaches he trusted, then gave them the resources, latitude and support they needed to operate as they saw fit – providing they played by the rules." Iowa wrestling coach Dan Gable said his wife cried on learning that Elliott had retired. In 1999, Gable wrote: "Right after I came to coach at the University of Iowa, I had a meeting with Bump Elliott, who was the Athletic Director. I'll never forget what Bump said to me: 'Don't ask for the moon. Strive to get there, sure, but do it wisely through continuing to build upon what you already have. As you build, come see me, and we'll see how I can help you out.' I now call that bit of wisdom the Bump Elliott Rule, and it serves a good reminder to keep things in perspective. Gradual, solid growth is better than any quick fix.""The one thing we emphasized from the start was that our staff had to make sure we were 100 percent loyal to each other and the university," Elliott said at the time of his retirement. "There could be no jealousy between the coaches and various programs I wanted no one talking behind anyone's backs. I wanted absolute loyalty. If not, then that person could leave any time." Elliott was also the one who hired Hayden Fry as Iowa's football coach in 1979. Fry later said that Elliott was one of the principal reasons he chose to coach at Iowa. In his autobiography, Fry wrote: "Iowa had one thing in its favor as far as I was concerned: Bump Elliott was its athletic director. Bump had a reputation as being a fair, honest and well-liked administrator." Elliott told Fry that he would be the last football coach Bump ever hired. Fry was puzzled and asked Elliott what he meant. Elliott said, "Simple, I don't think they'll give me a chance to hire another coach, so if you don't make it, neither will I." He is the only person to have been with Rose Bowl teams in five capacities – player, assistant coach, head coach, assistant athletic director, and athletic director. ## Family and later life Elliott and his wife, Barbara, met while he was with the Marine Corps at Purdue and she was studying pre-school education there. They married in 1949, and had three children, Bill (born October 1951), Bob (1953–2017), and Betsy (born c. 1955). Son Bob Elliott was Iowa's defensive coordinator under Hayden Fry in the 1990s. Elliott lived in his later years at the Oaknoll Retirement Community in Iowa City. He died on December 7, 2019, at age 94. ## Honors and accolades Elliott received numerous honors and accolades, including the following: - Recipient of the Chicago Tribune Silver Football as the Most Valuable Player in the Big Nine Conference in 1947; - Selected as an All-American by the American Football Coaches Association in 1947; - Inducted into the University of Michigan Hall of Honor in 1986 for his contributions in football, basketball, baseball, and as a football coach; - Inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 1989; - Inducted into the National Iowa Varsity Club Hall of Fame in 1997; - Inducted into the Michigan Sports Hall of Fame in 2002; and - Elliott Drive, the Iowa City street on which Carver-Hawkeye Arena is located, is named in his honor. The sculpture of the 12' stainless steel hawk, Strike Force, is located in a small park just south of Carver-Hawkeye arena. In addition to the street in his name and the sculpture, a scholarship in Elliott's name were all spearheaded by his good friend Earle Murphy to honor Bump and future Iowa athletes. ## Head coaching record ## See also - University of Michigan Athletic Hall of Honor
14,192,538	SpongeBob SquarePants (season 5)	1,172,261,845	Season of television series	[ "2007 American television seasons", "2008 American television seasons", "2009 American television seasons", "SpongeBob SquarePants seasons" ]	The fifth season of the American animated television series SpongeBob SquarePants, created by former marine biologist and animator Stephen Hillenburg, aired on Nickelodeon from February 19, 2007, to July 19, 2009, and contained 20 half-hour episodes. The series chronicles the exploits and adventures of the title character and his various friends in the fictional underwater city of Bikini Bottom. The season was executive produced by series creator Hillenburg and writer Paul Tibbitt, who also acted as the showrunner. The season received high acclaim from media critics and fans. The show itself received several recognition, including the Kids' Choice Awards for Favorite Cartoon in 2007. At the 60th Primetime Emmy Awards, the episodes "The Inmates of Summer" and "The Two Faces of Squidward" were nominated for Outstanding Animated Program (for Programming Less Than One Hour), but lost to The Simpsons episode "Eternal Moonshine of the Simpson Mind". The show won the 2007 BAFTA Children's Awards for the International category. Tom Kenny was nominated at the 35th Annie Awards for Best Voice Acting in an Animated Television Production for his role as SpongeBob SquarePants in the episode "Spy Buddies". Several compilation DVDs that contained episodes from the season were released. The SpongeBob SquarePants: Season 5, Volume 1 and 2 DVDs were released in Region 1 on September 4, 2007, and November 18, 2008, respectively, while the complete season set was released in Region 2 on November 3, 2008, and Region 4 on November 7, 2008. The first volume was released before the episode "Fungus Among Us" aired in the United States; the second volume was released before the episode "Goo Goo Gas" aired. On November 13, 2012, The Complete Fifth Season DVD was released in Region 1. ## Production The season aired on Nickelodeon, which is owned by Viacom, and was produced by United Plankton Pictures and Nickelodeon Animation Studio. The season's executive producers were series creator Stephen Hillenburg and Paul Tibbitt, who also acted as the series' showrunner. While most episodes consisted of two shorts that were about eleven minutes long or specials that lasted the whole episode, certain episodes were made of one full eleven-minute episode, and two shorts, one of which was seven minutes long and the other only four minutes long. The animation was handled overseas in South Korea at Rough Draft Studios. Throughout the series run, from 1999 to 2008, SpongeBob SquarePants was drawn and animated using pencils. In 2008, the crew shifted and used Wacom Cintiqs for the drawings, instead of pencils. The episode "Pest of the West" was the first episode in the series that the crew used it. Series background designer Kenny Pittenger said that "the only real difference between the way we draw now and the way we drew then is that we abandoned pencil and paper during the fifth season." The crew began the shift while they were working on the episode. Pittenger said that "it was while we were working on 'Pest of the West', one of the half-hour specials, that we made the switch... did you notice?" The shift to Wacom Cintiqs let the designers and animators draw on computer screen and make immediate changes or undo mistakes. Pittenger said "Many neo-Luddites—er... I mean, many of my cohorts—don't like working on them, but I find them useful. There's no substitute for the immediacy of drawing on a piece of paper, of course, but digital nautical nonsense is still pretty fun." Animation directors credited with episodes in the fifth season included Larry Leichliter, Andrew Overtoom, Alan Smart, and Tom Yasumi. Episodes were written by a team of writers, which consisted of Casey Alexander, Steven Banks, Charlie Bean, Luke Brookshier, Nate Cash, Zeus Cervas, Tim Hill, Tom King, Dani Michaeli, Greg Miller, Chris Mitchell, Mike Mitchell, Richard Pursel, Chris Reccardi, Eric Shaw, Aaron Springer, and Tuck Tucker. The season was storyboarded by Alexander, Bean, Brookshier, Cash, Cervas, King, Miller, Chris Mitchell, Mike Mitchell, Reccardi, Springer, and Tucker. ## Cast The fifth season featured Tom Kenny as the voice of the title character SpongeBob SquarePants and his pet snail Gary. SpongeBob's best friend, a starfish named Patrick Star, was voiced by Bill Fagerbakke, while Rodger Bumpass played the voice of Squidward Tentacles, an arrogant and ill-tempered octopus. Other members of the cast were Clancy Brown as Mr. Krabs, a miserly crab obsessed with money who is SpongeBob's boss at the Krusty Krab; Mr. Lawrence as Plankton, a small green copepod and Mr. Krabs' business rival; Jill Talley as Karen, Plankton's sentient computer sidekick; Carolyn Lawrence as Sandy Cheeks, a squirrel from Texas; Mary Jo Catlett as Mrs. Puff, SpongeBob's boating school teacher; and Lori Alan as Pearl, a teenage whale who is Mr. Krabs' daughter. In addition to the regular cast members, episodes feature guest voices from many ranges of professions, including actors, musicians, and artists. In the episode "The Original Fry Cook", American comedian and actor Patton Oswalt guest starred as the voice of Jim, a fry cook who had worked at the Krusty Krab before SpongeBob was hired. Oswalt reflected on his voice-over work for the episode, saying "The best part was that I sat next to Clancy Brown in the studio. I'm a big Highlander fan, so to see him do Mr. Krabs was really fun." In the episode "Night Light", Ernest Borgnine and Tim Conway returned to reprise their roles as Mermaid Man and Barnacle Boy, respectively. Bob Joles replaced John Rhys Davies as the voice of Man Ray, as they both previously starred in The Jungle Book 2 as the respective voices of Ranjan's father and Bagheera. It was also guest starred by Mark Hamill as the voice of the Moth. Brian Doyle-Murray reprised his role as the Flying Dutchman for "Money Talks". American film and book critic Gene Shalit made a vocal cameo in "The Krusty Sponge" as his "[fish-]likeness", Gene Scallop. In the special episode and television film SpongeBob's Atlantis SquarePantis, English musician and actor David Bowie guest starred as Lord Royal Highness (LRH). Bowie accepted the role when he was persuaded by his 6-year-old daughter, Alexandria Zahra, who is a fan of the show. Bowie wrote in his blog that he "[is] hit the Holy Grail of animation gigs. We, the family, are thrilled. Nothing else need happen this year, well, this week anyway." In "BlackJack", Marion Ross returned to reprise her role as the voice of Grandma SquarePants. The episode was also guest starred by John DiMaggio as BlackJack SquarePants, SpongeBob's cousin. In "The Inmates of Summer", R. Lee Ermey appeared as the Prison Warden. In the entry "20,000 Patties Under the Sea", American musician and Kiss vocalist Gene Simmons guest starred as the Sea Monster, while his wife, Shannon Tweed, voiced the Mother. Ray Liotta guest starred in the episode "WhoBob WhatPants?" as Trevor, the leader of New Kelp City's Bubble Poppin Boys gang, and the main villain in the episode. In "Banned in Bikini Bottom", Andrea Martin voiced the character of Ms. Gristlepuss. English-American actor and director Christopher Guest voiced Stanley S. SquarePants, SpongeBob's cousin, in the episode of the same name. ## Reception In 2008, Tom Kenny was nominated at the 35th Annie Awards for Best Voice Acting in an Animated Television Production for his role as SpongeBob SquarePants in the episode "Spy Buddies". At the 60th Primetime Emmy Awards, the episode "The Inmates of Summer"/"The Two Faces of Squidward" was nominated for Outstanding Animated Program (for Programming Less Than One Hour), but lost to The Simpsons episode "Eternal Moonshine of the Simpson Mind". At the BAFTA Children's Awards, the show won the International category. At the 2008 Golden Reel Awards, the episode "SpongeHenge" won the Best Sound Editing in Television: Animated category. The show itself received several recognition, including the Kids' Choice Awards for Favorite Cartoon in 2009 and 2010. The series was nominated for the award in 2008, but lost to Avatar: The Last Airbender. The series also won the same category at the Philippines Kids' Choice Awards and Indonesia Kids' Choice Awards, held in 2008 and 2009, respectively. At the 2009 ASTRA Awards, the show was nominated for the Favourite International Program category. Furthermore, the show won the Choice TV Animated Show category at the 2009 Teen Choice Awards. The season received largely positive reviews from media critics and fans. In his review for DVD Talk, Paul Mavis "highly recommended" the Volume 1 season set, saying "[This] is another winner from Nickelodeon DVD, and a must-have for parents who can't get enough of the braying little yellow sponge. Oh yeah; the kids will probably like it, too." Mavis also praised the voice actors who contributed on the show, and wrote "As funny as the stories are, and in this collection, there are some real gems, I can't stress enough the importance of those voice talents in conveying the unhinged, manic quality that is so integral to the success of SpongeBob SquarePants. In a separate review for the Volume 2 DVD, Mavis only "recommended" the set and wrote "SpongeBob may, and I repeat, 'may,' be starting to level off." He particularly criticized the later entries as "indication of that potential trend." Roy Hrab of DVD Verdict was positive on the season, but wrote "I do not think that adults will be as entertained as in previous seasons. The comedy is more targeted at the kids than in the past." In particular, Hrab cited the episode "Rise and Shine" as "tiresome (for adults, anyway; kids will enjoy it)." In conclusion, he said "there's nothing new here and adults will be disappointed, but the latest installment of SpongeBob SquarePants delivers a lot of silly and good-natured fun for the kids and there's nothing wrong with that." In the Volume 2 review also for the DVD Verdict, Dennis Prince said "[The season] is not the series' best work but, nevertheless, is an improvement". He added "[It] delivers more of what SpongeBob fans crave." ## Episodes The episodes are ordered below according to Nickelodeon's packaging order, and not their original production or broadcast order. ## DVD release The first 20 segment episodes of the fifth season were released on DVD by Paramount Home Entertainment in the United States and Canada on September 4, 2007. The "Volume 1" DVD release features bonus material including "Bubble Burst Trivia" for "Friend or Foe" and "The Krusty Sponge". The remaining 21 segment episodes of the season were also released under the title "Volume 2" in the United States and Canada on November 18, 2008. In Region 2 and 4, the DVD release for the season was a complete set. On November 13, 2012, The Complete Fifth Season DVD was released in Region 1, three years after the season had completed broadcast on television.
70,758,608	Patsy Torres	1,161,384,014	American musician (born 1957)	[ "1957 births", "20th-century American singers", "20th-century American women singers", "21st-century American singers", "21st-century American women singers", "American Catholics", "American dancers", "American female dancers", "American mariachi musicians", "American musicians of Mexican descent", "American philanthropists", "American ranchera singers", "American women pop singers", "Cumbia musicians", "Education activists", "HIV/AIDS activists", "Hispanic and Latino American women singers", "Living people", "Musicians from San Antonio", "Polka musicians", "Singers from Texas", "Spanish-language singers of the United States", "Spokespersons", "Tejano musicians", "Women in Latin music" ]	Patricia Donita Torres (born 1957) is an American singer of Tejano music. Known for her vocal versatility, she has been referred to as the "princess of Tejano music" by The Monitor. Torres began her musical career as a trumpet player for Blue Harmony. The band was discovered by Albert Esquivel in 1980, after which they released their debut album with production handled by Manny Guerra. In 1982, Torres formed the Patsy Torres Band and signed with Bob Grever's Cara Records. After obtaining a college degree in science, Torres decided to pursue a career as a pediatrician. After indie label Freddie Records expressed interest in signing Torres and she had signed a three-year promotional contract with Budweiser, Torres decided to continue her musical career. Her ranchera single "Ya Me Voy de Esta Tierra", an original 1947 mariachi, became the first number-one single of her career which elevated Torres into a regional successful singer. Torres became the first female Tejano singer to provide audiences with dance routines and costume changes during her concerts, distinguishing her apart from her predecessors. This led her to win the Tejano Music Award for Female Entertainer of the Year at the 1987 Tejano Music Awards. At this point, Torres was named by Billboard magazine as the top female Tejano singer of 1989. Torres became an activist after her best friend died of a cocaine overdose in 1989. She began her Positive Force Tour and campaigned in high schools across the United States, warning children of the dangers of doing drugs, affiliating with gangs, and teen pregnancy. She also spoke out against prejudices towards AIDS patients and donated her time to stay-in-school campaigns. In 1990, the singer signed with WEA Latina and became the leading female Tejano country music singer. Torres was the first Tejano singer to sing a bilingual song on The Nashville Network and was named as "one of the most impressive female Tejano artists" of her generation. During the height of Tejano music's popularity in 1994, Torres was considered a pioneer who helped expand the genre's prosperity. In 1996, Torres won the Songwriter Award at the BMI Latin Awards. The singer received doctorates in education and organizational leadership in 2011 at the University of Incarnate Word. She has been inducted into the Tejano Roots Hall of Fame and the Women's Hall of Fame in San Antonio. Considered one of the instrumental musicians who helped spearhead Tejano music's golden age, Torres considers her activism with children as one of the best accomplishments of her life. ## Career ### Early life and career beginnings (1957–1982) Patricia Donita Torres was born in San Antonio, Texas to Williado and Patricia Torres. The family lived in a poor barrio of San Antonio. Her role model was her beloved grandfather, Dr. William Torres, whom she hoped to emulate by becoming a physician. How she got into music is one of those serendipitous stories that only look logical in retrospect. Seeing her little sister — who played the saxophone — get out of class on various occasions because she was in the school band, young Patsy took up the trumpet so that she, too, could share in the fun. Patsy Torres joined the school's band as their trumpet player and then formed a group with her sister called Blue Harmony. {Wellington \\|2013 \\|p=26} She graduated from Thomas Jefferson High School She played the trumpet while someone else sang. Torres continued Blue Harmony with the hopes of raising enough money to attend college and become a pediatrician. Though the members changed after graduation, the Blue Harmony band survived and started playing for money. But the trumpeter was told that the new keyboard the group had acquired made the horns obsolete and that she could stay only if she could sing. So she did. “And six months later I was discovered,” she says. “ We were performing at a wedding, and I sang just one song, the only one I knew, but this record producer who heard me didn't know that. He took us into the studio, and we won a recording contract.” {Wellington \\|2013 \\|p=26} The record producer was Albert Esquivel, who signed Blue Harmony in 1980. The group recorded their first album with production handled by Manny Guerra. Torres was also influenced by Laura Canales, who was instrumental in providing opportunities for women participation in Tejano music. The two eventually toured together and formed a bond, with Canales jokingly referring to Torres as the "Chicana Madonna" because of her costume designs.The single "Mi Casa Esta Vacia" provided Blue Harmony with moderate success. In 1982, the group disbanded and Torres formed the Patsy Torres Band. ### Music career success (1983–1991) Torres signed with Bob Grever's Cara Records in San Antonio. The 1984 single "Lowrider"/"Novela" helped establish Torres within the realm of Tejano music. She signed a three-year contract with Budwiser. In 1986, Torres received her college degree in science and planned on quitting music in favor of practicing medicine. After Freddie Records expressed interest in signing Torres to their label, she decided to stay recording music. She subsequently released her second album La Nueva Voz (1985), which included the ranchera track "Ya Me Voy de Esta Tierra", a 1947 mariachi written by her grandfather. It provided Torres with her first number-one single, becoming a regional success for the band. The band included Joe Martinez on drums, Rick Ramirez on keyboards, and Brian "Red" Moore on bass guitar. During her concerts, Torres's setlist included the singer's Tejano recordings and covers of hard rock songs. Since the inception of the Tejano Music Awards in 1981, Torres has been nominated for Female Vocalist of the Year and Female Entertainer of the Year. She attended San Antonio's inaugural New Year's Celebration in 1986. The singer produced her own music video for MTV and VH1, and became the first Tejano artist to film a music video. Known for her vocal versatility, she has been referred to as the "princess of Tejano music" by The Monitor. Torres utilized the entire stage and provided dance performances during her concerts, the first female Tejano performer to do so. Unlike her predecessors such as Canales, Lisa Lopez, and Elsa Garcia, Torres provided those in attendance with dance routines and costume changes throughout her performance. Torres was influenced by rock musicians Pat Benatar, Heart, and Chrissie Hynde and provided 1980s-style visual aesthetics to her performances. This led her to win Female Entertainer of the Year at the 1987 Tejano Music Awards. During this time, Tejano music entered its golden age, and Torres helped define the era along with Canales, Little Joe y la Familia, Mazz, La Mafia, Emilio Navaira, and Selena. During the genre's golden age, Torres produced regional hits with her singles In 1989, Torres's single "Enamorado" was the eighth most-played song in Chicago. Billboard named Torres as the top female Tejano singer of 1989. She was named Female Vocalist of the Year at the first Tejano Vida magazine awards in Austin, Texas in 1989. Torres performed at Air Force bases in the Pacific as part of a Defense Department tour in 1989. She performed in Hawaii, Japan, Korea, the Philippines, and Guam, as part of the tour. The singer's single "Amor Con Amor" was the ninth most-played song on Tejano radio stations in Texas for two consecutive weeks, beginning on the week ending September 26, 1991. ### Advocacy and The Positive Force Tour (1990–1994) Beginning in the early 1990s, Torres became an outspoken supporter of anti-drug abuse and stay-in-school campaigns. After her best friend overdosed on cocaine in 1989, she included in her message to children to be advocates for their friends and encouraged them to act, commenting: "I rather have an ex-friend than a dead friend." The singer's Positive Force Tour campaigned in high schools across the United States. Torres tells children that her most significant accomplishment was getting a college education during her music career while maintaining her morals. The Positive Force Tour included mini skits, participation, and dramatized scenarios of where gang membership, violence, teen pregnancy, and abusing drugs can lead children in life. Torres spoke out against prejudices towards AIDS patients and spoke to students about the dangers of joining gangs. In 1989, she headlined a concert at the Austin Opera House with Little Joe y la Familia that provided books and other school supplies for underprivileged students as part of the Teach the Children campaign. She credits her family values that provided Torres with a "healthy attitude and strong faith" that enabled her to obtain her life goals. The singer has inspired her fans to continue their education and has received gang-affiliated bandanas from those who quit being gang members due to Torres's influence. An entertainment critic called her "not just another female singer", while another in The Waco Citizen called her "perky [and] vivacious". Torres became the first Tejano singer to appear in three different national shows, including a television special at SeaWorld, International Star Search, and Nashville Now all in 1990. That same year, Torres enrolled in University of the Incarnate Word, where she took up a communications arts degree. In 1992, she toured in Germany, Turkey, Italy, Greece, and Spain for a month and a half. In 1990, Torres signed with WEA Latina for a three-year contract. Her debut album with them was titled Amor Con Amour Se Paga (1991). By 1991, she was the leading female Tejano country singer. Performed for upwards of 60,000 attendees, Torres is considered "one of the most important Tejano female singers" of her generation. She performed on the Johnny Canales Show in 1991. The singer also became the first Tejano artist to perform a bilingual country song on The Nashville Network. Torres was featured on Vista magazine's "What's Hot in Texas" for 1991. In 1992, she was named "one of the most impressive female Tejano artists" of her generation. Torres is considered a "hero" and role model in her hometown of San Antonio during her advocacy. In 1993, she released her sixth studio album Con Todo El Corazon, with a mixture of ballads, polkas, and cumbias. Considered a pioneer in Tejano music, the singer helped the "Tejano wave" in 1994 with her "crowd-pleasing concerts". ### Decline of Tejano music (1995–present) Following the shooting death of Selena on March 31, 1995, the Tejano music market suffered and its popularity waned. Radio stations in the US that played Tejano music switched to regional Mexican music, and by 1997, KQQK was the only radio station playing non-stop Tejano music. The music video for "Te Juro" was released in December 1995 through Balboa Records, while the song was chosen by the San Antonio Tourist Bureau as a representative of the "sounds of the city". Torres was awarded as one of BMI's Songwriters at their Latin Awards in 1996. In 1996, Torres signed with indie label Joey Records and released Bien Cuidada. Latin Style magazine described her as "the sound of the future" in 1998. Torres was named the Latin Woman in Action in the Arts by La Prensa de San Antonio and was inducted into the Women's Hall of Fame in San Antonio. In October 2000, she became a spokesperson for the campaign "Get a Mammogram, Mi Amiga", sponsored by Sprint Corporation with the backing of the Susan G. Komen Foundation urging Hispanic women to get a mammogram during Breast Cancer Awareness Month. In 2014, Torres received the Alumna of Distinction for Professional Achievement at the University of the Incarnate Word, where she received her doctorates in education and organizational leadership in 2011. She served as an honorary board member for the American Cancer Society, the Latin Girl Scouts of America, and San Antonio College. The singer also served as chairperson of the American Red Cross. Torres became the first female Tejano singer to have her compositions scored for an orchestra and perform with symphonies. Since 2014, Torres has been awarded the LULAC National Presidential Citation, Texas War on Drugs Leadership Award, the National Tejano Conference Community Award, the TAMACC Women of Distinction Award, and has been inducted into the Tejano Roots Hall of Fame. At the 2015 Tejano Music Awards, Torres performed "Dreaming of You" as part of a tribute segment for Selena, saying: "I can't believe it's been 20 years since I lost my friend, but I know Selena still lives in her music, hearts and minds of her fans, and still inspires a whole new generation to continue to dream." That same year, Torres received the Lifetime Achievement Award from the Mariachi Corazón "for her community work and dedication to the arts in San Antonio". In 2021, Torres was invited to participate in Genyva's collaborative project featuring the women in Tejano music. Genyva decided to release a Latin Christian album, with the lead single "[bringing unity amongst women [in Tejano music]", showcasing the unity of the women in the genre. In 2022, Torres released "Dedicada a Ti", a Spanish-language version of "Hopelessly Devoted to You" (1978) by Olivia Newton-John. Torres originally recorded the song for her Mi Inspiracion (2013), and decided to release the song as a single as a tribute to Newton-John following the announcement of her death. ## Personal life On April 19, 1988, Torres married singer-songwriter David Lucero. Her single "Te Juro" was written for Lucero in 1994; Torres wrote the song "to assure him that he was my one and only". In 2014, Lucero was arrested during a prostitution sting conducted by the San Antonio Police Department. Lucero was charged with soliciting an undercover police officer for sex. Torres refused to comment on her husband's arrest when prompted. At the time, Lucero was the events services manager at the Alamodome in San Antonio. Torres is a Catholic and released her Christian-themed album Saved at Last (2012) after a fundraiser for St. Mary's Catholic Church. She has said in an interview that she is proud to be part of "Tejanos for Christ". The singer has belief in strong family values, which she believes strengthens any foundation. Considered one of the instrumental musicians who helped spearhead Tejano music's golden age, Torres considers her activism with children as one of the best accomplishments of her life. ## Discography - Patsy Torres (1985) - Abrazame (1987) - El Amor Contigo (1988) - Romantica (1990) - Amor Con Amor Se Paga (1991) - Con Todo El Corazon (1993) - Patsy Torres Y Su Grupo (1994) - Bien Cuidada (1996) - ...Bien Protegida (1997) - Trenzas (1999) - Positive Force Tour (Live) (2002) - Saved at Last (2012) - Mi Inspiracion (2013) - I've Got that Christmas Spirit (2018) - Dame Tu Corazon (2020) ## See also - List of Hispanic and Latino Americans - Music of Texas
5,802,292	Serious Sam Advance	1,172,832,075	2004 video game	[ "2004 video games", "Climax Group games", "Climax London games", "First-person shooters", "Game Boy Advance games", "Game Boy Advance-only games", "Global Star Software games", "Multiplayer and single-player video games", "Serious Sam", "Sprite-based first-person shooters", "Video games developed in the United Kingdom", "Video games scored by Matthew Simmonds", "Video games set in ancient Egypt", "Video games set in ancient Rome" ]	Serious Sam Advance (also marketed as Serious Sam) is a 2004 first-person shooter game developed by Climax London and published by Global Star Software for the Game Boy Advance. A spin-off in the Serious Sam series, the game has the player control Sam "Serious" Stone through confined levels—first in ancient Egypt, then in ancient Rome—defeating varying enemies using an assortment of weapons. Serious Sam Advance was developed by Climax London, a studio of former Crawfish Interactive developers, using ray casting technology. Global Star Software announced the game in January 2004 and released it in April. Serious Sam Advance received mixed reviews, with praise for its weapons, enemies, level design and sound effects, conflicting opinions about its graphics, and criticism for its controls and frame rate issues. ## Gameplay Serious Sam Advance is a first-person shooter. It contains twelve levels, each composed of enclosed rooms, often in the style of arenas. Some levels contain puzzle elements. The player, as Sam "Serious" Stone, can freely navigate each room, using the D-pad for forward and backward movement and the shoulder buttons for strafing. Enemies patrol in rooms and attack Sam on sight. Entering a room or passing a trigger causes further enemies to appear and attack. There are twenty types of enemies in total. The player can attack using ten different weapons, including ranged weapons and a chainsaw for melee. They can aim using the D-pad and fire the weapons using the "A" button. Holding down the button causes the weapons to fire continuously. Aiming can be slowed down by holding the "B" button, while pressing the button once swaps the active weapon with another. Enemies at close range are automatically targeted. Ammunition can be collected through crates placed in levels. Serious Sam Advance contains no measures to save progress and uses a password system to let the player access later levels after a restart. A leaderboard documents the player's highscore, number of enemies encountered, and number of enemies killed, although that data is also not persisted. Up to four players can connect their Game Boy Advance systems using the Game Boy Advance Game Link Cable and compete in a deathmatch mode. ## Plot Serious Sam Advance is non-canon. It begins with recounting how Sam "Serious" Stone returned from a time-travel mission to Abu Simbel in 2113. Scientists assessed the Time-Lock technology that Sam used to travel through time. Initially, they could only use it to send people to and from ancient Egypt but, in 2020, became able to control the time and place of travellers' destinations. Using this feature, agents were sent to various ancient civilisations to investigate whether Mental—the antagonist in the Serious Sam series—was trying to release his horde on them to alter the course of history. This programme was successful for two years until three agents failed to return, as did the rescue team sent after them. Sam, the only survivor from previous encounters with Mental's forces, was thus selected to travel to ancient Rome in 512 BCE. Sam initially arrives in ancient Egypt at the Temple of Herkat and fights his way through enemies sent by Mental, crossing the desert and eventually encountering and defeating the Sirian Sphinx, one of Mental's more powerful minions. Sam enters a Time-Lock with the intent to return home, but Mental interferes and sends him to ancient Rome instead. He again defeats several waves of enemies and reaches Caesar's Palace. In it, Sam eliminates the Wolfinator, marking the end of Mental's attempt to rule over ancient Rome. Wishing to take a vacation on Maui, Sam enters a nearby Time-Lock to return home. ## Development and release Serious Sam Advance was developed by Climax Group through Climax London, its handheld-focused studio composed of former developers from the defunct company Crawfish Interactive. The team employed a game engine utilising ray casting to simulate 3D computer graphics on the Game Boy Advance, a technique Crawfish Interactive had pioneered for the platform. Global Star Software, the budget-range publishing label of Take-Two Interactive, announced Serious Sam Advance for the Game Boy Advance in January 2004, alongside Serious Sam: Next Encounter for the GameCube and PlayStation 2. The company released both games in North America on 14 April 2004. PAL region versions followed on 30 April 2004. ## Reception Serious Sam Advance received "mixed or average reviews", according to the review aggregator website Metacritic, which calculated a weighted average rating of 51/100 based on nine critic reviews. Craig Harris of IGN and Frank Provo of GameSpot observed that the game often had a low frame rate, which Harris determined caused Serious Sam Advance to be overly difficult. Jes Bickham, writing in NGC Magazine, commented that, due to the frame rate issues, the game was "slow and jittery, and ultimately workmanlike and tedious". Provo lauded Serious Sam Advance's weapons, range of enemies, and level design. He stated that the music was "forgettable", while the sound effects for weapons and monsters were in good synchronicity with the gameplay. Provo considered the graphics superior to other games on Game Boy Advance, while Bob McTague (Pocket Games) described them as a "pixelated disaster". Harris, Bickham and McTague criticised the controls, of whom Harris and McTague felt they were too imprecise. Provo believed the game was too short, caused by a scarcity of levels. McTague noted that Serious Sam Advance was faithful to the design of the original Serious Sam games, although Harris and Provo deemed the Game Boy Advance as unfit for any first-person shooter.
50,919,690	Luke Kunin	1,163,289,127	American ice hockey player	[ "1997 births", "21st-century American Jews", "AHCA Division I men's ice hockey All-Americans", "American men's ice hockey centers", "Ice hockey people from Missouri", "Iowa Wild players", "Jewish American sportspeople", "Jewish ice hockey players", "Living people", "Minnesota Wild draft picks", "Minnesota Wild players", "Nashville Predators players", "National Hockey League first-round draft picks", "People from Chesterfield, Missouri", "People with type 1 diabetes", "San Jose Sharks players", "Sportspeople from St. Louis County, Missouri", "USA Hockey National Team Development Program players", "Wisconsin Badgers men's ice hockey players" ]	Luke Kunin (born December 4, 1997) is an American professional ice hockey center for the San Jose Sharks of the National Hockey League (NHL). He previously played in the NHL for the Minnesota Wild and Nashville Predators. The Wild selected him in the first round, 15th overall, in the 2016 NHL Entry Draft. Born in Chesterfield, Missouri, Kunin had a number of NHL players for coaches during his minor ice hockey career, including Keith Tkachuk, whose son Matthew he played alongside as a child. Kunin spent one year at the Whitfield School before joining the USA Hockey National Team Development Program, with whom he played in the World U-17 Hockey Challenge and the IIHF World U18 Championship. He finished high school early to begin playing college ice hockey with the Wisconsin Badgers. There, Kunin became the first sophomore to captain the Badgers in over 40 years, while also captaining the United States team at the IIHF World Junior Championship. After two years with Wisconsin, Kunin signed a contract with the Wild. He spent the jumping between Minnesota and the Iowa Wild of the American Hockey League (AHL), in part due to NHL salary cap difficulties, but was supposed to finish out the year in Minnesota if not for an anterior cruciate ligament injury in March 2018. Kunin recovered by the start of the and spent most of the year in the NHL, only returning to Iowa to help them during the postseason. After spending time on a Minnesota line with Jordan Greenway and Joel Eriksson Ek, Kunin was traded to the Predators prior to the . After a slow start to the year, he finished on a scoring streak, including a double-overtime victory over the Carolina Hurricanes in the 2021 Stanley Cup playoffs. ## Early life Kunin was born on December 4, 1997, in Chesterfield, Missouri, to Mark and Sheri Kunin. He began playing minor ice hockey for a youth affiliate of the St. Louis Blues, and was coached by former professional hockey players like Keith Tkachuk, Jeff Brown, Al MacInnis, and Jamie Rivers. He spent one year attending the Whitfield School and playing for the Warriors hockey team before USA Hockey National Team Development Program (NTDP) in Ann Arbor, Michigan. Kunin played in the NTDP for two seasons, and in his second year with the team, he scored 27 goals and 42 points in 61 games. Kunin, Matthew Tkachuk, and Clayton Keller all played together in the 2010 Quebec International Pee-Wee Hockey Tournament with their St. Louis minor hockey team. Kunin finished high school in only three years so that he could continue his hockey career at the age of 17. When he was in sixth grade, Kunin was diagnosed with type 1 diabetes, and in addition to finding ways to manage his condition on the ice, he found an inspiration in professional hockey player and fellow diabetic B. J. Crombeen of the Blues. Kunin also leaned on his older brother Nick, whose own hockey career was cut short by a series of concussions, for support as he became accustomed to managing his condition. ## Playing career ### NCAA On May 24, 2013, Kunin committed to play college ice hockey for the Wisconsin Badgers, starting in the 2015–16 season. As he had finished high school early, Kunin entered the program as the youngest skater on the team, but he impressed coach Mike Eaves with his maturity, skating skill, and shooting abilities. Although Wisconsin finished last in the Big Ten Conference that year with an 8–19–8 record, Kunin led the team with 18 goals and 33 points. He said afterwards that he believed he developed his skills significantly that season, particularly his 200-foot game, by playing regularly against older students at the collegiate level. At the end of the year, he was the only member of the Badgers named to the 2016 All-Big Ten Freshmen Team. After the season, the Minnesota Wild of the National Hockey League (NHL) selected Kunin in the first round, 15th overall, of the 2016 NHL Entry Draft, and he decided that he would spend one more year with the Badgers before transitioning to professional hockey. Leading into the 2016–17 college hockey season, Kunin was named captain of the Badgers, becoming the first sophomore to earn the title since Mike Eaves during the 1975–76 season. Knowing that Kunin planned on leaving Wisconsin after the season, Badgers head coach Tony Granato spent the year preparing Kunin for the higher level of play that the NHL would require, turning him into a respectable two-way player. He received two Big Ten Second Star of the Week awards that season: first on November 1 after scoring five points in a weekend series against the St. Lawrence Saints and Clarkson Golden Knights, respectively, and later on December 13 for scoring two goals in a 7–4 win over the Michigan Wolverines. The Badgers came within one game of reaching the NCAA postseason, losing to Penn State in double overtime of the Big Ten Conference championship game. Kunin once again led all Badgers in scoring with 22 goals and 38 points, netting him an All-Big Ten Second Team placement, while Wisconsin won 12 more games that season than the last. Despite losing the Big Ten tournament, Kunin was still named to the 2017 Big Ten All-Tournament Team at forward, the only Badger selected. The American Hockey Coaches Association also named Kunin a Division I Second Team All-American for the West Region. ### Professional #### Minnesota Wild On March 23, 2017, Kunin agreed to a three-year, entry-level contract with the Wild. The contract would be enacted in full for the , and he would play with the Iowa Wild, Minnesota's American Hockey League (AHL) affiliate, for the remainder of their 2016–17 season on an amateur tryout contract. He played in 12 games for Iowa to close out their season, putting up five goals and three assists in the process. Kunin was one of the last players cut from the Wild roster before the , his place in the lineup effectively taken by free agent signing Matt Cullen. When a number of injuries befell the Wild roster, however, Kunin made his NHL debut on short notice, skating in less than 14 minutes of the home opener against the Columbus Blue Jackets before he was sent back down to save space on the team's salary cap. During another brief recall on October 27, Kunin became the first player in franchise history to make his debut NHL goal short-handed. Zack Mitchell also scored his first NHL goal, the game-winner, during the same match, after telling Kunin before the game, "Let's both get our first, but I'll let you go first." Still primarily an AHL player, Kunin was selected for the 2018 AHL All-Star Classic as the only representative from Iowa. Kunin was once again called up to Minnesota on February 27 in order to give the team more energy as they finished out the season, but on March 4, during a game against the Detroit Red Wings, he suffered a season-ending anterior cruciate ligament injury in his right knee. At the time, Kunin had played in 19 NHL games for the season, scoring two goals and two assists in the process. He also played in 36 AHL games, with 10 goals and 19 points there. He underwent surgery for the injury at the beginning of April, with an estimated recovery time of six to seven months. Kunin was medically cleared to begin playing hockey again on October 8, 2018, and was assigned to Iowa to continue his recovery and spend more time on the ice before rejoining the NHL for the . He spent the next few months moving up and down between the NHL and AHL. His first recall was on December 9, filling in for an injured Mikko Koivu. He was meant to return to Iowa a week later, but an injury to Matt Dumba forced coach Bruce Boudreau to rearrange his offensive lines, and Kunin remained in Minnesota skating alongside Koivu and Jason Zucker. He was briefly sent back down to Iowa at the end of January to play in two AHL games while Minnesota had an eight-day break, and he was recalled to the NHL on February 4. His point production was minimal during this final stretch, with only one goal and two assists in his last 18 NHL games of the season, but Kunin was given a gradually larger role for Minnesota in the hopes that he would become a staple of their lineup the following season. When Minnesota's season came to an end on April 9, Kunin was one of a handful of skaters sent back to Iowa to help them during their run for the Calder Cup. In his 49 games with Minnesota, Kunin scored six goals and 17 points while recording 27 penalty minutes. He also had nine goals and 16 points in 25 regular-season AHL games. Kunin appeared in 11 playoff games, scoring six goals and eight points, before the Iowa Wild were eliminated by the Chicago Wolves. After a difficult start to the , the Wild found a stable, productive line by mid-November in Kunin, Jordan Greenway, and Joel Eriksson Ek, affectionately referred to as the "GEEK Squad". Primarily a checking line, Greenway and Eriksson Ek served as physical players tasked with preventing the opposing team from scoring, while also leaving Kunin open to score for Minnesota. By the time that the COVID-19 pandemic forced the NHL to suspend the 2019–20 season in March, Kunin had scored 15 goals and 16 assists in 63 games. The Wild had clinched a spot in the 2020 Stanley Cup playoffs, with Kunin invited to participate, but he was initially hesitant to break quarantine, as his diabetes diagnosis placed him at higher risk of suffering complications from the virus. Kunin ultimately joined the team in Edmonton for a best-of-five qualifying series against the Vancouver Canucks. Despite two goals from Kunin, the Canucks won the series in four games. #### Nashville Predators On October 7, 2020, the Wild traded Kunin and the 101st overall pick in the 2020 NHL Entry Draft to the Nashville Predators in exchange for skater Nick Bonino and two 2020 draft picks: No. 37 and No. 70 overall. As a restricted free agent Kunin did not practice with his new team until he and the Predators had agreed to a contract extension eventually signing a two-year, \$4.6 million contract with the team on January 6, 2021. Kunin's started with two lower body injuries: the first sidelined him for four games at the start of February, while a more serious injury had him placed on the injured reserve on March 2. He returned to the lineup on March 27, picking up two assists in a 3–1 defeat of the Chicago Blackhawks. His return was accompanied by a hot streak, with Kunin scoring at least one point in five of his first six games back from injury, and the Predators went 14–6–1 during games he played. He also scored six goals in the last nine games of the regular season, including two in the Predators' 3–1 defeat of the Carolina Hurricanes on May 8, which allowed Nashville to clinch a berth in the 2021 Stanley Cup playoffs. The Predators faced the Hurricanes once again in the first round of playoffs, with Kunin scoring both the first and final goals in Game 4 to keep Nashville in the playoffs. Kunin's first goal came only 57 seconds into the game, while the game-winner came in double overtime. The Predators would lose the series, however, in overtime of Game 6. Kunin played in 38 games of the pandemic-shortened 2020–21 season for Nashville, scoring 10 goals and 19 points in the process. Kunin started the on a line with Mikael Granlund and Eeli Tolvanen; he had spent the previous season with Granlund, while Tolvanen replaced the departed Calle Järnkrok. On December 4, 2021, Kunin's 24th birthday, he recorded a Gordie Howe hat trick, the first for Nashville since Ryan Johansen three years prior, en route to a 4–3 overtime win against the Montreal Canadiens. #### San Jose Sharks On July 8, 2022, the Predators traded Kunin to the San Jose Sharks in exchange for forward John Leonard and a third-round selection in the 2023 NHL Entry Draft. As a restricted free agent, Kunin was later re-signed to a two-year, \$5.5 million contract extension with the Sharks on July 18, 2022. On December 20, it was announced that Kunin would miss the remainder of the due to a torn anterior cruciate ligament (ACL), which he sustained during a December 13 game against the Arizona Coyotes. ## International play Kunin has represented the United States internationally at a number of ice hockey competitions, beginning with the World U-17 Hockey Challenge in 2014. Serving as an alternate captain for the gold medal-winning team, Kunin scored two goals and recorded six points en route to the championships. The following year, he scored six goals and served as captain for the United States for another gold medal performance, this time at the 2015 IIHF World U18 Championships. He was passed over for the United States junior team at the 2016 IIHF World Junior Championship, but made the team the following year. Serving as the captain once more, Kunin took the team to his third consecutive international gold medal, becoming the third Badger to captain a World Juniors team to a championship, following Derek Stepan and Jake McCabe. Kunin made his senior international debut at the 2019 IIHF World Championship in Slovakia, playing on a line alongside fellow NHL skaters Luke Glendening of the Detroit Red Wings and Frank Vatrano of the Florida Panthers. The United States failed to medal in the tournament, finishing in seventh place overall. ## Personal life Kunin has Type 1 diabetes, which requires frequent management, particularly before games. In addition to checking his blood sugar level multiple times per day, Kunin takes shots of insulin before games, and will occasionally replenish his blood sugar with sips of Gatorade mid-game. Off the ice, he has done charity work with organizations that research juvenile diabetes. In 2021, he established the Luke Kunin T1D fund, which raises money for the Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation. Kunin is of Jewish heritage. During the COVID-19 pandemic lockdowns, he and his girlfriend adopted a French Bulldog named Rocco. ## Career statistics ### Regular season and playoffs ### International ## Awards and honors ## See also - List of select Jewish ice hockey players
24,332,316	Mycenastrum	1,136,169,941	Genus of fungi	[ "Agaricaceae", "Edible fungi", "Fungi found in fairy rings", "Fungi of Africa", "Fungi of Asia", "Fungi of Australia", "Fungi of New Zealand", "Fungi of North America", "Fungi of South America", "Fungi of Western Asia", "Monotypic Agaricales genera", "Taxa described in 1842" ]	Mycenastrum is a fungal genus in the family Agaricaceae. The genus is monotypic, containing one widely distributed species, Mycenastrum corium, known by various common names: the giant pasture puffball, leathery puffball, or tough puffball. The roughly spherical to turnip-shaped puffball-like fruit bodies grow to a diameter of 6–24 cm (2–9 in). Initially covered by a thick, felted, whitish layer, the puffballs develop a characteristic checkered skin (peridium) in age. When the internal spore mass, the gleba, is firm and white, the puffball is edible, although some individuals may suffer mild gastrointestinal symptoms after eating it. As the spores mature, the gleba turns first yellowish then purplish brown. Spores are released when the peridium eventually splits open into irregularly shaped sections. Microscopically, the gleba consists of spherical, dark brown spores with rounded bumps on their surfaces, and a capillitium—intricately branched fibers that form long thorn-like spines. The puffball grows on or in the ground in prairie or desert habitats. Although widely distributed, it is not commonly encountered. Mycenastrum corium is a threatened species in Europe. ## Taxonomy The species was originally described in 1805 as Lycoperdon corium in the second volume of Augustin Pyramus de Candolle and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck's Flore Française. They attributed authorship to French botanist Louis Ben Guersent, who discovered it in an alfalfa field between the town of La Sotte and Rouen in northern France. Synonyms include Scleroderma corium published by Arthur Harmount Graves in 1830, and Steerbekia corium published by Elias Magnus Fries in 1849. The species was given its current name by Nicaise Auguste Desvaux in 1842, who circumscribed the genus Mycenastrum to contain it. Generic synonyms are Vassiliĭ Matveievitch Czernajew's 1845 Endonevrum and Stephan Schulzer von Müggenburg's 1876 Pachyderma. In 1948, Sanford Myron Zeller circumscribed the new family Mycenastraceae, containing both Mycenastrum as the type genus, and Bovista. A 2001 molecular study supported the inclusion of Mycenastrum corium in the Lycoperdales, where it was traditionally placed. In a more recent (2008) cladistic analysis, Mycenastrum was shown to be a sister group to the Lycoperdaceae; authors Larsson and Jeppson agreed with Zeller (1949) and Pilat's (1958) decision to regard Mycenastrium as a monotypic genus in the separate family Mycenastraceae. Despite this, several taxonomic authorities prefer to fold Mycenastraceae into the Agaricaceae. It is commonly known as the "leathery puffball", the "tough puffball", or the "giant pasture puffball". María Homrich & Jorge E. Wright published the variety Mycenastrum corium var. diabolicum in 1973 from South America. M. corium subspecies ferrugineum was described in 2005 from Jefferson County, Colorado, by Orson K. Miller. ### Former Mycenastrum Most species historically named as Mycenastrum have since been transferred to other genera, usually Scleroderma, but also Glyptoderma, Bovista, and Gastropila. Many, including those species that have not been reclassified are poorly known; the nomenclatural authority Index Fungorum considers only four of these former Mycenastrum species to be currently valid: Bovista bovistoides, B. lycoperdoides, Gastropila fragilis, and Glyptoderma coelatum. ## Description The fruit body usually grows to a diameter of 6–15 cm (2–6 in), although extremes of 3 cm (1.2 in) and 27 cm (11 in) have been reported. Its shape ranges from roughly spherical, to obovate (egg-shaped) or pyriform (pear-shaped), sometimes plicate (crumpled, wrinkled) around a somewhat fibrous, persistent tuft of mycelium. The puffball is initially covered by a thick, felted, whitish layer (the exoperidium). This is continuous at first but eventually cracks and peels away in thin flakes, exposing a leathery to corky, nearly smooth, light brown to dark pinkish-brown surface. This tough layer of tissue (the endoperidium) measures about 2 mm thick, encloses the gleba. In maturity, the endoperidium opens by irregular splits that eventually extend towards the base in a star-shaped manner. These torn segments of endoperidium sometimes turn inside out, sometimes drying rigid, exposing a felt-like internal surface. The gleba is white when young and has a cheesy appearance and consistency. As the puffball matures, it undergoes a lytic process involving water loss. Subsequently, the gleba becomes olivaceous, olive-brown, and finally, dark olive when dry, and then develops a characteristic pungent smell. Fruit bodies that grow underground have a conspicuously different morphology–a smooth, chocolate-brown coloured surface that lacks the patches characteristic of above-ground fruit bodies, and their capillitia are bifurcate with stumpy spines. The fungus is edible when the gleba is white. Its odor and taste have been described as pungent or earthy and its taste astringent. Its spores are spherical, measuring 8–13 μm, and have a surface of irregular, coarse warts. The capillitium refers to late-maturing, thick-walled cells in the gleba. The main axes of these branched cells are 20–30 μm thick, and they are covered with numerous spines. Mycenastrum corium subsp. ferrugineum has a deep rusty red to reddish orange gleba, clearly distinguishing it from the glebal coloring of the main subspecies. M. corium var. diabolicum has an extremely spiny capillitium. ### Uses The puffball is edible when the gleba is still firm and white. They are reportedly consumed by the tribal people of Madhya Pradesh. In Mexico, a large collection was consumed by several people who confused the species with Calvatia, a puffball genus containing popular edible members. Of the five who ate the fungus, two had gastrointestinal symptoms including stomachache, flatulence, and diarrhea; the other three did not have symptoms. The large European bird great bustard (Otis tarda) has been recorded feeding on the puffball. Because of their thick outer peridium, Mycenastrum corium puffballs can withstand hard blows without breaking, and children have used them as replacements for balls. The puffballs have also been used medicinally in Mexico as a hemostatic, as a throat and lung tonic, and for their purported anti-inflammatory properties. ## Puffball maturation The manner in which the puffball splits open (dehisces) has been described by 19th-century American mycologist William Henry Long. The thick and leathery peridium of the mature puffball remains unopened for several months without splitting. After several alternating cycles of wetting and drying, fissures develop across the top. These fissures usually radiate from a common center near the top of the fruit body and finally produce very irregular star-like teeth. In time, the entire upper half of the puffball is open and exposed during dry weather. In this condition, the spores are blown out by the wind and widely distributed. During every rainy spell the puffball promptly closes only to open again when dry weather returns. At each alternate opening and closing the peridium is split more and more, until finally it is expanded into a flat shape, or even curls backward. In the puffball, the outer layer of the peridium comprises cells arranged so that when wet they adsorb water and expand, thus closing the top of the puffball. Upon drying, these outer cells lose water and gradually shrink, thus producing an unequal tension between the outer and inner cells of the peridium. This tension causes the irregular star-like pieces of the peridium to gradually separate and curve outward, thus opening the top of the puffball during dry weather. ## Ecology and distribution Mycenastrum corium is a saprobic species, consuming dead organic debris. It is usually found fruiting on the ground singly, scattered, in rings, or in clusters, but is can also grow underground. Fruiting occurs at low elevations in groups in open habitats dominated by sagebrush and saltbrush, or in grassy or shrubby wet areas in dry prairie. Other reported habitats include old haystacks, on silage, and roadsides. Mature fruit bodies can be broken loose from attachment to the substrate and be rolled around by wind, similar to some Bovista puffballs. Although the species is not frequently encountered, it has been suggested that this is because it grows in locations "rather seldom visited by mycologists". M. corium could be a useful indicator species for climate change. The puffball is widely distributed, and has been recorded in Africa (Zimbabwe), Asia (China, India, Iran, Mongolia, and Yemen), South America (Argentina, Chile and Uruguay), North America, Australia, and New Zealand. In Europe it is found in southern Scandinavia and is widespread to the south of the continent. Although it was reported in Scotland in 2010 (its first appearance on the British mainland), the grassland habitat where it was found has since become heavily eroded, and may be unsuitable for future appearances of the species. Mycenastrum corium is a threatened species in Europe, and is listed as vulnerable in the Regional Red List of Poland. In North America, it is most common in western regions of the United States and Canada, but it has also been recorded in eastern Canada. Poorly known in Mexico, it has been recorded from Baja California, Chihuahua, Nuevo León, San Luis Potosi, Sonora, Mexico City. The variety M. corium var. diabolicum occurs in Sub-Saharan Africa, tropical Asia, the Caribbean, and South America. ## See also - List of Agaricaceae genera - List of Agaricales genera
2,009,588	610 Office	1,146,533,069	Chinese secret police organization	[ "1999 establishments in China", "Chinese intelligence agencies", "Communist repression", "Falun Gong", "Government agencies established in 1999", "Human rights in China", "Institutions of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party", "Leading groups of the Chinese Communist Party", "Organizations based in Beijing", "Political repression in China" ]	The 610 Office (Chinese: 610办公室; full name: 中央防范和处理邪教问题领导小组办公室; abbreviated 中央防范办) was a security agency in the People's Republic of China. Named for the date of its creation on June 10, 1999, it was established for the purpose of coordinating and implementing the persecution of Falun Gong. Because it is a Chinese Communist Party-led office with no formal legal mandate, it is sometimes described as an extralegal organisation. The 610 Office is the implementation arm of the Central Leading Group on Dealing with the Falun Gong (CLGDF), also known as the Central Leading Group on Dealing with Heretical Religions. In March, 2018, the office was reorganized and its functions delegated to the Central Political and Legal Affairs Commission and the Ministry of Public Security. The central 610 Office has traditionally been headed by a high-ranking member of the Communist Party's Politburo Standing Committee, and it frequently directs other state and party organs in the anti-Falun Gong campaign. It is closely associated with the powerful Central Political and Legal Affairs Commission. Local 610 Offices are also established at provincial, district, municipal and neighborhood levels, and are estimated to number approximately 1,000 across the country. The main functions of the 610 Offices include coordinating anti-Falun Gong propaganda, surveillance and intelligence collection, and the punishment and "reeducation" of Falun Gong adherents. The office is reportedly involved in the extrajudicial sentencing, coercive reeducation, torture, and sometimes death of Falun Gong practitioners. Since 2003, the 610 Office's mission has been expanded to include targeting other religious and qigong groups deemed heretical or harmful by the Communist Party (CCP), though Falun Gong remains its main priority. ## Background Falun Gong, also known as Falun Dafa, is a form of spiritual qigong practice that involves meditation, energy exercises, and a moral philosophy drawing on Buddhist tradition. The practice was introduced by Li Hongzhi in Northeast China in the spring of 1992, towards the end of China's "qigong boom." Falun Gong initially enjoyed considerable official support during the early years of its development, and amassed a following of millions. By the mid-1990s, however, Chinese authorities sought to rein in the influence of qigong practices, enacting more stringent requirements on the country's various qigong denominations. In 1996, possibly in response to the escalating pressure to formalize ties with the party-state, Falun Gong filed to withdraw from the state-run qigong association. Following this severance of ties to the state, the group came under increasing criticism and surveillance from the country's security apparatus and propaganda department. Falun Gong books were banned from further publication in July 1996, and state-run news outlets began criticizing the group as a form of "feudal superstition," whose "theistic" orientation was at odds with the official ideology and national agenda. On April 25, 1999, over 10,000 Falun Gong adherents demonstrated quietly near the Zhongnanhai government compound to request official recognition and an end to the escalating harassment against them. Security czar and politburo member Luo Gan was the first to draw attention to the gathering crowd. Luo reportedly called Communist Party general secretary Jiang Zemin, and demanded a decisive solution to the Falun Gong problem. A group of five Falun Gong representatives presented their demands to then-Premier Zhu Rongji and, apparently satisfied with his response, the group dispersed peacefully. Jiang Zemin was reported to have been deeply angered by the event, however, and expressed concern over the fact that a number of high-ranking bureaucrats, Communist Party officials, and members of the military establishment had taken up Falun Gong. That evening, Jiang disseminated a letter through Party ranks ordering that Falun Gong must be crushed. ## Establishment On 7 June 1999, Jiang Zemin convened a meeting of the Politburo to address the Falun Gong issue. In the meeting, Jiang described Falun Gong as a grave threat to Communist Party authority—"something unprecedented in the country since its founding 50 years ago"—and ordered the creation of a special leading group within the party's Central Committee to "get fully prepared for the work of disintegrating [Falun Gong]." On 10 June, the 610 Office was formed to handle day-to-day coordination of the anti-Falun Gong campaign. Luo Gan was selected to helm of the office, whose mission at the time was described as studying, investigating, and developing a "unified approach...to resolve the Falun Gong problem." The office was not created with any legislation, and there are no provisions describing its precise mandate. Nonetheless, it was authorized "to deal with central and local, party and state agencies, which were called upon to act in close coordination with that office," according to UCLA professor James Tong. On 17 June 1999, the 610 Office came under the newly created Central Leading Group for Dealing with Falun Gong, headed by Politburo Standing Committee member Li Lanqing. Four other deputy directors of the Central Leading Group also held high-level positions in the Communist Party, including minister of the propaganda department, Ding Guangen. The leaders of the 610 Office and CLGDF were "able to call on top government and party officials to work on the case and draw on their institutional resources," and had personal access to the Communist Party general secretary and the Premier. Journalist Ian Johnson, whose coverage of the crackdown on Falun Gong earned him a Pulitzer Prize, wrote that the job of the 610 Office was "to mobilize the country's pliant social organizations. Under orders from the Public Security Bureau, churches, temples, mosques, newspapers, media, courts and police all quickly lined up behind the government's simple plan: to crush Falun Gong, no measures too excessive. Within days a wave of arrests swept China. By the end of 1999, Falun Gong adherents were dying in custody." ## Structure The 610 Office is managed by top echelon leaders of the CCP, and the CLGDF that oversees the 610 Office has, since its inception, been helmed by a senior member of the Politburo Standing Committee. A list of 610 Office Chiefs, including their time in that position, includes Li Lanqing (1999–2003), Luo Gan (2003–2007), Zhou Yongkang (2007–2012), Li Dongsheng (2013), Liu Jinguo (2013-2015), Fu Zhenghua (2015-2016), and most recently Huang Ming (2016). The practice of appointing top-ranked Party authorities to run the CLGDF and 610 Office was intended to ensure that they outranked other departmental officials. According to James Tong, the 610 Office is situated "several administrative strata" above organizations such as the State Administration of Radio, Film, and Television, Xinhua News Agency, China Central Television, and the News and Publications Bureau. The 610 Office plays the role of coordinating the anti-Falun Gong media coverage in the state-run press, as well influencing other party and state entities, including security agencies, in the anti-Falun Gong campaign. Cook and Lemish speculate that the 610 Office was created outside the traditional state-based security system for several reasons: first, a number of officials within the military and security agencies were practicing Falun Gong, leading Jiang and other CPC leaders to fear that these organizations had already been quietly compromised; second, there was a need for a nimble and powerful organization to coordinate the anti-Falun Gong campaign; third, the creation of a top-level party organization sent a message down the ranks that the anti-Falun Gong campaign was a priority; and finally, CPC leaders did not want the anti-Falun Gong campaign to be hindered by legal or bureaucratic restrictions, and thus established the 610 Office extrajudicially. Soon after the creation of the central 610 Office, parallel 610 Offices were established at each administrative level wherever populations of Falun Gong practitioners were present, including the provincial, district, municipal, and sometime neighborhood levels. In some instances, 610 Offices have been established within large corporations and universities. Each office takes orders from the 610 Office one administrative level above, or from the Communist Party authorities at the same organizational level. In turn, the local 610 Offices influence the officers of other state and party bodies, such as media organizations, local public security bureaus, and courts. The structure of the 610 Office overlaps with the CCP's Central Political and Legal Affairs Commission. Both Luo Gan and Zhou Yongkang oversaw both the PLC and the 610 Office simultaneously. This overlap is also reflected at local levels, where the 610 Office is regularly aligned with the local PLAC, sometimes even sharing physical offices. The individual 610 Offices at local levels show minor variations in organizational structure. One example of how local offices are organized comes from Leiyang city in Hunan province. There, the 610 Office consisted in 2008 of a "composite group" and an "education group." The education group was in charge of "propaganda work" and the "transformation through reeducation" of Falun Gong adherents. The composite group was in charge of administrative and logistics tasks, intelligence collection, and the protection of confidential information. James Tong wrote that the Party's decision to run the anti-Falun Gong campaign through the CLGDF and the 610 Office reflected "a pattern of regime institutional choice" to use "ad hoc committees rather than permanent agencies, and invested power in the top party echelon rather than functional state bureaucracies." ### Recruitment Relatively little is known about recruiting processes for local 610 Offices. In rare instances where such information is available, 610 officers appeared to have been drawn from other party or state agencies (such as the Political and Legislative Committee staff or Public Security Bureaus). Hao Fengjun, a defector and former officer with the 610 Office in Tianjin City, was one such officer. Hao had previously worked for the Public Security Bureau in Tianjin, and was among the officers selected to be seconded to the newly created 610 Office. Some 610 Offices conduct their own recruiting efforts to bring in staff with university degrees. ### Responsibility system In order to ensure compliance with the Party's directives against Falun Gong, the 610 offices implemented a responsibility system that extended down to the grassroots levels of society. Under this system, the local officials were held accountable for all Falun Gong-related outcomes under their jurisdiction, and a system of punitive fines were imposed on regions and officials who failed to adequately persecute Falun Gong. "This showed that, instead of creating a modern system to rule China, the government still relied on an ad hoc patchwork of edicts, orders and personal connections," wrote Johnson. An example of this responsibility system was shown in the handling of protesters traveling to Beijing in the early years of the persecution. After the persecution of Falun Gong began in 1999, hundreds of Falun Gong practitioners traveled daily to Tiananmen Square or to petitioning offices in Beijing to appeal for their rights. In order to stem the flow of protesters in the capital, the central 610 Office held local authorities responsible for ensuring that no one from their region went to Beijing. "The provincial government fined mayors and heads of counties for each Falun Gong practitioner from their district who went to Beijing," wrote Johnson. The mayors and county leaders then fined the heads of their local 610 offices or PLAC branches, who in turn fined the village chiefs, who fined the police. The police administered punishment to the Falun Gong practitioners, and regularly demanded money from them to recoup the costs. Johnson wrote that "The fines were illegal; no law or regulation has ever been issued in writing that lists them." Government officials announced them only orally in meetings. "There was never to be anything in writing because they didn't want it made public," one official told Johnson. ## Functions ### Surveillance and intelligence Surveillance of Falun Gong practitioners and intelligence collection is among the chief functions of 610 Offices. At the local levels, this involves monitoring workplaces and residences to identify Falun Gong practitioners, making daily visits to the homes of known (or "registered") Falun Gong practitioners, or coordinating and overseeing 24-hour monitoring of practitioners. The 610 Office does not necessarily conduct the surveillance directly; instead, it orders local authorities to do so, and has them report at regular intervals to the 610 Office. Basic-level 610 Offices relay the intelligence they have collected up the operational chain to the 610 Office above them. In many instances, the surveillance is targeted towards Falun Gong practitioners who had previously recanted the practice while in prison or labor camps, and is intended to prevent "recidivism." The 610 Office's intelligence collection efforts are bolstered through he cultivation of paid civilian informants. 610 Offices at local levels have been found to offer substantial monetary rewards for information leading to the capture of Falun Gong practitioners, and 24-hour hotlines have been created for civilians to report on Falun Gong-related activity. In some locales, 'responsibility measures' are enacted whereby workplaces, schools, neighborhood committees and families are held accountable for monitoring and reporting on Falun Gong practitioners within their ranks. In addition to domestic surveillance, the 610 Office is allegedly involved in foreign intelligence. Hao Fengjun, the former 610 officer-turned defector from Tianjin, testified that his job at the 610 Office involved collating and analyzing intelligence reports on overseas Falun Gong populations, including in the United States, Canada and Australia. In 2005, a Chinese agent working with the Chinese embassy in Berlin recruited a German Falun Gong practitioner Dr. Dan Sun to act as an informant. The agent reportedly arranged a meeting for Sun with two men who purported to be scholars of Chinese medicine interested in researching Falun Gong, and Sun agreed to pass information to them, ostensibly hoping to further their understanding of the practice. The men were in fact high-ranking agents of the 610 Office in Shanghai. According to Der Spiegel, the case demonstrated "how important fighting [Falun Gong] is to the [Chinese] government," and "points to the extremely offensive approach that is sometimes being taken by the Chinese intelligence agencies." ### Propaganda Propaganda is among the core functions of the 610 Office, both at the central and local levels. The CLGDF includes high-ranking members of the Communist Party's propaganda department, including the minister of propaganda and deputy head of the Central Leading Group on Propaganda and Ideological Work. This, coupled with the 610 Office's organizational position above the main news and propaganda organs, gives it sufficient influence to direct the anti-Falun Gong propaganda efforts at the central level. Tong notes that the first "propaganda assaults" on the Falun Gong were launched in the leading state-run newspapers in late June, 1999—shortly after the establishment of the 610 office, but before the campaign against Falun Gong had been officially announced. The effort was overseen by Ding Guangen in his capacity as the deputy leader of the Central Leading Group for Dealing with Falun Gong and the country's propaganda chief. The initial media attacks contained only veiled, indirect references to Falun Gong, and their content aimed to deride "superstition" and extol the virtues of atheism. In the weeks leading up to the official launch of the campaign, the CLGDF and the 610 Office set to work preparing a large number of books, editorials, and television programs denouncing the group, which were made public after 20 July 1999 when the campaign against Falun Gong officially began. In the months following July 1999, David Ownby writes that the country's media apparatus "was churning out hundreds of articles, books, and television reports against Falun Gong. The Chinese public had not witnessed such overkill since the heyday of the Cultural Revolution." State propaganda initially used the appeal of scientific rationalism to argue that Falun Gong's worldview was in "complete opposition to science" and communism; the People's Daily asserted on 27 July 1999, that it "was a struggle between theism and atheism, superstition and science, idealism and materialism." Other rhetoric appearing in the state-run press centered on charges that Falun Gong had misled followers and was dangerous to health. To make the propaganda more accessible to the masses, the government published comic books, some of which compared Falun Gong's founder to Lin Biao and Adolf Hitler. The Central 610 Office also directs local 610 Offices to carry out propaganda work against Falun Gong. This includes working with local media, as well as conducting grassroots campaigns to "educate" target audiences in schools and universities, state-run enterprises, and social and commercial enterprises. In 2008, for instance, the central 610 Office issued a directive to engage in propaganda work intended to prevent Falun Gong from "interfering with" the Beijing Olympics. The campaign was referenced on government web sites in every Chinese province. ### Reeducation and detention 610 Offices work with local security agencies to monitor and capture Falun Gong adherents, many of whom are then sentenced administratively to reeducation-through-labor camps (RTL), or, if they continue to practice and advocate for Falun Gong, sentenced to prison. The number of Falun Gong adherents detained in China is estimated to be in the hundreds of thousands; in some facilities, Falun Gong practitioners are in the majority. 610 Offices throughout China maintain an informal network of "transformation-through-reeducation" facilities. These facilities are used specifically for ideological reprogramming of Falun Gong practitioners, whereby they are subjected to physical and mental coercion in an effort to have them renounce Falun Gong. In 2001, the central 610 Office began ordering "all neighborhood committees, state institutions and companies" to begin using the transformation facilities. No Falun Gong practitioners were to be spared, including students and the elderly. The same year, the 610 Office reportedly relayed orders that those who actively practice Falun Gong must be sent to prisons or labor camps, and those who did not renounce their belief in Falun Gong were to be socially isolated and monitored by families and employers. In 2010, the central 610 Office initiated a three-year campaign to intensify the "transformation" of known Falun Gong practitioners. Documents from local 610 Offices across the country revealed the details of the campaign, which involved setting transformation quotas, and required local authorities to forcefully take Falun Gong practitioners into transformation-through-reeducation sessions. If they failed to recant their practice, the practitioners would be sent to labor camps. In addition to prisons, labor camps and transformation facilities, the 610 Office can arbitrarily compel mentally healthy Falun Gong practitioners into psychiatric facilities. In 2002, it was estimated that approximately 1,000 Falun Gong adherents were being held against their will in mental hospitals, where reports of abuse were common. ### Interference in legal system The majority of detained Falun Gong practitioners are sentenced administratively to reeducation-through-labor camps, though several thousand have been condemned to longer sentences in prisons. Chinese human rights lawyers have charged that the 610 Office regularly interferes with legal cases involving Falun Gong practitioners, subverting the ability of judges to adjudicate independently. Attorney Jiang Tianyong has noted that cases where the defendants are Falun Gong practitioners are decided by the local 610 Offices, rather than through recourse to legal standards. In November 2008, two lawyers seeking to represent Falun Gong practitioners in Heilongjiang noted that the presiding judge in the case was seen meeting with 610 Office agents. Other lawyers, including Gao Zhisheng, Guo Guoting and Wang Yajun have alleged that the 610 Office interfered with their ability to meet with Falun Gong clients or defend them in court. Official documents support the allegation of interference by the 610 Office. In 2009, two separate documents from Jilin province and Liaoning Province described how legal cases against Falun Gong practitioners must be approved and/or audited by the 610 Office. The 610 Office's organizational proximity to the CPC's Political and Judicial Committee better enables it to exercise influence with the Supreme People's Court and Ministry of Justice, both at the central level and with their counterparts at local levels. ## Allegations of torture and killing Several sources have reported 610 officers as being involved in or ordering the torture of Falun Gong adherents in custody. In a letter to Chinese leaders in 2005, prominent human rights lawyer Gao Zhisheng relayed accounts of 610 officers beating and sexually assaulting Falun Gong practitioners: "of all the true accounts of incredible violence that I have heard, of all the records of the government's inhuman torture of its own people, what has shaken me most is the routine practice on the part of the 6–10 Office and the police of assaulting women's genitals," wrote Gao. Defector Hao Fengjun described witnessing one of his 610 Office colleagues beating an elderly female Falun Gong practitioner with an iron bar. The event helped catalyze Hao's decision to defect to Australia. The 2009 report of the UN Special Rapporteur on Extrajudicial Killings relayed allegations that the 610 Office was involved in the torture deaths of Falun Gong practitioners ahead of the 2008 Beijing Olympics. Ian Johnson of the Wall Street Journal reported in 2000 that Falun Gong practitioners were tortured to death in "transformation-through-reeducation" facilities that are run by the 610 Office. The central 610 Office had informed local authorities that they could use any means necessary to prevent Falun Gong practitioners from traveling to Beijing to protest the ban—an order that reportedly resulted in widespread abuse in custody. ## Expanded functions In 2003, the name of the Central Leading Group for Dealing with Falun Gong was changed to the "Central Leading Group on Dealing with Heretical Religions." The same year, its mandate was expanded to include disposing of 28 other "heretical religions" and "harmful qigong practices". Although Falun Gong continues to be the 610 Office's primary concern, there is evidence of local offices targeting members of other groups, some of which identify as Buddhist or Protestant denominations. This include carrying out surveillance against members, engaging in propaganda efforts, and detaining and imprisoning members. The Economist reported that 610 officers were involved in enforcing the house arrest of Chen Guangcheng, a blind human rights activist, that generated controversy as the police chief faced repercussions. In 2008, a new set of "leading groups" appeared with the mandate of "maintaining stability." Corresponding local offices were established in every district in major coastal cities, being tasked with "ferreting out" anti-Communist Party elements. The branch offices for Maintaining Stability overlap significantly with local 610 Offices, sometimes sharing offices, staff, and leadership. Cook and Lemish write that the increased reliance on ad hoc committees such as the 610 Office and stability maintenance offices may indicate a sense among Communist Party leaders that the existing state security services are ineffective in meeting its needs. "That these officials are increasingly relying on more arbitrary, extra-legal, and personalized security forces to protect their hold on power does not only bode badly for China's human rights record. It also threatens the stability of internal CCP politics should 610 Office work become politicized," they write. ## Reorganization or Demise in 2018 On March 19, 2018, by publishing a document dated March 21, it was announced that the 610 Office was being abolished and its functions transferred to the Central Political and Legal Affairs Commission and the Ministry of Public Security.
46,696,865	Michael Allen (Canadian football)	1,163,118,052	Former Canadian football defensive back	[ "1964 births", "BC Lions players", "Canadian Junior Football League players", "Canadian football defensive backs", "Carleton Ravens football players", "Jamaican players of Canadian football", "Living people", "Ottawa Rough Riders players", "Sportspeople from Clarendon Parish, Jamaica", "Winnipeg Blue Bombers players" ]	Michael Allen (born August 1, 1964) is a former Canadian football defensive back who played seven seasons in the Canadian Football League (CFL) with the Winnipeg Blue Bombers, Ottawa Rough Riders and BC Lions. He was drafted by the Blue Bombers in the fourth round of the 1988 CFL Draft. He played at Bemidji State University, Division II NCAA in Bemidji, Minnesota, USA in 1984. He then transferred to CIS football at Carleton University in 1986. Allen won three Grey Cup championships, two with the Blue Bombers and one with the Lions. Allen's first three years, out of his seven years pro career, was as a backup free safety before he got his first start as a player in 1991. He then continued on as a starter off and on with the Blue Bombers and Rough Riders till he retired in 1995. He was best known as a special teams player for blocking punts, sure hands as a tackler and exceptional speed. He holds the CFL record for most fumble recoveries returned for touchdowns after returning five blocked punts for scores and also a Guinness World record for the Most Touchdown in professional football on fumble recoveries. ## Early years and career Allen was born in the city of May Pen, in the Parish of Clarendon, Jamaica. His family moved to Canada when he was ten years old in 1974. Allen played junior football for the Thunder Bay Giants of the Canadian Junior Football League and CIS football for the Carleton Ravens. ## Professional career Allen played seven seasons in the Canadian Football League, playing for the Winnipeg Blue Bombers, Ottawa Rough Riders, and BC Lions. ### Winnipeg Blue Bombers Allen was selected by the Winnipeg Blue Bombers in the fourth round of the 1988 CFL Draft with the 29th overall pick. He played in 17 regular season games during his rookie season, in which he made no tackles but contributed heavily on special teams. Allen recovered three blocked punts for touchdowns throughout the season, including one that was returned 30 yards to the endzone against the Ottawa Rough Riders. The Blue Bombers went on to defeat the BC Lions 22–21 to win the 76th Grey Cup, making Allen a Grey Cup champion in his rookie season. Before the 1989 season, All-Star safety Bennie Thompson left the Blue Bombers to join the New Orleans Saints of the National Football League, leaving an opening on the roster for a new starting safety. Allen was initially designated to fill this role, but it eventually went to Moustafa Ali. He found early success defensively, making two interceptions in his first five weeks. He also tied the CFL career record for fumbles recovered for touchdowns when he recovered his fourth career blocked punt in an August game against the Toronto Argonauts. In November of that year, Allen again blocked a punt which was recovered by Paul Clatney for a Blue Bombers touchdown. In addition to his large role on special teams, Allen contributed far more defensively in 1989 than he did in his rookie year, recording 27 tackles in 16 regular season games. The Blue Bombers again qualified for the playoffs, but lost to the Hamilton Tiger-Cats 10–14 in the East Final. In the 1990 CFL Draft, the Blue Bombers drafted safety Dave Bovell in the second round, who took over as a starter with Allen as backup. Allen had a relatively quiet season despite playing in every regular season game, recording four tackles and returning a single punt. The Blue Bombers won the 78th Grey Cup in a 50–11 victory over the Edmonton Eskimos. In 1991, Allen started in place of Bovell after he suffered torn knee ligaments early in the regular season. As a result, Allen had the most productive season of his career, recording 38 tackles, two interceptions, and a sack over 12 regular season games. In August, Allen broke the CFL career record for fumbles recovered for touchdowns when he recovered his fifth blocked punt for a touchdown. Shortly afterward, he missed multiple games due to a sprained ankle. The Blue Bombers lost to the Toronto Argonauts 3–42 in the East Final. ### Ottawa Rough Riders After the 1991 season, Allen became an unrestricted free agent and signed with the Blue Bombers. Shortly thereafter, he requested a traded and was traded to the Ottawa Rough Riders for Brett MacNeil. He played in every regular season game for the Rough Riders in 1992, recording 19 tackles. The majority of Allen's role occurred on special teams, with The Ottawa Citizen's Ken Warren describing him as "one of Ottawa's top special teams players". During a practice in September, Allen fought with fellow Rough Rider defensive back Anthony Drawhorn after the two players insulted each other. The fight lasted several minutes and both players were criticized for their roles in it. The Rough Riders made the playoffs but lost to the Hamilton Tiger-Cats in the East Semi-Final. After starting safety Sean Foudy left the Rough Riders as a free agent, Allen competed with Hency Charles and Ken Walcott in training camp for the starting role. Allen emerged as the starter in July, but he was sidelined a month later with a knee injury. While Allen returned quickly from the injury, he was replaced by Walcott as starter and was moved to the reserve list for a short time. He was reactivated after Walcott was injured with turf toe, but Remi Trudel was started at safety in place of Allen. ### BC Lions Allen had a physical altercation with Walcott outside of a Rough Riders practice in August 1993. Shortly afterward, Ottawa granted Allen his traded request to be with his former coach Dave Ritchie, and was traded to the BC Lions for safety Burtland Cummings. With the Lions, Allen was a backup for Tom Europe. He spent time on the reserve list during parts of the regular season and suffered a shoulder injury. Allen played nine games with the Lions in the regular season, contributing eight tackles. The Lions appeared in the West Semi-Final, where they lost to the Calgary Stampeders 9–17. Allen re-signed with the Lions for the 1994 season due his renewed religious convictions, decided to retire in February 1995. He played in nine games but spent much of the season being moved on and off the injured list with various injuries. The Lions went on to win the 82nd Grey Cup, making Allen a Grey Cup champion for the third time. ### Season statistics ## Retirement and career Allen retired after the 1994 season and founded Victory Promotions. Victory Promotions sold pre-paid phone cards that worked on AT&T Canada's long-distance network. Through a licensing deal with the Canadian Football League Players' Association, the phone cards featured images of well-known CFL players and were sold at the Canadian Football Hall of Fame. He then went on to opening the second largest organic greenhouse, at the time, in Western Canada. Allen was inducted in the BC Sports Hall of Fame in 2011 as part of the BC Lion 1994 Grey Cup Championship Team, and was also twice inducted into the Canadian Football Hall of Fame as part of his 1988 and 1990 Grey Cup Championship teams with the Winnipeg Blue Bombers.
181,158	Coma Berenices	1,171,723,469	Constellation in the northern hemisphere	[ "Coma Berenices", "Northern constellations", "Ptolemaic Kingdom in popular culture" ]	Coma Berenices is an ancient asterism in the northern sky, which has been defined as one of the 88 modern constellations. It is in the direction of the fourth galactic quadrant, between Leo and Boötes, and it is visible in both hemispheres. Its name means "Berenice's Hair" in Latin and refers to Queen Berenice II of Egypt, who sacrificed her long hair as a votive offering. It was introduced to Western astronomy during the third century BC by Conon of Samos and was further corroborated as a constellation by Gerardus Mercator and Tycho Brahe. It is the only modern constellation named for a historic person. The constellation's major stars are Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Comae Berenices. They form a half square, along the diagonal of which run Berenice's imaginary tresses, formed by the Coma Star Cluster. The constellation's brightest star is Beta Comae Berenices, a 4.2-magnitude main sequence star similar to the Sun. Coma Berenices contains the North Galactic Pole and one of the richest-known galaxy clusters, the Coma Cluster, part of the Coma Supercluster. Galaxy Malin 1, in the constellation, is the first-known giant low-surface-brightness galaxy. Supernova SN 1940B was the first scientifically observed (underway) type II supernova. FK Comae Berenices is the prototype of an eponymous class of variable stars. The constellation is the radiant of one meteor shower, Coma Berenicids, which has one of the fastest meteor speeds, up to 65 kilometres per second (40 mi/s). ## History Coma Berenices has been recognized as an asterism since the Hellenistic period (or much earlier, according to some authors), and is the only modern constellation named for an historic figure. It was introduced to Western astronomy during the third century BC by Conon of Samos, the court astronomer of Egyptian ruler Ptolemy III Euergetes, to honour Ptolemy's consort, Berenice II. Berenice vowed to sacrifice her long hair as a votive offering if Ptolemy returned safely from battle during the Third Syrian War. Modern scholars are uncertain if Berenice made the sacrifice before or after Ptolemy's return; it was suggested that it happened after Ptolemy's return (around March–June or May 245 BC), when Conon presented the asterism jointly with scholar and poet Callimachus during a public evening ceremony. In Callimachus' poem, Aetia (composed around that time), Berenice dedicated her tresses "to all the gods". In Poem 66, the Latin translation by the Roman poet Catullus, and in Hyginus' De Astronomica, she dedicated her tresses to Aphrodite and placed them in the temple of Arsinoe II (identified after Berenice's death with Aphrodite) at Zephyrium. According to De astronomica, by the next morning the tresses had disappeared. Conon proposed that Aphrodite had placed the tresses in the sky as an acknowledgement of Berenice's sacrifice. Callimachus called the asterism plokamos Berenikēs or bostrukhon Berenikēs in Greek, translated into Latin as "Coma Berenices" by Catullus. Hipparchus and Geminus also recognized it as a distinct constellation. Eratosthenes called it "Berenice's Hair" and "Ariadne's Hair", considering it part of the constellation Leo. Similarly, Ptolemy did not include it among his 48 constellations in the Almagest; considering it part of Leo and calling it Plokamos. Coma Berenices became popular during the 16th century. In 1515, a set of gores by Johannes Schöner labelled the asterism Trica, "hair". In 1536 it appeared on a celestial globe by Caspar Vopel, who is credited with the asterism's designation as a constellation. That year, it also appeared on a celestial map by Petrus Apianus as "Crines Berenices". In 1551, Coma Berenices appeared on a celestial globe by Gerardus Mercator with five Latin and Greek names: Cincinnus, caesaries, πλόκαμος, Berenicis crinis and Trica. Mercator's reputation as a cartographer ensured the constellation's inclusion on Dutch sky globes beginning in 1589. Tycho Brahe, also credited with Coma's designation as a constellation, included it in his 1602 star catalogue. Brahe recorded fourteen stars in the constellation; Johannes Hevelius increased its number to twenty-one, and John Flamsteed to forty-three. Coma Berenices also appeared in Johann Bayer's 1603 Uranometria, and a few other 17th-century celestial maps followed suit. Coma Berenices and the now-obsolete Antinous are considered the first post-Ptolemaic constellations depicted on a celestial globe. With Antinous, Coma Berenices exemplified a trend in astronomy in which globe- and map-makers continued to rely on the ancients for data. This trend ended at the turn of the 16th century with observations of the southern sky and the work of Tycho Brahe. Before the 18th century Coma Berenices was known in English by several names, including "Berenice's Bush" and "Berenice's periwig". The earliest-known English name, "Berenices haire", dates to 1601. By 1702 the constellation was known as Coma Berenices, and appears as such in the 1731 Universal Etymological English Dictionary. ### Non-Western astronomy Coma Berenices was known to the Akkadians as Ḫegala. In Babylonian astronomy a star, known as ḪÉ.GÁL-a-a (translated as "which is before it") or MÚL.ḪÉ.GÁL-a-a, is tentatively considered part of Coma Berenices. It was also argued that Coma Berenices appears in Egyptian Ramesside star clocks as sb3w ꜥš3w, meaning "many stars". In Arabic astronomy Coma Berenices was known as Al-Dafira الضفيرة ("braid"), Al-Hulba الهلبة and Al-Thu'aba الذؤابة (both meaning "tuft"), the latter two are translations of the Ptolemaic Plokamos, forming the tuft of the constellation Leo and including most of the Flamsteed-designated stars (particularly 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18 and 21 Comae Berenices). Al-Sufi included it in Leo. Ulugh Beg, however, regarded Al-Dafira as consisting of two stars, 7 and 23 Comae Berenices. The North American Pawnee people depicted Coma Berenices as ten faint stars on a tanned elk-skin star map dated to at least the 17th century. In the South American Kalina mythology, the constellation was known as ombatapo (face). The constellation was also recognized by several Polynesian peoples. The people of Tonga had four names for Coma Berenices: Fatana-lua, Fata-olunga, Fata-lalo and Kapakau-o-Tafahi. The Boorong people called the constellation Tourt-chinboiong-gherra, and saw it as a small flock of birds drinking rainwater from a puddle in the crotch of a tree. The people of the Pukapuka atoll may have called it Te Yiku-o-te-kiole, although sometimes this name is associated with Ursa Major. ## Characteristics Coma Berenices is bordered by Boötes to the east, Canes Venatici to the north, Leo to the west and Virgo to the south. Covering 386.5 square degrees and 0.937% of the night sky, it ranks 42nd of the 88 constellations by area. The three-letter abbreviation for the constellation, as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922, is "Com". The official constellation boundaries, as set by Belgian astronomer Eugène Delporte in 1930, are defined by a polygon of 12 segments (illustrated in infobox). In the equatorial coordinate system, the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between and , and the declination coordinates are between +13.30° and +33.31°. Coma Berenices is wholly visible to observers north of latitude 56°S. and the constellation's midnight culmination occurs on 2 April. ## Features Although it is not large, Coma Berenices contains one galactic supercluster, two galactic clusters, one star cluster and eight Messier objects (including several globular clusters). These objects can be seen with minimal obscuration by dust because the constellation is not in the direction of the galactic plane. Because of that, there are few open clusters (except for the Coma Berenices Cluster, which dominates the northern part of the constellation), diffuse nebulae or planetary nebulae. Coma Berenices contains the North Galactic Pole at right ascension and declination (epoch J2000.0). ### Stars #### Brightest stars Coma Berenices is not particularly bright, as none of its stars are brighter than fourth magnitude, although there are 66 stars brighter than or equal to apparent magnitude 6.5. The constellation's brightest star is Beta Comae Berenices (43 Comae Berenices in Flamsteed designation, occasionally known as Al-Dafira), at magnitude 4.2 and with a high proper motion. In Coma Berenices' northeastern region, it is 29.95 ± 0.10 light-years from Earth. A solar analog, it is a yellow-hued F-type main-sequence star with a spectral class of F9.5V B. Beta Comae Berenices is around 36% brighter, and 15% more massive than the Sun, and with a radius 10% larger. The second-brightest star in Coma Berenices is the 4.3-magnitude, bluish Alpha Comae Berenices (42 Comae Berenices), with the proper name Diadem, in the southeastern part of the constellation. Despite its Alpha Bayer designation, the star is dimmer than Beta Comae Berenices, being one of the cases where designation does not correspond to the brightest star. It is a double star, with the spectral classes of F5V and F6V. The star system is 58.1 ± 0.9 light-years from Earth. Gamma Comae Berenices (15 Comae Berenices) is an orange-hued giant star with a magnitude of 4.4 and a spectral class of K1III C. In the southwestern part of the constellation, it is 169 ± 2 light-years from Earth, Estimated to be around 1.79 times as massive as the Sun, it has expanded to around 10 times its radius. It is the brightest star in the Coma Star Cluster. With Alpha Comae Berenices and Beta Comae Berenices, Gamma Comae Berenices forms a 45-degree isosceles triangle from which Berenice's imaginary tresses hang. #### Star systems The star systems of Coma Berenices include binary, double and triple stars. 21 Comae Berenices (proper name Kissin) is a close binary with nearly equal components and an orbital period of 26 years. The system is 272 ± 3 light-years away. The Coma Cluster contains at least eight spectroscopic binaries, and the constellation has seven eclipsing binaries: CC, DD, EK, RW, RZ, SS and UX Comae Berenices. There are over thirty double stars in Coma Berenices, including 24 Comae Berenices with contrasting colors. Its primary is an orange-hued giant star with a magnitude of 5.0, 610 light-years from Earth, and its secondary is a blue-white-hued star with a magnitude of 6.6. Triple stars include 12 Comae Berenices, 17 Comae Berenices, KR Comae Berenices and Struve 1639. #### Variable stars Over 200 variable stars are known in Coma Berenices, although many are obscure. Alpha Comae Berenices is a possible Algol variable. FK Comae Berenices, which varies from magnitude 8.14 to 8.33 over a period of 2.4 days, is the prototype for the FK Comae Berenices class of variable stars and the star in which the "flip-flop phenomenon" was discovered. FS Comae Berenices is a semi-regular variable, a red giant with a period of about two months whose magnitude varies between 6.1 and 5.3. R Comae Berenices is a Mira variable with a maximum magnitude of almost 7. There are 123 RR Lyrae variables in the constellation, with many in the M53 cluster. One of these stars, TU Comae Berenices, may have a binary system. The M100 galaxy contains about twenty Cepheid variables, which were observed by the Hubble Space Telescope. Coma Berenices also contains Alpha<sup>2</sup> Canum Venaticorum variables, such as 13 Comae Berenices and AI Comae Berenices. In 2019 scientists at Aryabhatta Research Institute of Observational Sciences announced the discovery of 28 new variable stars in Coma Berenices' globular cluster NGC 4147. #### Supernovae A number of supernovae have been discovered in Coma Berenices. Four (SN 1940B, SN 1969H, SN 1987E and SN 1999gs) were in the NGC 4725 galaxy, and another four were discovered in the M99 galaxy (NGC 4254): SN 1967H, SN 1972Q, SN 1986I and SN 2014L. Five were discovered in the M100 galaxy (NGC 4321): SN 1901B, SN 1914A, SN 1959E, SN 1979C and SN 2006X. SN 1940B, discovered on 5 May 1940, was the first observed type II supernova. SN 2005ap, discovered on 3 March 2005, is the second-brightest-known supernova to date with a peak absolute magnitude of about −22.7. Due to its great distance from Earth (4.7 billion light-years), it was not visible to the naked eye and was discovered telescopically. SN 1979C, discovered in 1979, retained its original X-ray brightness for 25 years despite fading in visible light. #### Other stars Coma Berenices also contains the neutron star RBS 1223 and the pulsar PSR B1237+25. RBS 1223 is a member of the Magnificent Seven, a group of young neutron stars. In 1975, the first extra-solar source of extreme ultraviolet, the white dwarf HZ 43, was discovered in Coma Berenices. In 1995, there was a very rare outburst of the WZ Sagittae-type dwarf nova AL Comae Berenices. A June 2003 outburst from GO Comae Berenices, an SU Ursae Majoris-type dwarf nova, was photometrically observed. ### Exoplanets Coma Berenices has seven known exoplanets. One, HD 108874 b, has Earth-like insolation. WASP-56 is a sun-like star of spectral type G6 and apparent magnitude 11.48 with a planet 0.6 the mass of Jupiter that has a period of 4.6 days. ### Star clusters #### Coma Star Cluster The Coma Star Cluster represents Berenice's sacrificed tresses and as a naked eye object has been known since antiquity, appearing in Ptolemy's Almagest. It doesn't have a Messier or NGC designation, but is in the Melotte catalogue of open clusters (designated Melotte 111) and is also catalogued as Collinder 256. It is a large, diffuse open cluster of about 50 stars ranging between magnitudes five and ten, including several of Coma Berenices' stars which are visible to the naked eye. The cluster is spread over a huge region (more than five degrees across) near Gamma Comae Berenices. It has such a large apparent size because it is relatively close, only 280 light-years or 86 parsecs away. #### Globular clusters M53 (NGC 5024) is a globular cluster which was discovered independently by Johann Elert Bode in 1775 and Charles Messier in February 1777; William Herschel was the first to resolve it into stars. The magnitude-7.7 cluster is 56,000 light-years from Earth. Only 1° away is NGC 5053, a globular cluster with a sparser nucleus of stars. Its total luminosity is the equivalent of about 16,000 suns, one of the lowest luminosities of any globular cluster. It was discovered by William Herschel in 1784. NGC 4147 is a somewhat dimmer globular cluster, with a much-smaller apparent size and an apparent magnitude of 10.7. ### Galaxies #### Coma Supercluster The Coma Supercluster, itself part of the Coma Filament, contains the Coma and Leo Cluster of galaxies. The Coma Cluster (Abell 1656) is 230 to 300 million light-years away. It is one of the largest-known clusters, with at least 10,000 galaxies (mainly elliptical, with a few spiral galaxies). Due to its distance from Earth, most of the galaxies are visible only through large telescopes. Its brightest members are NGC 4874 and NGC 4889, both with a magnitude of 13; most others are magnitude 15 or dimmer. NGC 4889 is a giant elliptical galaxy with one of the largest-known black holes (21 billion solar masses), and NGC 4921 is the cluster's brightest spiral galaxy. After observing the Coma Cluster, astronomer Fritz Zwicky first postulated the existence of dark matter during the 1930s. The massive galaxy Dragonfly 44 discovered in 2015 was found to consist almost entirely of dark matter. Its mass is very similar to that of the Milky Way, but it emits only 1% of the light emitted by the Milky Way. NGC 4676, sometimes called the Mice Galaxies, is a pair of interacting galaxies 300 million light-years from Earth. Its progenitor galaxies were spiral, and astronomers estimate that they had their closest approach about 160 million years ago. That approach triggered large regions of star formation in both galaxies, with long "tails" of dust, stars and gas. The two progenitor galaxies are predicted to interact significantly at least one more time before they merge into a larger, probably-elliptical galaxy. #### Virgo Cluster Coma Berenices contains the northern portion of the Virgo Cluster (also known as the Coma–Virgo Cluster), about 60 million light-years away. The portion includes six Messier galaxies. M85 (NGC 4382), considered elliptical or lenticular, is one of the cluster's brighter members at magnitude nine. M85 is interacting with the spiral galaxy NGC 4394 and the elliptical galaxy MCG-3-32-38. However, it is relatively isolated from the rest of the cluster. M88 (NGC 4501) is a multi-arm spiral galaxy seen at about 30° from edge-on. It has a highly-regular shape with well-developed, symmetrical arms. Among the first galaxies recognized as spiral, it has a supermassive black hole in its center. M91 (NGC 4548), a barred spiral galaxy with a bright, diffuse nucleus, is the faintest object in Messier's catalog at magnitude 10.2. M98 (NGC 4192), a bright, elongated spiral galaxy seen nearly edge-on, appears elliptical because of its unusual angle. The magnitude-10 galaxy has no redshift. M99 (NGC 4254) is a spiral galaxy seen face-on. Like M98 it is of magnitude-10 and has an unusually long arm on its west side. Four supernovae have been observed in the galaxy. M100 (NGC 4321), a magnitude-nine spiral galaxy seen face-on, is one of the cluster's brightest. Photographs reveal a brilliant core, two prominent spiral arms, an array of secondary arms and several dust lanes. #### Other galaxies M64 (NGC 4826) is known as the Black Eye Galaxy because of the prominent dark dust lane in front of the galaxy's bright nucleus. Also known as the Sleeping Beauty and Evil Eye galaxy, it is about 17.3 million light-years away. Recent studies indicate that the interstellar gas in the galaxy's outer regions rotates in the opposite direction from that in the inner regions, leading astronomers to believe that at least one satellite galaxy collided with it less than a billion years ago. All other evidence of the smaller galaxy has been assimilated. At the interface between the clockwise- and counterclockwise-rotating regions are many new nebulae and young stars. NGC 4314 is a face-on barred spiral galaxy at a distance of 40 million light-years. It is unique for its region of intense star formation, creating a ring around its nucleus which was discovered by the Hubble Space Telescope. The galaxy's prodigious star formation began five million years ago, in a region with a diameter of 1,000 light-years. The core's structure is also unique because the galaxy has spiral arms which feed gas into the bar. NGC 4414 is an unbarred spiral flocculent galaxy about 62 million light-years away. It is one of the closest flocculent spiral galaxies. NGC 4565 is an edge-on spiral galaxy which appears superimposed on the Virgo Cluster. NGC 4565 has been nicknamed the Needle Galaxy because when seen in full, it appears as a narrow streak of light. Like many edge-on spiral galaxies, it has a prominent dust lane and a central bulge. NGC 4565 has at least two satellite galaxies, and one of them is interacting with it. NGC 4651, about the size of the Milky Way, has tidal stellar streams gravitationally stripped from a smaller, satellite galaxy. It is about 62 million light-years away. It is located on the outskirts of the cluster, and is also known as the Umbrella Galaxy. Unlike the other spiral galaxies in the cluster, NGC 4651 is rich in neutral hydrogen, which also extends beyond the optical disk. Its star formation is typical for a galaxy of its type. Spiral galaxy Malin 1 discovered in 1986 is the first-known giant low-surface-brightness galaxy. With UGC 1382, it is also one of the largest low-surface-brightness galaxies. In 2006 a dwarf galaxy, also named Coma Berenices, was discovered in the constellation from data obtained by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. The galaxy is a faint satellite of the Milky Way. It is one of the faintest satellites of the Milky Way - its integrated luminosity is about 3700 times that of the Sun (absolute visible magnitude of about −4.1), which is lower than many globular clusters. A high mass to light ratio may mean that the satellite has large amounts of dark matter. ### Quasars HS 1216+5032 is a bright, gravitationally lensed pair of quasars. W Comae Berenices (or ON 231), a blazar in the constellation's northwest, was originally designated a variable star and later found to be a BL Lacertae object. As of 2009, it had the most intense gamma ray spectrum of the sixty known gamma-ray blazars. ### Gamma-ray bursts Some gamma-ray bursts occurred in Coma Berenices, particularly GRB 050509B on 9 May 2005 and GRB 080607 on 7 June 2008. GRB 050509B, which lasted only 0.03 second, became the first short burst with a detected afterglow. ### Meteor shower The Coma Berenicids meteor shower peaks around 18 January. Despite the shower's low intensity (averaging one or two meteors per hour) its meteors are some of the fastest, with speeds up to 65 kilometres per second (40 mi/s). ## In culture Since Callimachus' poem, Coma Berenices has been occasionally featured in culture. Alexander Pope alludes to the legend in the ending of The Rape of the Lock, in which the titular hair is placed among the stars. (The poem would go on to provide the names of some of the moons of Uranus.) In 1886, Spanish artist Luis Ricardo Falero created a mezzotint print personifying Coma Berenices alongside Virgo and Leo. In 1892, the Russian poet Afanasy Fet made the constellation the subject of his short poem, composed for the Countess Natalya Sollogub. The Swedish poet Gunnar Ekelöf wrote the lines "Your friend the comet combed his hair with the Leonids / Berenice let her hair hang down from the sky" in a 1933 poem. American writer and folksinger Richard Fariña mentions Coma Berenices in his 1966 novel Been Down So Long It Looks Like Up To Me, sardonically writing about content typical to upper-level astronomy coursework at Cornell: "It's the advanced courses give you trouble. Relativity principles, spiral nebula in Coma Berenices, that kind of hassle". The Bolivian poet, Pedro Shimose, makes Coma Berenices the home address of his "Señorita NGC 4565" in his poem "Carta a una estrella que vive en otra constelación" ("Letter to a star who lives in another constellation"), included in his 1967 collection, "Sardonia". " The Irish poet W. B. Yeats, in his poem "Her Dream", refers to "Berenice's burning hair" being "nailed upon the night". Francisco Guerrero, a 20th-century Spanish composer, wrote an orchestral work on the constellation in 1996. In 1999 Irish artist Alice Maher made a series of four oversize drawings, entitled Coma Berenices, of entwining black hair coils. ## See also - Coma Berenices in Chinese astronomy
88,821	Bristol Temple Meads railway station	1,166,534,511	Major railway station for the city of Bristol, England	[ "Art Deco architecture in England", "Art Deco railway stations", "Bristol Harbourside", "Bristol and Exeter Railway", "DfT Category A stations", "Former Great Western Railway stations", "Grade I listed buildings in Bristol", "Grade I listed railway stations", "Great Western Main Line", "History of Bristol", "Isambard Kingdom Brunel railway stations", "Network Rail managed stations", "Railway stations in Bristol", "Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1840", "Railway stations served by CrossCountry", "Railway stations served by Great Western Railway", "Severn Beach Line" ]	Bristol Temple Meads is the oldest and largest railway station in Bristol, England. It is located 118 miles 31 chains (118.39 mi; 190.5 km) away from London Paddington. It is an important transport hub for public transport in the city; there are bus services to many parts of the city and surrounding districts, with a ferry to the city centre. Bristol's other major station, Bristol Parkway, is a more recent station on the northern outskirts of the conurbation. Temple Meads was opened on 31 August 1840, as the western terminus of the Great Western Railway. The railway, including Temple Meads, was the first to be designed by the British engineer Isambard Kingdom Brunel. Soon, the station was also used by the Bristol and Exeter Railway, the Bristol and Gloucester Railway, the Bristol Harbour Railway and the Bristol and South Wales Union Railway. To accommodate the increasing number of trains, the station was expanded in the 1870s by Francis Fox and again between 1930 and 1935 by Percy Emerson Culverhouse. Brunel's terminus is no longer part of the operational station. The historical significance of the station has been noted and most of the site is Grade I listed. In Britain's 100 Best Railway Stations by Simon Jenkins, the station was one of only ten to be awarded five stars. Thirteen platforms are in use, numbered between 1 and 15, but passenger trains are confined to just eight tracks. Most platforms are numbered separately at each end, with odd numbers at the east end and even numbers at the west. Platform 2 is a bay platform at the west end which not used by passenger trains and there is no platform 14. Temple Meads is managed by Network Rail. Most services are operated by the present-day Great Western Railway, with others by CrossCountry. ## History The name Temple Meads derives from the nearby Temple Church, which was gutted by bombing during World War II. The word "meads" is a derivation of "mæd", an Old English variation of "mædwe", meadow, referring to the water meadows alongside the River Avon that were part of Temple parish. As late as 1820 the site was undeveloped pasture outside the boundaries of the old city, some distance from the commercial centre. It lay between the Floating Harbour and the city's cattle market, which was built in 1830. ### Brunel's station The original terminus was built in 1839–41 for the Great Western Railway (GWR), the first passenger railway in Bristol, and was designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel, the railway's engineer. It was built to accommodate Brunel's broad gauge. The station was on a viaduct to raise it above the level of the Floating Harbour and River Avon, the latter being crossed via the Grade I listed Avon Bridge. The station was covered by a 200-foot (60 m) train shed, extended beyond the platforms by 155 feet (47 m) into a storage area and engine shed, fronted by an office building in the Tudor style. Train services to Bath commenced on 31 August 1840 and were extended to Paddington on 30 June 1841 following the completion of Box Tunnel. A few weeks before the start of the services to Paddington the Bristol and Exeter Railway (B&ER) had opened, on 14 June 1841, its trains reversing in and out of the GWR station. The third railway at Temple Meads was the Bristol and Gloucester Railway, which opened on 8 July 1844 and was taken over by the Midland Railway (MR) on 1 July 1845. This used the GWR platforms, diverging onto its own line on the far side of the bridge over the Floating Harbour. Both these new railways were engineered by Brunel and were initially broad gauge. Brunel also designed the Bristol and South Wales Union Railway, but this was not opened until 25 August 1863, nearly four years after his death. It terminated at Temple Meads. ### Bristol and Exeter Railway station In 1845 the B&ER built its own station at right angles to the GWR station and an "express platform" on the curve linking the two lines so that through trains no longer had to reverse. The wooden B&ER station was known locally as "The Cowshed"; but a grand headquarters was built at street level on the west side of its station in 1852–54 to the Jacobean designs of Samuel Fripp. The Bristol and Portishead Pier and Railway opened a branch off the Bristol and Exeter line west of the city on 18 April 1867, the trains being operated by the B&ER and using its platforms at Temple Meads. In 1850 an engine shed had been opened on the south bank of the River Avon on the east side of the line to the B&ER station. Between 1859 and 1875, 23 engines were built in the workshops attached to the shed, including several distinctive Bristol and Exeter Railway 4-2-4T locomotives. ### Goods stations The GWR built a 326-by-138-foot (99 m × 42 m) goods shed on the north side of the station adjacent to the Floating Harbour, with a small dock for transhipment of goods to barges (not seagoing ships, as the wharf was upstream of Bristol Bridge). Wagons had to be lowered 12 feet (4 m) to the goods shed on hoists. On 11 March 1872, a direct connection to the harbour was made in the form of the Bristol Harbour Railway, a joint operation of the three railways, which ran between the passenger station and the goods yard, across the street outside on a bridge, and descended into a tunnel under the churchyard of St. Mary Redcliffe on its way to a wharf downstream of Bristol Bridge. The southern end of the tunnel can still be seen between the bottom of Guinea Street and the Ostritch public house. The footbridge across the entrance to Bathhurst Basin is on the site of the railway bascule bridge. The B&ER had a goods depot at Pylle Hill (south of the station) from 1850, and the MR had an independent yard at Avonside Wharf on the opposite side of the Floating Harbour from 1858. ### Effects of the change of gauge On 29 May 1854 the Midland Railway laid a third rail along their line to Gloucester to provide mixed gauge so that it could operate standard gauge passenger trains while broad gauge goods trains could still run to collieries north of Bristol. Sidings at South Wales Junction allowed traffic to be transhipped between wagons on the two different gauges. The GWR continued to operate its trains on the broad gauge, but on 3 September 1873 it opened the standard gauge Bristol and North Somerset Railway. This had a junction nearly 1⁄2 mile (800 m) from the station on the London line and so mixed gauge was extended to that point. During the following year mixed gauge track was continued beyond Bath in connection with the conversion of the Wilts, Somerset and Weymouth Railway to standard gauge. Mixed gauge was laid through Box Tunnel on 16 May 1875 and so standard gauge trains could run to London, although broad gauge was retained west of Temple Meads and through trains from London to Penzance and other stations in Devon and Cornwall continued to be broad gauge. Goods traffic was transhipped between the two gauges in the B&ER yard at Pylle Hill. The B&ER converted the line to Taunton to mixed gauge by 1 June 1875, but the remainder of the line to Exeter was not done until 1 March 1876, three months after the B&ER had amalgamated with the GWR. The remainder of the lines beyond Exeter were converted to standard gauge on 21 May 1892 so the extra rails at Temple Meads fell into disuse and were removed to leave a purely standard gauge layout. This allowed the through station to be rebuilt with two additional platform faces. ### 1870s expansion The additional railway routes put the two short 140-yard (130 m) platforms of Brunel's terminus under pressure and a scheme was developed to extend the station. An enabling Act of Parliament for a new Bristol Joint Station was passed in 1865, and between 1871 and 1878 the station was extensively rebuilt by a committee formed of the three principal railway companies that used the station. Brunel's platforms were extended by 212 yards (194 m) towards London, and a new three-platform through station was built on the site of the express platform, while the B&ER station was closed and the site used for a new carriage shed. From the 1960s, the work was usually attributed to Brunel's former associate Matthew Digby Wyatt, but in 2020 it was established to be by Bristol architect Henry Lloyd under the superintendence of Francis Fox, the engineer of the B&ER. The curved wrought-iron train shed over the new through platforms was 500 feet (150 m) long on the platform wall. The goods depot was rebuilt, with the inconvenient wagon hoists replaced by a steep incline from the east end of Temple Meads, which meant that the sidings in the goods shed were at right angles to their original alignment; and the barge dock was filled in. Trains on the Bristol and South Wales Union and the Midland routes operated from the terminal platforms, while the GWR used the new through platforms. The capital costs of the new work were split 4/14 GWR/B&ER and 10/14 MR, and operating costs were split GWR 3/8, MR 3/8 and B&ER 2/8. Hence, when the GWR absorbed the B&ER in 1876 the split became GWR 5/8 and MR (later LMS) 3/8, until nationalisation on 1 January 1948. ### Twentieth-century changes In 1924 the goods depot was rebuilt with 15 platforms, each 575 feet (175 m) long. Large warehousing and cellar space was provided to store goods, although by this time another city centre goods depot had been opened at Canons Marsh. Between 1930 and 1935 the through station was expanded under the direction of the GWR's chief architect P E Culverhouse, in Art Deco style, both eastwards over the old cattle market and southwards on a new wider bridge across Cattle Market Road and the New Cut of the River Avon. This made room for the addition of five through-platform faces, while the removal of the narrow island platforms in the middle of the train shed allowed the main Up and Down platforms to be both widened and lengthened. All the routes approaching Temple Meads were widened to four tracks to allow more flexibility. As part of this work, four manual signal boxes were replaced by three power signal boxes, and the semaphore signals and mechanical point linkages were replaced by colour light signals and point motors. The new Bristol Temple Meads East box was the largest on the GWR, with 368 miniature levers operated by three signalmen assisted by a "booking boy". The other two boxes were at Bristol Temple Meads West, and controlling the movements in and out of the new Bath Road Depot, which replaced the old B&ER locomotive works in 1934. During World War II the station was bombed, which led to the destruction of the wooden spire of the clock tower above the ticket office on 3 January 1941. Gas lighting was replaced by fluorescent electric lights in 1960. Bristol Panel Signal Box was built on the site of Platform 14. When opened, it controlled 280 multiple-aspect signals and 243 motor-worked points on 114 miles (183 km) of route, the largest area controlled by a single signal box on British Rail at the time. The construction of this signal box, completed in 1970, involved the demolition of almost half of the 1870s extension to Brunel's terminus and completely blocked rail access to the Old Station. A second main-line station serving the city, Bristol Parkway, opened in 1972. It is on the northern outskirts of the conurbation close to the M32 motorway and was designed as a park and ride facility for long-distance travellers. In the late 1960s the Royal Mail built a mail conveyor at the northern end of the station, with significant aesthetic impact. This was out of use for many years following the transfer of Royal Mail's activities to the West of England Mail Centre at Filton and the opening of the short-lived Railnet Hub next to Bristol Parkway station in May 2000. It was finally dismantled in stages and removed between October and December 2014. In 1990/91, £2 million was spent by InterCity on a renovation of the main train shed and another £7 million on restoring some of the older areas of the station, including the refurbishment of the subway and construction of new retail outlets. The shorter of the two 1935 platform islands had been used only for parcels traffic since the 1960s but was temporarily brought back into passenger use during this work. It was fully restored for passenger use in 2001. In August 1998, a 15-month, £7 million project commenced with work performed on the external facade, clocktower, roof and paving. As part of this work, the quarry from which the dolomite stone had originally been extracted was reopened in Abbots Leigh. ### Closure of lines Passenger traffic on the old North Somerset line ceased on 2 November 1959, and many more closures followed after the publication of Dr Beeching's The Reshaping of British Railways in 1963. The connection to the Bristol Harbour Railway was closed on 6 January 1964; passenger trains to Portishead were withdrawn on 7 September 1964; and most local services in the north of the city were withdrawn on 23 November 1964. The following year saw local services on the Midland route to Gloucester withdrawn and the Midland route to Bath Green Park via Mangotsfield was closed on 7 March 1966. St Anne's Park and Saltford on the line towards Bath survived until 5 January 1970. On 12 September 1965, the terminal platforms were closed. This allowed the platforms to be renumbered with the order reversed (see list below). The redundant train shed became a covered car park in February of the following year, but from 1989 until 1999 the original (Brunel) part was an interactive science centre known as The Exploratory and an exhibition space. From 2002 to 2008, it housed the British Empire and Commonwealth Museum. As of 2016, the shed, now known as the Passenger Shed, is a venue for events such as conferences and weddings. ### Enterprise zone and station redevelopment Bristol Temple Quarter Enterprise Zone, an enterprise zone with an area of 70 hectares (170 acres) centred on Temple Meads, was announced in 2011, and launched in 2012. Network Rail is a partner in coordinating development in the zone. In November 2012, Network Rail announced a £100 million redevelopment of the station, with two unused platforms to be opened up. Station Approach Road will be turned into a public square and the station's main entrance moved to the north side. A large bridge above the tracks at the east end of the station which was erected in the 1970s for postal traffic was demolished at Christmas 2014. In November 2016, the University of Bristol announced that it plans to build a Temple Quarter Campus to the east of the station, replacing the derelict sorting office which was formerly connected to the station by the bridge. Bristol and Exeter House has been redeveloped by TCN UK as a business hub for small and medium-sized enterprises. Part of Brunel's station has found a new use in a redevelopment by the City Council, the University of Bristol and the West of England Local Enterprise Partnership. Opened in 2013 as the Engine Shed, it hosts business incubators for startups. Plans to build a 12,000-capacity arena on the former site of the Bristol Bath Road Traction Maintenance Depot, to the south of the station, were cancelled in 2018. ### 21st century The Great Western Main Line from London to Bristol was part of electrification plans first announced by the UK government in 2009. However, because of cost overruns and delays, on 8 November 2016 the government announced that several elements of the programme would be deferred including electrification south-west of Thingley Junction near Chippenham, and between Temple Meads and Bristol Parkway. Although this left Temple Meads un-electrified, the Hitachi Super Express trains are bi-mode so can operate on diesel around Bristol and can use electricity where the electrification work is complete. The electrification plans do not extend west of Bristol, so local services will continue to be provided using diesel trains, with Class 165/166s cascaded from Thames Valley services scheduled to replace the 150/153/158s on local services. The Portishead branch line, which runs along the south side of the River Avon from a junction just beyond Parson Street station is proposed to be reopened. There is an aspiration of two trains per hour between Portishead and Temple Meads in peak periods, possibly calling at Bedminster and Parson Street. The line was built in the 1860s but closed to passenger traffic in 1964, leaving Portishead as one of Britain's largest towns without a railway station. The line was reopened for freight traffic to serve Royal Portbury Docks in 2001, and the restoration of passenger traffic is considered part of the Greater Bristol Metro scheme, which was given the go-ahead in July 2012 as part of a City Deal, whereby local councils would be given greater control over money by the government. The Metro scheme could also see the reopening of the Henbury Loop Line to passengers, with the possibility of services from Temple Meads to Bristol Parkway via Clifton Down and Henbury. Plans for a loop were rejected by the West of England Joint Transport Board, but in July 2015 Bristol City Councillors voted to send the decision back to the board for further discussion. On 1 April 2014, Network Rail took over management of the station from First Great Western. A new station reception was opened in 2023, replacing the information desk on platform three. #### Refurbishment In 2013, it was announced that the station roof would be refurbished as part of a scheme to transform the station over the 25 years commencing 2013. In September 2021, foundations were installed for a planned eastern entrance to the station. Following the erection of scaffolding inside the station, work on the roof began in April 2022. ## Description ### Approaches Although it is now possible to reach the station through the Temple Quay office development (on the site of the goods shed) or from the Bristol Ferry Boat Company landing stage on the Floating Harbour, the traditional and main approach is from Temple Gate. Isambard Kingdom Brunel's Tudor-style offices, later used by the former British Empire and Commonwealth Museum, face this road and are flanked on the north side by an archway that used to be the main station for departing passengers; a matching arch on the other side was the arrivals gateway but was removed when the station was expanded in the 1870s. Opposite these offices are the Grosvenor Hotel and the derelict George Railway Hotel, which were built in the 1870s, on either side of the site of the Bristol Harbour Railway bridge. A modern pub named The Reckless Engineer as a tribute to Brunel faces the approach road to the station. On the right of the Station Approach but at a lower level is the B&ER office building designed by Samuel Fripp; the 1930s offices known as "Collett House" (named after Charles Collett) and a disused parcels depot lie beyond. On the left is Brunel's original station building. The train shed is 72 feet (22 m) wide with a wooden box-frame roof and cast iron columns disguised as hammerbeams above Tudor arches. It is believed to be the widest hammerbeam roof in England and, along with most of the station, is a Grade 1 listed building, and forms part of a proposed Great Western Railway World Heritage Site. At the top of the slope an entrance on the left to the covered car park marks the junction between the original terminus and Fox's 1870s extension. Ahead is the turreted main station building, and to the right a flat area marks the site of the B&ER station. The tunnel beneath this area was the route for passengers to and from the Down platform from 1878 until the station was enlarged in 1935. Outside the old station building is a statue of Brunel, moved here in 2021 but first erected in the city centre in 1982. ### Station Entering the main building, the ticket office and ticket machines are immediately ahead, and the route from Temple Quay and the ferry is on the left; a newsagent is on the right, next to the platform entrance. Customer Information System screens by the entrance show arrival and departure information for all platforms, as do displays on each of the platforms. There are 13 numbered platforms serving 8 tracks. The platforms are numbered from 1–15 with 2 and 14 omitted. Platforms 1, 13 and 15 do not share tracks with any other platform. Platforms 3–12 consist of five tracks that are each subdivided into a pair of numbered platforms. Of those, the odd numbered platforms are at the north end of the station, while even numbers are at the south end. All platforms are signalled for trains in either direction and the flexible layout means that trains on any route can use any part of the station. Entrance to the platforms is controlled by automatic ticket gates on Platform 3, which is used by many northbound CrossCountry trains and local services to Bristol Parkway and Gloucester. The main station restaurant and bar is on the left and the short Platform 1, a bay, is beyond this. This is most frequently used by Severn Beach Line trains but is long enough to handle any four-car Diesel Multiple Unit (DMU). Behind Platform 1 is a brick wall that forms part of the signal box and on this are some metal artworks created by artists with learning difficulties to celebrate Brunel's 200th anniversary in 2006; an interpretation panel is nearby. The High Level Siding beyond Platform 1 is the rump of the Bristol Harbour Railway, and Bristol Barton Hill TMD can be seen in the distance alongside Bristol East Junction (formerly South Wales Junction) where the lines to Bristol Parkway and Bath diverge. On the right of the entrance is the subway that links all the platforms, reached either by steps or lift; it houses the main public toilets, automated teller machines (ATM) and several catering outlets (there is catering on all platform islands except 13–15). A passenger information office and lounge are above the subway, the British Transport Police office and cycle racks are beyond, and at the western end is Platform 4, used by only a few trains. Alongside this is Platform 2, another bay platform but not signalled for passenger trains and used only for stabling empty trains, as is the former Motorail unloading bay alongside. At the far end of this track is the old Fish Dock, occasionally used for stabling engineers' on-track equipment. Beyond the end of the platform the tracks swing to the right (the west) and pass out of sight beneath Bath Road Bridge, a girder bridge that carries the A4 out of the city. The first island platform comprises platforms 5 to 8. Platform 5 is inside the main train shed while 6 is a southerly extension and 7 and 8 were added outside the supporting wall in the 1930s. Platform 5 is used by trains towards Cardiff and platform 7 to Portsmouth; platforms 6 and 8 are the main platforms for Weston-super-Mare and stations to Penzance. Between platforms 5 and 7 are the two spur sidings that are long enough to stable a single Class 153 DMU. The third island platform comprises platforms 9 to 12 and also dates from the 1930s. It is longer than platforms 5–8 but the rear of a High Speed Train on the west end platforms will block part of the east end platform. A wide variety of trains use these platforms, including to and from London Paddington and Weymouth. The final island platform is shorter and only has east-end platforms 13 and 15: 15 is used by most trains from Paddington that continue westwards to Weston-super-Mare or beyond. Platform 13 is a terminus platform and is used by many trains from Paddington, some local services and occasionally by CrossCountry. There is another siding beyond platform 15 that used to be the In/out Road for Bristol Bath Road TMD. This depot has been demolished. Between platforms 3/4 and 5/6 are the Up Through line and the Middle Siding, the latter is often used to stable Mark 1 carriages between Torbay Express duties in the summer months. The Down Through line runs between platforms 11/12 and 13. To the north of the station lies Arriva TrainCare's Barton Hill TMD, and to the south-east of the station lies St Philip's Marsh depot which services the Great Western Railway fleet. This is accessible from both ends of Temple Meads station. Other facilities include pay phones, public Wi-Fi, a post box, photo booth, and passenger assistance such as information points, waiting rooms, a lost property office, first aid room, and CCTV. ## Passenger volume Temple Meads is the busiest station in the Bristol area. Official statistics show it to have the 35th-largest number of people entering or leaving any national rail station, the 14th busiest outside London. Comparing the year from April 2009 with the year from April 2002, estimated passenger numbers increased by 52%. The statistics cover twelve-month periods that start in April. ## Services ### Rail Great Western Railway operates main line services between Bristol Temple Meads and London Paddington, some of which continue beyond Bristol to Weston-super-Mare or Taunton. The company also operates other routes through Bristol such as between Cardiff Central and Portsmouth Harbour, Cardiff Central and Taunton including extensions as far as Penzance, Worcester Foregate Street/Gloucester and Westbury/Weymouth, and Severn Beach and Weston-super-Mare. Regular CrossCountry services run south to Paignton, Plymouth and Penzance and north to Birmingham New Street, Derby, Leeds, Newcastle and Edinburgh. A limited number of services operate to other destinations in the north such as Manchester Piccadilly, Glasgow Central and Aberdeen. ### Bus Bus services at the station include the Airport Flyer A1 service, 73 Bristol Temple Meads - Bradley Stoke North, and MetroBus route m3. ## See also - Rail services in Bristol - Commuter rail in the United Kingdom
33,797,241	Love a Woman	1,142,441,467	null	[ "2011 songs", "Beyoncé songs", "Mary J. Blige songs", "Songs written by Beyoncé", "Songs written by Sean Garrett" ]	"Love a Woman" is a song recorded by American R&B singer Mary J. Blige featuring Beyoncé from the former's tenth studio album My Life II... The Journey Continues (Act 1) (2011). It was written by Mary J. Blige, Beyoncé, Sean Garrett and Menardini Timothee while production was handled by Garrett, Team S. Dot and BridgeTown. Originally written for Beyoncé's fourth studio album 4 (2011), the singer felt that it did not fit with the sound she had created for her album, and she thought that it would be better if she recorded it as a duet with Blige instead. "Love a Woman" is a down-tempo R&B ballad with live-instrumentation in which Beyoncé and Blige are teaching men about how to love their female partners. It received positive reviews from music critics who mostly praised the chemistry between Beyoncé and Blige on the duet as well as their vocals. Following the release of My Life II... The Journey Continues (Act 1), the song peaked at number eighty nine on the US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart based on digital sales. ## Background and development "Love a Woman" was written by Mary J. Blige, Beyoncé, Sean Garrett and Menardini Timothee while production was handled by Garrett. Team S. Dot served as the co-producer of the song while BridgeTown served as the additional producer for it. On November 9, 2011, a snippet of "Love a Woman" appeared online. It was officially premiered on November 17, prior to the release of the album. The song was initially recorded by Beyoncé for her fourth studio album 4 (2011), but she thought that it would be a better fit as a duet with Blige. Blige further revealed in an interview that the song was sent to her after Beyoncé thought that it didn't fit her album and it was sent through her A&R people. She further added, "When the song came, her voice was on it completely and it was just amazing and I wasn't sure that they wanted to give me this record because it was so amazing." Blige further spoke about how she started the collaboration with Beyoncé on the song: > "The song was so amazing I had to be sure, as an artist, that she really was trying to give it to me. I was like 'is she really trying to give me this song, because it's pretty amazing.' They were like 'yes, but she wants to stay on it with you.' And I was like, 'Wow! Beyoncé? Thanks!' And you know I love and respect her to death so I wouldn't pass that chance up." Blige further revealed that the song would be released as a single but was delayed due to Beyoncé's pregnancy at that time adding that, "whenever she's ready, if she's ever ready, I'm ready and it'll be great." During an interview with Rap-Up magazine, Garrett further spoke about the collaboration, saying, "I initially did the record for Beyoncé and then we just felt it would be an even bigger record with Beyoncé and Mary J. Blige... Both these women are two iconic female figures in the world, and what would be better than putting those two on a record? We felt it would be a really iconic move." ## Composition "Love a Woman" is a down-tempo soulful R&B ballad with a female empowerment theme and live-sounding instruments. The soothing track starts off with Blige singing with a dark voice, "So you think you know how to love a woman/ But I think it's still some things you need to know." As the flowery instrumental builds with a serene piano melody and accentuating horns, Blige goes on to warn that a woman needs more than material things. A writer of Billboard magazine further noted that the song was schooling men on just how good to love a woman. During her lines, Beyoncé sings with a vibrato voice, "A woman / Needs you to make love to her / She needs more than sex / Oh, a real woman needs a real man / They don’t talk about it, be about it / Put that work in, still shows his woman real romance". According to Rob Markman of MTV News, "From there, the song plays as a lyrical how-to. Communication is a must, as is respect, but coming home late and being a one-minute man is a no-no." Writers further noted that the duet was inspired by the music from the 1990s including a new jack swing-era R&B production. Beyoncé and Blige further sing the lines "She doesn’t want makeup sex, she wants your respect." The song also has an extended bridge section during the 2:30 mark where Blige sings the lines "Pick up your phone...just to say you're still in love from time to time..." with a vocal styling which was compared to Michael Jackson's "Off the Wall" era. It ends with the sound of sparkler synths. Jada Gomez-Lacayo of HipHopDx compared the song with Aaron Hall's material. Ayanna Guyhto of Yahoo! Music compared the first minute of the song with Busta Rhymes' songs due to the speedy wordplay. She further noted that it was similar to the songs by Keith Sweat from the 1990s. ## Critical reception Rob Markman of MTV News wrote that the singers "display good chemistry on the song". The Washington Post's Sarah Godfrey classified "Love a Woman" as one of the best tracks on the album adding that "The ballad, with its cheesy, delightful... R&B production, blasts the notion that MJB is all raw power and Beyoncé is all chilly technique — the women are both bold and great here, with a slight advantage going to Blige." Becky Bain of the website Idolator commented that Garrett who served as a writer for the song "clearly knows how to love a woman right". A writer of Rap-Up magazine noted that Blige and Beyoncé "showcase their powerful pipes" as they tell their men what they want from a relationship. Brooklyne Gipson of Black Entertainment Television wrote that the song was one of the most appealing on the album, further describing it as a "breathtaking duet". Martyn Young of the website musicOMH described the song as "a classy duet between two of contemporary RnB’s most striking voices". Siobhan Kane of the website Consequence of Sound noted that Blige and Beyoncé obviously enjoyed "the soaring nature of the song", while Alex Young of the same publication described it as a "lesson in love". Nathan S. of DJBooth described the song as an "inter-generational diva duet that sounds so ‘90s I half expected Keith Sweat to jump in". Trent Fitzgerald of PopCrush graded the song with four out of five stars and commented, "'Love a Woman' is a melodic song with a ’90s-sounding feel that will surely get spins on urban radio and quiet storm formats. Forget Dr. Phil, MJB and Ms. B is all you need to help you maintain a loving relationship with your partner." Ayanna Guyhto of Yahoo! Music commented that Blige and Beyoncé combined their "superpowers" in the studio to make the "forceful ballad". She further commented, "The breakdown is where the listener really gets to hear the symmetry of these two powerhouse vocals. Neither diva overpowers the other. Right where [Beyoncé] leaves off, Mary J. picks up. And vice versa... Although either of these R&B divas could carry 'Love a Woman' with no problem, some might say that the song makes more of an impact with their deliveries combined. Blige's seasoned soul coupled with Bey's creamy delivery is a mood to behold." Andy Gill of The Independent wrote that Beyoncé "act[s] as a Greek chorus" to the song. Joey Guerra of the Houston Chronicle noted that "Love a Woman" is a soulful, old-school ballad "that brings out the best in both singers". Writing that Blige is "particularly heavy" on the R&B vibes of the song, Andrew Martin of Prefix Magazine further commented that "without a doubt, it's sure to gain some stream whenever radio DJs catch wind of it. Why? Because 'Love a Woman' features silky production, strong harmonies, and guest vocals from Beyoncé. Yeah, there's no stopping this one." Katie Hasty of HitFix commented that "It's actually a pretty standard list of grievances and explanations, but the real guts of the thing is when the two light up, to bring out the best vocal performances in each other, shooting you straight back to the 1990s." Kevin Ritchie of Now gave a mixed review for the song saying that it aims "for posterity rather than chemistry". Similarly, Adam Markovitz of Entertainment Weekly described the duet as "snoozy". ## Chart performance The song peaked at number eighty nine on the US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart and spent three weeks in total on that ranking. It also peaked at number 50 on the US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Digital Songs chart. ## Charts
47,081,476	Lord of Scoundrels	1,167,796,687	Book by Loretta Chase	[ "1995 American novels", "American romance novels", "Avon (publisher) books", "Fiction set in 1828", "Novels based on fairy tales", "Novels set in 19th-century France", "RITA Award-winning works", "Regency romance novels", "Works based on Beauty and the Beast" ]	Lord of Scoundrels is a Regency romance novel by American author Loretta Chase. Published in 1995 by Avon Books, it is the third installment of her Débauchés series. Set in 1828, the story follows the Marquess of Dain, an aristocrat known as "Lord Beelzebub" and the "Lord of Scoundrels" for his unscrupulous, immoral behavior. The son of an English father and Italian mother, Dain is hardened due to a difficult childhood and meets his match in Jessica Trent, a 27-year-old bluestocking more than capable of trading wits with him. Chase had a love for Italian culture, and decided that this background would provide ample motivation for Dain, being the product of his parents' inability to understand each other's cultures. As with many of her stories, Chase made her heroine a strong female, deciding to model Jessica after the type of women who lived a few generations previously and who had "a more practical, frank attitude toward sex". Lord of Scoundrels is a retelling of the fairytale Beauty and the Beast, with the author stating that like the Beast, Dain is an outcast and misfit among his society. Lord of Scoundrels was positively received upon its release, and in 1996 it earned the RITA Award for "Best Short Historical", a prize given annually by the Romance Writers of America. Also during that year, Lord of Scoundrels won the Romantic Times' "Regency Historical Romance" award. Literary critics and romance readers have since described it as one of the best historical romances ever written, praising the novel for its wit and well-developed characters. ## Plot summary Background In the story's prologue, Sebastian Ballister is born in Devon to the 2nd Marquess of Dain and his Italian wife, Lucia Usignuolo. The Marquess is disgusted with the child, describing him as the "Devil's spawn" and a "wizened olive thing with large black eyes, ill-proportioned limbs, and a grossly oversize nose". Eight years later, the tempestuous Lucia abandons her husband for her lover. Unloved by his father and told that his mother is an "evil, godless creature", Sebastian is sent off to Eton where he is teased by his classmates over his appearance. The boy grows up learning to hide his feelings; given no inheritance by his father, Sebastian acquires clever ways to make his fortune and uses money to unscrupulously get his way. Plot The story begins in 1828, Paris. Sebastian, now the intelligent but immoral 3rd Marquess of Dain, meets his match in Miss Jessica Trent, who has arrived in the city to rescue her unintelligent, nearly penniless brother Bertie from Dain's bad influence. Dain and Jessica are instantly attracted to the other, though each seeks to hide their feelings. Dain has developed a hard, sarcastic personality; he is hostile to noblewomen, as he believes they care only for money. Jessica, a 27-year-old beautiful, strong-willed bluestocking, has refused dozens of marriage proposals over the years and wishes to maintain her independence. The two exchange wits; Jessica requests that Dain send her brother back to England in exchange for a valuable religious icon she will sell him, while Dain wants the icon or else he will destroy her reputation and ruin her brother. They reach an impasse, and while her reputation remains intact, Dain spends the week personally overseeing Bertie's disintegration from excessive drinking and gambling. Jessica angrily confronts him and the two unexpectedly kiss. Later, at a party they almost consummate their relationship before being discovered by other party-goers. Dain coldly departs, assuming Jessica invited the others to force him to honorably marry her, leaving her angry that he would leave her reputation in tatters so casually. Jessica sues him for the loss of her reputation. To her surprise, Dain converts this proposition into a marriage proposal, and they are wedded in London several weeks later. En route to his estate in Devon, Dain assumes she is repulsed by his "gross blackamoor's body", when the opposite is true. Filled with self-loathing over his appearance and personality, Dain initially avoids consummating their relationship despite Jessica's efforts to seduce him. They eventually do, and Dain apologizes for what he realizes has been his difficult behavior. Later, they enter into a disagreement over his illegitimate son; Dain despises the eight-year-old boy's calculating mother and wants nothing to do with them, while Jessica sympathetically wants to rescue the boy from his poor living conditions. The boy, Dominick, is becoming ill-behaved and reminds Dain self-loathingly of himself at his age. Eventually, with Jessica's prodding, Dain is persuaded to rescue the neglected boy from his mother's clutches. While doing so, the Marquess comes to terms with his mother's abandonment and realizes that Dominick is just as scared and lonely as he was as a boy. Dominick is invited to live at the Ballister estate, while the boy's mother, to her pleasure, is given a large stipend and told to find her fortune in Paris. ## Background and development American author Loretta Chase began her writing career in 1987 by crafting traditional novels in the Regency romance literary subgenre; Lord of Scoundrels, published in 1995, was her ninth such novel released. It was the third installment of her Débauchés (also known as Scoundrels) series, following The Lion's Daughter (1992) and Captives of the Night (1994). As such, some of the characters who feature in Lord of Scoundrels, such as the Comte d'Esmond and Francis Beaumont, also appear in previous Chase works. In 2007, Chase said Lord of Scoundrels was her only book "that came to me as a gift from the writing gods. Every other book is a struggle, some bloodier than others. This book was pure fun from start to finish". Possessing a love for Italian culture, Chase decided to make her male protagonist, Dain, a "mongrel English aristocrat" and half-Italian. By giving Dain Italian ancestry through his mother, Chase was able to develop his character and justify his motivations. She explains, "Having Dain be half-Italian fit so many aspects of his story: his background as well as his behavior, which does get operatic at times". Chase adds that Dain's difficult childhood stemmed from his parents' inability to accept each other's cultures, which then "warps him and makes him a misfit. In a loving household, he would have grown up with a better self-image, and would have dealt with bullying at school in a different way, and thus would have grown up into someone altogether different from the man Jessica meets in that antique shop". When writing the novel, Chase knew that her female protagonist had to be strong enough to equal Dain's forceful personality. Chase admits that because the novel is set in the period leading up to the Victorian era, a woman like Jessica could not have dealt with Dain, writing that "if Jessica were like what we assume to be the typical young lady of her time, she could never handle Dain, and he’d think her too boring to live". Chase instead modeled Jessica after the type of women who lived a few generations previously and who had "a more practical, frank attitude toward sex". Wishing to depict Jessica as the "Extreme Female", Chase emphasizes her clothing and gives Dain "a chance to exercise his caustic wit", as he deems the latest fashions to be ridiculous. Upon their first meeting he silently observes that Jessica is wearing "a blue overgarment of some sort and one of the hideously overdecorated bonnets currently in fashion". Jessica differs from many other Chase heroines by being interested in fashion; the author felt that "the way they dress, to a great extent, tells us who they are, in the same way that other heroines’ simpler or less fashionable attire expresses something about them". ## Analysis Lord of Scoundrels is typically classified as a Regency romance novel, though its story is set in the post-Regency era of 1828. It features a strong female heroine, a characteristic that Chase has become known for including in her romances. The author explains that "for most of history, and in too many cases today, women are considered (and too often consider themselves) lesser beings who do not matter. In my books, the women are not lesser, and they do matter. In other words, I make the world the way I think it should be". Romantic fiction scholars have identified Jessica Trent as a "feminist heroine" with whom the "alpha male hero" has met his match. Chase inverts many qualities typical of the archetypical romantic hero and heroine. Near the end of the story, Jessica is the one who initiates consummation of their marriage, by seducing Dain. Afterwards, Jessica promptly falls asleep, causing her husband to seethe "that was what he was supposed to do". In her entry for The Bloomsbury Introduction to Popular Fiction, Maryan Wherry posits that Lord of Scoundrels represents a modern retelling of the classic fairytale Beauty and the Beast, suggesting Chase's story is a morality tale of "restoring humanity" that is directed at "all levels of society" (rather than at the lower classes as classic fairytales were intended). Chase makes direct reference to this fairytale in the novel, when Dain silently compares his relationship with Jessica to that of Beauty and the Beast. In a 2007 interview, the author described the novel as her "Beauty and the Beast story", stating that like the Beast, Dain is an outcast and misfit among the novel's society. Chase describes Dain as "truly awful: rude, overbearing, and intimidating... He consciously uses his monstrousness in the same way he uses his vast wealth and his social position: to control his world and protect himself. It's sad, in a way, because he’s isolated, like the Beast of the fairy tale trapped in his castle. But Dain is not pitiful by any means: He’s smart, cynical, and sarcastic, with a sharp eye for the ridiculous. He has a sense of humor and is adept with clever comebacks and putdowns". Jessica represents the Beauty of the story, someone who "enters the Beast’s lair of her own accord" as his equal "no matter how awful" he acts. Leading up to the couple's marriage, Dain cynically makes many assurances that he will provide for Jessica financially. At one point, Jessica brings a defamation lawsuit against Dain before they agree to convert it into a prenuptial agreement, leading English professor Jayashree Kamblé to liken their relationship to "a take-over bid". Kamblé has studied the presence of capitalism and modern economics on storylines in the contemporary romance genre. To her, while Lord of Scoundrels is a Regency romance novel and thus less apt to depict the types of economic pairings seen in many contemporary romances, Kamblé argues that Dain's repeated monetary promises still contain "echoes of the kind of wealth, monetary security, and financial reward that the heroes of Harlequin Mills and Boon promise as husbands". The couple is physically attracted to each other, while financial considerations also play a factor. ## Release and reception Lord of Scoundrels was released in January 1995 by Avon Books, the same publisher that had released Chase's last two novels. According to Chase's website, the novel has been published in over fourteen languages. A Spanish translation was released in 2006, while a Japanese translation was released in 2008. Its e-book edition, published by HarperCollins, landed on The New York Times Best Seller list in August 2011. In 1996, the novel earned the RITA Award for "Best Short Historical", a prize given annually by the Romance Writers of America. It also won the 1996 "Regency Historical Romance" award, granted by the Romantic Times. In a review by that publication, M. Helfer praised Chase for being "an exquisite storyteller who creates sharply original characters and moves them in new and exciting ways. One of the true treasures of the genre, she epitomizes the essence of excellence in every word she writes". Soon after its release, the book also won accolades from other award bodies, including "Best Historical Single Title Romance" by Romance Readers Anonymous and "Best Historical Romance" by Reader's Voice. In 2014, romance novelist Madeline Hunter recalled Lord of Scoundrels being "the 'must read' of the season" when it was published in 1995, and described it as "witty, heartfelt, with a flawed hero and an indomitable heroine, [and with] pacing so perfect a reader could only hold on for the ride. It was no surprise that a book that pushed so many peoples' happy buttons ended up winning a RITA that year. I think there would have been a revolt if it had not". The novel's popularity has endured and it is still considered one of the best historical romances ever published. The website "All about Romance" voted it in first place for four years, and it was also deemed the "Best All-Time Historical Romance" by Romance Readers Anonymous for four years. In a 2010 list of "must-reads in romance" for Kirkus Reviews, Sarah Wendell deemed it her favorite historical romance and believed her successful recommendation to a male professor proved its worth. Author Anne Browning Walker, in a similar list of "Smart Romance Books" for Publishers Weekly, included Lord of Scoundrels and observed Chase's penchant for "creating smart, thoughtful, witty, and well-meaning heroines". Also writing for Publishers Weekly, author Beverly Jenkins called Lord of Scoundrels an example of "Chase at the top of her game" and opined that its "characters are full-bodied and evenly matched. The passion is to die for, and every romance reader I know has this book on their keeper shelf". Elissa Petruzzi of RT Book Reviews wrote in 2014, "Some consider Loretta Chase’s epic tale to be the best Regency ever written". Novelist Eloisa James recommended Lord of Scoundrels for readers interested in trying historical romance for the first time, saying the novel is "just brilliant, hysterically funny, sexy dialogue". Chase herself has expressed surprise at the novel's enduring popularity, writing that she "saw no indication it would become such a reader favorite". On January 23, 2015, fans discussed their views and favorite parts of the novel on Twitter, using the hashtag \#LOSlove, and Avon Books randomly gave away signed copies to those participating.
26,049,010	Fred Waite (politician)	1,170,861,811	New Zealand politician (1885–1952)	[ "1885 births", "1952 deaths", "20th-century New Zealand farmers", "20th-century New Zealand historians", "Members of the New Zealand House of Representatives", "Members of the New Zealand Legislative Council", "New Zealand Army officers", "New Zealand Companions of the Distinguished Service Order", "New Zealand Companions of the Order of St Michael and St George", "New Zealand MPs for South Island electorates", "New Zealand National Party MLCs", "New Zealand Officers of the Order of the British Empire", "New Zealand military personnel of World War I", "New Zealand military personnel of World War II", "Politicians from Dunedin", "Reform Party (New Zealand) MPs", "Unsuccessful candidates in the 1931 New Zealand general election" ]	Fred Waite, CMG, DSO, OBE, VD (21 August 1885 – 29 August 1952) was a New Zealand farmer, historian, politician, and soldier who served in both the First and Second World Wars. Born in Dunedin, Waite was a farmer at the outbreak of the First World War. He joined the New Zealand Expeditionary Force (NZEF) and served in the Gallipoli Campaign, during which he received the Distinguished Service Order. He was evacuated from Gallipoli due to sickness and repatriated to New Zealand, where he saw out the war as an instructor in NZEF training camps. He wrote a history of New Zealand's military efforts during the Gallipoli Campaign that was published in 1919. He returned to his farm and soon became involved in politics, joining the Reform Party. In 1925 he was elected Member of Parliament for the Clutha electorate, serving two terms. He was appointed to the Legislative Council in 1934. During the Second World War, Waite was overseas commissioner for the National Patriotic Fund Board and was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire for his services in this role. Two years later he was appointed a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George. He died in 1952 at the age of 67. ## Early life Waite was born in Dunedin on 21 August 1885, one of eight children of George Waite, a storekeeper, and his wife. After leaving Mornington School, he worked for the regional newspaper, the Otago Daily Times, and for the Otago Witness. He was a typesetter when he married Ada Taylor in 1912 but the following year took up farming near Balclutha. He was interested in the military and was a member of an engineers unit in the Volunteer Force, which was later re-organised into the Territorial Force (TF). ## First World War Following the outbreak of the First World War in the summer of 1914, Waite volunteered for the New Zealand Expeditionary Force (NZEF) that was being raised for service overseas. He also undertook to send dispatches from the front for his previous employer, the Otago Witness, but this work proved short-lived when he became a censor as part of his military duties. He was posted as a lieutenant in the New Zealand Engineers and sailed with the main body of the NZEF to the Middle East in October 1914. Promoted to captain, Waite participated in the Gallipoli campaign. In early May 1915, he restored order amongst personnel of the Otago Infantry Battalion following a failed attack on Turkish positions. He was awarded the Distinguished Service Order, the citation reading: > For gallantry and devotion to duty in connection with the operations at the Dardanelles (Mediterranean Expeditionary Force). On the night of 2–3 May 1915 during the operations in the neighbourhood of Gape Tepe for gallantry and resource in rallying his men, and leading them forward at critical moments. Later in the campaign Waite served as the adjutant of the New Zealand Engineers and was twice mentioned in dispatches. Evacuated to England with dysentery, he was repatriated to New Zealand in 1916. His service with the NZEF ceased and he returned to the TF in his pre-war rank of major. He took up an appointment as Chief Engineer Instructor of the NZEF training camps. Shortly before the end of the war, Waite wrote a brief account of New Zealand's contributions to the Gallipoli Campaign. Authorities invited him to prepare a more substantial work and this resulted in The New Zealanders at Gallipoli, the first volume in a series of the Official History of New Zealand's Effort in the Great War, published in 1919. Two years later it was republished as a revised edition. The figure of 8556 New Zealand soldiers who served at Gallipoli given by General Ian Hamilton in his forward to Waite’s demi-official 1919 history was always known to be too low; as Waite himself thought at the time. Between 16,000 (perhaps 17,000) served there, as shown in a 2019 study by New Zealand historians John Crawford and Matthew Buck. Waite also worked on the production of the three other volumes in the series, which were published around the same time. ## Interwar period After the war, Waite returned to his Balclutha property which he converted to dairy farming. He remained a member of the TF for several years and was a major in the Otago Mounted Rifles Regiment before being promoted to lieutenant colonel and becoming its commander from 1927 to 1930. For his prolonged service with the TF, he eventually received the Colonial Auxiliary Forces Officers' Decoration. In 1935 he was awarded the King George V Silver Jubilee Medal. Already involved in the dairying industry, he began to participate in the governance of the sector and set up the Co-Operative Dairy Company of Otago. He later joined the New Zealand Farmer's Union and was president of its Otago Branch. As well as his work in the dairying sector, Waite soon became involved in local politics and joined the Reform Party. He first stood for election to the House of Representatives in , when he defeated the incumbent in the electorate, John Edie of the Liberal Party, with ease. He was one of 13 new members in a House of 80 representatives. In the , he was challenged by Joseph Stephens, who was an independent candidate describing himself as Liberal–Labour. Waite had a 523-vote margin, which represented 6.5% of the valid votes. In the , Waite was defeated by Peter McSkimming, who stood as an Independent, but had links to the United Party. Prime Minister George Forbes had not made appointments to the Legislative Council since 1930, with the exception of James Parr in 1931, and membership dwindled during the years of the Great Depression. By 1934, the membership had reduced to 19, the lowest since 1860, with two members about to retire. In 1934, 14 new members were appointed by Forbes, including Waite. All appointments became effective on 22 June 1934, and Waite, at age 49, was the second youngest of the intake; only Vincent Ward was younger. Waite was reappointed twice, and served until the abolition of the Upper House in 1950. When the National Party was formed in 1936 from the merger of Reform and the United Party, publicity was one of the major considerations. The party's provisional council established a sub-committee consisting of Henry Livingstone, Frederick Doidge, and Waite. This committee reported back in February 1937, recommending the establishment of a Dominion publicity committee, and a trustee company for the purpose of publishing a party newsletter. Party Publications Ltd was thus created, and Waite was the first editor of The National News. Initially, all financial members were to receive this monthly newsletter, aimed at being a counterpart to Labour's Standard. While The National News performed an important function during the party's formative years, the venture was expensive and following the , it was changed to a quarterly schedule, before being discontinued in September 1939 just after the outbreak of the war. The seven-member Dominion publicity committee, of which Waite was a member, engaged three advertising companies to jointly prepare for the 1938 election. Two of those companies, John Ilott and Charles Haines, remained joint agents for the National Party until 1973. ## Second World War When the Second World War began, Waite was still a lieutenant colonel in the TF. He was appointed overseas commissioner for the National Patriotic Fund Board. Based in Egypt, he worked to provide the soldiers of the Second New Zealand Expeditionary Force with special supplies and treats. His services in this capacity were recognised in 1944 with his appointment as an Officer of the Order of the British Empire. He finished the war a colonel, working in Europe on the repatriation of New Zealand personnel recently released from prisoner-of-war camps in Germany. In 1946, he travelled to Japan to inspect the infrastructure set up for J-Force, New Zealand's contribution to the British Commonwealth Occupation Force, following which he retired from the military. In the 1946 King's Birthday Honours, he was appointed a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George. ## Later life In his retirement, Waite wrote papers on archeology and history including one on Egyptian pottery. While in Cairo during the Second World War, he collected several historical antiquities on behalf of the Otago Museum. In 1951 Waite was granted the right to retain the title of "Honourable", having served more than 10 years as a member of the Legislative Council. In his later years, his health was poor and he died in Balclutha in 1952 at the age of 67. He was survived by his wife and a daughter.
1,779,784	Calakmul	1,171,029,310	Ancient Mayan city in Campeche, Mexico	[ "1931 archaeological discoveries", "Calakmul", "Former populated places in Mexico", "Maya Classic Period", "Maya sites in Campeche", "Tourist attractions in Campeche", "World Heritage Sites in Mexico" ]	Calakmul (/ˌkɑːlɑːkˈmuːl/; also Kalakmul and other less frequent variants) is a Maya archaeological site in the Mexican state of Campeche, deep in the jungles of the greater Petén Basin region. It is 35 kilometres (22 mi) from the Guatemalan border. Calakmul was one of the largest and most powerful ancient cities ever uncovered in the Maya lowlands. Calakmul was a major Maya power within the northern Petén Basin region of the Yucatán Peninsula of southern Mexico. Calakmul administered a large domain marked by the extensive distribution of their emblem glyph of the snake head sign, to be read "Kaan". Calakmul was the seat of what has been dubbed the Kingdom of the Snake or Snake Kingdom. This Snake Kingdom reigned during most of the Classic period. Calakmul itself is estimated to have had a population of 50,000 people and had governance, at times, over places as far away as 150 kilometers (93 mi). There are 6,750 ancient structures identified at Calakmul, the largest of which is the great pyramid at the site. Structure 2 is over 45 metres (148 ft) high, making it one of the tallest of the Maya pyramids. Four tombs have been located within the pyramid. Like many temples or pyramids within Mesoamerica the pyramid at Calakmul increased in size by building upon the existing temple to reach its current size. The size of the central monumental architecture is approximately 2 square kilometres (0.77 sq mi) and the whole of the site, mostly covered with dense residential structures, is about 20 square kilometres (7.7 sq mi). Throughout the Classic Period, Calakmul maintained an intense rivalry with the major city of Tikal to the south, and the political maneuverings of these two cities have been likened to a struggle between two Maya superpowers. Rediscovered from the air by biologist Cyrus L. Lundell of the Mexican Exploitation Chicle Company on December 29, 1931, the find was reported to Sylvanus G. Morley of the Carnegie Institute at Chichen Itza in March 1932. ## Etymology Calakmul is a modern name; according to Cyrus L. Lundell, who named the site. In Maya, ca means "two", lak means "adjacent", and mul signifies any artificial mound or pyramid, so Calakmul is the "City of the Two Adjacent Pyramids". In ancient times the city core was known as Ox Te' Tuun, meaning "Three Stones". Another name associated with the site, and perhaps a larger area around it, is Chiik Naab. The lords of Calakmul identified themselves as k'uhul kaanal ajaw, Divine Lords of the Snake, but the connection of the title to the actual site is ambiguous. ## Location Calakmul is located in Campeche state in southeastern Mexico, about 35 kilometres (22 mi) north of the border with Guatemala and 38 kilometres (24 mi) north of the ruins of El Mirador. The ruins of El Tintal are 68 kilometres (42 mi) to the southwest of Calakmul and were linked to both El Mirador and Calakmul itself by causeway. Calakmul was about 20 kilometres (12 mi) south of the contemporary city of Oxpemul and approximately 25 kilometres (16 mi) southwest of La Muñeca. The city is located on a rise about 35 metres (115 ft) above a large seasonal swamp lying to the west, known as the El Laberinto bajo (a Spanish word used in the region to denote a low-lying area of seasonal marshland). This swamp measures approximately 34 by 8 kilometres (21.1 by 5.0 mi) and was an important source of water during the rainy season. The bajo was linked to a sophisticated water-control system including both natural and artificial features such as gullies and canals that encircled a 22-square-kilometre (8.5 sq mi) area around the site core, an area considered as Inner Calakmul. The location of Calakmul at the edge of a bajo provided two additional advantages: the fertile soils along the edge of the swamp and access to abundant flint nodules. The city is situated on a promontory formed by a natural 35-metre (115 ft) high limestone dome rising above the surrounding lowlands. This dome was artificially levelled by the Maya. During the Preclassic and Classic periods settlement was concentrated along the edge of the El Laberinto bajo, during the Classic period structures were also built on high ground and small islands in the swamp where flint was worked. At the beginning of the 21st century the area around Calakmul remained covered by dense forest. During the 1st millennium AD the area received moderate and regular rainfall, although there is less surface water available than further south in Guatemala. Calakumul is now located within the 1,800,000-acre (7,300 km<sup>2</sup>) Calakmul Biosphere Reserve. The area conserved within the Reserve was conceptualized by the Centro de Investigaciones Historicas y Sociales de Universidad Autónomous de Campeche (CIHS/UAC). ## Population and extent At its height in the Late Classic period the city is estimated to have had a population of 50,000 inhabitants and to have covered an area of over 70 square kilometres (27 sq mi). The city was the capital of a large regional state with an area of about 13,000 square kilometres (5,000 sq mi). During the Terminal Classic the city's population declined dramatically and the rural population plummeted to 10% of its former level. The Late Classic population density of Calakmul has been calculated at 1000/km<sup>2</sup> (2564 per square mile) in the site core and 420/km<sup>2</sup> (1076 per square mile) in the periphery (an area of 122 square kilometres (47 sq mi). Calakmul was a true urban city and not just an elite centre surrounded by commoner residences. The site core of Calakmul was known in ancient times as Ox Te' Tuun ("Three Stones") which may have been because of the triadic pyramid Structure 2. The Calakmul kingdom included 20 secondary centres, among which were large cities such as La Muñeca, Naachtun, Sasilha, Oxpemul and Uxul. The total population of these secondary centres has been estimated at 200,000. The kingdom also included a large number of tertiary and quaternary sites, mostly fairly small and consisting of a number of groups arranged around courtyards, although there are also larger rural sites situated on ridges along the edges of the bajos that include temples, palaces and stelae. The total rural population of the kingdom is calculated at 1.5 million people. The entire population of the Calakmul kingdom, including the city itself and the rural population in the 13,000 square kilometres (5,000 sq mi) area of the regional state, is calculated at 1.75 million people in the Late Classic period. The Emblem Glyph of Calakmul has a greater distribution than the Emblem Glyph of any other Maya city. The Glyph is also found in more hieroglyphic texts than any other Emblem Glyph, including that of Tikal. Calakmul administered a large domain marked by the extensive distribution of their emblem glyph of the snake head sign, to be read "Kaan". Calakmul was the seat of what has been dubbed the Snake Kingdom. At times the city had governance over places as far away as 150 kilometers. ## Known rulers ## Emblem Glyph At Calakmul's peak in the 7th century, the polity was known as Kan. The Preclassic political state in the Mirador Basin also used the title Kan. There is the idea that, after the collapse of the Mirador state, its refugees migrated north towards Calakmul, where they founded a new Kan polity. However, epigraphical studies of the monuments at Calakmul show that prior to the 7th century AD the emblem glyph of Calakmul had nothing to do with a snake, but with a bat. It seems that a different polity ruled there. The Kan emblem glyph, before being associated with Calakmul, is found (once) at Dzibanché, a site more towards the east. Perhaps during the late 6th/early 7th century, the polity at Dzibanché moved to Calakmul in order to establish a more strategically placed capital. After Calakmul's power dwindled in the 8th century, after the rule of Yuknoom Took K'awiil, it appears that the bat emblem glyph made its resurgence. Still, many uncertainties remain and new epigraphical studies have to be done to fill the gaps. ## History Calakmul has a long occupational history and excavations have revealed evidence from the Middle Preclassic right through to the Postclassic. The causeway network that linked Calakmul with the cities of El Mirador, Nakbe and El Tintal suggest strong political links between the four cities that may have begun in the Preclassic, when both Calakmul and El Mirador were important cities, and continued into the Classic period when Calakmul itself was the most powerful city in the region. Calakmul was one of the largest and most powerful ancient cities ever uncovered in the Maya lowlands. ### Calakmul vs. Tikal The history of the Maya Classic period is dominated by the rivalry between Tikal and Calakmul, likened to a struggle between two Maya "superpowers". Earlier times tended to be dominated by a single larger city and by the Early Classic Tikal was moving into this position after the dominance of El Mirador in the Late Preclassic and Nakbe in the Middle Preclassic. However Calakmul was a rival city with equivalent resources that challenged the supremacy of Tikal and engaged in a strategy of surrounding it with its own network of allies. From the second half of the 6th century AD through to the late 7th century Calakmul gained the upper hand although it failed to extinguish Tikal's power completely and Tikal was able to turn the tables on its great rival in a decisive battle that took place in AD 695. Half a century later Tikal was able to gain major victories over Calakmul's most important allies. Eventually both cities succumbed to the spreading Classic Maya collapse. The great rivalry between these two cities may have been based on more than competition for resources. Their dynastic histories reveal different origins and the intense competition between the two powers may have had an ideological grounding. Calakmul's dynasty seems ultimately derived from the great Preclassic city of El Mirador while the dynasty of Tikal was profoundly affected by the intervention of the distant central Mexican metropolis of Teotihuacan. With few exceptions, Tikal's monuments and those of its allies place great emphasis upon single male rulers while the monuments of Calakmul and its allies gave greater prominence to the female line and often the joint rule of king and queen. ### Preclassic Calakmul was already a large city in the Preclassic period. The early history of Calakmul is obscure, although a dynastic list has been pieced together that extends back into an ancestral past. This dynasty has been reconstructed in part from Late Classic ceramics from the region of great Preclassic cities of El Mirador and Nakbe. This may mean that Calakmul ultimately inherited its political authority from one of these cities, with its dynasty originating in the Late Preclassic in the Mirador Basin and relocating itself to Calakmul in the Classic period after the collapse of these cities. ### Early Classic Both Calakmul and Tikal were sizeable Preclassic cities that survived into the Classic Period. Early hieroglyphic texts from stelae found in Structure 2 record the probable enthronement of a king of Calakmul in AD 411 and also records a non-royal site ruler in 514. After this there is a gap in the hieroglyphic records that lasts over a century, although the Kaan dynasty experienced a major expansion of its power at this time. The lack of inscriptions recording the events of this period may be either due to the fact that the Kaan dynasty was located elsewhere during this time or perhaps that the monuments were later destroyed. The earliest legible texts referring to the kings of the Kaan dynasty come from excavations of the large city of Dzibanche in Quintana Roo, far north of Calakmul. A hieroglyphic stairway depicts bound captives, their names and the dates they were captured together with the name of king Yuknoom Che'en I, although the exact context of the king's name is unclear - the captives may have been his vassals captured by an enemy or they may have been rulers captured by the king of Calakmul. The dates are uncertain but two of them may fall within the 5th century AD. The nearby Quintana Roo site of El Resbalón has a jumbled hieroglyphic text, including a date in 529, that indicates that the city was within the control of the Kaan dynasty. By the middle of the 6th century AD Calakmul was assembling a far-reaching political alliance, activity that brought the city into conflict with the great city of Tikal. The influence of Calakmul extended deep into the Petén; king Tuun K'ab' Hix of Calakmul oversaw the enthronement of Aj Wosal to the rulership of Naranjo in 546. Another vassal of Tuun K'ab' Hix was taken captive by Yaxchilan on the banks of the Usumacinta River in 537. In 561, the king now known as Sky Witness installed a ruler at the site of Los Alacranes. Sky Witness played a major part in the political events of the Maya region. He became the overlord of the city of Caracol, to the south of Naranjo, which had previously been a vassal of Tikal. In 562, according to a damaged text at Caracol, Sky Witness defeated Tikal itself and sacrificed its king Wak Chan K'awiil, thus ending his branch of the royal dynasty at Tikal. This catastrophic defeat began a 130-year hiatus for Tikal, reflecting an extended period of dominance by Calakmul. This event is used as a marker to divide the Early Classic from the Late Classic. Sky Witness is also mentioned at Okop, a site much further north in Quintana Roo. The last reference to Sky Witness occurs at Caracol and is dated to AD 572. The text is damaged but probably records the death of this powerful king. ### Late Classic #### War with Palenque Sky Witness was quickly succeeded by First Axewielder, who is mentioned in a text from Dzibanche celebrating the K'atun-ending of 573. First Axewielder ruled for about six years. In 579 Uneh Chan became king of Calakmul. Uneh Chan engaged in an aggressive campaign in the western Maya region and attacked Palenque on 23 April 599 with his ally Lakam Chak, lord of the small city of Santa Elena 70 kilometres (43 mi) east of Palenque, defeating Palenque's queen Lady Yohl Ik'nal and sacking the city. The defeat is recorded on a series of hieroglyphic steps at Palenque itself and the event initiated a long-lasting grudge against Calakmul. Lady Yohl Ik'nal survived the battle and ruled for several more years, although she perhaps paid tribute to Calakmul. Uneh Chan maintained his alliances with cities in the east and he is depicted on Caracol Stela 4 supervising an event involving king Yajaw Te' K'inich of that city that occurred before 583. Calakmul again sacked Palenque on 7 April 611 under the personal direction of Uneh Chan. Palenque was now ruled by king Ajen Yohl Mat who had gained some sort of independence from Calakmul, provoking the new invasion. The immediate aftermath of this second victory over Palenque involved the deaths of the two most important nobles at the city, Ajen Yohl Mat himself and Janab Pakal, a high-ranking member of the royal family and possibly co-ruler. Janab Pakal died in March 612 and Ajen Yohl Mat a few months later. Their deaths so soon after the sacking of the city suggests that their demise was directly linked to Calakmul's triumph. Palenque suffered a lengthy decline in its fortunes after this date before it was able to recover from its disastrous war with Calakmul. The wars against Palenque may have been undertaken by Uneh Chan in order to seize control of wealthy trade routes that passed through the western Maya region. #### Rebellion at Naranjo King Yuknoom Chan of Calakmul supervised an event at Caracol in 619. Caracol Stela 22 records the accession of Tajoom Uk'ab' K'ak' to the Calakmul throne in 622. Two stelae were erected at Calakmul in 623 but their texts are too badly damaged to reveal the names of the royal couple involved. Approximately at this time Naranjo, a vassal of Calakmul, broke away when its king Aj Wosal died relatively soon after the death of Uneh Chan of Calakmul. Naranjo was independent of Calakmul by at least AD 626, when it was twice defeated by Caracol and Yuknoom Chan may have been attempting to bring Naranjo back under Calakmul control. His attempts were brought to an end by his death in 630. In 631 Yuknoom Head, the new king of Calakmul, finally regained control of Naranjo. Texts relate that the king of Naranjo was already captive at Calakmul on the day that his city was overrun and his punishment on the very same day is described by the word k'uxaj () meaning either "tortured" or "eaten". Yuknoom Head conquered another city in March 636, although the exact site is unknown. #### Apogee The Kaan dynasty was not originally established at Calakmul but rather re-located there in the 7th century from another city. Calakmul experienced its highest achievements during the reign of king Yuknoom Che'en II, sometimes called Yuknoom the Great by scholars. Yuknoom Che'en II was 36 years old when he came to the throne of Calakmul in AD 636. A significant increase in the production of stelae at the city began with his reign and 18 stelae were commissioned by the king. Yuknoom Che'en II was probably responsible for the construction of the palace complexes that form a major part of the site core. ##### Calakmul and Dos Pilas In 629 Tikal had founded Dos Pilas in the Petexbatún region, some 110 kilometres (68 mi) to its southwest, as a military outpost in order to control trade along the course of the Pasión River. B'alaj Chan K'awiil was installed on the throne of the new outpost at the age of four, in 635, and for many years served as a loyal vassal fighting for his brother, the king of Tikal. In AD 648 Calakmul attacked Dos Pilas and gained an overwhelming victory that included the death of a Tikal lord. B'alaj Chan K'awiil was captured by Yuknoom Che'en II but, instead of being sacrificed, he was re-instated on his throne as a vassal of the Calakmul king, and went on to attack Tikal in 657, forcing Nuun Ujol Chaak, the then king of Tikal, to temporarily abandon the city. The first two rulers of Dos Pilas continued to use the Mutal emblem glyph of Tikal, and they probably felt that they had a legitimate claim to the throne of Tikal itself. For some reason, B'alaj Chan K'awiil was not installed as the new ruler of Tikal; instead he stayed at Dos Pilas. Tikal counterattacked against Dos Pilas in 672, driving B'alaj Chan K'awiil into an exile that lasted five years. Calakmul tried to encircle Tikal within an area dominated by its allies, such as El Peru, Dos Pilas and Caracol. In 677 Calakmul counterattacked against Dos Pilas, driving Tikal out and reinstalled B'alaj Chan K'awiil on his throne. In 679 Dos Pilas, probably aided by Calakmul, gained an important victory over Tikal, with a hieroglyphic description of the battle describing pools of blood and piles of heads. Troubles continued in the east, with renewed conflict between Naranjo and Caracol. Naranjo completely defeated Caracol in 680 but Naranjo's dynasty disappeared within two years and a daughter of B'alaj Chan K'awiil founded a new dynasty there in 682, indicating that Calakmul had probably intervened decisively to place a loyal vassal on the throne. The patronage of Yuknoom Che'en II as overlord is recorded at a range of important cities, including El Peru where he oversaw the installation of K'inich B'alam as king and strengthened the tie with the marriage of a Calakmul princess to that king. The power of Calakmul extended as far as the north shore of Lake Petén Itzá, where Motul de San José is recorded as its vassal in the 7th century, although it was traditionally aligned with Tikal. Yuknoom Che'en II commanded the loyalty of three generations of kings at Cancuen, 245 kilometres (152 mi) to the south, and supervised the enthronement of at least two of them, in 656 and 677. King Yuknoom Che'en II was involved, directly or indirectly, in the crowning of a king at Moral to the west in Tabasco and one of Yuknoom's nobles supervised a ritual at Piedras Negras on the Guatemalan bank of the Usumacinta River. Yuknoom Che'en II died in his eighties, probably at the beginning of 686. When he died, Calakmul was the most powerful city in the central Maya lowlands. Yuknoom Yich'aak K'ak' succeeded Yuknoom Che'en II, his crowning on 3 April 686 was recorded on monuments at Dos Pilas and El Peru. He was born in 649 and was likely to have been the son of his predecessor. He already held high office before he was named king and may have been responsible for the major successes of the latter part of Yuknoom Che'en II's reign. He retained the loyalty of K'inich B'alam of El Peru and B'alaj Chan K'awiil of Dos Pilas and gained that of K'ak' Tiliw Chan Chaak in 693, when he was installed on the throne of Naranjo at the age of five. However, the texts on sculpted monuments do not reveal the full complexity of diplomatic activity, as revealed by a painted ceramic vase from Tikal, which depicts an ambassador of Calakmul's king kneeling before the enthroned king of Tikal and delivering tribute. Just four years later, in August 695, the two states were once again at war. Yuknoom Yich'aak K'ak' led his warriors against Jasaw Chan K'awiil I in a catastrophic battle that saw the defeat of Calakmul and the capture of the image of a Calakmul deity named Yajaw Maan. It is unknown what happened to Yuknoom Yich'aak K'ak'; a stucco sculpture from Tikal shows a captive and the king is mentioned in the accompanying caption but it is not certain if the captive and the king are the same person. This event marked the end of Calakmul's apogee, with diplomatic activity dropping away and fewer cities recognising Calakmul's king as overlord. No stelae remain standing in the site core recording Yuknoom Yich'aal K'ak, although there are some in the Northeast Group and 2 broken stelae were buried in Structure 2. #### Later kings The next ruler of Calakmul, Split Earth, is mentioned on a pair of carved bones in the tomb of Tikal king Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. He was ruling by November 695 but it is not known if he was a legitimate member of the Calakmul dynasty or whether he was a pretender placed on the throne by Tikal. The next known king used a number of name variants, and is referred to by different name segments within and outside of Calakmul. A partial reading of his name is Yuknoom Took' K'awiil. He erected seven stelae to celebrate a calendrical event in 702 and is named at Dos Pilas in that year, presumably demonstrating that Dos Pilas was still a vassal of Calakmul. El Peru also continued as a vassal and Yuknoom Took' K'awiil installed a new king there at an unknown date. La Corona received a queen from Yuknoom Took'. Naranjo also remained loyal. Yuknoom Took' K'awiil commissioned seven more stelae to mark the k'atun-ending of 731. A new defeat at the hands of Tikal is evidenced by a sculpted altar at that city, probably dating to sometime between 733 and 736, depicting a bound lord from Calakmul and possibly names Yuknoom Took' K'awiil. ##### Calakmul and Quiriguá After this the historical record of Calakmul becomes very vague, due both to the poor state of the heavily eroded monuments at the city itself and also its reduced political presence on the wider Maya stage. Wamaw K'awiil is named at Quiriguá on the southern periphery of Mesoamerica. Quiriguá traditionally had been a vassal of its southern neighbour Copán, and in 724 Uaxaclajuun Ub'aah K'awiil, king of Copán, installed K'ak' Tiliw Chan Yopaat upon Quiriguá's throne as his vassal. By 734 K'ak' Tiliw Chan Yopaat had shown that he was no longer an obedient subordinate of Copán when he started to refer to himself as k'ul ahaw, holy lord, instead of using the lesser term ahaw, subordinate lord; at the same time he began to use his own Quiriguá emblem glyph. This local act of rebellion appears to have been part of the larger political struggle between Tikal and Calakmul. In 736, only two years later, K'ak' Tiliw Chan Yopaat received a visit from Wamaw K'awiil of Calakmul, while Copán was one of Tikal's oldest allies. The timing of this visit by the king of Calakmul is highly significant, falling between the accession of K'ak' Tiliw Chan Yopaat to the throne of Quiriguá as a vassal of Copán and the outright rebellion that was to follow. This strongly suggests that Calakmul sponsored Quiriguá's rebellion in order to weaken Tikal and to gain access to the rich trade route of the Motagua Valley. It is likely that contact with Calakmul had been initiated soon after K'ak' Tiliw Chan Yopaat acceded to the throne. In 738 K'ak' Tiliw Chan Yopaat captured the powerful but elderly king of Copán, Uaxaclajuun Ub'aah K'awiil. An inscription at Quiriguá, although difficult to interpret, suggests that the capture took place on 27 April 738, when Quiriguá seized and burned the wooden images of Copán's patron deities. The captured lord was taken back to Quiriguá and on 3 May 738 he was decapitated in a public ritual. In the Late Classic, alliance with Calakmul was frequently associated with the promise of military support. The fact that Copán, a much more powerful city than Quiriguá, failed to retaliate against its former vassal implies that it feared the military intervention of Calakmul. Calakmul itself was far enough away from Quiriguá that K'ak' Tiliw Chan Yopaat was not afraid of falling directly under its power as a full vassal state, even though it is likely that Calakmul sent warriors to help in the defeat of Copán. The alliance instead seems to have been one of mutual advantage: Calakmul managed to weaken a powerful ally of Tikal while Quiriguá gained its independence. #### Collapse Five large stelae were raised in 741, although the name of the king responsible is illegible on all of them and he has been labelled as Ruler Y. Calakmul's presence in the wider Maya area continued to wane, with two of the city's major allies suffering defeats at the hands of Tikal. El Peru was defeated in 743 and Naranjo a year later and this resulted in the final collapse of Calakmul's once powerful alliance network, while Tikal underwent a resurgence in its power. In 751 Ruler Z erected a stela that was never finished, paired with another with the portrait of a queen. A hieroglyphic stairway mentions someone called B'olon K'awiil at about the same time. B'olon K'awiil was king by 771 when he raised two stelae and he was mentioned at Toniná in 789. Sites to the north of Calakmul showed a reduction in its influence at this time, with new architectural styles influenced by sites further north in the Yucatán Peninsula. A monument was raised in 790 although the name of the ruler responsible is not preserved. Two more were raised in 800 and three in 810. No monument was erected to commemorate the important Bak'tun-ending of 830 and it is probable that political authority had already collapsed at this time. Important cities such as Oxpemul, Nadzcaan and La Muñeca that were Calakmul's vassals at one time now erected their own monuments, where before they had raised very few; some continued producing new monuments until as late as 889. This was a process that paralleled events at Tikal. However, there is strong evidence of an elite presence at the city continuing until AD 900, possibly even later. In 849, Calakmul was mentioned at Seibal where a ruler named as Chan Pet attended the K'atun-ending ceremony; his name may also be recorded on a broken ceramic at Calakmul itself. However, it is unlikely that Calakmul still existed as a state in any meaningful way at this late date. A final flurry of activity took place at the end of the 9th century or the beginning of the 10th. A new stela was erected, although the date records only the day, not the full date. The recorded day may fall either in 899 or 909 with the latter date the most likely. A few monuments appear to be even later although their style is crude, representing the efforts of a remnant population to maintain the Classic Maya tradition. Even the inscriptions on these late monuments are meaningless imitations of writing. Ceramics dating to the Terminal Classic period are uncommon outside of the site core, suggesting that the population of the city was concentrated in the city centre in the final phase of Calakmul's occupation. The majority of the surviving population probably consisted of commoners who had occupied the elite architecture of the site core but the continued erection of stelae into the early 10th century and the presence of high status imported goods such as metal, obsidian, jade and shell, indicate a continued occupation by royalty until the final abandonment of the city. The Yucatec-speaking Kejache Maya who lived in the region at the time of Spanish contact in the early 16th century may have been the descendants of the inhabitants of Calakmul. ### Modern history Calakmul was first reported by Cyrus Lundell in 1931. A year later he informed Sylvanus Morley of the site's existence and the presence of more than 60 stelae. Morley visited the ruins himself on behalf of the Carnegie Institution of Washington in 1932. In the 1930s surveys mapped the site core and recorded 103 stelae. Investigations stopped in 1938 and archaeologists did not return to the site until 1982 when William J. Folan directed a project on behalf of the Universidad Autónoma de Campeche, working at Calakmul until 1994. Calakmul is now the subject of a large-scale project of the National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH) under the direction of Ramón Carrasco. ## Site description The site core of Calakmul covers an area of approximately 2 square kilometres (0.77 sq mi), an area that contains the remains of roughly 1000 structures. The periphery occupied by smaller residential structures beyond the site core covers an area of more than 20 square kilometres (7.7 sq mi) within which archaeologists have mapped approximately 6250 structures. Calakmul matches the great city of Tikal in size and estimated population, although the density of the city appears to have been greater than that city. The stone used in construction at the site is a soft limestone. This has resulted in severe erosion of the site's sculpture. The city of Calakmul was built in a strongly concentric fashion and can be divided into zones as one moves outwards from the centre of the site. The innermost zone covers an area of approximately 1.75 square kilometres (0.68 sq mi) It contains most of the monumental architecture and has 975 mapped structures, about 300 of which are built from vaulted stone masonry. About 92 structures were built on large pyramids laid out around plazas and courtyards. The city's core was bordered on the north side by a 6-metre (20 ft) high wall that controlled access from the north and may also have had a defensive function. Many commoners residences were built along the edge of El Laberinto swamp to the west of the site core, although some high-status residences and public buildings were interspersed among these. The area between the residences was used for horticulture. ### Water control The site is surrounded by an extensive network of canals and reservoirs. There are five major reservoirs, including the largest example in the Maya world, measuring 242 by 212 metres (794 by 696 ft). This reservoir is filled by a small seasonal river during the rainy season and continues to hold enough water for it to be used by archaeologists in modern times. Thirteen reservoirs have been identified at Calakmul. The combined capacity of all the reservoirs is estimated at over 200,000,000 litres (44,000,000 imp gal). This quantity of water could have supported 50,000 to 100,000 people; there is no evidence that the reservoirs were used to irrigate crops. Aguada 1 is the largest of the reservoirs and has a surface area of 5 hectares (540,000 sq ft). ### Causeways Eight sacbe (causeways) have been located around Calakmul. Two of these have been mapped, three have been identified visually on the ground and three more identified with remote sensing. They have been numbered as Sacbe 1 through to Sacbe 7. The causeway network not only linked Calakmul with local satellite sites but also with more distant allies and rivals, such as the great cities of El Mirador, El Tintal and Nakbe. Those causeways that cross swampy land are elevated above the surrounding wetland and they now tend to support denser vegetation than the surrounding forest. Sacbe 1 is 450 metres (1,480 ft) long and is lined and filled with stone. It is located within the mapped urban area of the site core. Sacbe 1 was first mapped in the 1930s by the Carnegie Institution of Washington. Sacbe 2 is 70 metres (230 ft) long. It has been mapped within the urban area of the site core. Sacbe 2 is built of packed earth and was discovered during the archaeological excavation of a nearby quarry. This causeway may have been built to transport stone from the quarry in order to build Structures 1 and 3. Sacbe 3 extends 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) northeast from the site core and is visible from the summit of Structure 1. It was first discovered in 1982. Sacbe 4 runs 24 kilometres (15 mi) southeast from the site core, it is also visible from the summit of Structure 1 and was discovered in 1982. Sacbe 5 runs westwards from the main watering hole, across El Laberinto seasonal swamp and carries on for a total distance of 16 kilometres (9.9 mi) or more towards Sasilhá. Sacbe 6 runs southwest across El Laberinto bajo and links Calakmul with El Mirador (38.25 kilometres (23.77 mi) to the southwest) and, beyond it, El Tintal (an additional 30 kilometres (19 mi). Sacbe 7 is located south of Sacbe 6. It is at least 5.1 kilometres (3.2 mi) long and runs across El Laberinto swamp. Sacbe 8 is on the west side of the swamp and does not appear to cross it to the site core. ### Structures Structure 1 (or Structure I) is a 50-metre-high (160 ft) pyramid to the east of the site core. A number of stelae were erected at its base by Yuknoom Took' K'awiil in 731. Because it was built on a low hill, Structure 1 appears to be higher than Structure 2, although this is not the case. Structure 2 (or Structure II) is a massive north-facing pyramid temple, one of the largest in the Maya world. Its base measures 120 metres (390 ft) square and it stands over 45 metres (148 ft) high. In common with many temple pyramids in the Mesoamerican cultural region, the pyramid at Calakmul increased in size by building upon the pre-existing temple in order to increase its bulk. The core of the building (Structure 2A) is a triadic pyramid dating to the Late Preclassic period, with this ancient building still forming the highest point of the structure. In the Early Classic a massive extension was added to the front of the pyramid, covering an earlier stucco-covered building on the north side. Three new shrines were built upon this extension (Structures 2B, 2C and 2D), each of these shrines had its own access stairway. Structure 2B was the central shrine, 2C was to the east and 2D to the west. The facade possessed six large masks set between these stairways, three arranged vertically on each side of the central stairway. Structure 2 is similar in date, size and design to the El Tigre pyramid at El Mirador, and associated ceramics are also similar. At a later time buildings were erected along the base of the facade, each of these contained stelae. In the 8th century AD, Structure 2B was entombed under a large pyramid and a stepped facade covered the giant masks. Later another facade was built over this 8th century stepped frontage but it may never have been finished. In the Late Classic a nine-room palace was built on top of the pyramid, supporting a roof comb that had painted stucco bas-relief decoration. The rooms were arranged in three groups of three, each room positioned behind the next. The entire Late Classic palace measured 19.4 by 12 metres (64 by 39 ft). The front two rows of rooms (Rooms 1 through to 6) were used for food preparation, metates and hearths were found in each of them. Room 7, the southwest room, was a sweatbath. Structure 3 (or Structure III, also known as the Lundell Palace) is southeast of Structure 4, on the east side of the Central Plaza. It is a building with multiple rooms. Structure 4 (or Structure IV) is a group of three temples on the east side of the Central Plaza. It is divided into three sections, labelled Structures 4a, 4b and 4c. The central Structure 4b is built upon a substructure dating to the Preclassic period. Together with Structure 6 on the opposite side of the plaza, these buildings form an E-Group that may have been used to determine the solstices and the equinoxes. Structure 5 (or Structure V) is a large building located on the plaza to the north of Structure 2. It was surrounded by 10 stelae, many dated to the 7th century AD although the building itself was first erected in the Preclassic period. Structure 6 (or Structure VI) is on the west side of the Central Plaza and, together with Structures 4a, 4b and 4c, forms an E-Group astronomical complex. In 1989 observations verified that on March 21, the vernal equinox, the sun rose behind Structure 4b as seen from Structure 6. Structure 7 (or Structure VII) is a temple pyramid on the north side of the Central Plaza. It faces south and stands 24 metres (79 ft) high. Five plain stelae were erected on the south side of the pyramid. It underwent several construction phases from in the Late to Terminal Classic. The pyramid was topped by a three-room temple that possessed a tall stucco-covered roof comb. A patolli game board was carved into the floor of the outermost room of the temple. Structure 8 (or Structure VIII) is a small building located on the north side of the Central Plaza, to the east of Structure 7. It is associated with Stela 1 and its altar. ### Stelae, murals and ceramics Calakmul is one of the most structure-rich sites within the Maya region. The site contains 117 stelae, the largest total in the region. Most are in paired sets representing rulers and their wives. However, because these carved stelae were produced in soft limestone, most of these stelae have been eroded beyond interpretation. Also many elaborate murals were discovered at Calakmul. These murals do not represent activities of the elite class. Rather, they depict elaborate market scenes of people preparing or consuming products such as atole, tamales, or tobacco as an ointment. Also items being sold were textiles and needles. These murals also have glyphs within them describing the actions occurring. The most prominent figure in these murals is identified as Lady Nine Stone; she appears in many scenes. This brings a world of the Maya marketplace to vibrant life for archaeologists. Another highly beneficial resource to Maya archaeological understanding at Calakmul is the ceramic remains. The composition of the ceramic materials identifies the region or more specifically the polity that produced them. Ceramics with the snake emblem glyph found at several sites also give more evidence to identify ties or control over that site by Calakmul. Stela 1 is associated with an altar and located by Structure 8. Stela 8 records the celebration of an event in AD 593 by Uneh Chan and was erected after his death. Stela 9 is a thin slate monument dated to 662. Its text describes the birth of king Yuknoom Yich'aak K'ak' and gives him his full royal title. Stela 28 and Stela 29 were erected in 623 and are the earliest monuments to survive from Late Classic Calakmul. They depict a royal couple but the texts are too poorly preserved to reveal their names. Stela 33 was erected by Yuknoom Che'en II in 657 and records an event in the reign of Uneh Chan, who may have been his father. The event was celebrated in 593. Stela 38 stands at the base of Structure 2. Stela 42 is also located at the base of Structure 2. Stela 43 dates to AD 514. It was set in a vaulted chamber near the base of Structure 2. The text is damaged but carries an early spelling of the k'uhul chatan winik non-royal noble title used in Calakmul and the Mirador Basin. Stela 50 is one of the last monuments erected during the final decline of the city. It bears a crude, clumsily executed portrait. Stela 51 is the best preserved monument at Calakmul. It depicts Yuknoom Took' K'awiil and dates to AD 731. Stela 54 dates to 731 and depicts a wife of Yuknoom Took' K'awiil. Stela 57 is a tall stela erected in 771 by B'olon K'awiil. It is paired with Stela 58 and stands to the east of Structure 13. Stela 58 is the second of a pair erected by B'olon K'awiil in 771, the other being Stela 57. It was erected to the east of Structure 13. Stela 61 is a late monument bearing the name Aj Took'. It is a stunted stela with a badly eroded portrait and a shortened date form that is equivalent to a date either in 899 or 909, probably the latter. Stela 62 was unfinished. It was carved to mark the K'atun-ending ceremony of 751 and bears the damaged name of Ruler Z. Stela 76 and Stela 78 are a pair of monuments dated to AD 633. They are badly eroded but should date to the reign of king Yuknoom Head. Stela 84 is one of the last monuments erected at Calakmul and bears an inscription that is an illiterate imitation of writing. It probably dates to the early 10th century AD. Stela 88 may have been paired with Stela 62. The monument has the image of a queen but her name is unknown. B'olon K'awiil also appears to be mentioned on the stela. It dates to around 751 and stands on the stairway of Structure 13. Stela 91 is another very late monument probably dating to the early 10th century. Like Stela 84, it bears an inscription that is a meaningless imitation of hieroglyphic writing. Stela 114 dates to AD 435, in the Early Classic. It was moved in antiquity to be reset into the base of Structure 2. The stela has a long hieroglyphic text that has resisted translation but probably commemorates a royal enthronement in 411. Stela 115 and Stela 116 date to the reign of Yuknoom Yich'aak K'ak'. They were broken and buried in Structure 2 and may be associated with the royal burial in Tomb 4. ### Royal burial Tomb 4' was set into the floor of Structure 2B in the 8th century AD and is the richest burial known from Calakmul. The tomb contained a male skeleton wrapped in textiles and jaguar pelts that were partially preserved with resin. The tomb contained rich offerings that included jade ear ornaments handed down from the Early Classic, a jade mosaic mask, shell and bone beads, spiny oyster shells, eccentric obsidian blades, fine ceramics and the remains of wooden objects. One of the ceramics was a plate with a hieroglyphic text that specifically named king Yuknoom Yich'aak K'ak' as its owner. The remains and the offering were placed in an arched wooden bier carved with elaborate decoration and hieroglyphs that was painted in a variety of colours. The bier has almost completely decayed but left an impression in the mud packed around it. Due to the plate and the possible association of Stelae 115 and 116 with the burial the tomb is believed to be that of the late 7th-century king Yuknoom Yich'aak K'ak'. ## See also - Calakmul Biosphere Reserve - El Zotz - List of Mesoamerican pyramids - K'àak' Chi'
8,720,089	Kõpu Lighthouse	1,168,600,853	Lighthouse in Estonia	[ "1531 establishments in Europe", "Buildings and structures in Hiiu County", "Hanseatic League", "Hiiumaa Parish", "Lighthouses completed in 1531", "Lighthouses in Estonia", "Tourist attractions in Hiiu County" ]	Kõpu Lighthouse (Estonian: Kõpu tuletorn) is one of the best known symbols and tourist sites on the Estonian island of Hiiumaa. It is one of the oldest lighthouses in the world, having been in continuous use since its completion in 1531. The lighthouse is quite unique with its shape and exceptional among lighthouses because it has gone through all the stages from a medieval landmark up to a modern electrified lighthouse. The lighthouse marks the Hiiu Shoal (Estonian: Hiiu madal, Swedish: Neckmansgrund) and warns ships away from the shoreline. Light from Kõpu Lighthouse can be used for navigation as far as 26 nautical miles (48 km; 30 mi) away. Kõpu Lighthouse was previously known by its Swedish name, Övre Dagerort. ## Location and design The lighthouse is built at the top of the highest hill of Hiiumaa island, Tornimägi (English: Tower Hill, 68 metres (223 ft)). The height of the building itself is 37.7 metres (124 ft), and the light is 103.6 metres (340 ft) above sea level, making it the highest coastal light on the Baltic Sea. Kõpu Lighthouse has a shape of a square prism with massive buttresses in the four cardinal directions. The tower is laid solely of stone up to the height of 24 metres (79 ft). The outside layer of the walls is supported by lime (and nowadays also cement) mortar, with the body itself built without mortar. The body of the tower contains roughly 5,000 cubic metres (6,500 cu yd) of stone, with its total weight reaching 12,000 tonnes (26,000,000 lb). Local limestone and glacial erratic stones were used as building material. Originally, the tower was solid stone without any rooms and no light was burned at it; when it was equipped with light, the top of the lighthouse was reached using external wooden stairs, which were later replaced with iron ones. During reconstruction in the 1800s, a stairway and two rooms were cut into the tower. ## Construction and history ### Construction of the original tower The most important east–west shipping lane in the Baltic Sea passed the Hiiu sandstone bank. Already before the year 1490 the Hanseatic merchants were seeking permission to mark this peninsula with an outstanding landmark. Around 1490 they asked the bishop of Bishopric of Ösel-Wiek to let them build a landmark on the Kõpu peninsula which was under the bishop's control. This action had no real results. At a meeting of the Hanseatic League in Lübeck in 1499, they applied once more to the bishop for permission to build a beacon. On 20 April 1500 Bishop Johannes III Orgas (John Orgies) agreed to allow a massive stone pillar without any openings. To cover the building costs, Tallinn city council had to establish a special lighthouse tax until the sum was complete. Building of the beacon was supposed to start in the summer of 1500, but construction was stopped when Wolter von Plettenberg, master of the Livonian Order, started a war which lasted until 1503. In the spring of 1504, purchase and delivery of the building materials began, but in the autumn of the same year the plague broke out, stopping the work once more. Building work was discontinued and alderman Lambert Ottingk, the magistrate in charge of the building, died in Tallinn on 28 December 1505. The account ledgers of Tallinn city council contain entries about the Kõpu Lighthouse from 1507 to 1533, showing money was spent on the beacon of Hiiumaa from 13 May 1514 until 12 October 1532. The amounts show the majority of the work took place from 1514 to 1519; later there are only a couple of bigger expenditures on the beacon. But as completion of the beacon in Hiiumaa has been mentioned in the resolution of Wolmar Landtag in 25 February 1532 the actual time of completion and beginning of use of the tower must be 1531. Somewhere after 1538 height of the tower was increased. The tower was unlit for more than one hundred years and was visible on a clear day up to 20 kilometres (12 mi) offshore. ### Reconstruction into a lighthouse and rebuilding In August 1649 an open iron fire grate was affixed to the top of the tower and a wooden staircase was built to its outside wall. Originally it was planned to burn coal in the lighthouse, but due to high transport costs of coal, wood was used instead. The fire consumed up to 1000 cords of firewood every year during the 180-day navigation period, a quantity so great that it led to deforestation of most of the Kõpu peninsula. A team of six was on guard every night, but storms extinguished the fire often. A rule passed in 1652 decreed that the fire must be strong and a fathom (\~2 yards (1.8 m)) high. Count Axel Julius De la Gardie bought the island of Hiiumaa from the King of Sweden for 38,000 thalers and took over management of the Kõpu Lighthouse in 1659. He had its height extended to 35.6 m (117 ft) and the wooden stairs replaced with an iron staircase. The light, now visible from as far as 24 kilometres (15 mi) away, was lit one hour after the sun set and extinguished one hour before sunrise. The Russian Empire took over the administration of the lighthouse in 1810 and a major reconstruction of the tower began. A room for a team of six men was cut to the southern buttress and from there a stone staircase up to the tower. Two subsidiary rooms were cut into the upper part, one on top of the other, and a new lantern room was built on top of them. The lantern room housed twenty three oil lamps, using silver-plated brass reflectors. The lamps burned hemp oil, requiring 3.28 tonnes (7,200 lb) yearly. In 1845, a crack in the upper part of the lighthouse called for extensive reconstruction, which saw part of the tower pulled down and rebuilt. The tower now gained its final height. A wooden structure with lamp-chimneys was built for the lantern and its optical devices. The lighthouse came under navy control, and the first maintenance rules were laid down. The fire was to be lit and extinguished in strict accordance to sunrise and sunset. In cloudy weather lighthouse keepers were to consult a calendar for the necessary data. At that time, the fire was kept burning nightly from 1 July to 1 May—10 months of the year. As part of his naval reforms, Grand Duke Constantine Nikolaevich of Russia demanded modernization of the Kõpu Lighthouse, in 1859. In May 1860, a novel rotating lantern (manufactured by Le Paute in Paris) was installed. It rotated at a speed of one revolution per four minutes, using a clockwork pulley-weight system. The device had one Carsel lamp with four concentric light sources and a Fresnel lens. The lamp consumed 0.5 kilograms (1.1 lb) of rapeseed oil hourly, and the fuel pump was powered by the same clockwork mechanism. It was said to be visible up to 27 nautical miles (50 km; 31 mi) away. A team of seven serviced the lighthouse, with one required to be near the light at all times. The buttress with the staircase was roofed with wooden boards and tin sheets in 1869. A telegraph installation and rescue stations were established near the lighthouse in the same year; the first-established worked until 1898 when it was replaced by a telephone. ### Twentieth century A new light system was bought at the 1900 Paris World Fair, for three million gold rubles. The new apparatus (including the light chamber) was made by Sautter, Marlé & Co. It used a kerosene lamp with an incandescent mantle. A heavy cast iron system floated and rotated in a bath of mercury, which acted as a bearing. The bath contained roughly 500 kilograms (1,100 lb) of mercury. The poisonous mercury from the lighthouse was used for decades by children in the surrounding villages for playing. The light system was set in rotation by a suspended 400 kilograms (880 lb) load; it needed to be rewound every two hours. It was installed during repairs of 1901. German bombers targeted the lighthouse in August 1941, though only the lantern structure and optical system were destroyed. After World War II, various optical systems were tested. Kohler generators were installed in 1949 along with the stationary electric light system. A new rotating light system (EMV-3) was installed in 1963, making the lighthouse fully automated. It was in use until 1982, when an experimental EMV-930M system (made in Ukraine) was installed. The rotation mechanism of the optical system was a novel solution – there are no electric motors; it uses a revolving magnetic field instead. The optics brought a six to eight hundredfold increase to the efficiency of the light radiated by a 1 kW quartz lamp. Due to deterioration, the lighthouse underwent frequent repairs; major repairs were in completed in 1957 and 1970. During the repairs in years 1978–81 on the occasion of the 450th anniversary of the lighthouse, it was covered with a reinforced concrete shell and perchlorovinyl paint. As there was no white colour available, yellow was used. The paint blocked the way for humidity to escape from the body of the tower and water collecting in the inner surface of the cement mortar, freezing and melting, started to damage the already old and degraded lime mortar. By the mid-80s cracks appeared in the surface of the lighthouse and pieces of the cement mortar and smaller stones started falling off. During 1987 and 1988 two corners of the tower collapsed and emergency restoration was started. During the years 1989–90, to prevent collapsing of the lighthouse, a 15 centimetres (5.9 in) thick reinforced concrete shell was built to support the foundation and walls up to the top of the buttresses. The tower was painted with whitewash. Air channels were left in the concrete for ventilating the structure. The lantern room of the lighthouse was renovated in 2001 and the tower was last repainted, with whitewash, in 2012. In 2020 a new powerful LED light source was installed in the existing lantern along with a new electronic control system. As of 2020, it is the most powerful LED-lighthouse light in the world with an intensity of 2,100,000 candela. ## Current status The lighthouse is still in use as an aid to navigation and managed by Estonian Maritime Administration. Its future is also ensured by its status as a protected cultural monument. Due to its enduring popularity and memorable shape, it is often used as a symbol of Hiiumaa. A major tourist attraction, the tower has been open for tourists since 1999. Together with the nearby Ristna lighthouse, the Kõpu Lighthouse was commemorated on a postage stamp in 2000. ## See also - List of lighthouses in Estonia
49,093	Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six (video game)	1,172,334,964	null	[ "1998 video games", "Classic Mac OS games", "Cooperative video games", "Crawfish Interactive games", "Dreamcast games", "First-person shooters", "Game Boy Color games", "Multiplayer and single-player video games", "Multiplayer online games", "Nintendo 64 games", "Pipe Dream Interactive games", "PlayStation (console) games", "PlayStation Network games", "Red Storm Entertainment games", "Tactical shooter video games", "Take-Two Interactive games", "Tom Clancy games", "Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six", "Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six games", "Ubisoft games", "Video games based on novels", "Video games developed in the United States", "Video games scored by Bill Brown", "Video games set in 1999", "Video games set in 2000", "Video games set in 2001", "Video games set in Belgium", "Video games set in Brazil", "Video games set in China", "Video games set in Hungary", "Video games set in Idaho", "Video games set in India", "Video games set in Kazakhstan", "Video games set in London", "Video games set in Russia", "Video games set in San Francisco", "Video games set in Spain", "Video games set in Sydney", "Video games set in Virginia", "Video games set in Washington, D.C.", "Video games set in the Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Video games set in the United Kingdom", "Video games with expansion packs", "Windows games" ]	Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six is a 1998 tactical shooter video game developed and published by Red Storm Entertainment for Microsoft Windows, with later ports for the Nintendo 64, PlayStation, Mac OS, Game Boy Color, and Dreamcast. It is the first installment in the Rainbow Six series. Based on the Tom Clancy novel of the same name, the game follows Rainbow, a secret international counterterrorist organization, and the conspiracy they unravel as they handle a seemingly random spike in terrorism. In singleplayer, the player advances through a series of missions in a campaign. Before each mission, the player is briefed on the situation, selects and organizes their operatives and equipment, and plans their movement through the level; during missions, the player controls an operative leading computer-controlled teammates as they follow the player's plan. In multiplayer, players cooperate in player versus environment missions or battle to complete objectives in player versus player matches. The game features realistic gameplay factors, weapon lethality, and consequences for failure, forcing players to plan their approach carefully and promoting replayability for more streamlined completion. Rainbow Six began as a concept by Red Storm following their formation in 1996. The game was developed in parallel with the Rainbow Six novel, with a design philosophy of realism and strategy guiding all aspects of development; however, numerous setbacks stymied the game's development and forced the developers to crunch. Though his name is in the game's title, Tom Clancy's involvement in Rainbow Six's development was very minimal. Red Storm developed the PC version, while all other ports were developed by their respective companies. Rainbow Six was released on August 21, 1998 to widespread critical acclaim, though the console ports received relatively lower ratings than the PC version. For most releases, praise was directed toward gameplay, multiplayer, immersion, and the game's combination of strategy and action, while criticism mainly centered on AI issues, glitches, and the graphics and controls of some ports. The game sold over 200,000 copies in its first year of release and continued to sell hundreds of thousands more copies well into the early 2000s. Rainbow Six was nominated for numerous accolades and has been deemed one of the best video games of 1998. It is considered a milestone in the history of first-person shooters and made a lasting impact on the then-fledgling tactical shooter genre. An expansion pack, Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Mission Pack: Eagle Watch, was released on January 31, 1999. A sequel, Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six: Rogue Spear, was released in 1999. A loose mobile game remake, Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six: Shadow Vanguard, was released in 2011. ## Gameplay Rainbow Six is a tactical shooter, in which characters are affected by realistic factors and can be killed with a single bullet; therefore, wise tactics and planning are encouraged to complete missions over sheer force and firepower. The game follows a campaign of several missions, with the plot being advanced in the mission briefing of each. Missions in each version differ: the PC, PlayStation, and Game Boy Color versions have 16 missions, the Nintendo 64 port has 12 missions, and the Dreamcast port has 21 missions. Objectives in missions include defeating enemies, rescuing hostages, defusing bombs, gathering intelligence, and planting surveillance devices. Players are encouraged to find their own ways to complete objectives using a variety of tactics and methods, ranging from stealthy infiltration to a frontal assault (except in missions where stealth is mandatory). Successful missions often last just minutes, but may require dozens of repetitions and planning changes to account for failures, new plans, or simply faster or cleaner completion. Before each mission is a planning stage, in which the player is briefed on the situation, chooses the Rainbow operatives to be involved in the mission, organizes them into color-coded teams, and selects their weapons, equipment, and uniforms. Operatives are categorized into five classes based on their skill specializations: Assault, Demolitions, Electronics, Recon, and Sniper. In the planning stage, the player is shown a map of the area of operations to set team orders, such as AI pathing, team "go" codes to hold until ordered, where AI operatives will deploy equipment such as flashbangs or door breaching charges, and rules of engagement. During gameplay, the player controls one operative directly, and can see stats for that operative and their team on the HUD. The player can take control of any alive team leader at will. Operatives and teams not under player control follow the orders given to them in the planning stage. Injured operatives cannot be healed during a mission and require time off to heal (they can still be used, just with lower health), while deceased operatives are permanently gone and cannot be used for the rest of the campaign playthrough, forcing players to plan carefully to avoid casualties. Online multiplayer for the PC version was available on the MPlayer.com and Zone.com services. Multiplayer modes include cooperative modes, deathmatch, and team deathmatch, among others. Most other console ports lack multiplayer, though the Nintendo 64 port includes a two-player split-screen cooperative mode. Most versions of Rainbow Six have only minimal differences to each other, such as the PlayStation port displaying the player's equipped weapon in their hands or the Nintendo 64 port having a different, simpler HUD. The Game Boy Color port is the only exception, having radically different gameplay and presentation due to the platform's technical limitations: gameplay is slowed and simplified, crossfire is removed, and the 3D graphics from other releases are replaced by a 2D top-down perspective. ## Plot In 1999, in response to a post-Cold War rise in terrorism, the world's military, law enforcement, and intelligence agencies form "Rainbow", a top secret international counterterrorist organization led by John Clark. In 2000, Rainbow responds to a series of terrorist attacks linked to the Phoenix Group eco-terrorist organization. Rainbow's operations against Phoenix are assisted by John Brightling, chairman of the powerful biotechnology corporation Horizon Inc., whose facilities are frequently targeted by Phoenix; Anne Lang, the Science Advisor to the President of the United States and an acquaintance of Brightling; and Catherine Winston, a biological expert working with Horizon who is rescued by Rainbow following an attack in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. After a raid on a Phoenix compound in Idaho that reveals unethical human experimentation, Rainbow learns the Phoenix Group is a front for Horizon. Viewing humanity as an environmentally destructive "disease", Brightling plans to exterminate most of humanity using a highly contagious manmade strain of the Ebola virus called "Brahma", sparing only his chosen few (including Lang), who will rebuild Earth into a scientific environmental utopia. To achieve this, Brightling has engineered terrorist attacks to exploit heightened terrorism concerns and secure a contract for his private security firm Global Security at the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney. Global Security's personnel, led by William Hendrickson, will then release Brahma at the Olympics, spreading the virus across the world when the athletes and spectators return home. After gathering intelligence and rescuing Winston from a last-ditch attempt to silence her, Rainbow apprehends Lang and Hendrickson and prevents Brahma's release at the Olympic Village, foiling Brightling's plans. Brightling and his collaborators flee to their Horizon Ark facility in the Amazon rainforest, where they planned to weather out the Brahma pandemic. Rainbow assaults the Ark, neutralizes Brightling's collaborators, and takes Brightling into custody. ## Development The idea of the game that would become Rainbow Six originated from early concepts Red Storm Entertainment had conceived following the company's formation in 1996. Selected from around 100 other ideas, the original concept, titled HRT, followed the FBI Hostage Rescue Team rescuing hostages from criminals and terrorists. HRT was gradually expanded in scope with the addition of covert operations and an international setting, and the game was rechristened Black Ops. With the initial FBI HRT concept dropped and gameplay branching away from just hostage rescue, multiple alternate settings were proposed for Black Ops—including World War II, 1960s spy fiction-esque Cold War espionage, the near future, and a dystopian antihero-centered story called Jackbooted Thugs—before finally settling on contemporary counterterrorism. Red Storm CEO Doug Littlejohns, a former Royal Navy submarine commander and a close friend of Tom Clancy, did not want to develop an arcade shooter with "mindless violence", but also did not want a "boring" slow-paced strategy game, so Black Ops was designed to focus on realism and action, with a strong emphasis on planning and strategy. Lead game designer Brian Upton, recalling Rainbow Six's development process in the May 1999 issue of Game Developer, described the game's design philosophy from the initial concept: > We knew from the start that we wanted to capture the excitement of movies such as Mission: Impossible and The Dirty Dozen — the thrill of watching a team of skilled specialists pull off an operation with clockwork precision. We also knew that we wanted it to be an action game with a strong strategic component — a realistic shooter that would be fun to play even without a Quake player's twitch reflexes. Rainbow Six—both the game and the novel—originated from a discussion between Littlejohns and Clancy during a Red Storm company outing in 1996, when Littlejohns mentioned Black Ops. When Clancy mentioned that he was writing his own novel about a hostage rescue unit, their conversation led to Littlejohns noting the protracted diplomatic delays in authorizing a foreign counterterrorist unit's deployment overseas, and he suggested the formation of a permanent counterterrorist unit that already had authorization to deploy internationally. The name "Rainbow" came from the term "Rainbow nation", coined by Desmond Tutu to describe post-apartheid South Africa under Nelson Mandela's presidency. "Six" came from the American rank code for captain (O-6); though John Clark would more accurately be described as a major general (O-8), "Rainbow Six" read better than "Rainbow Eight". Upton objected to the addition of "Six", believing having a number at the end of the title would affect a potential sequel, but he was overruled. Following the game's development doctrine of realism, lead level designer John Sonedecker designed each level to be as accurate and realistic to real-world architecture as possible, noting that the presence of unusual design elements seen in other less-realistic shooters, such as unnecessarily large doorways or building layouts seemingly designed for combat, would ruin the player's immersion and affect gameplay. The development team had access to counterterrorism experts, military trainers, and technical consultants, and used their advice to ensure authenticity and streamline development by cutting mechanics deemed unrealistic or unnecessary, such as jumping. These technical advisors also provided motion capture for character animations. By 1997, the game was very behind on schedule, and the developers began to crunch. Many developers slept in a spare room of the office, Upton's mental health deteriorated to the point that he had a nervous breakdown that prompted company restructuring to reduce his workload, and network programmer Dave Weinstein (hired as part of the aforementioned company restructuring) was once stopped by police on suspicion of driving under the influence due to his severe exhaustion from crunch. Clancy's involvement in development was "minimal", only sending Red Storm an early manuscript of the novel to work plot details into the game (hence why the game's plot features different characters and a slightly different storyline). Clancy would insist the developers add features his experts claimed were realistic, such as the fictional heartbeat sensor used in the novel that functions as a radar-like equipment item in-game. In November 1997, the developers realized the game was becoming too demanding, only having single-digit frame rates on high-end devices, so a massive two-month overhaul was ordered. Despite these setbacks, development managed to progress relatively smoothly overall, and a gameplay demonstration at E3 1998 that unintentionally displayed AI teammates rescuing hostages by themselves boosted the game's publicity ahead of release. Several weeks prior to the game's release on PC, early copies of the game were leaked onto online piracy websites. The users that uploaded the game files reportedly "took credit for 'cracking' a game with no copy protection in it", frustrating the developers; Weinstein recalled going on a profanity-laden rant on the topic in Red Storm's office, only to be pulled aside by Littlejohns for his volume, having been heard three offices away. The Nintendo 64, PlayStation, Game Boy Color, and Dreamcast releases of the game were each developed by separate companies: Saffire for the N64, Rebellion Developments for the PS1, Crawfish Interactive for the GBC, and Pipe Dream Interactive for the Dreamcast. Saffire struggled to simplify Rainbow Six's control scheme to suit the Nintendo 64 controller and ultimately had to completely remake the game so it would be able to run without frame rate dips on the N64. Crawfish opted to give the Game Boy Color port a unique game style, as they felt other game styles would not suit Rainbow Six's gameplay and features on the platform. The release of Pipe Dream's Dreamcast port was delayed by eight months. The game's box art, featuring a Rainbow operative armed with a Heckler & Koch USP, was not created for the game and is actually a modified 1992 photograph of Heckler & Koch USA sales executive John T. Meyer. The original image was used to promote the American launch of the USP in 1993. Heckler & Koch permitted the use of the image for the game and sent firearms instructors to assist with motion capture. ## Release Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six was released for Windows on August 21, 1998 in North America and October 1998 in Europe. The game was published by Red Storm Entertainment in North America and Take-Two Interactive in Europe. The other ports of the game were released gradually over several months between late 1998 and early 2001; the final release of the game, the Dreamcast port, was released on May 9, 2000 in North America and February 2, 2001 in Europe, published by Majesco Entertainment. After the release of the game, Tom Clancy offered to sign copies of the game for Red Storm employees, despite being relatively uninvolved in development, annoying several developers; as Upton opined, "Even though it had his name on the box, it wasn't his game. It was our game. He should have been asking us to sign a copy for him!" The PAL PlayStation port of the game was one of 20 games preloaded on the PlayStation Classic (excluding the Japan, Taiwan, and Hong Kong releases), released on December 3, 2018. ### Rainbow Six Mission Pack: Eagle Watch Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Mission Pack: Eagle Watch is an expansion pack of the original game, released for PC only on January 31, 1999. It adds five new missions, four new operatives from the Rainbow Six novel, three new weapons, and new multiplayer modes. The new missions, unrelated to each other or the original campaign, take place in 2001 and follow Rainbow's high-profile operations in landmark locations around the world, namely the Buran spaceplane in Russia, the Taj Mahal in India, the Forbidden City in China, the Palace of Westminster in the United Kingdom, and the Capitol in the United States. The expansion was packaged with the original game as Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six: Gold Pack Edition in 1999. Some versions of the game also include missions from Eagle Watch, such as the Nintendo 64 port, which includes three. ## Reception Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six was met with mostly positive reviews on PC, though the console ports received relatively lower ratings. Review aggregator Metacritic displays a score of 85 out of 100 for the PC version. Video game review aggregator GameRankings displays scores of 82% for PC, 74% for the Nintendo 64, 48% for the PlayStation, 54% for the Game Boy Color, and 73% for the Dreamcast. Overall gameplay was positively received. The game's difficulty and playstyle differences to contemporary shooters such as Quake II and GoldenEye 007 were highlighted by multiple reviewers, as was the detailed planning stage. Trent C. Ward, reviewing the PC version for IGN, praised the complexities of the planning stage, realistic damage, competent AI, and freedom to complete missions from multiple approaches, saying it was "unlike any first-person shooter yet made." PC Gamer US called the game "an enthralling package loaded to the brim with tense, nail-biting gameplay, slick technology, and excellent replayability" and "undoubtedly one of the most original and best games of the year." Jeremy Dunham of IGN, reviewing the Dreamcast port, praised the game's change in pace, saying, "Long exposed to mindless romps and pointless first-person gore-fest clones, the ability to actually think and THEN destroy puts a big ol' smile on my face." Push Square's Sam Brooke, reviewing the PlayStation port in a 2018 retrospective, enjoyed the sense of accomplishment from completing challenging missions properly, calling it "a trailblazer in its genre". Alan Dunkin of GameSpot noted the game could be difficult, but to the point of sometimes being frustrating. Several reviews highlighted the game's realism and immersion. Dunkin stated "the immersive feeling of Rainbow Six is perhaps one of the best seen in a game." Christian Nutt, reviewing the Nintendo 64 port for GameSpot, said of Rainbow Six, "realism is the order of the day ... this game does deliver a military simulation on a very personal level." Next Generation commended the game's attempts at realism, but noted flaws in presentation such as the odd manner in which characters leaned around corners. Multiplayer was singled out for praise, especially for the PC version. Ward praised the multiplayer functionality and its addictiveness, adding that "[f]or weeks now, the offices here have literally shut down as teams from IGN-PC, PC Gamer and PC Accelerator stop what they're doing to take each other on in a team deathmatch, or to cooperate on a difficult mission." Dunkin opined that the multiplayer "saves the game" from its other flaws. PC Gamer US favorably described the multiplayer functionality as "tense and exciting", but suggested the quick time-to-kill could make smaller matches simple and boring. Peter Olafson of GamePro said the multiplayer was "a nice-looking shooter" but criticized lag issues. AI issues and glitches were subject to considerable criticism. Raphael Liberatore, reviewing the game for Computer Gaming World, criticized "faulty AI and game-killing bugs" for impeding "what could have been a benchmark game—a game troubled by what it could have been." Olafson singled out the lack of variation in AI behavior, with enemies idling and teammates only moving in single-file lines. Brooke criticized AI pathfinding through narrow corridors, recounting one mission where it took longer to extract a hostage than it did to find them in the first place. Ward also recalled experiencing several glitches and instances of teammates obstructing him, but opined such issues could easily be overlooked during gameplay. ### Console ports The Nintendo 64 port was well-received by most reviewers. Aaron Boulding of IGN said the only issue with the port was the shortened campaign, but Nutt considered the short length to be acceptable, viewing the multiple difficulty levels and the co-op mode as making up for it. Electronic Gaming Monthly highlighted the port's detailed graphics yet smooth framerate as impressive for the Nintendo 64, especially without having to resort to render fog. Mike Wolf of Next Generation gave it three stars out of five, stating that though it was "a fantastic game", its flaws meant it was "not a must-have". In a 2018 retrospective, N64 Today said the port still stood up 20 years after its release, but noted noticeable graphical issues, especially if not played on a CRT display. The PlayStation port was widely panned as inferior to other versions. Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine gave it one star out of five. Nutt lambasted it as "awkward" and "aesthetically bankrupt", noting its apparent abandonment of the team leadership aspect, deeming it "an uninspired FPS with some weird hostage-saving minigame tacked on." IGN's Matt White criticized its unusually poor graphics, and called it "a mighty fine example for impressionable young developers of how not to handle a port." Brooke called the PlayStation port "janky" and "unpolished", but gave it credit for the game's influence. The Game Boy Color version received mixed reviews. IGN's Craig Harris criticized it for removing risk factors such as enemy effectiveness and crossfire, thus making most planning and tactics worthless, though he commended Crawfish Interactive's ambition in adapting a three-dimensional shooter to a two-dimensional handheld. Frank Provo of GameSpot criticized AI issues, gameplay repetition, and noticeable reuse of sprites and sounds, but still considered it a faithful version for what it was. The Dreamcast port was very well-received. Garrett Kenyon of Next Generation gave it four stars out of five, calling it "[a]n impressive PC translation that Dreamcast owners should certainly consider owning." Erik Wolpaw, reviewing the Dreamcast port for GameSpot, stated it was a faithful port of the PC game and "as deep and challenging as action games get", though he criticized its long loading times, lack of multiplayer, and unusually complex method of issuing commands—over 35 exist, but require specific combinations of joystick and button inputs. Dunham had the same criticisms, noting these issues still existed in the final release despite an eight-month delay in the port's development, but nonetheless deemed it "one of the deepest, most realistic games to inhabit the Dreamcast so far." ### Eagle Watch Mike Lohrey of IGN reviewed the Eagle Watch expansion, praising its new levels and additions but criticizing AI awareness issues and inconsistent damage mechanics compared to the original game. Liberatore, who had previously panned the original game, rated Eagle Watch 4.5 out of 5, stating it "vastly improved the original, AI included, making R6 the standout title it deserves to be." ### Accolades The Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences nominated Rainbow Six for "PC Action Game of the Year" during the 2nd Annual Interactive Achievement Awards, although the game lost to Half-Life. During the following year's awards ceremony, the Mac OS version received a nomination for "Computer Action Game of the Year", although it eventually lost to the Half-Life expansion Opposing Force. Rainbow Six was a finalist for Computer Gaming World's 1998 "Best Action" award, which ultimately went to Battlezone. The editors wrote that Rainbow Six "deftly mixed strategic planning with nail-biting action as it brought the world of counterterrorist operations to life." PC Gamer US named Rainbow Six the best action game of 1998. CNN, in partnership with Games.net, named Rainbow Six one of the "top 25 game downloads of 1998". ### Sales In the United States, Rainbow Six's Windows release sold 218,183 copies during 1998, accounting for \$8.86 million in revenue that year. The PC version's Gold Edition release sold another 321,340 copies in the United States during 1999, and was the country's 12th best-selling computer game that year. According to Gamasutra, Rainbow Six and Rainbow Six: Rogue Spear together sold 450,000 copies "during the first half of the 2001/2002 fiscal year".
64,707,755	1985–1986 Hormel strike	1,153,405,316	Labor dispute between Hormel and the United Food and Commercial Workers	[ "1980s strikes in the United States", "1985 in Minnesota", "1985 labor disputes and strikes", "1986 in Minnesota", "1986 labor disputes and strikes", "Austin, Minnesota", "Hormel Foods", "Labor disputes in Minnesota", "Labor disputes in the United States", "Labor disputes led by the United Food and Commercial Workers", "Meat processing in the United States" ]	The 1985–1986 Hormel strike was a labor strike that involved approximately 1,500 workers of the Hormel meatpacking plant in Austin, Minnesota in the United States. The strike, beginning August 17, 1985 and lasting until September 13 of the following year, is considered one of the longest strikes in Minnesota history and ended in failure for the striking workers. Hormel is an American meat processing company founded in 1891 that has both their headquarters and primary facility in Austin. Workers at this plant organized in 1933 and, following some initial strike activity, enjoyed a relatively good relationship with plant management. However, the relationship between the union and management had become more hostile by the 1970s, and in 1975, Hormel announced that they would be replacing the Austin plant with a new facility. In light of this, the union (Local P-9 of the United Food and Commercial Workers (UFCW)) agreed to a new labor contract that included several major concessions from the union. Following the new plant's opening in 1982, employees experienced an increase in injuries caused by the conditions at the plant, and in 1984, Hormel introduced a pay cut. Following this, Local P-9 hired labor activist Ray Rogers and began a corporate campaign against Hormel to pressure them into negotiating a new contract with the union. On August 17, 1985, Local P-9 authorized strike action against Hormel, which was hesitantly approved by UFCW. The strike caused Hormel to temporarily shut down the plant, and as the strike continued, national coverage of the strike led to a boycott of Hormel products. Hormel reopened the plant in January the following year and rehired approximately 500 strikers alongside that many non-union members. As the strike continued, the Minnesota National Guard was called in, and strikers performed multiple blockades of nearby roads leading to the plant, attempting to block strikebreakers from entering. On April 11, a riot broke out that led to the use of tear gas by the police and several non-fatal injuries. Following the riot, Jesse Jackson traveled to Austin to act as mediator, with no success. Ultimately, UFCW ordered Local P-9 to end the strike in June, and when local officials refused, the UFCW forced the local into receivership. The strike continued until Local P-9, with new officials, agreed to a new contract with Hormel on September 13. Speaking several years later about the strike, labor historian Jeremy Brecher called the event "perhaps the signal labor struggle of the 1980s." The strike was the subject of discussion and books by several noted labor historians, such as Kim Moody and Peter Rachleff, who cite the strike's failure as a major blow against organized labor in the United States. This event was one of a series of labor strikes during the 1980s that ended in failure for organized labor, including the 1981 PATCO strike and the Arizona copper mine strike of 1983. The strike was later the focus of the Academy Award-winning 1990 documentary film American Dream by Barbara Kopple. ## Background ### Early organized labor activities at Hormel Hormel Foods Corporation was founded by George A. Hormel in Austin, Minnesota in 1891. In addition to being the location of the company's headquarters, Austin also housed the company's main meat processing plant. The first large scale labor dispute at Hormel occurred in 1933, following the creation of the first labor union at the plant. The union, the Independent Union of All Workers (IUAW), had been organized that year by veteran activist Frank Ellis of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW), and was closely modeled after the IWW. This included an emphasis on industrial unionism, direct action, and a militant attitude towards employers. In 1933 the meatpackers at the Hormel plant launched the plant's first labor strike. The organized workers demanded the introduction of a seniority system and union recognition in order to have a more active role in decisions involving wages and working conditions. Following a large rally held by the union in July of that year, the union was officially recognized by Hormel in September. On November 10, IUAW members participated in the United States' first recorded sitdown strike, which resulted in three days of negotiations between union representatives and Hormel employers. Minnesota Governor Floyd B. Olson had refused to activate the Minnesota National Guard and instead had traveled to Austin to act as a mediator. Between 1933 and 1937, the IUAW expanded to several cities throughout the area. While the IUAW was originally an independent union, by 1937 this would change. A series of sitdown strikes in nearby Albert Lea, Minnesota turned violent with confrontations between the strikers (including union members from the Austin plant) and members of the Freeborn County Sheriff's Department. This confrontation led to direct involvement from Governor Elmer Austin Benson. Following this, IUAW officials agreed to allow union members in Albert Lea to form local unions that would affiliate with national unions associated with the American Federation of Labor (AFL) or the Committee for Industrial Organization (CIO). Gradually, the IUAW allowed all local unions to pursue this path, and in 1937 the members of the Austin plant narrowly voted to approve an affiliation with the Packinghouse Workers Organizing Committee of the CIO. Ultimately, the successor union representing workers at the Austin plant became Local P-9 of the United Food and Commercial Workers. The "P" in Local P-9 indicated that the local had once belonged to the United Packinghouse Workers of America. ### Increased hostilities between union and company Aside from the strike actions in 1933, the relationship between Hormel and organized labor was generally good, especially under the leadership of Jay Catherwood Hormel, who served as Hormel's president from 1929 to 1954 and was viewed as generally sympathetic to labor. During this time, Hormel was considered an example of industrial democracy, where organized workers had a large say in the operations of the plant as a whole. However, starting in the 1960s, this arrangement began to change. Hormel began enforcing stricter work standards. Between the 1960s and early 1980s, the company often distributed layoff notices to workers during concessions negotiations. Around this same time, Hormel began to expand by acquiring additional meatpacking plants in several other American cities, and in both 1976 and 1981–82 they urged workers at the Austin plant to either transfer to these new plants or take a severance package. During the 1970s, the non-union Iowa Beef Processors (IBP) began to rapidly expand and pushed many meatpacking companies out of the beef slaughtering industry. As a non-union meatpacking company, the IBP's labor costs were almost half those at a union company such as Hormel. In light of this increased competition, Hormel shut down their beef slaughtering industry at Austin in 1976. Within the union itself, changes had occurred since its founding. By this time, the local union was dominated by more conservative business unionists who enjoyed a good relationship with management and were often at odds with the rank and file union members. Because of collective bargaining agreements between these business unionists and the company, many of the new union employees hired during this time were paid less and worked less desirable positions with worse safety conditions than the older workers, causing resentment within the union. During this time, the number of employees at the Austin plant reached a peak of about 5,000, which steadily decreased to no more than 1,750 by 1982. Union membership peaked at 4,000 in the early 1950s, decreasing to 800 in the mid-1970s. ### New plant in Austin In 1975, citing a need to stay competitive, Hormel declared their intent to construct a new meatpacking facility to replace their flagship plant in Austin, calling the then 80-year-old building outdated. The company entered into contract negotiations with Local P-9 regarding the construction of the new plant, and in 1978 company officials claimed that Hormel was considering constructing the plant outside of Austin. Ultimately, Hormel and Local P-9 agreed to a new contract on June 27 of that year. In exchange for keeping the plant in Austin, the union agreed to several concessions. Among these, the union agreed to a wage freeze for seven years, an elimination for incentive pay, a 20% increase in productivity, and a no-strike agreement that would last for three years following the opening of the new plant. On August 9, 1982, Hormel opened their new flagship plant in Austin, replacing the previous plant. Ultimately, union workers at this new plant were covered under three different labor agreements between the union and company, which included the labor contract they had had at the previous plant, the 1978 concessionary agreements, and an additional concessionary agreement that had been approved in January 1982. Among the provisions, the company agreed that there would be no wage cuts for the duration of the contracts, which were set to last until August 1985. Additionally, the agreements contained a "me too" clause that would allow Hormel to set wages at the plant equal to those of other unionized plants. Following the opening of the new plant, many older members of the union retired, and by 1983, two-thirds of the plant's workforce consisted of people hired after the opening of the new plant. In December of that year, Jim Guyette, who had been a member of the local's executive board since 1980 and had opposed the concessions, was elected president. Along with many newly elected P-9 officials, Guyette sought to be more confrontational and less conciliatory to Hormel management. Shortly after the opening of this new plant, other meatpacking companies began to pursue wage decreases by either closing union plants and reopening them as non-union plants or by negotiating with unions to take pay cuts at the threat of plant closures. Around this time, meatpacking company Oscar Mayer had negotiated reductions in wages for their employees, and Hormel shortly thereafter began to do the same. In March 1984, Hormel negotiated a new contract with UFCW Local 431 of their Ottumwa, Iowa plant that included a wage cut from \$10.69 to \$8.75 per hour. This new contract agreement had taken hundreds of layoffs and three rounds of voting from the local. With this agreement, Hormel then began to pressure the Austin local to a similar wage cut. Shortly after this contract agreement, UFCW officials allowed Hormel to reopen their contract with Local P-9 in September 1984, rather than allowing it to expire the following year. Guyette opposed this action, and that month he led Local P-9 out of the company-wide negotiations that had been ongoing between the UFCW and Hormel. Following this move, which surprised many in the negotiations, Hormel instituted a wage cut for Local P-9, and in October 1984 wages at the plant decreased from \$10.69 to \$8.25 per hour. Guyette and the local remained opposed to any concessions with Hormel, and shortly thereafter Local P-9 (but not UFCW) hired labor consultant Ray Rogers and his New York City-based Corporate Campaign Incorporated (CCI) to wage a corporate campaign against Hormel. ### Ray Rogers and the corporate campaign Guyette had initially not considered a corporate campaign against Hormel and had initially just wanted to employ a public relations firm to help publicize the events going on between Hormel and the local. However, after reading about Ray Rogers and CCI in Business Week, he called the firm and Rogers explained to Guyette what a corporate campaign entailed. Rogers, a labor activist, had developed a reputation for successful corporate campaigns, such as in 1980, when he helped union members in the southern United States win a union victory against J.P. Stevens & Co. In October 1984, Rogers gave a presentation before members of Local P-9, but on December 20 of that year, UFCW President William H. Wynn announced that the UFCW would not be hiring Rogers. However, in January the next year, Local P-9 agreed to hire Rogers and CCI, approving a \$3 per member per week fee increase to cover the consultant's cost. These actions led to fears from Wynn and UFCW Packinghouse division leader Lewie Anderson that Local P-9 was moving towards wildcat strike action. Rogers quickly put into action a corporate campaign against Hormel, which included targeting connections between Hormel and First Bank System, a regional firm that had many ties to Hormel. Rogers hoped that the campaign could convince the bank's board of directors to pressure Hormel into rescinding the wage cuts. Rogers also hoped to grow community support for Local P-9 by linking their struggles against Hormel (and by extension First Bank System) to those of many farmers in the area who had had their farms foreclosed by First Bank System. CCI also publicized alleged ties between Hormel and the apartheid government of South Africa, leading to the African National Congress (ANC) supporting Local P-9 against Hormel. At the same time CCI was looking into Hormel's business ties, members of Local P-9 were attempting to generate local support for the union by distributing over 12,000 copies of their newspaper, The Unionist. Members in the community, primarily wives of Local P-9 members, also organized the Austin United Support Group to help coordinate support for the local, create an emergency fund, and raise morale. Workers also protested at Hormel's stockholders' meeting. As the corporate campaign continued through 1985, the expiration date for the local's contract with Hormel was approaching. On August 7, 1985, 93% of Local P-9 voted to authorize a strike. UFCW approved the strike on the condition that Local P-9 not expand the strike to other plants (creating what were known as "roving pickets") and that the corporate campaign was to end. However, Wynn agreed to support roving pickets if negotiations with the company failed. The strike officially began on August 17, 1985, with about 1,500 workers striking. ## Course of the strike ### Early activities during the strike With a substantial part of their workforce gone, Hormel temporarily shut down operations at their Austin plant. Production was shifted to eight other meatpacking plants, including several unionized plants in the Midwest. As the strike occurred after the contract between the local and Hormel had expired, it was a legal strike and therefore constitutionally obligated to receive strike funds from UFCW. However, Wynn and Anderson did not support the strike and sought to minimize UFCW's support for Local P-9 and undermine their efforts. For example, in November of the previous year the UFCW had distributed letters allegedly written by leaders at other Hormel local unions, criticizing Local P-9's actions. Additionally, the ban on roving pickets that UFCW had placed on Local P-9 significantly hurt their efforts to coordinate support from other unionized meatpacking plants, including those where production from the Austin plant had been shifted. As part of the strike, union members engaged in acts of protest including picketing and rallying. According to MNopedia, early into the strike, Hormel offered 300 strikers retirement benefits if they ceased striking, with 30 employees accepting the offer. In September 1985, the National Labor Relations Board sought and were granted an injunction against Local P-9 that stopped their boycott against First Bank System, ruling that it constituted an illegal secondary boycott. UFCW used this ruling as an opportunity to further hurt Local P-9, as they convinced the AFL–CIO in Minnesota to ban any literature from Local P-9 at their meetings, arguing that the literature reference First Bank System and therefore violated the injunction. During the strike, arbitrators attempted to negotiate a deal between Hormel and the local, and by the end of 1985, Hormel proposed a "two-tier" system consisting of \$10 per hour standard wages for current employees and \$8 per hour wages for new hires. In December 1985, members of Local P-9 voted via secret ballot to reject the offer proposed by Hormel. Another proposal was again voted against in January 1986. Strikers had wanted a return to the \$10.69 per hour wage and alleged that the proposal did not address issues such as seniority and working conditions. Since reopening, the plant had experienced an increased injury rate compared to the previous plant, and it led all meatpacking plants in the United States in number of workplace injuries. Following this, Hormel announced the reopening of the Austin plant on January 13, announcing the hiring of strikebreakers, referred to by union members as "scabs." That same month, Anderson publicly criticized Guyette on television, and the UFCW began to employ red-baiting to further hurt Local P-9. On the date of the plant's reopening, hundreds of strikers blocked access to the plant, which they proceeded to do for the next several days. In light of this blocking and increasing hostilities from the strikers, on January 21, Minnesota Governor Rudy Perpich sent the Minnesota National Guard to protect the strikebreakers. The governor withdrew the National Guard from the city in February, leaving the handling of the ongoing strike in the hands of the local law enforcement officials. Following Hormel's reopening, approximately 540 strikebreakers, mostly migrant workers from Mexico, joined 500 union members who crossed their own picket lines to return to work. ### Roving strikes Following the reopening of the plant, Local P-9 defied the UFCW and began to seek support from other unionized meatpacking plants. Following the failure to come to an agreement with Hormel, Local P-9 sought the approval of roving pickets from the UFCW, but Wynn failed to honor his agreement with the local and did not sanction any pickets outside Austin. Regardless, P-9 members began to organize roving strikes at other meat processing plants. In Iowa, their pickets at a plant in Algona went largely ignored by the union members there, while in Ottumwa, approximately 750 workers joined their strike. The plant management responded by firing over 500 of the workers who had joined the strike, and P-9 ended their strike in Ottumwa after four days. Additional roving strikes occurred in Dubuque, Iowa; Fremont, Nebraska; and Dallas and Houston in Texas, with mixed results. On February 16, 200 Austin strikers visited a non-Hormel meatpacking plant in Dubuque and, despite resistance from UFCW officials there claiming that the picket was unsanctioned, were joined by approximately 450 workers from that plant. In Fremont, only 65 of the 850 workers at the plant refused to cross the picket line, with 50 of those strikers fired for the strike activity. At a small plant in Dallas, operations were temporarily halted after the entire 52 person workforce refused to cross the picket line. Meanwhile, on February 10, Hormel resumed activities at their Austin plant for the first time since the strike began, with a workforce of over 1,000 strikebreakers and several hundred defected strikers. Five days later, a pro-Local P-9 rally in Austin was attended by over 3,000 supporters. Through February and into March, large rallies were also held in several large American cities, including Detroit, New York City, and San Francisco. Additionally, car convoys were organized in Minnesota and Wisconsin to transport food to the strikers, with 140,000 tons of supplies transported to the protestors on April 5. ### UFCW withdraws sanction and protests escalate On March 9, a demonstration outside the plant turned violent, and the following day over 100 protestors were arrested. Following this event, on March 13, the UFCW International Executive Board voted to withdraw its sanction for the strike. Without the parent union's sanction, Local P-9 ceased to receive strike funds and the strike technically became a lockout. Despite this, on March 16, the members of Local P-9 voted to continue the strike. On March 27 and again on April 6, protestors attempted to block access to the plant and stop strikebreakers from entering. Both times, police broke up the blockades, with 13 protestors arrested on April 6. April 9 began three days of protests that again involved blocking access to the plant. While events on the first two days remained peaceful, on April 11, 400 protestors blocked the main gates to the Hormel plant for four hours, shutting down the plant. The blockade had started at 4:00 am that morning, and two hours later, 100 police officers met the protestors and told them to disperse. Afterwards, police began to arrest protestors and after 20 minutes began to use tear gas to disperse the crowds. According to the Austin Daily Herald, 9 officers were treated for injuries. By 8:20 am, the plant was reopened. 17 protestors, including Rogers, were arrested, and a warrant was issued for Guyette for "aiding and abetting a riot." Described in the media as a riot, the protest received significant media coverage, including articles published by the Minneapolis Star and Tribune and the St. Paul Pioneer Press and Dispatch, with the former calling the event "among the worst in state labor history." The following day, 5,000 supporters of Local P-9 attended a rally in Austin that was organized by the local and the National Rank and File Against Concessions (NRFAC). At the rally, a member of Local P-40 in Cudahy, Wisconsin announced that their local would withhold payments to the UFCW until the national union re-sanctioned the strike, soliciting cheers from the crowd with the show of solidarity for Local P-9. On April 13, civil rights activist and politician Jesse Jackson arrived in Austin in an attempt to mediate between the local and Hormel. He was greeted by hundreds of cheering protestors at the Austin Municipal Airport and met with jailed protestors, where he led them in singing "We Shall Overcome". Later that day he spoke at a rally to over 1,000 protestors and compared the protests in Austin to those in Selma in 1965. Jackson left later that day after speaking to officials from both the company and the local, saying, "There is more than a reasonable chance that we will return." While Jackson did continue to speak with executives at Hormel for the next few weeks, urging them to continue talks with Local P-9, nothing came of these talks, and Jackson did not return to Austin for the duration of the strike. ### Trusteeship process and end of the strike Beginning on April 14, UFCW held closed-doors hearings where they initiated a process to put Local P-9 under trusteeship. According to UFCW, the reason for this was Local P-9's refusal to end the strike after it had become unsanctioned in March. The hearings, lasting two days, were held in a meeting room in the Minneapolis Public Library and were attended by Guyette and several members of the executive board of Local P-9, with several P-9 union members serving as sergeant-at-arms. Over the course of the hearings, UFCW officials argued over whether Local P-9 had in fact violated the March announcement calling for an end to striking, while officials from Local P-9 argued that the order by UFCW to end the strike had been illegitimate on the grounds that it lacked the constitutional authority to impose such an order. Following the hearings, executives at UFCW announced a decision regarding trusteeship would be announced in mid-May. Following the hearings, the executives of Local P-9 announced their intent to sue UFCW in order to stop the trusteeship process. In late April, Federal judge Edward Devitt, at the behest of attorneys from the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) ordered Local P-9 to cease mass picketing at the Hormel plant while the NLRB investigated whether some actions by Local P-9 against Hormel had violated Federal law. Following this, officials at Local P-9 reviewed their legal options, and on May 6, Local P-9 filed a lawsuit against UFCW alleging \$13 million in damages from UFCW for their attempts to undermine the local union. On May 9, UFCW executives ordered Local P-9 to be placed under trusteeship, a decision which was upheld in court by Devitt on June 2. That day, UFCW officials occupied Local P-9's offices, seized funds and records from the local, and changed the locks to the building. Some of these funds were diverted back to UFCW's coffers, including \$1.5 million in donations to Local P-9 that were diverted to UFCW to make up for their loss of dues during the strike. UFCW had also targeted the Austin United Support Group, but because the group was officially independent from the union, it was able to relocate to new offices and UFCW was not able to shut it down. While the placing of Local P-9 under trusteeship effectively ended the strike against Hormel, it did not come to an official end for the next several months. ### Mural On April 12, Mike Alewitz discussed creating a mural to maintain participation in the strike. Materials had been donated by members of a sign painters union in St. Paul, Minnesota. The project, an 80 foot by 16 foot mural painted on the side of Local P-9's offices, involved hundreds of strike supporters and was dedicated on May 27 to Nelson Mandela, the then-jailed leader of the ANC. The dedication ceremony had been attended by several South African nationals, including a shop steward with the South African Commercial, Catering and Allied Workers Union in South Africa. The mural depicted a green snake, decapitated by a meatpacker, alongside organized workers, led by one carrying a torch. One of the workers is behind bars, and underneath the workers was the popular IWW motto, "If blood be the price of your cursed wealth, good God we have paid in full." Explaining the symbolism of the snake, Alewitz said, "We assimilated the serpent to stand for the corporations from a Russian revolutionary poster." After the UFCW had occupied Local P-9's offices, they attempted to remove the mural, but found no unionized sandblasters willing to remove the art, leading to UFCW staffers removing it. By October the mural was removed. Alewitz later incorporated elements from the mural into another mural painted in 1990 at the Southern California Library for Social Studies and Research. ### Further action by Local P-9 and the end of the strike On June 9, 800 members of Local P-9 sent a letter to the NLRB urging them to decertify the UFCW Local in Austin in favor of an alternative, independent union. Initially called "Original P-9", this name was rejected by the NLRB on the grounds that it was too similar to Local P-9, and so the name was changed to North American Meat Packers Union (NAMPU). Efforts to decertify the UFCW ultimately ended in failure. At the same time, the Austin United Support Group continued to give offer financial support to workers affected by the strike, and on August 17 held a protest to mark the one year anniversary of the start of the strike. Meanwhile, the UFCW continued their negotiations with Hormel, with the stated goals of the UFCW to be an end to the two-tier pay system and a common expiration date for all labor contracts between Hormel and UFCW local unions. In this capacity, the UFCW also engaged in negotiations concerning six additional Hormel plants. While negotiations continued in Austin, in Ottumwa a mediator ruled that the 507 workers who had been fired at the Hormel plant there in response to the roving picket should be reinstated with full seniority. By late August, UFCW officials and Hormel had come to an agreement regarding new labor contracts at the Austin plant, and shortly thereafter a vote was held among Local P-9 members. UFCW officials stated that several hundred replacement workers, as well as Local P-9 members who had crossed their own picket lines, would be able to vote on the agreement, and on September 12 UFCW announced that the agreement had passed with a vote of 1,060 in favor to 440 against. The agreement was finalized by all parties the following day, ending the strike. ## Aftermath and legacy ### Results of the contract As part of the agreements between Hormel and the UFCW affecting six of their plants, Hormel agreed to increase wages to \$10.70 per hour by September 1988. Officials from the UFCW had managed to gain this concession after Oscar Mayer had announced a similar wage increase that would take effect in 1989. Until then, workers would be paid \$10.25 per hour, which had been the same pay rate the strikebreakers had been paid. Additionally, Hormel agreed to a new system for arbitration pertaining to worker's grievances. As part of concessions on the part of the union, however, Hormel was allowed to discontinue escrow accounts for workers who had been hired prior to the opening of the new plant. Former strikers were also put on a preferential hiring list, but a clause in the contract barred any employees at the plant from encouraging a boycott of Hormel. This contract was to last four years, as opposed to the three-year contracts at other Hormel plants. Ultimately, only about 20% of the strikers returned to their jobs at the plant. Many of those involved in the strike were removed from the rehiring list due to activities during the strike. Citing the clause barring support for any boycott of Hormel, some former strikers were removed from the list due to having bumper stickers supporting the boycott or for attending rallies where the boycott was promoted. Furthermore, in 1989, Hormel began to sublease a part of the plant to a firm that paid \$6.50 per hour. This company, called Quality Pork Processors (QPP), took over much of the animal slaughter part of the plant's operations, and by the mid-1990s had brought in a new workforce of mostly Mexican American men. The results of the strike also had an impact on the demographics of Austin, as approximately a quarter of the population in 2010 were minority. ### Later analysis and legacy The strike was the subject of a documentary film, American Dream, by filmmaker Barbara Kopple, which was filmed during the strike. The film won the Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature at that year's Academy Awards. The strike was later the subject of a 2020 stage play written by Philip Dawkins for the Children's Theatre Company called Spamtown, USA, which focused on the children of several Hormel workers on different sides of the strike. The play was generally well received and garnered recognition from several publications, including The New York Times. The strike has been covered and discussed in various forms of media, including books by notable labor historians, such as Kim Moody's An Injury to All: The Decline of American Unionism, Peter Rachleff's Hard-pressed in the Heartland: The Hormel Strike and the Future of the Labor Movement, and Michael Yates's Power on the Job: The Legal Rights of Working People. Speaking of the strike in 1993, labor historian Jeremy Brecher called the strike "perhaps the signal labor struggle of the 1980s." Moody called the strike "one of the most visible and controversial labor struggles of the 1980s." Several authors viewed Hormel's hardline stance against the strikers as similar to then-President Ronald Reagan's stance during the 1981 PATCO strike, where Reagan had fired over 11,000 air traffic controllers who had gone on strike. Following this event, similar strikes occurred that saw companies become less conciliatory towards strikers, and in general, membership and the power of organized labor saw a significant decrease during this time. One point of discussion regarding the strike lies in the fact that the wage cuts that had precipitated the strike came during a year when Hormel declared a \$29 million profit. Another major point of discussion relating to the failure of the strike was the lack of support from the parent union for the local union. In 2013, labor historian Robert E. Weir claimed that "nearly all scholars interpret the UFCWU's actions as heavy-handed and autocratic." Weir also claimed that most scholars reject the notion that the UFCW's actions were justified in negotiating better deals with Hormel. In his 1994 book Power on the Job, Yates criticized the UFCW for its lack of support for the roving pickets that started in early 1986, saying that had the parent union fully supported these activities, "the strike might still have been won." A 2019 retrospective in the labor magazine Labor Notes called UFCW's actions during the strike "sabotage from above." Weir also commented on the effectiveness of the corporate campaign, saying that parent union support for Rogers and the CCI could have succeeded at Hormel, citing its success at the Ravenswood strike that occurred several years later. During the strike, on January 26, 1986, a news helicopter carrying a reporter crashed en route to Austin. News correspondent Bill O'Reilly was a friend of the reporter and gave a eulogy at his funeral, prompting ABC News executives attending the funeral to hire him.
27,166,808	Tropical Depression One (1988)	1,171,669,469	Atlantic tropical depression in 1988	[ "1988 Atlantic hurricane season", "Atlantic tropical depressions", "Hurricanes in Cuba", "Hurricanes in Florida", "Tropical cyclones in 1988" ]	Tropical Depression One was the wettest tropical cyclone in Cuba since Hurricane Flora of 1963. The first tropical cyclone of the 1988 Atlantic hurricane season, the system developed on May 30 from an area of disturbed weather in the northwestern Caribbean Sea. The tropical depression headed northeastward, making landfall in La Habana Province, Cuba, without intensifying. Crossing Cuba, the depression became very disorganized as it emerged into the Straits of Florida and degenerated into an open trough on June 2. Although only a tropical depression, the system flooded central and western Cuba with over 40 inches (1000 mm) of rain, causing 37 fatalities, damage to over 1,000 houses, and the evacuation of about 65,000 residents. ## Meteorological history On May 31, Tropical Depression One developed in the western Caribbean Sea, a day before the start of the Atlantic hurricane season. The depression moved northeastward, passing just northwest of Isla de la Juventud before striking the Cuban mainland south of Havana. As it crossed the country, its strongest rainfall was east of the center, and the depression failed to intensify beyond winds of 30 mph (45 km/h). The National Hurricane Center never expected it to strengthen further, due to unfavorable wind shear. After a hurricane hunters flight could not detect a circulation, The depression degenerated into an open trough east of Florida on June 2. ## Impact and aftermath While crossing Cuba, the depression dropped heavy rainfall, affecting the provinces of Cienfuegos, Villa Clara, Sancti Spíritus, Camagüey, and Ciego de Ávila. The precipitation peaked at 40.35 in (1,025 mm) in Cienfuegos Province, of which 34.13 in (867 mm) fell in one day. At the time, it was the second highest rainfall total in the country, only behind Hurricane Flora in 1963, although Hurricane Dennis in 2005 later surpassed the depression. Rainfall reached 22.76 in (578 mm) in Cienfuegos and 21.90 in (556 mm) in Sancti Spíritus. The heavy rainfall caused flooding in Camagüey that damaged about 5,700 houses and destroyed 200. The flooding also damaged 15 schools and hospitals, as well as several crop buildings. The floods left widespread areas without electricity or communications. Six bridges were destroyed in central and western Cuba, which, in addition to damaged roads and rail lines, severely disrupted the country's transportation infrastructure. A total of 131 roads were unpassable due to the flooding, and 55 rail lines were damaged. The flood waters prompted officials to evacuate 65,000 residents in low-lying areas, including using helicopters and amphibious vehicles. A tornado was reported in the city of Camagüey, destroying five Soviet planes and several buildings. By the day after the depression dissipated, the Cuban government reported nine deaths, although the death toll was later finalized at 37. The depression also killed thousands of livestock. Following the severe flooding, the Red Cross sent aid to the victims of Tropical Depression One in Cuba. The Red Cross had sent medical units, tents, blankets, and other necessary item to the victims by plane. Overall about 90,000 people were affected. With most of the rainfall occurring east of the center, the depression did not produce significant precipitation in Florida. Precipitation of around 1 in (25 mm) spread across the Miami area, peaking at 3.18 in (81 mm) in Pompano Beach. ## See also - List of off-season Atlantic hurricanes - List of wettest tropical cyclones by country
56,788,321	WarioWare Gold	1,171,046,237	2018 video game by Nintendo	[ "2018 video games", "Intelligent Systems games", "Multiplayer and single-player video games", "Nintendo 3DS games", "Nintendo 3DS-only games", "Nintendo Entertainment Planning & Development games", "Party video games", "Video games about video games", "Video games developed in Japan", "Video games produced by Kensuke Tanabe", "Video games that use Amiibo figurines", "WarioWare" ]	WarioWare Gold is a minigame compilation developed by Intelligent Systems and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo 3DS family of video game consoles. The ninth installment in the WarioWare series, it was released in PAL regions in July 2018, and in North America and Japan the following month. The game's plot follows the greedy Wario who has organized a gaming tournament for a large cash prize, with the ultimate goal of claiming the money for himself. Meanwhile, various other WarioWare characters deal with other problems which play out in the form of short stories. Similar to previous entries, in WarioWare Gold, the player is tasked with completing consecutive "microgames" at increasing paces. Gold features both microgames from past entries in the series and some new ones for a total of over 300 microgames, the most featured in the series to date. After completing the story mode, additional modes such as the challenge mode are unlocked. The game's creative director, Goro Abe, put careful planning in determining which 300 of the 1,100 microgames across the series would be featured. Gold also featured voice acting, a first for the series. Intelligent Systems focused less on collectible items and more on core programming after deeming them not as important. Gold received generally positive reviews, being praised for its graphics, additional modes, and the introduction of voice acting in multiple languages. Reception of its various collectibles was split, with some finding them worthwhile while others on the contrary. The game sold poorly at first but later spiked in 2020 in the United Kingdom. A follow-up for the Nintendo Switch, WarioWare: Get It Together!, was released in 2021. ## Gameplay As is tradition for a WarioWare game, the player is tasked with completing "microgames"—various minigames with very short time limits—in rapid succession. When one is complete, a point is given, and the game moves on to the next. If a microgame is completed incorrectly, or the time runs out, the player loses one of four lives. If they run out of lives, the game ends and the high score is displayed, which is determined by how many microgames were passed. When a section of microgames is completed, the player will complete a boss microgame. After which, the minigames can be replayed and will begin to speed up the time allotted. As a collection game, most microgames that appear have once existed in a previous title in the WarioWare series. These include the Game Boy Advance original, Twisted!, Touched!, Smooth Moves, D.I.Y., and Game & Wario, in addition to some new ones for a total of over 300 microgames. The microgames vary in how they are completed. They involve pressing buttons, tilting the system, touching the touch screen, and blowing on the system's microphone. Gold features full voice acting in the story mode, a first for the series, with an additional unlockable feature allowing players to redub their own voice over the game's cutscenes. Alongside the story mode, there are missions for the player to complete that awards them with coins that can be used to purchase rewards such as additional minigames. The challenge mode is one of the multiple modes unlocked after completing the story mode. In the challenge mode, the microgames are reintroduced alongside various distractions and complications to the original format. For example, sometimes the screen will be covered in ink or other objects to obscure vision. There's also a local multiplayer mode where players compete in an endurance competition of who can complete the most minigames in succession. ## Plot Having run out of money following a treasure hunt in the village of Luxeville, the greedy Wario decides to organize a Nintendo 3DS gaming tournament in Diamond City, convincing his friends to design some new Mash League, Twist League, Touch League, & Ultra League (that also include blowing games & short pop-up games) games based on the Sports, That's Life, Fantasy, & Nintendo Classics themes, for the event, promising them payment. For an entry fee of ten thousand coins, he offers a ten million coin prize to the tournament's winner, although he secretly plots to take all the prize money for himself. While the player competes in the tournament, a girl from Luxeville named Lulu who has tracked Wario down calls him out and begins training to challenge him, seeking to retrieve the town's prized treasure (a large golden pot) that Wario had stolen from her village. The rest of the game consists of self-contained vignettes for all of Wario's friends; these range from Jimmy T trying to impress two girls at Sapphire Street, Mona going to Joe's Clothes trying to find a dress to wear for her party, Dribble and Spitz fighting off UFOs with their space-faring taxi, 5-Volt doing a workout to become fit, Ashley and Red fighting a demon known as Hungraa, Dr. Crygor and Mike coming across one of Crygor's old inventions, Doris-1, in the spooky Agate Forest, 18-Volt engaging in a rap battle with newcomer 13-Amp to win back a stolen game console at Emerald Street, Penny trying to cure Dr. Crygor after her elixir to help make her a mega pop star gives Dr. Crygor a stomachache, Kat and Ana mistaking Mrs. Munches, a gourmet master, as their ninja trainer while trying to get ninja learners permits at Diamond City Castle, Fronk helping 9-Volt realize that math's fun, Young Cricket and Master Mantis training at an amusement park, Orbulon trying to acquire pigs in order to complete his order at a fast food restaurant called Gigantaburger, the hosts of the Sports and That's Life themes, along with Mike and Fronk, partying at Club Joe, and the hosts of the Fantasy and Nintendo Classics themes, also with Mike and Fronk, having a potluck at Peridot Campgrounds. In the game's final level, Wario refuses to give the player the prize money, as he already declared himself as the winner of the tournament. Putting the pot of Luxeville on top of his head, the pot grants him superpowers and turns him into the extra-evil, extra-powerful, and extra-unstoppable supervillain version of him called "Wario Deluxe". With Lulu's help, the player manages to beat Wario Deluxe and win the tournament, she then knocks the pot off Wario's head with a water gun and changes him back to normal. Returning the pot to Lulu after she reveals that it is actually Luxeville's public toilet, Wario attempts to flee with the money he made from the tournament when he is intercepted by his friends. Taking the small amount of money (Wario spent most of the money for his hot air balloons) that Wario refused to pay them for their work and splitting it evenly, the player receives their entry fee back and the group even decides to share some of the money with Wario as well in an act of generosity, though Wario still claims that all the money is his and breaks down in tears over his loss. Meanwhile, Lulu returns to Luxeville with the pot, only to learn that the townspeople had bought a new high-tech toilet in her absence. ## Development WarioWare Gold was developed for the Nintendo 3DS by Intelligent Systems, the developers behind most previous WarioWare titles, and published by Nintendo. According to Goro Abe, the game's creative director, despite most microgames appearing in prior titles in the series, many of them were reworked from scratch. Since Gold consists of over 300 microgames with the series totaling over 1,100, Abe surveyed opinions from the staff of Intelligent Systems on which microgames the series should include. After he determined the results, he ranked the microgames based on the top picks from the staff, as well as which ones had easy-to-understand rules and games that have not aged well. One of the new gameplay additions was the split-screen challenge mode; this involved the use of the dual screens of the Nintendo 3DS where after one microgame was completed, it would immediately switch over to the other screen. This was a concept the team had wanted to implement since the Nintendo DS, but the idea proved too taxing on the hardware at the time. Full voice acting was included for the first time in the series, as the development team felt that it would lead to a deeper connection between the player and the game. They also believe the change made the characters feel more alive, although Abe said future games would not necessarily have full voice acting. Wario for instance was voiced by longtime actor Charles Martinet in English-speaking countries. While the game was released after the launch of the Nintendo Switch, Abe ruled out porting WarioWare Gold to the platform, stating it would "come with a number of issues" and that it would be difficult to reproduce "the same sense of fun". Speaking about the unlockable souvenirs, Abe explained that while Twisted! and Touched! featured a large number of collectibles centered around the gyro and touchscreen as both technologies were still fairly novel at the time, the team felt such unlockables were unnecessary for Gold due to how commonplace both forms of inputs had become. He also explained that with the given time constraints, they preferred to focus on extras that did not require as much programming effort, like the Records. In a 2018 interview with Game Informer, Abe explained that the future of the WarioWare series would be placed on the reception of Gold. WarioWare Gold was showcased during a Nintendo Direct broadcast in March 2018. The game was released the same year in Europe on July 27, North America on August 3, and Japan a day prior. Shortly before release on June 5, a free demo of the game was available on the Nintendo 3DS eShop. ## Reception WarioWare Gold received "generally favorable reviews" according to review aggregator Metacritic, receiving a 78/100 based on 45 critic reviews. Despite being a collection of microgames across the series, critics such as Nintendo Life and IGN appreciated the additional work done by Intelligent Systems. In addition, they found the old microgames to be reworked so well they often could not tell the new and the old apart from each other. Nintendo Life's Steve Bowling mentioning how "say[ing] that WarioWare Gold is a mere 'best of' collection would be unfair". Most lauded the introduction of voice acting, with Christian Donlan of Eurogamer joking how the addition, alongside a new graphics style "could, conceivably, be the only thing that's been missing from your life until now". James O'Connor, writing for GameSpot, admired Charles Martinet's impression of Wario; he wrote how he "imbues Wario with a sense of pride and malice here that's a delight to witness". Some saw the addition of microgames being organized into categories to be a helpful addition, which helped with not having to constantly switch between control schemes such as tapping and button pressing. Nintendo Life found the concept to be helpful when playing in areas where they were constricted in space or the use of the microphone. Reviewers praised the challenge mode and the unique twists they made on the microgames after completing the main storyline. O'Connor found the concepts to be "tense and exciting", and Bowling saw the experience as "fast, fun and chaotic in the best way". Tristan Ogilvie of IGN, however, sometimes considered hindrances to be rather annoying instead of challenging or unique. Collectibles received mixed reception; Game Informer's Kyle Hilliard enjoyed the system and called them "worthwhile pursuits", and while he did find some to be more entertaining than others, he praised the system for being unique. Donlan called the collection aspect a fun system to participate in after completing the story mode. Reviewers at Famitsu saw collectibles as neat additions after completing the short story mode. Kotaku found the collectibles to be of varying quality, ranging from fun time-wasters to barely interesting at all. Similarly, IGN and ArsTechnica believed the collectibles were, for the most part, not worth having to constantly replay old microgames. ### Sales WarioWare Gold was released on August 3, 2018, leaving only two days for it to top the NPD sales charts. The game didn't make the top 20 list and only reached third on their Nintendo 3DS charts, behind Pokémon Ultra Sun and Ultra Moon. According to Jeff Grubb of VentureBeat, reaching the top spot in two days would have been possible for a new game; he attributed the lack of sales due to the release of Nintendo's new home console, the Nintendo Switch. In Japan, Gold sold 30,000 copies at launch and had reached 93,000 physical copies sold by its last week on the Media Create sales charts. In sales charts in the UK later on in January 2020, the game began to slowly drop down and stayed in the 827th position. The game later peaked at fifth place, about 2 years after release.
32,422,100	Zambia at the 2012 Summer Olympics	1,137,644,298	null	[ "2012 in Zambian sport", "Nations at the 2012 Summer Olympics", "Zambia at the Summer Olympics by year" ]	Zambia competed at the 2012 Summer Olympics in London, held from 27 July to 12 August 2012. The country's participation at London marked its twelfth appearance in the Summer Olympics since its début at the 1964 Summer Olympics. The delegation consisted of seven competitors; three track and field athletes Gerald Phiri, Prince Mumba and Chauzje Choosha, one each in Boxing and Judo (Gilbert Choombe and Boas Munyonga) and two swimmers, Zane Jordan and Jade Ashleigh Howard. Phiri, Mumba, Choombe and Munyonga had qualified by meeting the standards in their respective sports, and Choosha, Jordan and Howard qualified by wildcard places. Mumba was the national flag bearer at the opening and closing ceremonies. Phiri received a bye in the men's 100 metres and was eliminated at the first round stage and recorded his best time of the 2012 athletic season. Mumba and Choosha were both eliminated from the competition in the parliamentary heats, and Choombe was defeated by Australian Jeff Horn in Boxing's round of 32. Munyonga was disqualified in his round of 32 match against Takahiro Nakai by holding his opponent's leg, a move he later regretted. Jordan failed to advance beyond the heats of the men's 100 metre backstroke despite recording a new personal best, while his female counterpart Howard was also eliminated in the same stage in the women's 100 metre freestyle. ## Background Zambia has participated at twelve Olympiads from its début at the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo, Japan as Northern Rhodesia and the 2012 Summer Olympics in London, England, with the exception of the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal, because of a boycott relating to the New Zealand national rugby union team touring South Africa. Two Zambian athletes (Keith Mwila and Samuel Matete) have won medals at the Olympic Games and the nation has yet to debut at the Winter Olympic Games. The country sent athletes Gerald Phiri, Prince Mumba and Chauzje Choosha, boxer Gilbert Choombe, judoka Boas Munyonga and swimmers Zane Jordan and Jade Ashleigh Howard to London. The Zambian team's delegation was led by the country's NOC president Gabriel Muyinda. Mumba was the flag bearer for both the opening and closing ceremonies. Zambia's sports minister Chishimba Kambwili stated that the country's national government did not expect their athletes to win any medals at the London Games but would help build a team for future games and expose them to international media. The country's NOC secretary general Hazel Kennedy said it was "comforting" that the team sent athletes who had qualified on merit rather than a majority on wildcards. The Daily Telegraph reported that Mumba and Phiri were Zambia's best chances of achieving success. The team elected to train at the Palace of Art Centre for Sport Excellence and Scotstoun Stadium in Glasgow for two weeks. ## Athletics Gerald Phiri made his Olympian debut at the age of 23. He qualified for the Games because his personal best time of 10.06 seconds for the men's 100 metres, set at the 2011 Texas Relays, exceeded the "A" standard qualifying entry time. In preparation for the event, he trained with his coach in the Netherlands while adapting to a different climate and a new time zone. Phiri received a bye to advance beyond the preliminary round. He competed in the first heat of the first round on 4 August, finishing third out of eight athletes with a time of 10:16 seconds qualifying for the semi-finals. In the semi-finals on 5 August, Phiri achieved a fifth-place finish in heat two with a time of 10:11 seconds, which was his best of the 2012 athletic season. Overall he finished 15th out of 75th athletes overall and was unable to progress further because his time was 0.09 seconds slower than the slowest qualifying finalist. After the event Phiri said he placed a large amount of pressure onto himself but was not good enough in the event. Nevertheless, he thanked his supporters. Prince Mumba was the oldest man to compete in the athletics for Zambia at age 27. He had previously competed at the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, Greece. Mumba qualified for the London Games, as his personal best time of one minute and 46.14 seconds met the "B" standard for the men's 800 metres . Mumba said his aim was to reach the finals of the 800 metres and that he believed and had faith in himself. He competed in the first round of the men's 800 metres on 6 August and was drawn in the sixth heat. Mumba finished seventh with a time of 1 minute, 49.07 seconds. Mumba finished 42nd out of 52 athletes overall, and was 1.63 seconds behind the slowest competitor who progressed into the first round and was eliminated from the competition. After his elimination Mumba revealed that he been experiencing chest pain and coughing but did not report it as he felt his condition would improve. He stated that another factor was himself going beyond his capabilities and how quickly the event started. At the age of 19, Chauzje Choosha made her Olympian debut. Choosha qualified via a wildcard and replaced long-distance runner Tonny Wamulwa, who withdrew before the opening of the Games because of injuries sustained in a road traffic accident on 9 July. She took part in the women's 100 metres in the preliminary round on 3 August and was drawn in heat one, finishing fourth out of eight athletes, with a time of 12:29 seconds. As of 2016, the time is her personal best. Overall she finished 57th out of 78 competitors, and did not advance into the first round because her fastest time was 0.05 seconds slower than the slowest athlete who progressed. Key Men Women ## Boxing Zambia qualified one boxer for the Olympic boxing tournament. Gilbert Choombe qualified for the men's light welterweight class at the AIBA African Olympic Qualifying Event Casablanca. He made his Olympian debut, the youngest male athlete on the Zambia Olympic delegation, at age 20. Choombe trained in Cardiff where it was affected by rain and cold weather and later adapted to hot weather conditions in London. He stated that his objective was to claim the gold medal and make Zambia proud. Choombe began the contest in the round of 32 against Australia's Jeff Horn at ExCeL London on 31 July. Horn began strongly by performing quick shots at Choombe who attempted to react by throwing back some punches but missed most of them. Horn clinched the first round 6–1, and took the second round by 4–2 when Choombe made his guard vulnerable to attack. Horn attacked consistently and by selecting his angles, he defeated Choombe 19–5. After the fight Choombe described it as "tough" and that he had a feeling of securing the victory but knew his opponent was stronger. Men ## Judo Boas Munyonga represented Zambia in men's judo. He qualified by being awarded an additional place in the additional places category for the African continent by the International Judo Federation. He participated in the men's middleweight class, which includes athletes under 90 kilograms in weight. Munyonga made his Olympian debut as Zambia's oldest athlete at the London Games, at age 31. He said that he would do his best in the event. Munyonga faced Takahiro Nakai of Japan on 31 July in the round of 32. When the ball rang to signal the start of the match, Munyonga held Nakai by the leg and placed him onto the corners of the mat. The primary umpire signaled the boxers to face each other and disqualified Munyonga and declared Nakai the match's winner. Munyonga stated that he regretted the move and that he had forgotten about the rule which stated the leg was not allowed to be held by another competitor. ## Swimming Zane Jordan was the only member of the Zambia team to be a two-time Olympian, having competed at the Beijing 2008 Summer Olympics. He qualified after receiving a universality place from FINA as his best time of 59.33 seconds was not within the "A" and "B" standard entry times. Jordan was drawn in first heat of the men's 100 metre backstroke which was held on 29 July, finishing third (and last) with a time of 58.47 seconds. He recorded a new personal best time which was 2.5 seconds faster. He finished 43rd (and last) of all swimmers who competed, and did not advance to the later stages of the 100 metres backstroke. Jordan's performance was praised by his coach Gajan Sothylingam who described it as "extremely good" and he felt that it showed that the swimmer was improving on his performance. Jade Ashleigh Howard had the distinction of making her Olympian debut as the youngest member of the team at age 17. Like Jordan, Howard qualified after receiving a universality place from FINA, her personal best time of 1 minute, 1.24 seconds was outside the "A" and "B" qualification standard. She stated that her objective to record a new personal best time and that she was not intimidated. Howard took part in heat four of the women's 100 metre freestyle, which was held on 1 August, finishing first out of seven swimmers, with a time of 59.35 seconds. Despite the victory, she finished 39th out of 48 swimmers who competed, and did not advance to the later stages of the women's 100 metre freestyle. Nevertheless, Howard achieved her objective of setting a new personal best time, and became the first Zambian swimmer to set a fastest time under one minute. Men Women ## See also - Zambia at the 2012 Summer Paralympics
3,239,593	Typhoon Imbudo	1,165,019,121	Pacific typhoon in 2003	[ "2003 Pacific typhoon season", "2003 disasters in China", "2003 disasters in the Philippines", "Retired Pacific typhoons", "Tropical cyclones in 2003", "Typhoons", "Typhoons in China", "Typhoons in the Philippines" ]	Typhoon Imbudo, known in the Philippines as Typhoon Harurot, was a powerful typhoon that struck the Philippines and southern China in July 2003. The seventh named storm and fourth typhoon of the season, Imbudo formed on July 15 to the east of the Philippines. The storm moved generally west-northward for much of its duration due to a ridge to the north. Favorable conditions allowed Imbudo to intensify, gradually at first before undergoing rapid deepening on July 19. After reaching typhoon status, Imbudo strengthened further to peak 10–minute sustained winds of 165 km/h (103 mph) on July 20. The typhoon made landfall on northern Luzon near peak intensity on July 22, but quickly weakened over land. Once in the South China Sea, Imbudo re-intensified slightly before making its final landfall in southern China near Yangjiang on July 24, dissipating the next day. In the Philippines, Imbudo was the strongest typhoon in five years, causing widespread flooding and power outages in the Cagayan Valley for weeks. Damage was heaviest in Isabela province near where the storm struck. Most of the banana crop was destroyed, and other crops sustained similar but lesser damage. Imbudo disrupted transportation across much of Luzon. Nationwide, the storm damaged or destroyed 62,314 houses, causing P4.7 billion (PHP, \$86 million USD) in damage, mostly in the Cagayan Valley. There were also 64 deaths in the country. In Hong Kong, strong winds killed a man after knocking him off a platform. In China, damage was heaviest in Guangdong where the storm struck. Thousands of trees fell, and 595,000 houses were wrecked. Hundreds of canceled flights stranded travelers across the region. In Guangxi, high rainfall increased water levels in 45 reservoirs to warning levels. In Guangxi and Guangdong, collectively 20 people were killed, and damage reached about ¥4.45 billion (CNY, US\$297 million). ## Meteorological history The origins of Imbudo were from a disorganized area of convection near Chuuk in the open western Pacific in mid-July. With weak wind shear, the system slowly became better organized. On July 15, the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) estimated that a tropical depression formed. The next day, the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) issued a tropical cyclone formation alert (TCFA), noting that outflow had increased due to an upper-level low to the northeast. At 1800 UTC on July 16, the JTWC initiated advisories on Tropical Depression 09W about 665 km (413 mi) east of Yap. A subtropical ridge near Okinawa steered the nascent depression to the west-northwest for much of its duration. With warm waters and favorable upper-level conditions, the depression quickly organized, and the JMA upgraded it to Tropical Storm Imbudo on July 17. After becoming a tropical storm, Imbudo passed about 35 km (22 mi) north of Yap. The JMA upgraded Imbudo to a severe tropical storm late on July 18, around the same time that the JTWC upgraded it to a typhoon. An increase in outflow to the south and to the north from a tropical upper tropospheric trough (TUTT) caused a 36‐hour period of rapid development beginning on July 19. During that time, the JMA upgraded Imbudo to typhoon status, the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA) began issuing advisories as the storm approached the Philippines, and a 30 km (19 mi) wide eye formed. At 1200 UTC on July 20, the JMA estimated peak 10 minute sustained winds of 165 km/h (103 mph). At the same time, the JTWC estimated 1 minute sustained winds of 240 km/h (150 mph), making it a super typhoon. By late on July 20, the typhoon had developed concentric eyewalls, and the TUTT was moving away, thus diminishing outflow. Imbudo maintained peak winds for about 12 hours, before the innermost eye contracted to a diameter of 11 km (6.8 mi) in the midst of an eyewall replacement cycle. At 0300 UTC on July 22, Imbudo struck northern Luzon, with 1 minute winds estimated at 205 km/h (127 mph) by the JTWC. Rapidly weakening over land, Imbudo emerged into the South China Sea about six hours after landfall. The JTWC estimated winds had decreased to 150 km/h (93 mph), although the agency estimated Imbudo quickly re-intensified to a secondary peak of 165 km/h (103 mph) in 1 minute winds. Dry air prevented convection from redeveloping significantly, and the eye had become large over open waters. At 0300 UTC on July 24, Imbudo made its final landfall west of Macau, near Yangjiang, Guangdong. It was the strongest to hit the province since Typhoon Sally in 1996, striking China with 10 minute winds of 140 km/h (87 mph), as estimated by the JMA. The storm rapidly weakened over land while moving over southern China. Late on July 25, Imbudo dissipated near the border of China and Vietnam. ## Preparations Before Imbudo struck, officials evacuated over 14,000 people to at least 60 shelters. Government offices were closed along the typhoon's path, and schools were closed in the capital, Manila. PAGASA issued a number 4 warning signal, the highest level, for three northern provinces, indicating the imminent threat of a powerful storm. Despite the warning, a post-storm survey in Isabela province indicated that 34% were unaware of the storm's arrival, while others believed the typhoon would not be as strong. In Manila, four flights were canceled at Ninoy Aquino International Airport, and the Manila Light Rail Transit System was shut down for two hours. Travel by ship and bus were halted in some areas. On July 22 before the storm struck, the Philippine military was put on red alert, increasing security at the presidential palace. The military stated it was due to the typhoon, although newspapers suggested it was to prevent a coup attempt; a failed coup ultimately did occur on July 27 in what would become known as the Oakwood mutiny. The Hong Kong Observatory issued a number 8 warning signal, indicating the potential for gale-force winds within the territory. At Hong Kong International Airport, at least 100 flights were canceled or delayed. Most ferry and some bus lines were temporarily suspended. The threat of the storm caused 16 flights to be canceled and another 54 delayed at Guangzhou Baiyun International Airport. On Hainan island, 32 canceled flights stranded about 1,500 travelers. The threat of the storm forced British Prime Minister Tony Blair to shorten a trip to the territory. The Hong Kong Stock Exchange opened 30 minutes late as a result of the typhoon. On the mainland at Yangjiang, more than 30,000 people evacuated ahead of the storm. ## Impact ### Philippines Typhoon Imbudo was the strongest typhoon to strike Luzon since Typhoon Zeb five years prior, and was the fifth storm in eight weeks to affect the country. The typhoon left widespread areas flooded for several days. Cagayan Valley was largely isolated after a bridge was damaged in Ilocos Norte. Damage was heavy in the region, totaling P2.2 billion (PHP, \$40 million USD), and over 80,000 people were displaced by the storm. Damage was heaviest in Isabela, where damage was estimated at P1.9 billion (PHP, US\$35 million), mostly to crops and killed livestock. There, winds and rain knocked down trees and caused a province-wide power outage. Most trees less than three years old fell during the high winds. In Isabela province, the banana crop was almost entirely destroyed, and most of the corn and rice crops were heavily damaged. The high damage caused the gross regional product, or overall economy of the Cagayan Valley, to decrease by 0.3% than what would have happened without the typhoon. Power outages affected Metro Manila, and several billboards were damaged in the city, although there was minimal flooding in the capital. Adverse conditions caused the Manila Light Rail Transit System Line 1 to close for two hours, stranding hundreds. High winds knocked over a 12 m (39 ft) tree that killed five on Romblon Island. The rains brought the Magat Dam on Luzon to capacity. Landslides blocked a national highway in Nueva Ecija with debris and fallen trees, which were quickly cleared within a few days. On Mindanao, flash flooding from the outer periphery of the storm affected 18 towns, killing 11 people. In Maguindanao in the southern Philippines, flooding washed away 50 houses, forcing over 2,000 people to evacuate. Damage extended as far south as the Western Visayas. Across the Philippines, Imbudo damaged 62,314 houses, of which about 20% were destroyed. Housing damage was estimated at P1.2 billion (PHP, US\$22 million), most of which in the Cagayan Valley. Overall damage in the country was estimated at P4.7 billion (PHP, US\$86 million). Of the total, about P1.9 billion (PHP, US\$35 million) was in agriculture damage. Imbudo killed 64 people in the Philippines, mostly in Cagayan Valley, and injured another 154. ### Elsewhere Early in its developmental stages, Imbudo affected portions of Micronesia, particularly Ulithi. There, a weather station measured a peak wind gust of 85 km/h (53 mph); winds of similar intensity were reported in Yap. Rainfall from Imbudo in Micronesia peaked at 226 mm (8.9 in) over a six-hour period on Yap. The rainfall from the passing tropical cyclone caused \$75,000 in property damage and \$25,000 in agricultural and crop-related damage. Before Imbudo struck mainland China, it passed south of Taiwan, dropping heavy rainfall reaching 137 mm (5.4 in) in Taitung County. The outer rainbands reached as far as Okinawa, where 2 mm (0.079 in) was reported. Peak rainfall in Hong Kong was 53.5 mm (2.11 in) at Kwai Chung, only a day after Tropical Storm Koni dropped rainfall in the territory, and the highest storm surge was 1.13 m (3.7 ft) at Tsim Bei Tsui. As the storm passed to the south, Imbudo produced winds of 101 km/h (63 mph) on Cheung Chau, the highest in the Hong Kong territory, although a gust of 164 km/h (102 mph) was observed at Tai Mo Shan. High winds killed a man after knocking him off a platform. The winds knocked down 83 trees, injuring 11 people. Rough waves injured 34 people traveling by boat near Lantau Island. In the territory, ten boats were damaged or sank, and one fishing pier was damaged. At its final landfall in Guangdong, Imbudo produced strong winds, with a peak gust of 200 km/h (120 mph) measured at Shangchuan Island. At Yangjiang, gusts reached 159 km/h (99 mph), causing eleven boats to sink. There, over 10,000 trees fell due to the strong winds, more than half in the city, and 7,649 homes were damaged or destroyed. In Zhanjiang, the storm damaged power lines and water pumps, leaving residents without access to water. Imbudo spawned tornadoes in Luoding and Zhanjiang, damaging dozens of houses and killing 6,000 chickens. Throughout Guangdong, Imbudo destroyed 595,000 houses and caused ¥1.9 billion (CNY, US\$230 million). There were at least eight deaths in the province. In Hainan island to the south of the storm track, rainfall reached 230 mm (9.1 in) in Ding'an County. Imbudo caused flooding in the capital Haikou, and several houses were wrecked. The typhoon affected most of the population, causing an estimated ¥55.35 million (CNY, US\$6.7 million) in damage. Heavy rainfall spread across southern China, peaking at 343 mm (13.5 in) at Hepu County in Guangxi province, which increased water levels in 45 reservoirs to warning levels. The Nanliu River in Bobai County rose to 50.21 m (164.7 ft), or 0.71 m (2.3 ft) above flood stage. In Guangxi, 12 people died from storm damage or drowning, and at least 130 livestock were killed. Imbudo destroyed 4,950 houses, 3,170 of which in the city of Yulin, causing ¥499.6 million (CNY, US\$60.3 million) in damage in the province. Across southern China, the typhoon damaged over 10 million hectares (25 million acres) of crop fields. ## Aftermath Immediately after the storm, the Philippine Air Force were mobilized to help deliver supplies and aid in search and rescue missions. On July 24, President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo declared that the National Disaster Coordinating Council would provide assistance to citizens affected by the typhoon. The president requested P134 million (PHP, US\$2.5 million) for farmers to buy new seeds, and P35 million (PHP, US\$650,000) to rebuild the hard-hit Cagayan Valley, where Arroyo visited days after the storm struck. The government ultimately spent about P24 million (PHP, US\$435,000) in emergency aid for relocating storm victims, search and rescue operations, and assistance. In Mindanao, officials prepared 800 bags of rice and various other food supplies due to the storm. Power and water outages persisted across Luzon for up to three weeks, causing many factories otherwise undamaged to close. In Isabela province, 25 Tzu Chi volunteers provided supplies to 2,873 houses. The Philippine government provided rice, sardines, and coffee to many affected houses. Damaged houses were supposed to receive 1,000 pesos, although few received the monetary aid. In the town of San Mariano in Isabela province, most farmers incurred more debt and continued their same general farming practice, despite sustaining heavy losses from the storm. ### Retirement In 2004, the World Meteorological Organization retired the name Imbudo and replaced it with Molave. The PAGASA name Harurot was replaced with Hanna for the 2007 season. ## See also - List of retired Pacific typhoon names (JMA) - Typhoon Parma - Typhoon Utor - Typhoon Rammasun
1,831,705	The Time Meddler	1,173,710,381	null	[ "1965 British television episodes", "Doctor Who pseudohistorical serials", "Doctor Who serials novelised by Nigel Robinson", "Fiction set in the 11th century", "First Doctor serials", "Rediscovered television", "Television episodes set in England", "Works set in the Viking Age" ]	The Time Meddler is the ninth and final serial of the second season of the British science fiction television series Doctor Who. Written by Dennis Spooner and directed by Douglas Camfield, the serial was broadcast on BBC1 in four weekly parts from 3 to 24 July 1965. Set in Northumbria in 1066, before the Battle of Stamford Bridge, the serial features the time traveller the First Doctor (William Hartnell) and his companions Vicki (Maureen O'Brien) and Steven Taylor (Peter Purves) as they attempt to outwit the time traveller the Monk (Peter Butterworth), who is plotting to change the course of European history by wiping out King Harald Hardrada's Viking invasion fleet, leaving Harold Godwinson and the Saxon soldiers fresh to defeat William of Normandy and the Norman soldiers at the Battle of Hastings. Spooner, who was leaving his role as story editor before this serial, was commissioned to write The Time Meddler by producer Verity Lambert. Spooner wanted the show to move away from full historical stories, instead hoping to blend them with futuristic serials. He studied the background of the Doctor in the writers' guide to create his antithesis, the Monk. The Time Meddler was the first serial under new story editor Donald Tosh, and the crew was joined during production by John Wiles, who was soon to replace Lambert as producer. The serial was produced at a low cost to offset the increased budget of the previous serial, The Chase; Camfield opted to forgo a traditional incidental score, instead using stock music and some percussive drumbeats played by Charles Botterill. The Time Meddler was the first serial to feature Purves in his main role as Steven, having been introduced in The Chase. Filming for the serial took place at Television Centre from June to July 1965. The Time Meddler received a smaller audience than The Chase, with an average of 8.42 million viewers across the four episodes; the Appreciation Index also saw a drop. Contemporary and retrospective reviews were generally positive, with praise directed at performances of Hartnell and Butterworth, Spooner's script, and Camfield's direction, though the depiction of the villagers was criticised. The story was novelised and released on VHS, DVD, and as an audiobook. In 2020, it was voted the second-best First Doctor story by readers of Doctor Who Magazine. ## Plot The First Doctor (William Hartnell) and Vicki (Maureen O'Brien) find Steven Taylor (Peter Purves) aboard the TARDIS after he stumbled in during a disorientated state on Mechanus. The TARDIS lands on a rocky beach and the Doctor establishes the century from a discarded Viking helmet and heads off to the village. Steven and Vicki explore the cliffs above, witnessed by the Monk (Peter Butterworth). The TARDIS is soon after spotted by a Saxon villager, Eldred (Peter Russell), who runs to tell the headman of his village, Wulnoth (Michael Miller). The Doctor encounters Edith (Alethea Charlton), Wulnoth's wife, and convinces her that he is a harmless traveller while probing for more information. He discovers that it is 1066, since Harold Godwinson has not yet faced Harald Hardrada at the Battle of Stamford Bridge. At a nearby monastery, monks are heard chanting; arriving at the monastery, the Doctor finds a gramophone playing the chant. He stops the gramophone and the Monk traps him in a cell. Steven and Vicki encounter Eldred and notice he has a wristwatch, dropped by the Monk. The next morning, they are ambushed by the Saxons and taken to the village council. They convince Wulnoth they are travellers and are given provisions to travel on. Vicki is heartened to hear from Edith that she encountered the Doctor on his way to the monastery. Steven and Vicki visit the monastery, where the Monk tries to dissuade them from entering but gives himself away by describing the Doctor too accurately. Steven and Vicki break in after dark. A Viking attacks Edith, and the Saxons go hunting for the invaders. One is struck down, while his companions, Sven (David Anderson) and Ulf (Norman Hartley), flee. Eldred is badly wounded and Wulnoth takes him to the monastery for help. While the Monk is occupied with the Saxons, Steven and Vicki find the gramophone. They discover that the Doctor has escaped through a secret passage and returned to the village. The Doctor heads back to the monastery and gains the upper hand when the Monk answers the door; the Doctor begins to question the Monk. Sven and Ulf ambush the Doctor and the Monk but are overpowered, but the Monk slips away during the confrontation. He tries to persuade the villagers to light beacon fires on the cliff tops, secretly wishing to lure the Viking fleet to land; Wulnoth tells the Monk that he agrees, but admits to Edith that he suspects danger. Steven and Vicki return to the monastery and investigate the crypt, where a heavy power cable extends from a sarcophagus. Looking inside, they discover that it is the Monk's TARDIS, and that he must originate from the same place as the Doctor. The Doctor overpowers the Monk upon the latter's return to the monastery. The Monk reveals his plan to destroy the Viking fleet, which would prevent the Battle of Stamford Bridge and leave the Saxon soldiers completely fresh to defeat William of Normandy at the Battle of Hastings. He boasts that his plan would accelerate mankind's development by centuries. The Doctor denounces the Monk for seeking to alter the course of history and forces him to reveal his TARDIS, where they find Steven and Vicki. The time travellers piece together the Monk's plot, which he insists is intended to stabilise England and benefit Western civilisation. Ulf and Sven form an alliance with the Monk and tie up the Doctor's party while the three of them take the neutron bomb shells to the cannon on the beach. The scheme is foiled, however, when Wulnoth and the Saxons arrive and engage the fleeing Vikings in a nearby clearing. The Monk hides while the fighting rages, little knowing that the Doctor and his friends have been freed by Edith and are tampering with his TARDIS. With his scheme in ruins, the Monk decides to leave and returns to his TARDIS. When the Monk looks inside, he realises the Doctor has taken the dimensional control and that the interior of his ship has shrunk beyond use, leaving him stranded in 1066. The Doctor, Vicki, and Steven return to the TARDIS and leave. ## Production ### Conception and writing Outgoing story editor Dennis Spooner was commissioned by producer Verity Lambert to write a story introducing new companion Steven Taylor; as story editors commissioning themselves was discouraged, Lambert justified his involvement to head of serials Donald Wilson, citing complications with contracts and budgets, and insufficient time to brief an uninvolved writer, as none of the regular writers were available. Spooner was approved to write the serial on 15 March 1965. Spooner wanted the show to move away from "pure" historical stories like The Reign of Terror (1964) and The Romans (1965), instead hoping to blend them with the show's more futuristic serials. The Time Meddler was the first serial under new story editor Donald Tosh, having been offered to work on either 199 Park Lane or Doctor Who after the cancellation of Compact. He joined the show in April 1965, and was provided with a document titled The History of Doctor Who, outlining the show's story to date (including some upcoming). Tosh enjoyed Spooner's idea of blending historical and futuristic stories. He edited little of Spooner's work. The serial's working title was Doctor Who and the Monk; the title of The Time Meddler was not final until early June 1965. Production assistant David Maloney joked that the story was referred to as The Vikings during production until the realisation that it had more Saxon extras, upon which it was called The Saxons. The first episode was originally called "The Paradox", changed to "The Watcher" on 20 May. The serial was produced at a low cost to offset the expense of the previous serial, The Chase (1965). Douglas Camfield was assigned as director in April, having recently finished work on The Crusade (1965); he was pleased with Spooner's scripts, finding them among his best. Due to the limited expenses allocated to the serial, Camfield forwent an incidental score, instead opting for percussive drumbeats played by Charles Botterill, who had previously played percussion on Tristram Cary's score for Marco Polo (1964). Botterill recorded eight minutes of music for the second through fourth episodes at Lime Grove Studios in Studio R on 9 June. The remainder of the score was sourced from stock music. Set designer Barry Newbery constructed the Saxon's hut in the style of a cruck, painting the studio floor black to resemble ox blood. ### Casting and characters Spooner studied the background of the Doctor as originally stated in the writers' guide developed for the programme in 1963 by Sydney Newman, Donald Wilson, and C. E. Webber, and created the Monk as the antithesis of the Doctor; while the Doctor was serious about interfering with the past, the Monk finds it amusing. He envisaged the characters as a schoolboy prankster from the Billy Bunter books; in the script, he was described as "mischievous, sly and cunning ... with a 'naughty boy' look". Lambert suggested the casting of Butterworth as the Monk, having seen his previous work; he was enjoyed by the cast and crew on set, and was friendly with Hartnell. Anderson was hired to choreograph the forest battle in the second episode, and to portray a Viking named Sven; he was previously noted by Camfield for his work as an extra on Marco Polo, and had returned to work on The Aztecs and star in The Crusade. Cast as Ulf, Hartley was an old friend of Camfield's. The Time Meddler was the first serial to feature Steven Taylor as a full companion. The role of Steven—originally named Michael in the scripts—had not been filled by 13 May, the month before filming began. After witnessing Purves's role as Morton Dill in the recording of The Chase the following day, Lambert and Spooner approached him and offered him the role. Purves accepted the role within days. On 21 May, he was contracted for three stories (13 episodes), with an option for a further 20 episodes by 10 September and another 26 by 4 February 1966. He grew a beard for his role as Steven in the final episode of The Chase, but he wore a fake beard for the first episode of The Time Meddler as Steven becomes cleanshaven partway through. His role as a companion on the show was announced on 18 June 1965. Purves quickly bonded with Hartnell and O'Brien, and they would occasionally have dinner together after rehearsals. Purves was pleased with Spooner's scripts and the development of Steven's character, though O'Brien was unimpressed. ### Filming The minimal filming required for The Time Meddler allowed additional allocation of production for The Chase. Early 35mm filming took place on 10 May at Ealing Studios on Stages 3A/B, depicting the TARDIS materialising and dematerialising in the first and final episodes, respectively. The remaining film was acquired from stock footage, sourced from the BBC and Pinewood Studios. Recording on the serial was due to take place at Riverside Studios until late May, when it was decided to switch back to Television Centre. Rehearsals for the first episode began on 7 June. By this time, incoming producer John Wiles—set to replace Lambert in the coming months—joined the production. Hartnell found the change unsettling and threw fake tantrums to scare the production team to obey him; he later admitted to other cast members that he was only joking. Weekly recording of the serial began on 11 June in Television Centre Studio 4; recording of the first episode overran by seven minutes as it was discovered that one of the scenes contained more music than had been cleared for use, requiring it to be re-recorded. Camfield was greatly upset by the production overrunning. For the second episode, Hartnell recorded voice clips on 26 June, as he was on holiday during its recording. Footage of the Viking ship in the second episode was sourced from a 1949 BBC Newsreel titled The Land of the Vikings. For the third episode, Butterworth ad-libbed a comment about converting kilometres to miles. The final episode was recorded on 2 July 1965. ## Reception ### Broadcast and ratings The serial was broadcast on BBC1 in four weekly parts from 3 to 24 July 1965. The first episode was broadcast later than usual—6:55 p.m. instead of 5:40 p.m.—due to an extended edition of the preceding program Grandstand covering the Henley Regatta and Wimbledon Championships final. The final broadcast accidentally omitted Camfield's directing credit by fading out early; Camfield complained to Wiles, who issued a memo requesting that this not be allowed in future. The following three episodes broadcast at the usual time. The summer season and lack of Daleks led to smaller audience numbers than The Chase, with 8.9 and 8.8 million viewers for the first two episodes and a drop to 7.7 and 8.3 million for the final two. The second episode was the highest-rated BBC show of the week South West region; the third episode dropped out of the top 20 programmes of the week, but garnered a larger audience share than ITV. The Appreciation Index score also saw a drop, with scores of 57, 49, 53, and 54 across the four weeks. The 405-line videotapes of the first, third, and fourth episodes were cleared for wiping from BBC archives on 17 August 1967 and subsequently erased; the second episode was cleared on 31 January 1969, though the BBC retained a 16mm print in its archives. BBC Enterprises continued to market the serial in the 1970s, but sales had diminished by 1977 and the first, third, and fourth episodes were subsequently wiped. All four episodes were discovered in Nigeria in October 1984 and returned to the BBC by February 1985; they were discovered to have been cut, with some missing scenes. A twelve-second clip from the fourth episode remained missing from the complete prints of the serial, as it was removed by censors; it depicted a scene where Vikings are stabbed to death. The audio for the scene was included on the DVD release. In late 1991, the production team of The Late Show proposed a series of repeats of archived Doctor Who serials; producer Teresa Griffiths allowed BBC technician and Doctor Who fan Steve Roberts to restore The Time Meddler to represent its original broadcast. Roberts used complete 16mm prints of the first and third episodes being held by a private collector to restore most of the cuts; they were transferred to digital D3 tape on 20 December 1991. The repeats were broadcast weekly on BBC2 from 3 to 24 January 1992, garnering an average of 2.59 million viewers across the four episodes. ### Critical response The serial received generally positive reviews. Television Today's Bill Edmund enjoyed the character of the Monk and Butterworth's performance, but was disappointed by the lack of monsters in the serial. An audience report prepared following the first episode's broadcast was generally positive, with several viewers finding the anachronistic items a fascinating twist on the time travel theme, though some failed to understand their purpose; Steven's character was also praised, though some viewers missed Ian Chesterton and Barbara Wright, who departed in the previous serial. J. C. Trewin of The Listener enjoyed the serial, "partly because no mechanical monsters arrived and partly because the logical consequences of time-meddling were faced". In a review for the BBC series Hereward the Wake, The Observer's Maurice Richardson found it difficult to "suspend disbelief" for the show's time setting after watching Doctor Who's "remarkable essay in this period". Retrospective reviews were also positive. In The Discontinuity Guide (1995), Paul Cornell, Martin Day, and Keith Topping described the serial as "an atmospheric story" and praised the performances, particularly that of Hartnell and Butterworth. In The Television Companion (1998), David J. Howe and Stephen James Walker lauded Butterworth's "deft, understated performance", especially in his scenes with the Doctor, and applauded Camfield's direction as "very polished and features some nice touches", though they felt that the conclusion was simple and that the Vikings and Saxons "are sketched in merely as caricatures". In 2008, Den of Geek's Simon Brew praised Butterworth's performance, noting that the serial "really hits its stride" with the sparring between the Doctor and the Monk, but felt that the story was not enough to cover four episodes. Writing for Total Sci-Fi Online, Jonathan Wilkins described the serial as "an often forgotten gem", praising Hartnell's "remarkable performance"—particularly his scenes alongside Butterworth—and enjoyed the performances of Purves and Charlton, though felt that the other villagers were the "weakest element" of the story. IGN's Arnold T. Blumberg highlighted the chemistry between Hartnell and Butterworth, the competency of Vicki and Steven, and the visual atmosphere, but felt that the plot contained some clichés. In 2009, Patrick Mulkern of Radio Times called the serial "an utter delight" and "the Doctor Who equivalent of comfort food", praising Butterworth's performance and Camfield's direction. In 2012, The A.V. Club's Christopher Bahn enjoyed the Monk and the introduction of Steven, and lauded the pacing of Spooner's script and Camfield's direction. The Time Meddler was voted the second-best First Doctor story by Doctor Who Magazine readers in 2020; writer Emma Reeves cited the conflict between the Doctor and the Monk, and the serial's reinvention of several elements that would later define the show. ## Commercial releases A novelisation of this serial, written by Target Books editor Nigel Robinson, was published as a hardback by W. H. Allen in October 1987, followed by a paperback by Target in March 1988; the cover was designed by Jeff Cummins. A new edition with a revised cover was published in May 1992 to coincide with the earlier BBC2 repeat of the story. An audiobook of the novelisation, read by Purves, was published in October 2016. The Time Meddler was released on VHS by BBC Worldwide in The First Doctor Box Set in November 2002, with photomontage covers. The serial was released on DVD by BBC DVD in February 2008, featuring a documentary on the First Doctor comic stories, a comparison of the restoration process for the serial, and an audio commentary with Purves, Lambert, Tosh, Newbery, and moderator Clayton Hickman; the DVD was dedicated to Lambert, who died in 2007. Selected stock music from the serial was included in Space Adventures, a cassette soundtrack compiled by Julian Knott and published by DWAS Reference Department in September 1987, limited to 300 copies; it was expanded and re-issued as a CD in October 1998. The serial was released on Blu-ray on 5 December 2022, alongside the rest of the show's second season as part of The Collection.
23,579,768	Japanese destroyer Kaya (1944)	1,143,683,602	Imperial Japanese Navy's Matsu-class destroyer	[ "1944 ships", "Destroyers of the Soviet Navy", "Matsu-class destroyers", "Ships built by Maizuru Naval Arsenal", "World War II destroyers of Japan" ]	Kaya (榧, "torreya nucifera") was one of 18 Matsu-class escort destroyers built for the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) during World War II. Completed in late 1944, the ship began convoy escort duties in October. She was slightly damaged by American aircraft while escorting cruisers on a bombardment mission in the Philippines during Operation Rei in December. Kaya spent the rest of the war escorting convoys and capital ships after repairs. The ship was surrendered to the Allies at the end of the war and used to repatriate Japanese troops until 1947. Mid-year the destroyer was turned over to the Soviet Union and was commissioned that same year. She was renamed Volevoy (Волевой (Willful)) later that month. When the ship was converted into a target ship in 1949, she was renamed TsL-23. The vessel was hulked in 1958 and ordered to be scrapped the following year. ## Design and description Designed for ease of production, the Matsu class was smaller, slower and more lightly armed than previous destroyers as the IJN intended them for second-line duties like escorting convoys, releasing the larger ships for missions with the fleet. The ships measured 100 meters (328 ft 1 in) long overall, with a beam of 9.35 meters (30 ft 8 in) and a draft of 3.3 meters (10 ft 10 in). Their crew numbered 210 officers and enlisted men. They displaced 1,282 metric tons (1,262 long tons) at standard load and 1,554 metric tons (1,529 long tons) at deep load. The ships had two Kampon geared steam turbines, each driving one propeller shaft using steam provided by two Kampon water-tube boilers. The turbines were rated at a total of 19,000 shaft horsepower (14,000 kW) for a speed of 27.8 knots (51.5 km/h; 32.0 mph). The Matsus had a range of 4,680 nautical miles (8,670 km; 5,390 mi) at 16 knots (30 km/h; 18 mph). The main armament of the Matsu-class ships consisted of three 127-millimeter (5 in) Type 89 dual-purpose guns in one twin-gun mount aft and one single mount forward of the superstructure. The single mount was partially protected against spray by a gun shield. The accuracy of the Type 89 guns was severely reduced against aircraft because no high-angle gunnery director was fitted. The ships carried a total of twenty-five 25-millimeter (1 in) Type 96 anti-aircraft guns in 4 triple and 13 single mounts. The Matsus were equipped with Type 13 early-warning and Type 22 surface-search radars. The ships were also armed with a single rotating quadruple mount amidships for 610-millimeter (24 in) torpedoes. They could deliver their 36 depth charges via two stern rails and two throwers. ## Construction and career Authorized in the late 1942 Modified 5th Naval Armaments Supplement Program, Kaya was laid down on 10 April 1944 at the Maizuru Naval Arsenal and launched on 30 July. Upon her completion on 30 September, Kaya was assigned to Destroyer Squadron 11 of the Combined Fleet for training. The ship escorted her first convoy to and from Taiwan during 25 October–18 November. She was assigned to Destroyer Division 43, Escort Squadron 31 of the 5th Fleet a week later. That same day Kaya escorted a convoy to Manila, the Philippines, via Taiwan, arriving at the former port on 11 December. The following day the ship sailed for Cam Ranh Bay in occupied French Indochina to participate in Operation Rei, an attack on the American forces at San Jose on the island of Mindoro. Five destroyers, including Kaya, escorted two cruisers that departed on 24 December. They were attacked by American aircraft late the next day; the ship was lightly damaged by strafing aircraft. Kaya arrived in Takao, Taiwan, on 7 January 1945 and continued onwards to Maizuru, Japan, where she was docked for repairs six days later. On 5 February Escort Squadron 31 was transferred to the Combined Fleet. The ship arrived in Kure on 2 March and remained in the Seto Inland Sea for the rest of the war. The squadron was reassigned to the 2nd Fleet from 15 March to 20 April and then rejoined the Combined Fleet. On 6 April, Kaya helped to escort the battleship Yamato through the Inland Sea. The ship was turned over to Allied forces at Kure at the time of the surrender of Japan on 2 September and was stricken from the navy list on 5 October. The destroyer was disarmed and used to repatriate Japanese personnel in 1945–1947. Kaya was turned over to the Soviet Union on 5 July of the latter year. The ship was commissioned into the Soviet Navy's Fifth Fleet two days later and was renamed Volevoy on 22 July 1947. The ship was placed in reserve on 14 February 1949. She was disarmed, converted into a target ship and renamed TsL-23 on 17 June. The ship was transferred to the Pacific Fleet on 23 April 1953. She was hulked and renamed OT-61 on 10 June 1958, stricken from the navy list on 1 August 1959 and ordered to be scrapped on 2 September.
12,613,223	Paul Des Jardien	1,166,748,855	American athlete (1893–1956)	[ "1893 births", "1956 deaths", "All-American college football players", "American football centers", "American men's basketball players", "Baseball players from Chicago", "Basketball players from Chicago", "Chicago Maroons baseball players", "Chicago Maroons football players", "Chicago Maroons men's basketball players", "Chicago Tigers players", "Cleveland Indians players", "College Football Hall of Fame inductees", "College men's track and field athletes in the United States", "Hammond Pros players", "Major League Baseball pitchers", "Marshalltown Ansons players", "Minneapolis Marines players", "Oberlin Yeomen football coaches", "People from Coffeyville, Kansas", "Players of American football from Chicago" ]	Paul Raymond "Shorty" Des Jardien (August 24, 1893 – March 7, 1956) was an American football, baseball and basketball player. He played for the University of Chicago where he was selected as the first-team All-American center in both 1913 and 1914 and also pitched a no-hitter for the baseball team. He later played professional baseball for the Cleveland Indians and professional football for the Cleveland Indians (1916), Hammond Pros (1919), Chicago Tigers (1920) and Minneapolis Marines (1922). He was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 1955. ## Early years and college Des Jardien was born in Coffeyville, Kansas and moved to Chicago when he was a child. He attended Chicago's Wendell Phillips Academy High School before enrolling at the University of Chicago, where he played on the Chicago Maroons' football, baseball, basketball, and track and field teams. He earned 12 varsity letters, played on Western Conference championship teams in both football and baseball, and became known as one of the best all-around athletes ever produced by the University of Chicago. While attending the University of Chicago, Des Jardien was 6 feet, 5 inches tall and weighed 190 pounds; his teammates called him "Shorty." In baseball, Des Jardien was a pitcher, but also played at first and third base. The University of Chicago Magazine wrote: "Des Jardien at third base fields well, and adds strength by his spirit. All in all, the tall young man is one of the most excellent athletes Chicago has had in years." In May 1914, he threw a no-hitters and struck out 14 Iowa Hawkeyes batters in a game. Des Jardien gained his greatest fame playing at the center position for Amos Alonzo Stagg's Chicago Maroons football teams from 1912 to 1914. Des Jardien played at the center position on both offense and defense, was considered "the mainstay of his team on defense," and was also known for his ability as a long punter. During Des Jardien's three years as Chicago's center, the Maroons compiled a record of 17–3–1, including an undefeated 7–0 record and Western Conference championship in 1913. After his sophomore year in 1912, Des Jardien was selected as a first-team All-Western player. Stagg praised Des Jardien as a "spectacular" player and "as flashy a center as I have seen in many years." In naming Des Jardien to his All-Western team in 1912, E.C. Patterson in Collier's wrote: "Des Jardien is not great of bulk, at least not horizontally. He is tall and rangy and remarkably active. His usefulness is accentuated when it is seen that some of Coach Stagg's forward pass tricks center around him." In his junior and senior years of 1913 and 1914, Des Jardien was selected as a first-team All-American. He was also chosen by his teammates as the captain of the 1914 football team. In 1914, Walter Camp wrote about Des Jardien, calling him "[...] the best center in the country — steady, reliable, absolutely dependable for his share of line work on attack, and a power on defense." ## Professional baseball and Asian tour The New York Times reported in January 1915 that Des Jardien had agreed to play professional baseball for the Chicago Cubs upon graduating from the University of Chicago in June 1915. According to the report, Des Jardien declined to sign a contract with the Cubs to avoid endangering his amateur status. The report described Des Jardien as one of the best pitchers in the Western Conference, a right-hander with a good curve ball. Instead of playing Major League Baseball in the summer of 1915, Des Jardien traveled to Asia with the University of Chicago baseball team. The team played 15 games, winning 12, while traveling to the West Coast of the United States. It sailed from San Francisco on the SS Mongolia and arrived in Honolulu, Hawaii in early September 1915, spending ten days there and playing games against teams from the U.S. Army and the St. Louis Athletic Club and teams made up of Chinese and Portuguese players. The team next sailed to Japan. On September 24, 1915, the Chicago squad played a double header in front of a crowd of 20,000 people in Tokyo. Des Jardien pitched both games, defeating Waseda 5–3 and the Keio University 4–1. Des Jardien hit a home run and struck out 11 batters in the game against the Keio. Des Jardien served as an assistant coach for the University of Chicago's basketball, baseball and track teams upon returning from Japan in January 1916. In early May 1916, Des Jardien signed to play Major League Baseball with the Cleveland Indians. Indians manager Lee Fohl said at the time, "I think I will make him a good pitcher. He already has learned to put more on his fast ball while his control is almost perfect." He made his debut on May 20, 1916, pitching one inning and allowing one hit, one base on balls, and two earned runs. Des Jardien did not pitch another game in Major League Baseball. In the summer of 1917, Des Jardien played semi-professional baseball with the Mohawks in the Chicago League. ## Professional football and World War I In September 1916, Des Jardien was hired as the football coach at Oberlin College. With almost every veteran player missing from the football team due to a fraternity expulsion, Des Jardiens' 1916 Oberlin team failed to win a game for the first time in the program's history and scored only 13 points throughout the season. That year, Des Jardien also played for Peggy Parratt's Cleveland Indians football team in their first and only season as a professional football team. Parratt built a team of all-stars around Des Jardien. The Indians lost two games to Jim Thorpe's Canton Bulldogs, played the Massillon Tigers to a scoreless tie, and closed the season with three wins against the Columbus Panhandles, Detroit Heralds and Toledo Maroons. Des Jardien also reportedly played professional football for the Canton Bulldogs and Fort Wayne Friars. During the 1916–17 basketball season, he played professional basketball with the Pine Village, Indiana team. Des Jardien served in the United States Army during World War I. In the fall of 1917, he played on an Army football team at Fort Sheridan that included a number of former All-Americans including Albert Benbrook, Ernest Allmendinger, James B. Craig and Dolly Gray. In 1918, he was placed in charge of a German prison camp in Paris. After returning from France, Des Jardien played professional football for the Hammond Pros in 1919. In December 1919, P.J. Parduhn, president of the Hammond football team, was arrested on a charge of issuing bogus checks, after a complaint was lodged by Des Jardien and Milt Ghee. They dropped the charges when Parduhn agreed to make good on the payment. After the end of the football season that month, Des Jardien signed to play professional basketball with the Red Crowns team from Whiting, Indiana. The Red Crowns were backed by Standard Oil and were considered the fastest team west of Buffalo. Des Jardien's presence was expected to draw crowds from throughout the Midwest. In 1920, he played for the Chicago Tigers in the inaugural season of the National Football League, then known as the APFA. Des Jardien played in all eight games for the 1920 Tigers, including seven as the starting center. The Tigers compiled a record of 2–5–1 in 1920 and Des Jardien was selected as a second-team All-APFA player. In October 1922, Des Jardien signed to play semi-professional football for the Ironwood Legion team from Ironwood in Michigan's Upper Peninsula. In an October 1922 game against Bessemer, Des Jardien kicked punts of 50, 55 and 65 yards. He also appeared in one game for the Minneapolis Marines in the 1922 NFL season. ## Later years After retiring from athletics, Des Jardien worked as a manufacturing executive in Los Angeles. He was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in July 1955. He died at his home in Monrovia, California in 1956 from a cerebral thrombosis and was buried at the Forest Lawn Cemetery. Des Jardien was posthumously inducted into the University of Chicago Hall of Fame in 2006. ## Head coaching record
24,769,784	Ila (Hinduism)	1,146,655,759	Hindu deity known for sex changes	[ "Characters in Hindu mythology", "Characters in the Ramayana", "Earth gods", "Hindu gods", "Lunar dynasty" ]	Ila (Sanskrit: इल) or Ilā (Sanskrit: इला) is a deity in Hindu legends, known for their sex changes. As a man, he is known as Ila or Sudyumna and as a woman, is called Ilā. Ilā is considered the chief progenitor of the Lunar dynasty of Indian kings – also known as the Aillas ("descendants of Ilā"). While many versions of the tale exist, Ila is usually described as a daughter or son of Vaivasvata Manu and thus the sibling of Ikshvaku, the founder of the Solar Dynasty. In versions in which Ila is born female, she changes into a male form by divine grace soon after her birth. After mistakenly entering a sacred grove as an adult, Ila is either cursed to change his/her gender every month or cursed to become a woman. As a woman, Ilā married Budha, the god of the planet Mercury and the son of the lunar deity Chandra (Soma), and bore him a son called Pururavas, the father of the Lunar dynasty. After the birth of Pururavas, Ilā has transformed into a man again and fathered three sons. In the Vedas, Ilā is praised as Idā (Sanskrit: इडा), goddess of speech, and described as the mother of Pururavas. The tale of Ila's transformations is told in the Puranas as well as the Indian epic poems, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. ## Birth According to the Linga Purana and the Mahabharata, Ilā was born as the eldest daughter of Vaivasvata Manu, the progenitor of mankind, and his wife Shraddha. However, the parents desired a son and so prayed and performed austerities to propitiate the deities Mitra and Varuna, who changed Ilā's gender. The boy was named Sudyumma. The Bhagavata Purana, the Devi-Bhagavata Purana, the Kurma Purana, the Harivamsa, the Markandeya Purana and the Padma Purana (referred to as "Bhagavata Purana et al. texts" further) narrate a variant: Ila's parents could not have any children for a long time and approached the sage Agastya for a solution. The sage performed a yajna (fire sacrifice) dedicated to Mitra and Varuna to attain a son for the couple. Due to either an error in the ritual or a failure to offer the appropriate sacrifice, Mitra and Varuna instead sent a daughter to the couple. In one version, the couple supplicated the deities, who transformed Ilā's gender. In another version, this transformation happens after the erroneous hymns are rectified and the son is called Ila. According to a variant, Shraddha wished for a daughter; Vashistha heeded her wish while performing the sacrifice and thus, a daughter was born. However, Manu desired a son so Vashistha appealed to Vishnu to change the gender of his daughter. Ilā was renamed Sudhyumna. The accounts describe Ila as either the eldest or the youngest child of Manu. As the child of Manu, Ila had nine brothers, the most notable was Ikshvaku, the founder of the Solar dynasty. As the son of Manu, Ila is the grandson of Surya. According to another account found in the Vayu Purana and the Brahmanda Purana, Ilā was born female and remained female. In the Ramayana, Ila is born as a son of Kardama, the Prajapati born of the god Brahma's shadow. Ila's tale is told in the Uttara Kanda chapter of the Ramayana, while describing the greatness of the Ashvamedha – the horse sacrifice. ## Curse and marriage to Budha In the Ramayana, the Linga Purana and the Mahabharata, Ila grows to become the king of Bahlika. While hunting in a forest, Ila accidentally trespassed Sharavana ("Forest of Reeds"), the sacred grove of the goddess Parvati, the consort of the god Shiva. Upon entering Sharavana, all-male beings except for Shiva, including trees and animals, are transformed into females. One legend tells that a female yakshini disguised herself as a deer and purposefully led Ila to the grove in order to save her husband from the king. The Linga Purana and the Mahabharata emphasize the sex change of Ila to be a deliberate act of Shiva to start the Lunar dynasty. The Bhagavata Purana et al. texts tell that Ila's entire entourage, as well as his horse, also changed their genders. According to the Ramayana, when Ila approached Shiva for help, Shiva laughed with scorn but the compassionate Parvati reduced the curse and allowed Ila to switch genders every month. However, as a male, he would not remember his life as a female and vice versa. While Ilā roamed the forest in her new form with her female attendants, Budha, the god of the planet Mercury and the son of the moon-god Chandra, noticed her. Although he had been practising asceticism, Ilā's beauty caused him to fall in love with her at first sight. Budha turned Ilā's attendants into Kimpurushas (hermaphrodite, lit. "is it a man?") and ordered them to run away, promising that they would find mates as Ilā had. Ilā married Budha and spent an entire month with him and consummated the marriage. However, Ilā woke one morning as Sudyumna and remembered nothing about the past month. Budha told Ila that his retinue had been killed in a rain of stones and convinced Ila to stay with him for a year. During each month she spent as a woman, Ilā had a good time with Budha. During each month as a man, Ila turned to pious ways and performed austerities under the guidance of Budha. In the ninth month, Ilā gave birth to Pururavas, who grew to become the first king of the Lunar dynasty. Then, as per the advice of Budha and Ila's father Kardama, Ila pleased Shiva and Shiva restored Ila's masculinity permanently. Another legend from the Vishnu Purana credits Vishnu of restoring Ilā's manhood as Sudyumma. The Bhagavata Purana et al. texts tell that after Pururavas's birth, the nine brothers of Ila – by horse-sacrifice – or the sage Vasistha – the family priest of Ila – pleased Shiva to compel him to give the boon of alternate month manhood to Ila, turning him into a Kimpurusha. The Linga Purana and the Mahabharata record the birth of Pururavas, but do not narrate the end of Ila's alternating gender condition. In fact, the Mahabharata describes Ilā to be the mother as well as the father of Pururavas. According to another account found in the Vayu Purana and the Brahmanda Purana, Ilā was born female, married Budha, then was transformed into a male called Sudyumna. Sudyumna was then cursed by Parvati and transformed once again into a female, but became a man once again through Shiva's boon. In almost all versions of the tale, Ila wants to live as a man, but in the Skanda Purana, Ila desires to be a woman. The king Ela (Ila) entered Parvati's grove at Sahya mountain and became the woman Ilā. Ilā wished to remain a woman and serve Parvati (Gauri) and Ganga, the goddess of the Ganges river. However, the goddesses dissuaded him. Ilā bathed in a sacred pool and returned as Ela, bearded and deep-voiced. ## Later life and descendants The descendants of Ilā through Pururavas are known as Ailas after Ilā or as the Lunar dynasty (Chandravamsha) due to their descent from Budha, the son of the moon-god Chandra. Most versions of the tale call Ilā the father as well as the mother of the Ailas. The Linga Purana and the Mahabharata, in which Sudyumma's curse does not end, state that as a male, Sudyumma also bore three sons named Utkala, Gaya and Vinatashva (also known as Haritashva and Vinata). The three sons ruled the kingdom for their father as Sudyumma was unable to do so himself due to his alternating gender. The sons and their principalities are called the Saudyumnas. Utkala, Gaya, and Vinatashva ruled Utkala country, Gaya, and eastern regions including northern Kurus respectively. With the assistance of the family priest Vasistha, Sudyumma regained control of the entire kingdom. He was succeeded by Pururavas. In the Matsya Purana, Ila was disinherited after becoming a female or kimpurusha. Ila's father passed his inheritance directly to Pururavas, ignoring the three sons Ila-Sudyumma bore as a male. Pururavas ruled from Pratishtanapura (present-day Allahabad), where Ila stayed with him. The Ramayana says that having returned to manhood, Ila ruled Pratishtana while his son Shashabindu ruled over Bahlika. The Devi-Bhagavata Purana tells that as a man Sudyumma governed the kingdom and as a woman remained indoors. His subjects were disturbed by his sex changes and did not respect him as they once had. When Pururavas attained adulthood, Sudyumma left his kingdom to Pururavas and went to the forest for penance. The sage Narada told Sudyumma a nine-syllable mantra, Navakshara, which would please the Supreme Goddess. Pleased with his austerities, the Goddess emerged before Sudyumma, who was in his female form Ilā. Sudyumma praised the Goddess, who merged the king's soul with herself and thus, Ilā gained salvation. The Bhagavata Purana, the Devi-Bhagavata Purana and the Linga Purana declare that Ila ascended to heaven with both male and female anatomy. Ila is considered the chief progenitor of the Lunar Dynasty through Pururavas and of the Solar Dynasty through his brother Iksavaku and sons Utkala, Gaya, and Vinatashva. The marriage of Ilā, a descendant of the Sun, and Budha, the son of the Moon, is the first union of the solar and lunar races recorded in the scriptures. ## In Vedic literature In Vedic literature, Ilā is also known as Idā. Idā, in the Rigveda, signifies food and refreshment, personified as the goddess of speech. Ilā-Idā is also associated with Sarasvati, the goddess of knowledge. Ilā-Idā is mentioned a number of times in the Rigveda, mostly in the hymns known as Āprīsūktas. She is often mentioned along with Sarasvati and Bharati (or Mahi) and Pururavas is described as her son. Idā is the instructor of Manu, in performing ritual sacrifices. According to Sayana – a commentator on the Vedas – she presides over the Earth. Rig Veda 3.123.4 mentions that "land of Ila" was situated nearby banks of Sarasvati river. Rigveda 3.29.3 describes Agni as the son of Ila. In the Shatapatha Brahmana, Manu performed a fire-sacrifice in order to have children. Idā emerged from the sacrifice. She was claimed by Mitra-Varuna, but she lived with Manu and together they initiated the race of Manu. In this text, Idā is the goddess of the sacrificial meal. She is described as the Mānavi (daughter of Manu) and Ghṛtapadī (with the ghee-dripping foot) and she is represented by a cow, also known as Idā during a sacrifice. Pururavas is mentioned as the son of Ilā in the text. ## See also - Hindu mythology - LGBT themes in Hindu mythology
2,817,920	The Tolkien Ensemble	1,171,438,873	Danish musical group	[ "Danish musical groups", "Music based on The Lord of the Rings", "Musical groups established in 1995" ]	The Tolkien Ensemble (founded in 1995) is a Danish ensemble which created "the world's first complete musical interpretation of the poems and songs from The Lord of the Rings". They published four CDs from 1997 to 2005, in which all the poems and songs of The Lord of the Rings are set to music. The project was approved by the Tolkien Estate. Queen Margrethe II of Denmark gave permission to use her illustrations on the CD covers. Permanent members are Caspar Reiff and Peter Hall (composition, singing and guitar), Signe Asmussen (singing), Øyvind Ougaard (accordion), Katja Nielsen (double-bass), and Morten Ryelund Sørensen (conductor and violin). The ensemble have been described as elves, Tolkien's refined Middle-earth race, in contrast to the more rustic hobbit-like groups such as Brocéliande and the Hobbitons. Scholars have praised their settings as among the most atmospheric recordings of Tolkien's poems. ## History Composer Caspar Reiff founded the Tolkien Ensemble in Copenhagen in autumn 1995. At that time, Reiff (1971) was studying guitar at the Royal Danish Academy of Music in Copenhagen. He formed an ensemble consisting of fellow students from the Academy and his former guitar teacher, the composer and musician Peter Hall (1946), LLCM (TD) London College of Music. The goal set by the two composers, Reiff and Hall, was to create the world's first complete musical interpretation of the poems from J. R. R. Tolkien's "masterpiece" The Lord of the Rings. The ensemble, which was to form the base of this vision, was named 'The Tolkien Ensemble' — entirely devoted to the works of Tolkien. The ensemble first took shape with a group of invited musicians in January 1996 at the Royal Danish Academy of Music. The founder members (other than Reiff and Hall) were Mads Thiemann, Mette Tjærby, Ole Norup & Signe Asmussen. The Tolkien Ensemble's first concert took place at Gjorslev Castle on 21 January 1996; this was followed by concerts in Denmark. In January 1997, Reiff and Peter Hall were granted permission by the Tolkien Estate to record the first 12 songs from The Lord of the Rings. The two composers chose the young Danish conductor Morten Ryelund as producer and this was to have a major influence on the interpretation of the music and the project as a whole. Ryelund later became a full member of the Tolkien Ensemble and the ensemble was granted permission by Queen Margrethe II of Denmark to use her illustrations on the CD cover. These unique illustrations, created when she was Crown Princess of Denmark, became a recurrent feature on all the ensemble's later CDs. The first album, An Evening in Rivendell, was released in autumn 1997 to widespread critical acclaim. A number of concerts followed. Notably, in a 1998 concert in Oxford, the audience included members of the Tolkien family, to the ensemble's delight. An Evening in Rivendell was followed by the 2000 release A Night in Rivendell. The album contained more sombre songs from the Lord of The Rings; the ensemble worked with, among others, the singers Povl Dissing, who sang the part of Gollum, Kurt Ravn (Legolas) and Ulrik Cold (Gandalf). Interest in The Lord of the Rings grew dramatically in 2001 when Peter Jackson started to release his films of Tolkien's books. The Tolkien Ensemble was invited to take part in the Danish premiere of the first film in the Jackson's trilogy: The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring. Among the celebrities representing the film in Copenhagen was the actor Christopher Lee, who played the traitorous wizard Saruman. The Tolkien Ensemble invited him to take part in their third album, At Dawn in Rivendell, partly as narrator and partly as singer of Treebeard's songs. Lee's cooperation, combined with the growing interest for the work of Tolkien, resulted in a huge success for the album. It was released in 22 countries, was widely played by radio stations, and received excellent reviews. The International Herald Tribune called it "Total Lord of the Rings magic!" At Dawn in Rivendell later sold well worldwide. The cooperation with Lee developed to include concerts. In the autumn of 2002, Lee took part in a release concert at Tivoli Concert Hall. Then followed a major tour of, among other countries, England and Sweden, culminating in the summer of 2003 when the ensemble gave a concert in Denmark for an audience including HM Queen Margrethe II of Denmark and Prince Henrik of Denmark. In 2004 the two composers, Reiff and Hall, together with Lee, took part in a major sell-out concert in Concertgebouw, Amsterdam. In 2005 The Tolkien Ensemble played at two major Lord of the Rings concerts at Ledreborg Castle, Denmark to an audience of over 22,000 people. Among the performers was the ensemble's new member, Nick Keir of the Scottish folk-trio The McCalmans. These concerts, with the Danish National Chamber Orchestra, the Danish National Chamber Choir, and soloists, marked the release of the fourth and last album of the series, Leaving Rivendell. Besides Lee, Keir, the Danish National Chamber Orchestra/DR and the Danish National Chamber Choir/DR performed with The Tolkien Ensemble on the fourth album. The ensemble toured Europe in 2007, combining their own works with soundtrack pieces from Howard Shore's soundtrack to the film trilogy as well as live narration by Lee. In 2008 the ensemble gave their longest concert tour of German cities including Berlin's Friedrichstadt-Palast, Hamburg, Hannover, Dresden, Bremen, and Leipzig's Gewandhaus. The ensemble continued to give concert tours each year until 2013. The release of the four-CD-box in 2006 marked the completion of more than ten years' work and the attainment of the ensemble's goal: the release of their Complete Songs & Poems from The Lord of the Rings. More than 150 professional musicians participated in the effort. The four-CD-box is dedicated to the memory of J.R.R. Tolkien, to The Tolkien Society in Oxford, and to the millions of people for whom The Lord of the Rings has a special place in their hearts. ## Reception The Tolkien scholar David Bratman calls the ensemble "[refined] elves", unlike groups like Brocéliande and the Hobbitons, who he calls "[rustic] hobbits in ethos". He calls their music "some of the most atmospheric Tolkien settings on disc". He mentions Lee's recitation of some of Tolkien's poems, where "[he] impersonates Treebeard half rhythmically talking and half singing, à la Rex Harrison as Professor Higgins." Bratman describes the ensemble's approach as an "effective combination" of folk and classical, and the ensemble itself as consisting of conservatory students and folk musicians. In his view there is an "ethereal air of wistfulness" throughout the Tolkien Ensemble's music, which contributes powerfully to their Elvish songs; he at once adds that their hobbit songs work out well too, with a light guitar setting and simple sturdy tune that handles Tom Bombadil's songs effectively. He especially admires the third album's last track, "Sam's invocation of Elven Hymn to Elbereth Gilthoniel" by Hall, where "Frodo's walking song meets an Elvish hymn to Elbereth". The scholar of English literature Leslie A. Donovan calls the Ensemble's four albums the most notable of the attempts "to capture the airs of Middle-earth by creating their own music for Tolkien's lyrics". The Green Man Review writes that the Tolkien Ensemble "has made excellent use" of the songs in The Road Goes Ever On. Af Søren Aabyen, reviewing the Ensemble's first album, An Evening in Rivendell, for the Danish Tolkien Society, found that rarely had any music appealed to him as much. He was delighted by the mezzo-soprano Asmussen's mellow rendering of "Galadriel's Song of Eldamar". He enjoyed the playful hobbit-song "There is an Inn, a merry old Inn", and Reiff's suitably melancholy guitar for "The Old Walking Song" alongside the rich baritone voice of Thiemann and the lyrical violin of Tjærby. Aabyen noted also the pleasure of finding Queen Margrethe II of Denmark's illustrations in the accompanying booklet. Anthony Burdge and Jessica Burke, in The J. R. R. Tolkien Encyclopedia, note that the album was complete with the queen's illustrations "greatly admired by Tolkien." ## Permanent members - Peter Hall – founder, composer, vocals, guitar - Caspar Reiff [es] – founder, composer, guitar - Signe Asmussen – vocals - Morten Ernst Lassen – vocals - Katja Nielsen – double-bass - Øyvind Ougaard [da] – accordion - Morten Ryelund Sørensen – conductor, violin - Mads Thiemann – vocals ## Discography - Complete Songs & Poems (2006), consisting of: - An Evening in Rivendell (1997) Malene Nordtorp, Ole Jegindø Norup, Mads Thiemann, Morten Ernst Lassen, Commotio-Kvartetten choir, Polkageist. - A Night in Rivendell (2000) Ulrik Cold, Kurt Ravn, Povl Dissing, Mads Thiemann, Morten Ernst Lassen, The Chamber Choir Hymnia. - At Dawn in Rivendell (2002) Kurt Ravn, Morten Ernst Lassen, Peter Hall, Tom McEwan, Caspar Reiff, the Copenhagen Chamber Choir Camerata, Copenhagen Young Strings. Recitation by Christopher Lee. - Leaving Rivendell (2005) Jørgen Ditlevsen, Kurt Ravn, Nick Keir, the Danish National Chamber Choir/DR, the Danish Radio Sinfonietta/DR. Recitation by Christopher Lee. ## See also - Works inspired by J. R. R. Tolkien
4,117,368	Motivation crowding theory	1,120,259,799	Theory in psychology and microeconomics	[ "Labour economics", "Microeconomics", "Motivational theories" ]	Motivation crowding theory is the theory from psychology and microeconomics suggesting that providing extrinsic incentives for certain kinds of behavior—such as promising monetary rewards for accomplishing some task—can sometimes undermine intrinsic motivation for performing that behavior. The result of lowered motivation, in contrast with the predictions of neoclassical economics, can be an overall decrease in the total performance. The term "crowding out" was coined by Bruno Frey in 1997, but the idea was first introduced into economics much earlier by Richard Titmuss, who argued in 1970 that offering financial incentives for certain behaviors could counter-intuitively lead to a drop in performance of those behaviors. While the empirical evidence supporting crowding out for blood donation has been mixed, there has since been a long line of psychological and economic exploration supporting the basic phenomenon of crowding out. The typical study of crowding out asks subjects to complete some task either for payment or no payment. Researchers then look to self-reported measures of motivation for completing the task, willingness to complete additional rounds of the task for no additional compensation, or both. Removing the payment incentive, compared to those who were never paid at all, typically lowers overall interest in and willingness to complete the task. This process is known as "crowding out" since whatever motivation for the task that previously existed—as estimated by the control condition that was not offered compensation for the task—has been crowded out by motivation merely based on the payment. A 2020 study which reviewed more than a 100 tests of motivation crowding theory and conducted its own field experiments found that paying individuals for intrinsically enjoyable tasks boosts their performance, but that taking payment away after it is expected may lead individuals to perform worse than if they were not paid at first. ## Development of the theory ### History According to research on operant conditioning and behaviorism in the 1950s, extrinsic rewards should increase the chances of the rewarded behavior occurring, with the greatest effect on behavior if the reward is given immediately after the behavior. In these studies, often removing the reward quickly led to a return to the pre-reward baseline frequency of the behavior. These findings led to popular calls for the adoption of incentives as motivational tools in a variety of professional and educational contexts. Moreover, according to standard economics, providing extrinsic incentives for a behavior has an immediate relative-price effect which should produce more of that behavior by making that behavior more attractive. Literature in economics has myriad examples of this. However, Titmuss argued that sometimes adding incentives can actually diminish the rewarded behavior. Exploring this idea, Edward Deci noticed in the early 1970s that some actions appear to provide their own reward. These behaviors are described as being intrinsically motivated, and their enjoyment or rewards come from the act of engaging in the task itself. In this case, behavior does not require any extrinsic reward. These observations led researchers to ask how providing extrinsic rewards for a given activity would influence intrinsic motivation toward that activity. While the relative-price effect would predict that rewards should only enhance the attractiveness of the behavior, there appeared to be indirect psychological effects of offering extrinsic incentives that, in some cases, have the opposite effect of making the behavior seem less attractive. ### Experimental manipulations #### Dependent measures A wide range of behaviors has been investigated for crowding out, including completion of rote tasks, engagement with interesting puzzles, pro-social favors, creative art projects, and more. Crowding out is typically measured in two ways. First, crowding out is measured as self-reported interest in the activity after an incentive has been provided. Second, crowding out can be measured by engagement in the activity while subjects believe the experiment has ended and after full compensation has been provided. Some studies use both measures. In some cases, crowding out has been found to directly affect effort and performance on the target behavior itself even while compensated for performance. For instance, paying people a token amount of money to raise money for charity has been shown to cause people to wind up collecting less money than those who were not paid at all. #### Independent variables According to a meta-analysis, three kinds of rewards are used in the investigation of crowding out. First, task-noncontingent rewards, such as show-up fees, are offered to subjects independent of task performance or completion, simply as compensation for their time. These rewards are not expected to displace intrinsic motivation. Second, task-contingent rewards, on the other hand, are incentives on the quantity, quality, or completion of some specific behavior (e.g. solving word puzzles or collecting charitable donations). Crowding out is thought to be most significant in this case. Finally, performance-contingent rewards, incentives for achieving certain outcomes, are thought to create comparatively little crowding out because they can serve as a signal of status and achievement rather than tampering with motivation. ### Early evidence Early research in this area in the 1970s found that providing an extrinsic incentive for completing a task could undermine intrinsic motivation and subsequent effort devoted to that task across a broad range of contexts. This research considered the effect of monetary, tangible (e.g. gifts), and symbolic rewards among young children, college students, and adults doing a wide variety of tasks. In a classic study, Deci paid all subjects for participation in a psychological experiment that involved solving multiple puzzles or IQ test questions. Half of the subjects were paid a flat fee just for showing up to the experiment, but the other half of subjects were informed that they would be paid per their completion of the study's tasks. After the presumptive experiment was over, subjects were left with free time during which they could either sit idly or complete more tasks. Deci measured the number of additional IQ questions or puzzles completed during this non-compensated time as well as self-reported measurements of interest in the task. Deci found that, compared to those who were paid simply for showing up, subjects who were paid specifically to complete the tasks were significantly less likely to complete additional non-compensated tasks and gave lower ratings of interest levels in the tasks themselves. Deci interpreted these findings to suggest that motivation for and interest in the tasks had been displaced by the provision of extrinsic incentives. These studies typically find that if incentives are large then, once removed, they can have long-run crowding out effects. However, more recent research has found that even if workers find incentives to be insufficient then there can be short-run crowding out of the rewarded behavior too. Examples of early crowding out studies include: - In a pioneering study, Deci had college students attempt to solve a puzzle game called a Soma cube. During Phase I of the experiment, all subjects had the opportunity to play with the cube and attempt to solve several puzzles. During Phase II, half of the subjects (control) repeated Phase I whereas the other half of subjects were paid \$1 for each puzzle they could solve. During Phase III, no one was paid but experimenters interrupted participants in the middle of the session, telling them a cover story about why the experimenter needed to leave the room for a few minutes. Secretly, experimenters were able to observe how participants spent their free time. Deci found that those who had been paid during Phase II were significantly less likely to play with the cube during the free, uncompensated time during Phase III. - In a follow-up study that replicated the basic pattern of results from 1971, Deci later found that offering verbal praise as a reward for task completion did not have a similar backfiring effect as offering a monetary reward had. - Kruglanski et al. found that if high school students were promised an extrinsic incentive before engaging in a variety of tasks, the students showed less creativity and subsequently reported enjoying the task less compared to those who were not promised payment at the outset. - Lepper et al. found that children who were told that they would receive a reward in exchange for drawing—something they had previously shown to be intrinsically interested in—subsequently became less interested in drawing after the reward was given, compared to those who received a reward unexpectedly or who received no reward at all. Other research has shown that a similar effect of crowding out can occur from negative disincentives for behavior, too. For instance, economic studies have shown that increasing penalties can actually lower obedience with the law and decrease worker performance. While all of these early investigations demonstrated that providing extrinsic incentives could undermine motivation for the rewarded behavior, researchers had not yet established the psychological process involved that could explain this consistent pattern of results. ## Psychological theories Various explanations have been offered for why crowding out occurs. ### Motivational theories On this view—sometimes referred to as cognitive evaluation theory—the post-behavioral significance people assign to the reward determines subsequent motivation. Deci and Ryan argue that rewards can be seen to have two components: one that controls people's behavior and thus infringes on their autonomy, and a different, status-signaling component that enhances people's sense of competence. For instance, an employee recognition award could be seen as either the reason why an employee worked so hard in a given month (i.e. to win the award) or could be seen simply as a recognition of the employee's performance in general. If an extrinsic reward for some behavior appears to be controlling (i.e. the reason a person plausibly performed that behavior), this is argued to supplant intrinsic motivation for engaging in the behavior. Insofar, however, as the extrinsic incentive is seen not as an inducement but rather as a signal of high status or high achievement in general (e.g. a merit-based award), the incentive will engender more effort without crowding out motivation. On this account, then, the extent to which a given extrinsic incentive crowds out motivation is determined by the balance of the controlling versus status-signaling nature of the awards as perceived by the actor. ### Attributional theories The application of self-perception theory to motivation suggests that people sometimes form post-behavior judgments about the causes of their actions by considering the external circumstances of their decision. While intrinsic motivation for doing the activity might be a cause, the presence of an extrinsic reward could also be sufficient for explaining a behavior. The overjustification account of motivational crowding, most prominently advanced by Lepper et al., argues that people recognize the presence of a significant extrinsic incentive, attribute their motivation for doing the rewarded activity to the reward itself, and consequently lower their feelings of intrinsic motivation toward the activity. Thus, they infer, if effort for engaging in a task becomes too onerous or if an extrinsic reward is removed, people feel less internally motivated to engage in the task compared to those who were never offered a reward for doing so. ### Behavioral theories Various attempts have been made by behaviorists to explain the apparent phenomenon of crowding out in terms of reward conditioning. Behaviors that are typically thought to be intrinsically motivated, these theories argue, are actually motivated by the social praise they tend to engender. Dickinson argues that part of the reason why these behaviors are socially praised is precisely because they are not connected with any particular reinforcers. When a person helps someone else, he argues, he receives praise in part because there does not seem to be any specific private incentive for doing helping. Thus, the introduction of a specific reinforcer such as an extrinsic reward lowers the public praise, Dickinson argues. If the loss of praise is larger than the size of the specific reinforcer, she argues, then free-choice selection of that behavior will decrease. Hence, what appears as crowding out of intrinsic motivation can instead be explained, according to these theories, by shifting perceptions and incentives. ### Economic utility theories Some have argued that certain utility functions can be modeled to explain crowding out. Bénabou and Tirole, for instance, have theoretically established that crowding out can reliably occur if an agent's utility function for some behavior is composed of three things: intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and image-signaling concerns. #### Signals to actors In a context of uncertainty or information asymmetry, rewards can signal important information to the actor. If the person offering the reward (the "principal") is presumed to know something more about the task than the person to engage in the activity (the "agent"), then offering an extrinsic reward can be seen as revealing the principal's distrust as to whether or not the action would be taken without the inducement. In this view, offering a reward is a signal that either the principal knows the task is unpleasant and otherwise would not be completed, or that the principal does not trust that the agent is sufficiently motivated without such incentives. On either interpretation, agents are understood to infer something negative about the activity which lowers their willingness to engage in it without additional incentive. An implication of this view is that, under certain conditions, crowding in might occur. If an activity were valued poorly by an agent, an especially high premium offered might signal to the agent that this task is more valuable than the agent previously considered. #### Signals to observers about actors' motivations Additionally, the presence or absence of extrinsic incentives can be interpreted by observers as signals of an agent's motivations for engaging in some activity. To the extent that agents are concerned with cultivating an image as an altruist, the presence of extrinsic incentives can lower interest in engaging in some task that might signal non-altruistic motives. Compatible with these findings are studies showing that the effect of crowding out is greater in the case when extrinsic incentives are known publicly compared to when they are known only to the actor but not to observers. ## Debate and meta-analyses Controversy was ignited when some researchers questioned whether the data support claims that motivation crowding actually occurs. Meta-analyses revealed mixed or even null overall effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. However, these meta-analyses have been questioned, especially for their treatment of dependent measures and failure to account for moderating variables (e.g. the kind of reward or class of dependent measure). Other meta-analyses have concluded that, once these factors are properly controlled for, motivation crowding for certain behaviors is a robust effect for certain kinds of rewards. Through the debate, consensus seems to have emerged that crowding out reliably occurs if the following conditions are met: - Rewards are offered in the context of pre-existing intrinsic motivation (e.g. in a pro-social setting or for interesting tasks). - Rewards are known in advance and expected. - Rewards are tangible. ## Applications People have proposed using the insights of motivational crowding theory to change reward structures at work, in schools, for government policies, non-profits, and at home. The basic phenomenon of incentives undermining motivation, effort, and output has been demonstrated in populations of children, college students, adults, and workers, both in the lab and in the field. Crowding out has been shown to occur in teacher performance-based pay, temporary workers' effort in commission-based pay structures, charitable giving, and student scholastic performance. The collection of this evidence has led some economists to call for rethinking how governments and charitable organizations that rely on volunteers use incentives and pay-for-performance schemes. ## See also - Burnout - Motivation - Self-determination theory - Self-perception theory - Backward bending supply of labor
30,830,334	Fracture (Fringe)	1,126,879,256	null	[ "2009 American television episodes", "Fringe (season 2) episodes" ]	"Fracture" is the third episode of the second season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe. The episode followed the Fringe team's investigation into a man who mysteriously hardens and then explodes, killing those around him. The case leads them to a secret government project and an AWOL colonel. The episode was written by David Wilcox, and was directed by Bryan Spicer. "Fracture" was the third of a four-episode plot arc called the "gun arc", which focused on Olivia's physical and mental recovery from the season premiere. It featured guest actors Kevin Corrigan and Stephen McHattie. "Fracture" first broadcast in the United States on October 1, 2009 on the Fox network to an estimated 6.21 million viewers. It received generally mixed reviews from critics. ## Plot In Philadelphia, an on-duty cop gets a call from a man he calls "Colonel" to pick up a briefcase at Suburban Station. As he does so, a nearby pulse causes electronics to gain static, and his body becomes hardened. He explodes, killing eleven people and injuring others with his hardened body parts. Initially thinking the explosion was caused by a bomb, the Fringe team arrives to investigate, and discover that instead of a bomb, the cop's body parts killed the others. A further autopsy reveals needle marks between the cop's toes, and they realize he was injecting some type of drug every day for at least a year. While Peter and Olivia interview his wife, Olivia gets sick with flashes of crossing to the parallel universe, and accidentally discovers the drugs the cop was injecting. The cop had served in Iraq a year previously, and was involved in a secret military experiment called "Project Tin Man". Peter tells them they can find the project's doctors, and he and Olivia travel to Iraq. Peter learns from an old acquaintance the identity of one of the Iraqi doctors; he tells them the project was meant to cure soldiers exposed to a fatal chemical, but it failed to work, instead turning remaining survivors into human bombs. An AWOL colonel, Raymond Gordon, was opposed to ending the project; Peter and Olivia suspect he is behind the cop's explosion, and caused the deaths by emitting a radio signal. They find a list of names from the experiment, the victim in the train station being one of them. They return to find the surviving members, and are able to prevent the next subject, Diane Burgess, from exploding after she is contacted by Gordon to take a briefcase at a train station. Peter and Olivia find Gordon (Stephen McHattie) at the station, and bring him into custody; the man suggests the bombs were intended to eliminate agents working for the Observer. In a side plot, Olivia and Sam Weiss continue to meet at the bowling alley, where he subjects her to seemingly menial tasks like tying her shoes and keeping score during games. Although initially finding their conversations useless, he cures Olivia's inability to walk without a cane by the end of the episode. ## Production Co-executive producer David Wilcox wrote the episode, and filmmaker Bryan Spicer directed it. According to producers Ashley Edward Miller and Zack Stentz, "Fracture" was the third episode in the "gun arc", which involved Olivia gradually recovering from the wounds sustained in the premiere enough to be able to wield a gun and fight the shapeshifters. Sound editor Bruce Tanis explained the production of sound that went into the episode in an interview with Designing Sound: > "In 'Fracture', the villain has created a serum which several characters inject because of a type of post-hypnotic suggestion. He has invented a frequency generator which causes these people to crystallize and then explode. In one of the best scenes all season, Walter and Astrid are in the lab and, using a watermelon for their experiments, are able to determine the exact frequency that the villain’s generator operates on. It was something like 68.7 megacycles (I don’t recall exactly), so I used the signal generator plugin and created some tones that started out as 68.7 megacycles. They were simply low-frequency tones on their own so I processed them so that they warbled and chorused and were a bit more mysterious than the straight tone. It ended up being pretty subtle for television, but when Walter identifies the tone as a certain frequency, that’s what’s actually playing." Actor John Noble noted that in the episode, "We see [Olivia] broken down. And it's kind of frightening to see our heroine who's carried the series basically... Suddenly she can't move, she can't even load her gun". "Fracture" marked the first and only guest appearance by actor Stephen McHattie as Colonel Raymond Gordon, as well as another appearance by previous guest actor Kevin Corrigan as Sam Weiss. ## Cultural references The episode featured the song "The Air That I Breathe" by The Hollies, as well as music from Roy Orbison, Les Paul, and The Marshall Tucker Band. Olivia makes a reference to Star Wars when she says, "Cut the Yoda crap and tell me what's happening to me". Peter mentions that his father taught him human reproduction using a jigsaw puzzle of "Ms. July", a reference to a glamour photography shot of an unknown Playboy model used in calendars to differentiate each month of the year. ## Reception ### Ratings The episode was initially watched by an estimated 6.21 million viewers in the United States, and scored a 2.3/6 rating share among viewers 18–49 and 3.7/6 for all households. After time shifted viewing was taken into account, Fringe was among the shows with the biggest increase, as its 18–49 rating rose 30 percent to score 3.9. ### Reviews Reviews of the episode tended to be mixed. Noel Murray from The Onion's The A.V. Club graded the episode with a D+, writing that "Unlike the previous two weeks’ episodes, which juggled a number of storylines and locations and generated a real sense of Fringe’s expanding milieu, 'Fracture' is so curtailed that it almost feels like it was made for the Fox accountants. The cast is small, the sets are few, and not much happens. The plot’s practically twist-free, until the very end. Large chunks of the episode are given over to Peter talking to Walter about finding a new place for them to live, and Walter trying to learn more about Astrid—and really not discovering much, except that she doesn’t like it when he experiments on fruit. So Astrid’s underused yet again, even in an episode where she gets a lot of lines... The story's too simple and the acting too broad, and yet the episode still felt choppy, as though the Fringe creative team had to scramble to fix 'Fracture' in post." Conversely, IGN's Ramsey Isler viewed the episode more positively, and rated it 7.9/10. He explained it "deserves praise for doing a lot of things well," and lauded the actors' performances, the props, the direction, and cinematography. Despite however finding Walter less entertaining than the previous season, and believing the first half of the episode moved too slowly and resembled "an ordinary procedural crime show," Isler enjoyed the ending for "[bringing] it all together and [making] the previous 90% worthwhile". After watching the episode, MTV columnist Josh Wigler "declared [his] fondness" for Joshua Jackson, stating the actor had "won [him] over thanks to Peter's central role in these first few episodes of Fringe's" second season". Wigler continued that it was "an excellent mystery-of-the-week episode to be sure, though I'm really itching for more details on the alternate reality. Luckily, that's supposed to come next week with the return of Nimoy's William Bell, which makes tonight's less mythology-oriented outing easier to swallow. Plus, the end reveal with the Observer was pretty spicy, to say the least."
196,978	Tennessee-class battleship	1,157,547,389	Dreadnought battleship class of the United States Navy	[ "Battleship classes", "Tennessee-class battleships", "Turbo-electric steamships", "World War II battleships of the United States" ]	The Tennessee class consisted of two super-dreadnought battleships—Tennessee and California—built for the United States Navy in the late 1910s, part of the "standard" series. The class was in most respects a repeat of the preceding New Mexico class, with the primary improvements being a significantly strengthened underwater protection system, and increased elevation of the main battery guns to allow them to fire at much greater ranges. They carried the same main battery of twelve 14-inch (356 mm) guns in four triple turrets, and had the same top speed of 21 knots (39 km/h; 24 mph). Both ships served in the Pacific Fleet for the duration of their careers, which included an extensive training program during the interwar period of the 1920s and 1930s. Both ships were present in Battleship Row in Pearl Harbor when the Japanese attacked on 7 December 1941; California was torpedoed and sunk but Tennessee was only minimally damaged. California was refloated and both ships were heavily rebuilt between 1942 and 1944. The pair thereafter saw extensive service as bombardment vessels supporting the island-hopping campaign across the central Pacific. Tennessee took part in the Aleutian Islands campaign in mid-1943, the Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign in late 1943 and early 1944, and the Mariana and Palau Islands campaign in mid-1944, by which time California had returned to the fleet as well. They both took part in the Philippines campaign in late 1944, and were present at the Battle of Surigao Strait on 24 October, the final battleship engagement in history. A refit for Tennessee kept her from participating in the Battle of Lingayen Gulf in January 1945, where California was hit by a kamikaze, which in turn kept her from supporting Marine Corps troops during the Battle of Iwo Jima. Tennessee was heavily engaged in the fighting there and the subsequent Battle of Okinawa, where she, too, was hit by a kamikaze. The two ships spent the rest of the war patrolling the East China Sea until the official Japanese surrender in September. After briefly participating in the occupation of Japan, they were recalled to the United States and assigned to the Atlantic Reserve Fleet. They remained there until 1959, when they were sold for scrap. ## Design Design work on the Tennessee class, initially referred to as "Battleship 1916", began on 14 January 1915; the design staff used the preceding New Mexico class as a starting point. The General Board wanted to build a battleship that departed from the standard-type battleship series, particularly in terms of armor protection against the latest 15-inch (381 mm) guns being fielded by European navies. They were opposed to simply developing the standard series, which incorporated relatively minor incremental improvements, but Secretary of the Navy, Josephus Daniels, overruled them and ordered that "Battleship 1916" would effectively repeat the New Mexico design with limited improvements. At the same time that European navies had begun to adopt larger guns, they also began to develop longer-ranged torpedoes that could reach well into the expected battle distances of the day, 10,000 to 14,000 yards (9,100 to 12,800 m). Therefore, the new ship's ability to resist underwater attack—naval mines in addition to torpedoes—became a chief concern of the designers. To ensure the ship could survive an underwater explosion, they decided to incorporate four torpedo bulkheads, which created four voids. Of these, the inner pair would be filled with either water or fuel oil, which would absorb the pressure and gas of the explosion. This system proved to be effective and it was used in many subsequent battleship designs. The ships were authorized on 3 March 1915, while design work was still ongoing; tests on the torpedo bulkhead system were completed only in February 1916. In the meantime, work had already begun on the next class, initially designated "Battleship 1917", which became the Colorado class. This class was essentially a repeat of the Tennessee design, the only major change was the adoption of larger 16 in (406 mm) guns in place of the 14 in (356 mm) guns the Tennessees carried. The turbo-electric drive propulsion system that was developed for the Colorados was retroactively applied to Tennessee and California in December 1915, before construction had begun on either vessel. ### General characteristics and machinery The Tennessee-class ships were 600 feet (182.9 m) long at the waterline, 624 ft (190.2 m) long overall, had a beam of 97 ft 5 in (29.7 m), and a draft of 30 ft 2 in (9.2 m). They displaced 32,300 long tons (32,818 t) standard, and 33,190 long tons (33,723 t) at full combat load. Under emergency conditions, additional fuel and ammunition could be stored, which significantly increased displacement to 37,948 long tons (38,557 t), which accordingly deepened draft to 34 feet 9.875 inches (10.6 m). The ships' hulls featured a pronounced clipper bow to handle high seas and reduce spray. A double bottom extended for the full length of the ships, and their hulls featured extensive compartmentalization to reduce the risk of uncontrollable flooding; below the waterline, the hull had 768 compartments and another 180 above the line. The main deck, the highest deck that extended for the entire length of the ship, contained much of the living space for their crews, which included 57 officers and 1,026 enlisted men. As built, they were fitted with two lattice masts with spotting tops for the main gun battery. Steering was controlled by a single balanced rudder. The ships were powered by turbo-electric drive. Eight oil-fired Babcock & Wilcox water-tube boilers generated steam that powered two Westinghouse turbo-electric generators that in turn provided power for four electric motors that drove four 3-bladed, 14-foot (4.3 m) screws. The turbines were in separate watertight compartments, arranged fore and aft, with four boilers apiece; each boiler had its own watertight boiler rooms, with two boilers on either side of the turbines. The motors were arranged in three rooms: a larger, central room for the two engines driving the inboard shafts, and one for each outboard shaft on either side. Each set of four boilers was ducted into its own funnel. Their propulsion systems were rated at 28,600 shaft horsepower (21,300 kW), generating a top speed of 21 knots (39 km/h; 24 mph). On speed trials, Tennessee reached a maximum of 21.38 knots (39.60 km/h; 24.60 mph) from 29,609 shp (22,079 kW). Normal oil storage amounted to 1,900 long tons (1,930 t), but voids in the hull could be used to increase maximum emergency fuel capacity to 4,656 long tons (4,731 t). They had a cruising range of 8,000 nautical miles (15,000 km; 9,200 mi) at a speed of 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph), which fell to 2,500 nautical miles (4,600 km; 2,900 mi) at 20 knots (37 km/h; 23 mph) normally; with full emergency oil their range more than doubled, to 20,500 nautical miles (38,000 km; 23,600 mi) at 10 knots and 9,700 nautical miles (18,000 km; 11,200 mi) at 18 knots (33 km/h; 21 mph). ### Armament The ships were armed with a main battery of twelve 14-inch (356 mm) /50 caliber Mark IV guns in four triple turrets, placed on the centerline in superfiring pairs forward and aft of the superstructure. Unlike earlier American battleships with triple turrets, these mounts allowed each barrel to elevate independently. Since Tennessee and California were laid down after the Battle of Jutland of mid-year 1916, which demonstrated the value of very long-range plunging fire, their main battery turrets were modified while still under construction to allow elevation to 30 degrees. This provided a maximum range of 35,100 yards (32,100 m) with the standard 1,500-pound (680 kg) armor-piercing shell, which was fired with a muzzle velocity of 2,625 ft/s (800 m/s). With the lighter 1,275 lb (578 kg) high-capacity shell, the muzzle velocity increased to 2,825 ft/s (861 m/s) for a correspondingly greater range of 36,650 yd (33,510 m). The guns suffered from excessive dispersion of shot, which was eventually discovered to have been caused by overly lengthy chambers, which allowed a gap between the shell and the propellant charges. The problem was eventually corrected with the Mark VII gun. The secondary battery consisted of fourteen 5-inch (127 mm) /51 caliber guns, ten of which were mounted in individual casemates clustered in the superstructure amidships at 01 deck level, one deck higher than the main deck. Six of the guns were arranged to fire forward and four were pointed aft. The remaining four guns were placed in open pivot mounts another deck higher at 02 level; two were placed abreast the conning tower and the others placed on either side of the funnels. Initially, the ships were to have been fitted with twenty-two of the guns, but experiences in the North Sea during World War I demonstrated that the additional guns, which would have been placed in the hull, would have been unusable in anything but calm seas. As a result, the casemates were plated over to prevent flooding. The guns were the Mark VIII type, which had a muzzle velocity of 3,150 ft/s (960 m/s) firing a 50 lb (23 kg) shell. The battleships carried four 3-inch (76 mm)/50 caliber Mark X guns for anti-aircraft defense. These guns were located on the 02 deck, with two on either side of the boat cranes and the other two abreast of the mainmast. The guns fired a 13 lb (5.9 kg) shell at a velocity of 2,700 ft/s (820 m/s). They also carried a variety of other guns, including four 6-pounder saluting guns and a 3-inch Mark XI field gun and several machine guns for use by landing parties. In addition to their gun armament, the Tennessee-class ships were also fitted with a pair of 21-inch (533 mm) torpedo tubes, with one mounted submerged in the hull on each broadside. They were supplied with Bliss-Leavitt torpedoes of the Mark VII type; these carried a 321 lb (146 kg) warhead and had a range of 12,500 yd (11,400 m) at a speed of 27 kn (50 km/h; 31 mph). ### Armor Their main armored belt was 8–13.5 in (203–343 mm) thick and was approximately 18 ft (5.5 m) wide, half of which was above the waterline. The thicker armor protected the ships' vitals, including the ammunition magazines and propulsion machinery spaces, extending from the forwardmost barbette to the aftmost barbette; the stern received lighter armor plating. Both ends of the main belt were capped by armored transverse bulkheads that were 13.5 in thick. The main armored deck was up to 3.5 in (89 mm) thick, and it was connected to the top of the main belt, running between the transverse armored bulkheads. A second armor deck that was 2.5 in (64 mm) thick was placed below the main deck; further aft, where it constituted the only horizontal protection, it increased in thickness to 5 in. On the ships' bows, the lower armor deck was increased to 3 in. The main battery gun turrets had 18 in (457 mm) thick faces, 10 in (254 mm) thick sides, 9 in (229 mm) rears, and 5 in (127 mm) roofs; teak backing was used to cushion the structures from shell impacts. The turrets were mounted atop 13 in (330 mm) barbettes. Their conning towers had 16 in (406 mm) thick sides with 6 in (152 mm) thick roofs. The armored coamings for the funnel uptakes were 9 in thick. ### Modifications The Tennessees underwent a series of minor modifications to their secondary and anti-aircraft armament through the 1920s and 1930s. In 1922, Tennessee had the two 5-inch guns abreast the mainmast removed and four more 3-inch guns installed, two of which were placed where the 5-inch guns had been. The other two were placed behind the forward 5-inch mounts. All eight guns were removed in 1928 and replaced with eight 5-inch /25 caliber anti-aircraft guns. California was similarly rearmed during a refit in 1929–1930. Eight .50 caliber machine guns were added, six to the roofs of the spotting tops, two on the foremast and four on the mainmast. The other two guns were placed on pedestals on either side of the foremast. Tennessee had two of the 3-inch guns returned in 1940, placed on either side of the bridge wings. Other changes included the installation of aircraft-handling equipment. California had an aircraft catapult installed on her aft superfiring turret and she received three Vought UO-1 seaplanes for reconnaissance and fire direction. Two years later, Tennessee was similarly modified, though her catapult was located on the fantail. In the early 1930s, she received a second catapult on her aft turret, and at some point California also had a catapult fitted to her fantail. During their 1943 reconstruction, the turret-mounted catapults were removed and both ships were fitted with just a catapult on the fantail. Both ships were extensively reconstructed and modernized after being damaged during the attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941. New anti-torpedo bulges were installed and their internal compartmentalization was improved to strengthen their resistance to underwater damage. The ships' superstructures were completely revised, with the old heavily armored conning tower being removed and a smaller tower was erected in its place to reduce interference with the anti-aircraft guns' fields of fire. The new towers had been removed from one of the Brooklyn-class cruisers that had recently been rebuilt. The foremast was replaced with a tower mast that housed the bridge and the main battery director, and their second funnels were removed, with those boilers being trunked into an enlarged forward funnel. Horizontal protection was considerably strengthened to improve their resistance to air attack; 3 inches of special treatment steel (STS) was added to the deck over the magazines and 2 inches (51 mm) of STS was added elsewhere. Their weapons suite was also overhauled. Both ships received air-search radar and fire-control radars for their main and secondary batteries, the latter seeing the mixed battery of 51-caliber and 25-caliber 5-inch guns replaced by a uniform battery of sixteen 5-inch/38 caliber guns in eight twin mounts. These were controlled by four Mk 37 directors. The light anti-aircraft battery was again revised, now consisting of ten quadruple 40 mm (1.6 in) Bofors guns and forty-three 20 mm Oerlikons, all in single mounts. The changes doubled the ships' crew, to a total of 114 officers and 2,129 enlisted men. During her final refit in January 1945, Tennessee received an SP air search radar and a Mark 27 fire control radar. ## Ships in class ## Service history ### Prewar careers and Pearl Harbor Tennessee and California served in the Pacific Fleet, later renamed the Battle Fleet in 1922 and then the Battle Force in 1931, in the Pacific Ocean for duration of their peacetime careers, with California serving as the fleet flagship. She spent the 1920s and 1930s participating in routine fleet training exercises, including the annual Fleet Problems, and cruises around the Americas and further abroad, such as a goodwill visit to Australia and New Zealand in 1925. The fleet problems conducted in the 1920s and 1930s provided the basis for the US Navy's operations in the Pacific War, and experience that demonstrated that the standard type battleships were too slow to operate with aircraft carriers led to the development of the fast battleships built in the 1930s. Joint training with the Marine Corps provided experience that proved to be useful during the island hopping campaign during the Pacific War. In November 1924, Lieutenant Dixie Kiefer took off from California, the first night aircraft launch in history. While in Long Beach, California, the ships sent crewmen ashore to assist with relief after the 1933 Long Beach earthquake. During a period of rising tensions with Japan over the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1940, President Franklin D. Roosevelt ordered the Battle Force to relocate from its homeport in San Pedro, California, to Pearl Harbor in Hawaii in an effort to deter further aggression. Modernization work for the ships that was scheduled for 1940 and 1941 was cancelled, as was the fleet problem for 1941, as the situation with Japan was approaching a crisis and the Navy determined that the fleet needed to be maintained at a high state of readiness. Nevertheless, when the Japanese attacked the fleet at Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941, they did so having achieved complete surprise. Totally unprepared for the surprise attack, both ships were anchored in Battleship Row, where California was sunk in shallow water. Tennessee, moored inboard of the battleship West Virginia and thus protected from torpedo attacks, emerged relatively undamaged, though fires from other ships had warped some of her hull plates and necessitated repairs. She was also trapped when West Virginia sank and came to rest up against Tennessee, forcing her up against the concrete quay. ### World War II After being freed from Battleship Row, Tennessee steamed to the Puget Sound Navy Yard, where the initial modernization program began. California was raised from the harbor bottom in mid-1942 and taken to Puget Sound as well, where she was rebuilt, beginning in October. By that time, Tennessee had returned to service with her upgraded light anti-aircraft battery, but she saw no active operations owing to the crippling fuel shortage in the Pacific at the time. The Navy decided that she should be rebuilt along the same lines as California, so she returned to Puget Sound to be reconstructed. Tennessee was completed first, returning to the fleet in May 1943 in time to participate in the Aleutian Islands campaign, thus beginning her career as a naval gunfire support vessel during the island-hopping campaign against Japan. In this role, she conducted preparatory bombardments to destroy Japanese defensive positions and provided support to marine and Army ground forces as they fought their way ashore, suppressing Japanese defenders and targeting defensive strongpoints. Tennessee thereafter deployed to the central Pacific to take part in the Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign, beginning with the Battle of Tarawa in November. The Battles of Kwajalein and Eniwetok followed in early 1944, by which time work on California had been completed. While California was still conducting sea trials, Tennessee next took part in the final stages of Operation Cartwheel by bombarding Kavieng as a diversionary attack. California was ready for service in time for the Mariana and Palau Islands campaign in mid-1944, and both ships shelled Japanese positions on Saipan, Tinian, and Guam. The two ships collided while en route to the last target in the campaign, Peleliu, which prevented California from participating in the Battle of Peleliu, though Tennessee remained in action. During the fighting on Tinian, Tennessee was hit by Japanese field artillery and slightly damaged. Both ships had been repaired in time to participate in the next major offensive, the Philippines campaign that began with the invasion of Leyte in October 1944. Both vessels supported the landing, which triggered the Japanese to launch Operation Shō-Gō 1, a major naval counterattack that resulted in the Battle of Leyte Gulf on 23–26 October. California and Tennessee, as part of the bombardment group under Rear Admiral Jesse B. Oldendorf, took part in one component of the complex battle, the action of Surigao Strait, on the night of 24/25 October. There, the Allied fleet destroyed the Japanese Southern Force consisting of a pair of old battleships, one heavy cruiser, and four destroyers; only one Japanese destroyer escaped the overwhelming Allied fleet. California and Tennessee fired only briefly during the engagement, as a miscommunication between their commanders almost led to another collision, which threw them out of firing position. They were nevertheless present for the last battleship engagement in history. California continued operations off the Philippines, though Tennessee was recalled for a refit at Puget Sound. During the Battle of Lingayen Gulf in January 1945, California was hit by a kamikaze suicide plane, though she shot down a second attacker. She was not seriously damaged, but her crew suffered heavy casualties, with over 50 killed and more than 150 wounded. She returned to Puget Sound for repairs, by which time work on Tennessee was completed, allowing her to return to combat off Iwo Jima in early February. She provided heavy fire support, targeting Mount Suribachi before and during the Battle of Iwo Jima, before proceeding to Okinawa to conduct the preparatory bombardment of this island for the coming invasion. She operated off the island for the next month; during the Battle of Okinawa, where the Japanese made repeated and heavy kamikaze attacks on the Allied fleet, Tennessee was hit by one suicide aircraft on 12 April that did little damage but killed more than twenty and wounded more than a hundred. She was detached to Ulithi for repairs that were completed by early June, when she returned to the fighting off Okinawa. Tennessee was joined shortly thereafter by California, though by then the fighting ashore was in its final stages. The two ships were then assigned to Task Force 95, which was charged with patrolling the East China Sea, with Tennessee as the flagship of its commander, Vice Admiral Oldendorf. They supported the initial occupation of Japan in September before being sent home to the United States later that month. Now too wide to fit through the Panama Canal as a result of their 1943 reconstructions, they were forced to return to the east coast of the United States by way of the Indian and Atlantic Oceans. There, they were decommissioned and assigned to the Atlantic Reserve Fleet, based in Philadelphia. Both battleships were stricken from the Naval Vessel Register in March 1959, sold for scrap on 10 July, and thereafter broken up.
220,613	John Boydell	1,155,792,790	British publisher of engravings (1720–1804)	[ "1720 births", "1804 deaths", "18th-century lord mayors of London", "Businesspeople from Shropshire", "People educated at Merchant Taylors' School, Northwood", "People from Hawarden", "Publishers (people) from London", "Sheriffs of the City of London" ]	John Boydell (/ˈbɔɪdəl/; 19 January 1720 (New Style) – 12 December 1804) was a British publisher noted for his reproductions of engravings. He helped alter the trade imbalance between Britain and France in engravings and initiated a British tradition in the art form. A former engraver himself, Boydell promoted the interests of artists as well as patrons and as a result his business prospered. The son of a land surveyor, Boydell apprenticed himself to William Henry Toms, an artist he admired, and learned engraving. He established his own business in 1746 and published his first book of engravings around the same time. Boydell did not think much of his own artistic efforts and eventually started buying the works of others, becoming a print dealer as well as an artist. He became a successful importer of French prints during the 1750s but was frustrated by their refusal to trade prints in kind. To spark reciprocal trade, he commissioned William Wollett's spectacular engraving of Richard Wilson's The Destruction of the Children of Niobe, which revolutionised the print trade. Ten years later, largely as a result of Boydell's initiative, the trade imbalance had shifted, and he was named a fellow of the Royal Society for his efforts. In the 1790s, Boydell began a large Shakespeare venture that included the establishment of a Shakespeare Gallery, the publication of an illustrated edition of Shakespeare's plays, and the release of a folio of prints depicting scenes from Shakespeare's works. Some of the most illustrious painters of the day contributed, such as Benjamin West and Henry Fuseli. Throughout his life, Boydell dedicated time to civic projects: he donated art to government institutions and ran for public office. In 1790 he became Lord Mayor of London. The French Revolutionary Wars led to a cessation in Continental trade at the end of the 1790s. Without this business, Boydell's firm declined and he was almost bankrupt at his death in 1804. ## Early years Boydell was born, according to his monument in St Olave Old Jewry, London, (later removed to St Margaret Lothbury after St Olave's demolition) at Dorrington, in the parish of Woore, Shropshire, to Josiah and Mary Boydell (née Milnes) and was educated at least partially at Merchant Taylors' School. His father was a land surveyor and young Boydell, the oldest of seven children, was expected to follow in his footsteps. In 1731, when Boydell was eleven, the family moved to Hawarden, Flintshire. In 1739 he became house steward to MP John Lawton and accompanied him to London. A year later, like many other enterprising young men of the time, Boydell resolved to sail to the East Indies in hopes of making his fortune, but he abandoned the scheme in favour of returning to Flintshire and Elizabeth Lloyd, the woman he was courting. Whether or not he intended to pursue land surveying at this time is unclear. In either 1740 or 1741, Boydell saw a print of Hawarden Castle by William Henry Toms and was so delighted with it that he immediately set out again for London to learn printmaking and Lloyd promised to wait for him. Boydell apprenticed himself to Toms and enrolled in St Martin's Lane Academy to learn drawing. Each day he worked about fourteen hours for Toms and then attended drawing classes at night. After six years, Boydell's diligence allowed him to buy out the last year of his apprenticeship, and in 1746 he set up an independent shop on the Strand that specialised in topographical prints that cost six pence for a cheap print or one shilling for an expensive print. Boydell's willingness to assume responsibility for his own business so early in his career indicates that he had ambition and an enterprising spirit. Independent shops were risky in the 1740s because no strict copyright laws, other than the Engraving Copyright Act of 1734 (known as "Hogarth's Act"), had yet been instituted. The pirating of published books and prints became a profession in its own right and greatly decreased the profits of publishers such as Boydell. Around 1747, Boydell published his first major work, The Bridge Book, for which he drew and cut each print himself. It cost one shilling and contained six landscapes in each of which, not surprisingly, a bridge featured prominently. A year later, in 1748, Boydell, apparently financially secure, married Elizabeth Lloyd. The couple did not have any children and Elizabeth died in 1781. Boydell realised early in his career that his engravings had little artistic merit, saying later that they were collected by others "more to show the improvement of art in this country [Britain], since the period of their publication, than from any idea of their own merits". This may explain why in 1751, when he became a member of the Stationers' Company, he started buying other artists' plates and publishing them in addition to his own. Ordinarily an engraver, such as William Hogarth, had his own shop or took his finished engravings to a publisher. In adopting the dual role of artist and print dealer, Boydell altered the traditional organisation of print shops. He was not subject to the whims of public taste: if his engravings did not sell well, he could supplement his earnings by trading in the prints of other artists. He also understood the concerns of both the engraver and the publisher. In fact, as a publisher, he did much to help raise the level of respect for engravers in addition to furnishing them with better paying commissions. ## Success In 1751, with his large volume of prints, Boydell moved to larger premises at 90 Cheapside. By 1755, he had published A Collection of One Hundred and Two Views, &C. in England and Wales. This cheap but successful book gave him capital to invest. He became increasingly immersed in the commercial side of the print business and like most print dealers began importing prints to sell. These included print reproductions of landscapes by artists such as Claude Lorrain and Salvator Rosa. The bulk of the imports came from the undisputed masters of engraving during the 18th century: the French. Boydell made a small fortune in the 1750s from these imported prints. His early success was acknowledged in 1760 when he was accepted as a member of the Society of Arts. Winifred Friedman, who has written extensively on Boydell, explains that despite this success, "[w]hat rankled Boydell was that the French would not extend credit, or exchange prints; he was required to produce hard cash. Boydell took action, and this was the turning point." In 1761, Boydell decided that he would attempt to trade with the French in kind—something they had refused in the past because of the poor quality of British engravings. To inaugurate this change, he had to have a truly spectacular print. To this end, he hired William Woollett, the foremost engraver in England, to engrave Richard Wilson's Destruction of the Children of Niobe. Woollett had already successfully engraved Claude Lorrain's 1663 painting The Father of Psyche Sacrificing at the Temple of Apollo for Boydell in 1760. Boydell paid him approximately £100 for the Niobe engraving, a staggering amount compared to the usual rates. This single act of patronage raised engravers' fees throughout London. The print was wildly successful, but more importantly, the French accepted it as payment in kind. In fact, it was the first British print actively desired on the Continent. By 1770, the British were exporting far more prints than they were importing, largely due to Boydell. Boydell's business flourished and he soon hired his nephew, Josiah Boydell, to assist him. Boydell's biographer, Sven Bruntjen, hypothesizes that one of the reasons for Boydell's early and phenomenal success was his specialisation. Unlike "his competitors [who sold manuals, atlases and other assorted books] ... his [business had an] almost exclusive concentration on the sale of reproductive prints". Bruntjen argues that "despite the extensive sales of varied types of reproductive prints, it was the contemporary history print which accounted for the major part of Boydell's success as a print dealer". Most notable among these was the Death of General Wolfe a 1770 painting by Benjamin West, engraved by Woollett for Boydell in 1776. As early as 1767, Boydell had stopped engraving prints himself and began exclusively relying on commissions and trades and it was from these that he profited. Boydell had opened up a new market with Niobe and he quickly followed up this success. With a prospering business and capital in reserve, he embarked on several ambitious projects, often simultaneously. In 1769, he began A Collection of Prints, Engraved after the Most Capital Paintings in England. Its last, and ninth volume, was finished in 1792 to great critical and financial success. In 1773, he began A Set of Prints Engraved after the Most Capital Paintings in the Collection of Her Imperial Majesty the Empress of Russia, Lately in the Possession of the Earl of Orford at Houghton in Norfolk, which was finished in 1788. In addition to these projects and in the middle of his Shakespeare undertaking Boydell experimented with aquatint in An History of the River Thames, published in 1796. Bruntjen writes, "although not the first colored aquatint book, [it] was the first major one, and it was to set an example for the type of illustration that was to enjoy widespread popularity in England for some forty years". Boydell also published The Original Work of William Hogarth in 1790 and The Poetical Works of John Milton and The Life of the Poet (i.e., Milton) in 1794. The productivity and profitability of Boydell's firm spurred the British print industry in general. By 1785, annual exports of British prints reached £200,000 while imports fell to £100. Boydell was acknowledged and praised throughout England as the agent of this stunning economic reversal. In 1773 he was awarded the Royal Academy Gold Medal for his services in advancing the print trade. In 1789, at the Royal Academy dinner, the Prince of Wales toasted "an English tradesman who patronizes art better than the Grand Monarque, Alderman Boydell, the Commercial Maecenas". ## Shakespeare venture Boydell's crowning achievement was his Shakespeare project, which was to occupy much of the last two decades of his life. The project contained three parts: an illustrated edition of Shakespeare's plays, a public gallery of paintings depicting scenes from the plays, and a folio of prints based on the paintings. The idea of a grand Shakespeare edition was conceived at a dinner at Josiah Boydell's home in November 1786. The guest list itself is evidence of Boydell's extensive connections in the artistic world: Benjamin West, painter to King George III; George Romney, a renowned painter; George Nicol, bookseller to the king and painter; William Hayley, a poet; John Hoole, a scholar and translator of Tasso and Aristotle; and Daniel Braithwaite, an engineer. Most sources also list the painter Paul Sandby. Although the initial idea for the edition was probably not Boydell's, he was the one to seize and pursue it. He wanted to use the edition to facilitate the development of a British school of history painting. The "magnificent and accurate" Shakespeare edition which Boydell began in 1786 was the focus of the enterprise. The print folio and the gallery were simply offshoots of the main project. In an advertisement prefacing the first volume of the edition, Nicol wrote that "splendor and magnificence, united with correctness of text were the great objects of this Edition". Boydell was responsible for the "splendor", and George Steevens, a renowned Shakespearean editor, was responsible for the "correctness of text". The volumes themselves were handsome, with gilded pages. Even the quality of the paper was extraordinarily high. The illustrations were printed independently and could be inserted and removed as the customer desired. The first volumes of the Dramatick Works were published in 1791 and the last in 1805. The edition was financed through a subscription campaign in which the buyers would offer partial payment up front and then pay the remaining sum on delivery. This practice was necessitated by the fact that over £350,000—an enormous sum at the time—was eventually spent on the enterprise. When it opened on 4 May 1789 at 52 Pall Mall, the Shakespeare Gallery contained 34 paintings and by the end of its run it had between 167 and 170. The Gallery itself was a hit with the public and became a fashionable attraction. It took over the public's imagination and became an end in and of itself. To illustrate the edition and to provide images for the folio, Boydell obtained the assistance of the most eminent painters and engravers of the day. Artists included Richard Westall, Thomas Stothard, George Romney, Henry Fuseli, Benjamin West, Angelica Kauffman, Robert Smirke, John Opie, and Boydell's nephew and business partner, Josiah Boydell. Among the engravers were Francesco Bartolozzi and Thomas Kirk. Boydell's relationships with his artists, particularly his illustrators, was generally congenial. James Northcote praised Boydell's liberal payments. He wrote in an 1821 letter that Boydell "did more for the advancement of the arts in England than the whole mass of the nobility put together! He paid me more nobly than any other person has done; and his memory I shall every hold in reverence". At the beginning of the enterprise, reactions were generally positive. Two reviews from the most influential newspapers in London at the time solidified and validated the public's interest in the project and the artists' efforts. However, there was also some criticism. In particular the satirical engraver James Gillray appears to have been peeved at not being commissioned to engrave any of the Shakespeare scenes and, in revenge, published Shakespeare Sacrificed: Or the Offering to Avarice just six weeks after the gallery opened. Gillray followed up with further cartoons such as Boydell sacrificing the Works of Shakespeare to the Devil of Money-Bags. As the project dragged on, the criticism increased. Yet, Boydell's project still inspired imitators. Thomas Macklin attempted to found a Poet's Gallery similar to the Shakespeare Gallery and several histories of England on the scale of the Shakespeare edition were also started. However, like Boydell's venture, they ultimately ended in financial disaster. The folio, which collected together the engravings from the paintings, has been the most lasting legacy of the Boydell enterprise: it was reissued throughout the 19th century and scholars have described it as a precursor to the modern coffee table book. ## Civic service Amidst all of the work generated by these publishing enterprises, Boydell still found time to be alderman of Cheap ward in 1782, master of the Stationers' Company in 1783, sheriff of London in 1785, and Lord Mayor of London in 1790. With both a dedicated civic spirit and an eye towards business promotion, Boydell took advantage of his public positions to advocate public and private patronage of the arts. He frequently donated paintings from his own collections to the Corporation of London to be hung in the Guildhall. He hoped that his donation might spur others to similar generosity. However, he remained a solitary contributor. A catalogue was published in 1794 listing all of the works Boydell had donated to the Guildhall. In the preface, he explained why he had made such large gifts: > It may be a matter of wonder to some, what enducements I could have to present the City of London with so many expensive Pictures; the principal reasons that influence me were these: First: to show my respect for the Corporation, and my Fellow Citizens, Secondly: to give pleasure to the Public, and Foreigners in general, Thirdly: to be of service to the Artists, by shewing their works to the greatest advantage: and, Fourthly: for the mere purpose of pleasing myself. In 1794 Boydell commissioned and donated Industry and Prudence by Robert Smirke. Most of the other works Boydell donated were similarly didactic. He was appealing to his fellow tradespeople and craftspeople with these gifts, a middle class which would have been only too pleased to see their values promoted by such a prominent figure. In a speech before the Council to advocate the renovation of a building for the purpose of displaying public art, Boydell made the striking claim that if the rich could be persuaded to patronise art, they would forgo their wicked ways: > one might be found amongst the many spendthrifts of the present age, instead of ruining themselves by gaming, or laying snares to debauch young Females, by their false promises and many other bad vices; would be rejoiced at such an opportunity, of reclaiming themselves by withdrawing from the snares laid for them by bad and designing Men and Women, who constantly lay wait to lead astray the young and unwary that are possessed of large property, such might here have the pleasure and satisfaction to make a real Paradise on earth, by illuminating a place that would for ever shine and display their generosity. Boydell's middle-class consumers would have approved of his connection between morality and art. ## Business decline, death, and legacy In 1789, the French revolution broke out and four years later war erupted between Britain and France. Throughout the next tumultuous decade, trade with Europe became increasingly difficult. As Boydell's business relied heavily on foreign trade, especially French, his livelihood was threatened. When this market was cut off due to war in 1793, Boydell's business declined substantially. He was forced to sell the Shakespeare Gallery, via a lottery, in order for his business to remain solvent. He died in December 1804 before the lottery was drawn, but after all of its 22,000 tickets had been sold. According to Josiah, John Boydell caught a cold by going to the Old Bailey on a damp, foggy day to do his duty as an alderman. He died on 12 December 1804 almost bankrupt, but not without great public acclaim. He was buried on 19 December 1804 at the Church of St. Olave Old Jewry, his funeral attended by the Lord Mayor, aldermen, and several artists. Boydell had, almost single-handedly, made British prints a viable economic commodity and had demolished the French domination of the trade. In a letter to Sir John Anderson, asking Parliament for the private Lottery Act to sell off the Shakespeare Gallery, Boydell stated that it was "sufficient to say, that the whole course of that commerce [print trade] is changed". The Times wrote on 7 May 1789: "Historical painting and engraving are almost exclusively indebted to Mr. Boydell for their present advancement." Boydell also played a part in changing the nature of art patronage in Britain. Until he advocated public patronage in his various civic posts, the government had little to do with British art. According to Bruntjen, "it was due to the enthusiasm of Boydell and others that the English government eventually provided funds for the establishment of the National Gallery in 1824". Boydell helped to make artists independent of aristocratic patronage by providing commercial opportunities for them. He "attempted to free artists from the traditional forms of state and aristocratic patronage by creating a public taste for reproductive prints of historical subjects". Boydell's entry in the Dictionary of National Biography ends with the assessment that "no print publisher before or since has ever exerted as much influence on the course of British art". Boydell's nephew and business partner, Josiah Boydell, continued his uncle's business for some time at 90 Cheapside, but by 1818, the business was wound up by Jane Boydell, and the assets purchased by Hurst, Robinson, and Co.
73,020,914	Perilous Realms	1,171,681,834	2005 Marjorie Burns book	[ "2005 non-fiction books", "Tolkien studies" ]	Perilous Realms: Celtic and Norse in Tolkien's Middle-earth is a 2005 scholarly book about the origins of J. R. R. Tolkien's Middle-earth, and the nature of his characterisation, by the scholar of literature Marjorie Burns. Some of the chapters discuss "Celtic" and "Norse" influence on Tolkien's writing, while others explore literary themes. The book won a Mythopoeic Award for Inklings' Studies in 2008. Reviewers have praised the book for helping to balance out earlier work on Middle-earth's Norse origins, for the way it shows the importance of "Celtic"-style crossings of rivers or gateways into Elvish and other realms, and for showing the fantasy author and Arts and Crafts advocate William Morris's influence on The Hobbit. Scholars have been less sure about the book's use of the shifting terms "Celtic" and "Norse", which are no longer used as they were in Tolkien's time. ## Publication history Perilous Realms was published in paperback by the University of Toronto Press in 2005. They brought out a second edition in 2015. ## Synopsis Marjorie Burns introduces the book with a chapter on "Two Norths", meaning the "Celtic" and the "Norse", noting the history of the idealised "North" with the Romantic movement. She looks at the skin-changer Beorn, one of several loner characters "on the side of good but who carry an aura of risk", tracing him to Sir Gawain and the Green Knight as well as to Beowulf. She comments that Tolkien is often more subtle than people think, offering "contrasting viewpoints" rather than a simple good-versus-evil story. The chapter on "Bridges, Gates, and Doors" examines the "Celtic" otherworld's influence, with crossings of rivers or other gateways (such as into the Barrow-wight's ancient abode) marking the descent into strange and Elvish realms. Burns then explores the influence of William Morris on Tolkien, proposing that his Icelandic Journals may have suggested the character of Bilbo Baggins. Returning to the theme of more complex characters with both good and bad sides, Burns notes in passing the pairing of Frodo with Gollum, or Théoden with Denethor. She suggests that Gandalf is an Odinic figure, taking on some of the attributes of that undependable Norse god, such as wandering in disguise as "an old man in a battered hat", while Galadriel borrows from "an impressive collection of influential [Celtic] figures" including the mother goddess Dana; the fertility goddess Rhiannon; and the battlefield goddesses like the Morrígan. She discusses, too, Galadriel's enchantress role, and compares her to the powerful Melian in The Silmarillion. Burns then looks at the apparently few women in Middle-earth; Burns notes that women may seem distant, but that both Elves and Hobbits "exhibit traits that are typically thought feminine", whether at "ethereal" or "earthly" levels, and his "most admirable males" have a softer side, whereas the "least desirable species" like Trolls and Orcs are "brutally male (and excessively Norse as well)". Burns discusses food as an aspect of character, writing that the Elves have a delicate vegetarian diet whereas Orc food is quite the opposite. Further, The Hobbit indicates Bilbo's fear of being eaten, and with his home Bag End's multiple kitchens, dining rooms, and pantries, his fear of not having enough to eat. She writes that he faces the risk of becoming a meal for, in turn "trolls, goblins, and Gollum; wolves, spiders, and Smaug, each of them mightily hungry". She looks, too, at the consuming emptiness of the monstrous figures in The Lord of the Rings, naming "Lobelia [Sackville-Baggins], Gollum, Wormtongue, Saruman, Denethor", Shelob, and the Dark Lord Sauron's "lonely, raging emptiness". ## Awards The book won a Mythopoeic Award in Inklings Studies in 2008. ## Reception C. W. Sullivan III, reviewing Perilous Realms for the Journal of Folklore Research, found it both praiseworthy and problematic. He liked Burns's discussion of the English prejudice against the Celts, and of Tolkien's dislike of frivolous post-Shakespeare fairies. He noted that many of the chapters were published as separate papers, so there was some repetition. He commented that she had failed to note the Celtic origin of Sir Gawain: the Irish Bricriu's Feast describes a beheading challenge much like that of Sir Gawain. He wondered, too, why the chapter on eating and devouring barely mentioned Celtic or Norse, when there were "certainly important scenes of feasting and devouring, selfishness and selflessness" in those traditions' stories. "But she had written a "valuable window into Tolkien's sources" and the way he blended "Celtic enchantment and Norse vitality", and the book was accessible to scholars and the public alike. Kathryn Stelmach, reviewing the book for Comitatus, found Burns's exploration of Norse "more compelling" than her "overly simplified" approach to the "Celtic" identity and the use of unreliable sources. Stelmach writes that both "Celtic" and "Norse" have a "complicated and shifting nexus ... of identity", and that Burns's introductory chapter gives the reader an impression of the two identities based more on language than on culture. Stelmach is happier with the "Norse" discussion, such as of Gandalf's Norse counterpart, Odin, as it is based on Tom Shippey's "solid grounding", while the analysis of the influence of the Icelandic Journals of William Morris on The Hobbit offers "rare insights". The folklorist Dimitra Fimi, in Tolkien Studies, writes that the book is mainly a collection of revised papers, with two new chapters, and that the focus is on Tolkien's created characters rather than the source analysis that its title might suggest. She finds Burns's introductory account of history "sometimes simplified" but a useful overview of the contested terms "Celtic" and "Teutonic" at Tolkien's time. She finds convincing Burns's argument that the "water barriers, the timelessness and the underground connotations of many Elvish realms in Middle-earth, such as Rivendell, Mirkwood and Lothlórien, come from ideas of the Celtic otherworld." She praises, too, the linking of William Morris to The Hobbit, writing that this "gave it much of its 'Northern' atmosphere." The two additional chapters, on male/female balance and on food, she finds somewhat out of place in the book, not least because they don't mention "Celtic or Norse sources or parallels". In sum, Fimi finds the book "thought-provoking and well researched", adding a "Celtic" balance to the mainly Norse emphasis of earlier scholars. She praises the analysis of Tolkien's characters and the book's freedom from "'defending' Tolkien". Fimi suggests that Burns had intended the book for the public rather than scholars as she uses "accessible language" and avoids the scholarly debate over "Celticity", preferring to use the terms of Tolkien's time. Faye Ringel, reviewing the book in Journal of the Fantastic in the Arts, calls it "a valuable, beautifully crafted addition to the study of Tolkien's sources and influences", with the proviso that people suspicious of any appearance of ideology in high fantasy may not agree with her discussion of gender and race. She comments that Burns responds indirectly to such critics by providing evidence in favour of Tolkien's approach, such as by presenting his own "complexity through double attitudes". She suggests that the book may serve as a "counterweight" to the popular and "nonce" books that appeared alongside Peter Jackson's films.
58,607,120	The Epic Split	1,163,244,700	2013 commercial by Volvo Trucks	[ "2010s television commercials", "Enya", "Viral videos", "Volvo" ]	"The Epic Split feat. Van Damme (Live Test)" is a 75-second-long commercial released in November 2013 by Volvo Trucks, as the sixth commercial in their "Live Tests" advertising campaign. The commercial was made to demonstrate the stability of the Volvo FM trucks while using their implementation of dynamic steering. It features Jean-Claude Van Damme performing a split on the wing mirrors between two backwards moving trucks set to the music "Only Time" by Enya. The commercial was recorded in a single take at the abandoned Ciudad Real International Airport in Spain during a sunrise. It was produced by the agency Forsman & Bodenfors and was directed by Andreas Nilsson. It has won several awards, and multiple parodies were based on the commercial. ## Content The commercial starts with Van Damme's face in close up. In the voice-over, he says: > "I've had my ups and downs. My fair share of bumpy roads and heavy winds. That's what made me what I am today. Now I stand here before you. What you see is a body crafted to perfection. A pair of legs engineered to defy the laws of physics and a mindset to master the most epic of splits." The camera zooms out and shows that he is standing on the mirrors of two trucks which are both driving backwards. The left truck starts to move sideways, while Van Damme starts his gymnastic split. The camera is moving sideways, causing the sun to disappear and appear again behind the trucks. The music "Only Time" by Enya plays during the commercial, which includes the lyric "Who can say where the road goes ..." The commercial then states: "This test was set up to demonstrate the stability and precision of Volvo Dynamic steering. It was carried out by professionals in a closed-off area". ## Background The Epic Split was the sixth video in a series of commercials by Volvo Trucks called "Live Tests". Volvo Trucks has appointed the advertising agency before the launch of a major new series of trucks. Other commercials include "Hamster", "The Chase" and "The Hook". ## Production The director was Andreas Nilsson. It was the sixth advert released in the series called Live Tests which Swedish advertising agency Forsman & Bodenfors had created for Volvo Trucks. The runway of the closed Ciudad Real International Airport in Spain was selected as the shooting location during the five-month planning period. Following three days of rehearsals, the stunt footage featuring van Damme was recorded in a single take. Van Damme was protected by a hidden safety harness and wire not visible in the final result. A small platform was fitted to each truck behind the wing mirrors to support Van Damme's feet during the stunt. Mikael Rosell was the driver of the truck steering sideways. Both trucks were driving in reverse at a fixed speed of 25 kilometres per hour (16 mph), with co-drivers in each of the two trucks to help monitor the speed. Filming was performed with an Arri Alexa digital camera mounted via a boom to a camera car. The long shot was captured in a single take, because of the position of the sunrise. Colour grading was performed by The Mill and removal of reflections and safety wires was done by Swiss International. ## Reception One week after release, Epic Split had been viewed online 25 million times, and after nine days reached 40 million views. Enya's music "Only Time" re-entered the Billboard Top 100 reaching number 43, thirteen years after the original release. In May 2014, Epic Split won the Best in Show award from The One Club. During 2014 Epic Split won a Black Pencil award from the Design and Art Direction design awards in 2014. In December 2014, the advert received six prizes including the Film Grand Prix at the Eurobest awards in Helsinki, Finland. In 2015, it won another prize at the Cannes Lions International Festival of Creativity, for Creative Effectiveness. ## Analysis An initial international follow-up market research survey by GfK found Epic Split to be the most attention grabbing of the six adverts in the Live Tests series, but less effective than the other five in causing immediate action of the viewer. Neuroscientific analysis showed that female viewers were more intrigued and engaged during the split itself; whereas male viewers sympathised with the pain possibly being felt by Van Damme, subsequently leading to high memory encoding effectiveness at the precise point of the "Volvo Dynamic Steering" message being shown. By late-2014 the overall campaign was estimated to have cost \$3–4 million to produce, and generated \$170 million in revenue for Volvo. ## Parodies Less than a week after Volvo released the advert, a face-swapped variant was distributed, with Van Damme replaced by then-Mayor of Toronto Rob Ford. In November 2013, during the filming of 22 Jump Street, a parody was created with actor Channing Tatum performing the splits between two food trolleys. In December 2013, a parody was created showing Chuck Norris as Walker, Texas Ranger, performing a similar manoeuvre between two aircraft to the opening lines of Hamlet. As the camera pulls back eleven commandos are seen balancing on the character's head in the shape of an illuminated Christmas tree. Five years later, the director of Epic Split, Nilsson, would go on to film a commercial for Toyota Tacoma pickups featuring the real Chuck Norris. On April Fools' Day 2014, Bohemia Interactive released a parody of The Epic Split as part of a promotion for the fake "Arma 3: Karts" downloadable content pack for their 2013 video game Arma 3. The video depicts a major character from the game's story performing a similar stunt between two go-karts. Though intended as a mere joke, the video became so popular with fans that Bohemia released the Karts DLC on May 29, 2014, as Arma 3's first paid DLC.
8,440,972	Clan Macfie	1,169,615,654	Scottish clan	[ "Armigerous clans", "Scottish clans" ]	Clan Macfie is a Highlands Scottish Clan. Since 1981, the clan has been officially registered with the Court of the Lord Lyon, which is the heraldic authority of Scotland. The clan is considered an armigerous clan because even though the clan is recognised by the Court of the Lord Lyon, it is currently without a chief recognised by the Lord Lyon King of Arms, the judge of the Court of the Lord Lyon. The official clan name Macfie is derived from the Common Gaelic Mac Dhuibhshíthe (modern Scottish Gaelic Scottish Gaelic: MacDhubhShìth. This Gaelic patronymic name has been Anglicised into various forms, many of which are considered associated names of the clan. The clan has a long history with the islands of Colonsay and Oronsay in the Scottish Inner Hebrides, and today many monuments to various lairds and churchmen of the clan are found on these islands. The 19th century historian W. F. Skene named the clan as one of the seven clans of Siol Alpin—who according to Skene could all trace their ancestry back to Alpin, father of Cináed mac Ailpín. Little is known of the early history of the clan. However, is certain that the clan served under the Lords of the Isles—descendants of Somerled, who ruled the Hebrides from the 14th century to the late 16th century. Following the forfeiture of the Lordship of the Isles in the late 15th century, the clan still attached itself to powerful Macdonalds. In the early 17th century the last chief of the clan was executed as Colonsay was lost to the control of a Macdonald. Without a chief of their own to control their home lands the clan was considered a leaderless "broken clan". From this point on the Macfies followed the Macdonalds of Islay, though a branch of the clan was dispersed to lands controlled by Clan Cameron. In the early 19th century Ewen Macphee became a notorious outlaw, "revered and feared by locals and despised by the authorities". Today the modern Clan Macfie is alive with nine associated clan societies located around the world. ## History The 19th-century historian W. F. Skene, stated that members of Clan Macfie were the ancient inhabitants of Colonsay. He also wrote that the clan was one of the seven clans of Siol Alpin, and that "their genealogy, which is preserved in the manuscript of 1450, evinces their connexion by descent with the Macgregors and Mackinnons". The seven clans of Siol Alpin could, according to Skene, trace their descent from Alpin, father of the traditional first King of Scots: Cináed mac Ailpín. However, even while stating all this, he wrote that there was nothing known about the early history of Clan Macfie. Over a century after Skene, W. D. H. Sellar wrote that according to later Gaelic tradition, Dubside, ancestor of Clan Macfie, fostered Aonghas Mór, Lord of Islay (Sellar describes Aonghas Mór as the first MacDonald). Martin, in his A Description of the Western Isles of Scotland of 1703, wrote that on the south side of the church of St. Columba on Oronsay, were the tombstones of MacDuffie (or Macfie, a former chief of the clan) and the cadets of his family. The principal stone bore the engraving of a birlinn, two handed claymore and the inscription "Hic jacit Malcolumbus MacDuffie de Collonsay" ("Here lies Malcolumbus MacDuffie of Colonsay"). The burial place of the Macfies was a small chapel, on the south side of the church on Oronsay. Another stone is for Sir Donald MacDuffie, who was abbot of Oronsay when Donald Munro, High Dean of the Isles, toured the Western Isles in 1549. According to a manuscript, written in the 17th century, pertaining to the coronation of the Lords of the Isles, and the Council of the Isles, "MacDuffie, or MacPhie of Colonsay, kept the records of the Isles". In 1463 Macfie of Colonsay was a member of the Council of the Isles, listed as Donald Macduffie, a witness to a charter by John of Islay, Earl of Ross, the last Lord of the Isles, dated 12 April at the Earl's castle of Dingwall. After the fall of the Lordship of the Isles the Macfies followed the MacDonalds of Islay. In 1531, the chief of the clan, "Morphe Makphe de Colwisnay", and many other west highland chiefs were cited for treason and summoned to Parliament as supporters of the rebellious Alexander MacDonald of Dunivaig and the Glens. This Macfie chief died in 1539 and his impressive tombstone can still be seen (pictured left). Donald Munro, High Dean of the Isles, in his A Description of the Western Isles of Scotland Called Hybrides, in 1549, described the island of Jura as partly controlled by Maclean of Duart, Maclaine of Lochbuie, and Macfie of Colonsay. In describing the island of Colonsay, Monro wrote that it had once been held by Macdonald of Kintyre, but was then currently ruled by a "gentle capitane, callit M’Duffyhe" — gentle meaning 'well-born', and captain being the old styling of 'chief'. By 1587, atrocities committed between warring west highland clans had escalated to such an extent that Parliament devised what is known as the General Band in an effort to quell hostilities. The band was signed by landowners throughout the Scottish highlands, borders and the islands, requiring them to be responsible for the men who lived within their lands. The signing chiefs were required to come up with sureties equal to their wealth and lands for the peaceful conduct of their followers. In it the laird of Colonsay, "M'Fee of Collowsay" (Murdoch Macfie of Colonsay), is listed as one of the landlords in the Scottish highlands and islands where broken men (or lawless men) dwelt. Despite the Governments actions to secure the peace, about this time Lachlan Mor MacLean of Duart ravaged the MacDonald islands of Islay and Gigha, slaughtering 500–600 men. Maclean of Duart then besieged Angus MacDonald of Dunivaig and the Glens at his Castle Dunivaig. The siege was only lifted when Macdonald of Dunivaig and the Glens agreed with Maclean of Duart to surrender half of his lands on Islay. However, despite his agreement with the Macleans, Macdonald of Dunivaig and the Glens then invaded the Maclean islands of Mull, Tiree, Coll and Luing. Angus Macdonald of Dunivaig and the Glens was aided in the action by Donald Gorm Mor Macdonald of Sleat and many west highland clans such as the Macdonalds of Clanranald, MacIains of Ardnamurchan, Macleods of Lewis, MacNeills of Gigha, MacAlisters of Loup and also the Macfies of Colonsay. Supporting Maclean of Duart were the Macleods of Harris and Dunvegan, MacNeils of Barra, Mackinnons of Strathrodle and the Macquarries of Ulva. In 1609, "Donald Mcfie in Collonsaye" was present at the assembly of island chiefs and gentlemen, who met with the Bishop of the Isles at Iona, when the nine Statutes of Icolmkill were enacted, which were to bring the Western Isles under the control of the Scottish Parliament. ### Fall of the Clan In 1615 Malcolm Macfie of Colonsay supported Sir James Macdonald of Islay, Chief of "Clan Donald South", after Macdonald had escaped from Edinburgh Castle. Macfie was one of the principal leaders in Macdonald's rebellion against the Government, who had promised Islay to the Campbells. The combined forces of Macfie and Donald Gigach MacIan, who was the leading man on the nearby isle of Jura, contributed a total of 64 men to the Macdonald rebellion. When Sir James Macdonald's force of 400 men landed in at Kinloch (Campbelton) in Kintyre, they were made up in part by the "special men" from Islay, Macfie of Colonsay, Donald Gigach of Jura, Allaster MacRanald of Keppoch, and North Islesmen. The Earl of Argyll later secured the submission of Colla Ciotach MacDonald, who was another chief of Clan Donald South. Colla Ciotach then captured Malcolm Macfie of Colonsay, among eighteen others, and handed them over to the Earl of Argyll. Malcolm Macfie, along with another rebel leader, received assurance for their lives by serving on the Government's side against the rebels while in the company of the Earl of Argyll. The Earl, in late 1615, presented the captured to the Privy Council. For several years both Colla Ciotach and the Macfie chief lived on Colonsay, with Colla Ciotach residing at Kiloran and Macfie at Dùn Eibhinn. During this time the two feuded. Judging by the many hiding places which bear his name, such as leab' fhalaich Mhic a Phì ("MacPhee's Hiding Place"), Macfie was chased from one to another for quite sometime. Finally, in 1623, Malcolm Macfie was chased from Colonsay and pursued to Eilean nan Ròn (south-west of Oronsay). There, on the south-western corner of Eilean nan Ròn, called an t Eilean Iarach, he was spotted and taken by the MacDonalds. Popular lore has it that the Macfie chief was finally discovered when his hiding place amongst the seaweed was given away by a gull. As it hovered over Macfie's position, Colla Ciotach's men were alerted by its cry and spotted the clan chief on a ledge of rock at the edge of the sea. After being apprehended, the chief was then tied to a stone and summarily shot. Colla Ciotach, and several of his followers, appear in the Council Records in 1623 as being accused of killing the Macfie chief. Because of the death of their chief the Macfies finally lost control of Colonsay. The island then passed to the Macdonalds, as Colla Ciotach took the island for himself, and held it peacefully for many years. The island was later to be absorbed into the earldom of Argyll, until it was sold in 1701 to McNeill or Crear. Without its own chief the clan became a "broken clan" and for the most part followed the Macdonalds of Islay, with Macfies/Macphees making up only a small proportion of the total population of Colonsay. A branch of the clan, after the collapse of the clan, settled in Lochaber and followed Cameron of Lochiel, chief of Clan Cameron. A Macfie (a Macphee of Clan Cameron) was one of the two pipers at Glenfinnan, when on 19 August 1745 Charles Edward Stuart raised his standard and claimed both the Scottish and English throne in the name of his father James Francis Edward Stuart. The following year Macfies were among the Camerons, who were on the right flank at the Jacobite Army at the Battle of Culloden. #### Macphee the Outlaw A well-known character in Inverness-shire, in the 19th century, was a Ewan Macphee who lived as an outlaw. Described as Scotland's last outlaw, he recognised no landowner, stole sheep, and raised a family upon a small island. Ewan Macphee was a young man when he was enlisted by his landlord into a Highland Regiment of the British Army. Macphee was said to have been an able soldier but he soon deserted the Army and fled to his native Glengarry, where he hid living in Feddan with his sister. For the Fedden in Glengarry, www.clan-cameron.org states "'Crevice Through Which the Winds Blows'. Site of a croft which sat right on a disputed Cameron-Glengarry boundary line, just below Meall an Tagraidh. The elderly woman who lived here managed to divert a stream each time either the Cameron or Glengarry men came to collect the rent. She managed to avoid paying rent for years, claiming her home was on the other side of the boundary stream". His Regiment then sent a troop of soldiers to arrest him for desertion, though just as Macphee was about to be taken handcuffed aboard a steamer at Corpach, he managed to escape and fled his captors. Ewan Macphee lived for two years around the shores of Loch Arkaig before building a bothy on a small island in Loch Quoich, which has since born his name: Eilen Mhic Phee (translation from Scottish Gaelic: "MacPhee's island"). Macphee then took for his wife a fourteen-year-old girl, who lived across the hill in Glen Dulochan. As time passed Macphee was feared and looked upon by the poor inhabitants of the glen as a seer. Macphee believed himself to have supernatural powers, he weaved charms and cattle were brought to him to be cured. As the years past neighbouring shepherds finally decided to put an end to Macphee's sheep stealing, and the sheriff sent two officers to confront Macphee. As the officers rowed to his island they were fired upon by Macphee's wife and the officers fled. A week later an armed party was then sent and Ewan Macphee was finally arrested and taken to prison, where he eventually died. ### The modern Clan In 1864, the first Macfies to have coats of arms registered in the Public Register of All Arms and Bearings in Scotland were Robert Macfie of Langhouse and Airds and Robert Andrew Macfie of Dreghorn—two highly successful businessmen in the sugar industry. The heraldic crest within the clan's crest badge is actually derived from the heraldic crest on the coat of arms of Robert Andrew Macfie of Dreghorn. In 1968, Earle Douglas MacPhee of Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada started a movement to have the Clan Macfie officially registered with the Lord Lyon King of Arms. On 10 May 1977, the Macfie Standing Stone on Balaruminmore on Colonsay was dedicated as a memorial to the last chief of the clan, who was executed against it in 1623. In May 1981, Clan Macfie was formally recognised by the Lord Lyon King of Arms and later in November of that year, Earle MacPhee was appointed as Commander of Clan Macfie by the Lord Lyon King of Arms. Following Earle MacPhee's death in 1982, Alexander (Sandy) Carpendale McPhie of Australia was appointed by the Lord Lyon King of Arms as Commander of Clan Macfie on 7 September 1989. In March 2008, the Lord Lyon gave permission for Clan Macfie to convene an ad hoc derbhfine to choose a successor to McPhie, who had by then decided to step down. Iain Morris McFie was chosen to petition the Lord Lyon, and on doing so was later appointed as Commander of Clan Macfie. Today there are nine clan societies associated with Clan Macfie. The societies are located around the world in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Scotland, Sweden, and the United States of America. ## Clan profile ### Origin of the name The origin of name Macfie (and its variations) is from the Gaelic Mac Dhuibhshíthe, which means "son of Duibhshíth". This Gaelic personal name is composed of two elements: dubh ("black") + síth ("peace"). An early bearer of this personal name is recorded in the Annals of Ulster. This Dub Sidhe (Dubshidhe) was listed being the lector of the monastic community at Iona in the year 1164. The name Macfie (and its variations) is rendered as Mac a' Phì in modern Scottish Gaelic. According to a passage in the Carmina Gadelica, which was a collection of Gaelic folkloric poems from 1855 to 1910, there was a family on North Uist which was known as Dubh-sith (translation from Gaelic: "black fairy"), "from a tradition that the family have been familiar with the fairies in their fairy flights and secret migrations". This family were the North Uist MacCuishes, who also for a time, commonly bore Dubhsith as a given name. There were never many MacCuishes on the Uists, and after a time Dubhsith ceased to be used as a given name there, though it carried on in Cape Breton, Nova Scotia, Canada, taking the forms of Dushie, Duffus and even David. These MacCuishes (of North Uist and Skye) are considered septs of Clan Donald. #### Genealogy according to MS 1467 In the early 19th century, Skene found and transcribed a 15th-century Gaelic manuscript which gave the genealogies of many Highland clans. He first published his transcriptions and translations of it in the early 19th century Collectanea de Rebus Albanicis, and later with revisions in the late 19th century—in his chief work Celtic Scotland. Today the manuscript, which Skene named MS 1450 and later MS 1467, is stored in the National Library of Scotland. The manuscript was written by Dubhghall Albanach mac mhic Cathail, in 1467 at Ballybothy, County Tipperary. The following is Skene's versions of the genealogy attributed to the chiefs of Clan Macfie in the manuscript; first as in Collectanea de Rebus Albanicis secondly as in Celtic Scotland. > Donald, Niell, and Malcolm the three sons of Gillespic son of ...... son of Gilchrist son of Malcolm son of Dugald mor son of Duffie son of Murdoch son of Finlay the rash, son of Murdoch son of Ferchar son of Cormac son of Oirbertaigh son of Ferchar fada son of Feredach. > Donald and Niall and Malcolm the three sons of, Gillespic son of, Gillchrist son of, Malcolm son of, Dougall mor son of, Dubshithe son of, Murdoch son of, Finlaech cas son of, Murdoch son of, Ferchard son of, Cormac son of, Airbertach son of, Feradach. According to Skene in Collectanea de Rebus Albanicis, the Donald first mentioned may be the Donald MacDuffie who is recorded as witnessing a charter by John, Earl of Ross and Lord of the Isles in 1463. In Celtic Scotland, Skene thought it was possible the mentioned Duffie/Dubshithe was identical to the lector of Iona recorded in 1164 within the Irish annals. ### Clan symbols (crest badge and clan badges) Scottish crest badges are used by clan members to show their allegiance to their clan and chief. Much like clan tartans, crest badges owe their popularity to Victorian romanticism. Crest badges are heraldic badges which usually contain the heraldic crest of the clan chief, encircled with a buckle containing the chief's heraldic motto. However, in the case of Clan Macfie, which does not have a chief, the crest badge is derived from the coat of arms of Macfie of Dreghorn, who was one of the first Macfies to register a coat of arms in the Public Register of All Arms and Bearings in Scotland. The crest badge of Clan Macfie contains as a crest: a demi lion rampant, proper. The motto which encircles the crest is: pro rege, which translated from Latin means "for the king". Although today crest badges are more commonly used by clan members, the original badges worn by clansmen were plant badges or clan badges. Clan badges consisted of plants which were worn on a bonnet or attached to a pole or spear. There have been several clan badges attributed to Clan Macfie, and the clans shares the use of them with several associated clans. Clan badges attributed to Clan Macfie include: scots pine (Scottish Gaelic: giuthas), attributed to all seven of the clans of Siol Alpin; oak (Scottish Gaelic: darag), also attributed to Clan Cameron; crowberry (Scottish Gaelic: dearca fithich), also attributed to Clan Maclean and Clan Cameron. ### Tartan The clan's official "Clan Macfie Tartan" was registered in the Books of the Court of the Lord Lyon King of Arms on 29 August 1991. It is possible the tartan may date back to about the time of the first Macfie coats of arms were registered in the mid 19th century. However, it was first recorded in 1906, in Johnston's The Tartans of the Clans and Septs of Scotland. The tartan is very similar to the MacIver tartan – swapping the colour green for the MacIver black. However, it has been said that the colours (red, green and yellow) and the general appearance of the Macfie tartan are similar to the Cameron tartan, and that it may allude to the dependence on Clan Cameron of several Macfies after the collapse of their clan. The Clan Cameron Association considers the surnames MacPhee, MacFie and MacVee as a sept (members, or followers) of Clan Cameron. ## Associated Clans and names Today there are many variations of the clan name Macfie, meaning "son of Duibhshíth". People who bear such surnames are considered members of the clan. Clan Macfie also has historical links with other clans, such as Clan Cameron. As already stated, several members of Clan Macfie emigrated to lands controlled by Clan Cameron in the 17th century, and that Clan Cameron considers certain variations of Macfie as septs of theirs. There may be also a link between Clan Macfie and the MacNichols of Glenorchy. These MacNichols are considered a sept of Clan Campbell. The origin of the MacNichols of Glenorchy and Glenshira is unknown. Niall Campbell, 10th Duke of Argyll maintained they were originally MacNaughtons of Dunderave. However, local tradition had it that they were originally MacPhees, descended from Nicol MacPhee who left the Cameron controlled Lochaber region in the 16th century. According to Somerled MacMillan, there were recently (1971) many MacNichols in Lochaber who were supposed to descend from the members of Clan Macfie. Though they were to have held lands in the Lochaber area since before 1493. ## See also - Colonsay - Oronsay, Inner Hebrides - Macfie - McPhee
46,433,088	Marvin Gaye (song)	1,173,585,982	2015 single by Charlie Puth	[ "2014 songs", "2015 debut singles", "American soul songs", "Charlie Puth songs", "Cultural depictions of American men", "Cultural depictions of soul musicians", "Doo-wop songs", "Irish Singles Chart number-one singles", "Male–female vocal duets", "Meghan Trainor songs", "Number-one singles in Israel", "Number-one singles in New Zealand", "Number-one singles in Scotland", "SNEP Top Singles number-one singles", "Songs about Marvin Gaye", "Songs about musicians", "Songs written by Charlie Puth", "Songs written by Jacob Luttrell", "Songs written by Julie Frost", "UK Singles Chart number-one singles" ]	"Marvin Gaye" is the debut single by American singer-songwriter Charlie Puth, featuring singer-songwriter Meghan Trainor, from his third EP, Some Type of Love (2015). It later served as the lead single for his debut studio album, Nine Track Mind (2016). Puth co-wrote it with Julie Frost, Jacob Luttrell and Nick Seeley, and produced it. Artist Partner Group released it as a single on February 10, 2015. The doo-wop and soul song is named after singer Marvin Gaye, whose name is used as a verb in the lyrics. "Marvin Gaye" received negative reviews from music critics, who were critical of its titular line but some appreciated Trainor's appearance. The song topped charts in France, Ireland, Israel, New Zealand, Scotland and the United Kingdom. Marc Klasfeld directed its music video, which was released on April 1, 2015. "Marvin Gaye" has been performed at The Today Show and the 2015 American Music Awards. Both the music video and latter performance end with the duo kissing. The song appears on the set list for Trainor's MTrain Tour (2015) and Puth's Voicenotes Tour (2018). ## Background and release Charlie Puth began his music career on YouTube and later signed with Ellen DeGeneres' record label eleveneleven. He wrote "Marvin Gaye" with Julie Frost, Jacob Luttrell and Nick Seeley, and came up with its drum beat by "tapping [his] foot and clapping along" while sitting at a cafe in Cahuenga Boulevard. Puth then ended up meeting Meghan Trainor at a party, where the two exchanged music. Upon hearing the song, Trainor thought it should be a duet and asked to sing on it. Puth recalled that she knew the whole song in a day, and they recorded it in one take. The duo announced the collaboration in a January 2015 YouTube video, where Trainor said that it is "amazing" and noted that it would be her first release she did not write. The track led to Puth appearing in Trainor's music video for her single "Dear Future Husband", and later serving as an opening act on her second headlining concert tour MTrain Tour (2015). Artist Partner Group released "Marvin Gaye" as the lead single from Puth's third EP, Some Type of Love (2015), on February 10, 2015. Warner Music Group serviced the song to contemporary hit radio in Italy on July 10, 2015, and Artist Partner the United Kingdom on July 20. A Remix EP to promote it was released on August 28, 2015, featuring remixes of it by DJ Kue, Cahill, Boehm and 10K Islands. Atlantic Records released a CD single for "Marvin Gaye" on September 18, 2015, with an alternate version of it by Puth featuring Wale as its B-side. The song was also included on Puth's debut studio album, Nine Track Mind (2016), and the Wale version and Boehm remix appeared on a Japanese edition of it. ## Composition "Marvin Gaye" draws inspiration from Motown, its music sampled Stand by Me by Ben E. King, and has a retro sound reminiscent of Trainor's debut major-label studio album Title (2015). The doo-wop song includes lyrical references to several soul classics, and uses soul singer Marvin Gaye's name as a lyric and titular verb. It has a "bass-booming" breakdown during Trainor's verse, and its modernized throwback soul sound drew comparisons to her song "All About That Bass" (2014). Puth described the breakdown as "this trap thing with this hard-ass distorted 808", which was his attempt to contemporize "what Motown soul would sound like in 2015". Pitchfork's Jia Tolentino commented that "Marvin Gaye" proves that Puth "lives for retro flourishes: doo-wop rhythms, sock-hop melodies, finger snaps [and] arpeggiated singalong piano". Puth described "Marvin Gaye" as "a musical icebreaker" that he wrote to help "any guy who wants to go up to a girl at a bar", noting that it would be hard to "not have a conversation" about the song if it came on the radio. He named Gaye as an influence on the song's lyrics which he wrote to evoke a "feeling that would reach everybody", and further elaborated that: > Since I'm kind of a shy person, I can't just walk up to girls and be like, "Yo, let me get your number!" That's where the song comes in as a musical icebreaker. If you hear it on the radio or at a bar, it's a way to say, "Hey! Let's Marvin Gaye and get it on". ## Critical reception "Marvin Gaye" received generally negative reviews from music critics. Idolator's Ryan Carey-Mahoney stated that it is "more mood-killer than hot and heavy" and "a big hit that never really deserved to be". The same website's Mike Wass described the song as a "smooth anthem tune" with a "catchy" chorus, and called it a "natural fit" for Trainor. Elias Leight of Billboard gave it a rating of two out of five stars, and wrote that though Trainor "lends Puth some of her doo-wop swagger", it "seems more academic exercise than an attempt at seduction". Writing for Stereogum, Chris DeVille stated that the lyric "Let's Marvin Gaye and get it on" instantly "disqualifies ['Marvin Gaye'] from praise" and the gimmick is "too egregious and in-your-face" to appreciate the smart composition, but called it "musically sharp". Entertainment Weekly's Madison Vain called the song "inescapable and irritating". Michael Cragg of The Observer referred to "Marvin Gaye" as "inordinately embarrassing", stating that it sees Puth cast himself as Trainor's male version. Writing for AllMusic, Stephen Thomas Erlewine wrote that the song "suggested neither singer ever heard Gaye nor Motown but were inordinately fond of Glee", and included it as an example of collaborations where Puth acts as "the second banana, happily ceding the spotlight to another act who bowls him over with charisma". Spin's Jason Gubbels stated that it is "a low-heat ode to high-heat passion, about as edgy as a Broadway revival cast recording and featuring one of the more dubious name-verbing exercises in contemporary pop" since Beyoncé's "Partition" (2013). "Marvin Gaye" made it on several year-end lists of the worst songs of 2015. Time included the song, calling the first line of its chorus so "cringe-worthy" that it made them wonder "why the Gaye estate didn't also sue these two in addition to the 'Blurred Lines' guys" for tarnishing his legacy, but called Trainor its redeeming quality. It also appeared on Jezebel's list, with Tolentino calling it "transposed to the ninth circle of hell" and comparing it to Christian musicals she used to attend as a child. Gigwise included "Marvin Gaye" on their list, with Alexandra Pollard elaborating that it is "irritatingly catchy - but it's not even catchy", and went on to say that it is an unclever and "really stupid play on words". ## Chart performance "Marvin Gaye" debuted at number 87 on the US Billboard Hot 100 issued for July 4, 2015. The song climbed to its peak of number 21 on October 10, 2015. The Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) certified it 3× Platinum, which denotes three million units based on sales and track-equivalent on-demand streams. On the Canadian Hot 100, "Marvin Gaye" peaked at number 31 and was certified 3× Platinum by Music Canada. "Marvin Gaye" debuted at number 90 on the UK Singles Chart issued for August 7, 2015, based only on streams. Following its digital release as a single in the United Kingdom, the song vaulted to number one, becoming both artists' second number-one in the UK. The song was certified 2× Platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI). In Australia, it reached number four and went 2× Platinum. "Marvin Gaye" peaked at number one in New Zealand and was certified Platinum. The song charted within the top 10 of national record charts, at number one in France, Ireland, Israel, Scotland, number two in Switzerland, number three in Austria, Poland, Spain, number four in Belgium (Wallonia), number five in Slovenia, number six in Italy, and number nine in Iceland. It received a 3× Platinum certification in Italy, 2× Platinum in Sweden, Platinum in Denmark, Germany, Norway, Spain, Switzerland, and Gold in Austria and Belgium. ## Music video Marc Klasfeld directed the music video for "Marvin Gaye", which was released on April 1, 2015. Puth summed up its concept by saying that he "wanted to make a video of how [he] always wanted high school to be -- a fun dance with people making out, on the floor, with whipped cream and strawberries". The video begins with bored students sleeping with their heads against walls, after which Puth shows up and starts performing the song. All of the students start making out by the chorus. Trainor joins Puth on the stage during her verse and the two sing together. The video ends with the two about to kiss. Trainor later revealed in an interview with MTV News that she actually kissed Puth "a bunch of times", but called it "so awkward" due to the presence of 40 people at the set and Puth's parents in the green room. She uploaded a clip from behind the scenes of the video on her Instagram account, in which the singers kiss for a longer time. Puth stated that they "had to do it five times, different angles, different lighting" as people at the set kept moving lights around, but "the word 'awkward' never came to mind because Meghan's a very good kisser". Christina Garibaldi of MTV News placed it at number two on her list of the "11 Hot Music Video Kisses of 2015 That'll Make You Blush". ## Live performances Puth and Trainor performed "Marvin Gaye" at The Today Show on August 4, 2015. The performance began with Puth playing the song at a piano, where the latter joined him during her verse, dressed in a black skirt. They also performed it during the American Music Awards of 2015 on November 22, 2015. The performance ended with a kiss between the two, midway through which Puth grabbed Trainor's buttocks and she placed her hands on his jaws. Los Angeles Times's Jessica Gelt wrote that it might be the most talked-about kiss at an award show since Britney Spears and Madonna kissed at the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards. Jeff Benjamin of Fuse listed it as the sixth best performance of the night, adding that the kiss "made [it] one to remember". On the other hand, Rolling Stone dubbed it one of the worst moments of the show, stating that the background dancers looked like "middle-school students allowed to stage a production of Grease without adult supervision" and calling the kiss a "forced 'moment'". Puth described the kiss as "a visual representation" of "Marvin Gaye", and stated that he wanted both to represent "a record people could put on and fall in love with each other the minute they hear it". The song was included on the setlists for the MTrain Tour as well as Puth's Voicenotes Tour (2018). ## Track listing - Digital download 1. "Marvin Gaye" (featuring Meghan Trainor) – 3:10 - Remix EP 1. "Marvin Gaye" (featuring Meghan Trainor) (DJ Kue Remix) – 5:33 2. "Marvin Gaye" (featuring Meghan Trainor) (Cahill Remix) – 2:57 3. "Marvin Gaye" (featuring Meghan Trainor) (Boehm Remix) – 3:14 4. "Marvin Gaye" (featuring Meghan Trainor) (10K Islands Remix) – 3:10 - CD single 1. "Marvin Gaye" (featuring Meghan Trainor) – 3:10 2. "Marvin Gaye" (featuring Wale) – 3:20 ## Credits and personnel Credits adapted from CD single's liner notes. - Charlie Puth – producer, lead vocals, programmer - Meghan Trainor – featured vocals - Chris Galland – assistant mixing engineer - Ike Schultz – assistant mixing engineer - Kaveh Rastegar – bass guitarist - Dave Kutch – mastering engineer - Manny Marroquin – mixing engineer - Ryan Gladieux – recording engineer ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications ## Release history
29,459,042	Georges-Antoine Belcourt	1,151,353,531	French Canadian priest and missionary	[ "1803 births", "1874 deaths", "19th-century Canadian Roman Catholic priests", "People from Centre-du-Québec", "People from Shediac" ]	Georges-Antoine Belcourt (April 22, 1803 – May 31, 1874), also George Antoine Bellecourt, was a French Canadian Roman Catholic diocesan priest and missionary. Born in Baie-du-Febvre, Quebec, Belcourt was ordained in 1827. He established missions in areas of Quebec and Manitoba. On the frontier, he became involved in a political dispute between the local First Nations population and the Hudson's Bay Company, the monopoly fur trading company. At the urging of the Company's Governor, Belcourt was recalled to Montreal. He was next assigned to Pembina, North Dakota. He established two missions in the 1840s to convert the local Ojibwe (also called Chippewa) and Métis to Catholicism. In 1859, Belcourt left Pembina for Quebec, but was quickly redeployed to North Rustico, Prince Edward Island. He established the Farmers' Bank of Rustico (the first community-based bank in Canada). Belcourt retired from his post in 1869 to live out his life in New Brunswick, but was recalled in 1871, this time to the Magdalen Islands. In May 1874, Belcourt was forced to retire due to ill health. He died in Shediac, New Brunswick, on May 31, 1874. He was designated a National Historic Person by the Government of Canada in 1959. ## Early life Georges-Antoine Belcourt was born on April 22, 1803, at Baie-du-Febvre, Quebec, to Antoine Belcourt and Josephte Lemire, who had married on February 23, 1802. His parents, devout Roman Catholics, brought their son up in the same faith, and the young Belcourt received his first Holy Communion in 1814. At age 13, Belcourt enrolled in Le Petit Séminaire de Québec to undertake a philosophical course of study, which he completed in 1823. Belcourt studied to become a priest, and on March 10, 1827, Bernard-Claude Panet, the Archbishop of Quebec, performed Belcourt's ordination in the chapel at the Seminary. Belcourt was appointed as an assistant at several parishes in the area, before becoming pastor of a parish at Sainte-Martine, Quebec, in 1830. As he was bilingual and spoke English as well as French, he was able to minister to his parish of mostly Irish Catholic Canadians. ## Early missionary work During his time at Sainte-Martine, the young priest aspired to do missionary work in the west of British North America and applied for it. In 1830, Archbishop Panet requested that the young priest accompany him on a journey to Manitoba. Following an interview in February 1831, Belcourt was enlisted to go on the trip. After spending two months learning the Algonquian language, Belcourt departed from his home town on April 27 of that year in a canoe of the Hudson's Bay Company. On June 17, the priest's party arrived at Saint Boniface, Manitoba, and Belcourt was assigned as one of three priests there. He was to assist the Bishop at the town's cathedral, and study the Anishinaabe language. He was to work with the Ojibwe people to convert them to Christianity. Although the language was not yet documented in written form, Belcourt made rapid progress. Within a year, he had learned enough to be considered ready to work directly with those whom he termed the "savages," as was customary at the time. In 1832, Belcourt established the first native-only mission west of Saint Boniface, but Gros Ventre raids forced its closure the following year. In 1834, he established a mission at Baie-Saint-Paul on the Assiniboine River, where he instructed the local Aboriginal population in European-style agriculture. The priest had a log chapel built, with smaller log cabins on the surrounding land to house the natives. The local bishop opposed his missionary work, as he believed the Aboriginal Canadians would not settle in one spot for long. Belcourt overcame this opposition, and in 1834 built a school at his mission, enlisting the assistance of a Chippewa-speaking woman to serve as a teacher. In 1836, the missionary admitted five natives to Holy Communion. He was discouraged by the Ojibwe readiness to return to their former spiritual practices after baptism. In 1838, Belcourt travelled to Rainy Lake to examine sites for a mission. He abandoned the plan after discovering that the First Nations people were unwilling to give up their Hudson's Bay Company-supplied liquor, as he required for conversion to Christianity. In August 1838, the priest arranged to have a dictionary published in the Chippewa language, and returned to his mission at Baie-Saint-Paul. In the winter of 1839, Belcourt carved 280 oak balusters and candlesticks for his log chapel. In 1840, the missionary established a mission among the Wabaseemoong Independent Nations, where he repeated his Baie-Saint-Paul design: a log chapel at the centre surrounded by small cabins for the local population, with outlying farms. The mission closed ten years later; Belcourt blamed this on mismanagement by oblates he had entrusted with its management. In 1845, Belcourt served as the chaplain to some buffalo hunters, but returned to his first mission at Baie-Saint-Paul to teach the Chippewa language to a group of oblates. In 1846, a dysentery epidemic swept communities along the Assiniboine River in Manitoba. On June 22 of that year, Belcourt left his mission at Baie-Saint-Paul to join a group of hunters on their journey south for the summer. The hunters carried the disease, infecting others, and 25 people died of dysentery by July 5. On the worst days, eight people had to be buried. Belcourt and six of the hunters travelled south to the Fort Berthold Indian Reservation in search of medicine, as the priest's supply had quickly run out. With his medicine supplies replenished, the missionary headed back to the encampment of hunters before returning to his mission. ## Arrival in North Dakota In 1847, in response to perceived discrimination against First Nations people by the Hudson's Bay Company in the fur trade, Belcourt prepared a petition to Queen Victoria to seek redress. The petition was signed by 977 First Nations people, but the Colonial Secretary, Earl Grey, consulted with advisors who had little sympathy for the natives and took no action in the case. The Company criticised Belcourt for what it saw as his inciting discontent among the local First Nations. The Company administrators decided that the priest should not be allowed to remain in British North America. The missionary was arrested, but was released after the charges against him were discovered to be unfounded. At the urging of the Company's Governor, the Archbishop of Quebec asked Belcourt to return to Montreal. Belcourt asked the Governor of the Company to retract the charges for which he was arrested. The Governor apologised for what he described as a mistake on the part of the Company's chief Factors. The Church assigned Belcourt to Pembina, North Dakota, as a missionary to the Chippewa and Métis of the Pembina River basin, a tributary to the Red River of the North. Upon arrival at Pembina, Belcourt constructed a small log cabin of 20 feet long by 30 feet wide, which was not large enough for all of his congregation. On August 14, 1848, the missionary baptised his first person in Pembina, and held a Holy Communion class consisting of 92 Native Americans. Needing more resources, Belcourt wrote to the Archbishop of Quebec for money for food and building supplies. He also asked for another Canadian priest well-versed in both French and the Chippewa language, as he noted there were more Métis than Chippewa in the Pembina area. Belcourt described the original territory of the Chippewa in the Pembina district as several hundred miles north to south, and east to west - much larger than the small reservation to which they were later assigned. In addition to performing his missionary work, Belcourt engaged in political advocacy on the behalf of Métis and Anishinaabeg peoples. In 1849, Belcourt gathered a petition of one hundred names of Métis heads of families protesting ongoing encroachment on the buffalo robe and pemmican trade by the Hudson's Bay Company. Belcourt forwarded the petition and letter of protest to the governor of Minnesota Territory, Alexander Ramsey. In November 1849, the young and recently ordained priest Albert Lacombe arrived in Pembina and immediately started to learn the Chippewa language. Despite claiming to have to resort to manual labour to pay for his food, Belcourt supported a household that included a school teacher, a housekeeper, a Chippewa cook and several servants. Thirty miles to the west, he established a mission at Turtle Mountain to serve as a base for expansion toward the Canadian Rockies. In 1853, Belcourt moved to what is now Walhalla, North Dakota, and established a school and a church there. The priest envisioned a large metropolis for the area. He began to lay out a city planned in the European-style of a grid, with wide streets and several open squares. Despite his having planned for ample water, and the natural advantages of fertile soil and resources in the area, major development went elsewhere. Since the early twentieth century, agriculture has declined as a mainstay of family economies in the area. The town has 885 residents. A strong advocate of prohibition of alcohol, especially among Native Americans and First Nations peoples, Belcourt petitioned the US Congress to prevent the illicit trafficking of liquor from Canada into the United States. In March 1859, Belcourt left North Dakota to return to Canada. ## Return to Canada Belcourt returned to Quebec, but was quickly sent out to serve at a parish at Rustico, Prince Edward Island. Arriving there in November 1859, the priest performed his first baptism among the local people the following month. Belcourt built a parish hall out of stone (which was used into the 1950s) and established the Farmers' Bank of Rustico. He founded a high school, where he taught until recruiting a teacher from Montreal to the island. The priest created a study group, the members of which had to agree to be teetotalers. He established a parish library, built with the assistance of 1,000 French francs a year from Emperor Napoleon III, nephew of Napoleon I. In October 1865, Belcourt resigned from his position at the parish at Rustico, and returned to Quebec for some weeks. He asked for reassignment to Rustico and returned to the island in November. In 1866, Belcourt built and demonstrated a steam-powered vehicle, considered the first automobile to be driven in Canada. Belcourt remained pastor of his parish at Rustico until 1869, when he retired. The priest intended to live on a farm at Shediac, New Brunswick, but was called back to the church in August 1871. He was asked to pastor a parish on the Magdalen Islands. Ill health forced his retirement from there in May 1874, and he returned to Shediac before dying on May 31, 1874. ## Legacy and honors - The town of Belcourt, North Dakota, was named after the late priest in honour of his efforts in the region. - In 1959, Belcourt was designated a National Historic Person by the Government of Canada.
43,892,483	Roman Quinn	1,168,024,639	American baseball player (born 1993)	[ "1993 births", "21st-century African-American sportspeople", "African-American baseball players", "American expatriate baseball players in the Dominican Republic", "Baseball players from Florida", "Clearwater Threshers players", "Durham Bulls players", "Florida Complex League Phillies players", "Lakewood BlueClaws players", "Lehigh Valley IronPigs players", "Living people", "Major League Baseball outfielders", "People from Port St. Joe, Florida", "Philadelphia Phillies players", "Reading Fightin Phils players", "Scottsdale Scorpions players", "Tampa Bay Rays players", "Tigres del Licey players", "Williamsport Crosscutters players" ]	Roman Tredarian Quinn (born May 14, 1993) is an American professional baseball center fielder in the Colorado Rockies organization. He has played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the Philadelphia Phillies and Tampa Bay Rays. Quinn grew up in an athletic family in Port St. Joe, Florida, and played basketball, gridiron football, and baseball at Port St. Joe High School. His rapid sprint speed caught the attention of sports journalists while he was still in high school, and the Phillies drafted Quinn in the second round of the 2011 MLB Draft. Quinn had previously committed to play college baseball for Florida State, but chose instead to sign with the Phillies. He began playing professional baseball within the Phillies' farm system in 2012, when he was assigned to the Class A Short-Season Williamsport Crosscutters. There, his batting technique and running abilities caused local reporters to dub Quinn the "Human Highlight Reel". Beginning in 2013, injuries began to plague Quinn's career. A hairline fracture in his right wrist, followed by a ruptured Achilles tendon during the offseason, kept him from the field from June 2013 to May 2014. The following June, with the Reading Fightin Phils, Quinn suffered a torn hip flexor that kept him on the disabled list for the remainder of the season. A premature return from an abdominal oblique strain in July, as well as a concussion, limited Quinn to 77 games in 2016, but he returned by September to make his major league debut. Despite telling journalists that his main goal for the 2017 season was to remain healthy, Quinn suffered an injury to his ulnar collateral ligament that May, and missed the remainder of the season. He played a handful of games with the Toros del Este of the Dominican Professional Baseball League, and was in contention for a major league role at spring training in 2018. Quinn was instead assigned to the Lehigh Valley IronPigs, where he suffered a torn ligament in his middle finger, before being called up to the Phillies at the end of July. He played through the end of the season with a broken pinky toe, but missed Opening Day the following year due to a preseason oblique strain. After a largely healthy 2019 and 2020, Quinn again ruptured his Achilles tendon while rounding the bases in May 2021, ending his season after only 28 games. ## Early life Quinn was born on May 14, 1993, in Port St. Joe, Florida. He came from an athletic family, with relatives who participated in track and field, baseball, and gridiron football. He attended Port St. Joe High School, playing on the same football team as future National Football League (NFL) player Calvin Pryor. He was a three-sport athlete, earning all-state honors and scoring an average of 20.6 points per game in basketball, serving as a return specialist and defensive back on the football team, and playing in center field for the baseball team. In 2011, during Quinn's senior year of high school, Baseball America named him the fastest man in their Top 200 pre-draft report; he had a 6.35-second 60-yard dash speed, and took an average of 4.20 seconds to run from home plate to first base. Quinn was also a strong hitter, with a .458 batting average, two home runs, and 20 runs batted in (RBIs) as a junior in 2010. ## Professional career ### Minor league career The Philadelphia Phillies of Major League Baseball (MLB) selected Quinn in the second round, 66th overall, of the 2011 MLB Draft. Quinn had previously committed to play college baseball at Florida State University, but turned down the team's athletic scholarship to sign with the Phillies for a \$775,000 signing bonus. Because he did not sign with the Phillies until the day before the MLB deadline for college-committed players, Quinn could not start playing professional baseball until the 2012 season. Quinn began his professional career in 2012 with the Low–A Williamsport Crosscutters of the New York–Penn League. Despite batting right-handed and playing in the outfield in high school, he became a switch hitter and a shortstop with the Crosscutters. Sports journalists in Williamsport took notice of Quinn's "put the ball on the ground and run" batting style and declared him the "Human Highlight Reel". He finished the season with a .281 average in 66 games and 267 at bats, with 75 hits, one home run, and 23 RBIs, as well as 30 stolen bases. Additionally, Quinn's 11 triples were the most in the New York–Penn League and in the Phillies organization. Going into the 2013 season, Baseball America named Quinn the second-best prospect in the Phillies' farm system, and the 100th-best prospect in baseball. He was assigned to the Single–A Lakewood BlueClaws to start the season, and on April 9, Quinn hit an inside-the-park home run in a game against the Hagerstown Suns. On June 24, 2013, Quinn suffered a hairline fracture in his right wrist, ending his season early. In 67 games for Lakewood, he boasted a .238 average, with 62 hits, five home runs, and 21 RBIs in 260 at bats, as well as 32 stolen bases in 67 games. During the offseason, Quinn ruptured his right Achilles tendon, putting him out of commission for the start of the following year. Quinn returned to the field in May 2014, playing with the High–A Clearwater Threshers. He began the season as a shortstop, but after J. P. Crawford was promoted to Clearwater that June, Quinn was moved back to center field. He spent most of the season as the Threshers' leadoff hitter, batting .257 with seven home runs, 36 RBIs, 32 stolen bases, and a .343 on-base percentage in 88 games. After the conclusion of the regular 2014 Minor League Baseball season, Quinn was sent to play in the Arizona Fall League for additional development. While playing with the Scottsdale Scorpions, Quinn was first in the league with 14 stolen bases and second in runs scored with 19. He was named both to the Top Prospects Team, selected by managers and coaches, and to the Fall Stars Game. The following year, Quinn was assigned to the Double–A Reading Fightin Phils of the Eastern League. That July, he was one of four Reading players named to the Eastern League All-Star Classic. At the time, he led the Eastern League with 29 stolen bases and six triples, and was seventh in the MiLB with a .306 batting average. He did not end up playing in the game, however; on June 12, the day after an 18-inning game with Reading, a dehydrated and exhausted Quinn was injured in the second inning of a game with what was later diagnosed as a Grade 3 tear to his left hip flexor. He did not play for the rest of the season. On November 20, 2015, the Phillies added Quinn to their expanded 40-man roster to protect him from the Rule 5 draft. He recorded four home runs, 15 RBIs, and a .306 average in 257 plate appearances with Reading in 2015. Quinn recovered from the injury by October 15, the start of the Dominican Professional Baseball League season, and joined the Tigres del Licey. Quinn, alongside a number of fellow MLB prospects, helped take the Tigres to the Dominican League playoff series. He batted .212 with two home runs, seven RBIs, and two triples in 99 at bats, and eight stolen bases in 25 games. Quinn rejoined Reading for the 2016 season as the No. 7 Phillies prospect, according to MLB.com. He went into the season with a desire to increase his on-field versatility by learning the other outfield positions. Once again, his season was hindered by injury: Quinn strained his abdominal oblique at the plate on June 4, and returned to the field prematurely ten days later. Because the injury was not healed when he began playing again, Quinn missed nearly two months of the season for additional recovery. He returned to the disabled list in August after being hit in the head during an attempted pickoff throw. In the injury-riddled season, Quinn finished the year with a .302 average with six home runs, 25 RBIs, and 36 stolen bases in 77 games. ### Philadelphia Phillies When the minor league season ended, Quinn was promoted to the Phillies' extended roster as a September call-up. He made his major league debut on September 11, 2016, playing in center field and batting second in the order against the Washington Nationals, and went 0–3 and drew a walk. The following day, in a home game against the Pittsburgh Pirates, Quinn hit two doubles, stole a base, drew a walk, and drove in two runs in a 6–2 victory. On September 27, Quinn left a game against the Atlanta Braves in the sixth inning with another oblique strain, ending his season early. In 15 major league games with the Phillies, he hit .263 with six RBIs and five stolen bases in six attempts. When asked about his plan for 2017, Quinn told reporters, "My goal is to stay healthy, man, just to be honest with you", and expressed his frustration at never playing a full season of baseball. Going into the season as Baseball America's No. 8 prospect, Quinn was assigned to the Triple A Lehigh Valley IronPigs. While sliding into third base on May 28, Quinn suffered an injury to his ulnar collateral ligament, which kept him out for the remainder of the season. In 45 games with Lehigh, Quinn batted .274 with two home runs, 13 RBIs, and 10 stolen bases. That winter, he returned to the Dominican League, playing in six games for the Toros del Este. There, he batted .125 in 19 plate appearances, with two hits and two runs. After appearing in spring training with the Phillies, where he was evaluated for a possible major league position in the outfield or at shortstop, Quinn returned to Lehigh Valley in 2018. That May, Quinn tore a ligament in his right middle finger while diving into a base, and spent several weeks on the disabled list to recover from surgery. On July 27, 2018, after his rehabilitation process, Quinn was recalled to the Phillies to be used as a pinch runner or pinch hitter. Three days later, manager Gabe Kapler chose to give Quinn the start over right fielder Nick Williams for a game against the Boston Red Sox. In the first game of a doubleheader against the New York Mets on August 16, Quinn and fellow position player Scott Kingery were required to pitch the final innings of a 24–4 loss when the team ran out of available relief pitchers. His first major league home run came on August 21, against Nationals pitcher Matt Grace. In September, Quinn suffered a "very, very small" fracture to his right pinky toe, but was expected to play through the end of the season. Quinn finished the season with a .260 average, including two home runs and 12 RBIs, in 131 at bats, as well as 10 stolen bases in 50 games. Quinn began the 2019 season on the 10-day injured list after suffering an oblique strain during training camp. He returned to the team after recovering from the injury, and successfully stole home plate in the third inning of a 2–1 loss to the Miami Marlins. On July 16, when Yacksel Ríos allowed three extra-base hits and hit Justin Turner with a pitch, Quinn was called to pitch the final outs of a 16–2 loss against the Los Angeles Dodgers. Quinn was called to pitch again on August 3, when a game against the Chicago White Sox bled into 15 innings. He pitched a scoreless 14th inning before the Phillies eventually fell 4–3. That day, Quinn became the first Phillies position player since 1961 to make at least three career pitching appearances for the team, as well as the first major league player to record three hits, two stolen bases, and an appearance on the mound in the same game since George Sisler in 1920. On August 17, while fielding a ground ball, Quinn suffered a groin injury that echoed a strain earlier in the season. He did not play again that season. In 44 games for the Phillies in 2019, Quinn batted .213, with 23 hits, four home runs, and 11 RBIs in 108 at bats. Quinn was named to his first-ever Opening Day roster in 2020, serving as one of six outfielders in an expanded 29-member team. On August 25, while playing the Nationals, both Quinn and left fielder Andrew McCutchen stole second base twice, leading to a season-high four stolen bases in one game for the Phillies. Quinn repeated the feat on September 5, stealing two bases against the Mets. In the sixth inning of that same game, Quinn crashed into the outfield wall while chasing a fly ball, and was placed on concussion protocols. On September 21, Quinn and manager Joe Girardi were both ejected from a game against the Nationals after arguing with home plate umpire Junior Valentine on a called third strike. In the 2020 season, which was shortened due to the COVID-19 pandemic, Quinn played in 41 out of 60 games, collecting two home runs, seven RBIs, and 12 stolen bases, as well as a .213 average. Going into 2021, Quinn became part of a battle to start in center field, competing for the position with Kingery, Odubel Herrera, new signing Travis Jankowski, and prospect Mickey Moniak. On March 30, Herrera was cut from the team, giving Quinn and prospect Adam Haseley the opportunity to alternate in center field. On May 26, while attempting to round third base in a game against the Tampa Bay Rays, Quinn collapsed on the turf, falling again when he crossed home plate. An MRI confirmed that Quinn had ruptured his Achilles tendon, and the recovery period was expected to be nine to twelve months. He appeared in 28 games before his season-ending injury, recording a .173 average, two RBIs, and four stolen bases in 52 at bats, while on defense he had a 1.000 fielding percentage with two assists. On November 30, 2021, Quinn was non-tendered by the Phillies, making him a free agent. ### Miami Marlins On March 12, 2022, the Miami Marlins signed Quinn to a minor-league contract with an invitation to spring training. ### Philadelphia Phillies (second stint) On April 9, 2022, the Philadelphia Phillies signed Quinn to a minor-league contract. He was promoted to the club's major league team on April 25, 2022, following Bryson Stott being optioned to Triple-A. Quinn was designated for assignment on June 1. At the time, he had batted .162 and struck out 15 times in 40 plate appearances. On June 5, Quinn elected free agency after rejecting an outright assignment to Lehigh Valley. ### Kansas City Royals On June 8, 2022, Quinn signed a minor league deal with the Kansas City Royals. On July 18, 2022, Quinn was released shortly after being placed on the injured list. ### Tampa Bay Rays On July 21, 2022, Quinn signed a major league deal with the Tampa Bay Rays. In 21 games for the Rays, he batted .262/.340/.405 with no home runs and 4 RBI. On November 10, Quinn was removed from the 40-man roster, and subsequently elected free agency. ### Cleveland Guardians On January 4, 2023, Quinn signed a minor league contract with the Cleveland Guardians. The deal includes an invitation to the Guardians' 2023 major league spring training camp. He played in 15 games for the Triple-A Columbus Clippers, hitting just .177/.391/.235 with no home runs, 6 RBI, and 2 stolen bases. On May 9, Quinn was released by the Guardians organization. ### Milwaukee Brewers On May 24, 2023, Quinn signed a minor league contract with the Milwaukee Brewers organization. Quinn hit a feeble .121/.275/.152 with no home runs, 3 RBI and 5 stolen bases in 10 games for the Triple–A Nashville Sounds. He was released by Milwaukee on June 19. ### Colorado Rockies On July 29, 2023, Quinn signed a minor league contract with the Colorado Rockies organization. ## Player profile Quinn, shorter than many of his teammates at 5 ft 9 in (1.75 m) and known for his speed while running the bases, drew early comparisons to retired Phillies shortstop Jimmy Rollins. During the 2020 season, Quinn led the MLB in sprint speed, capable of running 30.4 feet per second (9.3 m/s), an improvement from the previous year's 30.1 ft/s (9.2 m/s) average. He attributed the development to losing 5 pounds (2.3 kg) during the offseason. Former MLB outfielder Kenny Lofton helped Quinn develop a batting style that would take advantage of his smaller frame and rapid speed, allowing him to compete with larger, slower power hitters. He emphasizes bunting, line drives, and other batting techniques that slow down the speed of play, thus allowing Quinn to safely reach base, whereupon he can attempt to steal. Like many hitters with his speed, Quinn is a switch hitter. The Phillies signed Quinn as a right-handed hitter out of high school, but he used a delay between signing and playing with the team during the 2011–12 offseason to learn how to bat from both sides. Despite his fast, aggressive playing style, Quinn struggles at times with getting on base. In his final 16 games of 2018, for instance, he went only 5 for 47, with 21 strikeouts. There have been additional concerns about Quinn's frequent injuries; at no point since the 2014 season has he made more than 300 plate appearances. ## Personal life Quinn married his girlfriend, Jenifer McLemore, on January 27, 2018. The couple has one daughter, Londyn Gabriella, born on July 8, 2014, and two sons, Khailan Grey (b. February 7, 2019) and Oaklan Gabriel (b. October 19, 2020). During the offseason, Quinn and his family reside in Port St. Joe. In 2018, Quinn, his wife and children, and his extended family, were impacted when Hurricane Michael hit the Florida Panhandle, including Port St. Joe. Although no one in Quinn's family was harmed by the storm, Quinn and his wife lost power, and his wife's family suffered property damage. He told reporters after the storm passed, "We will be cleaning up for years."
20,854,162	Friedrich Ritter von Röth	1,173,072,677	German flying ace	[ "1893 births", "1918 deaths", "1918 suicides", "German World War I flying aces", "German military personnel who committed suicide", "Knights of the Military Order of Max Joseph", "Luftstreitkräfte personnel", "Military personnel from Nuremberg", "Military personnel from the Kingdom of Bavaria", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (military class)", "Suicides by firearm in Germany" ]	Oberleutnant Friedrich Ritter von Röth (29 September 1893 – 31 December 1918) was a German World War I fighter ace with 28 victories. He was the most successful German pilot at the extremely hazardous practice of shooting down enemy observation balloons, and destroyed 20 of them. Röth concentrated on observation balloons because they were large enough targets for him to see and hit with machine gun fire. Distressed by his nation's loss of the war, and by his religious compunctions against killing, he shot himself to death on 31 December 1918. ## Early life Friedrich Röth was born in Nurnburg, Germany on 29 September 1893. He was the son of a factory owner. He became known by the nickname of "Fritz". He was just graduating college when World War I broke out. ## Early service Friedrich Röth served originally in the 8th Bavarian Field Artillery Regiment. He was seriously wounded early in the war. Once he was again fit for duty, he was commissioned as a Leutnant on 29 May 1915. He transferred to the aerial service, only to be severely injured in a crash and spend nearly another year in hospital. Because of his extended recuperation, he did not qualify as a pilot until early 1917. His initial assignment was to a Bavarian artillery spotting unit, Flieger-Abteilung (Artillerie) 296. While with them, he was granted the Bavarian Military Merit Order with Swords on 11 June. Beginning 17 September 1917, he served in a fighter squadron, Jagdstaffel 34, but did not down any enemies until he was assigned to Jagdstaffel 23 on 4 October. On 1 November, he was awarded the German Iron Cross, First Class. ## Balloon busting ace Röth was unsuccessful as a fighter pilot until he decided to concentrate his effort on observation balloons. He was a poor shot who targeted balloons because they were so large. His decision meant he took upon himself one of the most hazardous duties of World War I fighter aviation. Because balloons flew at a known altitude, antiaircraft guns ringing them were extremely accurate. The balloons were low enough that an attacker was exposed to small arms fire as well. Protective fighters also lurked in the vicinity. The balloons were so well defended because they were an important part of the artillery fire direction systems of World War I. Aerial observers in the balloons' gondolas called down accurate artillery fire on enemy soldiers. On 25 January 1918, as a member of Jagdstaffel 23, Röth scored his first victories, downing three balloons in eight minutes. He shot down a British observation plane on 26 February and downed another pair of balloons on 21 March. On 1 April, he single-handedly shot down four balloons in ten minutes. ## Command Röth was assigned to command Jagdstaffel 16 on 8 April 1918, just four days after the previous Staffelführer, Heinrich Geigl, died in a midair collision with a Sopwith Camel. By this time, he had begun scrupulous planning of his raids on balloons, spending hours studying potential target balloons through a telescope. He also loaded his guns to maximize effectiveness against balloons; his left-hand machine gun would be loaded with 80 percent incendiaries and 20 percent armor-piercing, and the right-hand gun vice versa. As his new unit used Pfalz D.IIIa fighters, Röth may have used one occasionally. At this time, Röth was known to fly an Albatros D.V marked with his personal livery overlaying the standard markings. It bore a white propeller spinner, yellow fuselage, and gray engine cowling, and wheel covers. Painted on the fuselage's side even with the trailing edge of the cockpit was a large disk divided into white and black halves. On 29 May 1918, Röth attacked the balloons he had been spying upon. Picking a time when there were no enemy fighters in sight and the wind was in his favor, Röth set five balloons afire in 15 minutes without assistance. Five other balloons were rapidly winched to ground to protect them. Röth had expended 220 rounds to burn the balloons, shooting down each in a single pass. He dodged enemy fighters and heavy antiaircraft fire to do it. Röth received a new Fokker D.VII fighter in early August; he used this type airplane for his last 10 aerial victories. He went on to destroy three balloons each on 13 August and 10 October, along with seven enemy airplanes on various dates. On 30 July 1918 he shot down 16-victory Irish ace Sergeant John Cowell's 20 Squadron Bristol F.2b. Röth awarded Germany's highest decoration for valor, the Pour le Mérite, on 8 September 1918. Röth's last victory was on 14 October 1918; he was wounded in the foot during the fight. The cast on Röth's foot kept him out of combat for the duration of the war. On 11 November 1918, he was being piloted by a friend to observe the war's end against orders over the battlefield as the guns fell silent. Röth's final victory list credited him with destroying 20 enemy observation balloons and eight enemy airplanes. ## Post-war death On 31 December 1918, Röth shot himself to death. He was reportedly depressed by Germany's defeat and the subsequent ongoing revolution, as well as troubled by his killings during the war. In 1919, Röth was posthumously awarded the Military Order of Max Joseph. This award knighted him, thus posthumously changing his name to Friedrich Ritter von Röth. The award also entitled him to a lifelong pension. ## Inline citations
103,325	Royal Space Force: The Wings of Honnêamise	1,173,672,160	1987 animated film by Hiroyuki Yamaga	[ "1980s Japanese-language films", "1980s science fiction drama films", "1987 anime films", "1987 drama films", "1987 films", "Anime with original screenplays", "Bandai Visual", "Drama anime and manga", "Films about rape", "Films about space programs", "Films directed by Hiroyuki Yamaga", "Films scored by Ryuichi Sakamoto", "Films scored by Yuji Nomi", "Films set in a fictional country", "Films set on fictional planets", "Gainax", "Japanese animated science fiction films", "Japanese aviation films", "Maiden Japan", "Toho animated films" ]	Royal Space Force: The Wings of Honnêamise (Japanese: 王立宇宙軍\~オネアミスの翼, Hepburn: Ōritsu Uchūgun: Oneamisu no Tsubasa) is a 1987 Japanese animated science fiction film written and directed by Hiroyuki Yamaga, co-produced by Hiroaki Inoue and Hiroyuki Sueyoshi, and planned by Toshio Okada and Shigeru Watanabe. Ryuichi Sakamoto, later to share the Academy Award for the soundtrack to The Last Emperor, served as music director. The film's story takes place on an alternate world where a disengaged young man, Shirotsugh, inspired by an idealistic woman named Riquinni, volunteers to become the first astronaut, a decision that draws them into both public and personal conflict. The film was the debut work of anime studio Gainax, whose later television and movie series Neon Genesis Evangelion would achieve international recognition, and was the first anime produced by toy and game manufacturer Bandai, eventually to become one of Japan's top anime video companies. Yamaga and Okada had become known through making amateur fan-oriented short films, particularly the Daicon III and IV Opening Animations, but their pitch for Royal Space Force argued that growing the anime industry required a shift away from works that pleased fans on a surface level but reinforced their isolation, advocating instead for a different type of anime that attempted to engage with fans as human beings who shared in the alienation issues of a larger society. The making of Royal Space Force involved a collaborative year-long design process using many creators, including some from outside the anime industry, to construct an elaborately detailed alternate world described as neither utopian nor dystopian, but "an attempt to approve existence". Science fiction writer Ted Chiang, author of "Story of Your Life", the basis for the film Arrival, would later describe Royal Space Force as the single most impressive example of worldbuilding in books or film. Royal Space Force's collective approach to filmmaking, its deliberate rejection of established anime motifs, its visual complexity, and the general lack of professional experience among its staff were all factors in its chaotic production, while increasing uncertainty about the project led to what has been described as an attempt by its investors and producers to "fix" the film before release, imposing a late name change to The Wings of Honnêamise, and a lavish but deceptive publicity campaign that included misleading advertising as well as a staged premiere at Mann's Chinese Theatre on February 19, 1987. Although receiving some support among domestic anime fans and the industry upon its March 14, 1987 release in Japan by Toho subsidiary Toho-Towa, including praise from Hayao Miyazaki, and Mamoru Oshii, the film failed to make back its costs at the box office, but eventually became profitable through home video sales. Future Evangelion director Hideaki Anno would later describe the reception Royal Space Force received as having had a major impact on him both personally and as a creator. Royal Space Force did not receive an English-language commercial release until 1994, when Bandai licensed the film to Manga Entertainment. A dubbed 35 mm version toured theaters in North America and the United Kingdom, during which time it received coverage in major newspapers but highly mixed reviews. Since the mid-1990s, it has received several English-language home video releases, and various historical surveys of anime have regarded the film more positively; Yamaga has stated his belief in retrospect that the elements which made Royal Space Force unsuccessful made possible the later successes of Studio Gainax. ## Plot In the Kingdom of Honnêamise— on a different, Earthlike world of mid-20th century technology— a young man named Shirotsugh Lhadatt recalls his middle-class upbringing and childhood dream to fly jets for the navy. His grades disqualifying him, Shirotsugh ended up instead joining the "Royal Space Force," a tiny unit with poor morale whose commander, General Khaidenn, dreams of human spaceflight, yet is barely capable of launching unmanned satellites. One night, Shirotsugh encounters a woman named Riquinni who is preaching in the red-light district. Riquinni Nonderaiko, who lives with a sullen little girl named Manna, surprises him by suggesting that humanity could find peace through space travel. Inspired, Shirotsugh volunteers for a last-ditch project to keep the Space Force from being disbanded: send the first astronaut into orbit. Riquinni gives Shirotsugh scriptures to study, but becomes upset when he touches her and angry when he suggests she should "compromise" with God. Riquinni feels such compromise is to blame for the evils of the world, but Shirotsugh suggests it has made it easier to live in. The General arranges a shady deal to help finance his project, and tells a cheering crowd that the orbital capsule will be a "space warship". Soon after, Riquinni's cottage is foreclosed upon and demolished; not wishing to expose Manna— whose mother was constantly abused by her husband— to any more conflicts, she rejects the outraged Shirotsugh's offer to get her a lawyer. He begins to read Riquinni's scriptures, which assert that humanity is cursed to violence for having stolen fire. A test explosion that kills the chief rocket engineer is suggested to be the work of radicals, and Shirotsugh confounds his friends by sympathizing with protestors who say the mission is a waste of federal funding. The launch site is suddenly moved to the Kingdom's southern border, which will assist in reaching orbit but is also adjacent to a territory occupied by their international rival, the distant Republic. The General learns to his shock that his superiors see the rocket only as a useful provocation; unknown to the Kingdom, the Republic plans to buy time to get their forces into position by assassinating Shirotsugh. Increasingly disenchanted, Shirotsugh goes AWOL, giving his money to the homeless and joining Riquinni's ministry, but is troubled by Manna's continued silence and seeing the money Riquinni keeps. He turns away when she reads from her scriptures that one’s own efforts at truth and good will fail, and one can only pray. That night, he sexually assaults her; when he hesitates momentarily, she knocks him unconscious. Next morning, a repentant Shirotsugh is bewildered when Riquinni maintains he did nothing, apologizing for having hit “a wonderful person like you". Reuniting with his best friend Marty, Shirotsugh asks whether one might be the villain in one's own life's story, not its hero. Marty replies with the view that people exist because they serve purposes for one another. The Republic's assassin strikes— Shirotsugh attempts to flee, but eventually fights back, killing the assassin. The General confides in the wounded astronaut afterwards that he once wanted to be a historian and not a soldier, but found history harder to confront, because it taught him human nature would not change. At the launch site, the crew finishes assembling the rocket even as both sides prepare for the expected attack. Without informing his superiors, the General decides to launch early by trimming safety procedures, to which Shirotsugh agrees. When the Republic's forces invade to seize the rocket by force, an evacuation is ordered, but Shirotsugh rallies the crew to proceed with the countdown. The combined ground-air assault ceases with the rocket's unexpected launch, and the Republic forces withdraw. From orbit, Shirotsugh makes a radio broadcast, uncertain if anyone is listening: although humans have brought ruin to each new frontier, he asks nevertheless to give thanks for this moment, praying for forgiveness and guidance. As the capsule crosses into the dayside, a montage of visions suggests Shirotsugh's childhood and the passage of history; far below, Riquinni, preaching where he first met her, is the only one to look up as the snow begins to fall, and the camera draws back, past the ship and its world, to the stars. ## Cast ## Production The film had a budget of , at the time equivalent to \$000 (equivalent to \$0 in 2022), making it the most expensive anime film up until then. It surpassed the budget records of Hayao Miyazaki's Castle of Cagliostro (1979) and Castle in the Sky (1986). ### Development Royal Space Force developed out of an anime proposal presented to Shigeru Watanabe of Bandai in September 1984 by Hiroyuki Yamaga and Toshio Okada from Daicon Film, an amateur film studio active in the early 1980s associated with students at the Osaka University of Arts and science fiction fandom in the Kansai region. Okada had first met Watanabe in August 1983 at a convention for tokusatsu fans in Tokyo at which Daicon Film screened their live-action short The Return of Ultraman and ran a sales booth for Daicon's related fan merchandise company, General Products. In a 1998 interview, Yamaga asserted that the success of the company was an impetus that led to the creation of Gainax and the Royal Space Force proposal, as Okada had co-founded General Products with Yasuhiro Takeda but Takeda was now managing it well on his own, leaving Okada to feel he had nothing to do. "I approached Okada, who was feeling a bit down. I was thinking every day about how [Daicon Film's] Sadamoto and Maeda are great geniuses. Of course, Anno is a genius, as is Akai. To have one genius in your group is incredible enough, but here we have four of them. I told [Okada] that he would be a fool not to take action. I said that we should do something. We had sacrificed quite a lot for the sake of our independent films as students--we had dropped out of school, we'd lost jobs. So there had always been a desire within us all to see those sacrifices pay off at some point." Watanabe had been involved with product planning for Bandai's "Real Hobby Series" figurines. The position had also led Watanabe into Bandai's then-new home video label Emotion, where he helped to develop Mamoru Oshii's Dallos. Released at the end of 1983, Dallos would become the first anime original video animation (OVA), an industry event later described as the beginning of a new "third medium" for anime beyond film or television, offering the prospect of "a medium in which [anime] could 'grow up,' allowing the more mature thematic experiments of creators". Okada and Yamaga's pitch to Watanabe had followed the recognition Daicon Film received earlier that year in Animage magazine through a special secondary Anime Grand Prix award given to their 8 mm short Daicon IV Opening Animation. Their September 1984 proposal gave the outline for an anime to be entitled Royal Space Force, to be produced under the heading of a new, professional studio to be named Gainax. The proposal listed five initial core staff for the anime. Four had been previously associated with Daicon Film: Yamaga was to be the anime's concept creator and director and Okada its producer, Yoshiyuki Sadamoto its chief character designer, and Hideaki Anno its chief mechanical designer. The fifth, Kenichi Sonoda, listed as responsible for the anime's settei (model sheets, drawn up to give the key animators their guides as to how the objects and people to be animated should look) had previously assisted with product development at General Products. ### Writing The Royal Space Force proposal, subheaded "Project Intentions: A New Wave in a Time of Lost Collaborative Illusions," began with a self-analysis of "recent animation culture from the perspective of young people". At the time of the proposal, Yamaga was 22 years old and had directed the opening anime films for Japan's 1981 and 1983 national science fiction conventions, Daicon III and IV, which through their sale to fans on home video through General Products were themselves regarded as informal precursors of the OVA concept. At age 20 and while still in college, Yamaga had been chosen by the series director of the original Macross TV series, Noboru Ishiguro, to direct episode 9 of the show, "Miss Macross," as Ishiguro wished "to aim for a work that doesn’t fit the conventional sense of anime." Yamaga commented in a contemporary Animage article that it had taken him two months to create the storyboards for "Miss Macross" and wryly remarked he'd thus already used himself up doing so; the magazine noted however that the episode was well received, and judged the creative experiment a success. Okada and Yamaga argued in their proposal for Royal Space Force that what prevented the anime industry from advancing beyond its current level was that it had fallen into a feedback loop with its audience, producing for them a "cul-de-sac" of cute and cool-looking anime content that had the effect of only further reinforcing the more negative and introverted tendencies of many fans, without making a real attempt to connect with them in a more fundamental and personal way: > "In modern society, which is so information-oriented, it becomes more and more difficult even for sensational works to really connect with people, and even so, those works get forgotten quickly. Moreover, this flood of superficial information has dissolved those values and dreams people could stand upon, especially among the young, who are left frustrated and anxious. It could be said that this is the root cause of the Peter Pan syndrome, that says, 'I don't want to be an adult' ... If you look at the psychology of anime fans today, they do interact with society, and they're trying to get along well in that society, but unfortunately, they don't have the ability. So as compensatory behavior, they relinquish themselves to mecha and cute young girls. However, because these are things that don't really exist—meaning, there's no interaction in reality happening between those things and the anime fans—they soon get frustrated, and then seek out the next [anime] that will stimulate them ... If you look into this situation, what these people really want, deep down, is to get along well with reality. And what we propose is to deliver the kind of project that will make people look again at the society around them and reassess it for themselves; where they will think, 'I shouldn't give up yet on reality.'" The proposal described Royal Space Force as "a project to make anime fans reaffirm reality". Gainax asserted that the problem was not unique to anime fans, who were only "the most representative example" of the increasing tendency of younger people not to experience reality directly, but as mediated through "the informational world". "We live in a society mired in a perpetual state of information overload. And the feeling of being overwhelmed by the underwhelming isn't something limited to just young people, but everyone" ... "However, this doesn't mean that people want to live alone and without contact, but instead they want to establish a balance with the 'outside' that is psychologically comfortable for them." Yamaga and Okada believed that this sensibility among some fans explained why anime often combined plots that "symbolize modern politics or society" with characters whose age and appearance was "completely incongruent with reality". The Royal Space Force plan proposed to use the creative techniques of anime for a radically different aim, to make "the exact opposite of the 'cool,' castle-in-the-sky anime that is so prevalent these days ... It's on our earth now, in this world of ours now, that we feel it's time for a project that will declare there's still something valuable and meaningful in this world." > "It is essential to pay close attention to the smallest design details of this world. It's because it is a completely different world that it must feel like reality. If you ask why such an approach—when the goal is to get anime fans to reaffirm their reality—it's because if you were to set this anime in our actual world to begin with, that's a place which right now they see as grubby and unappealing. By setting it in a completely different world, it becomes like a foreign film that attracts the attention of the audience. The objects of attraction are not mecha and cute girls, but ordinary customs and fashions. If normal things now look impressive and interesting because they've been seen through a different world, then we'll have achieved what we set out to do in the plan; we'll be able to express, 'Reality is much more interesting than you thought.'" The September 1984 proposal for Royal Space Force was unusual for an anime pitch in that it described the setting and story, but never named the main characters. Okada and Yamaga requested that Maeda and Sadamoto prepare a set of over 30 "image sketches" in watercolor to support the written proposal, depicting the world to be designed for the anime. That same month, Watanabe brought the pitch to Bandai company president Makoto Yamashina, who himself represented a younger corporate generation; Yamashina's response to reading Gainax's proposal was, "I'm not sure what this is all about, but that's exactly why I like it." Yamashina would later state in an interview with the comics and animation criticism magazine Comic Box shortly before the film's release that this viewpoint represented a "grand experiment" by Bandai in producing original content over which they could have complete ownership, and a deliberate strategy that decided to give young artists freedom in creating that content: "I'm in the toy business, and I've always been of the mind that if I understand [the appeal of a product], it won't sell. The reason is the generation gap, which is profound. Honneamise just might hit the jackpot. If so, it will overturn all the assumptions we’ve had up till now. I didn't want them to make the kind of film that we could understand. Put another way, if it was a hit and I could understand why, it wouldn't be such a big deal. I did want it to be a hit, but from the start, I wasn't aiming for a Star Wars. In trying to make it a success, it had to be purely young people's ideas and concepts; we couldn't force them to compromise. We had to let them run free with it. In the big picture, they couldn't produce this on their own, and that's where we stepped in, and managed to bring it all this way. And in that respect, I believe it was a success." ### Pilot film > "This was a project that made full use of all sorts of wiles. At the time, Hayao Miyazaki said, 'Bandai was fooled by Okada's proposal.' I was the first person at Bandai to be fooled (laughs). But no, that's not the case. I'm a simple person; I just wanted to try it because it looked interesting. Nobody thought that Bandai could make an original movie. There wasn't any know-how at all. But that's why I found it interesting. No, to be honest, there were moments when I thought, 'I can't do this.' But [Gainax]'s president, Okada, and the director, Yamaga, both thought strongly, 'I want to make anime professionally, and speak to the world.' Producer Hiroaki Inoue felt the same way, as did [Yasuhiro] Takeda ... I was about the same age, so I got into the flow of all those people's enthusiasm." —Shigeru Watanabe, 2004 Royal Space Force was initially planned as a 40-minute long OVA project, with a budget variously reported at 20 or 40 million yen; however, resistance elsewhere within Bandai to entering the filmmaking business resulted in the requirement that Gainax first submit a short "pilot film" version of Royal Space Force as a demo to determine if the project would be saleable. Work on the pilot film began in December 1984 as Yamaga and Okada moved from Osaka to Tokyo to set up Gainax's first studio in a rented space in the Takadanobaba neighborhood of Shinjuku. That same month, Gainax was officially registered as a corporation in Sakai City, Osaka; founding Gainax board member Yasuhiro Takeda has remarked that the original plan was to disband Gainax as soon as Royal Space Force was completed; it was intended at first only as a temporary corporate entity needed to hold production funds from Bandai during the making of the anime. The Royal Space Force pilot film was made by the same principal staff of Yamaga, Okada, Sadamoto, Anno, and Sonoda listed in the initial proposal, with the addition of Maeda as main personnel on layouts and settei; Sadamoto, Maeda, and Anno served as well among a crew of ten key animators that included Hiroyuki Kitakubo, Yuji Moriyama, Fumio Iida, and Masayuki. A further addition to the staff was co-producer Hiroaki Inoue, recruited as a founding member of Gainax by Okada. Inoue was active in the same Kansai-area science fiction fandom associated with Daicon Film, but had already been in the anime industry for several years, beginning at Tezuka Productions. Takeda noted that while a number of the other Royal Space Force personnel had worked on professional anime projects, none possessed Inoue's supervisory experience, or the contacts he had built in the process. Inoue would leave Gainax after their 1988–1989 Gunbuster, but continued in the industry and would later co-produce Satoshi Kon's 1997 debut film Perfect Blue. In a 2004 interview, Shigeru Watanabe, by then a senior managing director and former president of Bandai Visual, who in later years had co-produced such films as Mamoru Oshii's Ghost in the Shell and Hiroyuki Okiura's Jin-Roh, reflected on his personal maneuvers to get Royal Space Force green-lit by Bandai's executive board, showing the pilot film to various people both inside and outside the company, including soliciting the views of Oshii and Miyazaki. As Bandai was already in the home video business, Watanabe reasoned that the strong video sales of Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind, released the previous year, meant that Miyazaki's opinions would hold weight with Bandai's executives. Watanabe visited Miyazaki's then-studio Nibariki alone and spoke with the director for three hours, of which time, Watanabe joked, he got to speak for ten minutes. Miyazaki, who had worked with Hideaki Anno on Nausicaä, told him, "Anno and his friends are amateurs, but I think they're a little different," comparing the matter to amateurs having "a gorgeous bay window" versus having a foundation: "They feel like they can make the foundation, and maybe raise a new building. If necessary, you can give that advice to the Bandai board." Watanabe laughed that when he told the executives what Miyazaki had said, they approved the project. In April 1985, Okada and Yamaga formally presented the finished pilot film to a board meeting at Bandai, together with a new set of concept paintings by Sadamoto. The four-minute pilot film began with a 40-second prelude sequence of still shots of Shirotsugh's early life accompanied by audio in Russian depicting a troubled Soviet space mission, followed by a shot of a rocket booster stage separating animated by Anno, leading into the main portion of the pilot, which depicts the story's basic narrative through a progression of animated scenes without dialogue or sound effects, set to the overture of Wagner's Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg. Okada addressed the board with a speech described as impassioned, speaking for an hour on Gainax's analysis of the anime industry, future market trends, and the desire of the young for "a work called Royal Space Force". Bandai gave interim approval to Royal Space Force as their company's first independent video production; however, the decision to make the project as a theatrical film would be subject to review at the end of 1985, once Gainax had produced a complete storyboard and settei. In a 2005 column for the online magazine Anime Style, editor and scriptwriter Yuichiro Oguro recalled seeing a video copy of the pilot film secretly circulating after its completion around the anime industry, where there was interest based on Sadamoto and Maeda's reputations as "the genius boys of Tokyo Zokei University". Oguro noted as differences from the later finished movie the pilot film's younger appearance of Shirotsugh and more bishōjo style of Riquinni, whose behavior in the pilot put him in mind of a Miyazaki heroine, as did the composition of the film itself. Yamaga, in a 2007 interview for the Blu-ray/DVD edition release, confirmed this impression about the pilot film and speculated on its consequences: > "It's clearly different from the complete version, and by using the modern saying, it's very Ghiblish ... Among the ambitious animators of those days, there was some sort of consensus that 'if we can create an animated movie that adults can watch, with decent content "for children" which director Hayao Miyazaki has, it will be a hit for sure.' The pilot version was also created under that consensus unconsciously. However, I figured it's not good to do so, and my movie making started from completely denying that consensus. Of course, if we had created this movie with the concept of the world similar to the pilot version, it would've had a balanced and stable style, and not only for staff, but also for sponsors, motion picture companies, and the media ... it would have been easier to grasp and express. But if we had done that, I don't think that any of the Gainax works after that would've been successful at all." ### Screenplay > "The film was Gainax's call to the world, of how we would be. The story of the anime is explaining why we are making anime in the first place. The lift-off of the rocket was only a preview of our future, when we were saying to ourselves, 'Oh, we will do something!' But those feelings are mostly gone, just like memories, just like the person you were when you were young. It has almost gone away. But there is still the real thing, the film we made, that tells our story."—Toshio Okada, 1995 Following the presentation of the pilot film, Yamaga returned to his hometown of Niigata to begin to write the screenplay and draw up storyboards, using a coffeehouse in which to work, taking glances out the window. The opening scene of Royal Space Force, narrated by an older Shirotsugh considering his past, depicts a younger Shiro witnessing the takeoff of a jet from an aircraft carrier; the look of the scene is directly inspired by the winter damp and gloom of Niigata's coastline along the Sea of Japan. Yamaga envisioned the fictional Honnêamise kingdom where most of the events of Royal Space Force took place to have the scientific level of the 1950s combined with the atmosphere of America and Europe in the 1930s, but with characters who moved to a modern rhythm. The inspiration he sought to express in anime from Niigata was not the literal look of the city, but rather a sense of the size and feel of the city and its envrions, including its urban geography; the relationships between its old and new parts, and between its denser core and more open spaces. In August 1985, six members of the Royal Space Force crew, Yamaga, Okada, Inoue, Sadamoto, and Anno from Gainax, accompanied by Shigeru Watanabe from Bandai, traveled to the United States for a research trip, studying postmodern architecture in New York City, aerospace history at the National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C., and witnessing a launch of the Space Shuttle Discovery at Kennedy Space Center in Florida. Documentary footage of the research trip was shot by Watanabe and incorporated into a promotional film released two weeks before the Japanese premiere of Royal Space Force. Yamaga made revisions to the script during the American research tour. While staying in the US, the group was surprised and amused to see an English-dubbed version of Macross showing on their hotel room TV, a series which Yamaga, Anno, and Sadamoto had all worked upon; the scenes were from a rerun of Robotech, which had completed its initial run on American television earlier that summer. Noriaki Ikeda, winner of the 1986 Seiun Award for nonfiction, began a series of articles on the film's production that year for Animage. After watching a rough edit of the film, Ikeda wrote that Royal Space Force was an anime that reminded him of what the works of the American New Wave had brought to the live-action movies of Hollywood in the 1960s; perceiving in the film an effort by Gainax to create a work with their own sense of words and rhythm, employing natural body language, raw expressions, and timing, and an overall "texture" that made a closer approach to human realities. Reviewing the completed film five months later, Ikeda made extensive comment on the scriptwriting: "It's been some time since I've seen an original work that pays so much attention to dialogue, and features such subtle nuance," contrasting it to "the anime we're used to seeing these days, that scream their message at you." Ikeda remarked in particular on how supporting characters were given dialogue to speak that was independent of the main storyline, which gave a sense that they were real human beings, and how this was further expressed in scenes that managed to convey "dialogue without dialogue," such as the sequence in the rocket factory where characters are seen to converse although only music is heard on the audio track. Yamaga suggested the idea of a film as the creation of an auteur was in conflict with the goal of depicting of a truly realistic world. He asserted that particularly since in animation, unlike in live-action, whatever appears in a scene is considered to have been "intentional," his objective with Royal Space Force was to deliberately seek to erase directorial authorship of this kind from the film as much as possible through dialogue and scenes that were "meaningless" in a strict narrative sense, but were intended instead to add a dimension of depth existing behind the story. In a roundtable discussion with the anime magazine OUT following the film's theatrical release, Yamaga remarked, "I wanted to taste the sense of liberation I could get if I recognized everything [about human nature] and included it," a view with which Okada had concurred, saying, "this is a film that acknowledges people in their every aspect". On the 2000 DVD commentary, Yamaga stated of the character relationships in Royal Space Force that "A critic once said that none of the characters in this film understand each other. That there's no communication between the characters. He was exactly right. The characters don't understand each other at all. But throughout the film, there are moments where there are glimpses of understandings between [Shirotsugh] and the other characters ... In reality, it's okay not to understand each other. People all live their individual lives—it's not necessary to feel the same way another feels. And in fact you will never understand anybody anyway. This is how I feel about the relationships I have with the people in my life." Three years after his 1992 departure from Gainax, Okada reflected on the film's screenplay in an interview with Animerica: "Our goal at first was to make a very 'realistic' film. So we couldn’t have the kind of strong, dramatic construction you’d find in a Hollywood movie. [Royal Space Force] is an art film. And at the time, I thought that was very good, that this is something—an anime art film. But now when I look back, I realize ... this was a major motion picture. Bandai spent a lot of money on it. It was our big chance. Maybe if I’d given it a little stronger structure, and a little simpler story—change it a little, make it not so different—it could have met the mainstream." "I think the audience gets confused at three points in the film: the first scene, which is Shiro’s opening monologue, the rape scene, and the prayer from space. Why? The film needed a stronger structure. A little more. A few changes, and the audience would be able to follow Shiro's thoughts. But right now, they miss it, and that’s a weakness. It’s true that there will be ten or twenty percent of the audience who can follow it as is, and say, 'Oh, it's a great film! I can understand everything! ' But eighty percent of the audience is thinking, 'I lost Shiro’s thoughts two or three times, or maybe four or five.' Those are the kind of people who will say, 'The art is great, and the animation is very good, but the story—mmmm...'" Okada remarked however that the decentralized decision-making creative process at Gainax meant there were limits to how much control could be asserted through the script; Akai would later comment that "the staff were young and curious, not unlike the characters in the film. If you tried to control them too much, they would have just walked out." Yamaga asserted that a "discrepancy between who [Riquinni] wanted to be and who she really was...is evident in her lifestyle and dialogue," and that "on the outside," she carries an image of Shiro as "'an extraordinary being who travels through space into this peaceful and heavenly place'... But deep down inside she knows the truth. She's not stupid." The director remarked that Riquinni's actions and dialogue in the film's controversial scenes of assault and the morning after reflect the dissonances present in both her self-image and her image of Shiro, and that the scene "was very difficult to explain to the staff" as well; that she is signaling her strength to go on living according to her beliefs, and without Shiro in her life any longer. "There's no simple explanation for that scene, but basically, I was depicting a human situation where two people are moving closer and closer, yet their relationship isn't progressing at all...[Shiro resorts] to violence in an attempt to close that gap, only to find that was also useless. The two of them never came to terms, never understood each other, even to the end of the movie. However, even though they never understood each other, they are in some way linked together..." Yamaga affirmed that the scene where Riquinni looks up from her farm labor at the jet overhead was meant to be a match with the young Shiro doing the same in the opening monologue, yet at the same time showing that she and Shiro lived their lives in different worlds. "Whereas [in the final scene] with the snow, it's actually touching her, so there is a small intimacy in that image. But the snow is very light—it melts the moment it falls. So then, are they touching, or aren't they touching? I wanted to depict an ambiguous relationship between them at the very end." "When there's a man and a woman in a film, you automatically think that there's going to be a romance between them, but I didn't mean for it to be that way. Looking back now, I realize that it's difficult to comprehend a story about a man and a woman without romance, but at the time I made this film, I felt that a relationship between a man and a woman did not have to be a romantic one." ### Design In May 1985, Gainax transferred their operations to another location in Takadanobaba that offered twice the space of their previous studio, where the existing staff gathered in friends and acquaintances to help visualize the setting of Royal Space Force. Among those joining the crew at this time were two of the film's most prolific world designers: Takashi Watabe, whose designs would include the train station, rocket factory, and Royal Space Force lecture hall and Yoichi Takizawa, whose contributions included the rocket launch gantry, space capsule simulator, and rocket engine test facility. Yamaga decided that the vision of the alternate world depicted in the pilot film did not have the kind of different realism he was hoping to achieve in the completed work. Rather than use the design work of the pilot as a foundation for the full-length anime, it was decided to "destroy" the world of the pilot film and start over again, creating a new series of "image board" paintings to visualize the look of Royal Space Force. The total worldbuilding process went on for roughly a year, and was described as a converse process between Yamaga and the gradually assembled team of designers; expressing his ideas into concrete terms, but also bringing their concrete skills to bear toward the expression of abstract ideas. Yamaga reflected in 2007 that this reciprocal process influenced his writing on the film: "My style is not 'I have a story I created, so you help me make it.' Creators come first, and this is a story I created thinking what story those creators would shine at the most." #### Characters In the decade following Royal Space Force, the Sadamoto-designed Nadia La Arwall and Rei Ayanami would each twice win the Anime Grand Prix fan poll for favorite female character; Sadamoto's Shinji Ikari would also win twice for favorite male character. By contrast, his male and female leads designed for Royal Space Force, Shirotsugh and Riquinni, ranked ninth and twentieth respectively for their categories in the Grand Prix poll of 1987 releases. In a roundtable discussion on Royal Space Force following its release, it was pointed out that neither Shirotsugh nor Riquinni look like typical anime lead characters. Yamaga remarked in his 2007 retrospective that, "One of the changes you can easily see from the pilot version is the character modeling of the protagonist. He used to look like a boy, but has become like a middle-aged man. As you can see in Evangelion later on, characters that Yoshiyuki Sadamoto creates are more attractive when they look young. But of course, he's really skilled, so even if he challenges the area that's not his specialty, he can give us what we're asking for." Sadamoto in fact did use for the final version of Shirotsugh a model reference significantly older than the 21-year old character's age, the American actor Treat Williams, although the character designer remarked that Yamaga's instructions to make the face square and the eyebrows thicker had him thinking the redesign would look like the director himself. As a reference for Manna, Yamaga referred Sadamoto to actress Tatum O'Neal as she appeared in the first half of the film Paper Moon. Takami Akai remarked that "Sadamoto drew Manna so perfectly that we were sort of intimidated," adding she was "a sidekick who brought out the darker aspects" of Riquinni. Regarding Riquinni herself, Sadamoto commented in 1987 that there seemed to be a model for her, but Yamaga did not tell him who it was. In a 2018 interview session with Niigata University, Yamaga remarked, "What I see now is surprisingly the character Riquinni is nothing but me. At any rate, Shirotsugh is not me. If you ask me where I would position myself in the film, I would identify myself as Riquinni in many aspects, in terms of the way I think. I was probably someone weird [and] religious, ever since my childhood." The appearance of several minor characters in Royal Space Force was based on Gainax staff members or crew on the film, including Nekkerout (Takeshi Sawamura), the Republic aide who plans Shirotsugh's assassination (Fumio Iida), and the director who suggests what Shiro should say before he walks out of his TV interview (Hiroyuki Kitakubo). Commenting on the character designs in Royal Space Force, Sadamoto remarked that in truth they more reflected the tastes of Gainax than his own personal ones, although at the same time, as the artist, his taste must be reflected in them somehow. Sadamoto discussed the issue in terms of anime character design versus manga character design: "Manga can afford such strong and weird characters, but it's difficult to make good moving characters out of them in anime. The moment I draw a character, for example, you can see how it is going to behave, really ... but I was asking myself what I should be doing. 'Should I make their facial expressions more like those you see in a typical anime?' and so on. I feel that the audience reaction was pretty good, or at least that I managed to get a passing grade." #### Designers' team work On the premise that the real world itself was a product of mixed design, Yamaga believed that the sense of alternate reality in Royal Space Force would be strengthened by inviting as many designers as possible to participate in the anime. By September, the worldbuilding of Royal Space Force proceeded forward by a system where designers were free to draw and submit visual concepts based on their interpretation of Yamaga's script; the concept art would then be discussed at a daily liaison meeting between Yamaga and the other staff. Yamaga used "keywords" given to the designers as a starting point for the film’s world building; the words were divided into what he termed "symbolic" and "non-symbolic" categories. The director sought to avoid "symbolic" premises where possible; as an example of the difference, Yamaga stated that a "symbolic" way to describe a "cup" would be to call it a "cylindrical object", whereas he preferred the designers start from "non-symbolic" terms that described a cup's function or sensory impressions from use, such as "it holds water," or "it’s cold and sweats when filled with water." Yamaga expressed a concern, however, that relying entirely on this "non-symbolic" approach would have risked making the designs into "abstract paintings," and so decided to retain a certain degree of "symbolic" information in the keywords. #### Coordination Assistant director Shinji Higuchi had overall responsibility for coordinating the design work with Yamaga's intentions through overseeing the output of its multiple designers; Higuchi noted moreover that the film's main mecha were designed in a collaborative fashion, citing as an example the Honnêamise air force plane, for which Sadamoto first created a rough sketch, then Takizawa finished up its shape, with its final touches added by Anno. Although his aim was to give a unified look to the kingdom of Honnêamise as the film's main setting, Higuchi also attempted to take care to make it neither too integrated nor too disjointed, remarking that just as the present day world is made from a mixing of different cultures, this would have also been true of a past environment such as the alternate 1950s world of Honnêamise. Yamaga commented that the film also portrayed the idea that different levels of technology are present in a world at the same time depending upon particular paths of development, such as the color TV in use by the Republic, or the air combat between jet and prop planes at the end, which Yamaga compared to similar engagements during the Korean War. #### Rocket A deliberate exception to Royal Space Force's general design approach was the rocket itself, which was adapted from a real-world Soviet model. This exception was later noticed by Hayao Miyazaki, for whom it formed one of his two criticisms of the anime; he was surprised that a film which had gone so far as to change the shape of money did not make the rocket more unusual. Yamaga argued that although the anime reaches its eventual conclusion through a process of different design paths, it was necessary to end the film with a rocket inspired by reality, lest the audience see it as a story about a different world that has nothing to do with them. In their roundtable discussion with OUT, Gainax described the rocket as also emblematic of the film's approach to mecha; despite its many mecha designs, they all play supporting roles, and even the rocket is not treated as a "lead character". ### Art direction Although later noted for creating much of the aesthetic behind the influential 1995 film Ghost in the Shell, Hiromasa Ogura in a 2012 interview named his first project as an art director, Royal Space Force, as the top work of his career. Ogura had entered the anime industry in 1977 as a background painter at Kobayashi Production, where he contributed art to such films as Lupin III: The Castle of Cagliostro; at the time work began on Royal Space Force, Ogura was at Studio Fuga, a backgrounds company he had co-founded in 1983. On temporary transfer to Gainax after he was recruited for the project by Okada and Inoue, Ogura recalled he did not at first realize he was working with the same amateur filmmakers who had made the Daicon opening animations. Ogura oversaw a team of 16 background painters on Royal Space Force, including the future art director of Spirited Away, Yōji Takeshige, then still a student attending Tama Art University. A majority of the film’s background paintings were created in Gainax’s studio rather than outsourced, as Ogura felt the film’s worldview was easier for him to communicate to artists in person; as the color scheme in Royal Space Force was subdued; if a painting needed more of a bluish cast to it, he couldn't simply instruct the artist to "add more blue." Toshio Okada described the aesthetics of the world in which Royal Space Force takes place as having been shaped by three main artists: first, its major color elements (blue and brown) were determined by Sadamoto; then its architectural styles and artistic outlook were designed by [Takashi] Watabe, and finally Ogura gave it "a sense of life" through depicting its light, shadow, and air. It was noted also that the film's world displays different layers of time in its designs; the main motifs being Art Deco, but with older Art Nouveau and newer postmodern elements also present. Ogura commented that although the film depicted a different world, "there's nothing that you'd call sci-fi stuff, it's everyday, normal life like our own surroundings. I wanted to express that messy impression." He laid particular emphasis on attempting to suggest the visual texture of the world's architecture and interior design; following Watabe’s detailed notes, Ogura worked to convey in his paintings such aspects as the woodwork motifs prominent in the Space Force headquarters, or by contrast the metallic elements in the room where the Republic minister Nereddon tastes wine. Watabe and Ogura would collaborate again in 1995 on Ghost in the Shell. Critiquing his own work on Royal Space Force, Ogura expressed a wish that he had been able to convey more emphasis on the effects of light and shadow in addition to color, but joked that it was hard to say exactly how things would turn out until he actually painted them, something he said was true of the entire film. Ogura remarked that many of his team were veterans of Sanrio's theatrical films unit, which gave him confidence in their abilities; mentioning the role of former Sanrio artist, future Gankutsuou art director Hiroshi Sasaki, in the visionary sequence occurring after Shirotsugh's orbiting spacecraft crosses from the world's nightside to its dayside, referred to in production as its "image scene." Akai discusses the involvement as well in this sequence of the future director of Gankutsuou, Mahiro Maeda. Okada judged that the image scene was the only place in the film appropriate to the talent of Maeda, whom he called a "true artist." Anime, Okada argued, was like a reactor that harnessed Maeda, whose artistic talent Okada compared to that of a nuclear blast, for the mundane purpose of boiling water; he asserted that when Maeda had worked before Royal Space Force on Castle in the Sky, not even Hayao Miyazaki had been able to employ his talent properly. The artist Nobuyuki Ohnishi, a contemporary illustrator whose work Yamaga knew from the music magazines Swing Journal and ADLIB, was picked by Yamaga to create the film’s title sequence and closing credits. Yamaga believed using contributions only from artists inside the anime industry set limits on the creative potential of an anime project, and compared Ohnishi’s involvement to Ryuichi Sakamoto serving as the film’s music director or Leo Morimoto as its lead voice actor. Although his illustrations used a sumi-e ink wash painting technique associated with classical East Asian art, Ohnishi preferred to use the style to depict modern subjects; Yamaga felt the method would convey an alternate perspective and suggest the film's exercise in worldbuilding included a conceptual past and future, rather than a world brought into existence only to tell one particular narrative in time. In creating the credits, Ohnishi made frequent use of photographs of real people and historical events, which he would then modify when adapting it into a painting: "exchanging and replacing the details of, for example, a European picture with Asian or Middle-Eastern elements and motifs. In this way, the credits would reflect both the cultural mixing that gives the film as a whole its appearance, and symbolize the blurring between our world and the film's world, thus serving [Royal Space Force's] function as a 'kaleidoscopic mirror.'" ### Animation After the completion in December 1985 of Daicon Film's final project, Orochi Strikes Again, its director Takami Akai and special effects director Shinji Higuchi moved to Tokyo to join the production of Royal Space Force as two of its three assistant directors, alongside Shoichi Masuo. At age 20, Higuchi was the very youngest of the main crew; his previous creative experience had been in live-action special effects films rather than anime. As someone who did not "think like an animator," he would bring unorthodox and interesting ideas and techniques to the project. Shoichi Masuo was an associate of Hideaki Anno, whom he had met when the two worked together on the 1984 Macross film. Having more experience than Akai or Higuchi in anime, Masuo would explain Yamaga’s abstract directives to animators in concrete terms. Higuchi had overall charge regarding the design aspects of the settei, Masuo was in charge over the color aspects of the settei, including backgrounds, whereas Akai monitored the work as a whole as general assistant to Yamaga. These roles were not fixed, and the three did not confer on a daily basis, but rather would have meetings on how to shift their approach whenever changes in the production situation called for it. Masuo remarked that the animation style of Royal Space Force was generally straightforward, without the characteristic quirky techniques to create visual interest or amusement often associated with anime, but that "there's nothing else [in anime] like this where you can do proper acting and realistic mechanical movements. That's why its impression is quite cinematic...In animation, it's very difficult to do something normal. When you consider [the film], there are many scenes where the characters are just drinking tea or walking around. You don't take notice of [such actions], yet they're very difficult to draw, and I think it required a lot of challenging work for the key animators." Anno, who served as the film's special effects artist, likewise remarked that two frequent criticisms of Royal Space Force were that "it could have looked more like a [typical] anime" but also contrariwise that it would have been more appropriate for it to be made in live-action. Anno felt these views failed to apprehend the advantage of using animation for filmmaking as a precise transmission of directorial intent, and the film's aim to convey a sense of reality rather than a look of live-action as such: "All I can say to people who want to see something more anime-like on their screen is that they should watch other anime." Although Royal Space Force was essentially a pre-digital animated work using layers of physical cels and backgrounds painted by hand, computer-assisted animation was used for certain difficult motion shots, including the contra-rotating propellers of the Honnêamise air force plane, the rotation of the space capsule while in orbit, the tilted wheel turn of the street sweeper, and the swing of the instrument needle in the launch control bunker. The motions themselves were rendered using ASCII 3D software, and then traced onto cels. By contast, Ryusuke Hikawa noted that the flakes of frost falling from the rocket at liftoff, which might be assumed to be a CG effect, were done entirely by hand under the supervision of Hideaki Anno. As 1985 drew to a close, Bandai had still not formally committed to Royal Space Force as a feature-length film release, as a distributor for the movie had not yet been secured. Yamaga was also late in finalizing the storyboard, which would not be completed in its entirety until June 1986. However, its third, or C part was nearly finished, and the decision was made to start production there, on the reasoning that the sober tone of many scenes in the third quarter of the film required precision in expression; as there was no release date yet, it was better to work on them while the schedule was still relatively loose. Higuchi remarked that because Yamaga's storyboards were minimalist, containing only the field size, the number of characters in the frame, and the placement of the dialogue, Royal Space Force was not made in a typical fashion for an anime, where the animators would be given directives to "draw this picture." Instead they were asked to "think out the performance in this scene," with meetings where the animators themselves determined how scenes would move by first physically acting them through as if they were attempting to convey it to an audience; the camera angles to be used were also decided through discussion. He described the process in retrospect as having been "a lot of fun," yet noted there were some animators who had refused to work in such a fashion, and backed away from the production. In January 1986, Toho-Towa agreed to distribute Royal Space Force as a feature film, and production assumed a more frantic pace, as the process of in-betweening, cel painting, and background painting began at this time; additional staff was recruited via advertisements placed in anime magazines. The daily exchange of ideas between Yamaga and the other staff at Gainax continued during production, as the artists attempted to understand his intentions, and Yamaga requested that animation drawings, designs, and background paintings to be re-done in order to get closer to the "image in his head;" the film's artists also exchanged opinions on the images between themselves. Yamaga would later say of the making of Royal Space Force, "it was like we were all swinging swords with our eyes blindfolded". Akai and Yamaga remarked that since they weren't "animation purists," they altered the animation drawings, cels, and timesheets in ways that were not traditional industry practice, to the extent that "the young people who followed in our footsteps in creating anime thought that was how it was done," speculating that they may have created new traditions for anime by breaking the old on the production of Royal Space Force. ### Cinematography As a pre-digital anime, the scenes in Royal Space Force were created by using a camera to photograph the animation cels and backgrounds onto movie film. A scene would typically consist of a series of separate individual shots known as "cuts," with each cut being prepared for the photographer by collecting into a bag all animation cels and background elements to be used in that particular cut. Many of the scenes in the film would be realized through special techniques applied to the underlying animation; an example was the analog television screen in the Space Force barracks, created by photographing the animation cels through a clear acrylic panel cover from a fluorescent lamp. Besides the technical necessity to photograph the animation, Gainax's experience in filming amateur live-action works had an influence on the construction of the animated scenes themselves. Akai and Yamaga remarked that it had not been their intent to "emulate" live-action films, but to make animation with a realism based on their experience of "look(ing) through the camera lens to see what it sees ... It's difficult to express animated films realistically. The camera doesn't really exist." Another reflection of their live-action experience involved building scale models of vehicles and buildings appearing in the film as models for the animators, but also to choose which angles and viewpoints to use in scenes where the modelled objects would appear; in the figurative sense, to "decide where the cameras should be." The director of photography on Royal Space Force was Hiroshi Isakawa of Mushi Production, where the animation for the pilot film had been shot. Isakawa remarked that he was originally assured photography could begin in April 1986, but received no cuts to film until August, and then "only the easy work," with Gainax putting off more difficult scenes until later. The most intense work period occurred in January 1987, with the filming completed at the end of that month; with the off-and-on nature of the task, the photography had taken three months of actual time. Isakawa described the technical challenges he faced in filming Royal Space Force, with some individual cuts created by using as many as 12 photographic levels consisting of cels, superimposition layers, and sheets of paper masks designed to capture isolated areas of different colored light. Another challenging aspect involved motion, such as conveying the heavy vibrations of Marty's motorcycle, or the air force plane cockpit; whereas ordinarily such scenes would be filmed while shaking the cels and the backgrounds as a unit, Gainax insisted that the elements be shaken separately. Yamaga and Shinji Higuchi, who also served as assistant director of photography on the film, had Isakawa watch The Right Stuff and showed him NASA photos as a reference for the look they wished to achieve in certain shots. To convey a sense of the visual mystery of the film's world from space, Isakawa photographed the art through masks with such tiny holes that he felt the images were hardly lit at all; he was unable to judge the light levels in advance, having to make adjustments afterwards based on examining the developed film. Isakawa mentioned that he would get tired and angry after being asked to shoot five or six different takes of a cut, not seeing the necessity for it, but gave up resisting when he realized it was a work "in pursuit of perfection," and felt that the final achievement was "realistic without using the imagery of live action, a work that made full use of anime's best merits." ## Voice acting The voice performances in Royal Space Force were supervised by Atsumi Tashiro of the anime studio Group TAC, who had been sound director for the highly influential 1974 TV series Space Battleship Yamato. Gainax had been enthusiastic in pursuing Tashiro's involvement, even though Tashiro had not worked outside his own company in over 20 years, sending him the film’s script, followed by a personal visit from Yamaga and Okada. Despite his initial difficulty in grasping the project, Tashiro was struck by the passion and youth of the filmmakers, and felt that working with them on Royal Space Force would represent an opportunity to "revitalize" himself professionally. Yamaga remarked that he "wanted the dialogue to be natural," which he maintained was "a first in Japanese animation." Akai felt a tone had been set for Royal Space Force by the decision to cast Leo Morimoto in the lead role as Shirotsugh: "The other actors [then] knew that this was going to be a different kind of animated film." Morimoto was a 43-year old veteran actor of live-action films and TV but had very limited experience in anime, whereas Mitsuki Yayoi, cast as Riquinni after Gainax had heard her on the radio, was a stage actor and member of the Seinenza Theater Company with some voice-over experience, but who had never before played an anime role. Tashiro saw the casting as a great opportunity for him, asserting that the apprehension Morimoto and Yayoi felt due to their mutual unfamiliarity with the field meant that they approached their roles as an actual encounter, with genuine emotion and reactions that were honest and fresh, a spirit that Tashiro said he had forgotten within the world of anime. Morimoto remarked during a recording session for the film in late November 1986 that Tashiro directed him not to play the role of Shirotsugh as if it were an anime, but rather to attempt the flavor of a live performance, and that Yamaga had given him the same instructions. He commented that it was a difficult role for him, as unlike a live-action drama, "you can't fake the mood, you have to express yourself correctly with just your voice," and viewed his work on Royal Space Force as "scary" but "fulfilling." Although evaluating the character himself as "not a great hero," at the same time he found much that was convincing in Shirotsugh's growth, feeling that it somehow came to assume the role of history's own progression: "What is to be found at the end of that maturation is gradually revealed, arriving at a magnificent place." He added he was "shocked that a 24-year old could make such a film ... I'm glad to know that [creators] like this are making their debut, and I hope that more of them do." Yayoi commented that Yamaga had described Riquinni to her as "uncompromising in her beliefs, and this could be seen as hardheadedness and causing problems or discomfort to those around her. But also that she could look upon something truly beautiful, yet not respond simply by thinking that yes, it is beautiful, but might ponder it, and wonder if it genuinely is. It's not a disability or a deliberate obstacle [in her character], but just that people around her would honestly think that this girl is a little bit weird." Yayoi understood Riquinni as a "normal girl" who, to the extent she was out of step with everyday life, was not so much because she was strange on the inside, but because her relationships with the exterior world were governed by her strong will; Yayoi suggested that the film is her coming-of-age story as well. ## Music In April 1986, Ryuichi Sakamoto was selected as the musical director of Royal Space Force. Sakamoto was already regarded for his work in the pioneering electronic band Yellow Magic Orchestra and his soundtrack for the 1983 Nagisa Oshima film Merry Christmas, Mr. Lawrence; the year following the release of Royal Space Force, Sakamoto would share the Academy Award for Best Original Score for the soundtrack to The Last Emperor. In 1986 Sakamoto was prominent also in the Japanese domestic film market for his soundtrack to its top-grossing movie of that year, Koneko Monogatari. Ryusuke Hikawa commented that in fact the musical director was the only member of Royal Space Force's main staff known to the general public at the time of the film's production; Yamaga recalled that asking Sakamoto to do the music for Royal Space Force required a special increase of 40 million yen above its previous 360 million yen budget. Sakamoto's first commercial release of music for the project occurred three months before the Japanese debut of the film itself, in the form of a 12" maxi single entitled The Wings of Honnêamise: Image Sketch, containing early mixes of four key initial pieces he had composed for the film's soundtrack, referred to on Image Sketch only under the names "Prototype A", "Prototype B", "Prototype C", and "Prototype D". In its liner notes Sakamoto commented that one of the main reasons he accepted the job was that he saw a resemblance between the meticulous care he put into his music and the efforts the filmmakers were taking with Royal Space Force. Yamaga wrote in Image Sketch that he saw Sakamoto as a composer who, like the other creators working on the film, rejected "fill-in-the-blank" styles and instead expressed a deep personal sensibility. Sakamoto brought into the Royal Space Force project his prior collaborators on Koneko Monogatari, musicians Koji Ueno, Yuji Nomi, and Haruo Kubota. Ueno, Kubota, and Nomi took as their starting points Sakamoto's four prototypes as well as a set of "keywords" that Yamaga had given them for guidance. The team worked from a "chart table" prepared by Sakamoto and sound director Atsumi Tashiro listing each scene in the film requiring music, with notes on length, the kind of music to be used, and which of the four prototypes to use as a basis for their arrangements. Ueno, Kubota, and Nomi then decided which scenes in the film they would each arrange, and then made their pieces separately, neither working on them in the studio together, or with Sakamoto. After arranging a piece, they would reassemble as a group and listen to each other's work, and then go their separate ways once again to continue the process. Of the 47 musical arrangements made for the film based on the chart, of which 15 were later selected to be featured on The Wings of Honnêamise\~Royal Space Force Original Soundtrack album released in March 1987, most were developed as variations on one of Sakamoto’s original four prototypes; for example, "Prototype A" would become the basis of the film's opening credits theme. A few were created based on arrangements combining two of the four prototypes; 13 of the 47 pieces, however, were not based on any of the four, but were instead new original compositions created later in the soundtrack process by Ueno, Kubota, Nomi, or Sakamoto himself; several of these were featured on the Original Soundtrack. The background music pieces not included on the Original Soundtrack would eventually be collected as a bonus feature on the 1990 Royal Space Force\~The Wings of Honnêamise Memorial Box LaserDisc edition; this bonus feature would also be included as an extra on the 2000 Manga Entertainment DVD. Toshio Okada remarked in 1995, "I didn't really like Sakamoto's [musical] style back then, or even now. But I know his talent, his ability to construct a strong score, and write an entire orchestration. That’s why I chose him," stating that "at that time, he was the only choice for an original movie soundtrack." Asked if he had considered Jo Hisaishi, Okada replied, "Hisaishi always writes one or two melodies, and the rest of the soundtrack is constructed around them ... But his kind of style wouldn't have worked for [Royal Space Force] ... for better or worse, the film has a very differentiated structure, and we needed a score to match that." In 2018, Sakamoto’s film score for My Tyrano: Together, Forever was reported by media outlets as his first time composing for animation. The composer remarked in an interview earlier that year that he had been in charge of the music for an anime film "35 [sic] years ago, but I didn't like it very much (so I can't say the title)." Commenting on Sakamoto’s remarks, Okada recalled that the composer had been sincerely excited about creating the music for Royal Space Force early on in the project, and had studied its storyboards closely for inspiration; the liner notes for the 1987 Original Soundtrack album noted a music planning meeting where the enthusiasm was so great participants ended up staying for 12 hours. Okada theorized Sakamoto may have seen the exactly timed scenes as a chance to achieve a perfect sync between his music and the images; however, Okada noted, the actual length of a finished cut of animation may vary slightly, and ultimately the sound director has the prerogative to edit the music accordingly. Okada believed such issues could have been resolved if he had the opportunity to speak directly with Sakamoto and make adjustments, but after a point communications became relayed through his management, Yoroshita Music. The composer himself had been away from Japan during the final months of Royal Space Force's production, which overlapped with the shooting schedule of The Last Emperor. Okada asserted that although Sakamoto and Yamaga themselves never came into conflict, the situation led to frustration among the film’s staff, and in particular between Yoroshita and sound director Tashiro; Tashiro eventually asked Okada to make the call as to whether he or Sakamoto would have final say on placing the music. Okada chose Tashiro, remarking that he accepted responsibility for the decision although he believed it was what soured Sakamoto on Royal Space Force, to the extent of not discussing it as part of his history as a film composer. ## Marketing and release ### Marketing By late 1986, signs of nervousness had appeared among sponsors and investors in the film, as "the footage of Royal Space Force neared completion ... and was found to be inconveniently free of many merchandising spin-off opportunities," prompting what Jonathan Clements describes as "outrageous attempts" by its financial backers to "fix" the film that began with "prolonged arguments over a sudden perceived need to rename it." The project had been pitched, developed, and approved for production under the name Royal Space Force; Okada remarked that, to Gainax, it was "its one and only title". All Nippon Airways, one of the film's sponsors, however desired that the title include the word "wings", while Bandai favored that the title should use the form "Something of Something," on the reasoning that the last big anime hit had been called Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind. As Royal Space Force "was 'not sexy enough'" and Riquinni was "conveniently female," the initial push was to use the title (The) Wings of Riquinni. Although the plan to make Royal Space Force had been known around the anime industry since mid-1985, the official announcement of the film was not made until June 4, 1986 in a press conference held at the prestigious Imperial Hotel in Tokyo. The announcement used Royal Space Force as the main title of the film, with (The) Wings of Riquinni as a smaller subtitle; privately, Yamaga objected strongly to the subtitle, pointing out the purpose of the film was to expand the audience's view of the world, and that he did not want a title that focused on one character; therefore, if a second title was absolutely required, he suggested it use Honnêamise after the name of the kingdom in which most of the film's events takes place. As 1986 drew to a close, publicity for the film gradually relegated Royal Space Force to the status of a smaller subtitle beneath The Wings of Honnêamise. In a 2010 memoir, Okada reflected that the conflict had involved not only the film’s title, but also its length. Okada acknowledged a shorter movie could have potentially increased ticket sales by allowing the film to be shown more times per day; at the time, however, Okada had refused, arguing that the box office was not part of his job, saying in a meeting that if they wanted to cut the film by even 20 minutes, they might as well cut off Okada's arm. In retrospect, Okada felt that he had acted like a child, but that "creators are all children." Bandai company president Makoto Yamashina affirmed shortly before the film's release that during a three week period he and distributor Toho-Towa had thought of cutting 20 minutes from the film: "but the process of deciding what [scenes] to cut began with conversations about why they shouldn't be cut. And afterwards, I thought, 'Ah, I get it now' and felt that I couldn't ... For the sake of the box office, it could have worked at around 100 minutes, but if we cut the film at this stage, the whole objective of the movie flies out the window, and the hundreds of millions of yen spent on it have no meaning." Yamashina told Toho he would accept responsibility if his decision meant the film was not a hit. Okada wrote of having later heard how "emotions were running high" on the Bandai side as well, to the extent of considering taking the project away from Gainax and giving it to another studio to finish, or even cancelling the film's release, despite the 360 million yen already spent on producing it. However, this would have required someone's "head to roll" at Bandai to take responsibility for the loss, which could mean Makoto Yamashina himself, who had announced Royal Space Force as his personal project durung the official press conference in June. Okada noted that the person caught in the middle was Shigeru Watanabe, who had supported the project from the beginning but now found himself "forced into a very difficult position," becoming so depressed by the conflict that following the film's release, he took a year's leave of absence. Okada expressed great regret for what he described as his lack of kindness at the time toward Watanabe, but nevertheless did not regret his lack of compromise, believing that if he had given any ground, the film might have not been completed. Okada asserted in a 1995 interview that as Nausicaä had been "the last 'big anime hit,'" the marketing staff at Toho-Towa modeled their thinking upon it, and after realizing the film was not going to be like Nausicaä, decided to advertise it as if it was. Yamashina had himself acknowledged that the film’s sales target was based on Nausicaä even though "the content of this work isn’t like Nausicaä ... No one’s ever done something like this before, so it’s a great risk in that respect." In 2000, Akai recalled, "The PR department didn't really seem to understand the film. They have a tendency to make a new release interesting by making it appear similar to a film that was previously a hit." Yamaga commented, "There was no precedent in advertising a film like ours at the time ... they can only compare it to something like Nausicaä. It's actually completely different." Yamaga however felt that Nausicaä "at least served as a reference when we were asked to describe our film. If it wasn't for that precedent, there would have been no reference point at all." Clements remarked, "the promotions unit did everything in their power to make Honnêamise appeal to precisely the same audience as Nausicaä, even if that meant misleading advertising," citing an "insect incident" where Yoshiyuki Sadamoto was asked to draw an image of Manna’s pet bug as if it were a giant creature attacking the city in the film, in the manner of the giant ohmu in Nausicaä. The national publicity campaign for the film now being promoted under the title The Wings of Honnêamise\~Royal Space Force began on New Year's Day, 1987, including full-color newspaper and magazine ads, as well as TV commercials, with eventual placements in over 70 media outlets. As with the "insect incident," a frequent aspect of the marketing push involved taking images from the film and presenting them as fantastical, such as a steam train from the movie relabeled as a "bio-train" in ads. The film's official press kit described its story premise as: "'... Through the guidance of a lass with a pure and untainted soul, those who are awakened shall take wing and rise to Heaven, taking in hand the Honnêamise holy book' ... Shirotsugh grew up to join the Royal Space Force, as did other youths as hot blooded and energetic as he. It was then that work began on a grand project to search space for the envisioned holy book that promises eternal peace to Honnêamise." The standing stone seen briefly in the story, while given no particular meaning in the film itself, was repurposed into a major feature of the film's advertising, labeled as a "Symbol Tower" that shines due to what ads described as a secret telepathic link born from the "passionate love" between Shirotsugh and Riquinni. The only dialogue spoken in the trailer, "Do you believe in the miracle of love?" said by Riquinni's voice actor, Mitsuki Yayoi, was not a line from the actual film, but referenced a catchphrase used in the advertising campaign. ### Release #### Japanese release Shortly before the release of the film, Makoto Yamashina stated his considerable uncertainty over how the film would be received, with the fear that "the theaters will be deserted." He also however expressed anxiety over the implications for the industry if it succeeded: "If it turns out that young people today are thinking along Yamaga's lines, at that level of sophistication, it's going to be very difficult [for other filmmakers] ... It's hard for me to talk about the film like this, but regardless of whether or not it succeeds, it's a movie that I don't understand." In an attempt to build publicity for the film’s March 1987 release in Japan, a world premiere event was held on February 19, 1987 at Mann's Chinese Theatre in Hollywood. The one-night showing was arranged for the Japanese media, with all Tokyo TV news shows covering the premiere; Bandai paid for 200 anime industry notables to attend as well. Footage from the Hollywood event was incorporated into a half-hour promotional special that aired March 8 on Nippon TV, six days before the film's release in Japan. Americans invited to the showing included anime fans and several figures associated with U.S. science fiction cinema including The Terminator and Aliens actor Michael Biehn, as well as Blade Runner designer Syd Mead. Although referred to in Japanese publicity materials as The Wings of Honnêamise\~Royal Space Force's "American prescreening," the film was shown under the name Star Quest, and presented in an English dub remarked upon by both U.S. and Japanese anime magazines covering the event for its significant differences from the original film; in 2021 Bandai’s Ken Iyadomi recalled, "it was localized in a totally American way, and everyone hated it." The Wings of Honnêamise\~Royal Space Force was released nationwide in Japan on March 14, 1987 In a late spring discussion following the film's release, co-producer Hiroaki Inoue asserted that the film "put up a good fight," arguing that the average theater stay for original anime films was four weeks; in one theater, Royal Space Force had managed a seven-week engagement. Takeda recalled, "Not a single theater cancelled its run, and in some locations, it actually had a longer run than initially planned ... The budget scale meant that reclaiming all the production costs at the box office simply wasn't feasible." Clements however presents an argument that the film was overinvested in as part of the "goldrush tensions" of Japan’s bubble economy, and that the original plan to release it as an OVA might have been more financially sensible. Beginning with its 1990 Japanese laserdisc box set release, the film's main title was changed back to Royal Space Force, with The Wings of Honnêamise as a smaller subtitle. Although Gainax itself was nearly bankrupted by the project, Bandai recouped its investment in September 1994, seven and a half years after its Japanese theatrical release; the film has continued to generate profit for them since. #### English-language release An English-subtitled 16 mm film version of the film authorized by Bandai screened at the 1988 Worldcon; a contemporary report linked it to a possible home video version in the United States. However, it was not until 1994 that the film received an actual commercial English-language release, when a new English dub, using its original Japanese theatrical release title The Wings of Honnêamise: Royal Space Force was recorded at Animaze and released by Manga Entertainment. The new English dub showed in over 20 movie theaters during 1994–95 as a 35 mm film version and was subsequently released in both dubbed and subtitled form on VHS and LaserDisc. Animerica, in a contemporary review, assessed the dub as "admirable in many respects," but argued that changes to the dialogue meant the subtitled version represents "a clearer presentation of the original ideas and personalities created by Hiroyuki Yamaga." In a later interview however, Yamaga, while confirming he had not approved the dub script beforehand, was more ambivalent, stating that he himself had enjoyed foreign films whose translations had been changed: "What I think is that everyone has their own areas of tolerance as you shift from the original work ... It comes down to what you're willing to accept." The 2000 release by Manga Entertainment on DVD, although praised for its commentary track with Hiroyuki Yamaga and Takami Akai, was at the same time severely criticized for its poor visual quality. In 2007, Bandai Visual released a Blu-ray/HD DVD version to mark the film's 20th anniversary; this release used the audio of the 1997 Japanese edition of the film in which its sound effects were re-recorded in Dolby 5.1. Although containing a 20-page booklet with essays by Hiroyuki Yamaga and Ryusuke Hikawa, it lacks the commentary track of the 2000 Manga DVD release, and is now out of print. Maiden Japan re-released the movie separately on Blu-ray and DVD in 2013. In August 2022, Section23 Films announced a concurrent home video release with Bandai Namco Filmworks of a 4K remaster of the film supervised by director Hiroyuki Yamaga, containing as extras the 1987 Japanese production documentary Oneamisu no Tsubasa: Ōritsu Uchūgun—Document File, a version of the pilot film with an alternate audio track, and a collection of the film’s background music. The film's initial release in the United Kingdom on VHS in 1995 by Manga Entertainment was cut to remove the attempted rape scene; in a contemporary interview, BBFC examiner Imtiaz Karim indicated this was done voluntarily by Manga, so that the film, which had been certified for audiences 15 and up when shown in UK theaters, could receive the lower PG certificate when released on home video. The 2015 Blu-ray and DVD UK edition of the film from Anime Limited was released uncut with a 15 certificate. ## Reception ### Critical response in Japan The Yomiuri Shimbun, Japan's largest daily newspaper, published a mixed review of the film the day before its Japanese premiere, characterizing the film as scattered and boring at times, and stating a certain "resentment at its lack of excitement," but concluded by expressing its admiration for the film on the grounds of its effort and expense, honest and personal vision, and for not clinging to the patterns of previous anime works. A contemporary review in Kinema Junpo, Japan's oldest film journal, saw the film as not truly about the "well-worn subject" of space travel, but rather about reaching a point where "the whole Earth can be seen ... taking full advantage of the unique medium of animation," the creators "observe civilization objectively first and then disassemble it to eventually restructure it ... Stories that feature cool machines, robots, and attractive characters, with the plot unfolding while drifting through space, already reached their peak in a sense with the [1984] Macross movie. Rather than trying to go beyond Macross, I think the creators of this film believed that they could find a new horizon for anime by creating a different world in a way that draws the story closer to Earth again." Royal Space Force ranked high in major annual retrospectives awarded by the Japanese anime press. The film won the Japan Anime Award for best anime release of 1987, while making two of the top ten lists in the Anime Grand Prix fan poll, as \#4 anime release of the year, with Shirotsugh Lhadatt as \#9 male character. In 1988, Royal Space Force won the Seiun Award, Japan's oldest prize for science fiction, for Best Dramatic Presentation of the previous year. At the beginning of 1989, an Animage retrospective on the first 70 years of anime film compared Royal Space Force to Isao Takahata's 1968 directorial debut The Great Adventure of Horus, Prince of the Sun as a work that, like Horus, seemed to have emerged onto the scene unrelated to any previous commercial release: "an anime movie with a different methodology and message ... It's uncertain what influence it will have on anime in the future, but what is certain is that this was a work filled with the tremendous passion of its young staff." Hayao Miyazaki praised Royal Space Force, calling it "an honest work, without any bluff or pretension ... I thought the movie is going to be a great inspiration to the young people working in this industry. They may be intensely divided over whether they like it or not, but either way it's going to serve as a stimulus." Miyazaki expressed two criticisms of the film: the design of the rocket, which he saw as too conventional and reminiscent of "big science like NASA," and the fact Shirotsugh was positioned as having to rally the older members of the Space Force into not giving up on the launch, which Miyazaki found unconvincing given that they had dreamed of space travel far longer than he. Yamaga did not deny that he wrote the script in a way he thought would appeal to young people, but felt it very important to note the contributions of the older and younger generation to both the launch of the rocket, and to the making of the film itself. Miyazaki felt that since it was young people like Yamaga who had "actively sown the seeds of improvement [in anime]" with Royal Space Force, it would have been better in the movie if the young told the old, Stand back, old men.'" Yamaga remarked in response that the film showed a reality where neither generation of the Space Force saw their personal visions prevail, as the construction of the rocket and its launch only happened because of support from a government that had a different agenda from their own. "It's not about making a leap, even though from the beginning it seems that way. More than going somewhere new in a physical sense, my aim was to show something worthy in the process." In a 1996 interview shortly after the original broadcast of Neon Genesis Evangelion, Hideaki Anno traced his preceding period of despair and sense of creative stagnation back to the commercial failure of Royal Space Force, which had "devastated" him, asserting that his own directorial debut, Gunbuster, was an ironic response to the reception Royal Space Force had received: "Right, so [instead] send into space a robot and a half-naked girl." Three years earlier Mamoru Oshii had expressed the view that Anno had not yet made an anime that was truly his own as a creator, whereas he believed Yamaga had already done so on Royal Space Force. Oshii felt it therefore necessarily revealed all of Yamaga's shortcomings as well, and that he "had a lot of problems" with the movie, but nevertheless felt that Royal Space Force had a certain impact on the idea of making an anime film, simply because no one had ever made one like it before: "It's the kind of work that I want to see." Oshii admired most the film's "rejection of drama." " ... The more I saw it, the more I only realized that Yamaga was a man who had no intention of making drama. And I thought that was a very good thing." Oshii asserted it was not necessary for films to be based in a dramatic structure, but that they could instead be used to create a world filled with mood and ideas. ### Critical response internationally Critical response to the English-dubbed version of the film during its 1994–1995 theatrical release was greatly divided, with reviews differing widely on the film's plot, themes, direction, and designs. The San Jose Mercury News gave a one-star review, writing that the film was misogynistic, lacked originality, conflict, and resolution; also perceiving in its character designs "self-loathing stereotypes" of Japanese people, a view advanced as well in a negative review of the film by LA Village View. The Salt Lake Tribune described it as "plodding" and "a dull piece of Japanese animation ... The filmmakers create precisely drawn images, but there's no life or passion behind them." The Dallas Morning News felt that Hiroyuki Yamaga’s "trying to appeal to a broader audience" was by itself a fundamentally mistaken approach to making anime, comparing it to trying to "commercialize punk music"; the review instead recommended that audiences see "a far more representative anime, Fist of the North Star ... Fist has few of the pretensions of Wings and it's driven along with an energy its better-dressed cousin never attains." More favorable reviews tended to regard the film as unconventional while nevertheless recommending the film to audiences. The Fort Worth Star-Telegram wrote it "blends provocative ideas and visual beauty", comparing its worldbuilding to that of Blade Runner. LA Weekly commented, "These strange, outsize pieces fuse and add a feeling of depth that cartoon narratives often don't obtain ... Technical brilliance aside, what gives [the film] its slow-building power is the love story—a mysterious and credible one." The Washington Post viewed its two-hour length as "a bit windy" but also asserted, "Hiroyuki Yamaga's The Wings of Honnêamise is a spectacular example of Japanimation, ambitious and daring in its seamless melding of color, depth and detail." Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film three stars out of four, praising Yamaga's visual imagination and remarked on the director's "offbeat dramatic style," recommending "If you're curious about anime, The Wings of Honnêamise ... is a good place to start." In the United Kingdom, The Guardian regarded it as the standout of an anime festival at London's National Film Theatre: "One film in the season, though, proves that anime can be complex and lyrical as well as exciting. Hiroyuki Yamaga's Wings of Honnêamise ... " In Australia, Max Autohead of Hyper magazine rated it 10 out of 10, calling it "a cinematic masterpiece that will pave the way for more" anime of its kind. Following its initial English-language release in the mid-'90s, later retrospectives on anime have had a positive view of Royal Space Force: The Wings of Honnêamise. In a 1999 issue of Time, former Film Comment editor-in-chief Richard Corliss wrote an outline on the history of anime, listing under the year 1987 the remark, "The Wings of Honnêamise is released, making anime officially an art form." In the 2006 edition of The Anime Encyclopedia, Jonathan Clements and Helen McCarthy characterized the film as "one of the shining examples of how cerebral and intelligent anime can be". Simon Richmond, in 2009's The Rough Guide to Anime, wrote that the film's "reputation has grown over time to the point where it is justly heralded as a classic of the medium". whereas in 2014's Anime, Colin Odell and Michelle Le Blanc described the film as "an example of science-fantasy anime as art-film narrative, combined with a coming-of-age drama that is intelligent and thought-provoking". Jason DeMarco, current senior vice president at Warner Discovery and co-creator of Toonami, ranked it as the \#11 anime movie of all time, stating "If The Wings of Honnêamise is a 'noble failure,' it's the sort of failure many filmmakers would kill to have on their résumé." During a 2021 interview with the New York Times, science fiction author Ted Chiang, whose Nebula Award-winning "Story of Your Life" was the basis for the Denis Villeneuve movie Arrival, cited Royal Space Force as the single most impressive example of worldbuilding in book or film. ## Academic analysis Royal Space Force attracted a broader academic analysis as early as 1992, when Takashi Murakami referenced the film through Sea Breeze, an installation created during his doctoral studies in nihonga at Tokyo University of the Arts. The installation piece was described as "a ring of enormous, 1000-watt mercury spotlights that emitted a powerful blast of heat and blinding light when a roller shutter was raised ... the circular of lights was based on a close-up of rocket engines firing during a space launch in the anime Royal Space Force: [The] Wings of Honneamise." Hiroyuki Yamaga’s remark, "We wanted to create a world, and we wanted to look at it from space" would be quoted as an epigram in My Reality—Contemporary Art and the Culture of Japanese Animation, where Murakami was described as a "pivotal figure" among contemporary artists "inundated with manga and anime—and with concepts of the new Japan, which was wrestling with a sense of self-identity as an increasingly strong part of the modern capitalistic world, yet was tied to a long and distinguished past." In a discussion with the Japanese arts magazine Bijutsu Techō, Murakami "... found it commendable that otaku were dedicated to 'the invention of a new technique, especially through the use of overlooked elements, finding an "empty space".' He maintained that art must find the same 'empty space' to revolutionize itself." "Gainax represented, for Murakami, a model of marginalized yet cutting-edge cultural production ... At the same time, the fact that the burning wheel was contained inside a box signified passion confined within a conventional frame, evoking the failure of Honneamise to present a uniquely Japanese expression as it remained under the influence of Western science-fiction films." Murakami would express a specific historical conception of otaku during a discussion with Toshio Okada conducted for the 2005 exhibition Little Boy: The Arts of Japan's Exploding Subculture: "After Japan experienced defeat in World War II, it gave birth to a distinctive phenomenon, which has gradually degenerated into a uniquely Japanese culture ... [you] are at the very center of this otaku culture", further asserting in an essay for the exhibit catalog that therefore "otaku ... all are ultimately defined by their relentless references to a humiliated self". This historical positioning of otaku culture would itself be challenged through an analysis of Royal Space Force by Viktor Eikman, who cites Murakami's statement that the studio that made the film occupied "a central place in the current anime world... [they were] professionally incorporated as Gainax in 1984 upon production of the feature-length anime The Wings of Honneamise (released in 1987)" but that the two Gainax works discussed by Murakami in his theory of otaku were the Daicon IV Opening Animation and Neon Genesis Evangelion. Eikman argues that the theory should be tested also against "other works by the same studio, made by the same people for the same audience, but not analysed [in the essay] by Murakami". Of Royal Space Force, Eikman contended, "At most we may view the humiliated Shiro’s mission as symbolic of Japan’s desire to join the Space Race in particular and the 'big boy' struggles of the Cold War in general, a desire which plays into the sense of childish impotence described by Murakami, but even that is a very speculative hypothesis," arguing that "it is remarkably hard to find parallels to World War II" in the film. In 2004's The Cinema Effect, examining film through "the question of temporality", Sean Cubitt presents an argument grouping Royal Space Force together with 1942: A Love Story and Once Upon a Time in China as examples of "revisionary" films that "displace the fate of the present, opening instead a vista onto an elsewhere...ready to forsake the Western ideal of realism [for] the possibility of understanding how they might remake the past and so make the present other than it is." Cubitt, like Murakami, references the historical consequences of World War II, but in citing a speech by Japan's first postwar prime minister on the need for "nationwide collective repentance," suggests that such repentance is "the theme that seems to resonate in the curious, slow budding" of Royal Space Force through Riquinni's "homemade religion of renunciation and impending judgment" arguing that such a philosophy is evoked also through the film's animation style: "Like the zero of the Lumières' flickering views, the action of [Royal Space Force] sums at nothingness, a zero degree of the political that removes its resolution from history ... into the atemporal zone denoted by Shirotsugh's orbit ... an empty place from which alone the strife of warfare and suffering sinks into pure regret, not so much an end as an exit from history." In contrast, Shu Kuge, in a 2007 essay in the journal Mechademia, sees Shiro's position in space at film's end as "not the denial of history but the empathetic move to accept the cruel world without translating it into a metaphysical meaning". Kuge groups the connection between Shiro and Riquinni with Makoto Shinkai's Voices of a Distant Star as examples of a personal connection that is in either case a relationship sustained by the spatial distance between two people: "[they] sustain the distance rather than shrink it because sustaining ... is crucial for their relationships to be vast and generous. The topological relationship between the floating and the remaining is actually a mimesis of a stellar relationship, such as the moon and the earth, the earth and the sun." Noting the struggle between the armed forces of Honnêamise and the Republic to control the same territory, Kuge comments that by contrast the Royal Space Force does not in fact "possess any military force," and suggests that likewise the personal nature of Shiro and Riquinni's relationship depends upon respecting the physical separation and boundaries that she seeks to maintain and which he seeks to violate, and does violate, before they are reaffirmed in the latter part of the film. ## Sequel During 1992–93, Gainax developed plans for a sequel to Royal Space Force to be entitled Aoki Uru (also known under the titles Uru in Blue and Blue Uru); an anime film project to be directed by Hideaki Anno and scripted by Hiroyuki Yamaga, with Yoshiyuki Sadamoto serving as its chief animation director and character designer. Although a full storyboard, partial script, and an extensive collection of design illustrations were produced for Aoki Uru, the project had been initiated without a secured budget, and its development occurred within a period of personal, financial, and managerial crises at Gainax that contributed to the indefinite suspension of work on Aoki Uru in July 1993; the studio instead shifted to producing as their next anime project the TV series Neon Genesis Evangelion. In the years following 1993, Gainax has made occasional announcements regarding a revival of the Aoki Uru concept, including a multimedia proposal in the late 1990s, and the formal announcement of an English name for the film, Uru in Blue, at the 2013 Tokyo Anime Fair. In 2018, the Uru in Blue project was transferred from Gainax to Gaina, a different corporate entity and subsidiary of the Kinoshita Group, with the aim of a worldwide release of the film in 2022. ## See also - List of animated feature films
2,188,101	1983 Pacific hurricane season	1,144,341,007	Hurricane season in the Pacific Ocean	[ "1983 Pacific hurricane season", "Pacific hurricane seasons", "Tropical cyclones in 1983" ]	The 1983 Pacific hurricane season was the longest season ever recorded at that time. It was a very active Pacific hurricane season. The season started on May 15, 1983 in the eastern Pacific, and on June 1, 1983 in the central Pacific, and lasted until November 30, 1983. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northeastern Pacific Ocean. During the 1983 season, there were 21 named storms, which was slightly less than the previous season. Furthermore, twelve of those storms became hurricanes. And eight of the storms reached major hurricane status, or Category 3 or higher on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale (SSHWS). The decaying 1982–83 El Niño event likely contributed to this level of activity. That same El Niño influenced a very quiet Atlantic hurricane season. The first storm of the season, Hurricane Adolph, became the southernmost-forming east Pacific tropical cyclone on record after forming at a latitude of 7.1°N. After a slow start, activity picked up in July, when Hurricane Gil moved through the Hawaiian Islands, resulting in minor damage. In early August, Hurricane Ismael was responsible for three deaths and \$19 million (1983 USD) in damage in the United States. In September, hurricanes Kiko and Lorena brought significant damage and seven deaths to southern Mexico. About a month later, Tropical Storm Octave became the worst tropical cyclone on record to affect Arizona. Octave killed 15 people, and caused \$500 million in damage to Arizona and \$12.5 million to New Mexico. Later in October, Hurricane Tico was a very intense hurricane at the time of its landfall and thus left 25,000 homeless. Damage throughout the country was estimated at \$200 million while 135 deaths were reported in Mexico. Although most of its impact occurred in Mexico, Tico's remnants brought significant flooding in the Central United States, resulting in six deaths and \$42 million in damage. A few days later, Hurricane Raymond posed a threat to Hawaii, but did little actual damage. The final storm of the season, Hurricane Winnie, was a rare December cyclone. ## Seasonal summary During the 1983 season, a total of 21 named storms formed, which was well-above the long-term average of 15. However, this total was slightly less active than the 1982 Pacific hurricane season, which saw a then-record 22 storms form. However, 1983 was at that time the most active season in the Eastern Pacific Hurricane Center (EPHC) warning zone, but this record itself was surpassed during the 1985 Pacific hurricane season, and again in the 1992 Pacific hurricane season. Additionally, 12 storms reached hurricane intensity, which was above the average of eight. Of the 12 hurricanes, eight attained Category 3 intensity or higher on the SSHWS. The season started on May 21 with the formation of Adolph and ended on December 9, with the dissipation of Hurricane Winnie. Lasting 201 days, 1983 was the longest season on record. There were a total of 1,238 storm hours, which was the most in four years. Despite the activity in the EPHC's warning responsibility, only two storms formed in the Central Pacific Hurricane Center (CPHC)'s area of responsibility, both of which stayed depressions. A moderate El Niño was present throughout the season, with water temperatures across the equatorial Central Pacific was nearly 5 °F (0.6 °C) above normal. The Pacific decadal oscillation (PDO) was in a warm phase during this time period. Both of these factors are known to enhance Pacific hurricane season activity. Furthermore, 1983 was in the middle of an era where all but the 1988 Pacific hurricane season was near or above average. One storm in 1983 formed in May, an event the occurs every other year on average. Another storm formed in June, which was below the average of 1.7 storms per June. Despite a somewhat slow start, activity picked up in July, where 6 storms formed. This was twice the average, though only two of the storm thus far had exceeded hurricane intensity. Although August was less active, with only 3 storms developing, compared to the average of 4, two of the storms that formed in July lasted into the early part of the month. However, activity picked back up again in September, with 5 storms forming, which was above the average of 3. Three storms also formed in October, which was two storms above normal. One storm developed in November as well, a somewhat unusual occurrence. For the first time since 1947, a hurricane developed in December. Three storms during the season made landfall on Mexico. The first, Adolph did so in May. The second, Tico, hit near Mazatlán as a powerful hurricane, resulting in severe damage. Around this time, a weak tropical depression made landfall along the western portion of the nation as well. In addition, Tropical Depression Raymond made landfall on Hawaii in late October. Hurricane Hunters flew into 2 storms within the EPHC zone, Manuel and Ismael. Moreover, they flew into 3 storms in CPHC's area of responsibility, Tropical Storms Gil and Narda, and Hurricane Raymond. ## Systems ### Hurricane Adolph On May 21, a tropical depression formed 500 mi (805 km) southwest of Managua, at a latitude of 7.1°N, becoming the southernmost-forming tropical cyclone in the east Pacific basin. As the depression headed gradually west-northwestward over extremely warm sea surface temperatures, it steadily intensified. Later that day, the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Adolph. Further intensification occurred as Adolph headed west-northwestward; by May 24, the EPHC reported that Adolph had strengthened into a hurricane, setting a then-record for the earliest known hurricane in the basin, though this was later surpassed by Hurricane Alma in May 1990. Shortly thereafter, the storm turned northwestward and intensified into a Category 2 hurricane on the SSHWS. Around that time, Adolph attained its peak intensity with winds of 110 mph (175 km/h) as the storm briefly developed a well-defined eye. At that time, Adolph was the strongest May hurricane on record. However, this record was broken by a hurricane in 2001 that was also named Adolph. Following peak intensity, Adolph gradually weakened to a Category 1 hurricane. By May 25, Adolph curved sharply north-northeastward, as a result of being steered by anticyclonic deep-layer mean. Despite being situated over fairly warm waters, Adolph weakened considerably due to increased wind shear. Although the EPHC expected the storm to stay at sea, Adolph curved north-northeastward. It was then downgraded to a tropical storm on May 25. Rapidly weakening, Tropical Storm Adolph moved onshore near Puerto Vallarta early the next day. After briefly moving offshore, it again made landfall near Mazatlán at 0800 UTC that day. Adolph soon dissipated over land, becoming the first of two storms to strike the Pacific coast of Mexico during the season. Because Hurricane Adolph weakened significantly prior to landfall, no deaths or major damage occurred. However, the remnants of the storm brought heavy showers and gusty winds to Florida. Although a modern Pacific hurricane season begins May 15, one newspaper considered Adolph a "pre-season" storm. ### Hurricane Barbara A tropical disturbance was first observed in early June about 210 mi (340 km) south of Guatemala, and headed westward. The tropical disturbance intensified, and became the second tropical depression of the season on June 9. After staying a tropical depression for 24 hours, the system was subsequently upgraded to Tropical Storm Barbara. Initially, Barbara was expected to come very close to the Mexican coast; however, this failed to happen. At first, Tropical Storm Barbara moved west-northwest, though on June 11, the cyclone turned west-northwest while gradually gaining intensity. At 1800 UTC on June 12, Barbara was estimated to have attained hurricane status while centered 175 mi (280 km) north of Clipperton Island. Shortly after becoming a hurricane, rapid deepening commenced, and by early the next morning, the hurricane was a high-end Category 1. Six hours later, Barbara skipped Category 2 status, and became a major hurricane. At 1800 UTC on June 13, Hurricane Barbara was upgraded into a category 4 hurricane on the SSHWS while its peak strength of 130 mph (215 km/h). At peak, Barbara had a "fantastic eye". Hurricane Barbara held on to peak intensity for a day. Thereafter, Barbara slowly weakened after peak intensity as it began to encounter cooler water temperatures, while moving slowly northward around the western edge of a high pressure area over central Mexico. By the early morning hours of June 16, the hurricane was positioned 380 km (235 mi) west-southwest of Socorro Island and about 500 mi (805 km) west of the coast of Mexico. Later that day, Barbara weakened into a tropical storm due to strong wind shear. Barbara was downgraded to a tropical depression early on June 17. Further weakening persisted, and Barbara dissipated on June 18. At the time of dissipation, the system was situated several hundred miles west-southwest of the Baja California peninsula. ### Tropical Storm Cosme A westward-moving low-latitude tropical disturbance was declared a tropical depression early on July 2. After making a turn northwest, the depression maintained its intensity for 42 hours. By 1200 UTC on July 4, the system was finally upgraded into a tropical storm after convection increased in coverage. However, Cosme failed to intensify further, and after encountering cooler waters, the storm rapidly dissipated. The EPHC declared Cosme dissipated at 1800 UTC on July 5. ### Tropical Storm Dalilia An intense area of thunderstorms developed 230 mi (370 km) south of the Gulf of Tehuantepec on July 4. The system was first classified as a tropical depression at 1800 UTC on July 5 roughly 345 mi (555 km) south-southeast of Acapulco. Turning west-northwest and then northwest while accelerating, the EPHC upgraded the depression into Tropical Storm Dalilia at 1800 UTC on July 6. Continuing to gain strength, Dalilia reached its peak intensity as a strong tropical storm early on July 8. After turning west the tropical storm started to lose strength while encountering colder water. At 0600 UTC on July 10, Tropical Storm Dalilia had been downgraded into a tropical depression. Two days later, the EPHC reported that the tropical cyclone had dissipated. ### Tropical Storm Erick Tropical Storm Erick originated from a tropical wave that crossed Central America on July 9 and July 10. At 0600 UTC on July 12, the EPHC reported that it had upgraded the disturbance into a tropical depression. The depression moved steadily west-northwest under the influence of an anticyclone over the Yucatán Peninsula. The system gradually intensified over waters as warm as 86 °F (30 °C) and at 0000 UTC on July 13, the agency upgraded the low into a tropical storm. Tropical Storm Erick reached its peak intensity on July 14 as a high-end tropical storm. The storm maintained peak intensity for 24 hours, before encountering cooler water. Rapidly weakening, Erick dissipated on July 16 far from land. ### Tropical Storm Flossie A tropical disturbance developed 70 mi (115 km) southwest of Manzanillo late on July 16. Several hours later, the disturbance was classified as a tropical depression. Initially, the depression drifted southward, but at 1800 UTC on July 17, the system suddenly turned west-northwest and accelerated. The storm gradually intensified while passing northeast of Socorro Island. Midday on July 19, the tropical depression was upgraded into Tropical Storm Flossie. Six hours later, Tropical Storm Flossie reached its peak wind speed of 60 mph (95 km/h). While the storm approached the Baja California peninsula, the storm ultimately turned west into an area of cool water and high amounts of wind shear. By 0000 UTC on July 21, Flossie weakened into a tropical storm. Twelve hours later, Flossie ceased to exist as a tropical cyclone. ### Hurricane Gil The seventh tropical cyclone of the season developed during the afternoon hours of July 23 north of Clipperton Island. Thereafter, the EPHC upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Gil on July 24. Gil subsequently began to intensify; on 0000 UTC July 26, the storm was upgraded into a Category 1 hurricane. Early on July 27, the storm attained its peak intensity of 90 mph (150 km/h). Despite turning west-northwest, Hurricane Gil maintained hurricane intensity until July 29 when the storm began to encounter cooler waters. Two days later, Gil was downgraded a tropical depression. After entering CPHC's warning zone on August 1, Gil was re-upgraded into a tropical storm. Gil accelerated while approaching the Hawaiian Islands; on August 3, the tropical cyclone reached its secondary peak of 45 mph (75 km/h). After passing through the Hawaiian islands, Gil passed very close to French Frigate Shoals on August 4 as a marginal tropical storm. Early on August 5, the system was downgraded into a tropical depression and degenerated into a trough about 300 mi (485 km) west-northwest of Tern Island later that day. Prior to arrival of Gil, gale warnings were issued for much of the islands, but on August 2, these warnings were discontinued for all islands except for Kauai. Jellyfish stung 50 tourists. On the northern part of the island, 70 mph (110 km/h) winds were reported, resulting in extensive damage in some areas, but slight damage to others. A minor power outage on the island briefly left 2,400 customers without electricity. In Maui, the outer rainbands of Gil led to minor flooding. Overall, damage from Gil was minimal and less than expected. Offshore, one person was presumed to have died when a 19 ft (5 m) catamaran, named Hurricane, went missing. Additionally, the 30-foot ship Adad nearly sunk in the storm and all three people on board sustained injuries. ### Hurricane Henriette A tropical disturbance developed about 180 mi (290 km) south of the Guatemala coastline. After developing a circulation, the system was upgraded into a tropical depression on July 27. Moving west-northwest, the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Henriette at 1800 UTC that day. Henriette continued to deepen, and by late on July 28, the storm attained winds of 65 mph (105 km/h). Although initially expected to pose a threat to Hawaii, this did not occur. It rapidly intensified, and late on July 28, the EPHC upgraded the storm into a hurricane. While turning west-southwest on a track similar to Gil's, it attained Category 2 intensity on July 29. At 0000 UTC on July 30, Henriette was upgraded into a Category 3 hurricane. After leveling off in intensity, the storm passed within 70 mi (115 km) within Clipperton Island. Hurricane Henriette attained its peak intensity early on July 31, with winds of 130 mph (215 km/h), a Category 4 system. At peak, Henriette displayed a well-defined eye. After continuing west-northwest for 12 hours, it then veered northwest and began to encounter cooler ocean temperatures. Henriette was slow to weaken, and by August 2, it was downgraded into a Category 2 hurricane. Two days later, Henriette was downgraded into a tropical storm. A strong trough of low pressure pulled Henriette northwest, and later north. On August 5, the storm was downgraded into a tropical depression. The storm dissipated the next day at a high latitude, though the remnants of Henriette brought cloud cover to Oregon and Washington. ### Tropical Depression Nine On July 30 and 31, a tropical disturbance crossed Central America. At a low latitude, a tropical depression was declared on August 3. At first, the storm was expected to turn west-northwest, but it continued west instead. Nine failed to intensify despite being situated over warm water. The depression dissipated on August 7 later over somewhat cooler water. ### Hurricane Ismael The origins of Hurricane Ismael were from a northward bulge of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) in early August, which resulted in the formation of a tropical depression on August 8. Six hours later, it was upgraded into Tropical storm Ismael. Continuing to intensity, Ismael was upgraded into a hurricane late on August 10 and subsequently developed an eye. The storm soon reached its peak of 100 mph (155 km/h). Late on August 11, Hurricane Ismael began to weaken as it encountered cooler waters and the hurricane was soon downgraded to a Category 1 on the SSHWS. The following day, Ismael was downgraded into a tropical storm about 380 mi (610 km) west of the Baja California peninsula. On August 14, the storm was downgraded into a tropical depression while centered about 250 mi (400 km) west of Point Ensenada. Ismael dissipated that day. While still out at sea, Ismael brought 6–9 ft (1.8–2.7 m) waves to much of Southern California, though waves from the storm were less than expected. One person was swept away at a beach. The remnants of the storm later moved over South California, resulting in moderate rainfall. The Yucca Valley was the worst hit by the storm, where nearly every road was washed out. Almost 50,000 residents in Palm Springs were isolated due to rains. A tornado near Los Angeles led to minor damage. In San Bernardino, many buildings were destroyed, forcing numerous evacuations. Around 80,000 homes were left without power across the Inland Empire. Moreover, three interstates were closed. In all, minor injuries were reported and three people died in San Bernardino when their car swept into a channel. Damage from the storm totaled \$19 million (1983 USD). After affecting California, the remnants of the hurricane moved into Nevada. Many parking lots in Laughlin were flooded. Two small towns were also isolated. Several major streets in the outskirts of Las Vegas were closed because of flooding. ### Tropical Depression Eleven The eleventh cyclone of the 1983 season formed from an intense area of thunderstorms located over the Yucatán Peninsula on August 11 and 12. After crossing the Mexican mainland, it emerged into the Pacific basin near Guadalajara early on August 13. After turning northwest, it intensified into a depression two days later after showing sign of a circulation. The depression continued northwest with little change in wind speed, and on August 16, about 24 hours after formation, the depression dissipated after its circulation ceased very close to landfall on the Baja California peninsula. ### Tropical Depression One-C Tropical Depression One-C formed on August 19 far from land, with winds of 35 mph (56 km/h). It moved steadily west. Despite being over warm waters, One-C quickly weakened and lost deep convection. The depression dissipated on August 20 after briefly developing a closed circulation. ### Tropical Storm Juliette Tropical Storm Juliette originated from a tropical depression that first formed on August 24 130 mi (210 km) east-northeast of Clipperton Island. Moving west-northwest and briefly west, the depression gradually intensified. The system then turned northwest around a ridge off the west coast of Baja California Sur. At 1800 UTC on August 26, the EPHC announced that the depression had strengthened into a tropical storm. Moving toward a strong trough off the west coast of the peninsula, Juliette reached its peak intensity as a mid-level tropical storm early on August 29, with winds of 60 mph (95 km/h). Upon attaining peak intensity, Juliette developed an eye. However, Juliette began to weaken over cooler water. Meanwhile, the trough weakened and Tropical Storm Juliette headed west. On August 30, the EPHC remarked that Juliette was downgraded into a depression. Two days later, Tropical Depression Juliette had dissipated over cold water. ### Tropical Depression Two-C A disturbance in the ITCZ developed a circulation on August 29 and organized into a tropical depression two days later. Traveling west-northwest, Two-C was initially in a favorable environment, and was thus expected to become a tropical storm. However, it soon encountered a trough and dry air, which arrested development. It crossed the international dateline on September 1 and the Joint Typhoon Warning Center began issuing advisories on the system. The depression gradually weakened and dissipated on September 8. Its remnants lingered near the Marshall Islands for a few more days. ### Hurricane Kiko Hurricane Kiko originated from a tropical disturbance that crossed Central America on August 26 and 27. After emerging into the Pacific, the disturbance moved steadily westward. At 0600 UTC on August 31, the EPHC classified the system as a tropical depression about 300 mi (485 km) south of Salina Cruz. A well-developed ridge was centered over New Mexico and was moving southward, causing light wind shear over the system. At 1800 UTC on August 31, the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Kiko. Initially expected to turn west and head out to sea, the storm moved northwest while paralleling the Mexican coast. Early on September 1, Kiko began to explosively deepen, and by 1800 UTC, it intensified into a Category 3 hurricane on the SSHWS, bypassing both Category 1 and 2 status. Six hours later, the EPHC reported that Kiko had intensified into a low-end Category 4. After remaining at this intensity for 30 hours, the hurricane resumed intensification, attaining its peak intensity of 145 mph (230 km/h) late on September 3 about 400 mi (645 km) west of Lázaro Cárdenas. Shortly after its peak, a combination of cooler waters and increased wind shear associated with the subtropical jetstream resulted in rapid weakening. Hurricane Kiko was soon downgraded to Category 3 status on the SSHWS, before briefly re-intensifying on September 4. That day, Kiko resumed weakening and was downgraded to a Category 2 as the storm turned west-northwest away from the Mexican coast. On September 5, the storm was downgraded into a Category 1 system; by this time, the EPHC revised their forecast and expected the storm to accelerate and approach Baja California. On September 7, Kiko weakened into a tropical storm. Subsequently, the system turned north and was downgraded to a tropical depression the next day. Now devoid of convection, Kiko dissipated early on September 9 about 450 mi (725 km) west-southwest of Baja California. The outer rainbands of Hurricane Kiko caused considerable damage to homes and hotels situated near the coast of Mexico, forcing the evacuation of hundreds. The resorts of Tecomán and Manzanillo were the worst hit by the storm. Outside of Colima, however, little damage was reported. Kiko brought high clouds to the extreme southwestern portion of the Baja California Peninsula for four days. While at sea, Hurricane Kiko was responsible for 12 ft (3.7 m) waves along Newport Beach, California, resulting in more than 100 lifeguard rescues. As a weakening tropical system, Kiko brought subtropical moisture and high clouds to California. ### Hurricane Lorena Towards the end of the first week of September, the next cyclone of the season was starting to form south of the Mexican coast. A disturbance moved westward and was classified as a tropical depression about 90 mi (145 km) south of Acapulco early on September 6. Like Kiko, the storm deepened rapidly, and was upgraded into a tropical storm at 1800 UTC that day. Initially moving very slowly, the storm made a sharp turn northwest, parallel to the coast of Mexico. Accelerating, a poorly defined eye first became visible on satellite imagery around 1500 UTC on September 7. The EPHC upgraded Lorena into a hurricane three hours later. Early the next day, Lorena intensified into a Category 2 hurricane. At 1200 UTC on September 8, Lorena attained winds of a Category 3 hurricane on the SSHWS; simultaneously, the storm reached its peak intensity, with winds of 115 mph (185 km/h). After maintaining peak intensity for six hours, Lorena began to weaken over cooler waters. Very early on September 9, the EPHC downgraded Lorena weakened into a Category 1 hurricane; the storm was expected to emerge into the southern Gulf of California in about 48 hours and thereafter meander. However, this did not occur. Meanwhile, Lorena was re-upgraded into a Category 2 hurricane, an intensity of which it held on to for 12 hours. After briefly weakening back to a Category 1 hurricane, Lorena moved west-northwest and into a low wind shear environment. Subsequently, Lorena attained its secondary peak with winds of 105 mph (170 km/h) while passing about 150 mi (240 km) south of Cabo San Lucas. However, cooler water began to take its toll on the storm and on September 12, the storm was downgraded into a Category 1. Later that day, Lorena weakened into a tropical storm due to a combination of strong shear and cold sea surface temperatures. Midday on September 13, the EPHC downgraded the system into a tropical depression. Furthermore, the system dissipated 18 hours later. At the time of dissipation, Lorena was centered about 750 mi (1,205 km) west-southwest of San Diego. Hurricane Lorena brought rough surf and squally weather to much of the coast of Mexico, particularly Manzanillo. Furthermore, it was also responsible for \$33,000 in damage to Acapulco. Seven people died due to flooding. Four ships drowned in the storm; as a result, many local ports were closed. In addition, a mudslide blocked a portion of the Pan-American Highway. ### Hurricane Manuel A vigorous tropical disturbance was first noted on September 10 south of the Gulf of Tehuantepec. Despite the presence of wind shear, the EPHC upgraded system into a tropical depression at 0600 UTC on September 12 and a tropical storm at 1200 UTC that day while centered around 300 mi (485 km) south of Puerto Escondido. Manuel reached hurricane strength early on September 14. Several hours later, Manuel reached a secondary peak wind speed of 90 mph (145 km/h). However, this trend was short lived, and very early on September 15, the storm's wind diminished to 75 mph (120 km/h), only to reintensify again that evening. Early on September 16, Manuel turned towards the north while developing a small eye. Hurricane Manuel maintained winds of 90 mph (145 km/h) for a day before the EPHC upgraded Manuel into a Category 2 hurricane. On September 17, however, Manuel developed a much larger and well-defined eye; that afternoon; Manuel reaching its peak intensity of 115 mph (185 km/h) as a major hurricane. The storm held onto major hurricane winds for 12 hours before subsequently weakening. At 0000 UTC on September 18, the eye collapsed as it began to encounter colder ocean temperatures. Manuel was intercepted by a Hurricane Hunter aircraft that day, which found no evidence of an eyewall, thus, Manuel was downgraded into a tropical storm about 600 mi (965 km) south of San Diego. After turning north-northeast, Hurricane Hunters penetrated the storm for the second time, noting that the storm was a swirl of clouds. On September 19, the EPHC downgraded the system into a depression. The following day, Manuel made landfall along the eastern portion of Guadalupe Island before dissipating at 1200 UTC. The remnants of Hurricane Manuel later brought rain to the southwestern United States. The outer rainbands of Manuel began to produce moisture over the region on September 18, and continued until September 21. In the mountains and deserts of California, the storm brought heavy rains across. A laboratory near Palm Springs recorded a peak rainfall total of 2.85 in (72 mm). A total 3,000 customers lost electricity in Porterville because of high winds, heavy rains, which led to minor damage. Numerous fires occurred in Kern County, but none of these fires caused major damage. Further east, in Arizona, isolated rain showers were reported, peaking at 2.56 in (65 mm) at the Alamo Dam. Along the northern portion of Baja California, Manuel brought showers and high waves. In all, impact from the storm was less than anticipated. ### Tropical Storm Narda Several hours after Manuel dissipated on September 20, a tropical disturbance formed 200 mi (320 km) south of Socorro Island. While situated south of a ridge, the disturbance started to deepen. After developing a circulation, the system was declared a tropical depression the morning of September 21. Later that morning, the EPHC upgraded the disturbance into a tropical storm. Narda held on to marginal tropical storm intensity for 36 hours before quickly intensifying, and by September 23, the storm had attained winds of 60 mph (95 km/h). Thereafter, the storm turned west-northwest and weakened steadily after encountering cooler water. On September 26, the EPHC downgraded Narda into a depression. After accelerating, the storm entered the CPHC zone the next day. Tropical Storm Narda then began to encounter slightly warmer waters, and thus began to restrengthen. At 1800 UTC on September 27, the CPHC announced that Narda had regained tropical storm strength. It quickly intensified and early on September 29, a Hurricane Hunter aircraft reported winds of 70 mph (110 km/h) and the formation of an eye. At this time, Narda was located about 300 mi (485 km) southeast of Hilo. That evening, the storm start to show signs of weakening as it turned southwest away from the Hawaiian group. On September 30, however, Narda, with winds of 50 mph (80 km/h), made its closest approach the Hawaii, passing 150 mi (240 km) south of South Point. After briefly intensifying on October 1, it suddenly dissipated hours later. Because of data from tropical cyclone forecast models, which showed Narda passing very near the Hawaiian islands, and fears of a repeat of Hurricane Iwa, a hurricane watch was posted for all the Hawaiian Islands at 0700 UTC on September 28. Gale warnings and high surf advisories were issued for the entire state. Officials urged many Hawaiians to complete preparations by the night of September 28. Campers at coastal parks were also ordered by police to find shelter on higher ground. However, the hurricane watch was discontinued after Narda veered away on September 29. Meanwhile, gale warnings and high surf advisories were dropped that day for all islands except for the Big Island. The outer rainbands of Narda brought locally heavy rain to the state. Flooding was reported of eastern areas of the Big Island. Nine families were evacuated to shelters. Higher than normal surf was also observed on southeast and east facing beaches. Overall, damage from Narda was minor. ### Tropical Storm Octave A tropical disturbance formed south of the Gulf of Tehuantepec on September 23, which moved west for four days prior to attaining tropical depression status. Initially, the depression was situated over warm waters; however, wind shear subsequently increased in the vicinity of the storm. However, on September 28, the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Octave. Six hours later, Octave attained its peak intensity of 45 mph (70 km/h) and decreased in forward speed while turning to the northeast. On September 30, began to weaken due to cooler waters and increasing vertical wind shear. At 1200 UTC on October 2, the EPHC issued their last advisory on the storm, as the surface circulation had dissipated. Due to the threat for flooding, local flood warnings were issued for much of Arizona. In the end, the highest rainfall associated with Octave was 12.0 in (300 mm) at Mount Graham. Throughout the state, excessive rainfall caused many rivers to overflow. The Santa Cruz, Rillito, and Gila rivers experienced their highest crests on record. Runoff from both the Rillito and Santa Cruz rivers flooded Marana. Major flooding was reported along the Gila River, and two of its tributaries, the San Francisco River and the San Pedro River. These rains devastated Clifton along the San Francisco River valley. Over 700 homes were destroyed in Clifton. Further south along the Gila River, major flooding was reported in extreme southeastern Arizona. Willcox was nearly flooded. Further west, in Phoenix, 150 people were evacuated from an apartment complex. Throughout the greater Phoenix area, eight fires were started via lighting. Tropical Storm Octave was considered the worst flood in Pima County history. Octave is also regarded as the worst tropical system to affect Arizona. Around 3,000 buildings were damaged due to Octave. A total of 853 structures were destroyed by Octave while 2,052 others were damaged. About 10,000 people were temporarily displaced. Damage in Arizona totaled \$500 million. Fourteen people drowned and 975 persons were injured. Elsewhere, in New Mexico, a peak total of 5.42 in (138 mm) of rain was recorded, resulting in flooding. New Mexico governor Toney Anaya declared a state of emergency in Catron County. Damage in New Mexico was estimated at \$12.5 million. In Mexico, 12 in (300 mm) of rain was reported in Altar. In Sonora, many roads were closed. On October 3, Arizona Governor Bruce Babbitt declared a state of emergency. President Ronald Reagan declared eight Arizona counties a "major disaster area" on October 5. ### Hurricane Priscilla While Tropical Storm Octave was still active, a tropical disturbance formed on September 29 near Clipperton Island. The disturbance moved northwest, and was upgraded into a depression at 1800 UTC. While moving beneath the southwest side of a ridge, Priscilla steadily intensified. Early on October 3, Priscilla was upgraded into a hurricane. After remaining a Category 1 hurricane for most of the day, it was upgraded into a Category 2 hurricane that evening, and subsequently, began to rapidly intensify. At 0000 UTC on October 4, about 24 hours after first becoming a hurricane, Priscilla was upgraded into a major hurricane, with winds of 115 mph (185 km/h). While at peak, which it held on for 12 hours, Priscilla displayed a well-defined eye. Additionally, the hurricane began a sharp turn to the north-northwest due to a strong trough off the Southern California coast and the storm was initially expected to move onshore Baja California and bring flooding rains to Arizona. Shortly after its peak, Priscilla began to encounter cooler waters and thus it start to slowly lose strength. During the pre-dawn hours of October 5, Priscilla weakened into a Category 2. Later that day, it was downgraded into a Category 1 system. By 0000 UTC on October 6, the EPHC downgraded the system into a tropical storm. By this time, it was anticipated that the system would make landfall as a tropical system on California. Quickly weakening, Priscilla was downgraded into a depression that day. Early on October 7, Priscilla dissipated about 150 mi (240 km) southwest of Guadalupe Island. Due to the storm's threat to California, flash flood watches were issued for much of the southern portion of the state. In Arizona, heavy equipment was evacuated from flood-prone areas. Along the central Baja California peninsula, showers were reported. While still a Category 2 hurricane, the outer rainbands of Priscilla brought rains to California, resulting in power outages, hail, and traffic accidents. In Los Angeles, a daily rainfall record was set. Some streets in Anaheim and Santa Ana were flooded. The roof of a church was also damaged. Consequently, flash flood warnings were posted for parts of Los Angeles, Riverside, and San Bernardino Counties. Offshore, rough seas were generated. Across northwestern Arizona and Nevada, heavy showers and thunderstorms occurred. The remnants of the storm moved over the area on October 7. Rainfall totals were less than expected and most weather stations recorded less than .1 in (5 mm) of precipitation. A peak total of .35 in (8.9 mm) was measured in Ely. ### Hurricane Raymond A tropical wave crossed Nicaragua on October 5, moving westward. A ridge center was over Mexico and a well-developed ridge extended westward towards the Hawaiian Islands. Despite the presence of strong wind shear, it was upgraded to a tropical depression 764 mi (1,230 km) south-southeast of Cabo San Lucas on October 8. The depression moved over 84 to 86 °F (29 to 30 °C) waters, intensifying into Tropical Storm Raymond on October 9. Intensifying quickly, Raymond attained hurricane status on October 10. Hurricane Raymond subsequently developed a small but distinct eye. Rapidly intensifying, the storm rapidly moved west. Raymond was upgraded into a major hurricane late on October 10. Raymond reached its peak winds of 145 mph (235 km/h) as a moderate Category 4 hurricane roughly 24 hours after becoming a hurricane. At the time of its peak, the hurricane was located about 800 mi (1,285 km) south of San Diego. Raymond is believed to have held on to peak intensity for almost two days. The hurricane subsequently weakened and was only a Category 2 by October 13, but it re-intensified over the next few days. With continued warm waters, the system crossed into the CPHC warning zone, reaching a secondary peak of 140 mph (230 km/h) on October 14 while becoming one of the strongest storms ever recorded in the region. By then, Raymond had begun a movement to the northwest. The eye later became poorly defined while the symmetric shape of the hurricane became elongated. The Hurricane Hunters confirmed the weakening trend, reporting a pressure of 968 mbar (28.6 inHg). Hurricane Raymond weakened to a tropical storm on October 16 as wind shear took its toll on the storm. Meanwhile, the storm drifted northwest and underwent several loops. Two days later the storm resumed its westward motion as it weakened to a tropical depression. It became devoid of deep convection, and made landfall on Molokai on October 20 while still tropical depression. Shortly thereafter, Raymond dissipated inland. Because meteorologists were predicting that the storm may pose a threat to the Hawaiian island group, the CPHC issued a hurricane watch for Hawaii. A high-surf advisory also was issued. As Raymond approached Hawaii, the cyclone kicked up very high surfs that pounded the big island. On the east end of the Hawaiian Island chain was battered by 10–15 ft (3.0–4.6 m) waves. In addition, Raymond brought beneficial rains and gusty winds on all islands. Precipitation ranged from 1 to 2 in (25 to 51 mm) on Maui. There was one casualty when a sailor, Richard Sharp, was killed overboard off the 44-foot (13 m) yacht "Hazaña"; the boat, which was dismasted, was traveling with his girlfriend, Tami Oldham Ashcraft, from Tahiti to San Diego, but the course was altered to Hawaii because of the storm. ### Tropical Storm Sonia Situated several hundred miles west of Hurricane Raymond, a tropical disturbance formed on October 8. Moving west-northwest, the disturbance was upgraded into a tropical depression on October 9. After moving west-northwest for 12 hours, it turned west. Despite warm waters, strong westerly wind shear prevented much further development. On October 10, the EPHC upgraded Sonia into a tropical storm. That day, Sonia reached its peak intensity of 45 mph (70 km/h). However, this was short-lived as the thunderstorm activity quickly became displaced from the center. At 0000 UTC on October 11, Sonia weakened into a tropical depression. About 24 hours later, Sonia weakened into a tropical disturbance after it failed to maintain a closed circulation. Thereafter, the storm entered the CPHC's warning zone, where it began to encounter warmer waters and lighter wind shear, and thus began to deepen. On October 13, Sonia regained tropical storm intensity and briefly posed a threat to Hawaii. Despite remaining small and disorganized, Sonia reached its peak intensity of 45 mph (70 km/h) for a second time that evening. However, outflow from Hurricane Raymond weakened the system and Sonia dissipated on October 14 over 1,000 miles (1,610 km) south-southeast of the Big Island. ### Hurricane Tico The origins of Hurricane Tico were from a weak tropical disturbance that crossed Costa Rica into the Pacific Ocean on October 7. Over warm waters, the system was sufficiently organized to be declared Tropical Depression Twenty-One on October 11, about 575 mi (925 km) south of Acapulco. On October 12 it turned sharply northward; the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Tico on October 13. Tropical Storm Tico continued to intensify. Two days after becoming a tropical storm, Tico strengthened further to attain hurricane status. By October 16, Tico had reached major hurricane status. Early on October 19, it reached peak winds of 130 mph (215 km/h). It weakened slightly as it approached the coast, and at about 1500 UTC that day Tico made landfall near Mazatlán with winds of 125 mph (205 km/h). It rapidly weakened over land and merged with a cold front. The remnants of Tico were last observed on October 24 over Ohio. Moderate rainfall was reported around the landfall location, peaking at 8.98 in (228 mm) in Pueblo Nuevo, Durango; lighter precipitation of 1–3 in (25–75 mm) occurred further inland toward the Mexico/United States border. Two 328 ft (100 m) anchored ships were washed aground by strong waves and swells, with a total of seven ships reported missing. Overall, the hurricane sank nine small ships, and nine fishermen were killed. Hurricane Tico was responsible severe flooding and heavy damage due to strong winds. Throughout the state of Sinaloa, the hurricane destroyed nearly 19,000 acres (77 km<sup>2</sup>) of bean and corn, although most of the agricultural damage occurred south of Mazatlán. In addition, the hurricane disrupted the flow of drinking water. A total of 13 hotels received extensive damage and 14 people were hurt. Twenty-five thousand people were left homeless and damage throughout the country was estimated at \$200 million (1983 USD). Hurricane Tico caused a total of 135 deaths in Mexico. Rain from Tico continued into the South-Central United States; serious flooding was reported along the lower Washita River. Across Guthire, 5% of the town's population, sought three emergency shelter due to 7 ft (2.1 m) deep water. Throughout Oklahoma and Texas, 200 people were displaced and six people were killed. A total of \$77 million in crop damage occurred in Oklahoma. Total damage in the state was estimated at \$84 million. Elsewhere, one person was killed in the Kansas. ### Tropical Depression Twenty-Two On October 18, a tropical disturbance was noted about 300 mi (485 km) south of the Gulf of Tehuantepec. Moving west-northwest, the disturbance was upgraded into a depression. After turning northwest, the depression dissipated an hour before moving ashore. Lasting less than 24 hours, Twenty-Two was the shortest-lived storm of the season. Despite the lack of damage, 10 in (250 mm) of rain was measured along portions of the Southern Mexico coast due to the depression. ### Tropical Storm Velma A tropical disturbance developed within the ITCZ during October 31. Despite unfavorable conditions, the system began to organize, and became Tropical Depression Twenty-Three on November 1. It quickly intensified, and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Velma six hours later. No further intensification occurred; Velma peaked as a minimal tropical storm. The tropical storm began to weaken after 18 hours, and was downgraded to a tropical depression on November 2. The following day, the EPHC issued the final advisory on Tropical Depression Velma. ### Hurricane Winnie Due to a combination of unusually warm sea surface temperatures and the displacement of the ITCZ to north, a small area of disturbed weather formed in early December. Situated south-southwest of Acapulco, the disturbance organized into a tropical depression on December 4. It slowly headed north, and intensified into a tropical storm. Winnie peaked in intensity on December 6, and became the strongest Pacific hurricane in December since records began.. Initially expected to continue north, the storm stalled instead. Due to wind shear caused by a trough, Winnie began to rapidly deteriorate, and it was downgraded into a tropical storm that night. After weakening further into a depression, Winnie dissipated on December 7. Its remnant disturbance then moved west. Winnie was an out of season storm, and is the only known December tropical cyclone in the east Pacific proper since the modern record began in 1949. Winnie is the latest hurricane on record in the eastern North Pacific. Although the tropical cyclone never made landfall, it caused rain in parts of Mexico. The highest total of 3.6 in (91 mm) was recorded in Caleta de Campos. Furthermore, the storm brought strong winds to the region, but damage was less than expected. ## Storm names The following names were used for named storms that formed in the eastern Pacific in 1983. All the names on the list were used this year. No names were retired, so it was used again in the 1989 season. This was the first time most of these names were used since the modern lists began, except for the name Priscilla which was previously used in the old four-year lists. No central Pacific names were used; the first name used would have been Keli. ## See also - List of Pacific hurricanes - Pacific hurricane season - 1983 Atlantic hurricane season - 1983 Pacific typhoon season - 1983 North Indian Ocean cyclone season - Australian cyclone seasons: 1982–83, 1983–84 - South Pacific cyclone seasons: 1982–83, 1983–84 - South-West Indian Ocean cyclone seasons: 1982–83, 1983–84
37,335,298	Kingdom Hearts HD 1.5 Remix	1,166,696,227	Remastered HD video game collection	[ "2013 video games", "Action role-playing video games", "Cloud-based Nintendo Switch games", "Disney video games", "Kingdom Hearts", "Nintendo Switch games", "PlayStation 3 games", "PlayStation 4 Pro enhanced games", "PlayStation 4 games", "Role-playing video games", "Square Enix video game compilations", "Video game remasters", "Video games developed in Japan", "Windows games", "Xbox One games" ]	Kingdom Hearts HD 1.5 Remix is an HD remastered collection of the Kingdom Hearts series, developed by Square Enix originally for the PlayStation 3. It was revealed in September 2012 and released in Japan in March 2013, and North America, Australia and Europe in September 2013. Kingdom Hearts HD 1.5 Remix includes both Kingdom Hearts Final Mix and Re:Chain of Memories in high-definition and with Trophy support. Additionally, the collection features a cinematic remake of Kingdom Hearts 358/2 Days, including high-definition cutscenes from the original game plus new scenes; the 358/2 Days cinematic also has Trophy support. Ideas for a remastered collection of Kingdom Hearts games were first revealed in August 2011, with the collection formally announced in September 2012. Kingdom Hearts Final Mix, in addition to being created from the ground up due to lost assets from the original game, had the most adjustments made to its gameplay, including adding Reaction Commands first introduced in Kingdom Hearts II and allowing the camera to be moved with the right thumb stick. The collection was met to generally positive reviews. A second collection, Kingdom Hearts HD 2.5 Remix, was released in 2014 while a third collection, Kingdom Hearts HD 2.8 Final Chapter Prologue, was released in 2017. 1.5 Remix was released in a single, combined collection with 2.5 Remix on the PlayStation 4 on March 28, 2017, on the Xbox One on February 18, 2020, on Windows via Epic Games Store on March 30, 2021, and a cloud version of the game for Nintendo Switch was released on February 10, 2022. ## Games ### Kingdom Hearts Final Mix Kingdom Hearts follows the adventures of Sora, a cheerful teenager who fights against the forces of darkness. He is joined by Donald Duck, Goofy and other Disney characters who help him on his quest. In the original and Final Mix versions of Kingdom Hearts, the command menu had four commands: Attack, Magic, Items, and a fourth context-sensitive slot that varied depending on what the player had targeted, where they were, etc. The command menu has been updated to include "Attack", "Magic", "Items", and "Summons" in the fourth slot, which was originally located as a sub-category beneath the "Magic" menu. The original fourth command has been replaced by the introduction of Reaction Commands from Kingdom Hearts II and are triggered by pressing the Triangle Button. The camera works more similarly to that of Kingdom Hearts II, utilizing the right thumb stick to move the camera and allowing the player to click the R3 button to reset the camera behind Sora, as opposed to the original game which made use of the shoulder triggers L2 and R2 to position the camera. Overall, the gameplay of Kingdom Hearts Final Mix was modified so it would play more similarly to Kingdom Hearts II and Re:Chain of Memories, to create a more consistent play style throughout the series. It was released in North America, Europe and Australia for the first time as part of the collection. ### Kingdom Hearts Re:Chain of Memories Kingdom Hearts Re:Chain of Memories is a direct sequel to Kingdom Hearts, and its ending is set about a year before Kingdom Hearts II. The game follows Sora and friends, exploring a mysterious castle. There, Riku explores the basement levels and fights the darkness. This version of Chain of Memories was released in Europe and Australia for the first time as part of the collection, as it was previously released in North America in December 2008. ### Kingdom Hearts 358/2 Days The story takes place near the end of Kingdom Hearts, continuing parallel to Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories. The story is told from the perspective of Roxas, following his daily life within Organization XIII and his relationship with fellow Organization member Axel; it also introduces a fourteenth member, Xion, who becomes friends with the former two. 358/2 Days does not appear in playable form, and instead features the Nintendo DS game adapted into 2 hours and 50 minutes worth of cinematic retelling, and features Trophy support. ## Development In August 2011, Nomura expressed desire to release a high definition re-release of the game though he had yet to confirm such plans. The idea for a high definition re-release preceded plans for Final Fantasy X re-release, and was a focus for two Square Enix programmers for over a year. In September 2012, Square Enix announced Kingdom Hearts HD 1.5 Remix for release in Japan on the PlayStation 3. The collection, developed in-house by the 1st Production Department, would include both Kingdom Hearts Final Mix and Kingdom Hearts Re:Chain of Memories in high definition and Trophy support, as well as non-playable HD event scenes from Kingdom Hearts 358/2 Days as a way for players to understand the story. The development team experimented with using some character models from Kingdom Hearts 3D: Dream Drop Distance for HD 1.5 Remix. The cutscenes from Kingdom Hearts Final Mix were remastered with Japanese voice overs for both Chain of Memories and 358/2 Days so that 70% of main story scenes will have full voice acting. 358/2 Days was originally planned to receive a full remake for the compilation similar to Re:Chain of Memories, but due to the lengthy development time it would require, it was instead presented as an extended HD cinematic retelling the game's events. Every cutscene from Kingdom Hearts 358/2 Days, whether it was originally a pre-rendered scene or used in-game graphics, was re-animated for the cinematic. In January 2013, Jesse McCartney, the voice of Roxas, posted a picture on Instagram of himself in a recording booth, with Roxas seen on a screen in the background, along with the caption, "For all you 'Kingdom Hearts' Fans. Recording the next chapter! \#KingdomHearts \#Roxas \#Gamers." The image was later deleted by McCartney. In February, Square Enix confirmed the game would release in North America and Europe, later revealing September 2013 releases for North America, Australia, and Europe. It was revealed in March 2013 in a Famitsu interview, that 66 tracks spanning across all three games (with a majority of them concentrated in Kingdom Hearts Final Mix) were re-recorded with live instrumentation, as opposed to the original games' use of the PlayStation 2's built-in tone generator for their background music. In June 2013, Nomura stated that the original game assets for Kingdom Hearts had been lost some time ago. He explained, "[The game data] was lost, so we had to research, and we had to dig out from the actual game what was available and recreate everything for HD. We had to recreate all the graphics and it was actually not that easy." In July 2017, Nomura spoke on bringing the collection to the Xbox One, saying he did not believe there was much demand for it outside of North America, but felt it could be a possibility after Square Enix completed development on Kingdom Hearts III. At the X019 event in November 2019, Shinji Hashimoto and Ichiro Hazama announced that this collection along with 2.5 and 2.8 will be released on the Xbox One in 2020. The game also released on Windows exclusively via Epic Games Store on March 30, 2021. In October 2021, it was announced that a cloud version of the game was in development for Nintendo Switch. ## Release Kingdom Hearts HD 1.5 Remix was released in Japan on March 14, 2013, in North America on September 10, 2013, in Australia on September 12, 2013, and in Europe on September 13, 2013. Preorders for the game in North America, Australia, and Europe included a book of the game's concept artwork and a dynamic PlayStation 3 theme. Square Enix also released the collection in a bundle in Japan with Kingdom Hearts HD 2.5 Remix titled, Kingdom Hearts Collector's Pack: HD 1.5 + 2.5 Remix. The Collector's pack will feature both collections, a code to get an Anniversary Set for Kingdom Hearts χ [chi], music, and a booklet with art from the series. In October 2016, Square Enix announced a single-disc compilation release of Kingdom Hearts HD 1.5 Remix and Kingdom Hearts HD 2.5 Remix for the PlayStation 4. It was released on March 9, 2017, in Japan, and was released on March 28, 2017, in North America, and March 31, 2017, in Europe and Australia. A set of free downloadable content for the PS4 version released in June 2017 added a Theater mode for Kingdom Hearts Final Mix and an additional cutscene for 358/2 Days; these were included by default in later ports of the collection. An additional bundle, Kingdom Hearts: The Story So Far, includes the Kingdom Hearts HD 1.5 + 2.5 Remix PlayStation 4 collection and Kingdom Hearts HD 2.8 Final Chapter Prologue and was released in North America on October 30, 2018 for the PlayStation 4. ## Reception Kingdom Hearts HD 1.5 Remix has been met to generally positive critical reception. Aggregating review website Metacritic gave the game a 77 out of 100 based on 49 reviews. Kotaku gave the release a generally positive rating, praising the redone visuals, tweaked gameplay and expanded content, but also noting the game's age is still palpable. Game Informer praised the collection, stating "The core of this collection is the excellent original game, and that’s where your attention should be. The other two lowly offerings are inessential bonus features." Joystiq gave a positive, unscored review, saying the collection "captures that early era of the franchise at its purest simplicity. It's a trip down memory lane for long-term fans, while the visual overhaul and back-to-beginnings story should make it a welcoming entry point for newcomers." GameSpot stated, "Kingdom Hearts HD 1.5 Remix presents a couple of the earliest games in the beloved series in their best light and makes a revealing cinematic experience out of a third one. The three experiences complement one another with unique elements and welcome context that is a treat for longtime fans and newcomers alike." GameTrailers felt that, "While Kingdom Hearts HD 1.5 ReMIX certainly lives up to the HD part of its name, the collection is not without its shortcomings. The original game’s inclusion with all the new revisions and the addition of Final Mix content is a worthy investment on its own, and the inclusion of Chain of Memories is a nice gesture. The card-based battle system might be off-putting, but it’s a unique experiment that deviates from the norm of the series. However, despite the overhauled visuals and new voice work, it’s hard to excuse the reduction of 358/2 Days to a lengthy film rather than an actual game." IGN felt that the collection was "an excellent way to replay the series’ first two games in crisp, high-definition splendor" but was disappointed that the box art did not properly distinguish 358/2 Days as a non-playable game. Electronic Gaming Monthly stated the collection "brings a PS2 classic to the modern age with a noticeably impressive visual update, improved camera controls, and, for added fun, secondary and tertiary Kingdom Hearts content all contained on one disc." ## Additional collections ### HD 2.5 Remix In October 2012, game director Tetsuya Nomura suggested that an HD-version of Kingdom Hearts II was likely to be created for another collection, saying that "it’d be unusual if there wasn’t" another one. In the credits of HD 1.5 Remix, clips of Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix, Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep Final Mix and Kingdom Hearts Re:coded were shown, hinting at a second collection. On October 14, 2013, Square Enix announced Kingdom Hearts HD 2.5 Remix, with the collection including the previously mentioned games in high definition. However, Re:coded appears as HD cinematics, similar to 358/2 Days in HD 1.5 Remix. The collection was released exclusively for the PlayStation 3 in Japan on October 2, 2014, in North America on December 2, 2014, in Australia on December 4, 2014, and in Europe on December 5, 2014. ### HD 2.8 Final Chapter Prologue In the credits of HD 2.5 Remix, clips of Kingdom Hearts 3D: Dream Drop Distance were shown as well as the inclusion of a secret ending related to the game, hinting at a possible additional collection. In September 2015, Square Enix announced Kingdom Hearts HD 2.8 Final Chapter Prologue. The collection features an HD remaster of Dream Drop Distance as well as Kingdom Hearts χ Back Cover, a cinematic retelling of Kingdom Hearts χ that reveals new parts of the series' history in HD cinematics, and Kingdom Hearts 0.2: Birth by Sleep – A Fragmentary Passage, a new game taking place after the events of the original Birth by Sleep, told from the perspective of Aqua. It was released on January 12, 2017 in Japan and January 24, 2017 for other countries.
44,961,947	Kaivalya Upanishad	1,134,834,588	Ancient minor Upanishad, in Sanskrit	[ "Shaiva texts", "Upanishads" ]	The Kaivalya Upanishad (Sanskrit: कैवल्य उपनिषत्) is an ancient Sanskrit text and one of the minor Upanishads of Hinduism. It is classified as a Shaiva Upanishad, and survives into modern times in two versions, one attached to the Krishna Yajurveda and other attached to the Atharvaveda. It is, as an Upanishad, a part of the corpus of Vedanta literature collection that presents the philosophical concepts of Hinduism. The Upanishad extols Shiva, aloneness and renunciation, describes the inner state of man in his personal spiritual journey detached from the world. The text is notable for presenting Shaivism in Vedanta, discussing Atman (Self) and its relation to Brahman, and Self-knowledge as the path to kaivalya (liberation). The text, states Paul Deussen – a German Indologist and professor of philosophy, is particularly beautiful in the way it describes the self-realized man who "feels himself only as of the one divine essence that lives in all", who feels identity of his and everyone's consciousness with God (Shiva, highest Atman), who has found this highest Atman within, in the depths of his heart. ## Etymology The Sanskrit word Kaivalya means "aloneness, isolation", and refers to someone who has renounced and isolated himself from all attachments to worldly desires. It also refers to "the absoluteness", states Deussen, the inner conviction of a man on a spiritual journey to liberation. The term Upanishad means it is knowledge or "hidden doctrine" text that belongs to the corpus of Vedanta literature collection presenting the philosophical concepts of Hinduism and considered the highest purpose of its scripture, the Vedas. ## Chronology and anthology The Kaivalya Upanishad, remarks Deussen, is from the group of five Upanishads which extol and assert god Shiva as a symbolism for Atman (Self). These five Upanishads – Atharvashiras, Atharvashikha, Nilarudra, Kalagnirudra and Kaivalya – are ancient, with Nilarudra likely the oldest and Kaivalya the relatively later era 1st millennium BCE Upanishad, composed closer to Shvetashvatara Upanishad, Mundaka Upanishad, and Mahanarayana Upanishad. The manuscripts of this minor Upanishad is sometimes attached to the Krishna Yajurveda, or alternatively attached to the Atharvaveda. In the Muktika canon, narrated by Rama to Hanuman, this Shaiva Upanishad is listed 12th in the anthology of 108 Upanishads. The text is also titled as the Kaivalyopanishad. ## Structure The Kaivalya Upanishad manuscripts vary, depending on which Veda it is attached to. The one attached to Krishna Yajurveda has 26 verses, while the edition attached to the Atharvaveda has 24 verses with an epilogue. Both convey the same message, but the former is structured as a single chapter, and the latter into two chapters (19 verses in first, 5 verses in second). The text is structured as verses, set to a poetic Vedic meter (exactly same number of syllables per verse of the song). The Upanishad is presented as a discourse between the Vedic sage Ashvalayana and the god Brahma, wherein the Ashvalayana asks Brahma for Brahma-vidya, that is the knowledge of ultimate reality Brahman. The Upanishad's structure is notable as it embeds key parts of verses from early Principal Upanishads, thus referencing them and yet building its own message. The fragments of earlier major Upanishads it thus integrates within it, include Mundaka Upanishad and Shvetashvatara Upanishad. The text is also notable for presenting Shaivism with Vedanta terminology, discussing the relationship of Atman (Self) and Brahman (ultimate Reality), and Self-knowledge as the means to Kaivalya (liberation). The text describes the self-realized man as one who "feels himself only as the one divine essence that lives in all", who feels identity of his and everyone's consciousness with Shiva (the highest Self), who has found this highest Self within, in the depths of his heart. ## Content ### The setting: Ashvalayana and Brahma (verses 1-2) The Upanishad opens with sage Ashvalayana meeting Brahma, the creator god in Hindu trimurti. Ashvalayana is a revered Vedic sage, mentioned in the Rigveda, student of the ancient grammarian Shaunaka, and belonging to the Hindu tradition of forest hermits who wander. Ashvalayana, states the text, asks Paramesthi (synonym for Brahma) for Brahmavidya, which Ashvalyana calls "the highest knowledge, always cultivated by the good", one that enables to reach the person who is greater than the great. This verse references a fragment from section 3.2 of the Mundaka Upanishad. Brahma answers, asserts verse 2 of the Upanishad, "Seek knowledge with Sraddha-bhakti-dhyana-yogadavehi (faith, devotion, meditation in yoga), not ritual works, not wealth, not offsprings". Aloneness and renunciation, states the text, is the path to the life of eternity. ### Brahma's answer: Grasp Vedanta doctrine (verses 3-5) Beyond heaven, in the heart, that which shines within, states Brahma in verse 3 of the Upanishad, is the destination of those who have understood the meaning of Vedanta doctrine. There, states the text, all the sannyasis (renunciates) who have reached that wisdom reside, in the state of pure being. The Upanishad says, seclusion is their place, enthroned is their joy, calm is their Yoga. These are the ones, asserts the Upanishad, who revere their teachers (Guru), who live a life of virtuous self-restraint, in their Ashrama (stage) of life. These are the ones who meditate, states the text, their focus on their heart, wherein resides the pure one, the griefless, the bliss. The verse 4 references a fragment each from section 3.2 of Mundaka Upanishad, and section 2.8 of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad. ### Meditate on Shiva: He, Brahman, Indra, Vishnu are same (verses 6-9) The text then iconographically paints god Shiva, as the one who is the companion of Uma, with three eyes, blue neck, the calm wonderful lord imbued with intelligence and bliss, the source of everything. It is this supreme lord, states the text, one must meditate on, asserts verse 7. This supreme, states Kaivalya Upanishad, is the eternal, the all-pervading, formless, unmanifest, infinite, inconceivable, one without beginning or middle or end, one which is chidananda ("consciousness-bliss"). He is, states the Upanishad, Brahman, Shiva, Indra, Vishnu, Prana (life force, breath), fire and moon (time, lunar calendar). Eternity is him, states the text, all that originated is him, all that originates is him. Know him, find liberation, there is no other way, states verse 9. ### Meditate on Om: the three states of consciousness (verses 10-15) The Kaivalya Upanishad asserts that one must see "his Atman (Self) in all beings, and all beings in his Atman" to attain salvation, there is no other way. In verse 11, the text makes a reference to a fragment from section 1.14 of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad, to metaphorically describe how to gain this knowledge. Making his own Self as the lower fire stick and Om the upper fire stick, states the Kaivalya Upanishad, one must rub these together, light up the fire of knowledge, and burn the ties to ignorance. A Jiva (being) immersed in Maya (changing reality, illusive world) craves for worldly greed, performs karoti (Sanskrit: करोति, ritual works), enjoys bodily pleasures like women, food, drink and pleasures. This, states the text, gives him satisfaction in his wakeful state, in dream as he sleeps his Self fashions a dream world of joys and nightmares, but this is all deception. True bliss, states the text, comes in the third state of consciousness. It is, states the text, the third state, everything comes to rest, in whole, in peace, in bliss. ### Shiva, Brahman is within you (verses 16-17) According to Chester Starr, a professor of history, the next two verses of the Upanishad crystallize the ancient Hindu thought. Man has an Atman (spirit) identical with the great spirit of the world, repeated in its great Upanishadic saying, "That art thou," or God is within man. The verse 17 of the text repeats, that all three states, experienced when one is awake, when one dreams, when one is in deep dreamless sleep, is illuminated therein. "Know yourself to be that Brahman", translates Deussen, and experience liberation. ### The state of liberation (verses 18-24) The text, in verses 18 to 24 describes the state of liberated renouncer. The Upanishad states he is blissful, content in all three states of consciousness, feels everything was born in him and abides in him and dissolves in him, that he is Brahman that is in everyone, he is Sadashiva, ancient, diverse, spiritual, with the gift to know eternity. The liberated renouncer, feels he is the knower, the perceiver, the one to learn the Vedas, the one to perfect the Vedas, states verse 22 of the text. He feels his essence is beyond good and bad, beyond body and mind, beyond merit and demerits, beyond what perishes, asserts the text. The liberated man, states the Upanishad, has found the highest Atman in his heart. ### Epilogue In the end, the glories of reciting the Kaivalya Upanishad are told. Recitation of this Upanishad, asserts the epilogue, frees one of various sins, end the cycle of samsara (birth-death-rebirth), gains Supreme Knowledge and kaivalya. The style of the text's epilogue, that is the concluding verses, is odd and different from the rest of the text. This structural anomaly, as well as the very different message therein, states Deussen, suggests that the passage on the "study of Satarudriyam and all sorts of promises" may be a later insertion or an accident of extraction from the Vedic text in which this Upanishad was embedded. ## Commentaries Commentaries on the Kaivalya Upanishad are written by Sadasiva Brahmendra , Upanishad Brahmayogin (c. 1800 CE) and Osho (1931 – 1990). An incomplete commentary, which includes only the first verse, by Aurobindo was written in 1912 and first published in 1971. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan translated this text in 1953. ## See also - Maha Upanishad - Nirvana Upanishad - Yogatattva Upanishad
17,880,230	Boeing Galleries	1,170,192,733	null	[ "2005 establishments in Illinois", "Art galleries established in 2005", "Art museums and galleries in Chicago", "Boeing", "Buildings and structures celebrating the third millennium", "Contemporary art galleries in the United States", "Millennium Park", "Outdoor sculptures in Chicago", "Sculpture galleries in the United States", "Sculpture gardens, trails and parks in the United States" ]	Boeing Galleries (North Boeing Gallery and South Boeing Gallery) are a pair of outdoor exhibition spaces within Millennium Park in the Loop community area of Chicago in Cook County, Illinois, United States. The spaces are located along the south and north mid-level terraces, above and east of Wrigley Square and the Crown Fountain. In a conference at the Chicago Cultural Center, Boeing President and Chief Executive Officer James Bell to Chicago Mayor Richard M. Daley announced Boeing would make a \$5 million grant to fund both the construction of and an endowment for the space. ## Details Lying between Lake Michigan to the east and the Loop to the west, Grant Park has been Chicago's front yard since the mid 19th century. Its northwest corner, north of Monroe Street and the Art Institute, east of Michigan Avenue, south of Randolph Street, and west of Columbus Drive, had been Illinois Central rail yards and parking lots until 1997, when it was made available for development by the city as Millennium Park. Today, Millennium Park trails only Navy Pier as a Chicago tourist attraction. The city sought Boeing's financial support in the form of a \$6 million donation. The purpose of the eventual \$5 million donation was to fund a space for use as open-air gallery spaces to accommodate regular exhibitions of both visual arts and sculpture. The exhibitions primarily occur in the spring and summer months. The galleries were commissioned in December 2004 (after the park's first summer), and they provide necessary formal space for the presentation of public exhibitions of modern and contemporary art. Boeing also previously funded the Family Album photograph exhibition that debuted in Millennium Park during its opening weekend. The galleries were constructed between March and June 2005. The south gallery is 19,200 square feet (1,780 m<sup>2</sup>) (240 by 80 feet (73 by 24 m)) and the north is 14,400 square feet (1,338 m<sup>2</sup>) (180 by 80 feet (55 by 24 m)). The galleries are surrounded by sycamore trees, which are very rare in Chicago. There is seating on a series of black granite steps, which match The Crown Fountain, along each gallery's east side. The South Gallery is connected to the fountain by a precast concrete staircase. The galleries are also paved in granite. The north and south galleries are physically separated by AT&T Plaza, which hosts Cloud Gate (The Bean). ## Exhibitions ### Past exhibitions 2005 The first exhibition in the renamed Galleries was Revealing Chicago: An Aerial Portrait, which was displayed on the Central Chase Promenade and South Boeing Gallery, appeared from June 10 – October 10, 2005. The exhibit featured 100 images from Chicago metropolitan area taken on 50 flights that occurred between March 2003 and August 2004 at various seasons of the year. Photographer, Terry Evans, a Chicagoan, says that although 90% of the photographs were taken while in a helicopter, her preferred method of travel hot air balloon, but Chicago was usually too windy to shoot by balloon. At the time of the installation of the exhibition, the North Boeing Gallery was not complete so the exhibition partially took place on the Central Chase Promenade. 2006 The galleries hosted In Search of Paradise: Great Gardens of the World from May 12 – October 22, 2006. The opening was delayed a week. This exhibition was developed by the Chicago Botanic Garden and included 65 photomurals of gardens from 21 countries including Lurie Garden. All of the photographs were less than five years old. The exhibition was curated by Penelope Hobhouse and presented by the Chicago Department of Cultural Affairs, Millennium Park with support from The Boeing Company and the Richard H. Driehaus Foundation. The photographs were formatted at 4 by 6 feet (1.2 by 1.8 m). The production schedule for the photomural formatted photography used was longer than expected, which led to the week-long delay in opening the exhibition. The exhibition was a thematic reference to the Chicago motto, "Urbs in Horto", which means city in a garden, and was a modern adaptation of a 2003 exhibition at the Chicago Botanic Garden. The exhibit provided viewers with an appreciation for the landscape design, aesthetics and the horticulture of gardens. 2007–2008 The gallery hosted Mark di Suvero, whose large-scale abstract expressionism sculptures were on display from April 17, 2007 – October 12, 2008. The original duration of the exhibition was supposed to only be until April 1, 2008, but the exhibit was extended through the summer and fall of 2008. It is presented by the Chicago Department of Cultural Affairs, Millennium Park, in cooperation with Millennium Park, Inc., and is sponsored by The Boeing Company with support from the Richard H. Driehaus Foundation. The exhibit included five pieces in total: two pieces in the North Boeing Gallery and three in the South Boeing Gallery. It was originally scheduled to include only four works. Orion, which was the largest of these, is a bright orange sculpture that measures 53 feet (16.2 m) tall and 12 short tons (10.9 t; 10.7 long tons). It has been installed on the North Boeing Gallery. The exhibit featured an interactive piece, Shang, which visitors were invited to climb on in the South Gallery. Shang was 25 feet (7.6 m) tall and had a suspended steel beam that acted as a swing. Chicago Tribune art critic Alan G. Artner felt that the installation was a bit cramped in the Boeing Galleries. He explained that this was why di Suvero was limited to his midsize pieces and felt the Chase Promenade might have served as a better forum and left the artist unfettered to choose from a wider range of pieces. He also wondered why a city that abounds in public sculpture has not ventured to acquire any of his work. 2009–2010 The di Suvero exhibit was removed at the end of October 2008. In March 2009, the park announced its plans to install four large-scale contemporary outdoor works by Chinese sculptors in Boeing Galleries from April 9 – October 2010. The exhibition, entitled "A Conversation With Chicago: Contemporary Sculpture From China", complements "The Big World: Recent Art From China" exhibition hosted at the Chicago Cultural Center beginning April 25, 2009 but was conceived independently and is a distinct body of work. Chen Wenling's "Valiant Struggle No. 11," symbolizes Chinese society. The open-work sculpture "Windy City Dinosaur," created by Sui Jianguo stamped with the phrase "Made in China" is a critique on the cheap mass-produced goods that are building the Chinese export economy. "Kowtow Pump," is a caricature of the oil rigs by Shen Shaomin that will have limited Thursday active display times from June 11 through Aug. 27. Zhan Wang's "Jia Shan Shi No. 46" is considered the most abstract and depicts the scholar's rock in stainless steel. 2011–2012 On February 1, 2011, the city announced that the April 6, 2011 – October 2012 Millennium Park Boeing Galleries, Large-Scale Sculptures Exhibition would feature the work of Mexican sculptor Yvonne Domenge under the exhibition title "Interconnected: The Sculptures of Yvonne Domenge". In addition to several traditional park sponsors, the exhibit is sponsored by the National Council for Culture and Arts, Richard H. Driehaus Foundation, the National Museum of Mexican Art, and the Consulate General of Mexico. This marks the first installation by a female or Latina artist at the Boeing Galleries. It is regarded as Chicago's last event of the "Mexico 2010" citywide yearlong 70-event celebration of the bicentennial of Mexico's independence and the centennial of its Revolution. These are the first sculptures by a Latina artist displayed anywhere in Millennium Park. The exhibition was three years in the making and preliminary sketches were on display at the Chicago Cultural Center in the fall of 2010. Also, prior to installation the sculptures' maquettes were displayed at the Chicago Cultural Center as a preview of the exhibit. The city describes Domenge's sculptures as unifying perceived opposites and harmonizing apparent dissonances by geometrically referencing the natural world. The four piece installation includes a 16-foot (4.9 m) tall red-painted bronze sculpture, Tree of Life on the North Boeing Gallery, which stands as the tallest of work in the exhibit with its 4 feet (1.2 m) wide and 9 feet (2.7 m) tall pair of companion seeds. The tree and seed's represent life in it full form and its new emergence. They are said to represent the "Circle of life". The South Boeing Gallery hosts three steel spheres: Tabachin Ribbon, a 13-foot (4.0 m) tall yellow sculpture; Wind Waves, a white sculpture measuring approximately 16 feet (4.9 m) high and Coral, in blue, approximately 10-foot (3.0 m) high. Domenge's spheres defy gravity and space, conveying a rhythmic beauty and a sense of a larger universal order. The Boeing installation's spheres are said to express a type of beauty that pays respect to a larger universal order with reference to biological examples. The installation on the Boeing Galleries places the works above and to the east of Wrigley Square (North Gallery) and Crown Fountain (South Gallery). Domenge stated that she attempts to express the beauty of natures geometric order that it expresses in the molecular structures of flowers and plants. She feels that the spheres on exhibit in the South gallery depict the geometric perfection of the cosmos and that the celebrate this in a "festival of color and form". In keeping with her belief in the harmony of nature and out of respect for the park, she presented an installation that required no welding or screws. 2013 In 2013, the Boeing Galleries hosted ceramic sculpture by Jun Kaneko. The "Legends, Myths and Truths: Jun Kaneko" exhibit ran from April 12 – November 3, 2013. The exhibition included both old and new works by Kaneko. The old subject matter was work on Dangos and the new work focused on Tanuki. ### Current installation (2014–2015) #### 1004 Portraits In 2009 starting with the 66 feet (20.12 m) tall Dream, Plensa began creating massive head sculptures. On June 18, 2014, four new large head sculpture pieces were added to Millennium Park in celebration of its 10th anniversary. Standing at 20 feet (6.10 m) tall, three of the works (Laura, Paula, and Inez) were located in the South Boeing Galleries. Each work depicts a female subject on the brink of maturation. They came from Barcelona. The fourth and tallest work at 39 feet (11.89 m), originally titled Looking Into My Dreams and by the time of its Chicago arrival titled Looking Into My Dreams, Awilda (or Awilda for short), was placed on Michigan Avenue facing Madison Avenue. It had been created in 2012 for an installation in Rio de Janeiro's Guanabara Bay and arrived in 15 pieces that were bolted together. Awilda is made of resin, while the others are made of cast iron. Jaume Plensa, creator of the adjacent Crown Fountain sculptures, named the four sculptures "1004 Portraits" because the sculptures added four new faces to the previous 1000 LED faces projected on the Crown Fountain. The works are on loan from Plensa and will be on display until December 2015. He wanted the statues to have a dreamlike quality; as a result all the faces have closed eyes and are in a dreamlike position. Plensa wanted everyone who viewed the sculptures to dream with him and the sculptures. #### Millennium Park: An Anatomy in Photographs Located in the North Boeing Gallery, next to Wrigley Square, is the Millennium Park: An Anatomy in Photographs display in celebration of the 10th anniversary of the completion of Millennium Park runs from June 18, 2014 through October 2015. Curated by John Vinci and Hamp Architects, the display features over 58 images of Millennium Park before, during, and after construction, showcasing work done by 16 photographers. Some of the photos document construction of the park while others document its art and architecture, and other photographers used the park as their inspiration for their photographs.
10,812,293	2006–07 Toronto Raptors season	1,172,601,843	NBA professional basketball team season	[ "2006 in Toronto", "2006–07 NBA season by team", "2006–07 in Canadian basketball by team", "2007 in Toronto", "Toronto Raptors seasons" ]	The Toronto Raptors 2006–07 season was the twelfth National Basketball Association (NBA) season for the Toronto Raptors basketball franchise. Following a poor 2005–06 season, General Manager Bryan Colangelo greatly revamped the team roster during the pre-season but continued to build the team around All-Star Chris Bosh. Despite a sluggish start, the 2006–07 season transformed into a watershed year for Toronto. The Raptors captured their first division title, finished third in the Eastern Conference, made the playoffs for the first time in five years, equalled their best ever regular season record (47-35) of the 2000-01 team (a franchise record eventually surpassed by the 2014–15 team that won 49 games and the 2017–18 team that won 59 games), and secured home court advantage for the first time in franchise history. However, the Raptors met the New Jersey Nets in the first round of the playoffs and were defeated four games to two. At the end of the regular season, head coach Sam Mitchell and Colangelo were named NBA Coach of the Year and NBA Executive of the Year respectively. The Raptors also changed their colour scheme which is still in use today. ## Pre-season ### NBA draft ### Pre-season trades Before the season, Toronto won the NBA draft lottery and were awarded the 1st overall pick in the 2006 NBA draft. To prepare for their draft choice, the Raptors traded Rafael Araújo for Kris Humphries and Robert Whaley, and traded Matt Bonner, Eric Williams and a second round pick for Rasho Nesterovič and cash considerations. The 1st overall pick was used to select Italian Andrea Bargnani, making him the first European drafted number one overall. Maurizio Gherardini was hired as the club's vice-president and assistant general manager, making him the first European elevated to an NBA executive job. Promising small forward Charlie Villanueva was traded for point guard T. J. Ford and cash considerations, while Chris Bosh was rewarded with a three-year extension. ## Roster ## Regular season General Manager Bryan Colangelo continued to surround Bosh with complementary players, and signed two-time Euroleague Most Valuable Player Anthony Parker. Spanish international Jorge Garbajosa and former slam dunk champion Fred Jones were also signed from free agency. The Raptors concluded pre-season transactions by re-signing veteran Darrick Martin. With this new lineup, Toronto looked to maintain a team who could both pass and shoot the ball, but was also stronger defensively than the 2005–06 roster. As a showcase of their new roster, on 15 October 2006, the 119 points by Toronto marked the third highest total in a pre-season game in franchise history. The Raptors finished the pre-season with a 7–1 win–loss record, which was the best record in the league and a franchise record. ### Push for playoffs The first half of the season produced mixed results as Toronto struggled towards the .500 mark after a dismal 2–8 start. Bosh's consistent performances however ensured he was named an All-Star starter in the 2007 NBA All-Star Game on 25 January 2007. He received the most votes after LeBron James among all Eastern Conference forwards. A day later, the Raptors hit the .500 mark for the first time since the 2003–04 season after defeating the Boston Celtics at the Air Canada Centre. On 2 February, the Raptors went 24–23, the first time since 2001–02 that they had been over .500 this late in a season. As a result, the Raptors won three NBA Eastern Conference awards for the month of January: Player of the Month (Bosh), Rookie of the Month (Bargnani) and Coach of the Month (Sam Mitchell). On 4 February, the Raptors' 122–110 home win against the Los Angeles Clippers represented a season-high in points for the Raptors. Within the same week, Bosh's career-high 41 points in a win against the Orlando Magic prompted an unheard of event at the Air Canada Centre—chants of "MVP" by the home fans. This chant was repeated in a win against Vince Carter's New Jersey Nets ten days later—to the disbelief of Carter—a game which also saw the team break franchise records for the most home wins and highest home winning percentage entering the All-Star break. After the break, Colangelo traded Jones for Juan Dixon, a versatile guard. Luke Jackson was also signed to provide depth to Toronto's bench. Following a win against the Charlotte Bobcats on 1 April 2007, Toronto clinched a playoff berth for the first time in five years. They then claimed their first division title when they defeated the Philadelphia 76ers five days later, winning the Atlantic Division crown. Another franchise record was set when Toronto won the next game against the Bulls, this time for most home wins. The Raptors were eventually seeded third in the Eastern Conference, marking one of the biggest turnarounds in NBA history in terms of league standing and defensive ranking. Throughout the season, they were lauded for playing solid defense and good sharing and moving of the ball. José Calderón, Bargnani, Dixon and Morris Peterson turned in reliable performances from the bench while Ford and Bosh ran the offence with consistent numbers. And in Parker and Garbajosa, the Raptors had two very versatile players who could both defend and attack. Furthermore, in contrast to previous seasons, the Raptors were able to win games despite injuries to key players such as Bosh, Bargnani, Parker, Ford and Garbajosa. Colangelo, Gherardini and Mitchell were also largely credited for transforming Toronto's fortunes. ### Standings ### Record vs. opponents ## Playoffs As third seed, the Raptors played sixth seed New Jersey Nets in the first round of the 2007 NBA Playoffs. The series drew much media attention as Vince Carter, a former Raptor who left Toronto under acrimonious circumstances two seasons ago, was now back at the ACC as a Net. In the opening game, while Carter was constantly booed by the home crowd and was not an offensive threat, Toronto's inexperience was evident as they too struggled offensively and were down 65–78 going into the fourth quarter. A late rally by Toronto in the fourth quarter was not enough as they eventually lost 91–96. The Raptors won game 2 89–83 at the ACC to tie the series 1–1, as Bosh recorded 25 points and a game-high 13 rebounds. The Nets won games 3 and 4 to lead 3–1, but Toronto forced a game 6 when they narrowly won 98–96 in game 5. In that game, the Raptors set two post-season franchise records: most points going into halftime and biggest lead for a half. The attendance for the game was also a franchise record for a playoff game. In game 6, however, New Jersey won 98–97, sealing the series 4–2 and sending Toronto out of the first round. In recognition of being the chief architects of Toronto's turnaround season, on 24 April 2007, Mitchell was named 2006–07 NBA Coach of the Year, the first Raptors coach to receive this honour; Colangelo was later named 2006–07 Executive of the Year. ## Game log \\|- bgcolor="ffcccc" \\| 1 \\| November 1 \\| @ New Jersey \\| \\| Anthony Parker (22) \\| Chris Bosh, T. J. Ford, Jorge Garbajosa, Morris Peterson (5) \\| T. J. Ford (7) \\| Continental Airlines Arena 18,646 \\| 0–1 \\|- bgcolor="bbffbb" \\| 2 \\| November 3 \\| Milwaukee \\| \\| Chris Bosh (26) \\| Chris Bosh (15) \\| T. J. Ford (11) \\| Air Canada Centre 19,832 \\| 1–1 \\|- bgcolor="ffcccc" \\| 3 \\| November 5 \\| San Antonio \\| \\| Chris Bosh (19) \\| Chris Bosh (17) \\| T. J. Ford (5) \\| Air Canada Centre 18,098 \\| 1–2 \\|- bgcolor="bbffbb" \\| 4 \\| November 8 \\| Philadelphia \\| \\| Chris Bosh (29) \\| Chris Bosh (44) \\| T. J. Ford (7) \\| Air Canada Centre 15,831 \\| 2–2 \\|- bgcolor="ffcccc" \\| 5 \\| November 10 \\| Atlanta \\| \\| Chris Bosh (19) \\| Chris Bosh (17) \\| T. J. Ford (11) \\| Air Canada Centre 14,680 \\| 2-3 \\|- bgcolor="ffcccc" \\| 6 \\| November 12 \\| @ Sacramento \\| \\| Chris Bosh (19) \\| Chris Bosh (7) \\| T. J. Ford (7) \\| ARCO Arena 17,317 \\| 2–4 \\|- bgcolor="ffcccc" \\| 7 \\| November 14 \\| @ Golden State \\| \\| Chris Bosh (23) \\| Chris Bosh (22) \\| T. J. Ford (6) \\| Oracle Arena 16,182 \\| 2–5 \\|- bgcolor="ffcccc" \\| 8 \\| November 17 \\| @ L.A. Lakers \\| \\| Chris Bosh, Morris Peterson (20) \\| Chris Bosh (10) \\| T. J. Ford, Fred Jones (6) \\| Staples Center 18,997 \\| 2–6 \\|- bgcolor="ffcccc" \\| 9 \\| November 18 \\| @ Denver \\| \\| Chris Bosh (31) \\| Jorge Garbajosa (10) \\| T. J. Ford (18) \\| Pepsi Center 15,531 \\| 2–7 \\|- bgcolor="ffcccc" \\| 10 \\| November 20 \\| @ Utah \\| \\| Chris Bosh (17) \\| Chris Bosh (11) \\| T. J. Ford (5) \\| EnergySolutions Arena 18,881 \\| 2–8 \\|- bgcolor="bbffbb" \\| 11 \\| November 22 \\| Cleveland \\| \\| Chris Bosh (25) \\| Chris Bosh (14) \\| Chris Bosh (6) \\| Air Canada Centre 19,800 \\| 3–8 \\|- bgcolor="ffcccc" \\| 12 \\| November 24 \\| @ Atlanta \\| \\| T. J. Ford (25) \\| Jorge Garbajosa (12) \\| T. J. Ford (12) \\| Philips Arena 16,630 \\| 3–9 \\|- bgcolor="bbffbb" \\| 13 \\| November 26 \\| Indiana \\| \\| Chris Bosh (17) \\| Chris Bosh (11) \\| T. J. Ford (6) \\| Air Canada Centre 18,075 \\| 4–9 \\|- bgcolor="bbffbb" \\| 14 \\| November 28 \\| @ New Orleans/Oklahoma City \\| \\| Chris Bosh, Anthony Parker (19) \\| Chris Bosh (14) \\| José Calderón (4) \\| Ford Center 15,647 \\| 5–9 \\|- bgcolor="ffcccc" \\| 15 \\| November 29 \\| @ Dallas \\| \\| Chris Bosh, T. J. Ford (18) \\| Chris Bosh (11) \\| José Calderón (4) \\| American Airlines Center 19,975 \\| 5–10 \\|- bgcolor="bbffbb" \\| 16 \\| December 1 \\| Boston \\| \\| Chris Bosh (25) \\| Chris Bosh (11) \\| T. J. Ford (13) \\| Air Canada Centre 16,562 \\| 6–10 \\|- bgcolor="bbffbb" \\| 17 \\| December 2 \\| @ New York \\| \\| Chris Bosh (26) \\| Chris Bosh (13) \\| T. J. Ford (10) \\| Madison Square Garden 17,525 \\| 7–10 \\|- bgcolor="ffcccc" \\| 18 \\| December 6 \\| @ Cleveland \\| \\| Chris Bosh, Anthony Parker (18) \\| Chris Bosh (12) \\| T. J. Ford (10) \\| Quicken Loans Arena 20,119 \\| 7–11 \\|- bgcolor="ffcccc" \\| 19 \\| December 8 \\| @ Chicago \\| \\| Jorge Garbajosa (17) \\| Chris Bosh (12) \\| José Calderón (8) \\| United Center 21,797 \\| 7–12 \\|- bgcolor="ffcccc" \\| 20 \\| December 10 \\| Portland \\| \\| Morris Peterson (23) \\| Jorge Garbajosa (7) \\| T. J. Ford (6) \\| Air Canada Centre 15,542 \\| 7–13 \\|- bgcolor="ffcccc" \\| 21 \\| December 11 \\| @ Miami \\| \\| Anthony Parker (18) \\| Kris Humphries (7) \\| T. J. Ford (12) \\| American Airlines Arena 19,600 \\| 7–14 \\|- bgcolor="bbffbb" \\| 22 \\| December 13 \\| @ Orlando \\| \\| Andrea Bargnani (23) \\| Radoslav Nesterović (10) \\| T. J. Ford (5) \\| Amway Arena 15,417 \\| 8–14 \\|- bgcolor="bbffbb" \\| 23 \\| December 15 \\| New Jersey \\| \\| T. J. Ford (17) \\| T. J. Ford, Joey Graham (9) \\| T. J. Ford (8) \\| Air Canada Centre 19,897 \\| 9–14 \\|- bgcolor="bbffbb" \\| 24 \\| December 17 \\| Golden State \\| \\| Morris Peterson (23) \\| Jorge Garbajosa (11) \\| T. J. Ford (14) \\| Air Canada Centre 16,035 \\| 10–14 \\|- bgcolor="ffcccc" \\| 25 \\| December 19 \\| @ Phoenix \\| \\| T. J. Ford (19) \\| P. J. Tucker (9) \\| T. J. Ford (9) \\| US Airways Center 18,422 \\| 10–15 \\|- bgcolor="bbffbb" \\| 26 \\| December 20 \\| @ L.A. Clippers \\| \\| Fred Jones (23) \\| Andrea Bargnani, Radoslav Nesterović (7) \\| T. J. Ford (9) \\| Staples Center 17,962 \\| 11–15 \\|- bgcolor="bbffbb" \\| 27 \\| December 22 \\| @ Portland \\| \\| T. J. Ford (23) \\| Anthony Parker (8) \\| T. J. Ford (10) \\| Rose Garden 15,220 \\| 12–15 \\|- bgcolor="ffcccc" \\| 28 \\| December 23 \\| @ Seattle \\| \\| T. J. Ford (24) \\| Jorge Garbajosa, Radoslav Nesterović (7) \\| José Calderón (10) \\| KeyArena 14,611 \\| 12–16 \\|- bgcolor="bbffbb" \\| 29 \\| December 27 \\| Minnesota \\| \\| T. J. Ford (28) \\| Jorge Garbajosa (10) \\| T. J. Ford (7) \\| Air Canada Centre 19,800 \\| 13–16 \\|- bgcolor="ffcccc" \\| 30 \\| December 29 \\| Chicago \\| \\| T. J. Ford (20) \\| Radoslav Nesterović (8) \\| Jorge Garbajosa (7) \\| Air Canada Centre 19,800 \\| 13–17 \\|- bgcolor="ffcccc" \\| 31 \\| December 30 \\| @ Memphis \\| \\| Morris Peterson (19) \\| Radoslav Nesterović (9) \\| Darrick Martin (10) \\| FedExForum 15,119 \\| 13–18 \\|- bgcolor="ffcccc" \\| 32 \\| January 3 \\| Phoenix \\| \\| Chris Bosh (26) \\| Chris Bosh (14) \\| José Calderón (6) \\| Air Canada Centre 20,063 \\| 13–19 \\|- bgcolor="bbffbb" \\| 33 \\| January 5 \\| Atlanta \\| \\| Chris Bosh (21) \\| Radoslav Nesterović (9) \\| José Calderón (12) \\| Air Canada Centre 17,977 \\| 14–19 \\|- bgcolor="bbffbb" \\| 34 \\| January 7 \\| Washington \\| \\| Chris Bosh (24) \\| Chris Bosh (15) \\| Anthony Parker (6) \\| Air Canada Centre 17,981 \\| 15–19 \\|- bgcolor="ffcccc" \\| 35 \\| January 9 \\| @ New Jersey \\| \\| Andrea Bargnani (22) \\| Chris Bosh (6) \\| José Calderón (12) \\| Continental Airlines Arena 14,729 \\| 15–20 \\|- bgcolor="bbffbb" \\| 36 \\| January 10 \\| @ Milwaukee \\| \\| Chris Bosh (30) \\| Chris Bosh (8) \\| T. J. Ford (10) \\| Bradley Center 16,432 \\| 16–20 \\|- bgcolor="bbffbb" \\| 37 \\| January 12 \\| @ Boston \\| \\| Chris Bosh (27) \\| Chris Bosh, Radoslav Nesterović (8) \\| T. J. Ford (6) \\| TD Banknorth Garden 17,191 \\| 17–20 \\|- bgcolor="ffcccc" \\| 38 \\| January 14 \\| Dallas \\| \\| Chris Bosh (24) \\| Chris Bosh (15) \\| T. J. Ford (8) \\| Air Canada Centre 19,800 \\| 17–21 \\|- bgcolor="bbffbb" \\| 39 \\| January 15 \\| @ Philadelphia \\| \\| Chris Bosh (27) \\| Chris Bosh, Anthony Parker (6) \\| T. J. Ford (10) \\| Wachovia Center 12,380 \\| 18–21 \\|- bgcolor="bbffbb" \\| 40 \\| January 17 \\| Sacramento \\| \\| Morris Peterson (22) \\| Chris Bosh (9) \\| José Calderón (9) \\| Air Canada Centre 15,175 \\| 19–21 \\|- bgcolor="ffbbbb" \\| 41 \\| January 19 \\| Utah \\| \\| Chris Bosh (29) \\| Chris Bosh (11) \\| T. J. Ford, Anthony Parker (6) \\| Air Canada Centre 17,384 \\| 19–22 \\|- bgcolor="bbffbb" \\| 42 \\| January 22 \\| Charlotte \\| \\| Chris Bosh (20) \\| Joey Graham (9) \\| José Calderón (11) \\| Air Canada Centre 13,997 \\| 20–22 \\|- bgcolor="bbffbb" \\| 43 \\| January 24 \\| New Orleans/Oklahoma City \\| \\| Chris Bosh (35) \\| Anthony Parker (9) \\| José Calderón (8) \\| Air Canada Centre 14,173 \\| 21–22 \\|- bgcolor="bbffbb" \\| 44 \\| January 26 \\| Boston \\| \\| Chris Bosh (26) \\| Chris Bosh, Jorge Garbajosa (8) \\| José Calderón (8) \\| Air Canada Centre 18,565 \\| 22–22 \\|- bgcolor="ffcccc" \\| 45 \\| January 27 \\| @ Indiana \\| \\| Chris Bosh (26) \\| Chris Bosh (12) \\| José Calderón (10) \\| Conseco Fieldhouse 14,263 \\| 22–23 \\|- bgcolor="bbffbb" \\| 46 \\| January 31 \\| Washington \\| \\| Chris Bosh (34) \\| Chris Bosh (8) \\| José Calderón (11) \\| Air Canada Centre 16,145 \\| 23–23 \\|- bgcolor="bbffbb" \\| 47 \\| February 2 \\| @ Atlanta \\| \\| Chris Bosh (24) \\| Chris Bosh (10) \\| T. J. Ford (10) \\| Philips Arena 13,200 \\| 24–23 \\|- bgcolor="bbffbb" \\| 48 \\| February 4 \\| L.A. Clippers \\| \\| Chris Bosh (27) \\| Chris Bosh (7) \\| José Calderón (12) \\| Air Canada Centre 17,214 \\| 25–23 \\|- bgcolor="bbffbb" \\| 49 \\| February 7 \\| Orlando \\| \\| Chris Bosh (41) \\| Chris Bosh (8) \\| José Calderón, T. J. Ford (11) \\| Air Canada Centre 15,157 \\| 26–23 \\|- bgcolor="bbffbb" \\| 50 \\| February 9 \\| L.A. Lakers \\| \\| Chris Bosh (29) \\| Chris Bosh (11) \\| T. J. Ford (7) \\| Air Canada Centre 20,012 \\| 27–23 \\|- bgcolor="ffcccc" \\| 51 \\| February 10 \\| @ Detroit \\| \\| T. J. Ford (17) \\| Chris Bosh (11) \\| T. J. Ford (11) \\| The Palace of Auburn Hills 22,076 \\| 27–24 \\|- bgcolor="bbffbb" \\| 52 \\| February 13 \\| @ Chicago \\| \\| Chris Bosh (25) \\| Chris Bosh (14) \\| José Calderón (9) \\| United Center 21,776 \\| 28–24 \\|- bgcolor="bbffbb" \\| 53 \\| February 14 \\| New Jersey \\| \\| Chris Bosh (25) \\| Chris Bosh (9) \\| T. J. Ford (8) \\| Air Canada Centre 19,800 \\| 29–24 \\|- bgcolor="ffcccc" \\| 54 \\| February 21 \\| Cleveland \\| \\| Chris Bosh (24) \\| Chris Bosh (10) \\| T. J. Ford (9) \\| Air Canada Centre 19,800 \\| 29–25 \\|- bgcolor="bbffbb" \\| 55 \\| February 23 \\| Indiana \\| \\| Chris Bosh (23) \\| Chris Bosh (12) \\| José Calderón (12) \\| Air Canada Centre 19,481 \\| 30–25 \\|- bgcolor="bbffbb" \\| 56 \\| February 24 \\| @ Charlotte \\| \\| Chris Bosh (24) \\| Andrea Bargnani, Chris Bosh (11) \\| T. J. Ford (4) \\| Charlotte Bobcats Arena 17,091 \\| 31–25 \\|- bgcolor="ffcccc" \\| 57 \\| February 26 \\| @ San Antonio \\| \\| Andrea Bargnani (17) \\| Chris Bosh, Radoslav Nesterović (9) \\| José Calderón (8) \\| AT&T Center 18,563 \\| 31–26 \\|- bgcolor="bbffbb" \\| 58 \\| February 28 \\| @ Houston \\| \\| Andrea Bargnani (20) \\| Chris Bosh (9) \\| Chris Bosh, José Calderón, T. J. Ford (6) \\| Toyota Center 14,071 \\| 32–26 \\|- bgcolor="ffcccc" \\| 59 \\| March 2 \\| Milwaukee \\| \\| Andrea Bargnani (16) \\| Chris Bosh (10) \\| T. J. Ford (9) \\| Air Canada Centre 18,816 \\| 32–27 \\|- bgcolor="ffcccc" \\| 60 \\| March 3 \\| @ Cleveland \\| \\| Chris Bosh (25) \\| T. J. Ford (7) \\| T. J. Ford (7) \\| Quicken Loans Arena 20,562 \\| 32–28 \\|- bgcolor="ffcccc" \\| 61 \\| March 6 \\| @ Washington \\| \\| Chris Bosh (25) \\| Kris Humphries (5) \\| T. J. Ford (6) \\| Verizon Center 15,529 \\| 32–29 \\|- bgcolor="bbffbb" \\| 62 \\|March 7 \\| Memphis \\| \\| Chris Bosh (19) \\| Chris Bosh (9) \\| José Calderón (9) \\| Air Canada Centre 16,940 \\| 33–29 \\|- bgcolor="bbffbb" \\| 63 \\| March 11 \\| Seattle \\| \\| Chris Bosh (27) \\| Chris Bosh (10) \\| T. J. Ford (13) \\| Air Canada Centre 19,800 \\| 34–29 \\|- bgcolor="bbffbb" \\| 64 \\| March 12 \\| @ Milwaukee \\| \\| Chris Bosh (25) \\| Chris Bosh (10) \\| T. J. Ford (9) \\| Bradley Center 13,411 \\| 35–29 \\|- bgcolor="bbffbb" \\| 65 \\| March 14 \\| New York \\| \\| Chris Bosh (22) \\| Chris Bosh (8) \\| T. J. Ford (18) \\| Air Canada Centre 19,800 \\| 36–29 \\|- bgcolor="ffcccc" \\| 66 \\| March 16 \\| Houston \\| \\| T. J. Ford (18) \\| Chris Bosh (19) \\| T. J. Ford (8) \\| Air Canada Centre 20,102 \\| 36–30 \\|- bgcolor="ffcccc" \\| 67 \\| March 18 \\| @ New York \\| \\| Chris Bosh (21) \\| Kris Humphries (9) \\| T. J. Ford (3) \\| Madison Square Garden 19,763 \\| 36–31 \\|- bgcolor="bbffbb" \\| 68 \\| March 21 \\| Orlando \\| \\| Chris Bosh (34) \\| Chris Bosh (16) \\| T. J. Ford (12) \\| Air Canada Centre 18,326 \\| 37–31 \\|- bgcolor="bbffbb" \\| 69 \\| March 23 \\| Denver \\| \\| Morris Peterson (23) \\| Jorge Garbajosa (9) \\| T. J. Ford (14) \\| Air Canada Centre 20,120 \\| 38–31 \\|- bgcolor="ffcccc" \\| 70 \\| March 26 \\| @ Boston \\| \\| T. J. Ford (28) \\| Chris Bosh (11) \\| T. J. Ford (9) \\| TD Banknorth Garden 14,708 \\| 38–32 \\|- bgcolor="bbffbb" \\| 71 \\| March 28 \\| Miami \\| \\| Anthony Parker (20) \\| Chris Bosh (18) \\| T. J. Ford (9) \\| Air Canada Centre 19,800 \\| 39–32 \\|- bgcolor="bbffbb" \\| 72 \\| March 30 \\| @ Washington \\| \\| Chris Bosh (37) \\| Chris Bosh (14) \\| José Calderón (8) \\| Verizon Center 20,173 \\| 40–32 \\|- bgcolor="bbffbb" \\| 73 \\| April 1 \\| Charlotte \\| \\| Chris Bosh (24) \\| Chris Bosh (16) \\| T. J. Ford (8) \\| Air Canada Centre 19,023 \\| 41–32 \\|- bgcolor="ffcccc" \\| 74 \\| April 3 \\| @ Miami \\| \\| Chris Bosh (24) \\| Chris Bosh (11) \\| T. J. Ford (7) \\| American Airlines Arena 19,600 \\| 41–33 \\|- bgcolor="bbffbb" \\| 75 \\| April 4 \\| @ Orlando \\| \\| Chris Bosh (28) \\| Chris Bosh (10) \\| T. J. Ford (8) \\| Amway Arena 16,911 \\| 42–33 \\|- bgcolor="bbffbb" \\| 76 \\| April 6 \\| @ Philadelphia \\| \\| Chris Bosh (23) \\| Chris Bosh (13) \\| José Calderón, T. J. Ford (6) \\| Wachovia Center 17,566 \\| 43–33 \\|- bgcolor="bbffbb" \\| 77 \\| April 8 \\| Chicago \\| \\| Anthony Parker (27) \\| Chris Bosh (11) \\| José Calderón (8) \\| Air Canada Centre 19,800 \\| 44–33 \\|- bgcolor="bbffbb" \\| 78 \\| April 9 \\| @ Minnesota \\| \\| Anthony Parker (24) \\| Chris Bosh (13) \\| T. J. Ford (10) \\| Target Center 15,561 \\| 45–33 \\|- bgcolor="bbffbb" \\| 79 \\| April 13 \\| Detroit \\| \\| Anthony Parker (21) \\| Kris Humphries (18) \\| T. J. Ford (10) \\| Air Canada Centre 19,800 \\| 46–33 \\|- bgcolor="bbffbb" \\| 80 \\| April 15 \\| New York \\| \\| Chris Bosh (23) \\| Chris Bosh (8) \\| Chris Bosh (7) \\| Air Canada Centre 19,800 \\| 47–33 \\|- bgcolor="ffcccc" \\| 81 \\| April 17 \\| @ Detroit \\| \\| Uroš Slokar (18) \\| Morris Peterson (13) \\| Darrick Martin (8) \\| The Palace of Auburn Hills 22,076 \\| 47–34 \\|- bgcolor="ffcccc" \\| 82 \\| April 18 \\| Philadelphia \\| \\| Luke Jackson (30) \\| Chris Bosh (9) \\| T. J. Ford (10) \\| Air Canada Centre 19,800 \\| 47–35 ### Playoffs \\|- bgcolor="ffcccc" \\| 1 \\| April 21 \\| New Jersey \\| \\| Chris Bosh (22) \\| Rasho Nesterovič (10) \\| José Calderón (8) \\| Air Canada Centre 20,330 \\| 0–1 \\|- bgcolor="bbffbb" \\| 2 \\| April 24 \\| New Jersey \\| \\| Anthony Parker (26) \\| Chris Bosh (13) \\| T. J. Ford (6) \\| Air Canada Centre 20,239 \\| 1–1 \\|- bgcolor="ffcccc" \\| 3 \\| April 27 \\| @ New Jersey \\| \\| T. J. Ford (27) \\| Chris Bosh (11) \\| T. J. Ford (8) \\| Continental Airlines Arena 17,147 \\| 1–2 \\|- bgcolor="ffcccc" \\| 4 \\| April 29 \\| @ New Jersey \\| \\| Andrea Bargnani (16) \\| Chris Bosh (10) \\| T. J. Ford (5) \\| Continental Airlines Arena 20,032 \\| 1–3 \\|- bgcolor="bbffbb" \\| 5 \\| May 1 \\| New Jersey \\| \\| José Calderón (25) \\| Joey Graham (10) \\| José Calderón (8) \\| Air Canada Centre 20,511 \\| 2–3 \\|- bgcolor="ffcccc" \\| 6 \\| May 4 \\| @ New Jersey \\| \\| Chris Bosh (23) \\| Morris Peterson (8) \\| Chris Bosh (9) \\| Continental Airlines Arena 17,242 \\| 2–4 ## Player statistics ### Regular season \\|- \\| \\| 65 \\|\\| 1 \\|\\| 25.1 \\|\\| .427 \\|\\| .373 \\|\\| .824 \\|\\| 3.9 \\|\\| .8 \\|\\| .5 \\|\\| .8 \\|\\| 11.6 \\|- \\| \\| 69 \\|\\| 69 \\|\\| style=";"\\| 38.5 \\|\\| .496 \\|\\| .343 \\|\\| .785 \\|\\| style=";"\\| 10.7 \\|\\| 2.5 \\|\\| .6 \\|\\| style=";"\\| 1.3 \\|\\| style=";"\\| 22.6 \\|- \\| \\| 77 \\|\\| 11 \\|\\| 21.0 \\|\\| .521 \\|\\| .333 \\|\\| .818 \\|\\| 1.7 \\|\\| 5.0 \\|\\| .8 \\|\\| .1 \\|\\| 8.7 \\|- \\| \\| 26 \\|\\| 5 \\|\\| 26.3 \\|\\| .425 \\|\\| .325 \\|\\| style=";"\\| .932 \\|\\| 2.8 \\|\\| 1.6 \\|\\| 1.0 \\|\\| .1 \\|\\| 11.1 \\|- \\| \\| 75 \\|\\| 71 \\|\\| 29.9 \\|\\| .436 \\|\\| .304 \\|\\| .819 \\|\\| 3.1 \\|\\| style=";"\\| 7.9 \\|\\| style=";"\\| 1.3 \\|\\| .1 \\|\\| 14.0 \\|- \\| \\| 67 \\|\\| 60 \\|\\| 28.5 \\|\\| .420 \\|\\| .342 \\|\\| .731 \\|\\| 4.9 \\|\\| 1.9 \\|\\| 1.2 \\|\\| .2 \\|\\| 8.5 \\|- \\| \\| 79 \\|\\| 21 \\|\\| 16.7 \\|\\| .495 \\|\\| .290 \\|\\| .840 \\|\\| 3.1 \\|\\| .6 \\|\\| .4 \\|\\| .1 \\|\\| 6.4 \\|- \\| \\| 60 \\|\\| 2 \\|\\| 11.2 \\|\\| .470 \\|\\| . \\|\\| .671 \\|\\| 3.1 \\|\\| .3 \\|\\| .2 \\|\\| .4 \\|\\| 3.8 \\|- \\| \\| 10 \\|\\| 2 \\|\\| 12.2 \\|\\| .514 \\|\\| .308 \\|\\| .556 \\|\\| .9 \\|\\| .9 \\|\\| .5 \\|\\| .1 \\|\\| 4.5 \\|- \\| \\| 39 \\|\\| 9 \\|\\| 22.3 \\|\\| .386 \\|\\| .317 \\|\\| .830 \\|\\| 2.1 \\|\\| 1.4 \\|\\| .8 \\|\\| .3 \\|\\| 7.6 \\|- \\| \\| 31 \\|\\| 0 \\|\\| 7.1 \\|\\| .351 \\|\\| .351 \\|\\| .714 \\|\\| .4 \\|\\| 1.4 \\|\\| .1 \\|\\| .0 \\|\\| 3.0 \\|- \\| \\| style=";"\\| 80 \\|\\| style=";"\\| 73 \\|\\| 21.0 \\|\\| style=";"\\| .546 \\|\\| .000 \\|\\| .680 \\|\\| 4.5 \\|\\| .9 \\|\\| .5 \\|\\| 1.1 \\|\\| 6.2 \\|- \\| \\| 73 \\|\\| style=";"\\| 73 \\|\\| 33.4 \\|\\| .477 \\|\\| .441 \\|\\| .835 \\|\\| 3.9 \\|\\| 2.1 \\|\\| 1.0 \\|\\| .2 \\|\\| 12.4 \\|- \\| \\| 71 \\|\\| 12 \\|\\| 21.3 \\|\\| .429 \\|\\| .359 \\|\\| .683 \\|\\| 3.3 \\|\\| .7 \\|\\| .6 \\|\\| .2 \\|\\| 8.9 \\|- \\| \\| 20 \\|\\| 0 \\|\\| 3.6 \\|\\| .538 \\|\\| style=";"\\| .500 \\|\\| .692 \\|\\| .7 \\|\\| .1 \\|\\| .1 \\|\\| .1 \\|\\| 1.9 \\|- \\| \\| 7 \\|\\| 0 \\|\\| 4.9 \\|\\| .333 \\|\\| . \\|\\| .667 \\|\\| 1.6 \\|\\| .3 \\|\\| .1 \\|\\| .1 \\|\\| 1.4 \\|- \\| \\| 17 \\|\\| 0 \\|\\| 4.9 \\|\\| .500 \\|\\| . \\|\\| .571 \\|\\| 1.4 \\|\\| .2 \\|\\| .1 \\|\\| .0 \\|\\| 1.8 ### Playoffs \\|- \\| \\| 6 \\|\\| 3 \\|\\| 30.2 \\|\\| .478 \\|\\| .412 \\|\\| .789 \\|\\| 4.0 \\|\\| 1.0 \\|\\| .8 \\|\\| .5 \\|\\| 11.0 \\|- \\| \\| style=";"\\| 6 \\|\\| style=";"\\| 6 \\|\\| 37.0 \\|\\| .396 \\|\\| .200 \\|\\| .842 \\|\\| style=";"\\| 9.0 \\|\\| 2.5 \\|\\| .8 \\|\\| style=";"\\| 1.8 \\|\\| style=";"\\| 17.5 \\|- \\| \\| style=";"\\| 6 \\|\\| 1 \\|\\| 24.3 \\|\\| .507 \\|\\| .250 \\|\\| .833 \\|\\| 1.7 \\|\\| style=";"\\| 5.3 \\|\\| .8 \\|\\| .0 \\|\\| 13.0 \\|- \\| \\| style=";"\\| 6 \\|\\| 0 \\|\\| 10.5 \\|\\| .381 \\|\\| .250 \\|\\| . \\|\\| .7 \\|\\| .5 \\|\\| 1.2 \\|\\| .0 \\|\\| 3.0 \\|- \\| \\| style=";"\\| 6 \\|\\| 5 \\|\\| 22.7 \\|\\| .487 \\|\\| style=";"\\| .500 \\|\\| .810 \\|\\| 1.7 \\|\\| 4.0 \\|\\| 1.2 \\|\\| .3 \\|\\| 16.0 \\|- \\| \\| style=";"\\| 6 \\|\\| 3 \\|\\| 18.1 \\|\\| .286 \\|\\| .000 \\|\\| .800 \\|\\| 3.3 \\|\\| .3 \\|\\| .7 \\|\\| .0 \\|\\| 2.7 \\|- \\| \\| style=";"\\| 6 \\|\\| 0 \\|\\| 11.5 \\|\\| .333 \\|\\| . \\|\\| .375 \\|\\| 2.8 \\|\\| .2 \\|\\| .2 \\|\\| .3 \\|\\| 1.5 \\|- \\| \\| 3 \\|\\| 0 \\|\\| 3.7 \\|\\| . \\|\\| . \\|\\| style=";"\\| 1.000 \\|\\| 1.7 \\|\\| .3 \\|\\| .3 \\|\\| .0 \\|\\| 2.0 \\|- \\| \\| 2 \\|\\| 0 \\|\\| 4.0 \\|\\| .000 \\|\\| .000 \\|\\| style=";"\\| 1.000 \\|\\| .5 \\|\\| 1.0 \\|\\| .0 \\|\\| .0 \\|\\| 1.0 \\|- \\| \\| 5 \\|\\| 4 \\|\\| 14.2 \\|\\| .467 \\|\\| . \\|\\| style=";"\\| 1.000 \\|\\| 4.6 \\|\\| .6 \\|\\| .0 \\|\\| .4 \\|\\| 3.4 \\|- \\| \\| style=";"\\| 6 \\|\\| style=";"\\| 6 \\|\\| style=";"\\| 40.0 \\|\\| .419 \\|\\| .400 \\|\\| .795 \\|\\| 5.3 \\|\\| 1.0 \\|\\| style=";"\\| 1.5 \\|\\| .3 \\|\\| 15.2 \\|- \\| \\| style=";"\\| 6 \\|\\| 2 \\|\\| 30.5 \\|\\| style=";"\\| .517 \\|\\| style=";"\\| .500 \\|\\| .833 \\|\\| 4.5 \\|\\| .3 \\|\\| .3 \\|\\| .3 \\|\\| 6.8
1,241,000	Blue Stinger	1,173,352,954	1999 video game	[ "1999 video games", "Action-adventure games", "Activision games", "Cancelled Sega Saturn games", "Christmas video games", "Dreamcast games", "Dreamcast-only games", "Sega video games", "Single-player video games", "Video games developed in Japan", "Video games scored by Toshihiko Sahashi", "Video games set in Mexico", "Video games set on fictional islands" ]	is a 1999 action-adventure game developed by Climax Graphics for the Dreamcast. It was published by Sega in Japan, and by Activision in Western territories as a console launch title. The story follows emergency rescuer Eliot Ballade as he is stranded on the monster-infested Dinosaur Island, allying with fellow survivors and the alien being Nephilim to find the source of the monsters. Gameplay has Eliot navigating Dinosaur Island, fighting monsters using a variety of weapons found or purchased during the game and finding items to progress to other areas. Producer and co-writer Shinya Nishigaki was inspired to make Blue Stinger as a tribute to Western action movies. Preproduction began in 1996 with a team of eighteen. Notable American staff included Robert Short as monster designer, and Pete von Sholly as storyboard artist and camera consultant. The music was composed by Toshihiko Sahashi. The game met with mixed reviews from journalists, with the gameplay and presentation seeing praise, while several outlets criticised its camera and voice acting. While it sold poorly in Japan, it was successful in North America, going on to sell 500,000 copies worldwide. ## Gameplay Blue Stinger is an action-adventure game in which players alternately take control of Eliot Ballade and Dogs Bower on Dinosaur Island after it is overrun by monsters. The game's environments are all in 3D, with players exploring them to progress the story by unlocking new parts of the island complex. The Japanese version uses fixed third-person camera perspectives similar to the early Resident Evil series, while the Western version uses a third-person camera fixed behind the player character with an optional first-person mode. In addition to the main mission, there are optional side missions which can grant a new weapon or item. If the current character loses all health, the player reaches a game over and is sent back to the title screen to reload an earlier save. Gameplay revolves around Eliot or Dogs−whom the player can switch between once they are together−exploring different areas of the Dinosaur Island complex, finding key items to progress such as key cards for unlocking doors Dinosaur Island. The game is made up of eight large environments ranging from outdoor areas like harbours, to indoor locations including laboratories and a shopping mall. Some environments include passive hostile elements such as extreme temperatures, with their effects shown using a status bar. Enemies are encountered while exploring and can be fought using a variety of weapons either found or bought from vending machines using money dropped from enemies. Larger enemies and bosses have dedicated health bars. Each character has different strengths and weaknesses; Eliot can use multiple weapons and can swim underwater for a limited time, while Dogs can only use one weapon but can defend and use his fists to fight enemies. ## Synopsis Sixty-five million years ago, a meteorite crashes into Earth, subsequently wiping out the dinosaurs and paving the way for humans. In 2000, an earthquake sinks the entire Yucatán Peninsula aside from one island over the meteorite impact area; dubbed "Dinosaur Island", an international biotech corporation dubbed Kimra sets up a research community on it. In 2018, Emergency Sea Evacuation and Rescue member Eliot Ballade is on vacation with his friend Tim off Dinosaur Island when a small meteorite crashes near it, generating a large barrier that traps Tim in stasis. A light source emerges from the meteorite and takes the shape and name of Tim's good luck boat charm Nephilim, connecting with Eliot before monsters appear and attack the boat, seemingly killing Tim. Eliot escapes with Nephilim's help to Dinosaur Island, which has become overwhelmed by monsters born from mutated animals and humans. On the island Eliot is guided by Nephilim, receives information via radio from security team survivor Janine King; and teams up with Dogs Bower, the island's original discoverer and Janine's estranged father. During their exploration, Eliot learns that Kimra had discovered that the meteorite was the egg of a hostile alien codenamed "Dinosite", whose DNA can mutate other lifeforms. During one attack, Eliot swallows some of a mutant's vomit and starts to mutate, with Dogs being prepared to mercy kill him if his change is irreversible. Eliot is only narrowly cured when the group find a serum designed to reverse the mutation. Nephilim, who communicates telepathically with Eliot and Janine, is the spirit of the second meteorite and another alien which opposes the Dinosite. The three humans allow Nephilim to reunite with her original body, allowing her to kill the original Dinosite while Eliot and Dogs destroy a cloned version created by Kimra during their experiments. Nephilim bids farewell to Eliot and leaves, while Tim is revealed to be alive. A post-credits scene shows Nephilim transforming into a Dinosite meteor and launching from a shell pursued by more Nephilim meteors. ## Development The concept for Blue Stinger was created by Shinya Nishigaki, a developer who had worked at Enix and later Climax Entertainment. When creating the concept, Nishigaki was inspired by the movies of Steven Spielberg, Akira Kurosawa, John Carpenter and Joe Dante. A specific inspiration was Carpenter's movie The Thing. He considered Blue Stinger a tribute to Western action movies. To develop the game, Nishigaki and several staff from Climax Entertainment's CGI division who had worked on Dark Savior (1996) formed Climax Graphics as an independent "brother company". Pre-production of Blue Stinger began in September 1996 following completion of Dark Savior. Originally in development for the Sega Saturn, Blue Stinger was rebooted as a Dreamcast title at Sega's request. The reworked game's design and atmosphere drew additional inspiration from Resident Evil, Enemy Zero, and Alone in the Dark. Full production started following the prototype's approval by Sega in December 1997. Debugging lasted from late January to early March 1999. The staff was split between eighteen people at Climax Graphics in Japan, and ten working from North America on the early design and localization. Nishigaki produced the game and co-wrote the script. Other staff included Ayumu Kojima as director, Kazuaki Yokozawa as lead programmer, Ryosuke Murakami as art director, and Masaki Segawa as character designer and co-writer. The game designer was Atsushi Yamamoto. Through American connections from his university years, Nishigaki brought on Robert Short to create the creature designs and 3D models, and noted storyboard artist Pete von Sholly to be camera supervisor. Sholly also handled the game's storyboards. The Japanese team worked almost 24 hours a day to complete the game, only taking a few days off during its two years in development. The game was classified as a cinematic action-adventure game, though Nishigaki wanted to be classed outside traditional game genres. He described one of the game's themes as "wit" or "humor", wanting to set the game apart from the horror-focused titles dominating the Japanese 3D adventure market. The environments were designed to have as few repeated elements as possible, additionally designing the environment to appear lived-in and realistic. The original camera design was directly inspired by his love of movies. Character movements were animated using motion capture. The game engine could not handle two player characters on-screen, though early plans had Dogs tagging along as an AI-driven companion and providing comic relief through environmental interactions. The team also did not have time to make Janine playable. Nishigaki described the plot as Segawa's work, with Nishigaki mostly writing the character banter. Eliot was not written as a conventional lead, being fun-loving and flirtatious in contrast to Dogs' more traditional stoic attitude. Janine was described as central to the character drama. Commenting on the character and world design, Segawa described Nephilim as a fantastical being compared to the grounded tone of the other characters. The game featured both fully 3D graphics for its environments and character models, and a large number of CGI cutscenes. Nishigaki speculated that Sega's support of the project was due to this 3D focus. The lighting was split between three sources; Nephilim, weapon bursts, and pre-set lightmaps. While the Dreamcast was reported to refresh at 60 frames per second, Blue Stinger was kept to 30 due to the number of creatures shown on screen. They also did not use some of the graphical elements the console was capable of such as bump mapping. During development the team did not know the full specifications of the Dreamcast, with Nishigaki saying they used half the console's graphical capacity. The music was composed by Toshihiko Sahashi, whom Nishigaki wanted to create a Hollywood-style score for the game. The opening and ending themes were recorded using a 60-piece orchestra conducted by Kouji Haishima. Nishigaki wanted the score to emulate the music of John Williams. Blue Stinger was Sahashi's first video game job, treating it like a background movie score. In contrast to his earlier movie and television work, Sahashi had as much time as he wanted to create the score. The opening and ending themes were composed to match the finished movie scenes. Only the opening and ending themes used CD-quality music, with the rest of the game music using the Dreamcast's sound chip. Voice acting for all regions was in English, with the Japanese release using subtitles to emulate Hollywood movies. The two leads were voiced by Ryan Drummond and Deem Bristow. The voice recording was directed by Lani Minella, who also voiced Janine. All three at the time were voicing characters from the Sonic the Hedgehog series. Nishigaki felt Drummond had done a good job voicing Eliot. ## Release Blue Stinger was announced at the Tokyo Game Show in September 1998 as part of Sega's launch lineup for the Dreamcast in November of that year. It was ultimately delayed into the following year to further polish the title. Nishigaki described Sega as disappointed but understanding that the game missed the Japanese console launch. The game was published in Japan on March 25, 1999 by Sega. Two CDs were released on March 20 of that year through Columbia's music label; a soundtrack album, and a single featuring a promotional image song "Sting Me". A strategy guide, containing both in-game guides and a developer interview, was published by SoftBank Creative on April 27. The game was shown off at E3 1999, confirming that Activision would serve as the game's publisher outside Japan. The partnership came about when Sega approached Activision about Dreamcast support, and Activision expressed interest in Blue Stinger. For its Western release, the camera was changed at Activision's insistence. Nishigaki disliked the new camera, derisively calling it the "gero system". A harder difficulty was included for players who cleared the game on hard difficulty, resulting in character costumes changing. Some elements that might either not be understood outside Japan or might have proven offensive were also adjusted for the Western release. The game was released in North America on September 9, 1999, and in Europe on October 14. It was a console launch title in both regions. An English strategy guide was published by BradyGames on September 14, 1999. A sequel was proposed by Sega, but Nishigaki had moved onto working on the survival horror game Illbleed. Plans to port expanded versions of Blue Stinger and Illbleed to the Xbox by Coolnet Entertainment were shelved following Nishigaki's death in 2004; a given reason was the Xbox's poor commercial performance in Japan. ## Reception Blue Stinger sold over 61,000 copies during its opening week in Japan with a sell-through rate of just under 56%. It went on to sell over 111,000 copies in total and become the console's 34th best-selling title in the region. While the game sold relatively poorly in Japan, it was commercially successful in North America. During the Dreamcast's debut week in the UK, Blue Stinger was the eighth best-selling title out of the twelve launch titles. The game went on to sell 500,000 copies worldwide, which Sega counted as a success. The game received above-average reviews according to the review aggregation website GameRankings, earning a score of 70% based on 22 reviews. In Japan, Famitsu gave it a score of 28 out of 40. When mentioned, the plot and characters were cited as either enjoyable, or underwhelming. While the gameplay was generally enjoyed, several outlets faulted the puzzle design as obtuse. The camera system in both the Japanese and Western releases met with criticism, though the Western version was seen as less problematic. The real-time and CGI graphics together with monster designs met with overall praise, though the animation was seen as poor. The music met with general praise, but many faulted the voice acting for its poor quality. Several reviewers called the game a showcase for the Dreamcast's graphics that lacked compelling gameplay. Jason D'Aprile of Gamecenter found Blue Stinger entertaining but not groundbreaking in its genre, describing it as "fun, interesting, and solid on the whole" despite camera issues holding it back. The reviewers for Electronic Gaming Monthly found the game generally inferior to game titles that influenced it, with one recommanding that players wait for Resident Evil – Code: Veronica if they wanted a similar but higher quality experience. Edge similarly compared the game negatively to the upcoming Code Veronica, finding its combination of animation issues and inconsistent audio as "unacceptable" in games of the time. The Game Informer reviewers were fairly negative about several aspects of its design, with one highlighting its emphasis on graphics over gameplay and characters, feeling it was a lacking launch title. GameFan was again negative about the title and called it a weak title in the console's launch line-up. GamePro was disappointed with its presentation issues, saying they turned Blue Stinger into "a flawed adventure game instead of the sure-fire launch hit that the Dreamcast needs." GameSpot's Peter Bartholow felt Blue Stinger was descent as a game but lacked polish and depth, saying it would satisfy casual Dreamcast owners more than genre fans. GameSpy faulted the short length alongside other problems with its audio and graphic display, but did not think it was a bad game and kept the reviewer's interest throughout. Anoop Gantayat, writing for IGN, found the game as a whole enjoyable but dedicated much criticism to the camera and voice acting for detracting from the atmosphere. Jeff Lundrigan of Next Generation highlighted its strong points as the action-based gameplay and graphics rather than its story and tone. In a feature for 1UP.com on Resident Evil "rip-offs", Bob Mackey felt the title was lacking elements to make it a true survival horror, and having too great a focus on combat and graphics. Gaming magazine and website Retro Gamer felt the title had become mislabelled as survival horror since its release, having enjoyable action gameplay and a strong narrative to engage players. Both highlighted the localization as adding to the game's appeal due to its inconsistent quality. In a 2015 retrospective on Nishigaki for Gamasutra, John Andersen noted the game's advanced graphics for the time, but that the camera changes and poor lip syncing had dated it.
42,483,957	The Lady's Realm	1,167,799,345	British women's magazine	[ "1896 establishments in the United Kingdom", "1915 disestablishments in the United Kingdom", "Defunct women's magazines published in the United Kingdom", "Magazines disestablished in 1915", "Magazines established in 1896" ]	The Lady's Realm was a British women's magazine published from 1896 until 1914, possibly until 1915. It primarily targeted upper-class readers as well as an aspirational middle-class audience, featuring photographs, poems, fiction, and columns by popular authors such as Marie Corelli, Frances Hodgson Burnett, Jack London, and H. G. Wells. The London Season was regularly covered, with visuals of significant society figures and débutantes appearing. Fashion trends in Paris and London were frequently discussed as well, particularly by its fashion editor Marian Pritchard. The publication's targeted reader was the "New Woman", with enlightened ideas on education, health, independence, and employment. More successful than many of its contemporary publications, the magazine sold reasonably well in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Canada. It was a staple of women's reading rooms in public libraries, which were widespread across the UK. Relatively little is known of The Lady's Realm's publishing history, as many records were destroyed during the London Blitz. Its end may have been due to the First World War. ## History Relatively little is known of The Lady's Realm's publishing history, as many records of its publisher, Hutchinson, were destroyed during the London Blitz. The first issue was published in November 1896. Its first editor was William Henry Wilkins, a mildly successful novelist who oversaw the publication's editing from 1896 to 1902. Though inexperienced, Wilkins was acquainted with society, being a friend of such figures as the explorer Richard Francis Burton and his wife Isabel Burton. After Wilkins' death in 1905, The Lady's Realm wrote of how "the general public are little aware how much of [the magazine's] early success" was due to him, and that "not a few [contributors who] have since made their names in the world of letters have to thank him for placing their foot on the first rung of the ladder". Wilkins' successor as editor is unknown, though Margaret Versteeg and colleagues, who produced an index of the fiction published in The Lady's Realm, detect no changes in editorial judgement in the magazine's tenure after 1902. While the publication mainly featured female writers and feminine topics, all of its editors, most likely, were men. When it debuted, there were more than twenty-nine publications catering to women. Upon the publication of its first issue in 1896, Review of Reviews called it "one of the most popular of the magazines that have been started this year". The illustrated magazine was produced monthly and cost sixpence (cheap enough for middle-class readers). A typical issue contained 120 pages on quality glossy paper. It sold reasonably well in the United Kingdom, the United States, and Canada. The magazine was available in women's reading rooms in public libraries, locations that were well distributed across the United Kingdom. The magazine was produced by the English printers Hazell, Watson and Viney. One of its owners, Walter Hazell, was a social reformer and supporter of women's suffrage. A successful firm, Hazell, Watson and Viney also produced the Woman's Signal and the Woman's Gazette, which featured female political and economic topics. The success of The Lady's Realm allowed it to remain published for eighteen years, from 1896 to 1915, much longer than many other contemporary women's periodicals. Thirty-six volumes were produced, from November 1896 to October 1914 (a final volume may have been released in 1915). It is not known why it ended, though Versteeg and her colleagues speculate that World War I may have been a cause, as was the case for other contemporary publications like Young Woman (1891–1914) and The Girl's Realm (1892–1915). ## Content The magazine focused on an upmarket audience, targeting "aspirational middle-class and upper-class readers". It was also one of the first intended to appeal to the female homeowner. The Lady's Realm featured poems, engravings and photographs, as well as columns by popular authors like Marie Corelli, Frances Hodgson Burnett, Violet Fane, and Mary Elizabeth Braddon. Other authors included Jack London, H.G. Wells, and Mary Eleanor Wilkins Freeman. Fiction, in the form of short stories and serialisations, was released during the magazine's entire span and took up a sizable proportion in issues. A slightly higher percentage of these contributions were written by women. The type of fiction varied, from romances and domestic narratives to fantasies and sociopolitical stories. The publication's targeted reader was the "New Woman", with enlightened ideas on education, health, independence, and employment. Victorian scholar Kathryn Ledbetter notes that The Lady's Realm was "a handbook to the New Woman then being successfully marketed in popular novels... it provides many examples of this ideal in essays, illustrations, fiction, and poetry through the late 1890s". Lady's Realm printed an assortment of Court and society news alongside articles on more daily tasks such as food, homemaking, and methods for female readers to earn money. It covered the London Season, displaying photographs of significant society figures and débutantes. It claimed to feature over 500 illustrations in each volume. Theatre was another regular topic of the magazine, as was fiction, poetry, and reports on fashion. The Lady's Realm's fashion editor Marian Pritchard regularly wrote articles on emerging fashions in London and Paris, and recommended locations where readers could buy them. While still featuring fashion and beauty, it also encouraged careers for women in music, art, business, and millinery. The magazine maintained this blend of topics relatively consistently, though it gradually made minor changes to the proportion it focused on different topics, for instance later focusing less on the nobility and more on the lives of clergymen and governors general. The Lady's Realm was a source of celebrity journalism. Ledbetter writes that the magazine inherited its "notions of feminine celebrity" from The Woman's World, an earlier publication edited by Oscar Wilde. It published studio photographs of actresses as well as aristocrats, including many in the former group who married into the nobility. The British Royal Family was a frequent subject; one of the magazine's first issues included an article and photographs about the Princess of Wales' childhood, and the publication regularly reported on the movements of Queen Victoria's family.
40,702,015	German submarine U-710	1,162,235,215	German World War II submarine	[ "1942 ships", "German Type VIIC submarines", "Maritime incidents in April 1943", "Ships built in Hamburg", "Submarines lost with all hands", "U-boats commissioned in 1942", "U-boats sunk by British aircraft", "U-boats sunk by depth charges", "U-boats sunk in 1943", "World War II shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean", "World War II submarines of Germany" ]	German submarine U-710 was a Type VIIC U-boat of Nazi Germany's Kriegsmarine during World War II. She had an extremely short career, only conducting one patrol in April 1943 and attacking no ships. Just nine days after starting her first patrol, she was sunk by a B-17 Flying Fortress with the loss of all hands. ## Design German Type VIIC submarines were slight modifications of their Type VIIB predecessors; the length and weight were slightly larger and an active sonar was added. U-710 had a displacement of 769 tonnes (757 long tons) when at the surface and 871 tonnes (857 long tons) while submerged. She had a total length of 67.10 m (220 ft 2 in), a pressure hull length of 50.50 m (165 ft 8 in), a beam of 6.20 m (20 ft 4 in), a height of 9.60 m (31 ft 6 in), and a draught of 4.74 m (15 ft 7 in). The submarine was powered by two Germaniawerft F46 four-stroke, six-cylinder supercharged diesel engines producing a total of 2,800 to 3,200 metric horsepower (2,060 to 2,350 kW; 2,760 to 3,160 shp) for use while surfaced, two Garbe, Lahmeyer & Co. RP 137/c double-acting electric motors producing a total of 750 metric horsepower (550 kW; 740 shp) for use while submerged. She had two shafts and two 1.23 m (4 ft) propellers. The boat was capable of operating at depths of up to 230 metres (750 ft). The submarine had a maximum surface speed of 17.7 knots (32.8 km/h; 20.4 mph) and a maximum submerged speed of 7.6 knots (14.1 km/h; 8.7 mph). When submerged, the boat could operate for 80 nautical miles (150 km; 92 mi) at 4 knots (7.4 km/h; 4.6 mph); when surfaced, she could travel 8,500 nautical miles (15,700 km; 9,800 mi) at 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph). U-710 was fitted with five 53.3 cm (21 in) torpedo tubes (four fitted at the bow and one at the stern), fourteen torpedoes, one 8.8 cm (3.46 in) deck gun, 220 rounds, and two twin 2 cm (0.79 in) anti-aircraft guns. The boat had a complement of between forty-four and sixty. ## Service ### Construction and training U-710 was ordered on 15 August 1940 and laid down on 4 June 1941 at H. C. Stülcken Sohn, Hamburg, as yard number 774. The submarine was launched on 12 May 1942 and commissioned on 2 September 1942 under the command of Oberleutnant zur See Dietrich von Carlewitz. Upon commissioning, U-710 was attached to the 5th U-boat Flotilla for training. ### First patrol and sinking On 1 April 1943, U-710 completed training and was attached to the 7th U-boat Flotilla for active service. Fourteen days later, the submarine departed from Kiel on her first service patrol, sailing through the North Sea and into the North Atlantic Ocean. On 24 April 1943, while the submarine was sailing in the North Atlantic south of Iceland, U-710 was spotted on the surface by a British B-17 Flying Fortress of No. 206 Squadron RAF, patrolling in support of convoy ONS 5. The bomber attacked through heavy anti-aircraft fire and dropped six shallow depth charges, which seemed to lift the boat out of the water'. Shortly afterward, a second attack by the B-17 sank the U-boat at . The B-17 crew reported seeing some twenty-five German sailors swimming near the wreck of U-710, but all 49 hands were lost.
147,848	My War	1,169,423,817	null	[ "1984 albums", "Albums produced by Bill Stevenson (musician)", "Albums produced by Spot (producer)", "Black Flag (band) albums", "Post-hardcore albums by American artists", "SST Records albums" ]	My War is the second studio album by American band Black Flag. It was the first of three full-length albums released by the band in 1984. It polarized fans due to the LP's B-side, on which the band slowed down to a heavy, Black Sabbath-esque trudge, despite the reputation the band had earned as leaders in fast hardcore punk on its first album, Damaged (1981). After a period of legal troubles which prohibited the band from using its own name on recordings, Black Flag returned to the studio with a new approach to its music that incorporated a greater variety of styles, resulting in a sound orthodox punks found difficult to accept. The line-up had shrunk from five members to three: vocalist Henry Rollins, drummer Bill Stevenson, and co-founding guitarist Greg Ginn. Ginn doubled on bass guitar under the name "Dale Nixon" for the recording as bassist Chuck Dukowski left the band shortly before recording; the album includes two tracks Dukowski wrote. The A-side of the LP is composed of six generally high-paced, thrashy hardcore tracks, featuring guitar solos unusual in punk music. On the B-side are three tracks in a sludge metal style, each breaching six-minutes with ponderously slow tempos and dark, unrelenting lyrics of self-hatred. The band members had grown their hair long when they toured the album in 1984, further alienating their hardcore skinhead fanbase. Despite mixed reception at the time of the album's release, My War is now regarded as one of Black Flag's seminal releases and had a major influence on the development of sludge metal, grunge, and math rock. ## Background In 1978, Black Flag guitarist and cofounder Greg Ginn converted his ham radio business Solid State Transmitters to SST Records to release the band's first EP Nervous Breakdown. Soon SST was releasing recordings by other bands as well, beginning with Minutemen's Paranoid Time in 1980. Black Flag recorded its first album Damaged in 1981 at Unicorn Studios and arranged a deal with the studio's record label Unicorn Records, which had distribution with MCA Records. MCA label president Al Bergamo halted the release after hearing the record, calling it "anti-parent"—though SST co-owner Joe Carducci asserts this was a pretense for MCA to sever relations with the financially troubled Unicorn. The band obtained and distributed the already-pressed 20000 copies of Damaged and adorned it with a label displaying Bergamo's "anti-parent" quote. Legal troubles erupted when SST claimed unpaid royalties from Unicorn and Unicorn successfully counter-sued, resulting in five days in jail for Ginn and co-founding bassist Chuck Dukowski and an injunction prohibiting the band from releasing material under its own name. The double album Everything Went Black—a compilation of earlier, unreleased material—appeared from SST in 1982 without the band's name on it. Unicorn's bankruptcy in 1983 freed the band from the injunction. Following the release of Damaged, Black Flag absorbed a wider range of influences from the more experimental hardcore of Flipper, Void, and Fang. Music journalist Andrew Earles believes that the band was influenced by the tiny but growing doom metal scene led by Saint Vitus (who released via SST), while music journalist Steve Chick records that the band members listened to Black Sabbath, Deep Purple, and Uriah Heep when they were younger. Ginn jealously guarded the new material, fearing other bands would capitalize on the new approach. The band toured extensively in North America and Europe to often hostile, violent hardcore punk crowds. The disciplined group rehearsed obsessively, but there was little friendship between members: vocalist Henry Rollins was introverted and Ginn cold and demanding. Dukowski felt that Rollins' vocal approach was better suited than that of the band's earlier three singers to the new material he was writing such as "I Love You" and "My War". Dukowski, who also wrote poetry and fiction, encouraged Rollins to write as well, and Rollins found inspiration in Dukowksi's bleak lyrical style. The band recorded a set of ten demo tracks at Total Access studios in 1982 for a planned follow-up to Damaged on which Chuck Biscuits replaced Damaged drummer Robo. The rest of the lineup consisted of Ginn and former vocalist Dez Cadena on guitars, Rollins on vocals, and Dukowski on bass. The band explored new sounds on these tracks, which tended to feature a riff-heavy heavy-metal edge and noisy, energetic free guitar soloing from Ginn. The album never materialized, and the heavily bootlegged demos have never been officially released; re-recordings of several of the tracks from the session were to feature on My War and other later albums. The line-up did not last long—frustrated with the band's legal troubles, Biscuits left in December 1982, replaced by Bill Stevenson, and in 1983 Cadena left to form DC3. Ginn had been frustrated with Dukowski's sense of rhythm, and in Germany during a European tour in 1983 gave Dukowski an ultimatum to quit, or Ginn himself would leave. Dukowski left the band, but stayed on to co-run SST. With Unicorn's demise in 1983, Black Flag was able to release the material they had written since 1981. Eager to get back in the studio but still without a bassist, Ginn took on bass duties under the pseudonym "Dale Nixon" and practiced the new material with Stevenson up to eight hours a day, teaching the drummer to slow down and let the rhythm "ooze out" at a pace Stevenson was unused to; the band called this approach the "socialist groove", as all beats were equally spaced. With Spot as producer and \$200,000 in debt, Ginn, Rollins, and Stevenson headed to the studio to record My War. ## Music The sides on the original LP divide the tracks into stylistic halves. The first half features five tracks that are in the same style that the band originated on their previous album Damaged and closes with a noisy freak-out, "The Swinging Man". Dukowski penned the opening title track. Ginn's "Can't Decide" follows, a gloomy ode to frustration: "I conceal my feelings / So I don't have to explain / What I can't explain anyway". "Beat My Head Against the Wall" rails at conformity and the band's experience with a major label: "Swimming in the mainstream / Is such a lame, lame dream". Dukowski's "I Love You" parodies pop ballads with lyrics of violence and dysfunction in a relationship gone wrong. Ginn and Rollins share credit on the metallic "Forever Time" and the noisy "Swinging Man". The second half is three tracks that each clock in at over six minutes in length. Each is described as an early cross-pollination between punk and metal, a plodding Black Sabbath-esque sludge metal, or proto-noise rock style, depending on how it is viewed. On "Three Nights", Rollins compares himself to feces stuck to his shoe: "And I've been grinding that stink into the dirt / For a long time now". Against a slow, heavy, start-and-stop bass riff and a constant drum thudding, Rollins closes "Scream" with a bellow after delivering the Ginn-penned lines: "I may be a big baby / But I'll scream in your ear / 'Til I find out / Just what it is I am doing here". ## Reception and legacy My War was the first of four Black Flag releases in 1984, a year that also saw Family Man, Slip It In, and Live '84 appear from SST. It is considered to be one of the first post-hardcore albums along with Hüsker Dü's Zen Arcade and Minutemen's Double Nickels on the Dime in the same year. According to rock author Doyle Green: > One of the pioneer early hardcore bands, Black Flag, became one of the early leading post-hardcore bands by utilising slower tempos, odd time signatures (3/8, 5/4, 7/4), abrupt tempo and structural changes, dissonant riffs that border on 12-tone music...and guitarist Greg Ginn's atonal, free-form solos. Black Flag toured the My War material from March 1984, with the Nig-Heist and Meat Puppets as opening acts. It had been a year since the band had toured, and Rollins, Ginn, and Stevenson had grown out their hair; punks associated long hair with the hippies they loathed and found it dissonant with Rollins' accepted image as a hardcore skinhead. My War polarized Black Flag fans; it alienated those who wanted the band to stay true to its simple hardcore roots and who were put off by the length of the songs, the riff-heaviness, and the solos—elements widely thought of as un-punk. Tim Yo disparaged the album in Maximumrocknroll, saying "it sounds like Black Flag doing an imitation of Iron Maiden imitating Black Flag on a bad day", and called the B-side "sheer torture". Howard Hampton at the Boston Phoenix called My War "unbearably boring ... resorting to standard machinations". The muffled sound of the album's production has attracted criticism; Stevie Chick disparaged the lack of character in Ginn's bass-playing on "My War" when compared to the 1982 demo of the same song with Dukowski on bass. Michael Azerrad praised the strength of the material while denigrating the "frustrating lack of ensemble feel" as the album was recorded without a full lineup. Critic Clay Jarvis commended the album, emphasizing the risks taken on it and its influence, calling it "more a test than an album", and saying, "independent music is stronger because Black Flag formulated it". John Dougan at AllMusic called the A-side of the album "quite good", but described the B-side as "self-indulgence masquerading as inspiration and about as much fun as wading through a tar pit". Robert Christgau considered the B-side a "waste". The album had a large influence on the hardcore-meets-Sabbath sounds of the Melvins, Mudhoney, and Nirvana. Mark Arm of Mudhoney related he was moved to tears at a Black Flag concert in 1983 when he was first exposed to "Nothing Left Inside", and the experience inspired him to seek out bands like Black Sabbath. The first punk concert Nirvana frontman Kurt Cobain attended was a Black Flag show during the My War tour, and he listed My War on his list of top fifty albums. ## Track listing ## Personnel ### Black Flag - Henry Rollins – vocals - Greg Ginn – guitars - Dale Nixon (aka Greg Ginn) – bass - Bill Stevenson – drums ### Production and artwork - Spot – production, engineering, mixing - Greg Ginn – production - Bill Stevenson – production - Raymond Pettibon – artwork - Chuck Dukowski – songwriter
1,623,170	USS Porter (DD-59)	1,134,932,380	Tucker-class destroyer	[ "1915 ships", "Ships built by William Cramp & Sons", "Ships of the United States Coast Guard", "Ships transferred from the United States Navy to the United States Coast Guard", "Tucker-class destroyers", "World War I destroyers of the United States" ]	USS Porter (Destroyer No. 59/DD-59) was a Tucker-class destroyer built for the United States Navy prior to the American entry into World War I. The ship was the second U.S. Navy vessel named in honor of both David Porter and his son David Dixon Porter. Porter was laid down by the William Cramp & Sons of Philadelphia, in August 1914 and launched in August of the following year. The ship was a little more than 315 feet (96 m) in length, just over 30 feet (9.1 m) abeam, and had a standard displacement of 1,090 long tons (1,110 t). She was armed with four 4-inch (10 cm) guns and had eight 21 inch (533 mm) torpedo tubes. Porter was powered by a pair of steam turbines that propelled her at up to 29.5 knots (54.6 km/h). After her April 1916 commissioning, Porter conducted her shakedown cruise in the Caribbean. After the United States entered World War I in April 1917, Porter was part of the first U.S. destroyer squadron sent overseas. Patrolling the Irish and Celtic Sea out of Queenstown, Ireland, Porter severely damaged the German submarine U-108 in April 1918. Upon returning to the United States after the war, Porter operated off the east coast until she was decommissioned in June 1922. In June 1924, Porter was transferred to the United States Coast Guard to help enforce Prohibition as a part of the "Rum Patrol". She operated under the name USCGC Porter (CG-7) until 1933, when she was returned to the Navy. Later that year, the ship was renamed DD-59 to free the name Porter for another destroyer. She was sold for scrap in August 1934. ## Design and construction Porter was authorized in 1913 as the third ship of the Tucker class which, like the related O'Brien class, was an improved version of the Cassin-class destroyers authorized in 1911. Construction of the vessel was awarded to William Cramp & Sons of Philadelphia, which laid down her keel on 24 August 1914. Twelve months later, on 26 August 1915, Porter was launched by sponsor Miss Georgiana Porter Cusachs, a descendant of the ship's namesakes, Commodore David Porter (1780–1843) and son Admiral David Dixon Porter (1813–1891), both notable U.S. Navy officers. As built, Porter was 315 feet 3 inches (96.09 m) in length and 30 feet 6 inches (9.30 m) abeam and drew 9 feet 4 inches (2.84 m). The ship had a standard displacement of 1,090 long tons (1,110 t) and displaced 1,205 long tons (1,224 t) when fully loaded. Porter had two Curtis steam turbines that drove her two screw propellers, and an additional steam turbine geared to one of the propeller shafts for cruising purposes. The power plant could generate 18,000 shaft horsepower (13,000 kW) and move the ship at speeds up to 29.5 knots (54.6 km/h). Porter's main battery consisted of four 4-inch (102 mm)/50 Mark 9 guns, with each gun weighing in excess of 6,100 pounds (2,800 kg). The guns fired 33-pound (15 kg) armor-piercing projectiles at 2,900 feet per second (880 m/s). At an elevation of 20°, the guns had a range of 15,920 yards (14,560 m). Porter was also equipped with eight 21-inch (533 mm) torpedo tubes. The General Board of the United States Navy had called for two anti-aircraft guns for the Tucker-class ships, as well as provisions for laying up to 36 floating mines. From sources, it is unclear if these recommendations were followed for Porter or any of the other ships of the class. ## United States Navy career USS Porter was commissioned into the United States Navy on 17 April 1916 under the command of Lieutenant Commander Ward K. Wortman. Following her commissioning, Porter's shakedown was conducted in the Caribbean. After the United States entry into World War I on 6 April 1917, Porter was readied for overseas duty and departed from New York on 24 April with the other five ships of her division—Wadsworth (the flagship), Davis, Conyngham, McDougal, and Wainwright. The sextet arrived at Queenstown, Ireland, on 4 May and began patrolling the southern approaches to the Irish Sea the next day. Based at Queenstown, Porter met and escorted convoys from the United States as they entered the war zone. On 16 October 1917, Porter came to the aid of American destroyer Cassin, which had been torpedoed by German submarine U-61 about 20 nautical miles (37 km) south of Mine Head, Ireland. Cassin's stern had nearly been blown off and her rudder was gone, leaving the ship unable to steer. Porter arrived at about 16:00 and stayed with Cassin until dusk when two British sloops, Jessamine and Tamarisk, took over for Porter; Cassin was towed to safety and later returned to patrol duty. On 28 April 1918, Porter severely damaged U-108 while that German submarine was steaming to intercept a convoy. The destroyer was transferred to Brest, France, on 14 June. She returned to the United States at the end of the war, and operated off the East Coast until she was decommissioned on 23 June 1922. ## United States Coast Guard career On 17 January 1920, Prohibition was instituted by law in the United States. Soon, the smuggling of alcoholic beverages along the coastlines of the United States became widespread and blatant. The Treasury Department eventually determined that the United States Coast Guard simply did not have the ships to constitute a successful patrol. To cope with the problem, President Calvin Coolidge in 1924 authorized the transfer from the Navy to the Coast Guard of twenty old destroyers that were in reserve and out of commission. Porter was reactivated and transferred to the Treasury Department on 7 June 1924 for use by the Coast Guard. Designated CG-7, Porter was commissioned on 20 February 1925, and was stationed in New York for duties on the "Rum Patrol" to aid in the attempt to enforce prohibition laws. During her Coast Guard service, Porter captured the rum-running vessel Conseulo II (the former Louise) off the coast of Long Island. After the United States Congress proposed the Twenty-first Amendment to end prohibition in February 1933, plans were made for Porter to be returned to the Navy. On 27 May 1933, Porter arrived at the Philadelphia Navy Yard, and was decommissioned nine days later, on 5 June. Porter was transferred back to the Navy on 30 June. Later in 1933 the ship was renamed DD-59 in order to free the name Porter for a new destroyer of the same name. DD-59 remained in noncommissioned status until struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 5 July 1934. She was sold for scrap on 22 August in accordance with the London Naval Treaty.
71,384,593	2022 Green Party of Aotearoa New Zealand co-leadership election	1,163,980,919	None	[ "2022 elections in New Zealand", "2022 political party leadership elections", "Green Party of Aotearoa New Zealand leadership elections", "Indirect elections" ]	The 2022 Green Party of Aotearoa New Zealand co-leadership election was held from July to September. Marama Davidson and James Shaw, the incumbent co-leaders of the Green Party of Aotearoa New Zealand, were re-elected. However, the election for Shaw's position went to a second round. Shaw did not secure a 75 per cent supermajority of party delegates to be re-elected for another year at the party's annual general meeting (AGM) on 23 July, and nominations were reopened. Prior to the AGM, members of the Young Greens had expressed disappointment in Shaw's leadership, particularly in his ministerial portfolios. Davidson served as the sole co-leader until a second election was held. The second vote was held remotely from 11 August to 8 September. Unlike the secret ballot of the AGM, delegates were required to vote as instructed by their branches. Other Green Members of Parliament, particularly Chlöe Swarbrick, were discussed by media as potential candidates, but ultimately Shaw was the only nominee, and he received 97 per cent of the delegate votes to be re-elected as co-leader. ## Background Under the Green Party's constitution, the party is led by two co-leaders. Historically, it was required that one of the co-leaders be female and the other male. However, the constitution was amended in May 2022 to remove the requirement that one co-leader be male. Additionally, it was resolved that one of the two co-leaders must be Māori. Co-leaders are elected for one-year terms by party delegates at annual general meetings (AGMs). If a leadership position is uncontested, the candidate must secure a 75 per cent majority of party delegates' votes to be confirmed. If this threshold is not met, then nominations for the position are re-opened and a fresh election is held. James Shaw was first elected to Parliament at the 2014 general election. He came third in the Wellington Central electorate but was ranked twelfth on the party list and was elected as a list MP. After Russel Norman retired from politics in 2015, Shaw was elected to replace him as party co-leader, defeating sitting MPs Kevin Hague and Gareth Hughes and Waitematā Local Board member Vernon Tava. Shaw was re-elected as a list MP at the 2017 and 2020 general elections. Following the 2017 general election, Shaw became a minister in the Sixth Labour Government. At the party's 2021 AGM, Shaw was challenged for the co-leadership position by Dunedin-based activist James Cockle. Shaw received 116 delegate votes to Cockle's 4. Marama Davidson was elected as co-leader in the 2018 leadership election and served continuously alongside Shaw. ## AGM and first vote In mid-July 2022 it was reported that members of the party's youth wing, Young Greens, had expressed disappointment in Shaw's work as Minister for Climate Change and Associate Minister for the Environment and sought to challenge his leadership at the 2022 AGM. Shaw expressed confidence in being reconfirmed, stating "I do expect that there will be some people who vote to reopen nominations, but that happens every year." The party's 2022 AGM was scheduled to be held in Christchurch but was moved online due to the prevalence of COVID-19 at the time, and particularly the risk of members from the North Island becoming infected and being required to isolate in the South Island. When questioned by media, Shaw rejected that the shifting of the meeting from an in-person format to online was related to questions over his leadership. At the co-leadership vote on 23 July 2022, which was held as a secret ballot, Davidson was reconfirmed in her position, fulfilling both requirements that there be at least one female co-leader and at least one Māori co-leader. Of the 150 eligible delegates, 107 voted. 75 delegates voted for Shaw, and 32 voted to reopen nominations for Shaw's position. Since Shaw received less than 75 per cent of the delegate votes, the position was declared vacant and nominations were re-opened. This was the first time in the party's history that an incumbent co-leader ran unsuccessfully for re-election. At a press conference that evening, Shaw expressed his surprise at the result. Nominations for the co-leadership position were re-opened from 28 July to 4 August. Davidson served as the only party co-leader until the next vote was held. Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern stated that Shaw would continue as a minister regardless of his co-leadership status. ## Second vote Immediately following the AGM vote on 23 July, Shaw stated that he would take advice but was "inclined" to stand for re-election. On 25 July, he announced that he would seek the co-leadership again. Shaw explained that since the AGM vote he had received messages from party members and some branches whose delegates did not participate in the AGM vote which gave him reassurance that he had the support necessary to be re-elected. Chlöe Swarbrick, MP for Auckland Central, was identified as a potential candidate by some commentators. Toby Manhire of The Spinoff described her as the most likely and possibly only challenger. University of Auckland political scientist Lara Greaves pointed to Swarbrick's 2020 upset victory in Auckland Central as evidence that she is a strong campaigner and suggested that as co-leader she might motivate higher turnout amongst some voters. Writing for The New Zealand Herald, Michael Neilson stated that in the aftermath of the AGM vote "pundits have since speculated that Swarbrick may have a tilt for the co-leadership given her popularity." Swarbrick ruled out running for the co-leadership on 25 July, following the announcement of Shaw's candidacy. She rejected the media speculation around her potential candidacy, stating "If the media wants to talk leadership, let's talk about it", before praising the leadership of School Strike for Climate activists, trade unions, teachers and health professionals. Elizabeth Kerekere told media she was "considering options", and Teanau Tuiono publicly considered a run against Shaw, but both ultimately declined to stand for the position, and Shaw was the only candidate nominated. Other MPs who ruled out running for the co-leadership position to media were Golriz Ghahraman, Ricardo Menéndez March and Eugenie Sage. The second vote was held remotely. Delegates again had the options to vote for Shaw or to re-open nominations. To be re-elected, Shaw had to receive 75% of valid delegate votes. Branches met to instruct their delegates on how to vote; unlike the AGM vote's secret ballot, delegate votes had to be witnessed by fellow branch members. Ballots were distributed to party branches on 11 August and were due back on 8 September. Results were announced by the party on 10 September 2022. Of the 145 eligible delegates, 142 cast votes in the election. Shaw received 138 delegate votes or 97 per cent, more than the 75 per cent required, and was re-elected as co-leader. ## Analysis The difference between the AGM vote and the secondary vote was discussed in media. Shaw mused that the secret ballot process of the AGM vote reflected that he was less popular with AGM delegates than the wider party membership. It was reported that delegates who voted to reopen nominations at the AGM did so due to concerns around lack of progress on climate change, a closening relationship with the Labour Party and disengagement with the membership under Shaw's leadership. Prior to the AGM vote, Davidson stated that much of the criticism Shaw receives relates to his role as Minister of Climate Change but that Shaw works hard and had achieved a lot in the role, including a national emissions reduction plan. Following the vote, Davidson said she was "shocked" and "saddened" at the result. Former Green MP Catherine Delahunty speculated that the AGM vote result may have been based on Shaw's desire to build parliamentary consensus on climate change issues. Former MP Gareth Hughes pointed out that the party had a long history of discomfort with leadership. The Spinoff's Manhire wrote that the low delegate turnout (71 per cent) for the AGM vote may have been due to the late decision to shift the meeting from in-person to online. He described the surprised reactions of Shaw and Davidson to the AGM vote as an indication that they need to pay better attention to the mood of the party membership. Marc Daalder of Newsroom reported that supporters of Shaw believed some AGM delegates voted against the wishes of their branches. Delegates that Daalder interviewed rejected these claims. Daalder also noted that branch meeting attendees are not necessarily representative of the party membership, particularly given that branch meetings are often held in evenings. The opinion polling for the Green party vote did not significantly change as a result of the co-leadership election. Shaw credited this to the robustness of the party process, adding "I quite like being a member of a party that is uncomfortable with power, and that’s constantly questioning whether it’s doing the right thing, and agonising over the compromises that come with being part of a government." He resolved to be more outspoken about his disagreements with government policy and action on climate change.
22,700,278	Boys' Club (Parks and Recreation)	1,146,028,085	null	[ "2009 American television episodes", "Parks and Recreation (season 1) episodes" ]	"Boys' Club" is the fourth episode of the first season of the American comedy television series Parks and Recreation. It originally aired on NBC in the United States on April 30, 2009. It was written by Alan Yang and directed by Michael McCullers. In the episode, Leslie tries to integrate herself into the local "boys club" by drinking wine from an illegal gift basket, and gets into trouble as she tries to accept responsibility for her supposed mistake. In a B story, Andy cleans Ann's house while she is at work. The episode included beer and props from Upland Brewing Company, a real-life company based in Bloomington, Indiana, in an attempt to give Pawnee an authentic Indiana atmosphere. "Boys' Club" received positive to fair reviews, with some commentators praising the episode for better developing the show's supporting characters. According to Nielsen Media Research, it was watched by 5.28 million households in its original airing, which was consistent with the previous week. "Boys' Club" and the rest of the first season of Parks and Recreation was released on DVD in the United States on September 8, 2009. ## Plot The episode opens with Leslie (Amy Poehler) and Tom (Aziz Ansari) responding to an incident at a park trail, where teenage boys are picking up plastic baggies of dog droppings and throwing them at each other. Leslie tries to stop them but ends up playing along with the boys and admitting that it is fun. Later, at the Pawnee town hall, a construction company has sent a gift basket with wine and cheese to the parks department, but Leslie locks it away because they are not allowed to accept gifts over \$25. Later, she and the others in the department look at a new social-networking site that April (Aubrey Plaza) has set up for the pit construction project. The site already has seven friends, including city planner Mark (Paul Schneider), who Leslie is disappointed to see is friends with many scantily clad young women. Leslie and Ann (Rashida Jones) see Mark and other city planners drinking beer in the town hall courtyard. Leslie describes it as the exclusive "boys' club" and proposes that she and Ann crash it. When they come outside, Mark and the others welcome them warmly. Leslie enjoys herself at the party and, when the beer runs out and the party is about to end, she keeps it going by retrieving the wine and cheese from the gift basket. The next morning, she feels guilty and, despite her boss Ron's (Nick Offerman) assurance that "[i]t's not that big a deal," Leslie issues a public apology to every government official in Pawnee, including a link to the new pit website. Later, however, she learns April has placed a drunken video of herself drinking the rest of the wine on the site, even though she is only 19. Ron tells Leslie an ethics board has called for a disciplinary hearing with Leslie. Leslie apologizes to the board and defends April, accepting responsibility for the video. As the questions from the board continue, Ron angrily defends Leslie, insisting, "Leslie has never broken a rule in her life, to the point that it's annoying." He abruptly ends the meeting and insists they will have to go through him to give Leslie anything more than a slap on the wrist. Later, Leslie learns she will receive a letter in her file, which disappoints her strongly until Mark tells her he has seven in his file, and that most of the guys have at least one. Mark welcomes Leslie "to the team", which makes her proud. In a B story, Ann's normally lazy boyfriend Andy (Chris Pratt) decides to surprise her by cleaning up their messy house while she is gone. He cleans up the house (although he throws their garbage into the pit). After cleaning it, he bathes himself in a children's pool in the backyard and plays music on his boombox. Angry neighbor Lawrence steals his boombox, prompting Andy (who has two broken legs) to chase the neighbor naked through the streets on his crutches. Later, Ann arrives home and is pleased with Andy's housework, with Andy telling the documentary crew he expects to get "gently laid" later. ## Production "Boys' Club" was written by Alan Yang and directed by Michael McCullers. McCullers co-wrote two of the Austin Powers films and directed Poehler in the comedy film Baby Mama. The cold open scene, with kids throwing bags of dog feces at Leslie, was added to the episode after the rest had already been filmed, and was directed personally by series co-creator Greg Daniels. The bags were actually filled with mashed potatoes. Daniels said of the opening, "There were a lot of people who felt this was not in good taste, but to me, this was one of the most fun things about the show." On the episode commentary track, only Daniels discusses the scene -- and he absolves episode writer Yang of any responsibility for the finished cold open. The restriction prohibiting Pawnee employees from accepting gifts over \$25 was based on real-life municipal regulations the Parks and Recreation producers encountered during their research. The scenes filmed in the town hall outside courtyard were filmed on a studio sound stage, and the ethics board review scene was filmed inside the city hall building of Pasadena, California. Like most episodes of Parks and Recreation, a great deal of the scenes in "Boys' Club" were improvised by the actors. For example, Nick Offerman improvised the line "Put it in an e-mail?", which he said when Leslie told him she had a very long story to tell him. Schur thought the line was "my favorite thing in the show", and they made him say in it every subsequent take during filming. Aziz Ansari also improvised a majority of the scene in which he helped Leslie prepare for her ethics board review. Dean Holland, Parks and Recreation'''s editor, said it was his favorite scene from the entire first season. Amy Poehler improvised the line at the courtyard gathering, after she accidentally spilled several beer bottles, "I feel like I'm already in the boys' club. Look at those bitches cleanin' up after me." Schur said the line helped develop Leslie's character in future episodes because "we realized that Leslie can be a little bit cooler than we had originally thought". The scene with Ron describing his ideal government was written for a different episode, but was moved to "Boys' Club" when the producers decided it fit better there. Schur said it was his favorite moment in the episode. "Boys' Club" ends with Leslie and Mark toasting a beer to each other because Schur said, "It's a running joke in the writer's room that every episode should end with clinking beers." Photos of Parks and Recreation producers were included among the photos of past city council members on the town hall walls. The photo of Norm Hiscock is the one Leslie said she believes, "No matter what direction I move, he's always staring at my chest. Mark's social networking site featured in "Boys' Club" included the character with a wide range of promiscuous women. The pictures were shot during a photo session during which, according to series co-creator Michael Schur, "We brought in a lot of women and basically said, you're really trashy. You're trashy women, and we're going to take your picture now." During the courtyard party scenes, a brief clip shows Poehler, Jones and Schneider dancing together. The clip was actually the three actors out-of-character playing around between takes, but the Parks producers decided to add it to the episode. Michael Schur, co-creator of Parks and Recreation, said "Boys' Club" marked an attempt to better develop Andy Dwyer. Schur said, "We definitely wanted to dimensionalize his character and not make him just a one-dimensional douchebag." In the episode, Andy plays a tape of himself singing a song called "Ann", which he wrote as a romantic ballad for her. Chris Pratt actually wrote and performed the song himself for the show, although he said in an interview, "it really wasn't much". Pratt actually appeared on set naked while filming the scene in which he chases Lawrence through the streets without clothes on. Schur said the scene was written because Pratt "loves taking his clothes off". It proved difficult to film the scenes with Pratt bathing in the children's pool because the bubbles disappeared so quickly that multiple takes were required. The scenes with Andy running naked through the streets with his crutches to get his boombox back were inspired by a real-life experience from the set. During filming, an announcement was made that specialty coffees were available for the cast and crew, and Pratt ran quickly after them with the crutches. Greg Daniels added it to "Boys' Club" because he found the experience extremely funny. In an attempt to lend authenticity to the fictional Pawnee, Indiana setting, Parks and Recreation producers contacted the Bloomington, Indiana-based Upland Brewing Company and asked them to provide empty beer bottles and labels for the scene with the characters drinking in the town hall courtyard. The company provided props for their beer brand Dragonfly IPA, and Upland officials said their prominent appearances in the episode generated positive publicity for the company: Scott Johnson, marketing operations manager for the brewing company, said, "As soon as it went off, everyone starts calling me and e-mailing me." They also drink Vernors ginger ale, a soft drink very popular in Indiana. Windell Middlebrooks makes a guest appearance as Brian, one of the men attending the courtyard party. Middlebrooks was cast simply based on his work on Miller High Life commercials, in which he steals beer from bars that he deems unworthy of it. On the day of the episode's original American broadcast on April 30, 2009, the official NBC Parks and Recreation website launched a duplicate of the Sullivan Street Pit social networking site which was featured in the episode, complete with photos of the pit, the list of "friends" from the show and a link to Mark's page and his photos with scantily clad women. The pit page, as well as the regular NBC website, also included the actual video of Aubrey Plaza pretending to drink wine and get drunk, as it was featured in the episode. Schur said for those scenes, "We just gave Aubrey a camera and told her to just drink wine and talk to the camera." ## Cultural references The social networking site developed for the pit project is inspired by sites like MySpace and Facebook, which were extremely popular when the episode was first broadcast. Leslie makes a public apology to all female government officials in alphabetical order, starting with Minnesota Republican Rep. Michele Bachmann, Wisconsin Democratic Rep. Tammy Baldwin (Democrat, Wisconsin) and Illinois Democratic Rep. Melissa Bean. On her desk, Leslie has framed photos of U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton and former Supreme Court Justice Sandra Day O'Connor. The apology scene was filmed with the camera on a tripod, something seldom done in the documentary-style series. In one scene, Andy is seen playing Mario Kart Wii with the Wii wheel accessory. An online game of Scrabble is visible on the computer screen in Ron's office during one scene. It is exactly the same Scrabble game he had been playing with Tom in the previous episode, "The Reporter". While preparing Leslie for her ethics board review, Tom asks if she has ever fantasized about Ron "covered in Powerade". This is a reference to commercials for the sports drink, in which athletes sweat the multi-colored liquid while working out. ## Reception In its original American broadcast on April 30, 2009, "Boys' Club" was watched by 5.28 million households, according to Nielsen Media Research. This rating was consistent with the previous week even as other NBC shows, like the new Southland, saw a drop in ratings. "Boys' Club" received a 2.3 rating/8 share among viewers aged between 18 and 34, and a 2.3 rating/7 share among viewers between 18 and 49. The episode received positive to fair reviews. Alan Sepinwall, television journalist for The Star-Ledger, said "Boys' Club" was funnier than the previous episode and included scenes with good physical comedy involving Leslie, particularly when she spilled the beer bottles; he also praised Andy's "naked crutch chase". Matt Fowler of IGN said the episode gave a little more insight into Leslie's "aspirations about wanting to be a woman who succeeds in government, which is a step in the right direction", but Fowler said her constant mistakes and wrong decisions bog down the story. Fowler said the best part of the episode was Andy's subplot, particularly the scene in which he hops down the street naked on his crutches. Keith Phipps of The A.V. Club gave the episode a B− grade, and said the Amy Poehler character needs to be more fully formed in future episodes. Phipps said most of the show's laughs came from supporting characters Andy, Tom and Ron; he also particularly praised Ron's shutdown of Leslie's hearing and his monologues of the ideal government: "One guy, who sits in a small room at a desk. And the only thing he’s allowed to decide is who to nuke." Jeremy Medina of Entertainment Weekly liked that the episode included a moral crisis of sorts for Leslie, who he described as "a fully-realized character instead of a caricature". ## Home media "Boys' Club", along with the five other first season episodes of Parks and Recreation, was released on a one-disc DVD set in the United States on September 8, 2009. The DVD included cast and crew commentary tracks for each episode, as well as about 30 minutes of deleted scenes. The deleted scenes included on the DVD were originally featured on the official Parks and Recreation'' website after the episode aired. In one of the scenes, Leslie bought a gift basket and returned it to the business that provided the original one, in an attempt at what she called "ethical restitution". In another scene, Leslie apologized to April for introducing her to alcohol, prompting April to later tell the camera she has had fake IDs in Indiana, North Dakota and Delaware since she was 14 years old.
30,595,559	Sixtine Vulgate	1,167,104,667	Catholic edition of the Vulgate published in 1590	[ "16th-century Catholicism", "16th-century Christian texts", "16th-century Latin books", "Catholic bibles", "Early printed Bibles", "Editions of the Vulgate", "Pope Sixtus V" ]	The Sixtine Vulgate or Sistine Vulgate (Latin: Vulgata Sixtina) is the edition of the Vulgate—a 4th-century Latin translation of the Bible that was written largely by Jerome—which was published in 1590, prepared by a commission on the orders of Pope Sixtus V and edited by himself. It was the first edition of the Vulgate authorised by a pope. Its official recognition was short-lived; the edition was replaced in 1592 by the Sixto-Clementine Vulgate. In 1546, the Council of Trent had decreed that the Vulgate was authoritative and authentic, and ordered that it be printed as correctly as possible. No edition of the Vulgate officially approved by the Catholic Church existed at the time. Twenty years later, work to produce an official edition of the Vulgate began: Pius V appointed a commission to produce an official edition of the Vulgate. However, his successor, Gregory XIII, did not continue the work. In 1586, Sixtus V appointed a commission to produce an official edition of the Vulgate. However, he was dissatisfied with the work of the commission. Considering himself a very competent editor, he edited the Vulgate with the help of a few people he trusted. In 1590, this edition was published and was preceded by a bull of Sixtus V saying this edition was the authentic edition recommended by the Council of Trent, that it should be taken as the standard of all future reprints, and that all copies should be corrected by it. Three months later, in August, Sixtus V died. Nine days after the death of Sixtus V, the College of Cardinals suspended the sale of the Sixtine Vulgate and later ordered the destruction of the copies. In 1592, Clement VIII, arguing printing errors in the Sixtine Vulgate, recalled all copies of the Sixtine Vulgate still in circulation; some suspect his decision was in fact due to the influence of the Jesuits. In November of the same year, a revised version of the Sixtine, known as the Sixto-Clementine Vulgate or Clementine Vulgate, was issued by Clement VIII to replace the Sixtine Vulgate. ## History ### Council of Trent The Council of Trent decreed the Vulgate authoritative and "authentic" on 8 April 1546, and ordered it to be printed "quam emendatissime" ("with the fewest possible faults"). There was no authoritative edition of the Vulgate in the Catholic Church at that time; that would come in May (or April) 1590. ### Elaboration of the text #### Three pontifical commissions Three pontifical commissions were successively charged to elaborate the text of the edition of the Vulgate for which the Council of Trent had requested publication. Up until the commissions of Pius V and Sixtus V, the work was done without any coordination. After Sixtus V's death in 1590, two other commissions were organised, one after the other, under Gregory XIV in 1591. ##### Pius IV's commission In 1561, Pius IV created a commission at Rome composed of four cardinals: Amulio, Morone, Scotti and Vitelli. This committee had only a very general role: to correct and print the ecclesiastical books which the Holy See had decided to reform or publish. ##### Pius V's commission In 1566 or 1569, another commission was appointed by Pope Pius V (Congregatio pro emendatione Bibliorum) to produce an official edition of the Vulgate. This commission was composed of five cardinals (M. A. Colonna, G. Sirleto, C. Madruzzo, J. Souchier, and Antonio Carafa) and twelve advisors. Gregory XIII did not appoint a commission for the Vulgate, and soon Gugliemo Sirleto "was the only one remaining to take care of the revision" of the Vulgate in Rome. Gregory XIII issued a commission for the emendation of the LXX after being convinced to do so by Cardinal Montalto (the future Sixtus V). Thomson states that the commission working on the Vulgate had to stop its work to instead work on the edition of the Septuagint. The work on this edition was finished in 1586 and the edition, known as the Roman Septuagint, was published the next year. This edition of the Septuagint was done to assist the revisers of the Latin Vulgate. ##### Sixtus V's commission At the time Sixtus V became pope, in 1585, work on the edition of the Vulgate had barely begun. In 1586, Sixtus V appointed a commission. The commission was under the presidency of Cardinal Carafa, and was composed of Flaminius Nobilius, Antonius Agellius, Lelio Landi, Bartholomew Valverde, and Petrus Morinus. They were helped by Fulvio Orsini. The commission worked on the basis of the 1583 edition by Franciscus Lucas Brugensis of the Leuven Vulgate and "[g]ood manuscripts were used as authorities, including notably the Codex Amiatinus". The commission wrote annotations and corrected directly on an exemplar of the 1583 edition of the Leuven Vulgate; this Bible corrected by the commission is known as the Codex Carafianus. #### Sixtus V's own editing work At one point, Sixtus began to lose patience due to the slow progress of the commission. Nevertheless, "in view of the work which had already been carried out" the work of the commission was finished in 1588. However, Sixtus was dissatisfied with the work produced by the commission, and on 17 November 1588 told Carafa that the latter had to either give him a completed revised edition of the Vulgate or give him the Bible he was working on (the Codex Carafianus); Sixtus said it was because he wanted to revise everything himself. The same day, Carafa handed Sixtus the Bible annoted with corrections (the Codex Carafianus). According to Quentin, the corrections of the Codex Carafianus were "excellent", but they were "not presented in a convincing way. It is merely a list of readings without anything to indicate their value. Those readings, when put against the mainstream readings found in the Leuven Bible [Vulgate], seem[ed] to Sixtus V like some alternatives which should only be used instead of the mainstream text if they contain a real progress concerning the meaning or the literary quality of the passage". Sixtus V worked by himself on the edition of the Vulgate. From 17 November 1588 until June 1589, he revised the text; until the end of November 1589, he corrected the proofs. Sixtus made the corrections using simple conjectures and working quickly. He used the Codex Carafianus. Sixtus was helped in his editing work by a few people he trusted, including Toledo and Rocca but excluding the members of the commission and Carafa. Sixtus V took pride in being a very competent text editor. When he was only a minor friar, he had started editing the complete work of St. Ambrose, the sixth and last volume of which was published after he became pope. This edition of the complete work of St. Ambrose produced by Sixtus is regarded as the worst ever published; it "replaced the readings of the manuscripts by the least justified conjectures". By the end of November, the text of the Vulgate was finished. Sixtus' editing work on the Vulgate was sent on 25 November 1589 to the Congregation of the Index. The aim of his work was less for the text to be satisfactory from the point of view of textual criticism, and way more to strengthen the faithfuls. The publication of the text was delayed for five months at the Congregation of the Index since most of its members, three out of five, were opposed to the publication of the text; those were Ascanio Colonna, William Allen and Girolamo Della Rovere. The members of the commission of Carafa were also opposed to the publication. ### Publication In May (or April) 1590 the completed work was issued in one volume, in a folio edition, containing three distinct parts, with the page numbering continuous throughout the entire volume. The Sixtine Vulgate was mostly free of typographical errors. Regardless, even after the printed edition was issued, Sixtus continued to tinker with the text, revising it either by hand or by pasting strips of paper on the text. This edition is known as the Vulgata Sixtina, Sixtine Vulgate, or Sistine Vulgate. The full title of the Sixtine Vulgate is: Biblia sacra Vulgatae Editionis ad Concilii Tridentini praescriptum emendata et a Sixto V P. M. recognita et approbata. The edition was preceded by the bull Aeternus Ille, in which the Pope declared the authenticity of the new Bible. The bull stipulated "that it was to be considered as the authentic edition recommended by the Council of Trent, that it should be taken as the standard of all future reprints, and that all copies should be corrected by it". The bull also stated that "[t]his edition was not to be reprinted for 10 years except at the Vatican, and after that any edition must be compared with the Vatican edition, so that 'not even the smallest particle should be altered, added or removed' under pain of the 'greater excommunication'". Furthermore, the bull demanded that all missals and breviaries be revised to use the text of the Sixtine Vulgate, and that the Sixtine Vulgate replace all other Bibles within four months in Italy and within eight months elsewhere. This was the first time the Vulgate was recognized as the official authoritative text. Based on his study of testimonies by those who surrounded the pope during the making of the Sixtine Vulgate, and the fact that the bull Aeternus Ille is not present in the bullarium, Jesuit Xavier-Marie Le Bachalet claims the publication of this Bible does not have papal infallibility because the bull establishing this edition as the standard was never promulgated by Sixtus V. Le Bachalet says that the bull was only printed within the edition of the Bible at the order of Sixtus V so as not to delay the printing and that the published edition of the Bible was not the final one; that Sixtus was still revising the text of this edition of the Bible, and his death prevented him from completing a final edition and promulgating an official bull. #### Textual characteristics Two whole verses and the end of one were dropped from the Book of Numbers: the end of Numbers 30:11 and the whole verses 12 and 13 ("has bound herself by a vow or an oath, if her husband heard it and remained silent, and he did not contradict the promise, she shall repay what she had promised. But if he promptly contradicts it, she shall not be held liable to the promise. For her husband has contradicted it. And the Lord will be favorable to her". Catholic Public Domain Version). However, it is unclear whether this was a printing error or an editorial choice, "as the passage was cited by moral theologians to substantiate the view that husbands may annul vows of chastity taken by their wives without their consent". According to Eberhard Nestle, the Sixtine Vulgate edition had a text more nearly akin to that of Robertus Stephanus than of John Hentenius, an analysis also shared by Scrivener and Hastings; Hastings claims that the text of the Sixtine Vulgate resembled the 1540 edition of Stephanus. Kenyon also thinks the Sixtine Vulgate resembles the text of Stephanus and argues that it was "evidently based" on that text. The Sixtine Vulgate used a new system of verse enumeration, different to that of the Stephanus edition. According to Antonio Gerace, the Sixtine Vulgate "was even closer to the Leuven Vulgate". Thomson states that in many cases Sixtus V merely restored the reading of the 1583 Leuven Vulgate compared to the Codex Carafianus. He adds that the reason Sixtus V did so was because his goal was "to oppose heresy, not to arouse suspicions that the hitherto generally accepted text was corrupt". ### Death of Sixtus V On 27 August 1590 Sixtus V died. After his death, many alleged that the text of the Sixtine Vulgate was "too error-ridden for general use". On 5 September of the same year, the College of Cardinals stopped all further sales of the Sixtine Vulgate and bought and destroyed as many copies as possible by burning them; the reason invoked for this action was printing inaccuracies in Sixtus V's edition of the Vulgate. Metzger believes that the inaccuracies may have been a pretext and that the attack against this edition had been instigated by the Jesuits, "whom Sixtus had offended by putting one of Bellarmine's books on the 'Index', and took this method of revenging themselves". Quentin suggests that this decision was due to the fact that the heretics could have used against the Catholic Church the passages of the Bible which Sixtus V had either removed or modified. Bellarmine did not take part in the ban on the Sixtine Vulgate as he was in Paris when Sixtus published the Sixtine Vulgate, and only came back in Rome in November 1590. After Sixtus V's death, Robert Bellarmine wrote a letter in 1602 to Clement VIII trying to dissuade him from resolving the question of the auxiliis divinae gratiae by himself. In his letter Bellarmine wrote concerning the Sixtine Vulgate: "Your Holiness also knows in what danger Sixtus V put himself and put the whole Church, by trying to correct the Bible according to his own judgment: and for me I really do not know if there has ever been greater danger". ### Recall of the Sixtine Vulgate In January 1592, almost immediately after his election, Clement VIII recalled all copies of the Sixtine Vulgate as one of his first acts. The reason invoked for recalling Sixtus V's edition was printing errors, although the Sixtine Vulgate was mostly free of them. According to James Hastings, Clement VIII's "personal hostility" toward Sixtus and his belief that the Sixtine Vulgate was not "a worthy representative of the Vulgate text" were the reasons behind the recall. Eberhard Nestle suggests that the revocation was really due to the influence of the Jesuits, whom Sixtus had offended by putting one of Bellarmine's books on the Index Librorum prohibitorum. Kenyon writes that the Sixtine Vulgate was "full of errors", but that Clement VIII was also motivated in his decision to recall the edition by the Jesuits, "whom Sixtus had offended". Sixtus regarded the Jesuits with disfavour and suspicion. He considered making radical changes to their constitution, but his death prevented this from being carried out. Sixtus V objected to some of the Jesuits' rules and especially to the title "Society of Jesus". He was at the point of changing these when he died. Sixtus V "had some conflict with the Society of Jesus more generally, especially regarding the Society's concept of blind obedience to the General, which for Sixtus and other important figures of the Roman Curia jeopardized the preeminence of the role of the pope within the Church". Jaroslav Pelikan, without giving any more details, says that the Sixtine Vulgate "proved to be so defective that it was withdrawn". Few copies of the Sixtine Vulgate were saved from destruction. ## Some differences from the Leuven edition The text of the Sixtine Vulgate has some differences with the text of the Leuven Vulgate. For example, in the Sixtine Vulgate, in the Book of Genesis chapters 40–50, there were 43 changes made compared to the editions of the Leuven Vulgate. Of these 43 corrections, 31 are of purely orthographic significance; and of those 31, six concern proper nouns. ## In critical editions of the Bible text The Sixtine Vulgate is cited in the Novum Testamentum Graece, or "Nestle-Aland", only when it differs from the Sixto-Clementine Vulgate, and is designated in said Nestle-Aland by the siglum vg<sup>s</sup>. It is also cited in the Oxford Vulgate New Testament, where it is designated by the siglum . It is not cited in the Stuttgart Vulgate. ## Sixto-Clementine Vulgate After Clement VIII had recalled all the copies of the Sixtine Vulgate in 1592, in November of that year he published a new official version of the Vulgate known as the Clementine Vulgate, also called the Sixto-Clementine Vulgate. Faced with about six thousand corrections on matters of detail, and a hundred that were important, and wishing to save the honour of Sixtus V, Bellarmine undertook the writing of the preface of this edition. He ascribed all the imperfections of Sixtus' Vulgate to press errors. According to Quentin, "a slight possibility remains that Sixtus V, who we know worked until the last day of his life to purge his Bible of the printing mistakes it contained, had let slip a few words which were heard by his familiars, one of whom was Angelo Rocca, giving the impression that he was planning a new edition". Scrivener notes that to avoid the appearance of a conflict between the two popes, the Clementine Bible was published under the name of Sixtus, with a preface by Bellarmine. This preface asserted that Sixtus had intended to publish a new edition due to errors that had occurred in the printing of the first, but had been prevented from doing this by his death, and that now, in accordance with his desire, the work was completed by his successor. The full name of the Clementine Vulgate was: Biblia sacra Vulgatae Editionis, Sixti Quinti Pont. Max. iussu recognita atque edita (translation: "The Holy Bible of the Common/Vulgate Edition identified and published by the order of Pope Sixtus V".) The fact that the Clementine edition retained the name of Sixtus on its title page is the reason the Clementine Vulgate is sometimes known as the Sixto-Clementine Vulgate. Nestle notes: "It may be added that the first edition to contain the names of both the Popes [Sixtus V and Clement VIII] upon the title page is that of 1604. The title runs: 'Sixti V. Pont. Max. iussu recognita et Clementis VIII. auctoritate edita'". Scrivener and Hastings share the same analysis. Hastings points out that "[t]he regular form of title in a modern Vulgate Bible — 'Biblia Sacra Vulgatae Editionis Sixti V. Pont. Max. jussu recognita et Clementis VIII. auctoritate edita' — cannot be traced at present earlier than 1604". Up to that time, Sixtus seems to have appeared alone on the title page; after this date, Clement occasionally figures by himself. ## See also - Bible translations into Latin - Latin Psalters - Vulgate - Sixto-Clementine Vulgate - Nova Vulgata
2,067,874	Gabriel Báthory	1,162,989,467	Prince of Transylvania	[ "1589 births", "1600s in Romania", "1613 deaths", "17th-century monarchs in Europe", "17th-century murdered monarchs", "Assassinated Hungarian people", "Báthory family", "People of the Long Turkish War", "Princes of Transylvania", "Princes of Wallachia" ]	Gabriel Báthory (Hungarian: Báthory Gábor; 15 August 1589 – 27 October 1613) was Prince of Transylvania from 1608 to 1613. Born to the Roman Catholic branch of the Báthory family, he was closely related to four rulers of the Principality of Transylvania (a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire which had developed in the eastern territories of the medieval Kingdom of Hungary). His father, Stephen Báthory, held estates in the principality, but never ruled it. Being a minor when his father died in 1601, Gabriel became the ward of the childless Stephen Báthory, from the Protestant branch of the family, who converted him to Calvinism. After inheriting most of his guardian's estates in 1605, Gabriel became one of the wealthiest landowners in Transylvania and Royal Hungary (a realm of the Habsburg Empire which included the northern and western parts of medieval Hungary). Gabriel made an alliance with the Hajdús—irregular troops stationing along the borders of Transylvania and Royal Hungary—and laid claim to Transylvania against the elderly prince, Sigismund Rákóczi in February 1608. Rákóczi abdicated and the Diet of Transylvania elected Gabriel prince without resistance. Both the Sublime Porte and the Habsburg ruler Matthias II acknowledged Gabriel's election. He ignored the privileges of the Transylvanian Saxons and captured their wealthiest town, Szeben (now Sibiu in Romania), provoking an uprising in 1610. His attempts to expand his authority over the Ottoman vassal Wallachia and his negotiations with Matthias II outraged the Ottoman Sultan Ahmed I. The Sultan decided to replace Gabriel with an exiled Transylvanian nobleman, Gabriel Bethlen, and sent troops to invade the principality in August 1613. Transylvania was unable to resist and the Diet dethroned Gabriel. He was murdered by Hajdú assassins. ## Early life ### Childhood Báthory was born in Várad (now Oradea in Romania) before dawn on 15 August 1589. His father, Stephen Báthory, was a cousin of Prince of Transylvania Sigismund Báthory. Stephen was captain of Várad when Gabriel was born. Gabriel's mother was his father's first wife, Zsuzsanna Bebek. Although she had already given birth to four children, none survived infancy. Sigismund Báthory dismissed Gabriel's father from Várad in the summer of 1592, and Gabriel's family then moved to the Báthorys' ancient castle in Szilágysomlyó (now Șimleu Silvaniei in Romania). The Principality of Transylvania emerged after the disintegration of the medieval Kingdom of Hungary in the 1540s. The principality included the eastern and northeastern regions of the medieval kingdom and its princes paid a yearly tribute to the Ottoman sultans. The princes were elected by the Diet, but they were to seek the Ottoman sultans' confirmation to rule the principality. The Habsburg kings of Royal Hungary regarded the principality as a part of their realm and the first rulers of the principality acknowledged the Habsburgs' claim in secret treaties in the 1570s. The Diet of Transylvania consisted primarily of the representatives of the Three Nations (that is the Hungarian noblemen, the Saxon burghers and the Székelys). Sigismund Báthory, who was a devout Catholic, wanted to join the Holy League of Pope Clement VIII against the Ottoman Empire, but most Transylvanian noblemen opposed his plan. Stephen Báthory's brother, Balthasar, was an opposition leader. Balthasar was captured and murdered at Sigismund's order in late August 1594. Gabriel's father fled from Transylvania to Poland, leaving his family behind in Szilágysomlyó; the five-year-old Gabriel was imprisoned with his mother and newborn sister, Anna. Stephen and Balthasar's brother, Cardinal Andrew Báthory (who lived in Poland), persuaded Pope Clement VIII to intervene on their behalf. Gabriel, his mother and sister were freed at the pope's request and were allowed to join Stephen in Poland. His mother became seriously ill, and died near the end of 1595. The Ottomans routed the armies of the Holy League in a series of battles after 1595. Sigismund Báthory abdicated in favor of Gabriel's uncle, Andrew, in early 1599 in the hope that Andrew could regain the Ottoman sultans' favor with Polish mediation. Gabriel's father accompanied Andrew back to Transylvania, and his family followed him. Michael the Brave, Prince of Wallachia, who had joined the Holy League, invaded Transylvania and defeated Andrew with the assistance of Székely troops. After Székely commoners murdered Andrew, Michael the Brave took possession of Transylvania. Gabriel's father fled to Kővár (now Remetea Chioarului in Romania) and swore fealty to the Holy Roman Emperor, Rudolph (who was also king of Hungary), before his death on 21 February 1601. ### In guardianship The orphaned Gabriel and Anna were placed in the guardianship of their father's childless cousin, Stephen Báthory, and lost most of their father's estates; Szilágysomlyó was seized by the royal treasury, and their scattered estates in Szatmár, Szabolcs and Kraszna Counties were seized by a distant cousin, Peter Szaniszlófi. Scholar János Czeglédi educated Gabriel in Nagyecsed, and the wealthy Stephen Báthory converted Gabriel from Catholicism to Calvinism. Gabriel pledged that he would expel Catholics, Lutherans and Unitarians from his estates. The young Gabriel's strength was legendary, and he was said to break horseshoes with his bare hands. Rudolf's troops occupied Transylvania in 1603 and his officials started to confiscate the estates of noblemen through legal proceedings on false charges of treason. One of the wealthiest landowners, Stephen Bocskai, was accused of maintaining secret correspondence with Transylvanian exiles in 1604. To avoid imprisonment, he rose up in open rebellion with the backing of the Hajdú, irregular troops stationed along the borders of Transylvania and Royal Hungary. Although Stephen Báthory did not openly support Bocskai, he sent Gabriel to Bocskai's court in Kassa. Sixteen-year-old Gabriel participated in a battle against the royal army near Sárospatak in early February 1605; three years later, poet János Rimay accused him of fleeing the battlefield. Rimay also said that Gabriel spent his days mainly drinking wine and allegedly had an affair with his aunt, Kata Iffjú (who was over thirty years old at the time). ### Rise to power Bocskai was elected prince of Transylvania on 21 February 1605 and prince of Hungary on 20 April of that year. His realm included most of Transylvania proper, Partium and Upper Hungary. Stephen Báthory died on 25 July 1605. He had willed most of his estates to Gabriel, who became one of the wealthiest noblemen in Bocskai's realm. Bocskai hinted that he regarded Gabriel as his successor, ordering Bálint Drugeth (commander-in-chief of his army in Upper Hungary) to "hold Gabriel Báthory in the highest esteem among the Hungarian lords" if he did not return from his meeting with Ottoman Grand Vizier Lala Mehmed Pasha in November 1605. Young noblemen (including Gabriel's future enemy, Gabriel Bethlen) and military officials also supported Gabriel. Years later, Gáspár Bojti Veres wrote that Gabriel hosted feasts to win popularity with Bocskai's courtiers and commanders. Gabriel's relatives, Mihály Káthay (Bocskai's chancellor) and János Imreffy (Kata Iffjú's husband), were his principal supporters. His position weakened after Bocskai who was taken ill suddenly had Káthay imprisoned for treason in early September 1606. Káthay's opponents, Simon Péchi and János Rimay, persuaded the dying (and often unconscious) Bocskai to name Bálint Drugeth his successor in his last will. Bocskai died in Kassa on 29 December 1606. A mob accused Káthay of poisoning Bocskai, and lynched him on 12 January 1607. Gabriel had demanded the Principality of Transylvania in a 2 January 1607 letter to the grand vizier, Kuyucu Murad Pasha. Bocskai's deputy, the elderly Sigismund Rákóczi, continued to administer the principality with the consent of the Diet of Transylvania. Gabriel sent Bethlen to Székely captain János Petki to secure his support, but Bethlen was imprisoned at Rákóczi's order on 26 January. Rákóczi also dismissed Várad captain Dénes Bánffy, the fiancé of Gabriel's sister Anna. The delegates of the Three Nations of Transylvania wanted to demonstrate their right to freely elect the prince. The Diet first passed a decree prohibiting a minor from being elected prince, preventing Gabriel's election. It ignored Bocskai's last will, electing Rákóczi prince on 12 February. Gabriel mustered troops, saying that he only wanted to protect Transylvania. He demanded the cancellation of the Transylvanian decrees ordering the confiscation of his father and uncles' estates in 1595. Gabriel approached Rudolph I's councillors after the Diet expelled the Jesuits from Transylvania, offering to defend the Catholic Church in the principality if he ascended the throne and saying that he was ready to reconvert to Catholicism. Rudolph made him governor of Transylvania in June, but the appointment had no real effect on Gabriel's position. Gabriel married Bocskai's kinswoman, Anna Horváth Palocsai, about two months later. After being unpaid for months, the Hajdús rose up in the autumn of 1607. They offered their support to Drugeth, who refused to lead them. Gabriel also treated them with disdain and promised to protect Transylvania against them at the end of October. He soon mustered his troops and marched to Upper Hungary. He again approached the royal court, asking Rudolph to make him voivode of Transylvania. After the representatives of the Hajdús and the noblemen of Upper Hungary made a fifty-day truce in Ináncs at the end of the year, Gabriel began negotiations with the Hajdús. They concluded a treaty on 8 February 1608. Gabriel pledged to grant villages to the Hajdús in Partium, and they promised to support him in seizing Transylvania. He also promised to expel "heretics and idolaters" (Unitarians and Catholics) from the royal council. According to the contemporary Ferenc Nagy Szabó's memoirs, the Ottoman grand vizier soon decided to support Gabriel. Gabriel sent Imreffy to Rákóczi, offering to help Rákóczi seize two important domains in Upper Hungary if Rákóczi abdicated. He informed Rudolph's commissioner, Zsigmond Forgách, on 13 February 1608 that Rákóczi had already agreed to leave Transylvania. Although the Hajdús took control of the northwestern region of Partium, Gabriel forbade them to invade Transylvania proper. János Petki announced Rákóczi's abdication at the Diet in Kolozsvár (now Cluj-Napoca in Romania) on 5 March of that year. ## Reign ### Consolidation The Diet elected Gabriel prince on 7 March 1608, and sent delegates to him in Nagyecsed. Although his election was technically free, he controlled the strongest army in the principality (making resistance impossible). He pledged to respect the laws of the principality, especially the privileges of the Three Nations, before accepting his election on 14 March. Gabriel was ceremoniously installed in Kolozsvár on 31 March, and the Diet granted him the domains of Fogaras (now Făgăraș in Romania) and Kővár as hereditary estates. He began settling the Hajdús in Partium, and granted Böszörmény to those forced to leave Nagykálló; others received parcels in Bihar County. About 30,000 Hajdú soldiers received parcels of land from Gabriel during his reign. To assert his suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia, he decided to dethrone Prince Radu Șerban of Wallachia; however, the royal council and Michael Weiss (mayor of the important Transylvanian Saxon town of Brassó, now Brașov in Romania) dissuaded him. Radu Șerban voluntarily swore fealty to Gabriel in the presence of his envoys on 31 May. On 18 July, thirteen-year-old Prince of Moldavia Constantin I Movilă also acknowledged Gabriel's suzerainty and promised to pay a yearly tribute of 8,000 florins. That month, Gabriel visited Brassó. His feasts infuriated the burghers, who called him a drunkard or a greedy new Sardanapalus in defamatory poems. Gabriel's promiscuity was notorious; he reportedly seduced young women and promoted noblemen who were willing to offer him their wives. He sent Bethlen to Istanbul and Imreffy to Kassa to secure his recognition by the Sublime Porte and the royal court. After a brief negotiation, Imreffy and representatives of Rudolph's brother Matthias (who had persuaded Rudolph to abdicate in his favor) signed two treaties on 20 August. The first treaty summarized the privileges of the Hajdús in Royal Hungary and the Principality of Transylvania. The second recognized Gabriel as lawful ruler of Transylvania, but forbade him to secede from the Holy Crown of Hungary. Bethlen returned from Istanbul in late November with the sultan's delegates, who brought the ahidnâme confirming Gabriel's election. The sultan exempted Transylvania from paying the customary tribute for three years. Romanian Orthodox priests approached Gabriel for support against noblemen who treated them like serfs. At their request, he freed them from taxation and service demands by the landowners in June 1609. Gabriel also granted them the right to freely move about the principality. At his initiative, in October the Diet abolished all grants which had exempted some noble estates from taxation. ### Assassination attempt While Gabriel was sleeping at István Kendi's home in Szék (now Sic in Romania) during the night of 10–11 March 1610, a man entered his bedroom. Although the intruder had wanted to stab Gabriel, he changed his mind and confessed that Kendi and other (mostly-Catholic) noblemen had hired him. Kendi soon fled to Royal Hungary, but his accomplices were captured. The Diet sentenced the conspirators to death on 24 March, and their estates were confiscated. Gabriel made Imreffy chancellor and Bethlen captain of the Székelys. The motivation for the conspiracy is unclear. According to the contemporary Tamás Borsos, the conspirators wanted to murder Gabriel because his undisciplined Hajdú troops had destroyed many villages. Calvinist pastor Máté Szepsi Laczkó said that the Catholic noblemen wanted to get rid of the Protestant prince. Others claimed that Boldizsár Kornis (captain of the Székelys) joined the plot because Gabriel had tried to seduce his young wife. Gabriel met Palatine of Hungary György Thurzó in Királydaróc (now Craidorolț in Romania) in June, but they could not reach an agreement. He said during the negotiations that he was a sovereign, but the palatine was merely a "lord's serf". After returning to Transylvania, Gabriel planned to reunite Royal Hungary and Transylvania under his rule with Ottoman support. Although he ordered the princes of Moldavia and Wallachia to send reinforcements and the Saxons to pay a tax of 100,000 florins, the prince of Moldavia did not send troops and the Saxons paid only 10,000 florins. Imreffy again went to Royal Hungary to negotiate with Thurzó in Kassa. By 15 August, they reached a compromise which resolved most of the contentious issues. However, Matthias II did not ratify the agreement because it stated that Transylvania was not required to provide military assistance to Royal Hungary against the Ottomans. ### Conflicts Gabriel went to Szeben (now Sibiu in Romania), the wealthiest Saxon town, on 10 December. Although only 50 soldiers accompanied him into the town, his army was stationed on the outskirts. Gabriel stopped at the gate of the town the following day, pretending that he only wanted to study it; while the gate was open, his army unexpectedly marched in and captured the town without resistance. He said that he wanted to secure his entry into Szeben because the Saxons could refuse monarchs entry into their towns. According to the contemporaneous Diego de Estrada, Gabriel wanted to transfer his capital to Szeben from Gyulafehérvár (now Alba Iulia in Romania), which had been destroyed during the Long Turkish War. The Diet declared Szeben capital of the principality on 17 December, limiting its privileges, authorizing noblemen to acquire real estate and Calvinist priests to preach in the town's Lutheran churches. Gabriel launched a military campaign against Wallachia on 26 December. Radu Şerban fled the country, enabling Gabriel to take possession of Târgoviște without resistance. Gabriel styled himself prince of Wallachia in a 26 January 1611 charter. According to Radu Popescu's chronicle, his troops brought pillage, destruction and death to the countryside. Gabriel sent his envoys to Istanbul, asking Ottoman Sultan Ahmed I to confirm his rule in Wallachia. He outlined a plan for the conquest of Poland. He also demanded compensation for the salaries of his Hajdús from the Ottomans, who began to call him "Deli Kiral" (Mad King) because of his actions. The Ottoman governors of Buda and Temesvár (now Timișoara in Romania) invaded the Hajdú villages in Partium, forcing them to hurry back and defend their homes. Ahmed I granted Wallachia to Radu Mihnea and ordered Gabriel to return to Transylvania in March. Although the sultan's decision outraged Gabriel, he had no choice but to accept it. Radu Şerban ousted Radu Mihnea from Wallachia at the head of an army of Cossack and Moldavian mercenaries. The Diet ordered the mobilization of the Transylvanian army, authorizing Gabriel to collect an extraordinary tax in April. However, Michael Weiss (who had regarded Gabriel as a new Nero) incited the burghers of Brassó to rise up against the monarch. Gabriel dispatched Hajdú captain András Nagy to lay siege to Brassó, but Weiss bribed Nagy to lift the siege. Radu Şerban invaded Burzenland (now Țara Bârsei in Romania) unexpectedly, and routed Gabriel's army near Brassó on 8 July 1611. Gabriel barely escaped from the battlefield to Szeben. Matthias II considered Gabriel's attack against Wallachia as treachery, because he regarded Transylvania and the two Romanian principalities as realms of the Hungarian Crown. Zsigmond Forgách, commander-in-chief of Upper Hungary, invaded Transylvania in late June. Although Nagy and the Hajdús under his command supported Forgách, most Protestant noblemen refused to join the invasion. Most Transylvanians regarded the invasion as an unlawful action, and only the Saxons were willing to support Forgách. He and Radu Şerban besieged Szeben, but could not capture it. Gabriel sent envoys to Istanbul, seeking assistance from the Sublime Porte. Nagy and his Hajdú troops deserted Forgách and routed the reinforcements sent to him from Upper Hungary in mid-September. After learning of the arrival of Ottoman troops to support Gabriel, Radu Şerban withdrew from Szeben; this forced Forgách to lift the siege. The Transylvanian army routed the retreating royal troops, capturing hundreds of soldiers. Gabriel led his army from Szeben to Várad, but the Ottoman troops did not accompany him. Delegates of the counties and towns of Upper Hungary persuaded Thurzó to begin negotiations with Gabriel, and their envoys signed an agreement in Tokaj in December. Gabriel pledged to send delegates to the Diet of Hungary and not allow serfs to join the Hajdús. However, the princes of the Holy Roman Empire persuaded Matthias II not to ratify the treaty until Gabriel reached an agreement with the Saxons. Meanwhile, Gabriel sent Hajdú captain András Géczi to Istanbul to express his gratitude for Ottoman support. Géczi made an agreement with Michael Weiss in Brassó, however, and asked for Gabriel's removal on behalf of the Three Nations of Transylvania in Istanbul in November. The Imperial Council of the Ottoman Empire accepted the proposal, and decided to replace Gabriel with Géczi. After the burghers of Brassó refused to surrender, Gabriel invaded Burzenland and captured seven Saxon fortresses in late March and early April 1612. The Diet of Transylvania urged the Saxons of Brassó to surrender in May, but the Three Nations delegates did not punish the noblemen who had fled to the town. Gabriel proposed a month later at the Diet that the principality should renounce the sultan's suzerainty, but his proposal was refused. Géczi sent letters to András Nagy (who promised to murder Gabriel), but Nagy's letter was captured. Gabriel killed Nagy or had him executed in August, according to various sources. Gabriel Bethlen (the leading figure of the pro-Ottoman policy) fled to Ottoman territory on 12 September, and visited the Ottoman governors of Temesvár, Buda and Kanizsa. With their help, he contacted the grand vizier Nasuh Pasha. Weiss, who wanted to install Géczi as prince in Gyulafehérvár, left Brassó at the head of an undisciplined army on 8 October 1612. Gabriel attacked Weiss and his troops, annihilating them six days later. Weiss was beheaded on the battlefield, and Géczi withdrew to Brassó. The Diet sentenced the absent Géczi and Bethlen to death, granting amnesty to those who had surrendered. ### Fall The Diet authorized Gabriel to begin negotiations with Matthias II, and their envoys signed an alliance in Pressburg (now Bratislava in Slovakia) on 24 December 1612. Matthias sent his delegates to Transylvania to urge the Saxons to surrender to Gabriel. The treaty outraged Ahmed I, who decided to replace Gabriel with Bethlen in March. Matthias and Gabriel's envoys concluded a new treaty on 12 April, and Matthias acknowledged Gabriel's hereditary right to rule Transylvania. In a secret agreement, Gabriel promised to support Matthias even against the Ottomans. He granted a royal pardon to the Saxons and their allies, including Géczi (who was made commander of Gabriel's guard). Gabriel Bethlen left Istanbul in August, accompanied by Skender, the Pasha of Kanizsa. Radu Mihnea invaded Transylvania from Wallachia in early September. Canibek Giray, Khan of the Crimean Tatars, invaded the principality three weeks later. By early October, Ottoman troops arrived to support Bethlen. Gabriel fled from Transylvania proper and withdrew to Várad to seek assistance from Royal Hungary against Bethlen and his allies. Zsigmond Forgách sent an army of 2,000 troops, commanded by Miklós Abafy, to Várad. Skender Pasha convoked the delegates of the Three Nations to a Diet at Gyulafehérvár. The Diet dethroned Gabriel on 21 October, urging him in a letter of farewell to accept the decision, and elected Bethlen prince two days later. According to the contemporaneous historian Máté Szepsi Lackó, András Géczi and Miklós Abaffy soon hatched a plot to murder Gabriel in Várad. They entered his room on 26 October 1613 and persuaded him to give them his sword, but did not attack the strong prince because he still had a dagger. The following day, Abaffy told Gabriel that the troops from Royal Hungary wanted to see him. After visiting Abaffy's army, Gabriel returned to Várad in a carriage. Horsemen suddenly attacked the carriage, forcing it to turn into a narrow street. Gabriel jumped out of the carriage, but was soon shot. He tried to resist at a willow tree near the Pece Stream, but dozens of Hajdús attacked and killed him. Hajdú infantry captain Balázs Nagy brought Gabriel's body first to Nagyecsed, and then to Nyírbátor. His body lay unburied in the crypt of the church in Nyírbátor, and he was ceremoniously buried at Bethlen's order only in 1628. Transylvania went through a chaotic period during Gabriel's rule. Historian Katalin Péter states that Gabriel "was not the man to tolerate inaction for long" and "ruled with extravagance and capricious irresponsibility". Gabriel, according to Péter, was unable to keep a balance among the different groups of the Transylvanian nobility, which gave rise to new tensions between Calvinists and Catholics, natives and newcomers, pro-Habsburg and pro-Ottoman politicians. Neither could he realize that the Ottoman Empire had recovered after the Long Turkish War by the time he ascended the throne and his expansionist ambitions were not tolerated by the Sultan. Historian László Nagy's evaluation of Báthory's rule is different. He says that Báthory's bad fame can be traced back to the works of historians who worked in the court of Gabriel Bethlen who made conscious efforts to denigrate his predecessor. Nagy also emphasizes that 17th-century popular literary works show that many commoners was mourning Báthory's death. The 20th-century Hungarian novelist Zsigmond Móricz characterizes Gabriel Báthory as a "true fairy prince", adding that "fairies are unfit for this world". ## Family Gabriel's wife, Anna, was the daughter of György Horváth Palocsai and Krisztina Sulyok. According to Nagy Szabó, she was "a big fat woman" and Gabriel "did possibly not love her too much". Michael Weiss said that Gabriel's separation from his wife was a reason for the Saxons' rebellion because it contradicted divine law. Bethlen accused Gabriel of an incestuous affair with his sister, Anna, first mentioning the rumour in Istanbul in 1613 in an attempt to depose him. The accusation was repeated during a secret lawsuit against Anna, whom Bethlen accused of witchcraft in 1614.
6,297,778	Russell Howarth	1,164,038,554	English association football player (born 1982)	[ "1982 births", "Bradford City A.F.C. players", "England men's youth international footballers", "English Football League players", "English men's footballers", "Footballers from York", "Living people", "Men's association football goalkeepers", "Paramedics", "Tranmere Rovers F.C. players", "York City F.C. players" ]	Russell Michael Howarth (born 27 March 1982) is an English former professional footballer who played as a goalkeeper. He played in the Football League for York City, Tranmere Rovers and Bradford City. Howarth started his career in the youth system of hometown club York City in 1996 while a schoolboy, before becoming a trainee in 1998. He made his first-team debut aged 17, playing in the first six matches of the 1999–2000 season. During this run in the team, he signed a professional contract with the club. However, he was unable to play regularly for York because of the form of Bobby Mimms and Alan Fettis. After having trials with Premier League and First Division clubs, Howarth left York in November 2002 to sign for Tranmere Rovers for a five-figure fee. Here, he again played sporadically, only having runs in the team when first-choice goalkeeper John Achterberg was unavailable. After being released by Tranmere in 2005, Howarth signed for Bradford City. However, he was unable to dislodge Donovan Ricketts in goal and was released in 2007. He retired from football and started working as a paramedic. While at York, Howarth played for England at a number of youth levels. He was capped twice at under-16 level in 1999, while still a trainee at York. He competed with Chelsea's Rhys Evans for a starting place in the under-18 team, playing for them in 2001 UEFA European Under-18 Championship qualifying. After making four under-18 appearances from 2000 to 2001, he progressed to the under-20 team, competing with Evans, Stephen Bywater and Boaz Myhill for a place in the team. He was capped four times for the team from 2001 to 2002 before being given a late call-up to the under-21 squad for the 2002 UEFA European Under-21 Championship. He was still included in under-21 squads after moving to Tranmere, but failed to be capped at that level. ## Early life Howarth was born in York, North Yorkshire to Michael and Lyn Howarth (née Hammond). He was baptised in Riccall, North Yorkshire and attended Barlby High School. As a youth, he played as a goalkeeper for Olympia Station FC, before representing York and District Schools aged 12. In one season, however, he played as a left winger and scored 29 goals. He soon returned to playing in goal and impressed Huntington School teacher Alan Whitehead, a former York City player, who ran the York and District team. ## Club career ### York City Howarth started his career with hometown club York City in their youth system, joining in 1996 on schoolboy terms. In the summer of 1998, he signed a three-year academy scholarship at York and became a first-year trainee. During May 1999, he played for York in the Candia-66 International Under-20s Tournament, a youth tournament hosted in Europe. York won the tournament after defeating Trenkvin Slowakigie in the final, in which Howarth saved two penalty kicks in the 4–2 penalty shoot-out victory. Aged 17, he made his first-team debut for Third Division York in a 1–0 victory at home to Swansea City in the opening match of the 1999–2000 season on 7 August 1999. He started the season as York's first-choice goalkeeper ahead of the experienced Bobby Mimms, keeping clean sheets in the first three matches. On 26 August 1999, two days after making his fifth successive appearance, Howarth signed a three-year professional contract with York. However, after conceding 11 goals in three matches, and having played in York's first six matches of the season, manager Neil Thompson dropped him for the more experienced Mimms. York's management team insisted Howarth's exclusion was to safeguard him, and was not based on merit. His next appearance came as a 72nd-minute substitute in York's 2–0 defeat away to Plymouth Argyle on 19 February 2000, following an injury to Mimms. Howarth was favoured over Mimms for the following match, a 0–0 draw at home to Exeter City on 26 February 2000. However, following the signing of Northern Ireland international Alan Fettis, Howarth was once again restricted to the substitutes' bench. His first season in senior football finished with eight appearances. In May 2000, Howarth played for Premier League club Leeds United in a seven-a-side tournament in Singapore, because their own goalkeepers were unavailable. He also represented York in the Candia-66 International Under-20s Tournament for a second successive summer, although he only played one match as he was being rested after playing for Leeds. His first appearance of 2000–01 came 22 August 2000, in York's 5–1 defeat at home to Stoke City in the League Cup first round first leg. During the match, he fumbled a Graham Fenton cross, and Stoke opened the scoring from the error. He garnered praise from York's part-time goalkeeping coach and former Everton player Neville Southall, who Howarth held as a boyhood hero, saying: "Russ can be as good as he wants to be. He works hard and has a great attitude when a lot of youngsters today at big clubs don't have such a good attitude. He will succeed. Even if it is in three, five or even ten years, he will succeed." With Fettis rested, Howarth made his second appearance of the season on 9 January 2001, starting in a 4–0 defeat at home to Darlington in the Football League Trophy Northern Section first round. Despite conceding four goals, he was the only player to escape criticism from manager Terry Dolan, who said: "He was let down by everyone else around him. He had no protection whatsoever. His kicking was excellent and he did everything else he had to do without a problem." Due to the good form of Fettis, Howarth finished the season with only two appearances. Howarth made his first appearance of 2001–02 in the 2–0 defeat away to Notts County on 16 October 2001 in the Football League Trophy Northern Section first round. Having made a number of fine saves, he was named man of the match, and Dolan remarked that: "he is playing as well as I have seen him and he is putting real pressure on Alan Fettis." Despite not featuring regularly for York, he spent four days on trial with Premier League club Sunderland, training with the team for three days and playing 45 minutes of a practice match against Huddersfield Town. Howarth then spent a brief period on trial with Wolverhampton Wanderers (Wolves) of the First Division in January 2002. He played for the reserve team against Huddersfield and reportedly impressed manager Dave Jones. Howarth made his first league appearance for York in over two years as a 65th-minute substitute for an injured Fettis a 3–0 home win over Bristol Rovers on 17 April 2002. Two days later, he was offered a new contract by York. With Fettis still injured for the following match, Howarth started for the first time since February 2000 in a 1–0 defeat away to Scunthorpe United on 20 April 2002, York's final match of the season. He finished the season with three appearances. Larger clubs became interested in buying him during the summer of 2002 and he decided to consider his options before deciding on his future. He trialled with Everton in May 2002, and played in a friendly against Falkirk in the Alex Scott Memorial Trophy, keeping a clean sheet. He revealed he was interested in a move to Everton, and due to Fettis' good form for York, he decided to pursue a move. After his contract expired on 30 June 2002, Howarth joined Wolves for a second trial in July for a two-week period. After playing in Wolves' opening pre-season friendly against Morecambe, he was invited to join them for their pre-season tour of Portugal. Despite being out of contract at York, the club was entitled a fee as he was under 24 years of age, but a bid of £60,000 from Wolves was rejected. He was recalled by York to take part in a pre-season friendly against Sunderland, although he refused to participate. Howarth told Dolan he did not want to play for the club, as any potential injury could have ended his proposed transfer. His proposed move to Wolves continued until August 2002, and late that month he trained with Premier League club Tottenham Hotspur. He played in a practice match for Tottenham, but after they failed to follow up their interest in him Wolves made a bid to sign him on loan, which York rejected. After Marlon Beresford left York, and Howarth's proposed moves elsewhere fell through, he re-signed for the club in September 2002 on a week-to-week contract. Despite this, he spent two days on trial with Premier League club Newcastle United in late September 2002. Howarth's first appearance of 2002–03 came in a 4–3 away defeat to Lincoln City on 22 October 2002 in the Football League Trophy Northern Section first round, after Fettis was rested due to injury. ### Tranmere Rovers Howarth left York on 5 November 2002, signing for Second Division club Tranmere Rovers for an undisclosed five-figure fee. York chairman John Batchelor later revealed the transfer fee was an initial figure of £25,000. After signing, Howarth said: "I felt I had gone a little bit stale at York and the time was right to move on". He made his debut three weeks later in a 2–1 defeat away to Cardiff City in an FA Cup first-round replay, entering as a 72nd-minute substitute after John Achterberg was sent off. Tranmere did not concede during Howarth's 18 minutes on the pitch, and his performance was positive. However, with Achterberg established in the Tranmere goal, Howarth had to wait until 4 February 2003 to make his league debut away to Cheltenham Town, coming on as a substitute in the 57th minute after Achterberg sustained an injury. He conceded twice as Tranmere lost 3–1. Howarth returned to the substitutes' bench for the following match against Swindon Town on 8 February 2003, as Achterberg had recovered from injury. His first start for Tranmere came over two months later in a 0–0 draw away to Luton Town on 5 April 2003, after Achterberg picked up an injury in training the previous day. He kept his starting place for the following match, a 1–0 victory at home to Wycombe Wanderers on 12 April 2003. Despite keeping clean sheets in both matches, he was dropped for the next match against Notts County on 19 April 2002. He finished 2002–03 with four appearances for Tranmere. Howarth continued to be kept out of the team in 2003–04, only making his first appearance after Achterberg was injured during the warm-up away to Swindon on 3 March 2004. Tranmere lost 2–0, although his performance was positive, making a number of good saves. However, Achterberg was declared fit for the following match against Millwall on 7 March 2004, and Howarth returned to the substitutes' bench. He did not play another match for Tranmere that season. Howarth's first appearance of 2004–05 came as a 20th-minute substitute after Achterberg was injured away to Hull City on 18 December 2004. After conceding a goal scored by Ian Ashbee in the 34th minute, Howarth was injured in a challenge with Stuart Elliott, and was substituted at half-time. He was available for Tranmere's next match against Barnsley on 26 December 2004, and with Achterberg ruled out for the Christmas period with a knee injury, he started in a 1–1 home draw. This meant Howarth had a run of nine consecutive matches in goal for Tranmere, with an appearance against Oldham Athletic in the Football League Trophy Northern semi-final on 25 January 2005 being his last before Achterberg returned against Luton on 29 January. He failed to play again that season, and was released by Tranmere on 24 May 2005. ### Bradford City On 8 June 2005, Howarth signed a two-year contract with League One club Bradford City. He was signed to provide competition for Donovan Ricketts, manager Colin Todd saying: "It was a position we needed filling badly. I am delighted to have got a keeper of Russell's calibre". Despite having the chance to affirm himself in pre-season with Ricketts away on international duty, it was Ricketts who started 2005–06 as first-choice goalkeeper. Howarth made his debut away to Rotherham United on 20 August 2005, coming on as a 27th-minute substitute after Ricketts was injured. The match finished a 1–1 draw. He made his first start in the subsequent 5–0 away victory over League Two club Rochdale in the League Cup first round on 23 August 2005. These were the first two appearances of a 12-match run in the team, before being dropped after nearly two months when Ricketts returned from injury against Port Vale on 15 October 2005. His last two appearances for Bradford that season, which came when Ricketts was suspended, were a 5–3 defeat at home to Barnsley in an FA Cup second-round replay on 13 December 2005 and a 2–1 defeat at home to Rotherham four days later. Howarth finished his first season at Bradford with a career-record 15 appearances. After starting 2006–07 as second-choice to Ricketts, Howarth sought a loan away from Bradford for first-team football, saying: "It is approaching make or break in terms of my career. I need to start playing regularly again as soon as possible". Former club York, by this time playing in the Conference National, made a failed bid to sign him on loan in September 2006. Howarth's first and only appearance of the season, a 2–1 defeat at home to Scunthorpe in the Football League Trophy Northern Section first round on 17 October 2006, proved to be the last of his career. He was released by Bradford on 9 May 2007 and subsequently retired from professional football aged 25. ## International career ### England under-16 Howarth received his first international call-up when he was included in the England national under-16 team to play Turkey on 12 January 1999. He was the only player with a club from below the top two divisions to have been selected. He made his debut in the match as a 70th-minute substitute for Chelsea's Rhys Evans, with England winning 2–0. His second cap and first start came two months later in a 1–0 victory at home to Turkey on 30 March 1999. Following the match, Sky Sports commentator Brian Marwood described his performance as "outstanding". ### England under-18 Howarth's next international call-up came over a year later when being selected for the under-18s for a match against Luxembourg on 27 April 2000, this time being one of two players with clubs below the top two divisions. He debuted after coming on as a 60th-minute substitute for Evans, in a 2–0 victory for England. Howarth was then called up for a friendly with Israel on 1 September, although he did not feature as Evans was chosen to start. In September 2000, he was named in the team that would participate in a 2001 UEFA European Under-18 Championship qualifying mini-tournament hosted in Ancona, Italy. He failed to appear in the first match against Andorra on 7 October 2000, but made his first start in the next match, a 5–0 victory over the Faroe Islands on 9 October. Howarth was excluded from the line-up for the final match against Italy, which England won to progress to the intermediate qualifying round. Howarth was called up for a friendly at home to Belgium on 16 November 2000, which he started as England won 3–2, despite Evans having seemingly established himself as the first-choice goalkeeper for the under-18s. He was included in the squad for another friendly against the Netherlands on 1 March 2001, although Evans was chosen to play ahead of Howarth. He was called into the squads to play Poland in the intermediate qualifying round, although he failed to play a part in either leg of the tie, as Evans started in both the 1–0 home loss on 22 March 2001 and the 0–0 away draw on 26 April. With Evans omitted from the squad to play away against Switzerland in a friendly on 30 May 2001, Howarth started in a 1–0 defeat. The match, in which he was substituted for Boaz Myhill of Aston Villa, proved to be his final appearance for the under-18s. ### England under-20 Howarth was ineligible to play for the under-19 team due to an alteration to the England set-up, and was subsequently called up for the under-20 match against Portugal at home on 21 November 2001. The match was England's first at under-20 level since the 1999 FIFA World Youth Championship. He started the match and was substituted for Myhill at half-time, with the team winning 1–0. Howarth came on for England as a half-time substitute for Evans in a 3–0 home victory over Finland on 13 March 2002, in their penultimate friendly ahead of the 2002 Toulon Tournament. A call-up came for the final friendly away to Portugal on 10 April 2002, and he entered as a half-time substitute, this time for Myhill. After originally being left out the squad, he was given a last-minute call-up to play at the Toulon Tournament in May 2002, after Stephen Bywater was called up for the under-21 team. Howarth did not play in the first group match against Poland on 10 May 2002 as Bywater started, but in the second match against Portugal he was chosen ahead of Evans in a 1–0 victory over Portugal on 12 May. However, he was dropped for the final group match against Brazil on 14 May 2002 to make way for Evans, who also played in England's final match in the tournament against Japan on 17 May. ### England under-21 Shortly after the under-20s' elimination from the Toulon Tournament, Howarth was called up for the under-21 team playing in the 2002 UEFA European Under-21 Championship after Bywater and Evans picked up injuries. He was an unused substitute for England's final two group matches against Italy and Portugal, and after losing both of these matches the team was eliminated. He was recalled by the under-21s for a match against Yugoslavia on 6 September 2002, although Liverpool's Chris Kirkland started. He was included in the squad for the under-21s' next match against Slovakia on 11 October 2002 in qualification Group 7 of the 2004 UEFA European Under-21 Championship and, despite Kirkland being injured, failed to play as Wolves' Matt Murray was selected. For the following qualifier against Macedonia on 15 October 2002, Howarth failed to make the substitutes' bench. Following his move to Tranmere his international call-ups continued, and he was selected for a get-together of the under-21s in November 2002, ahead of their 2004 UEFA European Under-21 Championship qualifiers against Portugal and Turkey in March and April 2003. However, he did not play in either match, with Bywater and Murray starting. He was given a late call-up to the squad for qualifiers against Macedonia and Portugal in September, but did not eventually meet up with the team as an agreement was reached that he would only be on standby. ## Post-football Following his retirement from football, Howarth became a paramedic. He became a coach for City Football Development in August 2009, which was set up to offer coaching to youngsters in York. ## Personal life Howarth has been an Everton supporter since the early 1990s. His girlfriend Victoria worked as a deputy head teacher and while Howarth was a Tranmere player the couple lived on the Wirral. Their daughter, Georgia May, was born in late 2004. After signing for Bradford in 2005, Howarth briefly lived with his parents in Riccall before purchasing a second home in Halifax, West Yorkshire to live in with his partner. ## Career statistics
12,781,319	Monaco GP (video game)	1,172,809,259	1979 video game	[ "1979 video games", "Arcade video games", "Discrete video arcade games", "Gremlin Industries games", "Racing video games", "SG-1000 games", "Sega Games franchises", "Sega arcade games", "Sega video games", "Top-down racing video games", "Video games developed in Japan", "Video games set in Monaco" ]	<table class="infobox ib-video-game hproduct"> Monaco GP Arcade'''Pro Monaco GP Arcade'SG-1000 </td> </tr> </table> `is an arcade racing game released by Sega in November 1979 in Japan, and January 1980 worldwide. An upgraded version, Pro Monaco GP, was released later in 1980. One of the last Sega games to use TTL chips instead of a microprocessor CPU, the game has players race against a clock and pass rival racers while attempting to earn points driving through five areas.` The game was commercially successful in arcades. In Japan, it was among the top three highest-grossing games of 1979 and top five in 1980, while in the United States it was the top-grossing driving game of 1981. It continued to regularly appear on Japanese arcade charts through 1983, and made a record number of appearances on US arcade charts from 1980 through 1987. Monaco GP was ported to the SG-1000 in 1983. The series also had later releases Super Monaco GP and Ayrton Senna's Super Monaco GP II. ## Gameplay Monaco GP is a racing game played from an overhead perspective, where the main objective is to finish a course before time runs out. Points are awarded as the player races through five areas. As the game progresses, rival cars controlled by the game's artificial intelligence get faster, the road narrows, and the road surface changes to ice and gravel. Various hazards in the road include puddles, narrow bridges, and tunnels where the driver's view is limited by the range of the car's headlights on screen. The timer continues counting down until 2000 points are scored; then, the system changes to a limited number of lives. At 6000 points and again at 8000, rival cars increase in speed. According to Sega Arcade History, the concept for this timer system came from Sega Enterprises president Hayao Nakayama. Pro Monaco GP, an upgraded version of the game released later, features a higher difficulty level than the original game. ## Development and release Monaco GP was one of the last arcade games made by Sega to use transistor–transistor logic (TTL) based discrete logic circuits instead of a microprocessor-based central processing unit (CPU). The game is operated by over 100 chips across two circuit boards. Images are stored in small custom read-only memory (ROM) chips, including sprites, cars, and the "game over" message. Sound effects, such as the cars' engines, a siren, and the sound of wheels slipping on the pavement, are generated by operational amplifiers and other analog circuitry. The scoring information appears on various LEDs located on the cabinet, including the player's score and the high score table. Pro Monaco GP also features a battery backup system to save high scores if the cabinet loses power. Multiple styles of arcade cabinet exist for the game, including a deluxe cockpit cabinet which was designed in approximation to sitting behind the wheel of a race car with a padded steering wheel and accelerator pedal. A tabletop housing and a smaller upright cabinet were also created. Initially displayed at the Japan Amusement Association show in Tokyo in 1979, Monaco GP received a positive reception at its debut. Sega chairman David Rosen called the game's warm reception at the show evidence of the world's growing acceptance of coin-operated arcade games. Monaco GP was released in November 1979 in Japan, and in January 1980 worldwide via Sega/Gremlin. Pro Monaco GP, an upgraded version with a higher difficulty level, was released in Japan in March 1980, and worldwide in July of the same year. The original game was later ported to the SG-1000 and SC-3000, Sega's first video game consoles. The SG-1000 port was released in 1983 in Japan, and by March 1984 in Europe. ## Reception Monaco GP became highly successful in arcades. In Japan, it was the third highest-grossing arcade game of 1979, then the fifth highest-grossing arcade game of 1980, and then the 20th highest-grossing arcade video game of 1982. Japanese magazine Game Machine [ja] later listed Monaco GP on their July 15, 1983 issue as being the fifth top-grossing upright/cockpit arcade cabinet of the month in Japan. In North America, Cashbox reported that Monaco GP was the most popular arcade driving game in the US in 1981, and it was among the highest-grossing games of the year. The game appeared on the monthly arcade earnings charts of arcade industry magazine RePlay from April 1980 until April 1987, a record number of appearances to which Namco's Galaga was the next closest to reaching. In 1985, Eddie Adlum of RePlay called Monaco GP the "most evergreen" arcade hit to emerge from 1979. French magazine Tilt gave the SC-3000 version of the game 6 of 6 stars in graphics, and 4 of 6 in gameplay. ## Legacy Sega revived the Monaco GP series with Super Monaco GP in 1989, and Ayrton Senna's Super Monaco GP II in 1992. Super Monaco GP designer Hisao Oguchi had played Monaco GP before working for Sega, and when Oguchi decided to design a game based on Formula One, he started with a different name but chose Super Monaco GP after listening to opinions that the name was a good one. He referenced a parallel between the Monaco Grand Prix being the top event in racing and Sega being the top company in arcades. In 2003, Sega made a remake of Monaco GP for the PlayStation 2, as a part of the Sega Ages 2500 collection. The remake features a number of additions including more cars and game modes. Kurt Kalata of Hardcore Gaming 101 applauded the 2500 remake in particular for its improvements to the gameplay of the original, believing it would have been worthy of a separate release outside Japan. ## See also - Head On''
33,270	When Harry Met Sally...	1,160,270,454	1989 film by Rob Reiner	[ "1980s American films", "1980s English-language films", "1989 films", "1989 romantic comedy films", "American romantic comedy films", "Castle Rock Entertainment films", "Columbia Pictures films", "Films about couples", "Films directed by Rob Reiner", "Films scored by Marc Shaiman", "Films set around New Year", "Films set in 1977", "Films set in 1982", "Films set in 1987", "Films set in 1988", "Films set in 1989", "Films set in Chicago", "Films set in New York City", "Films shot in Chicago", "Films shot in New York City", "Films whose writer won the Best Original Screenplay BAFTA Award", "Films with screenplays by Nora Ephron", "United States National Film Registry films" ]	When Harry Met Sally... is a 1989 American romantic comedy-drama film written by Nora Ephron and directed by Rob Reiner. It stars Billy Crystal as Harry and Meg Ryan as Sally. The story follows the title characters from the time they meet in Chicago just before sharing a cross-country drive, through twelve years of chance encounters in New York City. The film addresses but does not resolve questions along the lines of "Can men and women ever just be friends?" Ideas for the film began when Rob Reiner divorced from Penny Marshall. An interview Ephron conducted with Reiner provided the basis for Harry. Sally was based on Ephron and some of her friends. Crystal came on board and made his own contributions to the screenplay, making Harry funnier. Ephron supplied the structure of the film with much of the dialogue based on the real-life friendship between Reiner and Crystal. The soundtrack consists of standards from Harry Connick Jr., with a big band and orchestra arranged by Marc Shaiman. For his work on the soundtrack, Connick won his first Grammy Award for Best Jazz Male Vocal Performance. Columbia Pictures released When Harry Met Sally... in selected cities, letting word of mouth generate interest, before gradually expanding distribution. The film grossed \$92.8 million in North America, and was released to critical acclaim. Ephron received a British Academy Film Award, an Oscar nomination, and a Writers Guild of America Award nomination for her screenplay. The film is ranked 23rd on AFI's 100 Years... 100 Laughs list of the top comedy films in American cinema and number 60 on Bravo's "100 Funniest Movies". In early 2004, the film was adapted for the stage in a production starring Luke Perry and Alyson Hannigan. In 2022, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". ## Plot In 1977, Harry Burns and Sally Albright graduate from the University of Chicago. Harry is dating Sally's friend Amanda Reese, leading to Harry and Sally ride-sharing to New York City. Sally is attending journalism school there and Harry has a job waiting. During the drive, Harry and Sally discuss their differing ideas about relationships; Sally disagrees with Harry's assertion that men and women cannot be friends as, "the sex part gets in the way". They stop at a diner, and when Harry tells Sally she is very attractive, she angrily accuses him of making a pass. They part company in New York, never intending to see each other again. Five years later in 1982, Harry and Sally find themselves on the same flight. Sally is dating Harry's neighbor Joe, and Harry is engaged to Helen, which surprises Sally, as it seems uncharacteristically optimistic of him. Harry suggests they become friends, forcing him to qualify his previous position about the impossibility of male-female friendships. They separate, concluding that they will not be friends. Five years later in 1987, Harry and Sally run into each other at a bookstore. They have coffee and talk about their previous relationships; Sally and Joe have broken up and Helen has left Harry for another man. They agree to pursue a friendship and have late-night phone conversations, go to dinner, and spend time together discussing their love-lives. During a New Year's Eve party, Harry and Sally find themselves growing attracted to each other and share an awkward midnight kiss. They remain friends and set each other up with their respective best friends, Marie and Jess. When the four go out, neither Marie or Jess are attracted to Harry or Sally and instead immediately fall for each other. Soon after, the two are engaged. One night, Sally tearfully calls Harry to say that her ex, Joe, is getting married. Harry goes to Sally's apartment to comfort her but they end up having sex. Harry leaves the next morning, feeling awkward and filled with regret. Their friendship cools until they have a heated argument at Jess and Marie's wedding reception. Harry attempts to mend their relationship, but Sally feels that they can no longer be friends. At a 1988 New Year's Eve party with Jess and Marie, Sally misses Harry. He is spending New Year's Eve at home, watching Dick Clark's 16th annual New Year's Rockin' Eve. Before midnight, Harry walks around the city. As Sally is about to leave the party, Harry appears and declares his love for her. She claims he is only there because he is lonely, but he lists the many reasons he loves her. Harry and Sally marry three months later, exactly 12 years and three months after their first meeting. The film contains several interspersed segments of older couples discussing how they met. The true stories, gathered by Nora Ephron, are reenacted by actors. The final couple interviewed, before the closing credits, is Harry and Sally. ## Cast - Billy Crystal as Harry Burns - Meg Ryan as Sally Albright - Carrie Fisher as Marie - Bruno Kirby as Jess - Steven Ford as Joe - Lisa Jane Persky as Alice - Michelle Nicastro as Amanda Reese - Kevin Rooney as Ira Stone - Harley Kozak as Helen Hillson - Estelle Reiner as Female Customer ## Production In 1984, director Rob Reiner, producer Andy Scheinman and writer Nora Ephron met over lunch at the Russian Tea Room in New York City to develop a project. Reiner pitched an idea for a film that Ephron rejected. The second meeting transformed into a long discussion about Reiner and Scheinman's lives as single men. Reiner remembers, "I was in the middle of my single life. I'd been divorced for a while. I'd been out a number of times, all these disastrous, confusing relationships one after another." The next time they all met, Reiner said that he had always wanted to do a film about two people who become friends and do not have sex because they know it will ruin their relationship but have sex anyway. Ephron liked the idea, and Reiner acquired a deal at a studio. For materials, Ephron interviewed Reiner and Scheinman about their lives, creating the basis for Harry. Reiner was constantly depressed and pessimistic yet funny. Ephron also got bits of dialogue from these interviews. Sally was based on Ephron and some of her friends. She worked on several drafts over the years while Reiner made Stand By Me and The Princess Bride. Billy Crystal "experienced vicariously" Reiner's (his best friend at the time) return to single life after divorcing comedian/filmmaker Penny Marshall and in the process was unconsciously doing research for the role of Harry. Tom Hanks, Richard Dreyfuss, Michael Keaton and Albert Brooks were all offered the role of Harry Burns but all of them turned it down, with Brooks feeling the movie was too reminiscent of Woody Allen's work. During the screenwriting process when Ephron did not feel like writing, she would interview people who worked for the production company. Some of the interviews appeared in the film as the interludes between certain scenes featuring couples talking about how they met, although the material was rewritten and reshot with actors. Ephron supplied the structure of the film with much of the dialogue based on the real-life friendship between Reiner and Crystal. For example, in the scene where Sally and Harry appear on a split-screen, talking on the telephone while watching their respective television sets, channel surfing, was something that Crystal and Reiner did every night. Originally, Ephron wanted to call the film How They Met and went through several different titles. Reiner even started a contest with the crew during principal photography: whoever came up with the title won a case of champagne. In order to get into the lonely mindset of Harry when he was divorced and single, Crystal stayed by himself in a separate room from the cast and crew while they were shooting in Manhattan. The script initially ended with Harry and Sally remaining friends and not pursuing a romantic relationship because she felt that was "the true ending", as did Reiner. Eventually, Ephron and Reiner realized that it would be a more appropriate ending for them to marry, though they admit that this was generally not a realistic outcome. When posed the film's central question, can men and women just be friends, Ryan replied, "Yes, men and women can just be friends. I have a lot of platonic (male) friends, and sex doesn't get in the way." Crystal said, "I'm a little more optimistic than Harry. But I think it is difficult. Men basically act like stray dogs in front of a supermarket. I do have platonic (women) friends, but not best, best, best friends." Reiner's mother Estelle and daughter Tracy both played roles in the film. ### Katz's Delicatessen scene In a scene featuring the two title characters having lunch at Katz's Delicatessen in Manhattan, the couple are arguing about a man's ability to recognize when a woman is faking an orgasm. Sally claims that men cannot tell the difference, and to prove her point, she vividly (fully clothed) fakes one as other diners watch. The scene ends with Sally casually returning to her meal as a nearby patron (played by Reiner's mother) places her order, deadpan: "I'll have what she's having." When Estelle Reiner died at age 94 in 2008, The New York Times referred to her as the woman "who delivered one of the most memorably funny lines in movie history". This scene was shot again and again, and Ryan demonstrated her fake orgasms for hours. Katz's Deli still hangs a sign above the table that says, "Where Harry met Sally... hope you have what she had!" The memorable scene was born when the film started to focus too much on Harry. Crystal remembers saying, "'We need something for Sally to talk about,' and Nora said, 'Well, faking orgasm is a great one,' and right away we said, 'Well, the subject is good,' and then Meg came on board and we talked with her about the nature of the idea and she said, 'Well, why don't I just fake one, just do one?'" Ryan suggested that the scene take place in a restaurant, and it was Crystal who came up with the scene's classic punchline – "I'll have what she's having." In 2005, the quote was listed 33rd on the AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movie Quotes list of memorable movie lines. Reiner recalls that at a test screening, all of the women in the audience were laughing while all of the men were silent. In late 2013, Improv Everywhere, the New York City initiative behind the annual No Pants Day in the subways and various flash-mob stunts, convened and filmed a re-enactment in Katz's Delicatessen. While a look-alike couple performed the scene, 30 others joined as if it was contagious. Surprised staff and customers responded in appreciation. The film and follow-up interviews are public. In October of the same year, Katz's invited Baron Von Fancy to display his ten-foot-high mural quoting the famous line in its pop-up gallery next door, The Space. ## Soundtrack The When Harry Met Sally... soundtrack album features American singer and pianist Harry Connick Jr. Bobby Colomby, the drummer for Blood, Sweat & Tears, was a friend of Reiner's and recommended Harry Connick Jr., giving the director a tape of the musician's music. Reiner was struck by Connick's voice and how he sounded like a young Frank Sinatra. The movie's soundtrack album was released by Columbia Records in July 1989. The soundtrack consists of standards performed by Harry Connick Jr. with a big band and orchestra arranged by Marc Shaiman. Connick won his first Grammy for Best Jazz Male Vocal Performance. Arrangements and orchestrations on "It Had to Be You", "Where or When", "I Could Write a Book", and "But Not for Me" are by Connick and Shaiman. Other songs were performed as piano/vocal solos, or with Connick's trio featuring Benjamin Jonah Wolfe on bass and Jeff "Tain" Watts on drums. Also appearing on the album are tenor saxophonist Frank Wess and guitarist Jay Berliner. The soundtrack went to \#1 on the Billboard Traditional Jazz Chart and was within the top 50 on the Billboard 200. Connick also toured North America in support of this album. It went on to reach double-platinum status. The soundtrack features performances by Louis Armstrong and Ella Fitzgerald, Frank Sinatra, Ray Charles, Bing Crosby, and Harry Connick Jr. ## Reception ### Box office Columbia Pictures released When Harry Met Sally... using the "platform" technique which involved opening it in a few select cities letting positive word of mouth generate interest and then gradually expanding distribution over subsequent weeks. On its opening weekend, it grossed \$1,094,453 in 41 theaters, the second highest-grossing opening weekend for a film on fewer than 50 screens, behind Star Wars (1977). Billy Crystal was worried that the film would flop at the box office because it was up against several summer blockbuster films, like Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade and Batman. The film opened in early July and went into wide release on July 21, 1989, grossing \$8.8 million in 775 theaters in its first weekend of national release. The film later expanded to 1,174 theaters, and ultimately grossed \$92.8 million in North America, well above its \$16 million budget. ### Critical response On the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, When Harry Met Sally... holds an approval rating of 91% based on 79 reviews, with an average rating of 8/10. The website's critics consensus reads, "Rob Reiner's touching, funny film set a new standard for romantic comedies, and he was ably abetted by the sharp interplay between Billy Crystal and Meg Ryan." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 76 out of 100, based on 17 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film a rare "A+" grade. The film led Roger Ebert to call Reiner "one of Hollywood's very best directors of comedy", and said the film was "most conventional, in terms of structure and the way it fulfills our expectations. But what makes it special, apart from the Ephron screenplay, is the chemistry between Crystal and Ryan." In a review for The New York Times, Caryn James called When Harry Met Sally... an "often funny but amazingly hollow film" that "romanticized lives of intelligent, successful, neurotic New Yorkers"; James characterized it as "the sitcom version of a Woody Allen film, full of amusing lines and scenes, all infused with an uncomfortable sense of déjà vu". Rita Kempley of The Washington Post praised Meg Ryan as the "summer's Melanie Griffith – a honey-haired blonde who finally finds a showcase for her sheer exuberance. Neither naif nor vamp, she's a woman from a pen of a woman, not some Cinderella of a Working Girl." Mike Clark of USA Today gave the film three out of four stars, writing, "Crystal is funny enough to keep Ryan from all-out stealing the film. She, though, is smashing in an eye-opening performance, another tribute to Reiner's flair with actors." David Ansen provided one of the rare negative reviews of the film for Newsweek. He criticized the casting of Crystal, "Not surprisingly he handles the comedy superbly, but he's too cool and self-protective an actor to work as a romantic leading man", and felt that as a film, "of wonderful parts, it doesn't quite add up". ### Accolades The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists: - 2000: AFI's 100 Years...100 Laughs – \#23 - 2002: AFI's 100 Years...100 Passions – \#25 - 2004: AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs: - "It Had to Be You" – \#60 - 2005: AFI's 100 Years...100 Movie Quotes: - Customer: "I'll have what she's having." – \#33 - 2008: AFI's 10 Top 10: - \#6 Romantic Comedy Film ## Home media When Harry Met Sally... was first released on VHS in late 1989, a few months after its theatrical release. It was later re-released on VHS in 1994 as part of a Billy Crystal collection, and in 1997 under the Contemporary Classics edition; the latter release included trailers that were not included in the original VHS release. It was released on DVD for the first time on January 9, 2001, and included an audio commentary by Reiner, a 35-minute "Making Of" documentary featuring interviews with Reiner, Ephron, Crystal, and Ryan, seven deleted scenes, and a music video for "It Had To Be You" by Harry Connick Jr. A Collector's Edition DVD was released on January 15, 2008, including a new audio commentary with Reiner, Ephron, and Crystal, eight deleted scenes, all new featurettes (It All Started Like This, Stories Of Love, When Rob Met Billy, Billy On Harry, I Love New York, What Harry Meeting Sally Meant, So Can Men And Women Really Be Friends?), and the original theatrical trailer. The film was released on Blu-ray on July 5, 2011, containing all of the special features found on the 2008 DVD release. ## Legacy Over the years, When Harry Met Sally... has become "the quintessential contemporary feel-good relationship movie that somehow still rings true". Before she died, Ephron still received letters from people obsessed with the film and still had "people who say to me all the time, 'I was having a Harry-and-Sally relationship with him or her'." The film is 23rd on AFI's 100 Years... 100 Laughs list of the top comedy films in American cinema and number 60 on Bravo's "100 Funniest Movies." Entertainment Weekly named it as one of the Top 10 romantic movies of all time. The magazine also ranked it 12th on their Funniest Movies of the Past 25 Years list. The periodical also ranked it 7th on their 25 Best Romantic Movies of the Past 25 Years list and \#3 on their Top 25 Modern Romances list. The film has inspired countless romantic comedies, including A Lot Like Love, Hum Tum, and Definitely, Maybe. In addition, the film helped popularize many ideas about love that have become household concepts now, such as the "high-maintenance" girlfriend and the "transitional person". "You can find traces of 'When Harry Met Sally' DNA in virtually every romantic comedy that's been made since," The A.V. Club noted. In June 2008, AFI revealed its "Ten top Ten"—the best ten films in ten "classic" American film genres—after polling over 1,500 people from the creative community. When Harry Met Sally was acknowledged as the sixth best film in the romantic comedy genre. It is also ranked \#15 on Rotten Tomatoes' 25 Best Romantic Comedies. In early 2004, the film was adapted for the stage in a Theatre Royal Haymarket production starring Luke Perry and Alyson Hannigan. Molly Ringwald and Michael Landes later replaced Hannigan and Perry for the second cast. In 2022, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".
28,362,563	The George Hotel, Crawley	1,169,793,982	Hotel and former coaching inn in England	[ "15th-century architecture in the United Kingdom", "Buildings and structures completed in the 15th century", "Buildings and structures in Crawley", "Coaching inns", "Grade II* listed buildings in West Sussex", "Grade II* listed pubs in West Sussex", "Hotels in West Sussex", "Organisations based in Crawley", "Ramada", "Reportedly haunted locations in South East England", "Tudor architecture" ]	The George Hotel, also known as the George Inn and now marketed as the Ramada Crawley Gatwick, is a hotel and former coaching inn on the High Street in Crawley, a town and borough in West Sussex, England. The George was one of the country's most famous and successful coaching inns, and the most important in Sussex, because of its location halfway between the capital city, London, and the fashionable seaside resort of Brighton. Cited as "Crawley's most celebrated building", it has Grade II\* listed status. It is known that a building called the George has existed on the site since the 16th century or earlier, and many sources date the core of the existing inn to 1615. The George Hotel has three principal sections, facing east and running from south to north parallel with Crawley High Street. Nothing of the exterior is original, except perhaps for parts of the tiled roof. The hotel contains 84 rooms and 6 meeting rooms with a capacity of up to 150, regularly used for conferences, weddings, exhibitions, seminars and training sessions. The present structure is made up of disparate parts of various dates: the inn expanded to take in adjacent buildings as its success grew in the 18th and 19th centuries. Major changes took place in the 1930s, and the annex was knocked down in 1933. The inn has been associated with royalty, bareknuckle prizefighting, smuggling among other things, and has been the subject of novels and paintings. It was central to the plot of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's mystery novel Rodney Stone, written in 1896. John George Haigh, a notorious serial killer in the 1940s known for his "acid bath" murders, stayed at the hotel on numerous occasions, and dined there on the day he killed one of his victims. The hotel is also reputedly haunted by the ghost of a nightwatchman, Mark Hurston (or Hewton) and other curious figures. ## History ### Medieval history At the time of the Domesday survey in 1086 there was no manor or village of Crawley, but the thickly forested area was gradually being cleared and settled. The land on which the village of Crawley developed—a sloping site with higher land to the south, at the point where the Low Weald rises to become the High Weald—was probably owned by William de Warenne, 1st Earl of Surrey as part of one of the manors to the south. During the Norman era in the late 11th and 12th centuries, a nucleated village began to appear, prompted by the development of a north–south "High Street" forming part of a longer route from the capital city, London, to the port of Shoreham on the English Channel coast. This replaced an earlier northeast–southwest route linking local farms to the older settlement of West Green, about 0.5 miles (0.8 km) west of Crawley, because a north–south route could take advantage of an area of drier, harder land formed by an outcrop of sandstone from the Hastings Beds that jutted into the sticky, waterlogged Weald Clay, which predominated around West Green and Crawley. The main road quickly became established, and Crawley was a natural stopping place almost exactly halfway between the coast and London. Its development into an urban area was assured when King John granted a charter for a market in 1202. St John the Baptist's Church was founded a few decades later, a manor house was built in the late 14th or early 15th century, and the local iron industry brought further prosperity. Buildings appeared on both sides of the High Street, which widened significantly as it passed the manor house and church, and the market's position on a long-distance through road enabled it to thrive. ### 16th–17th century The first mention of The George appears in 1579, when landowner Richard Covert died and passed on an area of land (a tenement) to his son. This necessitated a payment to the Lord of the manor. The tenement bore the name of The George, and was situated in a valuable position: in the centre of Crawley, on the west side of the High Street (and just inside the parish of Ifield, a nearby village; the boundary between Ifield and Crawley parishes ran along the middle of the High Street). The building on the land was almost certainly an inn at that time, and many sources assert that its oldest parts date from about 1450. Its centre section, an open hall-house of a type common in the area, may be even older, possibly late 14th century. An early remodelling came in 1615, when a timber-framed extension was built on the south side, a new jettied cross-wing was added at the front and a stone fireplace was installed. This bears the date 1615 (although this may have been carved later), and has carvings and arches. An inventory dated 1689, carried out when the owner died, revealed that the George Hotel had 15 bedrooms, two parlours, a kitchen, a bakery, a small brewery, stables, a barn, a back yard and a cellar. Meanwhile, a gallows was erected outside the hotel, partly spanning the High Street; one end was attached to the top floor of the building. Until the 18th century, the narrow, waterlogged road northwards from Crawley towards Reigate and London could only be used by horses, and even then only with difficulty; it was impassable for carriages, carts and other wheeled vehicles. Trade was being affected, demand for travel between Crawley and London was growing (by the late 17th century it was one of several towns in Sussex to be served by scheduled packhorse-drawn goods wagons to and from the capital), and the nearby market towns of Horsham and East Grinstead threatened to overtake Crawley in importance. (Like Crawley, they each had two licensed taverns in 1636, when an inventory of Sussex's 61 licensed premises was drawn up.) In 1696, one of England's first turnpike Acts was passed, which allowed tolls to be collected to pay for repairs and improvement. A tollgate was built at the north end of Crawley, which gave its name to the present neighbourhood of Northgate. ### 18th–19th century The growth of Brighton as a fashionable seaside resort from the mid-18th century was also invaluable to Crawley's prosperity: it lay directly south of Crawley, and replaced Shoreham as the main focus of north–south traffic. In 1770, the section between Lowfield Heath (north of Crawley) and Brighton was turnpiked, and for the first time the full length of the London–Brighton road was properly constructed and maintained. The journey by horse and carriage now took about eight hours, and Crawley was perfectly placed to become a daytime or overnight stopping point. Within a few years, about 60 coaches were making the journey every day, and The George—as the town's largest and best-equipped hotel—became "the recognised halfway house between London and Brighton". Artist Thomas Rowlandson's aquatint of 1789, An Excursion to Brighthelmstone in 1789 (the title uses Brighton's original name), shows The George Hotel prominently. It is the earliest artistic depiction of Crawley, and shows a riotous horse auction underneath the original gallows. The horses were reputedly seized from smugglers apprehended in the area, which was notorious for that activity at the time. Bareknuckle prizefighting was also a major local attraction from which The George benefited: nearby Crawley Down and Copthorne were "the most renowned battlefields in the south of England", and The George itself became "the hub of the pugilistic universe". Tens of thousands of people of all classes—including members of the Royal Family (such as the Prince Regent), statesmen and famous playwrights—would visit Crawley Down or Copthorne Common to watch and bet on extremely violent contests which could last for hours; the George was invariably used as the base from which to visit these illegal bouts. Other famous visitors of this era included Lord Nelson—whose sister lived in the nearby village of Handcross— Queen Victoria, who on one occasion was stranded overnight when her carriage broke down, and the Prince Regent, whose patronage of Brighton and regular travelling of the London–Brighton road indirectly brought about the upturn in fortunes experienced by Crawley in general, and the George Hotel in particular, during the 18th century. In this era, it was one of Britain's best-known and most important coaching inns, and it held "the premier position" among Sussex's many such establishments. Also by this time, the former gallows had been converted into an inn sign that soon became a landmark, and some structural and exterior alterations were made—the first of many over the subsequent years. The earliest known photograph of the George, dated 1867, shows a dilapidated building of several uncoordinated parts: it had expanded over the years to take in buildings on each side of the original medieval inn, and it was considered a purely functional building with no obvious architectural merit. By this time, the coaching era was in terminal decline because of the increasing popularity of rail travel; a line was opened between London and Brighton in 1841, with a station at Three Bridges just east of Crawley, and the town centre received its own branch line and station in 1848. Despite this, Crawley High Street remained busy as the town continued to grow, and The George underwent more renovation and was extended further. In particular, an old (possibly 18th-century) free-standing building which stood in the middle of the wide High Street, and which was once used as a candle factory, was acquired by the George's owners and became an annex. It was this building, rather than the main part of the hotel, which accommodated Queen Victoria when she was forced to stay overnight. Cycling for leisure purposes became a fad in the late 19th century, and the London–Brighton road was a popular route; the George became a regular stopping point for groups of cyclists. ### 20th century to present Major changes took place in the 1930s. The annex was knocked down in 1933, and the site in the middle of the High Street was converted into a bus stop and a car park for the hotel (itself removed since the street's pedestrianisation in the early 21st century). The gallows sign was replaced with a replica, and two smaller facsimiles were added in the car park, which was also flanked by four medieval-style lanterns. Meanwhile, wide-ranging renovations to the hotel itself made the building look even older than it did before; all structural changes took its medieval character into account and were made in a complementary style, making all the disparate parts of the hotel "look an integrated whole". Soon after World War II, Crawley was designated as England's second New Town by the Labour government of Clement Attlee, who passed the New Towns Act 1946. Housing, industry and offices developed rapidly around the core of the old town; despite early fears that historic buildings (including The George Hotel) would have to be destroyed, most of the historic High Street was preserved. The growth of nearby Gatwick Airport from a little-used airstrip into an international airport provided further impetus, and by the start of the 21st century Crawley had become a regional centre with 100,000 people—compared to a population of about 7,000 before World War II. Demand for hotel space grew continuously, and The George was extended to the rear and began marketing itself as the Gatwick George Hotel. As of 2014 it is branded Ramada Crawley Gatwick. The George Hotel was listed at Grade II\* by English Heritage on 21 June 1948. Such buildings are defined as "particularly important" and "of more than special interest". As of August 2013, it was one of 12 Grade II\* structures, and 100 listed buildings and structures of all grades, in the Borough of Crawley. Since the New Town was established, Crawley has been split into 13 neighbourhoods, and all listed buildings in the borough are described on the council's schedule of listed buildings as being in one of these neighbourhoods; the George Hotel is classed as being in West Green, and is one of six listed buildings in that neighbourhood. ## Architecture The George Hotel has three principal sections, facing east and running from south to north parallel with Crawley High Street. Despite uncertainty over its early history, the building is generally agreed to have 15th-century origins, which are most evident in the northernmost bay. This section has a much lower roofline than the rest of the hotel, although the whole building is two-storey. The northern section is believed to have been a two-bay open hall-house with a parlour wing; their thick wooden roof beams (in the form of crown posts), blackened by smoke, and timber-framed walls survive. The centre section was the south wing of the original building; it would have been the service area to the hall-house, with kitchen facilities and similar, and formed a cross-wing with large joists and a cellar. The rear wall has braces which suggest the former existence of a rear entrance leading to the stables behind. A stone fireplace inside may be as old as the date carved on it—1615—but the inscription is believed to be more recent. None of the exterior is original, although parts of the tiled roof may be. It is laid with slabs of Horsham stone—a local material commonly used on old roofs in the Crawley area. The façade is mostly tile-hung to the first floor with timber framing below. The entrance is gabled and has a canted bay window of 18th-century origin. The southern part of the façade is stuccoed and topped by a parapet. It is probably an 18th-century refacing of an older building (or buildings) incorporated into the hotel as it grew. The hotel, now known as Ramada Crawley Gatwick, has 84 rooms, including singles, doubles, twin rooms, family rooms and four-bed rooms. Its six meeting rooms, with a capacity of up to 150, are regularly used for conferences, weddings, exhibitions, seminars and training sessions. There is also a Thai restaurant, a Chinese buffet and a Roman Empire-themed cocktail bar. ## Notable associations Mark Lemon, the first editor of the satirical magazine Punch, lived on the High Street in Crawley from 1858 until his death in 1870. He became an important figure in Crawley society, and was generous with his time and money: for example, in 1863, he organised and paid for festivities at The George Hotel and the nearby White Hart Inn to celebrate the wedding of Edward, Prince of Wales and Princess Alexandra of Denmark. A blue plaque outside the George commemorates his time in the town. The hotel was central to the plot of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's mystery novel Rodney Stone, written in 1896. Sussex's bareknuckle prizefighting tradition was a central theme, and the novel described at length the build-up to a fight involving the eponymous narrator's friend Boy Jim, including the moment they arrived at "the high front door of the old George Inn, glowing from every door and pane and crevice, in honour of the noble company who were to sleep within that night". Jem Belcher, one of several real bareknuckle fighters who featured in fictionalised form in the novel, trained Boy Jim at the hotel. John George Haigh, a notorious serial killer in the 1940s known for his "acid bath" murders, stayed at the hotel on numerous occasions, and dined there on the day he killed one of his victims. ## Haunting The hotel is reputedly haunted by the ghost of a nightwatchman, Mark Hurston (or Hewton), who died by drinking poisoned wine—either planted to trap a recurring intruder to the inn, or adulterated by a guest angered at being woken by him. It has been reported that a locked broom cupboard has been found open, strange figures have been seen, and electric lights have turned on and off. ## See also - Listed buildings in Crawley
682,431	Zero Hour (Star Trek: Enterprise)	1,165,110,225	null	[ "2004 American television episodes", "Star Trek time travel episodes", "Star Trek: Enterprise (season 3) episodes", "Television episodes written by Brannon Braga", "Television episodes written by Rick Berman" ]	"Zero Hour" is the twenty-fourth and final episode of the third season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek: Enterprise; the seventy-seventh episode overall. It first aired on May 26, 2004, on the UPN network within the United States. Set in the 22nd century, the series follows the adventures of the first Starfleet starship, Enterprise, registration NX-01. Season three of Enterprise features an ongoing story following an attack on Earth by previously unknown aliens called the Xindi. In this episode, Sub-Commander T'Pol leads the Enterprise on an attack on 'Sphere 41' in an attempt to destroy the sphere network within the Delphic Expanse. Meanwhile, a team led by Captain Jonathan Archer has infiltrated the Xindi weapon while it is en route to Earth. Both the spheres and the weapon are destroyed, but Archer is lost, presumed dead. Enterprise returns to Earth but the crew suddenly find that they have been sent back in time to a very different Second World War. The episode was written by series co-creators Rick Berman and Brannon Braga and was directed by Allan Kroeker. The episode took eight days to film and included a larger guest cast than normal for episodes of Enterprise, as well as two competition winners. The twist at the end of "Zero Hour" was originally conceived by the writers as a joke, but was developed over the course of the third season to become the concept of "alien Nazis". This twist was further explained and resolved in the season four two-part opener "Storm Front". Roughly 3.91 million viewers watched "Zero Hour" on first broadcast. ## Plot Sub-Commander T'Pol orders Enterprise to 'Sphere 41', a critical Sphere in an attempt to destroy the entire sphere network. They arrive to find that the Sphere Builders have created a distortion field around it. Doctor Phlox determines that 12–15 minutes exposure will kill the crew. Undeterred, T'Pol and Commander Tucker deduce a modification to the deflector dish that can be used to destroy the sphere. As they approach, two Guardians arrive and begin damaging the ship's systems, but they cannot prevent the sphere's destruction. It implodes, setting off a chain reaction that destroys the rest of the spheres, ending all spatial anomalies in the Delphic Expanse. Meanwhile, Captain Archer, accompanied by Lieutenant Reed, Ensign Sato, and a team of MACOs, enters the vortex created by the Xindi weapon. During the pursuit, a recovering Sato is pushed by Archer to decipher Degra's schematics. Archer is suddenly pulled into the future by Temporal Agent Daniels, this time to the founding of the United Federation of Planets, but Archer is again uninterested. Arriving near Earth, Archer receives an unexpected transmission from Commander Shran, who engages and then destroys the Reptilian ship. In the chaos, Archer and his team are able to beam aboard the weapon. A fierce fire-fight ensues, and as Archer and Sato try to disable the weapon, Commander Dolim attempts to stop them. Archer kills him and the weapon is destroyed. Sato and Reed return to Enterprise and report to T'pol that Archer did not make it off the weapon. Ferried on an Aquatic ship, Enterprise arrives back at Earth, but they are unable to contact Starfleet. T'Pol orders Tucker and Ensign Mayweather to fly a shuttlepod down to San Francisco, where they are attacked by what seem to be P-51s. In a World War II German field-hospital, a doctor summons some SS officers to examine the unfamiliar uniform of a burn patient. The patient is revealed as Archer and one of the SS personnel steps out of the shadows, showing himself to be a gray-skinned alien. ## Production ### Writing and story "Zero Hour" was the culmination of a season-long storyline first introduced by the events of "The Expanse", wherein an alien race called the Xindi attacks Earth and kills seven million people. During the course of the third season, the Enterprise went into the previously unexplored Delphic Expanse to search for the Xindi and to prevent a further attack which will destroy Earth. Executive producer and writer Brannon Braga felt that the end of the season in a three-part arc composed of "The Council", "Countdown" and "Zero Hour", which he compared to three acts of the same story. The episode was written by Braga alongside Rick Berman. The duo were the co-creators of Star Trek: Enterprise. The idea that Enterprise would be successful in its mission was planned from the start of the development of the year-long storyline. However, the producers and writing team would joke that there would be a "bizarre twist" such as the crew returning to Earth and discovering that it was now ruled by giant cockroaches. The writers decided against a Xindi-based cliffhanger and sought an unusual twist. Braga said that "I can't remember who said 'Nazis,' but we just somehow ended up with Nazis. Then that didn't even feel like enough, so we decided to make them alien Nazis." He expected it would make the returning episode in season four "really interesting", and wanted to end the series on something "wacky". Most of the cast were not given the final few pages of the script until they were already in production. Actor Dominic Keating, who portrays Malcolm Reed on Enterprise, called the ending a "lovely twist... that just makes you scratch your head and wonder at what you've just seen." The twist was wrapped up at the start of season four with the two-part episode "Storm Front". It was the third time that Nazis had appeared in the Star Trek franchise. The first was in the episode "Patterns of Force" in Star Trek: The Original Series, and then again on the holodeck on Star Trek: Voyager in the two-part "The Killing Game". In the episode, T'Pol states that "Zero Hour" takes place in 2152, a statement which contradicts other episodes. Manny Coto, executive producer and show runner for the following season, explained that this was a mistake in the script. It was later stated in the timeline published in Voyages of Imagination by Jeff Ayers that the events of "Zero Hour" took place on February 14, 2154, a day after the setting of the episode "Countdown". ### Direction, filming and guest stars Allan Kroeker directed the episode. He had previously directed the season two closing episode "The Expanse", and the first episode of season three, "The Xindi". Previously in the franchise, he had directed the finale of both Star Trek: Deep Space Nine and Star Trek: Voyager. Production began on March 5 and was completed eight working days later. Because there was no ability to shoot scenes using a second unit during the production of a following episode, ten pages of script were shot on the final day of filming instead of the normal seven or eight. "Zero Hour" was the final episode of Enterprise to be shot on film stock, as for the following season, the decision was made to switch to high-definition digital video. Scott Bakula stated in an interview on The Wayne Brady Show that there were three endings to the episode filmed. This was later denied by Dominic Keating while on stage at Creation Entertainment's Grand Slam event in Pasadena in March 2004. He did clarify that the script for the final scene was delivered to his house in three envelopes, accompanied by a security guard with a dog. Bakula explained later during an online chat for the official Star Trek website that only one ending was ever filmed. "Zero Hour" featured a guest and stunt cast larger than usual for episodes of Enterprise. For the final day of filming, there were 35 extras on set. The additional actors appearing in "Zero Hour" included J. Paul Boehmer, who portrayed an SS agent at the end of the episode. Boehmer had appeared several times previous in the Star Trek franchise, and his first part ever as an actor was as a holographic Nazi Captain in the Voyager episode "The Killing Game". He had also previously appeared in Enterprise as the Vulcan Mestral in the episode "Carbon Creek". Boehmer returned to reprise his role from "Zero Hour" during the two-part "Storm Front" in season four. Boehmer noted that the episode was filmed with a higher than normal level of secrecy, as it was the first time he did not receive a complete script and was only given his specific pages, which included warnings not to disclose anything about the episode. In addition to the actors appearing on the episode, two members of the public made walk on appearances as Starfleet crewmen on the engineering set. These were Amy Ulen, who had won the prize on KZOK-FM. She was a high school English and drama teacher. Joining her was DJ Bob Rivers from the Seattle-based UPN affiliate radio station. Also appearing was Brian D'Arcy who gained his role through a charity auction held by Wired magazine to benefit the Starbright Foundation. Ulen would later have a cameo in the fan production Star Trek: Of Gods and Men. ## Reception ### Broadcast "Zero Hour" was first broadcast on May 26, 2004, on the UPN network within the United States. It was watched by 3.91 million viewers. It received a Nielsen rating of 2.5/4 percent, which meant that it was seen by 2.5 percent of all households, and 4 percent of all households watching television at the time of the broadcast. "Zero Hour" placed UPN in fifth place in the ratings during the timeslot. The episode was first broadcast in the UK later that year on June 7, on Sky One. Prior to the broadcast of the finale of season three, there were rumours that the series was going to be cancelled. UPN decided to renew the series, but moved it for season four to Friday nights, and so "Zero Hour" was the final episode of Enterprise to be broadcast on a Wednesday evening. ### Critical response Michelle Erica Green, in her review for TrekNation, found the ending of the episode amusing, describing it as an "insane left hook of a cliffhanger". She praised the character development elsewhere in the episode, but kept returning to what she described as "EVIL ALIEN NAZIS". Jamahl Epsicokhan, at his website Jammer's Reviews, gave the episode two and a half out of four stars. He said that the episode featured several science fiction clichés, such as having the Xindi weapon destroyed in Earth's orbit. He said that the final scene of the episode was the "Ultimate WTF ending" and compared it to the "jarring" finale of Tim Burton's version of the film Planet of the Apes. James Gray writing for The Digital Fix was positive about the episode, concluding that it was a "satisfyingly action-packed climax to the season". IGN gave the episode 1.5 out of 5, and said "while parts of the episode had flashes of what the series should be, it was still as big a mess as the rest of Season 3." They criticized the ending of a season long plot arc with a cliffhanger. WhatCulture ranked this episode the 12th worst episode of the Star Trek franchise. In 2021, The Digital Fix said that this episode, and preceding "Countdown", were "an exciting end to an ambitious season." ## Awards Michael Westmore, make-up supervisor on Enterprise, was nominated for Outstanding Makeup for a Series, Miniseries, Movie or a Special (Prosthetic) at the 2004 Emmy Awards for his work on "Zero Hour". The award instead went to James McKinnon for his work on an episode of Nip/Tuck. ## Home media release The first home media release of "Zero Hour" was as part of the season three DVD box set, released in the United States on September 27, 2005. The Blu-ray release of Enterprise was announced in early 2013, and season three was released on January 7, 2014. The Blu-Ray has a surround sound 5.1 DTS-HD Master Audio track for English, as well as German, French, and Japanese audio tracks. Jay Chattaway's music for the episode was released as part of the four disc Star Trek: Enterprise Collection on December 2, 2014, including the orchestral pieces "Sphere Builder On Board / Andorian Offensive / Sphere / Final Showdown" and "My Captain".
22,695,746	Ashley Graham (Resident Evil)	1,168,968,181	Fictional character in Resident Evil franchise	[ "Capcom protagonists", "Female characters in video games", "Fictional children of presidents of the United States", "Resident Evil characters", "Video game characters introduced in 2005", "Video game sidekicks" ]	is a character in Resident Evil (Biohazard in Japan), a survival horror video game series created by the Japanese company Capcom. She was introduced in the 2005 video game Resident Evil 4, in which she is presented as the daughter of the sitting President of the United States. She is briefly held captive by the Spanish cult Los Iluminados as a means of gaining influence over the United States President before being rescued by the game's protagonist, Leon S. Kennedy. Ashley was originally designed by game designer Yasuhisa Kawamura as an important player character in the original version of Resident Evil 4. Her role was changed into that of companion character who is defenseless following a major structural change in the development team which led to the cancellation of the original version of Resident Evil 4. Her characterization has received a largely negative reception from video game publications, with many questioning her relevance as a stereotypical damsel in distress or usefulness as a sidekick character. In the 2023 remake, she was greatly praised after being redesigned to have a more pleasant experience escorting her. ## Concept and design Ashley was originally created as an unnamed character simply referred to as "Girl" by the game designer, Yasuhisa Kawamura. "Girl" was intended to be the second playable character of the initial version of Resident Evil 4. Scenarios featuring the character were written for the "Castle", "Hallucination", and "Zombie" builds. In the "Castle" scenario, she was supposed to be a test subject held against her will within an underground lab beneath a castle. With the help of a B.O.W. dog taught to follow her orders, she manages to escape. Following the 2002 edition of the Tokyo Game Show expo, the "Castle" game script by Kawamura and Noboru Sugimura was discarded, though Kawamura went on a new script based on the same story. Development was restarted with a version of the "Castle" build script supplied by Sugimura when Shinji Mikami took over as director of the project in late 2003; the original version of Resident Evil 4 which was undergoing development was abandoned. "Girl" was reworked as the daughter of the American President, who player character Leon S. Kennedy must search for and rescue. She is written as a "very weak, fragile" companion that the player must lead and help through obstacles and protect from enemies. Ashley is predominantly controlled by artificial intelligence, but can be directed to wait or hide, and there are certain narrative segments of the game that are played from her perspective. In the remake of Resident Evil 4, the team aimed to expand Ashley's characterization and relationship with Leon. In contrast to the original, Ashley cannot be left alone and will always follow Leon, though she can be told to stay close or maintain distance. Yasuhiro Ampo, co-director of the remake, explained the change: "As a character, we wanted to have her by your side so she left an impression, and as a game, having her hide while you went and fought in the original was fun in some ways. But having a character like Ashley and then having her basically disappear for a while felt like a waste. We wanted to avoid that in the remake." Ashley's health bar was also removed; however, she will get downed after taking too many blows, and Leon must revive her to continue. She can also be picked up and carried away by enemies, and if carried too far away from Leon without being saved, the game ends. Her outfit and overall design were altered to look and act more like a true partner than a damsel in distress. Carolyn Lawrence, who provided the voice for Ashley Graham in Resident Evil 4, described her character as "vulnerable, because Leon has to come to her rescue all the time". In June 2022, Ella Freya publicly disclosed that she is the face model of Ashley in the remake of Resident Evil 4, while Genevieve Buechner provided her voice. ## Appearances ### In Resident Evil 4 Ashley Graham is the 20-year-old daughter of the newly-elected President of the United States. She is kidnapped by Jack Krauser on her way home from Massachusetts and kept captive by the Los Illuminados in a European town. Leon S. Kennedy's initial goal is to find and rescue her. After finding her, it becomes clear that she has been implanted with a Plaga parasite as part of the cult's plan to gain control of her before returning her to the United States. The rest of the game is about Leon and Ashley trying to discover a solution to get rid of the parasites inside their bodies before they are taken over by Osmund Saddler. After Saddler is eliminated, Leon and Ashley escape the sinking island with a jet ski left by Ada Wong. Leon graciously declines Ashley's invitation to visit her at her home. Following that, they are both apprehended by US government agents and put into detention for debriefing. Ashley also appears in the 2023 remake of Resident Evil 4. She was reworked via her gameplay for eight minutes compared to Leon, eliminating her health bar and allowing her to be revived after being incapacitated. Ashley can additionally be commanded now, either to provide Leon some space whilst in a fight, or to stick close to him to be more practical, in contrast to in original which had solely used "wait" or "follow me" commands. She has dozens of outfits that can be unlocked after players have purchased CP after completing their first playthrough. ### Other appearances A framed photo of Ashley Graham is briefly glimpsed in the 2021 Netflix animated mini-series Resident Evil: Infinite Darkness, set after the events of Resident Evil 4. Her father, President Graham, is a major character in Infinite Darkness. In 2023, before the release of the remake of Resident Evil 4, Capcom released a promotional anime of the Resident Evil Masterpiece Theater, depicting the story of Leon and Ashley. ## Reception Ashley's appearance in the original game received a mostly negative reception. Many gaming media outlets have criticized her as one of the worst or most annoying video game characters. Toadette Geldof of Vice described her as one of the lamest video game characters of all time, commenting that "She's so lame that she can't even really walk on her own, so you have to piggy-back her around and then set her back down any time you need to kill something." In Tropes vs. Women in Video Games, feminist media critic Anita Sarkeesian also described Ashley as a damsel in distress who appears to be helpless, arguing that defending her caused players a lot of frustration. Samara Summer of GamePro wished that Ashley doesn't appear in the remake of Resident Evil 4, commenting that "She can't fight, she can't free herself and she can't even look for a hiding place on her own. With her screaming she doesn't motivate me to help her either." Conversely, Shacknews cited Ashley as one of his favorite video game companions, saying that "When you are saddled with her, she's perfectly content to hide in a dumpster while you clear out enemies. If only all companions were so agreeable." Andrei Nae of Immersion, Narrative, and Gender Crisis in Survival Horror Video Games said that Ashley Graham fully embodies the gender role of damsel in distress with her constants pleas to Leon Kennedy to help her, while Bernard Perron of The World of Scary Video Games: A Study in Videoludic Horror felt that some characters, like Ashley, have been eroticized in which she can swap her schoolgirl uniform into a white starlet costume that "highlights her breasts". Critics have also praised the character's portrayal in the 2023 remake, highlighting how less of a sexualized damsel in distress she is. Elijah Beahm of DualShockers appreciated her chapter where she was playable, commenting that she now gets a chance to demonstrate her true competence rather than just a latent capacity to crank old machines extremely quickly and pull switches like she did in the initial game. At the same time Vixal Plane thought Ashley deserved a DLC or standalone game. Jade King of TheGamer noted that the remake avoided sexualizing Ashley, including by eliminating the possibility of players looking up her skirt. Similarly, Ashley Bardhan of Kotaku praised Ashley's new character model, especially the decision to replace her skirt with a skort, but criticized the lack of overall improvement in her characterization. However, Jade King of TheGamer disagreed, arguing that she had been substantially improved as a character. Joseph Yaden of Inverse and Ed Smith of PCGamesN both noted that Ashley had shifted from being a helpless damsel in distress to more of a partner. Ashley has become an internet meme on Twitter known as "Moushley", stemming from a piece of fanart depicting Ashley as a mouse that was shared by fans. They have additionally created various mods involving her. Capcom also acknowledged it, and the official Resident Evil account tweeted emojis of a mouse and cheese in response to the meme.
3,569,740	Hurricane Paul (1982)	1,171,667,303	Category 2 Pacific hurricane in 1982	[ "1982 Pacific hurricane season", "1982 in El Salvador", "1982 meteorology", "Category 2 Pacific hurricanes", "Hurricanes and tropical depressions of the Gulf of California", "Hurricanes in Baja California Sur", "Hurricanes in El Salvador", "Hurricanes in Guatemala", "Pacific hurricanes in Mexico", "Tropical cyclones in 1982" ]	Hurricane Paul was a particularly deadly and destructive Pacific hurricane which killed a total of 1,625 people and caused US\$520 million in damage. The sixteenth named storm and tenth hurricane of the 1982 Pacific hurricane season, Paul developed as a tropical depression just offshore Central America on September 18. The depression briefly moved inland two days later just before heading westward out to sea. The storm changed little in strength for several days until September 25, when it slowly intensified into a tropical storm. Two days later, Paul attained hurricane status, and further strengthened to Category 2 intensity after turning northward. The hurricane then accelerated toward the northeast, reaching peak winds of 110 mph (175 km/h). Paul made landfall over Baja California Sur on September 29, and subsequently moved ashore in Sinaloa the next day. Prior to making landfall near the El Salvador–Guatemala border as a tropical depression, the precursor disturbance dropped heavy rainfall over the region, which later continued after landfall. Many rivers in the region burst their banks after five days of rainfall, causing severe flooding and multiple mudslides. Throughout Central America, at least 1,363 people were killed, with most of the fatalities occurring in El Salvador, although some occurred in Guatemala. Another 225 deaths were attributed to floods from the depression in southern Mexico. In addition, Paul was responsible for 24 fatalities and moderate damage in northwestern Mexico, where it made landfall at hurricane strength. Despite the cataclysmic loss of life and major damage caused by the storm, the name Paul was not retired following the season and, although it went unused in 1988 due to a lack of activity, it was used in the 1994 Pacific hurricane season. ## Meteorological history The precursor disturbance to Paul originated from an area of low barometric pressure and disorganized thunderstorms, which was first noted near the Pacific coast of Honduras on September 15. Several days later, satellite imagery indicated it had developed a center of cyclonic circulation; on 1800 UTC September 20, the Eastern Pacific Hurricane Center initiated advisories on the system and classified it as Tropical Depression Twenty-Two. At that time, it was located 200 mi (320 km) southwest of Tegucigalpa, Honduras and supported winds of 35 mph (50 km/h). The depression turned northward in response to a weak steering flow between two high pressure systems—one near Cabo San Lucas and the other west of Central America. It then moved inland near the El Salvador–Guatemala border, and dissipated overland. Under the influence of a persistent stationary trough near California, the remains of the depression retraced westward back over the open waters of the Pacific. Advisories on the system were resumed late on September 20. Though it was reconsidered a tropical cyclone, its wind circulation was poorly defined; the depression again degenerated into an open trough at 0000 UTC September 22. Its forward motion remained relatively unchanged for several days, and by September 24 the system was reclassified as a tropical cyclone. After briefly drifting northward, the system began tracking toward the west-northwest. It gradually organized into a tropical storm at 0000 UTC September 25. Since it was then situated over favorable sea surface temperatures between 28 °C (82 °F) and 29 °C (84 °F), Paul underwent a phase of rapid intensification. This allowed it to reach Category 1 hurricane strength on the Saffir-Simpson hurricane wind scale (SSHWS) just two days after its naming. Upon becoming a hurricane, Paul turned to the north and continued to develop. As the storm neared Baja California Sur, it reached Category 2 intensity. An upper-level trough forced the hurricane to accelerate towards the northeast, at which point it had reached peak wind speeds of 110 mph (180 km/h). From 1800 to 2100 UTC on September 29, the eye of the hurricane made landfall along Baja California Sur, moving ashore less than 100 mi (160 km) south of La Paz near San José del Cabo. After weakening slightly inland, Paul briefly reemerged over water and subsequently made its final landfall near Los Mochis, Sinaloa with winds of 100 mph (165 km/h). Tropical cyclone advisories were discontinued shortly thereafter, though exact information on the storm after it moved inland is unavailable due to a lack of data completion in the hurricane database. ## Preparations An alert was issued for the Mexican states of Sonora and Sinaloa and Baja California Sur; army and navy units were on standby in case of an emergency. Roughly 50,000 people evacuated to storm shelters and thousands of others sought refuge in public buildings, such as schools and churches. Across La Paz, officials evacuated 3,000 families from hurricane-prone areas. In the towns of Altata and Guamúchil alone, army officials evacuated 5,000 coastal residents. ## Impact ### El Salvador The tropical depression that later became Paul produced the worst natural disaster in El Salvador history since 1965. Although the death toll was initially believed to be lower it rose to a final toll of 761 after new victims were confirmed on September 28. Of these deaths, 312 occurred in the capital city of San Salvador, which had also sustained the worst damage. Another 40 people perished in Actoo, a very small village located 42 mi (68 km) west of San Salvador. Rescue workers searched through rocks and mud to find missing victims. About 25,000–30,000 people were left homeless. Much of San Salvador was submerged by flood waters of up to 8 ft (2.4 m) high, and even after their recession hundreds of homes remained buried under trees, debris, and 10 ft (3.0 m) of mud. In all, property damage from the storm amounted to \$100 million in the country; while crop damage amounted to \$250 million. ### Guatemala, and southern Mexico In Guatemala, widespread catastrophic floods claimed 615 lives and left 668 others missing. More than 10,000 people were left homeless in the wake of the disaster. According to the highway department, the storm destroyed 16 bridges which left 200 communities isolated from surrounding areas. Overall, economic losses of \$100 million (1982 USD) were reported in the country. Throughout southern Mexico, floods from the precursor depression to Paul killed another 225 people. ### Baja California Sur Hurricane Paul produced heavy rainfall along its path through Baja California Sur. At least 85 homes in La Paz sustained damage, and many telephone lines in the region were down at the height of the storm. Wind gusts estimated at 120 mph (195 km/h) swept through San José del Cabo, causing property damage and subsequently leaving 9,000 homeless. Despite the damage, no deaths were reported in the wake of Paul. ### Northwest Mexico and southwest United States Upon making its final landfall in Sinaloa, Paul produced hurricane-force winds recorded at 100 mph (160 km/h) in Los Mochis. The winds demolished numerous homes in the region, leaving 140,000 residents homeless and another 400,000 people isolated. The greatest damage occurred 70 miles (110 km) south of Los Mochis in the city of Guamuchil; some houses suffered total destruction, while many other had their roof blown off. A total of 24 people were killed by the storm, although it produced beneficial rains over the region. The worst flooding occurred near the Rio Sinaloa; 7.9 in (200 mm) to 12 in (300 mm) of rain fell in some locations. Over 25,000 homes were damaged. Agricultural damage was severe in the state of Sinaloa, with up to 40 percent of the soybean crop destroyed. Sugar cane, tomato, and rice crops also sustained damage from the hurricane, and in its wake the state's corn production was down by 26 percent from the previous year. Total storm damage in Mexico amounted to \$4.5 billion (1982 MXN; \$70 million USD). The remnants of Paul moved into the United States, producing heavy rainfall in southern New Mexico and extreme West Texas. Inclement weather was observed as far inland as the Great Plains. A combination of rain and snow moved into Colorado; 6 in (150 mm) of snow was expected in Wyoming, thus winter storm warnings were required for parts of the state. ## Aftermath In the aftermath of the storm, the Government of El Salvador was criticized for failing to keep the public well informed. It provided over \$300,000 in aid and declared a state of emergency; additionally, a state of mourning was declared. The United Nations World Food program began distributing food set aside for victims of the El Salvador Civil War. The U.S. Embassy in Guatemala provided \$25,000 in aid for the country. Mexican authorities rushed to supply food and water to the homeless. ## See also - Other storms with the same name - List of Category 2 Pacific hurricanes - 1959 Mexico hurricane – deadliest pacific hurricane on record, only ahead of Hurricane Paul.

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